text:
Savanna
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Savannah" redirects here. For the city, see Savannah, Georgia. For other uses, see Savannah (disambiguation).
Typical tropical savanna in Northern Australia demonstrating the high tree density and regular spacing characteristic of many savannas
A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland grassland ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses.[1][2][3]
Savannas maintain an open canopy despite a high tree density.[4] It is often believed that savannas feature widely spaced, scattered trees. However, in many savannas, tree densities are higher and trees are more regularly spaced than in forests.[5][6][7][8] The South American savanna types cerrado sensu stricto and cerrado dense typically have densities of trees similar to or higher than that found in South American tropical forests,[5][7][8] with savanna rangingt 800–3300 trees per hectare (trees/ha) and adjacent forests with 800–2000 trees/ha. Similarly Guinean savanna has 129 trees/ha, compared to 103 for riparian forest,[6] while Eastern Australian sclerophyll forests have average tree densities of approximately 100 per hectare, comparable to savannas in the same region.[9]
Savannas are also characterised by seasonal water availability, with the majority of rainfall confined to one season; they are associated with several types of biomes, and are frequently in a transitional zone between forest and desert or grassland. Savanna covers approximately 20% of the Earth's land area.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Distribution
3 Threats
3.1 Changes in fire management
3.2 Grazing and browsing animals
3.3 Tree clearing
3.4 Exotic plant species
3.5 Climate change
4 Savanna ecoregions
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Etymology
The word originally entered English in 1555[10] as the Latin Zauana,[12] equivalent in the orthography of the times to zavana (see history of V). Peter Martyr reported it as the local name for the plain around Comagre, the court of the cacique Carlos in present-day Panama. The accounts are inexact,[14] but this is usually placed in present-day Madugandí[15] or at points on the nearby Guna Yala coast opposite Ustupo[16] or on Point Mosquitos.[17] These areas are now either given over to modern cropland or jungle.[18]
Distribution
Tarangire National Park in Tanzania, East Africa
Many grassy landscapes and mixed communities of trees, shrubs, and grasses were described as savanna before the middle of the 19th century, when the concept of a tropical savanna climate became established. The Köppen climate classification system was strongly influenced by effects of temperature and precipitation upon tree growth, and his oversimplified assumptions resulted in a tropical savanna classification concept which resulted in it being considered as a "climatic climax" formation. The common usage meaning to describe vegetation now conflicts with a simplified yet widespread climatic concept meaning. The divergence has sometimes caused areas such as extensive savannas north and south of the Congo and Amazon Rivers to be excluded from mapped savanna categories.[19]
"Barrens" has been used almost interchangeably with savanna in different parts of North America. Sometimes midwestern savanna were described as "grassland with trees". Different authors have defined the lower limits of savanna tree coverage as 5–10% and upper limits range as 25–80% of an area.[20]
Two factors common to all savanna environments are rainfall variations from year to year, and dry season wildfires.[citation needed] In the Americas, e.g. in Belize, Central America, savanna vegetation is similar from Mexico to South America and to the Caribbean.[21]
Threats
Changes in fire management
Savannas are subject to regular wildfires and the ecosystem appears to be the result of human use of fire. For example, Native Americans created the Pre-Columbian savannas of North America by periodically burning where fire-resistant plants were the dominant species.[22] Pine barrens in scattered locations from New Jersey to coastal New England are remnants of these savannas. Aboriginal burning appears to have been responsible for the widespread occurrence of savanna in tropical Australia and New Guinea,[23] and savannas in India are a result of human fire use.[24] The maquis shrub savannas of the Mediterranean region were likewise created and maintained by anthropogenic fire.[25]
Prescribed burn; Wisconsin bur oak savanna
These fires are usually confined to the herbaceous layer and do little long term damage to mature trees. However, these fires either kill or suppress tree seedlings, thus preventing the establishment of a continuous tree canopy which would prevent further grass growth. Prior to European settlement aboriginal land use practices, including fire, influenced vegetation[26] and may have maintained and modified savanna flora.[3][23] It has been suggested by many authors[26][27] that aboriginal burning created a structurally more open savanna landscape. Aboriginal burning certainly created a habitat mosaic that probably increased biodiversity and changed the structure of woodlands and geographic range of numerous woodland species.[23][26] It has been suggested by many authors[27][28] that with the removal or alteration of traditional burning regimes many savannas are being replaced by forest and shrub thickets with little herbaceous layer.
The consumption of herbage by introduced grazers in savanna woodlands has led to a reduction in the amount of fuel available for burning and resulted in fewer and cooler fires.[29] The introduction of exotic pasture legumes has also led to a reduction in the need to burn to produce a flush of green growth because legumes retain high nutrient levels throughout the year, and because fires can have a negative impact on legume populations which causes a reluctance to burn.[30]
Grazing and browsing animals
Oak savanna, United States
The closed forest types such as broadleaf forests and rainforests are usually not grazed owing to the closed structure precluding grass growth, and hence offering little opportunity for grazing.[31] In contrast the open structure of savannas allows the growth of a herbaceous layer and are commonly used for grazing domestic livestock.[32] As a result, much of the world's savannas have undergone change as a result of grazing by sheep, goats and cattle, ranging from changes in pasture composition to woody weed encroachment.[33]
The removal of grass by grazing affects the woody plant component of woodland systems in two major ways. Grasses compete with woody plants for water in the topsoil and removal by grazing reduces this competitive effect, potentially boosting tree growth.[34] In addition to this effect, the removal of fuel reduces both the intensity and the frequency of fires which may control woody plant species.[35] Grazing animals can have a more direct effect on woody plants by the browsing of palatable woody species. There is evidence that unpalatable woody plants have increased under grazing in savannas.[36] Grazing also promotes the spread of weeds in savannas by the removal or reduction of the plants which would normally compete with potential weeds and hinder establishment.[26] In addition to this, cattle and horses are implicated in the spread of the seeds of weed species such as Prickly Acacia (Acacia nilotica) and Stylo (Stylosanthes spp.).[29] Alterations in savanna species composition brought about by grazing can alter ecosystem function, and are exacerbated by overgrazing and poor land management practices.
Introduced grazing animals can also affect soil condition through physical compaction and break-up of the soil caused by the hooves of animals and through the erosion effects caused by the removal of protective plant cover. Such effects are most likely to occur on land subjected to repeated and heavy grazing.[37] The effects of overstocking are often worst on soils of low fertility and in low rainfall areas below 500 mm, as most soil nutrients in these areas tend to be concentrated in the surface so any movement of soils can lead to severe degradation. Alteration in soil structure and nutrient levels affects the establishment, growth and survival of plant species and in turn can lead to a change in woodland structure and composition.
Tree clearing
Large areas of Australian and South American savannas have been cleared of trees, and this clearing is continuing today. For example, until recently 480,000 ha of savanna were cleared annually in Australia alone primarily to improve pasture production.[26] Substantial savanna areas have been cleared of woody vegetation and much of the area that remains today is vegetation that has been disturbed by either clearing or thinning at some point in the past.
Clearing is carried out by the grazing industry in an attempt to increase the quality and quantity of feed available for stock and to improve the management of livestock. The removal of trees from savanna land removes the competition for water from the grasses present, and can lead to a two to fourfold increase in pasture production, as well as improving the quality of the feed available.[38] Since stock carrying capacity is strongly correlated with herbage yield, there can be major financial benefits from the removal of trees,[39] such as assisting with grazing management: regions of dense tree and shrub cover harbors predators, leading to increased stock losses, for example,[40] while woody plant cover hinders mustering in both sheep and cattle areas.[41]
