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Psychoanalytic theory
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Psychoanalytic theory is the theory of personality organization and the dynamics of personality development that guides psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology. First laid out by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century, psychoanalytic theory has undergone many refinements since his work. Psychoanalytic theory came to full prominence in the last third of the twentieth century as part of the flow of critical discourse regarding psychological treatments after the 1960s, long after Freud's death in 1939,[1] and its validity is now widely disputed or rejected.[2][3] Freud had ceased his analysis of the brain and his physiological studies and shifted his focus to the study of the mind and the related psychological attributes making up the mind, and on treatment using free association and the phenomena of transference. His study emphasized the recognition of childhood events that could influence the mental functioning of adults. His examination of the genetic and then the developmental aspects gave the psychoanalytic theory its characteristics.[4] Starting with his publication of The Interpretation of Dreams in 1899, his theories began to gain prominence.
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology and definition
2 The beginnings
3 Personality structure
4 The unconscious
5 Defense mechanisms
6 Psychology theories
6.1 Psychosexual development
6.2 Neo-analytic theory
7 Critics of psychoanalytic theory
7.1 Advantages
7.2 Limits
7.3 Psychoanalysis and aesthetics
7.4 Psychoanalysis and literature
8 Further reading
8.1 Books
8.2 Online papers
8.3 Others
9 References
10 External links
Terminology and definition[edit]
"Psychoanalytic and psychoanalytical are used in English. The latter is the older term, and at first simply meant 'relating to the analysis of the human psyche'. But with the emergence of psychoanalysis as a distinct clinical practice, both terms came to describe that. Although both are still used, today, the normal adjective is psychoanalytic.[5]
Psychoanalysis is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as
A therapeutic method, originated by Sigmund Freud, for treating mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the patient's mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind, using techniques such as dream interpretation and free association. Also: a system of psychological theory associated with this method.[6]
Through the scope of a psychoanalytic lens, humans are described as having sexual and aggressive drives. Psychoanalytic theorists believe that human behavior is deterministic. It is governed by irrational forces, and the unconscious, as well as instinctual and biological drives. Due to this deterministic nature, psychoanalytic theorists do not believe in free will.[7]
The beginnings[edit]
Freud first began his studies on psychoanalysis and in collaboration with Dr. Josef Breuer, especially when it came to the study on Anna O. [8] The relationship between Freud and Breuer was a mix of admiration and competition, based on the fact that they were working together on the Anna O. case and must balance two different ideas as to her diagnosis and treatment. Today, Breuer can be considered the grandfather of psychoanalysis.[9] Anna O. was subject to both physical and psychological disturbances, such as not being able to drink out of fear.[10] Breuer and Freud both found that hypnosis was a great help in discovering more about Anna O. and her treatment. The research and ideas behind the study on Anna O. was highly referenced in Freud's lectures on the origin and development of psychoanalysis.
These observations led Freud to theorize that the problems faced by hysterical patients could be associated to painful childhood experiences that could not be recalled. The influence of these lost memories shaped the feelings, thoughts and behaviours of patients. These studies contributed to the development of the psychoanalytic theory.[11]
Personality structure[edit]
Sigmund Freud determined that the personality consists of three different elements, the id, the ego and the superego. The id is the aspect of personality that is driven by internal and basic drives and needs. These are typically instinctual, such as hunger, thirst, and the drive for sex, or libido. The id acts in accordance with the pleasure principle, in that it avoids pain and seeks pleasure. Due to the instinctual quality of the id, it is impulsive and often unaware of implications of actions. The ego is driven by reality principle. The ego works to balance both the id and superego. To balance these, it works to achieve the id's drive in the most realistic ways. It seeks to rationalize the id's instinct and please the drives that benefit the individual in the long term. It helps separate what is real, and realistic of our drives as well as being realistic about the standards that the superego sets for the individual. The superego is driven by morality principle. It acts in connection with the morality of higher thought and action. Instead of instinctively acting like the id, the superego works to act in socially acceptable ways. It employs morality, judging our sense of wrong and right and using guilt to encourage socially acceptable behavior.[7][12]
The unconscious[edit]
The unconscious is the portion of the mind of which a person is not aware. Freud said that it is the unconscious that exposes the true feelings, emotions, and thoughts of the individual. There are variety of psychoanalytic techniques used to access and understand the unconscious, ranging from methods like hypnosis, free association, and dream analysis. Dreams allow us to explore the unconscious; according to Freud, they are "the 'royal road' to the unconscious".[13] Dreams are composed of latent and manifest content. Whereas latent content is the underlying meaning of a dream that may not be remembered when a person wakes up, manifest content is the content from the dream that a person remembers upon waking and can be analyzed by a psychoanalytic psychologist. Exploring and understanding the manifest content of dreams can inform the individual of complexes or disorders that may be under the surface of their personality. Dreams can provide access to the unconscious that is not easily accessible.[14]
Freudian slips (also known as parapraxes) occur when the ego and superego do not work properly, exposing the id and internal drives or wants. They are considered mistakes revealing the unconscious. Examples range from calling someone by the wrong name, misinterpreting a spoken or written word, or simply saying the wrong thing.[15]
Defense mechanisms[edit]
The ego balances the id, superego, and reality to maintain a healthy state of consciousness. It thus reacts to protect the individual from any stressors and anxiety by distorting reality. This prevents threatening unconscious thoughts and material from entering the consciousness. The different types of defense mechanisms are: Repression, reaction formation, denial, projection, displacement, sublimation, regression, and rationalization.[16]
Psychology theories[edit]
Psychosexual development[edit]
Freud's take on the development of the personality (psyche). It is a stage theory that believes progress occurs through stages as the libido is directed to different body parts. The different stages, listed in order of progression, are: Oral, Anal, Phallic (Oedipus complex), Latency, Genital. The Genital stage is achieved if people meet all their needs throughout the other stages with enough available sexual energy. Individuals who don't have their needs met in a given stage become fixated, or "stuck" in that stage.
Neo-analytic theory[edit]
Freud's theory and work with psychosexual development lead to Neo-Analytic/ Neo-Freudians who also believed in the importance of the unconscious, dream interpretations, defense mechanisms and the integral influence childhood experiences but had objections to the theory as well. They do not support the idea that development of the personality stops at age 6, instead they believed development spreads across the lifespan. They extended Freud's work and encompassed more influence from the environment and the importance of conscious thought along with the unconscious. The most important theorists are Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Development), Anna Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler and Karen Horney, and including the school of object relations.
Critics of psychoanalytic theory[edit]
The psychoanalytic approach has a variety of advantages and limitations that have spurred further research and expansion into the realm of personality development.
Advantages[edit]
The theory emphasizes the importance of childhood experiences.
It initiated and addressed the importance of the unconscious, sexual and aggressive drives that make up the majority of all human beings' personalities.[17]
The approach also explains defense mechanisms and why every individual reacts differently to similar situations.
Limits[edit]
Sigmund Freud failed to include evidence of the impact of the environment on the individual throughout his theory.