A number of techniques have been employed to clear or kill woody plants in savannas. Early pastoralists used felling and girdling, the removal of a ring of bark and sapwood, as a means of clearing land.[42] In the 1950s arboricides suitable for stem injection were developed. War-surplus heavy machinery was made available, and these were used for either pushing timber, or for pulling using a chain and ball strung between two machines. These two new methods of timber control, along with the introduction and widespread adoption of several new pasture grasses and legumes promoted a resurgence in tree clearing. The 1980s also saw the release of soil-applied arboricides, notably tebuthiuron, that could be utilised without cutting and injecting each individual tree.
In many ways "artificial" clearing, particularly pulling, mimics the effects of fire and, in savannas adapted to regeneration after fire as most Queensland savannas are, there is a similar response to that after fire.[43] Tree clearing in many savanna communities, although causing a dramatic reduction in basal area and canopy cover, often leaves a high percentage of woody plants alive either as seedlings too small to be affected or as plants capable of re-sprouting from lignotubers and broken stumps. A population of woody plants equal to half or more of the original number often remains following pulling of eucalypt communities, even if all the trees over 5 metres are uprooted completely.
Exotic plant species
Acacia savanna, Taita Hills Wildlife Sanctuary, Kenya.
A number of exotic plants species have been introduced to the savannas around the world. Amongst the woody plant species are serious environmental weeds such as Prickly Acacia (Acacia nilotica), Rubbervine (Cryptostegia grandiflora), Mesquite (Prosopis spp.), Lantana (Lantana camara and L. montevidensis) and Prickly Pear (Opuntia spp.) A range of herbaceous species have also been introduced to these woodlands, either deliberately or accidentally including Rhodes grass and other Chloris species, Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris), Giant rat's tail grass (Sporobolus pyramidalis) parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus) and stylos (Stylosanthes spp.) and other legumes. These introductions have the potential to significantly alter the structure and composition of savannas worldwide, and have already done so in many areas through a number of processes including altering the fire regime, increasing grazing pressure, competing with native vegetation and occupying previously vacant ecological niches.[43][44] Other plant species include: white sage, spotted cactus, cotton seed, rosemary.
Climate change
Human induced climate change resulting from the greenhouse effect may result in an alteration of the structure and function of savannas. Some authors[45] have suggested that savannas and grasslands may become even more susceptible to woody plant encroachment as a result of greenhouse induced climate change. However, a recent case described a savanna increasing its range at the expense of forest in response to climate variation, and potential exists for similar rapid, dramatic shifts in vegetation distribution as a result of global climate change, particularly at ecotones such as savannas so often represent.[46]
Savanna ecoregions
Mediterranean savanna in Alentejo region, Portugal
Savanna ecoregions are of several different types:
Tropical and subtropical savannas are classified with tropical and subtropical grasslands and shrublands as the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. The savannas of Africa, including the Serengeti, famous for its wildlife, are typical of this type. The Brazilian savanna (Cerrado) is also included in this category, known for its exotic and varied flora.
Temperate savannas are mid-latitude savannas with wetter summers and drier winters. They are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome, that for example cover much of the Great Plains of the United States. (See areas such as the Central forest-grasslands transition).
Mediterranean savannas are mid-latitude savannas in Mediterranean climate regions, with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers, part of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. The oak tree savannas of California, part of the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, fall into this category.
Flooded savannas are savannas that are flooded seasonally or year-round. They are classified with flooded savannas as the flooded grasslands and savannas biome, which occurs mostly in the tropics and subtropics.
Montane savannas are mid- to high-altitude savannas, located in a few spots around the world's high mountain regions, part of the montane grasslands and shrublands biome. The Bogotá savanna, located at an average altitude of 2,550 metres (8,370 ft) on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, Eastern Ranges of the Andes, is an example of a montane savanna.[47][48] The savannas of the Angolan Scarp savanna and woodlands ecoregion are a lower altitude example, up to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft).[49]
See also
Pampas
Pasture
Prairie
Rangeland
Steppe
Veld
References
Jump up ^ Anderson, Roger A., Fralish, James S. and Baskin, Jerry M. editors.1999. Savannas, Barrens, and Rock Outcrop Plant Communities of North America. Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ McPherson, G. R. (1997). Ecology and management of North American Savannas. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Werner, Patricia A.; B. H. Walker; P. A Stott (1991). "Introduction". In Patricia A. Werner. Savanna Ecology and Management: Australian Perspectives and Intercontinental Comparisons. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-632-03199-3.
Jump up ^ Alexandro Solórzano, Jeanine Maria Felfili 2008”Comparative analysis of the international terminaoolgy for cerrado” IX Symposio Nacional Cerrado 13 a 17 de outubro de 2008 Parlamundi Barsilia, DF
^ Jump up to: a b Manoel Cláudio da Silva Jánior, Christopher William Fagg, Maria Cristina Felfili, Paulo Ernane Nogueira, Alba Valéria Rezende, and Jeanine Maria Felfili 2006 “Chapter 4. Phytogeography of Cerrado Sensu Stricto and Land System Zoning in Central Brazil” in “Neotropical Savannas and Seasonally Dry Forests: Plant Diversity, Biogeography, and Conservation” R. Toby Pennington, James A. Ratter (eds) 2006 CRC Press
^ Jump up to: a b Abdullahi Jibrin 2013 “A Study of Variation in Physiognomic Characteristics of Guinea Savanna Vegetation” Environment and Natural Resources Research 3:2
^ Jump up to: a b Erika L. Geiger, Sybil G. Gotsch, Gabriel Damasco, M. Haridasan, Augusto C. Franco & William A. Hoffmann 2011 “Distinct roles of savanna and forest tree species in regeneration under fire suppression in a Brazilian savanna” Journal of Vegetation Science 22
^ Jump up to: a b Scholz, Fabian G.; Bucci, Sandra J.; Goldstein, Guillermo; Meinzer, Frederick C.; Franco, Augusto C.; Salazar, Ana. 2008 “Plant- and stand-level variation in biophysical and physiological traits along tree density gradients in the Cerrado”, Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology
Jump up ^ Tait, L 2010, Structure and dynamics of grazed woodlands in North-eastern Australia, Master of Applied Science Thesis, Central Queensland University, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Health, Rockhampton.
Jump up ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. "savannah", n. Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b D'Anghiera, Peter Martyr. De Orbe Novo Decades. Cum Ejusdem Legatione Babylonica. [The Decades of the New World. With the Babylonian Legation.] Arnao Guillén de Brocar (Alcala), 1516 (in Latin). Trans. Richard Eden as The decades of the newe worlde or west India conteynyng the nauigations and conquestes of the Spanyardes with the particular description of the moste ryche and large landes and Ilands lately founde in the west Ocean perteynyng to the inheritaunce of the kinges of Spayne, Book III, §3. William Powell (London), 1555.
Jump up ^ Richard Eden: "The palace of this Comogrus, is ſituate at the foote of a ſtiepe hyll well cultured. Hauynge towarde the ſouthe a playne of twelue leages in breadth and veary frutefull. This playne, they caule Zauana."[11]
Jump up ^ Eden (1555), Book III, §6.
Jump up ^ The account of Peter Martyr itself differs in places, variously placing Comagre 25 leagues west of and accessible by ship from Dariena[13] or 70 leagues (roughly 290 kilometers or 180 miles) west of Dariena and beside a river flowing into the southern ocean.[11]
Jump up ^ Bancroft, Hubert H. (1882). "History of Central America. 1501–1530". San Francisco: A.L. Bancroft & Co. p. LXXIV.
Jump up ^ Bancroft (1882), p. 362.
Jump up ^ Bancroft (1882), p. 347.
Jump up ^ NASA. "[earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Experiments/ICE/panama/Images/igbp_panama2000289_lg.gif Land Cover Classification]" from Earth Observatory. The Image Composite Explorer. Exercise 4: Vegetation Vital Signs. Accessed 1 August 2014.
Jump up ^ David R. Harris, ed. (1980). Human Ecology in Savanna Environments. London: Academic Press. pp. 3,5–9,12,271–278,297–298. ISBN 0-12-326550-9.
Jump up ^ Roger C. Anderson; James S. Fralish; Jerry M. Baskin, eds. (1999). Savannas, Barrens, and Rock Outcrop Plant Communities of North America. Cambridge University Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN 0-521-57322-X.
Jump up ^ David L. Lentz, ed. (2000). Imperfect balance: landscape transformations in the Precolumbian Americas. New York City: Columbia University Press. pp. 73–74. ISBN 0-231-11157-6.
Jump up ^ "Use of Fire by Native Americans". The Southern Forest Resource Assessment Summary Report. Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service. Retrieved 2008-07-21.
^ Jump up to: a b c Flannery, Timothy Fridtjof (1994). The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and People. Frenchs Forest, New South Wales: Reed New Holland. ISBN 978-0-8076-1403-7.
Jump up ^ Saha, S. (2003). "Patterns in woody species diversity, richness and partitioning of diversity in forest communities of tropical deciduous forest biomes". Ecography. 26 (1): 80–86. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0587.2003.03411.x.
Jump up ^ Pyne, Stephen J. (1997). Vestal Fire: An Environmental History, Told through Fire, of Europe and Europe's Encounter with the World. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97596-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Wilson, B., S. Boulter, et al. (2000). Queensland's resources. Native Vegetation Management in Queensland. S. L. Boulter, B. A. Wilson, J. Westrupet eds. Brisbane, Department of Natural Resources ISBN 0-7345-1701-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Lunt, I. D.; N. Jones (2006). "Effects of European colonisation on indigenous ecosystems: post-settlement changes in tree stand structures in Eucalyptus–Callitris woodlands in central New South Wales, Australia". Journal of Biogeography. 33 (6): 1102–1115. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01484.x.
Jump up ^ Archer S, (1994.) "Woody plant encroachment into southwestern grasslands and savannas: Rates, patterns and proximate causes." pp. 13–68 in Vavra, Laycock and Pieper (eds.) Ecological Implications of Livestock Herbivory in the West. Society For Range Management, Denver ISBN 1-884930-00-X.
^ Jump up to: a b Pressland, A. J., J. R. Mills, et al. (1988). Landscape degradation in native pasture. Native pastures in Queensland their resources and management. W. H. Burrows, J. C. Scanlan and M. T. Rutherford. Queensland, Queensland Government Press ISBN 0-7242-2443-2.
Jump up ^ Dyer, R., A. Craig, et al. (1997). Fire in northern pastoral lands. Fire in the management of northern Australian pastoral lands. T. C. Grice and S. M. Slatter. St. Lucia, Australia, Tropical Grassland Society of Australia ISBN 0-9590948-9-X.
Jump up ^ Lodge, G. M. and R. D. B. Whalley (1984). Temperate rangelands. Management of Australia’s Rangelands. G. N. Harrington and A. D. Wilson. Melbourne, CSIRO Publishing.
Jump up ^ Mott, J. J., Groves, R.H. (1994). Natural and derived grasslands. Australian Vegetation. R. H. Groves. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Winter, W. H. (1991). "Australia's northern savannas: a time for change in management philosophy". In Patricia A. Werner. Savanna Ecology and Management: Australian Perspectives and Intercontinental Comparisons. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 181–186. ISBN 978-0-632-03199-3.
Jump up ^ Burrows, W. H., J. C. Scanlan, et al. (1988). Plant ecological relations in open forests, woodlands and shrublands. Native pastures in Queensland their resources and management. W. H. Burrows, J. C. Scanlan and M. T. Rutherford eds. Brisbane, Department of Primary Industries ISBN 0-7242-2443-2.
Jump up ^ Smith, G., A. Franks, et al. (2000). Impacts of domestic grazing within remnant vegetation. Native Vegetation Management in Queensland. S. L. Boulter, B. A. Wilson, J. Westrupet al. Brisbane, Department of Natural Resources ISBN 0-7345-1701-7.
Jump up ^ Florence, R. G. (1996). Ecology and silviculture of eucalypt forests. Collingwood, CSIRO Publishing ISBN 0-643-10252-3.
Jump up ^ Foran, B. D. (1984). Central arid woodlands. Management of Australia’s Rangelands. G. N. Harrington and A. D. Wilson. Melbourne, CSIRO Publishing ISBN 0-643-03615-6.
Jump up ^ Scanlan, J. and C. Chilcott (2000). Management and production aspects. Native Vegetation Management in Queensland. S. L. Boulter, B. A. Wilson, J. Westrupet al. Brisbane, Department of Natural Resources.
Jump up ^ Harrington, G. N., M. H. Friedel, et al. (1984). Vegetation ecology and management. Management of Australia's Rangelands. G. N. Harrington and A. D. Wilson. Melbourne, CSIRO Publishing ISBN 0-643-03615-6.
Jump up ^ Harrington, G. N., D. M. D. Mills, et al. (1984). Semi-arid woodlands. Management of Australia's Rangelands. G. N. Harrington and A. D. Wilson. Melbourne, CSIRO Publishing ISBN 0-643-03615-6.
Jump up ^ Harrington, G. N., D. M. D. Mills, et al. (1984). Management of Rangeland Ecosystems. Management of Australia's Rangelands. G. N. Harrington and A. D. Wilson. Melbourne, CSIRO Publishing ISBN 0-643-03615-6.
Jump up ^ Partridge, I. (1999). Managing grazing in northern Australia. Brisbane, Department of Primary Industries ISBN 0-7345-0035-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Scanlan, J. C. (1988). Managing tree and shrub populations. Native pastures in Queensland their resources and management. W. H. Burrows, J. C. Scanlan and M. T. Rutherford. Queensland, Queensland Government Press ISBN 0-7242-2443-2.
Jump up ^ Tothill, J. C. and C. Gillies (1992). The pasture lands of northern Australia. Brisbane, Tropical Grassland Society of Australia ISBN 0-9590948-4-9.
Jump up ^ Archer, S. (1991). "Development and stability of grass/woody mosaics in a subtropical savanna parkland, Texas, USA". In Patricia A. Werner. Savanna Ecology and Management: Australian Perspectives and Intercontinental Comparisons. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 109–118. ISBN 978-0-632-03199-3.
Jump up ^ Allen, C. D. & D. D. Breshears (1998). "Drought-induced shift of a forest–woodland ecotone: Rapid landscape response to climate variation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 95 (25): 14839–14842. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.25.14839. PMC 24536  . PMID 9843976.
Jump up ^ Calvachi Zambrano, Byron (2002). "La biodiversidad bogotana" (PDF). Revista La Tadeo (in Spanish). Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano. 67: 89–98. Retrieved 2017-03-04.
Jump up ^ Pérez Preciado, Alfonso (2000). La estructura ecológica principal de la Sabana de Bogotá (PDF) (in Spanish). Sociedad Geográfica de Colombia. pp. 1–37. Retrieved 2017-03-04.
Jump up ^ Angolan Scarp savanna and woodlands
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Savanna.
The Savanna
"Savanna". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
"Savannas". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
[show]
v
t
e
Biogeographic regionalisations
Biomes
Terrestrial
biomes
Polar/montane
Tundra
Taiga
Montane grasslands and shrublands
Temperate
Coniferous forests
Broadleaf and mixed forests
Deciduous forests
Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
Tropical and
subtropical
Coniferous forests
Moist broadleaf forests
Dry broadleaf forests
Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
Dry
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
Deserts and xeric shrublands
Wet
Flooded grasslands and savannas
Riparian
Wetland
Aquatic
biomes
Pond
Littoral
Intertidal
Mangroves
Kelp forests
Coral reefs
Neritic zone
Pelagic zone
Benthic zone
Hydrothermal vents
Cold seeps
Demersal zone
Other biomes
Endolithic zone
Biogeographic
realms
Terrestrial
Afrotropical
Antarctic
Australasian
Nearctic
Palearctic
Indomalayan
Neotropical
Oceanian
Marine
Arctic
Temperate Northern Pacific
Tropical Atlantic
Western Indo-Pacific
Central Indo-Pacific
Tropical Eastern Pacific
Subdivisions
Biogeographic provinces
Bioregions
Ecoregions
List of ecoregions
Global 200 ecoregions
See also
Ecological land classification
Floristic kingdoms
Vegetation classifications
Zoogeographic regions
[show]
v
t
e
Phytogeography: Vegetation classification
Physiognomy
Forests, woodlands, arboretum
Shrublands, scrubs, thickets, fruticetum
Dwarf-shrubland, subshrublands, dwarf-scrubs, suffruticetum
Herbaceous communities, grasslands, steppes, prairies, herbetum
Savannas, parklands
Scarcely vegetated areas, desert vegetation
Latitude
Tropical
Subtropical
Temperate
Subpolar
Polar
Climatic
regime
Pluvial, rainy, ombrophilous
Cloudy
Seasonal
Drought
Altitude
Montane
Submontane
Lowland
Coastal
Leaves
Loss of leaves
Deciduous, caducifolious
Semi-deciduous, semicaducifolious
Evergreen, perennifolious
Leaf hardness
Sclerophyll, stiff leaves
Orthophyll, hyptiophyll leaves
Leaf form
Aciculifolious, needle-leaved
Latifolious, broad-leaved
Substrate
Terrestrial vegetation
Aquatic vegetation
Riparian
Mangrove
Swampy
See also
Biogeographic realms
Biomes
Floristic kingdoms
Plant habits
Plant life-forms
Vegetation