The theory is lacking in empirical data and too focused on pathology.[18]
This theory lacks consideration of culture and its influence on personality.[19][20]
Psychoanalysis and aesthetics[edit]
Psychoanalytic theory is a major influence in Continental philosophy and in aesthetics in particular. Freud is considered a philosopher in some areas, and other philosophers, such as Jacques Lacan, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Derrida have written extensively on how psychoanalysis informs philosophical analysis.[21][22][23][24]
Psychoanalysis and literature[edit]
When analysing literary texts, the psychoanalytic theory could be utilized to decipher or interpret the concealed meaning within a text, or to better understand the author's intentions. Through the analysis of motives, Freud's theory can be used to help clarify the meaning of the writing as well as the actions of the characters within the text.[25]
Further reading[edit]
Books[edit]
Brenner, C. (1973). An Elementary Textbook of Psychoanalysis - Revised edition. New York: International Universities Press. ISBN 0-385-09884-7
Ellman, S. (2010). When Theories Touch: A Historical and Theoretical Integration of Psychoanalytic Thought. London: Karnac Books. ISBN 1-85575-868-7
Laplanche, J. & Pontalis, J. B. (1974). The Language of Psycho-Analysis. W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-01105-4
Online papers[edit]
Benjamin, J. (1995). Recognition and destruction: An outline of intersubjectivity
Boesky, D. (2005). Psychoanalytic controversies contextualized
Boston Process of Change Study Group. (2005). The "something more" than interpretation
Brenner, C. (1992). The mind as conflict and compromise formation
Eagle, M. (1984). Developmental deficit versus dynamic conflict
Gill, M. (1984). Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy: A revision
Kernberg, O. (2000). Psychoanalysis, psychoanalytic psychotherapy and supportive psychotherapy: contemporary controversies
Mitchell, Stephen A. (1984). Object relations theories and the developmental tilt
Rubinstein, B. (1975). On the clinical psychoanalytic theory and its role in the inference and confirmation of particular clinical hypotheses
Schwartz, W. (2013) Essentials of Psychoanalytic Theory and Practice
Sprenger, Scott (2002) Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory
Others[edit]
Freud, Sigmund 1900, Interpretation of Dreams (Chapter 2). Standard Edition.
Grünbaum, Adolf 1986. Precis of Foundations of Psycho-Analysis. The Behavioural and Brain Sciences 9 : 217-284.
Greenberg, J. and Mitchell, S.A. (1983). Object Relations in Psychoanalytic Theory. Cambridge MASS and London: Harvard University Press.
Klein, Melanie 1932. Chapter 2, The Psychoanalysis of Children. In The Writings of Melanie Klein Volume 2. London: Hogarth Press.
Klein, Melanie (1935), A contribution to the psychogenesis of manic-depressive states, International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 16: 145-74. Republished: Hogarth Press.
Bion, W. (1957), 'On Arrogance', in Second Thoughts. London: Heinemann, pp. 86–92, 161-6.
Benjamin, J. (1990). An Outline of Intersubjectivity: the development of recognition. Psychoanalytic Psychology 7S:33-46.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Tere sa de Lauretis, Freud's Drive (Basingstoke 2008) p. 3
Jump up ^ Miller, Alice. Thou Shalt Not Be Aware, Society's Betrayal of the Child New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1984, pp. 105–227
Jump up ^ Kupfersmid, Joel. Abstract Does the Oedipus complex exist?, American Psychological Association, 1995
Jump up ^ Tyson, Phyllis. (2002). The challenges of psychoanalytic developmental theory. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 50, 19–52.
Jump up ^ "psychoanalytical, adj. (and n.)." and "psychoanalytic, adj." OED Online. Oxford University Press, June 2015. Web. 7 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "psychoanalysis, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, June 2015. Web. 7 September 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Friedman, H. W., & Schustack, M. W. (2011). Personality: Classics theories and modern research. (5th Edition). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Jump up ^ [1], Sigmund Freud: The Origin and Development of Psychoanalysis.
Jump up ^ [2], FreudFile: Joseph Breuer.
Jump up ^ [3], FreudFild: Anna O. Case.
Jump up ^ Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner. ""Psychology"". Second Edition. New York. Worth Publishers. 2009, 2011. p.12.
Jump up ^ Silberman, Edward. "Review of Psychodynamic Therapy: A Guide to Evidence-Based Practice." Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes 75.3 (2012): 298–301. PsycINFO. Web.
Jump up ^ Freud, S (1915). The Unconscious. XIV (2nd ed.). Hogarth Press, 1955.
Jump up ^ Freud, S (1900). The Interpretation of Dreams. IV and V (2nd ed.). Hogarth Press, 1955.
Jump up ^ Modell, Arnold H. "Psychoanalysis, Neuroscience and the Unconscious Self." Psychoanalytic review 99.4 (2012): 475-83.PsycINFO. Web.
Jump up ^ Freud, A. (1937). The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense, London: Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho-Analysis. (Revised edition: 1966 (US), 1968 (UK))
Jump up ^ Gaffney, Tim W., and Cassandra Perryman. "Educational Achievement, Personality, and Behavior: Assessment, Factor Structure and Implication for Theory and Practice." Journal of Applied Measurement 13.2 (2012): 181–204. PsycINFO. Web.
Jump up ^ Mahmood, Omar M., and Sawssan R. Ahmed. Psychological Testing and Assessment. New York, NY, US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, New York, NY, 2012. PsycINFO. Web.
Jump up ^ Hoggard, Lori S., Christy M. Byrd, and Robert M. Sellers. "Comparison of African American College Students' Coping with Racially and Nonracially Stressful Events." Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 18.4 (2012): 329-39. PsycINFO. Web.
Jump up ^ Giamo, Lisa S., Michael T. Schmitt, and H. R. Outten. "Perceived Discrimination, Group Identification, and Life Satisfaction among Multiracial People: A Test of the Rejection-Identification Model." Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 18.4 (2012): 319-28. PsycINFO. Web.
Jump up ^ Felman, Shoshana. Jacques Lacan and the adventure of insight: Psychoanalysis in contemporary culture. Harvard University Press, 1987.
Jump up ^ Spector, Jack J. The aesthetics of Freud: A study in psychoanalysis and art. Lane, Allen, 1973.
Jump up ^ Segal, Hanna. "A psychoanalytic approach to aesthetics." Reading Melanie Klein (1998): 203.
Jump up ^ Glover, Nicky. Psychoanalytic aesthetics: An introduction to the British School. Karnac Books, 2009.
Jump up ^ Lye, J. "Psychoanalysis and Literature,". Retrieved 17 March 2013.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Psychoanalytic theory.
Library resources about
Psychoanalytic theory
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PSY-LOG: Psychoanalytic Web Directory (in French, German and English)
René Major article on Foucault and psychoanalysis (in French)
The États Generaux de la psychanalyse, which was organized in part by Jacques Derrida and René Major (in French)
Critical psychology glossary
American Psychoanalytic Association's official website
Psychoanalysis - Techniques and Practice
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Sarkar
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
A. R. Murugadoss
Produced by
Kalanithi Maran
Written by
A. R. Murugadoss
Jeyamohan
Starring
Vijay
Keerthy Suresh
Varalaxmi Sarathkumar
Yogi Babu
Radha Ravi
Music by
A. R. Rahman
Cinematography
Girish Gangadharan
Production
company
Sun Pictures
Distributed by
Sun Pictures
Release date
November 2018
Running time
163 minutes 58 seconds [1]
Country
India
Language
Tamil
Sarkar (English: Authority) is an upcoming Indian action drama[2] film starring Vijay, Keerthy Suresh, Varalaxmi Sarathkumar, Yogi Babu and Radha Ravi. The film is directed by A. R. Murugadoss, co-written by Jeyamohan with music composed by A. R. Rahman, cinematography by Girish Gangadharan, edited by Sreekar Prasad and produced by Kalanithi Maran under the banner Sun Pictures.