Authority control
GND: 4130737-9
NDL: 68985532
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Savanna&oldid=814399087"
Categories:
Ecosystems
Grasslands
Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
Hidden categories:
Articles with Latin-language external links
CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)
Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2016
Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference
Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
View source
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Català
Чӑвашла
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Dolnoserbski
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gàidhlig
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hornjoserbsce
Hrvatski
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Кыргызча
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Lingála
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
Bahasa Melayu
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
پنجابی
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Shqip
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
文言
粵語
Zazaki
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 8 December 2017, at 16:00.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: class id

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
/wiki/Savannah_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Savannah (disambiguation)

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attrs: class style

value: b

values:
/wiki/Canopy_(forest)
mw-redirect
Canopy (forest)

values: not discussed or cited in the body of the article (June 2016)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/History_of_V
mw-redirect
History of V

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2016)

values:
/wiki/Herbaceous_layer
mw-redirect
Herbaceous layer

values:
/wiki/Acacia_nilotica
mw-redirect
Acacia nilotica

values: Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

values: Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

values: Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-3

values: -moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3;

values:
/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing
mw-redirect
Blackwell Publishing

values:
/wiki/Legua_(unit)
mw-redirect
Legua (unit)

values: National Aeronautics and Space Administration

values:
/wiki/Ecography_(journal)
mw-redirect
Ecography (journal)

values: International Standard Book Number (identifier)

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.95.25.14839

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9843976

values: -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-width: 35em; column-width: 35em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition

values: s:The New International Encyclopædia/Savannas

values: Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests

values: Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

values: Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests

values:
/wiki/Afrotropic_ecozone
mw-redirect
Afrotropic ecozone

values:
/wiki/Antarctic_ecozone
mw-redirect
Antarctic ecozone

values:
/wiki/Australasian_ecozone
mw-redirect
Australasian ecozone

values:
/wiki/Nearctic_ecozone
mw-redirect
Nearctic ecozone

values:
/wiki/Palearctic_ecozone
mw-redirect
Palearctic ecozone

values:
/wiki/Indomalaya_ecozone
mw-redirect
Indomalaya ecozone

values:
/wiki/Neotropic_ecozone
mw-redirect
Neotropic ecozone

values:
/wiki/Oceania_ecozone
mw-redirect
Oceania ecozone

values:
/wiki/Biogeographic_provinces
mw-redirect
Biogeographic provinces

values:
/wiki/List_of_ecoregions
mw-redirect
List of ecoregions

values:
/wiki/Floristic_kingdom
mw-redirect
Floristic kingdom

values:
/wiki/Zoogeographic_region
mw-redirect
Zoogeographic region

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Desert_vegetation
mw-redirect
Desert vegetation

values:
/wiki/Terrestrial_vegetation
mw-redirect
Terrestrial vegetation

values:
/wiki/Aquatic_vegetation
mw-redirect
Aquatic vegetation

values:
/wiki/Plant_habit
mw-redirect
Plant habit

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4130737-9

values: Category:Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

values: Category:Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

values: Category:Articles with Latin-language external links

values: Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)

values: Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2016

values: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference

values: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Savanna
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
This page is protected.
You can view its source [ctrl-alt-e]

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values: سافانا – Arabic

values:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabana
Sabana – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

values: Саванна – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanenn
Savanenn – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabana
Sabana – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values: Саванна – Chuvash

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanne
Savanne – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanne
Savanne – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawana
Sawana – Lower Sorbian
dsb
dsb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savann
Savann – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Σαβάνα – Greek

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabana
Sabana – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savano
Savano – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabana
Sabana – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values: گرم‌دشت – Persian

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savane
Savane – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanne
Savanne – Western Frisian
fy
fy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savannah
Savannah – Scottish Gaelic
gd
gd
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabana
Sabana – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Սավաննա – Armenian

values: सवाना – Hindi

values:
https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawana
Sawana – Upper Sorbian
hsb
hsb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savano
Savano – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabana
Sabana – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values: סוואנה – Hebrew

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabana
Sabana – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values: Саванна – Kazakh

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savann
Savann – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

values: Саванна – Kyrgyz

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanna
Savanna – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanne
Savanne – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szavanna
Szavanna – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values: ဆာဗားနားမြက်ခင်းပြင် – Burmese

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanne
Savanne – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanne
Savanne – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawanna
Sawanna – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values: Саванна – Russian

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanna
Savanna – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Савана – Serbian

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savana
Savana – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabana
Sabana – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanni
Savanni – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savann
Savann – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabana
Sabana – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values: புன்னிலம் – Tamil

values: สะวันนา – Thai

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savan
Savan – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanna
Savanna – Zazaki
diq
diq
interlanguage-link-target