The film began production in January 2018, and is scheduled to be released in November 2018, coinciding with Diwali.[3]
Contents
1 Cast
2 Plot
3 Production
4 Music
5 Release
6 Plagiarism allegations
7 References
8 External links
Cast
Vijay as Sundar
Keerthy Suresh
Varalaxmi Sarathkumar
Prem Kumar
Yogi Babu
Radha Ravi
Pala. Karuppiah
Tulasi Shivamani
Plot
Based on interviews[4] with K Bhagyaraj of Film Writers' Association, the plot of the movie revolves around a successful NRI CEO who returns to India for voting in elections but finds his vote has already been exercised. He fights back and the elections are cancelled. An enmity develops with politicians and he joins politics to compete in elections and whether he succeeded in his fight against establishment forms the rest of the story. Director A.R.Murugadoss has mentioned that he was inspired by a real life event in Thespian actor Sivaji Ganesan.
Production
Following the successful ventures, Thuppakki and Kaththi, A. R. Murugadoss has confirmed to be the director of the 62nd film of actor Vijay. The project, tentatively titled Vijay's 62, was slated to enter production once Vijay completes Mersal and A. R. Murugadoss completes Spyder.[5][6]
Production was to begin in January 2018, with a planned Diwali-2018 release.[7] Girish Gangadharan of Kali, Angamaly Diaries and Solo fame is reported to be the cinematographer.[8]
In mid-November 2017, it was reported that actor Yogi Babu is in talks to play a role in the film and actress Nayanthara is in talks to be the female lead, [9][10] also A. R. Rahman is also said to be in talks to compose the music of the film.[11]. Sreekar Prasad who has previously edited Thuppakki and Kaththi has been confirmed as the film's editor.[12]
In early-December 2017, T. Santhanam has been roped in as the art director of the film, and following this, it was made official that Sun Pictures is producing the film. [13] . Before the title was revealed on 21 June 2018,[14] it was referred to by the media as Thalapathy 62, as it is the 62nd film starring Vijay. Keerthy Suresh was later signed to play the female lead role and Varalaxmi Sarathkumar was also confirmed, playing a pivotal role.[15][16] [17] Jeyamohan was recruited as writer, and shooting began in January 2018. The team have successfully completed the first and second schedules of the shoot, and were set to begin their third schedule in Las Vegas, U.S in early 1 August week.[18][19][20][21]
Yesteryear heroine Thulasi is playing the role of Vijay's mother in the movie.[22] Shooting was wrapped up on 5 September, dubbing and post production works are in progress.[23]
Music
Main article: Sarkar (Soundtrack)
The music and score of the film is composed by A. R. Rahman,[17] and lyricist Vivek penning the songs.[24]. The full audio album was launched on 2 October 2018.[25]
Release
The film is scheduled to be released in November 2018 coinciding with the Diwali festival.[17]
Plagiarism allegations
Writer Varun Rajendran accused Murugadoss of plagiarising Sengol, a story he had registered with the South Indian Film Writer's Association in 2007. After K. Bhagyaraj, the head of the Association concluded that Sarkar's script was not original, the matter was taken to court, where the judge M. Sundar said that Sun Pictures have to acknowledge Rajendran in the opening credits, and pay him compensation of ₹30 lakh (US$42,000); Sun Pictures and Murugadoss assented.[26]
References
Jump up ^ "Sarkar Running Time". 29 October 2018. Retrieved 30 October 2018.
Jump up ^ SARKAR - BBFC
Jump up ^ "Sarkar first single: Here is the song-release date of Vijay, Keerthy Suresh's film". 27 August 2018. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
Jump up ^ Wetalkiess (2018-10-28), Bhagyaraj Bold reply to A.R Murgadoss questions on Sarkar story issue | Interview, retrieved 2018-10-29
Jump up ^ "Vijay 62 directed by AR Muragadoss will not be produced by Lyca Productions". 17 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sun Pictures to produce Thalapathy 62?".
Jump up ^ "Thalapathy 62 might release for Diwali 2018". 20 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Girish Gangadharan will be the cinematographer of Vijay's next Thalapathy 62". 25 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Vijay and Nayanthara For Vijay 62? - AR Murugadoss - TamilTwist". 16 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Yogi Babu in talks to act in Thalapathy 62". 25 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "விஜய்யின் 62வது படம்- படப்பிடிப்பு எப்போது, இசையமைப்பாளர் யார்?".
Jump up ^ "Sreekar Prasad roped in for Thalapathy 62". 27 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Shooting update of Vijay's Sarkar". 17 July 2018.
Jump up ^ Upadhyaya, Prakash. "Thalapathy 62 title: Sarkar is the name of Vijay's next movie with Murugadoss [First look poster]". International Business Times, India Edition. Retrieved 2018-06-21.
Jump up ^ "'Sarkar': Varalaxmi Sarathkumar plays CM's daughter in Vijay's film? - Times of India".
Jump up ^ "'Sarkar': Varalaxmi Sarathkumar has her fan-moment with Vijay - Times of India".
^ Jump up to: a b c "Vijay's next kickstarts". The New Indian Express. 19 January 2018. Retrieved 21 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Writer Jeyamohan on board for Thalapathy 62". Sify. 21 January 2018. Retrieved 21 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "'Thalapathy 62' team to head to the United States". 16 February 2018. Retrieved 17 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "Team 'Thalapathy 62' successfully complete Kolkata schedule". 15 February 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "Tamil writer Jeyamohan on board for Thalapathy 62". The Times of India. 22 January 2018. Retrieved 22 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "When Thalapathy Vijay treated reel mother as real mother". indiaglitz.com.
Jump up ^ "varu sarathkumar on Twitter".
Jump up ^ "Vivek to pen all the songs for AR Rahman in 'Sarkar'". Sify. Retrieved 2018-07-26.
Jump up ^ "'Sarkar' Audio Launch on 2 October" (24 August 2018). Retrieved 11 September 2018.
Jump up ^ "'Sarkar' plagarism row: Director AR Murugadoss to flash message card agreeing that theme is similar". The New Indian Express. 30 October 2018. Retrieved 30 October 2018.
External links
Sarkar on IMDb
hide
v
t
e
Works of AR Murugadoss
Directed
Dheena (2001)
Ramana (2002)
Ghajini (2005)
Stalin (2006)
Ghajini (2008)
7aum Arivu (2011)
Thuppakki (2012)
Holiday: A Soldier Is Never Off Duty (2014)
Kaththi (2014)
Akira (2016)
Spyder (2017)
Sarkar (2018)
Produced
Engaeyum Eppothum (2011)
Vathikuchi (2013)
Raja Rani (2013)
10 Endrathukulla (2015)
Rangoon (2017)
Writer only
Tagore (2003)
Jai Ho (2014)
Maan Karate (2014)
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Chartism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Chartist.