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Savanna rootpage-Savanna skin-vector action-view


text:
History of the Liberal Party of Canada
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article covers the history of the Liberal Party of Canada.
Contents
1 Party systems model
2 19th century
2.1 Origins
2.2 Confederation
2.2.1 Provinces
2.3 Laurier era
3 20th century
3.1 Loss of power
3.2 Canadian sovereignty
3.3 Liberals and the social safety net
3.4 Trudeau era
3.5 The post-Trudeau party in opposition
3.6 The party under Chrétien
4 Into the 21st century
4.1 Martin succeeds Chrétien
4.2 In Opposition and 2006 convention
4.3 Majority under Trudeau
5 Leaders of the Liberal Party since 1867
6 Presidents of the Liberal Party since 1932
7 Election results
8 Further reading
9 References
Party systems model[edit]
According to recent scholarship there have been four party systems in Canada at the federal level since Confederation, each with its own distinctive pattern of social support, patronage relationships, leadership styles, and electoral strategies.[1] Steve Patten identifies four party systems in Canada's political history[2]
The first party system emerged from pre-Confederation colonial politics, had its "heyday" from 1896 to 1911 and lasted until the Conscription Crisis of 1917, and was characterized by local patronage administered by the two largest parties, the Liberals and the Conservatives.
The second system emerged following the First World War, and had its heyday from 1935 and 1957, was characterized by regionalism and saw the emergence of several protest parties, such as the Progressives, the Social Credit Party, and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation.
The third system emerged in 1963 and had its heyday from 1968 to 1983 and began to unravel thereafter. The two largest parties were challenged by a strong third party, the New Democratic Party. Campaigns during this era became more national in scope due to the electronic media, and involved a greater focus on leadership. The dominant policy of the era was Keynesian economics.
The fourth party system has involved the rise of the Reform Party, the Bloc Québécois, and the merger of the Canadian Alliance with the Progressive Conservatives. It saw most parties move to one-member-one-vote leadership contests, and a major reform to campaign finance laws in 2004. The fourth party system has been characterized by market-oriented policies that abandoned Keynesian policies, but maintained the welfare state.
Clarkson (2005) shows how the Liberal Party had dominated all the party systems, using different approaches. It began with a "clientelistic approach" under Sir Wilfrid Laurier, which evolved into a "brokerage" system of the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s under William Lyon Mackenzie King. The 1950s saw the emergence of a "pan-Canadian system", which lasted until the 1990s. The 1993 election — categorized by Clarkson as an electoral "earthquake" which "fragmented" the party system, saw the emergence of regional politics within a four party-system, whereby various groups championed regional issues and concerns. Clarkson concludes that the inherent bias built into the first-past-the-post system, had chiefly benefited the Liberals.[3]
19th century[edit]
Origins[edit]
See also: Rebellions of 1837
The Liberals are descended from the mid-19th century Reformers who agitated for responsible government throughout British North America. These included George Brown, Robert Baldwin, William Lyon Mackenzie and the Clear Grits in Upper Canada, Joseph Howe in Nova Scotia, and the Patriotes and Rouges in Lower Canada led by figures such as Louis-Joseph Papineau. The Clear Grits and Parti rouge sometimes functioned as a united bloc in the legislature of the Province of Canada beginning in 1854, and a united Liberal Party combining both English and French Canadian members was formed in 1861.
Confederation[edit]
At the time of confederation of the former British colonies of Canada (now Ontario and Quebec), New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, the radical Liberals were marginalized by the more pragmatic Conservative coalition assembled under Sir John A. Macdonald. In the 29 years after Canadian confederation, the Liberals were consigned to opposition, with the exception of one stint in government. Alexander Mackenzie was able to lead the party to power in 1873 after the Macdonald government lost a vote of no confidence in the House of Commons because of the Pacific Scandal. Mackenzie won the 1874 election, but lost the government to Macdonald in 1878. Liberals spent the next 18 years in opposition.
In dealing with labour unions, the laissez-faire Liberals under Mackenzie, George Brown and Edward Blake were anti-labour, while Conservatives under Macdonald were pro-labour in the process of making their National Policy work to raise wages (and profits) by imposing a tariff on imports. Macdonald was an important financial supporter of the labor newspaper and friend of trade-union leaders, who in turn aided his party during the election campaigns of the decade.[4]
Provinces[edit]
In Ontario, the Liberal Party under Oliver Mowat controlled the provincial government and advocated the rights of provinces. He was in close touch with Catholic officials, and received the Irish Catholic vote.
In Prince Edward Island during the 1860s the issue of confederation split the colony's Conservative Party leadership in 1864-65, but after that the central issues were sectarianism and absentee landownership. The defection of rural supporters from the Conservatives allowed the Liberals to win the 1867 provincial election. But the issue of denominational grants to schools cost the Liberals their Roman Catholic support in 1870, and resulted in a coalition government that ruled the island for 17 of the next 21 years.[5]
The Nova Scotia Liberal Party fared poorly in national elections during the 1880s and early 1890s. The national party advocated policies that would discontinue the national coal subsidy and, for all practical purposes, eliminate Catholic schools in Manitoba, policies disliked by provincial coal miners and Catholics respectively. William Stevens Fielding influenced a more moderate coal policy and defused the school issue. Thus in 1896 the provincial Liberals improved their showing in the national election.[6]
Laurier era[edit]
Sir Wilfrid Laurier
In their early history, the Liberals were the party of continentalism (free trade with the United States), and opposition to imperialism. The Liberals also became identified with the aspirations of Quebecers as a result of the growing hostility of French-Canadians to the Conservatives. The Conservatives lost the support of Quebecers because of the perceived role of Conservative governments in the execution of Louis Riel, and their role in the Conscription crisis of 1917.
It was not until Wilfrid Laurier became leader that the Liberal Party emerged as a modern party. Laurier was able to capitalize on the Tories' apparent alienation of French Canada by offering the Liberals as a credible alternative. Laurier was able to overcome the party's reputation for anti-clericalism that offended the still-powerful Quebec Roman Catholic Church. In English-speaking Canada, the Liberal Party's support for free trade made it popular among farmers, and helped cement the party's hold in the growing prairie provinces.
Laurier led the Liberals to power in the 1896 election (in which he became the first Francophone Prime Minister), and oversaw a government that increased immigration in order to settle Western Canada. Laurier's government created the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta out of the North-West Territories, and promoted the development of Canadian industry.
20th century[edit]
Loss of power[edit]
The Liberals lost power in the 1911 election due to opposition to the party's policies on reciprocity (or free trade), and the creation of a Canadian navy.
The Conscription crisis divided the party as many Liberals in English Canada supported conscription. Many of them joined Sir Robert Borden's Conservatives to form a Unionist government. With numerous Liberal candidates running as Unionists or Liberal-Unionists with the support of provincial Liberal parties in a number of provinces, the Laurier Liberals were reduced to a largely Quebec-based rump. The long-term impact of the Conscription crisis benefited the party as the issue only added to the animosity of French-Canadians towards the Conservatives, making that party unpopular in Quebec for decades.
Canadian sovereignty[edit]
William Lyon Mackenzie King