Photograph of the Great Chartist Meeting on Kennington Common, London in 1848
Chartism was a working-class movement for political reform in Britain that existed from 1838 to 1857. It took its name from the People's Charter of 1838 and was a national protest movement, with particular strongholds of support in Northern England, the East Midlands, the Staffordshire Potteries, the Black Country, and the South Wales Valleys. Support for the movement was at its highest in 1839, 1842, and 1848, when petitions signed by millions of working people were presented to the House of Commons. The strategy employed was to use the scale of support which these petitions and the accompanying mass meetings demonstrated to put pressure on politicians to concede manhood suffrage. Chartism thus relied on constitutional methods to secure its aims, though there were some who became involved in insurrectionary activities, notably in south Wales and in Yorkshire.
The People's Charter called for six reforms to make the political system more democratic:
A vote for every man twenty-one years of age, of sound mind, and not undergoing punishment for a crime.
The secret ballot to protect the elector in the exercise of his vote.
No property qualification for Members of Parliament in order to allow the constituencies to return the man of their choice.
Payment of Members, enabling tradesmen, working men, or other persons of modest means to leave or interrupt their livelihood to attend to the interests of the nation.
Equal constituencies, securing the same amount of representation for the same number of electors, instead of allowing less populous constituencies to have as much or more weight than larger ones.
Annual Parliamentary elections, thus presenting the most effectual check to bribery and intimidation, since no purse could buy a constituency under a system of universal manhood suffrage in each twelve-month period.
Chartists saw themselves fighting against political corruption and for democracy in an industrial society, but attracted support beyond the radical political groups for economic reasons, such as opposing wage cuts and unemployment.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin
1.1 Press
2 People's Charter of 1838
3 Beginnings
3.1 Newport Rising
4 1842
5 Mid-1840s
6 1848 petition
7 Christianity
8 Legacy
8.1 Eventual reforms
8.2 Colonies
9 Criticism
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
12.1 Historiography
12.2 Primary sources
13 External links
13.1 Resources
13.2 Articles
Origin[edit]
After the passing of the Reform Act 1832, which failed to extend the vote beyond those owning property, the political leaders of the working class made speeches claiming that there had been a great act of betrayal. This sense that the working class had been betrayed by the middle class was strengthened by the actions of the Whig governments of the 1830s. Notably, the hated new Poor Law Amendment was passed in 1834, depriving working people of outdoor relief and driving the poor into workhouses, where families were separated. It was the massive wave of opposition to this measure in the north of England in the late 1830s that gave Chartism the numbers that made it a mass movement. It seemed that only securing the vote for working men would change things, and indeed Dorothy Thompson, the pre-eminent historian of Chartism, defined the movement as the time when "thousands of working people considered that their problems could be solved by the political organization of the country."[3]:1 In 1836 the London Working Men's Association was founded by William Lovett and Henry Hetherington,[4] providing a platform for Chartists in the south east. The origins of Chartism in Wales can be traced to the foundation in the autumn of 1836 of Carmarthen Working Men's Association.[5]
Press[edit]
Both nationally and locally a Chartist press thrived in the form of periodicals, which were important to the movement for their news, editorials, poetry and (especially in 1848) reports on international developments. They reached a huge audience.[6] The Poor Man's Guardian in the 1830s, edited by Henry Hetherington, dealt with questions of class solidarity, manhood suffrage, property, and temperance; and condemned the Reform Act of 1832. The paper explored the rhetoric of violence versus non-violence, or what its writers referred to as moral versus physical force.[7] It was succeeded as the voice of radicalism by an even more famous paper: the Northern Star and Leeds General Advertiser. The Star was published between 1837 and 1852, and in 1839 was the best-selling provincial newspaper in Britain, with a circulation of 50,000 copies. Like other Chartist papers it was often read aloud in coffee houses, workplaces and the open air.[8] Other Chartist periodicals included the Northern Liberator (1837–40), English Chartist Circular (1841–3), and the Midland Counties' Illuminator (1841). The papers gave justifications for the demands of the People's Charter, accounts of local meetings, commentaries on education and temperance and a great deal of poetry. The papers also advertised upcoming meetings, typically organised by local grass roots branches, held either in public houses, or in their own halls.[9] Research of the distribution of Chartist meetings in London which were advertised in the Norther Star shows that the movement was not uniformly spread across the Metropolis, but was instead clustered in the city's West End where a group of Chartist tailors had shops, as well as in Shoreditch in the east, and relied heavily on pubs that also supported local friendly societies.[10] Readers also found denunciations of imperialism—the First Opium War (1839–42) was condemned—and of the arguments of free traders about the civilizing and pacifying influences of free trade.[11]
People's Charter of 1838[edit]
In 1837, six Members of Parliament and six working men, including William Lovett (from the London Working Men's Association, set up in 1836) formed a committee, which in 1838 published the People's Charter. This set out the six main aims of the movement.[12] The achievement of these aims would give working men a say in law-making: they would be able to vote, and their vote would be protected by a secret ballot; and they would be able to stand for election to the House of Commons as a result of the removal of property qualifications and the introduction of payment for MPs. None of these demands was new, but the People's Charter was to become one of the most famous political manifestos of 19th century Britain.[citation needed]
Beginnings[edit]
Chartist riot
Chartism was launched in 1838 by a series of enormous meetings in Birmingham, Glasgow and the north of England. A huge meeting was held on Kersal Moor near Salford, Lancashire, on 24 September 1838 with speakers from all over the country. Speaking in favour of manhood suffrage, Joseph Rayner Stephens declared that Chartism was a "knife and fork, a bread and cheese question".[13] These words indicate the importance of economic factors in the launch of Chartism. If, as the movement came together, there were different priorities amongst local leaders, the Charter and the Star soon created a national, and largely united, campaign of national protest. John Bates, an activist, recalled:
There were [radical] associations all over the county, but there was a great lack of cohesion. One wanted the ballot, another manhood suffrage and so on ... The radicals were without unity of aim and method, and there was but little hope of accomplishing anything. When, however, the People's Charter was drawn up ... clearly defining the urgent demands of the working class, we felt we had a real bond of union; and so transformed our Radical Association into local Chartist centres ...[3]:60
The movement organised a National Convention in London in early 1839 to facilitate the presentation of the first petition. Delegates used the term MC, Member of Convention, to identify themselves; the convention undoubtedly saw itself as an alternative parliament.[14]:19 In June 1839, the petition, signed by 1.3 million working people, was presented to the House of Commons, but MPs voted, by a large majority, not to hear the petitioners. At the Convention, there was talk of a general strike or "sacred month". In the West Riding of Yorkshire and in south Wales, anger went even deeper, and underground preparations for a rising were undoubtedly made.