Under Laurier, and his successor William Lyon Mackenzie King, the Liberals promoted Canadian sovereignty and greater independence from the British Empire. In Imperial Conferences held throughout the 1920s, Canadian Liberal governments often took the lead in arguing that the United Kingdom and the dominions should have equal status, and against proposals for an imperial parliament that would have subsumed Canadian independence. After the King-Byng Affair of 1926, the Liberals argued that the Governor General of Canada should no longer be appointed on the recommendation of the British government. The decisions of the Imperial Conferences were formalized in the Statute of Westminster, which was actually passed in 1931, the year after the Liberals lost power.
The Liberals also promoted the idea of Canada being responsible for its own foreign and defence policy. Initially, it was Britain which determined external affairs for the dominion. In 1905, Laurier created the Department of External Affairs, and in 1909 he advised Governor General Earl Grey to appoint the first Secretary of State for External Affairs to Cabinet. It was also Laurier who first proposed the creation of a Canadian Navy in 1910. Mackenzie King recommended the appointment by Governor General Lord Byng of Vincent Massey as the first Canadian ambassador to Washington in 1926, marking the Liberal government's insistence on having direct relations with the United States, rather than having Britain act on Canada's behalf.
Liberals and the social safety net[edit]
Lester B. Pearson
In the period just before and after the Second World War, the party became a champion of 'progressive social policy'.[7]
As Prime Minister for most of the time between 1921 and 1948, King introduced several measures that led to the creation of Canada's social safety net. Bowing to popular pressure, he introduced the mother's allowance, a monthly payment to all mothers with young children. He also reluctantly introduced old age pensions when J. S. Woodsworth required it in exchange for his Co-operative Commonwealth Federation party's support of King's minority government. Later, Lester B. Pearson introduced universal health care, the Canada Pension Plan, Canada Student Loans, and the Canada Assistance Plan (which provided funding for provincial welfare programs).
Trudeau era[edit]
Pierre Trudeau
Under Pierre Trudeau, the mission of a progressive social policy evolved into the goal of creating a "just society".
The Trudeau Liberals became the champions of official bilingualism, passing the Official Languages Act, which gave the French and English languages equal status in Canada. Trudeau hoped that the promotion of bilingualism would cement Quebec's place in confederation, and counter growing calls for an independent Quebec. This policy aimed to transform Canada into a country where English and French-Canadians could live together in comfort, and could move to any part of the country without having to lose their language. While this has not occurred, official bilingualism has helped to halt the decline of the French language outside of Quebec, and has also ensured that all federal government services (as well as radio and television services provided by the government-owned Canadian Broadcasting Corporation/Radio-Canada) are available in both languages throughout the country.
The Trudeau Liberals are also credited with support for official multiculturalism as a means of integrating immigrants into Canadian society without forcing them to shed their culture. As a result of this and a more sympathetic attitude by Liberals towards immigration policy, the party has built a base of support among recent immigrants and their children.
The most lasting effect of the Trudeau years has been the patriation of the Canadian constitution and the creation of Canada's Charter of Rights. Trudeau Liberals support the concept of a strong, central government, and fought Quebec separatism, other forms of Quebec nationalism, and the granting of "distinct society" status to Quebec. Such actions, however, served as rallying cries for sovereigntists & alienated many francophone Quebecers
The other primary legacy of the Trudeau years has been financial. Net federal debt in fiscal 1968, just before Trudeau became Prime Minister, was about $18-billion, or 26 per cent of gross domestic product; by his final year in office, it had ballooned to $206-billion– at 46 per cent of GDP, nearly twice as large relative to the economy.
From the fiscal years 1976 to 1985 the government ran not only an overall deficit, but an operating deficit. The overall deficit throughout the latter phase never fell below 3 per cent of GDP; it averaged 5.6 percent. In the final year of Liberal rule, 1984–85, total spending exceeded revenues by more than 50 percent. The deficit that year, at $38.5 billion, was equal to nearly 9 per cent of GDP. Interest payments alone were now enough to consume nearly one-third of all revenues dollar. With interest costs compounding at a rate of 13 percent per year, the debt doubled every three or four years.[citation needed]
The post-Trudeau party in opposition[edit]
After Trudeau's retirement in 1984, many Liberals, such as Jean Chrétien and Clyde Wells, continued to adhere to Trudeau's concept of federalism. Others, such as John Turner, supported the failed Meech Lake and Charlottetown Constitutional Accords, which would have recognized Quebec as a "distinct society" and would have increased the powers of the provinces to the detriment of the federal government.
Trudeau stepped down as Prime Minister and party leader in 1984, as the Liberals were slipping in polls. At that year's leadership convention, Turner defeated Chrétien on the second ballot to become Prime Minister. Immediately, upon taking office, Turner called a snap election, citing favourable internal polls. However, party was hurt by numerous patronage appointments, many of which Turner had made supposedly in return for Trudeau retiring early. Also, they were unpopular in their traditional stronghold of Quebec due to the constitution repatriation which excluded that province. The Liberals lost power in the 1984 election, and were reduced to only 40 seats in the House of Commons. The Progressive Conservatives won a majority of the seats in every province, including Quebec. The 95-seat loss was the worst defeat in the party's history, and the worst defeat at the time for a governing party at the federal level. What was more, the New Democratic Party, successor to the CCF, won only ten less seats than the Liberals, and some thought that the NDP under Ed Broadbent would push the Liberals to third-party status.
The party began a long process of reconstruction. A small group of young Liberal MPs, known as the Rat Pack, gained fame by criticizing the Tory government of Brian Mulroney at every turn. Also, despite public and backroom attempts to remove Turner as leader, he managed to consolidate his leadership at the 1986 review.
The 1988 election was notable for Turner's strong opposition to the Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement negotiated by Progressive Conservative Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. Although most Canadians voted for parties opposed to free trade, the Tories were returned with a majority government, and implemented the deal. The Liberals recovered from their near-meltdown of 1984, however, winning 83 seats and ending much of the talk of being eclipsed by the NDP.
The party under Chrétien[edit]
Jean Chrétien
Turner resigned in 1990 due to growing discontent within the party with his leadership, and was replaced by bitter rival Jean Chrétien, who had served in every Liberal cabinet since 1965. Chrétien's Liberals campaigned in the 1993 election on the promise of renegotiating the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and eliminating the Goods and Services Tax (GST). Just after the writ was dropped for the election, they issued the Red Book, a detailed statement of exactly what the Liberals would do in office if they won power. This was unprecedented for a Canadian party. Taking full advantage of the inability of Mulroney's successor, Kim Campbell to overcome a large amount of antipathy toward Mulroney, they won a strong majority government with 177 seats—the third-best performance in party history, and their best since 1949. The Progressive Conservatives were cut down to only two seats, suffering a defeat even more severe than the one they had handed the Liberals nine years earlier. The Liberals were re-elected with a considerably reduced majority in 1997, but nearly tied their 1993 total in 2000.
For the next decade, the Liberals dominated Canadian politics in a fashion not seen since the early years of Confederation. This was because of the destruction of the "grand coalition" of Western socially conservative populists, Quebec nationalists, and fiscal conservatives from Ontario that had supported the Progressive Conservatives in 1984 and 1988. The PCs' Western support, for all practical purposes, transferred en masse to the Western-based Reform Party, which replaced the PCs as the major right-wing party in Canada. However, the new party's agenda was seen as too conservative for most Canadians. It only won one seat east of Manitoba in an election (but gained another in a floor-crossing). Even when Reform restructured into the Canadian Alliance, the party was virtually nonexistent east of Manitoba, winning only 66 seats in 2000. Reform/Alliance was the official opposition from 1997 to 2003, but was never able to overcome wide perceptions that it was merely a Western protest party. The Quebec nationalists who had once supported the Tories largely switched their support to the sovereigntist Bloc Québécois, while the Tories' support in Ontario and the Atlantic provinces largely moved to the Liberals. The PCs would never be a major force in Canadian politics again; while they rebounded to 20 seats in the next election, they won only two seats west of Quebec in the next decade.
Ontario and Quebec are guaranteed a majority of seats in the House of Commons under both Constitution Acts (59 percent of the seats). As a result, it is very difficult to form even a minority government without substantial support in Ontario and/or Quebec. It is mathematically impossible to form a majority government without winning the most seats in either Ontario or Quebec. While it is mathematically possible to form a minority government without a strong base in either province, but such an undertaking is politically difficult. The Liberals were the only party with a strong base in both provinces, thus making them the only party capable of forming a government.
There was some disappointment as Liberals were not able to recover their traditional dominant position in Quebec, despite being led by a Quebecer from a strongly nationalist region of Quebec. The Bloc capitalized on discontent with the failure of the 1990 Meech Lake Accord and Chrétien's uncompromising stance on federalism (see below) to win the most seats in Quebec in every election from 1993 onward, even serving as the official opposition from 1993 to 1997. Chrétien's reputation in his home province never recovered after the 1990 leadership convention when rival Paul Martin forced him to declare his opposition to the Meech Lake Accord. However, the Liberals did increase their support in the next two elections due to infighting within the Bloc. In the 1997 election, although the Liberals finished with a thin majority, it was their gains in Quebec which were credited with offsetting their losses in the Maritime provinces. In particular, the 2000 election was a breakthrough for the Liberals after the PQ government's unpopular initiatives regarding consolidation of several Quebec urban areas into "megacities." Many federal Liberals also took credit for Charest's provincial election victory over the PQ in spring 2003. A series of by-elections allowed the Liberals to gain a majority of Quebec ridings for the first time since 1984.
The Chrétien Liberals more than made up for their shortfall in Quebec by building a strong base in Ontario. They reaped a substantial windfall from the votes of fiscally conservative and socially liberal voters who had previously voted Tory, as well as rapid growth in the Greater Toronto Area. They were also able to take advantage of massive vote splitting between the Tories and Reform/Alliance in rural areas of the province that had traditionally formed the backbone of provincial Tory governments. Combined with their historic dominance of Metro Toronto and northern Ontario, the Liberals dominated the province's federal politics even as the Tories won landslide majorities at the provincial level. In 1993, for example, the Liberals won all but one seat in Ontario, and came within 123 votes in Simcoe Centre of pulling off the first clean sweep of Canada's most populated province. They were able to retain their position as the largest party in the House by winning all but two seats in Ontario in the 1997 election. The Liberals were assured of at least a minority government once the Ontario results came in, but it was not clear until later in the night that they would retain their majority. In 2000, the Liberals won all but three seats in Ontario.
While the Chrétien Liberals campaigned from the left, their time in power is most marked by the cuts made to many programs in order to balance the federal budget. Chrétien had supported the Charlottetown Accord while in opposition, but in power opposed major concessions to Quebec and other provincialist factions. In contrast to their promises during the 1993 campaign, they implemented only minor changes to NAFTA, embraced the free trade concept and– with the exception of the replacement of the GST with the Harmonized Sales Tax in some Atlantic provinces– broke their promise to replace the GST.
After a proposal for Quebec independence was narrowly defeated in the 1995 Quebec referendum, the Liberals passed the "Clarity Act" Clarity Act which outlines the federal government's preconditions for negotiating provincial independence. In Chrétien's final days, he supported same-sex marriage in Canada as well as decriminalizing the possession of small quantities of marijuana. Chrétien displeased the United States government when he pledged on March 17, 2003 that Canada would not support the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Polling released a month later[8] showed the decision was largely popular, with 62% in favour of the Prime Minister's decision, and 35% opposed. Later polls would increase that margin of support.[9][10]
Into the 21st century[edit]
Martin succeeds Chrétien[edit]
Paul and Sheila Martin with George and Laura Bush.
Paul Martin succeeded Chrétien as party leader and prime minister in 2003. Despite the personal rivalry between the two, Martin was the architect of the Liberals' economic policies as Minister of Finance during the 1990s. Chrétien left office with a high approval rating and Martin was expected to take the Liberals to greater heights. While his cabinet choices provoked some controversy over excluding many Chrétien supporters, it at first did little to hurt his popularity. However, the political situation changed with the revelation of the sponsorship scandal, in which advertising agencies supporting the Liberal Party received grossly inflated commissions for their services.
Having faced a divided conservative opposition for the past three elections, Liberals were seriously challenged by competition from the newly united Conservative Party led by Stephen Harper. The infighting between Martin and Chrétien's supporters also dogged the party. Nonetheless, by criticizing the Conservatives' social policies, the Liberals were able to draw progressive votes from the NDP which made the difference in several close races. On June 28, 2004 federal election, the Martin Liberals retained enough support to continue as the government, though they were reduced to a minority.
In the ensuing months, testimony from the Gomery Commission caused public opinion to turn sharply against the Liberals for the first time in over a decade. Despite the devastating revelations, only two Liberal MPs--David Kilgour (who had, ironically, crossed the floor from the PC Party in 1990) and Pat O'Brien—left the party for reasons other than the scandal. Belinda Stronach, who crossed the floor from the Conservatives to the Liberals, gave Martin the number of votes needed, although barely, to hold onto power when an NDP-sponsored amendment to his budget was passed only by the Speaker's tiebreaking vote on May 19, 2005.
In November, the Liberals dropped in polls following the release of the first Gomery Report. Nonetheless, Martin turned down the NDP's conditions for continued support, as well as rejected an opposition proposal which would schedule a February 2006 election in return for passing several pieces of legislation. The Liberals thus lost the no-confidence vote on November 28; Martin thus became only the fifth prime minister to lose the confidence of the House, but the first to lose on a straight no-confidence motion. Due to the Christmas holiday, Martin advised Governor General Michaëlle Jean to dissolve Parliament and call an election for January 2006.