Newport Rising[edit]
Main article: Newport Rising
Play media
Dramatisation of the trial of the Chartists at Shire Hall, Monmouth, including background information
Several outbreaks of violence ensued, leading to arrests and trials. One of the leaders of the movement, John Frost, on trial for treason, claimed in his defence that he had toured his territory of industrial Wales urging people not to break the law, although he was himself guilty of using language that some might interpret as a call to arms. Dr William Price of Llantrisant—more of a maverick than a mainstream Chartist—described Frost as putting "a sword in my hand and a rope around my neck".[15] Hardly surprisingly, there are no surviving letters outlining plans for insurrection, but physical force Chartists had undoubtedly started organising. By early autumn men were being drilled and armed in south Wales, and also in the West Riding. Secret cells were set up, covert meetings were held in the Chartist Caves at Llangynidr and weapons were manufactured as the Chartists armed themselves. Behind closed doors and in pub back rooms, plans were drawn up for a mass protest.[citation needed]
On the night of 3–4 November 1839 Frost led several thousand marchers through South Wales to the Westgate Hotel, Newport, Monmouthshire, where there was a confrontation. It seems that Frost and other local leaders were expecting to seize the town and trigger a national uprising. The result of the Newport Rising was a disaster for Chartism. The hotel was occupied by armed soldiers. A brief, violent, and bloody battle ensued. Shots were fired by both sides, although most contemporaries agree that the soldiers holding the building had vastly superior firepower. The Chartists were forced to retreat in disarray: more than twenty were killed, at least another fifty wounded.[citation needed]
Testimonies exist from contemporaries, such as the Yorkshire Chartist Ben Wilson, that Newport was to have been the signal for a national uprising. Despite this significant setback the movement remained remarkably buoyant, and remained so until late 1842. Whilst the majority of Chartists, under the leadership of Feargus O'Connor, concentrated on petitioning for Frost, Williams and William Jones to be pardoned, significant minorities in Sheffield and Bradford planned their own risings in response. Samuel Holberry led an abortive rising in Sheffield on 12 January; and on 26 January Robert Peddie attempted similar action in Bradford. In both Sheffield and Bradford spies had kept magistrates aware of the conspirators' plans, and these attempted risings were easily quashed. Frost and two other Newport leaders, Jones and Williams, were transported. Holberry and Peddie received long prison sentences with hard labour; Holberry died in prison and became a Chartist martyr.[1]:135–8,152–7
1842[edit]
"1842 was the year in which more energy was hurled against the authorities than in any other of the 19th century".[3]:295 In early May 1842, a second petition, of over three million signatures, was submitted, and was yet again rejected by Parliament. The Northern Star commented on the rejection:
Three and half millions have quietly, orderly, soberly, peaceably but firmly asked of their rulers to do justice; and their rulers have turned a deaf ear to that protest. Three and a half millions of people have asked permission to detail their wrongs, and enforce their claims for RIGHT, and the 'House' has resolved they should not be heard! Three and a half millions of the slave-class have holden out the olive branch of peace to the enfranchised and privileged classes and sought for a firm and compact union, on the principle of EQUALITY BEFORE THE LAW; and the enfranchised and privileged have refused to enter into a treaty! The same class is to be a slave class still. The mark and brand of inferiority is not to be removed. The assumption of inferiority is still to be maintained. The people are not to be free.[14]:34
The depression of 1842 led to a wave of strikes, as workers responded to the wage cuts imposed by employers. Calls for the implementation of the Charter were soon included alongside demands for the restoration of wages to previous levels. Working people went on strike in 14 English and 8 Scottish counties, principally in the Midlands, Lancashire, Cheshire, Yorkshire, and the Strathclyde region of Scotland. Typically, strikers resolved to cease work until wages were increased "until the People's charter becomes the Law of the Land". How far these strikes were directly Chartist in inspiration "was then, as now, a subject of much controversy".[16] The Leeds Mercury headlined them "The Chartist Insurrection", but suspicion also hung over the Anti-Corn Law League that manufacturers among its members deliberately closed mills to stir-up unrest. At the time, these disputes were collectively known as the Plug Plot as, in many cases, protesters removed the plugs from steam boilers powering industry to prevent their use. Amongst historians writing in the 20th century, the term General Strike was increasingly used.[17][18] Some modern historians prefer the description "strike wave".[1][14] In contrast, Mick Jenkins in his The General Strike of 1842[17] offers a Marxist interpretation, showing the strikes as highly organized with sophisticated political intentions. Unrest began in the Potteries of Staffordshire in early August, spreading north to Cheshire and Lancashire (where at Manchester a meeting of the Chartist national executive endorsed the strikes on the 16th). The strikes had begun spreading in Scotland and West Yorkshire from the 13th. There were outbreaks of serious violence, including property destruction and the ambushing of police convoys, in the Potteries and the West Riding. Though the government deployed soldiers to suppress violence, it was the practical problems in sustaining an indefinite stoppage that ultimately defeated the strikers. The drift back to work began on 19 August. Only Lancashire and Cheshire were still strike-bound by September, the Manchester powerloom weavers being the last to return to work on 26 September.[1]:223
The state hit back. Several Chartist leaders, including O'Connor, George Julian Harney, and Thomas Cooper were arrested. During the late summer of 1842 hundreds were incarcerated – in the Potteries alone 116 men and women went to prison. A smaller number, but still amounting to many dozens – such as William Ellis, who was convicted on perjured evidence – were transported. However, the government's most ambitious prosecution, personally led by the Attorney General, of O'Connor and 57 others (including almost all Chartism's national executive) failed: none were convicted of the serious charges, and those found guilty of minor offences were never actually sentenced. Cooper alone of the national Chartist leadership was convicted (at a different trial), having spoken at strike meetings in the Potteries. He was to write a long poem in prison called "The Purgatory of Suicides."[19]
Mid-1840s[edit]
Despite this second set of arrests, Chartist activity continued. Beginning in 1843, O'Connor suggested that the land contained the solution to workers' problems. This idea evolved into the Chartist Co-operative Land Company, later called the National Land Company. Workers would buy shares in the company, and the company would use those funds to purchase estates that would be subdivided into 2, 3, and 4 acre (8,000, 12,400 and 16,000 m²) lots. Between 1844 and 1848, five estates were purchased, subdivided, and built on, and then settled by lucky shareholders, who were chosen by lot. Unfortunately for O'Connor, in 1848 a Select Committee was appointed by Parliament to investigate the financial viability of the scheme, and it was ordered that it be shut down. Cottages built by the Chartist Land Company are still standing and inhabited today in Oxfordshire, Worcestershire, Gloucestershire[20] and on the outskirts of London. Rosedene, a Chartist cottage in Dodford, Worcestershire, is owned and maintained by the National Trust, and is open to visitors by appointment.[21]
Candidates embracing Chartism also stood on numerous occasions in general elections. There were concerted campaigns in the election of 1841 and election of 1847, when O'Connor was elected for Nottingham. Feargus became the only Chartist to be elected an MP; it was a remarkable victory for the movement. More commonly, Chartist candidates participated in the open meetings, called hustings, that were the first stage of an election. They frequently won the show of hands at the hustings, but then withdrew from the poll to expose the deeply undemocratic nature of the electoral system. This is what Harney did in a widely reported challenge against Lord Palmerston in Tiverton, Devon, in 1847. The last Chartist challenge at a parliamentary poll took place at Ripon in 1859.[1]:178–83,279–86,339–40
1848 petition[edit]
Poster advertising the Great Chartist Meeting
With O'Connor elected an MP and Europe swept by revolution, it was hardly surprising that Chartism re-emerged as a powerful force in 1848. On 10 April 1848, a new Chartist Convention organised a mass meeting on Kennington Common, which would form a procession to present a third petition to Parliament. The estimate of the number of attendees varies depending on the sources (O'Connor said 300,000; the government, 15,000; The Observer newspaper suggested 50,000). Historians say 150,000.[22]:129–42 The authorities were well aware that the Chartists had no intention of staging an uprising, but were still intent on a large-scale display of force to counter the challenge. 100,000 special constables were recruited to bolster the police force.[23] In any case, the meeting was peaceful. The military had threatened to intervene if working people made any attempt to cross the Thames, and the petition was delivered to Parliament by a small group of Chartist leaders. The Chartists declared that their petition was signed by 6 million people, but House of Commons clerks announced that it was a lesser figure of 1.9 million. In truth, the clerks could not have done their work in the time allocated to them; but their figure was widely reported, along with some of the pseudonyms appended to the petition such as "Punch" and "Sibthorp" (an ultra-Tory MP), and the credibility of Chartism was undermined.[citation needed]
After the defeat of April 1848, there was an increase rather than a decline in Chartist activity. In Bingley, Yorkshire, a group of "physical force" Chartists led by Isaac Ickeringill were involved in a huge fracas at the local magistrates' court and later were prosecuted for rescuing two of their compatriots from the police.[24] The high-point of the Chartist threat to the establishment in 1848 came not in on 10 April but in June, when there was widespread drilling and arming in the West Riding the devising of plots in London.[22]:116–22[25] The banning of public meetings, and new legislation on sedition and treason (rushed through Parliament immediately after 10 April), drove a significant number of Chartists (including the black Londoner William Cuffay) into the planning of insurrection. Cuffay was to be transported, dying in Australia.[citation needed]
O'Connor's egotism and vanity have been identified as causes in the failure of Chartism. This was a common theme in histories of the movement until the 1970s.[26] However, since the 1980s, historians (notably Dorothy Thompson) have emphasised the indispensable contribution O'Connor made to Chartism. Further, she argues that the causes of the movement's decline are too complex to be blamed on one man.[3][27] Historians have recently shown interest in Chartism after 1848. The final National Convention—attended by only a handful—was held in 1858. Throughout the 1850s, there remained pockets of strong support for the Chartist cause in places such as the Black Country.[1]:312–47[28]
Ernest Charles Jones became a leading figure in the National Charter Association during its years of decline, together with George Julian Harney, and helped to give the Chartist movement a clearer socialist direction.[29] Jones and Harney knew Karl Marx[30] and Friedrich Engels[31] personally. Marx and Engels at the same time commented on the Chartist movement and Jones' work in their letters and articles.[32][33]
In Kennington, the Brandon Estate features a large mural by Tony Hollaway, commissioned by London County Council's Edward Hollamby in the early 1960s, commemorating the Chartists' meeting on 10 April 1848.[34]
Christianity[edit]
During this period, some Christian churches in Britain held "that it was 'wrong for a Christian to meddle in political matters ... All of the denominations were particularly careful to disavow any political affiliation and he who was the least concerned with the 'affairs of this world' was considered the most saintly and worthy of emulation."[35]:24 This was at odds with many Christian Chartists for whom Christianity was "above all practical, something that must be carried into every walk of life. Furthermore, there was no possibility of divorcing it from political science."[35]:26 Rev. William Hill, a Swedenborgian minister, wrote in the Northern Star: "We are commanded ... to love our neighbors as ourselves ... this command is universal in its application, whether as friend, Christian or citizen. A man may be devout as a Christian ... but if as a citizen he claims rights for himself he refuses to confer upon others, he fails to fulfill the precept of Christ".[35]:26 The conflicts between these two views led many like Rev. Joseph Barker to see Britain's churches as pointless. "I have no faith in church organizations," he explained. "I believe it my duty to be a man; to live and move in the world at large; to battle with evil wherever I see it, and to aim at the annihilation of all corrupt institutions and at the establishment of all good, and generous, and useful institutions in their places."[36] To further this idea, some Christian Chartist Churches were formed where Christianity and radical politics were combined and considered inseparable. More than 20 Chartist Churches existed in Scotland by 1841.[37] Pamphlets made the point and vast audiences came to hear lectures upon the same themes by the likes of Rev. J. R. Stephens, who was highly influential in the movement. Political preachers thus came into prominence.[35]:27–8
Between late 1844 and November 1845, subscriptions were raised for the publication of a hymn book[38] which was apparently printed as a 64-page pamphlet and distributed for a nominal fee, although no known copy is thought to remain. In 2011, a previously unknown and uncatalogued smaller pamphlet of 16 hymns was discovered in Todmorden Library in the North of England.[39] This is believed to be the only Chartist Hymnal in existence. Heavily influenced by dissenting Christians, the hymns are about social justice, "striking down evil doers", and blessing Chartist enterprises, rather than the conventional themes of crucifixion, heaven, and family. Rather than the crucifixion or Christ's glory, the focus of the hymns is a cry for liberty. Some of the hymns protested against the exploitation of child labour and slavery. Another of the hymns proclaimed: "Men of wealth and men of power/ Like locusts all thy gifts devour". Two of the hymns celebrate the martyrs of the movement. "Great God! Is this the Patriot's Doom?" was composed for the funeral of Samuel Holberry, the Sheffield Chartist leader, who died in prison in 1843, while another honours John Frost, Zephaniah Williams, and William Jones, the Chartist leaders transported to Tasmania in the aftermath of the Newport rising of 1839.
The Chartists were especially harsh on the Church of England for unequal distribution of the state funds it received resulting in some bishops and higher dignitaries having grossly larger incomes than other clergy. This state of affairs led some Chartists to question the very idea of a state sponsored church, leading them to call for an absolute separation of church and state.[35]:59
Facing severe persecution in 1839, Chartists took to attending services at churches they held in contempt to display their numerical strength and express their dissatisfaction. Often, they would forewarn the preacher and demand that he preach from texts they believed supported their cause, such as 2 Thessalonians 3:10, 2 Timothy 2:6, Matthew 19:23[40] and James 5:1-6.[41] In response, the set-upon ministers would often preach the need to focus on things spiritual and not material, and of meekness and obedience to authority, citing such works as Romans 13:1–7 and 1 Peter 2:13–17.[35]:38
Legacy[edit]
Plaque commemorating Samuel Holberry in Sheffield's Peace Gardens
Former Chartist Mural in Newport commemorating the uprising
Eventual reforms[edit]
Chartism did not directly generate any reforms. It was not until 1867 that urban working men were admitted to the franchise under the Reform Act 1867, and not until 1918 that full manhood suffrage was achieved. Slowly the other points of the People's Charter were granted: secret voting was introduced in 1872 and the payment of MPs under the Parliament Act of 1911.[42] Annual elections remain the only Chartist demand not to be implemented. Participation in the Chartist Movement filled some working men with self-confidence: they learned to speak publicly, to send their poems and other writings off for publication, to be able, in short, to confidently articulate the feelings of working people. Many former Chartists went on to become journalists, poets, ministers, and councillors.[43]
Political elites feared the Chartists in the 1830s and 1840s as a dangerous threat to national stability.[44] In the Chartist stronghold of Manchester, the reform movement undermined the political power of the old Tory-Anglican elite that had controlled civic affairs. However, the reformers of Manchester were themselves factionalised.[45]
After 1848, as the movement faded, its demands appeared less threatening and were gradually enacted by other reformers.[46] After 1848, middle class parliamentary Radicals continued to press for an extension of the franchise in such organisations as the National Parliamentary and Financial Reform Association and the Reform Union. By the late 1850s, the celebrated John Bright was agitating in the country for franchise reform. However, working class radicals had not gone away. The Reform League campaigned for manhood suffrage in the 1860s, and included former Chartists amongst its ranks. Chartism has also been regarded by historians as a forerunner to the UK Labour Party.[47][48][49]
Colonies[edit]
Chartism was also an important influence in some British colonies. Some leaders had been transported to Australia, where they spread their beliefs. In 1854, Chartist demands were put forward by the miners at the Eureka Stockade on the gold fields at Ballarat, Victoria, Australia. Within two years of the military suppression of the Eureka revolt, the first elections of the Victorian parliament were held, with near-universal male suffrage and by secret ballot.[50] In the African colonies after 1920, there were occasional appearances of a "colonial chartism" which called for improved welfare, upgraded education, freedom of speech, and greater political representation for natives.[51]
Criticism[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2018)
The Chartist movement was criticised by Thomas Carlyle in his 1840 book Chartism.[52][how?]
See also[edit]
Condition of England question
George Binns
Richard Spurr
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Malcolm Chase, Chartism: A New History (Manchester UP, 2007)
Jump up ^ Boyd Hilton, A Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People?: England 1783–1846 (2006) pp 612–21
^ Jump up to: a b c d Dorothy Thompson, The Chartists: Popular Politics in the Industrial Revolution (1984)
Jump up ^ Minute Book of the London Working Men’s Association. British Library 2018. Retrieved 01 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Williams, David (1939). John Frost: A study in Chartism. Cardiff: University of Wales Press Board. pp. 100, 104, 107.
Jump up ^ Joan Allen and Owen R. Ashton, Papers for the People: A Study of the Chartist Press (2005)
Jump up ^ Bob Breton, "Violence and the Radical Imagination", Victorian Periodicals Review, Spring 2011, 44#1 pp 24–41
Jump up ^ Cris Yelland, "Speech and Writing in the Northern Star", Labour History Review, Spring 2000, 65#1 pp 22–40
Jump up ^ Navickas, Katrina (2015). Protest and the Politics of Space and Place, 1789–1848.
Jump up ^ Navickas, Katrina; Crymble, Adam (2017-03-20). "From Chartist Newspaper to Digital Map of Grass-roots Meetings, 1841–44: Documenting Workflows". The Journal of Victorian Culture. doi:10.1080/13555502.2017.1301179.
Jump up ^ Shijie Guan, "Chartism and the First Opium War", History Workshop, (Oct 1987), Issue 24, pp 17–31
Jump up ^ "The six points | chartist ancestors". chartist ancestors. Retrieved 2017-04-12.
Jump up ^ Victorianweb.org Archived February 19, 2008, at the Wayback Machine., Retrieved on 2008-02-07
^ Jump up to: a b c Charlton, John, The Chartists: The First National Workers' Movement (1997)
Jump up ^ David Williams, John Frost: a study in Chartism (1969) p 193
Jump up ^ Edward Royle, Chartism (1996), p. 30.
^ Jump up to: a b Jenkins, Mick (1980). The General Strike of 1842. London: Lawrence and Wishart. ISBN 978-0853155300.
Jump up ^ F.C. Mather, "The General Strike of 1842", in John Stevenson R. Quinault (eds), Popular Protest and Public Order (1974).
Jump up ^ Kuduk, Stephanie (1 June 2001). "Sedition, Chartism, and Epic Poetry in Thomas Cooper's The Purgatory of Suicides". Victorian Poetry. 39 (2): 165–186. doi:10.1353/vp.2001.0012. Retrieved 27 April 2018 – via Project MUSE.
Jump up ^ "Welcome to Chartist Ancestors - chartist ancestors". chartist ancestors. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Rosedene". National Trust. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b David Goodway, London Chartism, 1838–1848 (1982).
Jump up ^ Rapport, Michael (2005), Nineteenth Century Europe, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-65246-6
Jump up ^ Chartists.net Archived 2008-10-30 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ John Saville, 1848: The British State and the Chartist Movement (1987), pp. 130–99.
Jump up ^ See especially R.G.Gammage, History of the Chartist movement (1854); J.T.Ward, Chartism (1973).
Jump up ^ See also James Epstein, Lion of Freedom: Feargus O'Connor and the Chartist Movement (1982); Malcolm Chase, Chartism: A New History (2007); Paul Pickering, Feargus O'Connor: A Political Life (2008).
Jump up ^ Keith Flett, Chartism after 1848 (2006).
Jump up ^ George Douglas Howard Cole: Ernest Jones, in: G. D. H. Cole: Chartist portraits, Macmillan, London 1941
Jump up ^ There are 52 letters from Ernest Jones to Marx between 1851 and 1868 kept.
Jump up ^ There are eight letter from Ernest Jones to Engels between 1852 and 1867 kept.
Jump up ^ Marx-Engels-Werke, Berlin (DDR) 1960/61, vol. 8, 9, 10, 27.
Jump up ^ Ingolf Neunübel: Zu einigen ausgewählten Fragen und Problemen der Zusammenarbeit von Marx und Engels mit dem Führer der revolutionären Chartisten, Ernest Jones, im Jahre 1854, in: Beiträge zur Marx-Engels-Forschung 22. 1987, pp. 208–217.
Jump up ^ Pereira, Dawn (2015). "Henry Moore and the Welfare State". Henry Moore: Sculptural Process and Public Identity. Tate Research Publication. Retrieved 2 October 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Harold Underwood Faulkner, Chartism and the churches: a study in democracy (1916)
Jump up ^ David Hempton, Methodism and politics in British society, 1750–1850 (1984) p 213
Jump up ^ Devine, T.M. (2000). The Scottish Nation 1700-2000. Penguin. p. 279. ISBN 9780140230048.
Jump up ^ "Hymns and the Chartists revisited". richardjohnbr.blogspot.co.uk. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Calderdale Libraries, Northgate (15 July 2009). "National Chartist Hymn Book: From Weaver to Web". Retrieved 27 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Edward Stanley, 1839, "A Sermon Preached in Norwich Cathedral, on Sunday, August 18th, 1839, by the Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of Norwich, before an assemblage of a body of mechanics termed Chartists"
Jump up ^ Manchester and Salford Advertiser, 17/8/1839
Jump up ^ Frequently Asked Questions, Parliament.UK
Jump up ^ Emma Griffin, "The making of the Chartists: popular politics and working-class autobiography in early Victorian Britain," English Historical Review, 538, June 2014 in EHR
Jump up ^ Robert Saunders, "Chartism from above: British elites and the interpretation of Chartism", Historical Research, (2008) 81#213 pp 463–484
Jump up ^ Michael J. Turner, "Local Politics and the Nature of Chartism: The Case of Manchester", Northern History, (2008), 45#2 pp 323–345
Jump up ^ Margot C. Finn, After Chartism: Class and Nation in English Radical Politics 1848–1874 (2004)
Jump up ^ Gabriel Tortella (2010). The Origins of the Twenty First Century. p. 88.
Jump up ^ Giles Fraser (2012-10-05). "Before we decide to write off the Occupy movement, let's consider the legacy of the Chartists". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ "BBC - KS3 Bitesize History = The Chartists: Revision". BBC.
Jump up ^ Geoffrey Serle, The Golden Age: A History of the Colony of Victoria (1963) ch 9
Jump up ^ Barbara Bush, Imperialism, race, and resistance: Africa and Britain, 1919–1945 (1999) p. 261
Jump up ^ Carlyle, Thomas. "Chartism". Retrieved 27 April 2018 – via Wikisource.
Further reading[edit]
Ashton, Owen, Fyson, Robert, and Roberts, Stephen, The Chartist Legacy (1999) ESSAYS
Briggs, Asa, 'Chartist Studies' (1959)
Brown, Richard, Chartism (1998)
Carver, Stephen, Shark Alley: The Memoirs of a Penny-a-Liner (2016), creative non-fiction account of the life of a Chartist journalist.
Chase, Malcolm. Chartism: A New History (Manchester University Press, 2007), A standard scholarly history of the entire movement
Chase, Malcolm. "'Labour's Candidates': Chartist Challenges at the Parliamentary Polls, 1839–1860." Labour History Review (Maney Publishing) 74, no. 1 (April 2009): 64-89.
Epstein, James and Thompson, Dorothy, 'The Chartist Experience' (1982) ESSAYS
Fraser, W. Hamish, Chartism in Scotland (2010)
Gammage, R. G. "History of the Chartist Movement 1837-1854"
Hall, Robert, Voices of the People: Democracy and Chartist Political Identity (The Merlin Press, 2007) stresses the importance of regional loyalties and associations.
Jones, David J. V., Chartism and the Chartists (1975).
Jones, David J., The Last Rising; The Newport Insurrection 1839 (1985)
O'Brien, Mark, "Perish the Privileged Orders" A Socialist history of the Chartist movement (1995)
Pickering, Paul, Chartism and the Chartists in Manchester and Salford (1995)
Roberts, Stephen, Radical Politicians and Poets in Early Victorian Britain: The Voices of Six Chartist Leaders (1993)
Roberts, Stephen and Thompson, Dorothy, 'Images of Chartism' (1998) Contemporary illustrations
Roberts, Stephen, 'The People's Charter: Democratic Agitation in Early Victorian Britain' (2003) ESSAYS
Roberts, Stephen, The Chartist Prisoners: The Radical Lives of Thomas Cooper and Arthur O'Neill (2008)
Schwarzkopf, Jutta, Women in the Chartist Movement (1991)
Taylor, Miles, Ernest Jones, Chartism and the Romance of Politics (2003)
Thompson, Dorothy. The Dignity of Chartism (Verso Books, 2015), Essays by a leading specialists.
Historiography[edit]
Claeys, Gregory. "The Triumph of Class-Conscious Reformism in British Radicalism, 1790–1860" Historical Journal (1983) 26#4 pp. 969–985 in JSTOR
Griffin, Emma, "The making of the Chartists: popular politics and working-class autobiography in early Victorian Britain," English Historical Review, 538, June 2014 in EHR
Saunders, Robert. "Chartism from Above: British Elites and the Interpretation of Chartism", Historical Research 81:213 (August 2008): 463-484 (DOI).
Taylor, Miles. "Rethinking the chartists: Searching for synthesis in the historiography of chartism", Historical Journal, (1996), 39#2 pp 479–95 in JSTOR
Primary sources[edit]
The Chartist Movement in Britain, ed. Gregory Claeys (6 vols, Pickering and Chatto, 2001)
§, Thomas, ed. (1880). Forty Years' Recollections: Literary and Political, Samson Low, Marston, Searle, and Rivington
Mather, Frederick C. ed. (1980) Chartism and society: an anthology of documents 319pp
Scheckner, Peter, ed. (1989). An Anthology of Chartist Poetry. Poetry of the British Working Class, 1830s–1850s, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, ISBN 0-8386-3345-5 (online preview)
Kovalev, Yu. V. ed. (1956). "Antologiya Chartistskoy Literatury" [Anthology of Chartist Literature], Izd. Lit. na Inostr. Yazykakh, Moscow, 413 pp. (Russian introduction, with original Chartist texts in English).
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original works on the topic: Chartism
Resources[edit]
Chartist Ancestors
The People's Charter
British Library page including an image of the original charter
Punch Series on "Great Chartist Demonstrations"
Spartacus index on Chartism
Victorian Web – The Chartists
Ursula Stange: Annotated Bibliography on Chartism
Articles[edit]
Illustrated London News, 15 April 1848
Left-wing article about the Chartist armed uprising in Newport in 1839
How the police foiled a planned armed Chartist uprising, 1848
Authority control
NDL: 00573582
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Talk:Omne vivum ex ovo
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Should be on VfD: It's untrue. First, the "ovum" theory of life is not the rebuttal to the theory of spontaneous generation. It is, instead, the belief that all life originates in a single egg (one). The idea is that that each female has a fully formed microscopic being within her eggs, and each of these microscopic beings who are female have submicroscopic eggs within them containing the next generation, etc. The Ovum theory of life was one view of human generation from the Renaissance to the 18th century. The other, which goes back to the Classical era, was the homunculus theory, a spermatazoic model, where the male sperm contained a tiny human that would go and lodge in an egg to incubate. Both of these theories, however, are entirely independent of the argument about spontaneous generation.
Ancients weren't stupid. They knew exactly the connection between mating and breeding, and to think even for a moment that they thought that any higher animal life was spontaneously generated is absurd. The theory of spontaneous generation was fanciful to each generation that believed it, and it was resorted to only when they could not find females or males of a creature or when they could not see any breeding. Thus, they thought that crocodiles, biting flies, and the like, where hatching takes place in the absence of parents and where there is insufficient sexual dimorphism in adults to be apparent, were spontaneous generation candidates.
Finally, genetics is very late, and people rejected spontaneous generation long, long, long before microscopes were sufficiently powerful to track genes. I.e. this whole article is someone's misreporting.
Omne vivum ex ovo is attributed to William_Harvey (1578–1657) and according to Farley (1977; p.12) - "But it was the suggestion of the Ova, stemming from William Harvey, that led eventually to late seventeeth-century pre-existence theories and the necessary denial of spontaneous generation." Omne vivum ex ovo mirrors Rudolf Verchow's formula - Omnis Cellula e Cellula that is an attack on Spontaneous Generation. Spontaneous Generation was not abandoned by experiment or latin phrases but by the realisation the even the simplest life forms are astoundingly complex - Diamond Dave 26/01/2006 18.00
Farley, J., 1977. The spontaneous generation controversy from Descartes to Oparin. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN: 0-8018-1902-4
Duplicate?[edit]
Isn't this article redundant given that we have biogenesis? Aragorn2 16:04, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Omne_vivum_ex_ovo&oldid=36817061"
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