The Liberal campaign was dogged from start to finish by the sponsorship scandal, which was brought up by a Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) criminal investigation into the leak of the income trust announcement. Numerous gaffes, contrasting with a smoothly run Conservative campaign, put Liberals as many as ten points behind the Conservatives in opinion polling. They managed to recover some of their momentum by election night, but not enough to retain power. They won 103 seats, a net loss of 30 from when the writs were dropped, losing a similar number of seats in Ontario and Quebec to the Tories. However, the Liberals managed to capture the most seats in Ontario for the fifth straight election (54 to the Tories' 40), holding the Conservatives to a minority government. While the Conservatives captured many of Ontario's rural ridings, the Liberals retained most of the population-rich Greater Toronto Area. Many of these ridings, particularly the 905 region, had historically been bellwethers (the Liberals were nearly shut out of this region in 1979 and 1984), but demographic changes have resulted in high Liberal returns in recent years.
Martin resigned as parliamentary leader after the election and stepped down as Liberal leader on March 18, having previously promised to step down if he didn't win a plurality.
In Opposition and 2006 convention[edit]
Stéphane Dion makes a speech on October 10, 2008 in Brampton West. Former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien was among notable Liberals at this rally; this was his first time campaigning for anyone since retirement.
Bill Graham was appointed interim party and parliamentary leader and the process to select a new party leader began. An unusually large number of prominent members such as Frank McKenna, Brian Tobin, Allan Rock and Belinda Stronach declined to run, yet at the same time many new faces stepped forward. There were eight people running for the leadership of the Liberal Party [11] at the time of the convention:
Martha Hall Findlay
Stéphane Dion
Michael Ignatieff
Gerard Kennedy
Bob Rae
Scott Brison
Ken Dryden
Joe Volpe
The Liberal Party reportedly felt they could quickly regain power, so they accelerated the leadership selection process.[12] While there were some predictions the party's National Executive would call the convention for as late as March 2007, it instead decided to announce the convention for the first weekend of December 2006.
On December 2 in Montreal, the Liberals voted for their new party leader. The first ballot results had Michael Ignatieff leading the pack with 30% of the delegates, Bob Rae second with 20%, and Stéphane Dion and Gerard Kennedy in third and fourth respectively with 16% of the votes each. The remaining contenders gathered less than 5% of the first ballot vote and Martha Hall Findlay was eliminated as she came in last on the first ballot, she endorsed Stéphane Dion for leader before voting began for the second ballot the next morning. Before voting began for the second ballot, Scott Brison and Joe Volpe voluntarily dropped out of the race, and both endorsed Bob Rae. The second ballot results showed Ignatieff again leading the way, with Rae in second, Dion in third, Kennedy in fourth, and Dryden in fifth. Dryden was thus eliminated, and he endorsed Bob Rae as well. Kennedy dropped out of the race and endorsed Stéphane Dion. Thus the third ballot came down to only Ignatieff, Rae and Dion. Dion jumped to first on the third ballot with Ignatieff and Rae falling to second and third respectively. Rae was eliminated, and Dion was elected leader over Ignatieff on the fourth ballot.
On May 11, 2006, Montreal's La Presse reported that the Government of Canada will file a lawsuit against the Liberal Party to recover all the money missing in the sponsorship program. Scott Brison told reporters that same day that the Liberals has already paid back the $1.14 million into the public purse, however the Conservatives believe that there is as much as $40 million unaccounted for in the sponsorship program.[13]
Michael Ignatieff, Leader (2008-2011)
On September 28, 2007, party national director Jamie Carroll, was criticized for comments he allegedly made in response to a suggestion that the Liberals should hire more francophone Quebecers to appeal to francophone voters. According to some persons present at a private meeting, Carroll said "Do we also have to hire people from the Chinese community to represent the Chinese community?". He later indicated that a statement he made was taken out of context. Several Quebec MPs and the president of the party's Quebec wing said that Carroll was quoted correctly, with Pablo Rodriguez and Liza Frulla demanding that he be fired. Dion affirmed Carroll's version of events, and rejected calls for his dismissal.[14][15][16][17] Carroll initially threatened to sue for defamation and demand 12 to 18 months of severance, though Dion later had him quietly reassigned to another position.[18]
British Columbia MP Blair Wilson was resigned from caucus and the shadow cabinet, after the Vancouver Province charged that he was involved in unlawful off-the-books cash spending, and that his private businesses had numerous discrepancies and unpaid debts. Wilson, who is being investigated, has denied the allegations.[19]
Majority under Trudeau[edit]
For much of its history, the Liberal Party has been referred to as "Canada's Natural Governing Party", due to the party's election success and a weak Conservative Opposition.[20] In the aftermath of the Liberal Party's poor performance in the 2011 federal election, there was speculation that the Conservative Party was in a position to replace the Liberals in that unofficial status[21] but the Liberal party won a majority government again in 2015.
Leaders of the Liberal Party since 1867[edit]
Start of Leadership
Leader
Date of Birth
Date of Death
Length of Leadership
1 July 1867 George Brown 29 November 1818 10 May 1880 2 months, 19 days (interim)1
20 September 1867 Vacant n/a n/a 2 years (approx)
1869 Edward Blake 13 October 1833 1 March 1912 2 years (approx) (interim)
1871 Vacant n/a n/a 2 years (approx)
6 March 1873 Alexander Mackenzie 28 January 1822 17 April 1892 7 years, 1 month
27 April 1880 Edward Blake 13 October 1833 1 March 1912 7 years, 1 month
23 June 1887 Sir Wilfrid Laurier 20 November 1841 17 February 1919 31 years, 8 months
17 February 1919 Daniel Duncan McKenzie 8 January 1859 8 June 1927 5 months, 3 weeks (interim)
7 August 1919 William Lyon Mackenzie King 17 December 1874 22 July 1950 29 years
7 August 1948 Louis St. Laurent 1 February 1882 25 July 1973 9 years, 5 months
16 January 1958 Lester B. Pearson 23 April 1897 28 December 1972 10 years, 3 months
6 April 1968 Pierre Elliott Trudeau 18 October 1919 28 September 2000 16 years, 2 months
16 June 1984 John Turner 7 June 1929 Living 6 years
6 February 1990 Herb Gray 25 May 1931 12 April 2014 4 months, 17 days2 (interim Parliamentary leader)
23 June 1990 Jean Chrétien 11 January 1934 Living 13 years, 5 months
14 November 2003 Paul Martin 28 August 1938 Living 2 years, 3 months
18 March 2006 Bill Graham 17 March 1939 Living 8 months, 2 weeks3 (interim)
2 December 2006 Stéphane Dion 28 September 1955 Living 2 years
10 December 2008 Michael Ignatieff 12 May 1947 Living 2 years, 5 months, 15 days
25 May 2011 Bob Rae 2 August 1948 Living 1 year, 10 months, 20 days(interim)
14 April 2013 Justin Trudeau 25 December 1971 Living Current Leader
Notes:
1 Brown was regarded by most Liberal candidates as their leader in the 1867 election but did not officially hold the title. Had he won a seat he would have almost certainly become Leader of the Opposition and had the Liberals won enough seats to form a government Brown would almost certainly have become Prime Minister. However, he failed in his bid for a seat in the House of Commons and the Liberals had no official leader until 1873.
2 Herb Gray served as Leader of the Opposition from February 6 until Chrétien was re-elected to Parliament, and took his seat on December 21, 1990. He led the Liberal Party in parliament, though he was never the leader or interim leader of the Liberal Party as a whole.
3 After the defeat of the Liberals by the Conservatives of Stephen Harper in the 2006 Canadian federal election, held on January 26, Paul Martin announced in the early hours of January 27, 2006 his intention to resign the leadership of the Liberal Party. Bill Graham was later selected as parliamentary leader by caucus, while Martin indicated he would remain nominal party leader. On March 18, 2006, Graham was appointed interim leader after Martin officially stepped down from the post.
The Liberal Party held its first leadership convention in 1919, electing William Lyon Mackenzie King as leader. Prior to that party leaders were chosen by caucus.
See also: Liberal Party of Canada leadership elections
Presidents of the Liberal Party since 1932[edit]
Beginning of Presidency
Name
Date of Birth
Date of Death
Length of Presidency
1932 Vincent Massey 20 February 1887 30 December 1967 3 years
1935 Norman Platt Lambert 7 January 1885 4 November 1965 5 years
1940 Inactive Presidency [2] 5 years
1945 Gordon Fogo 9 July 1896 6 July 1952 7 years
1952 Duncan Kenneth MacTavish 3 June 1899 15 November 1963 6 years
1958 ?
1968 Richard Stanbury 2 May 1932 Living 5 years
1973 Gildas Molgat 25 January 1927 28 February 2001 3 years
1976 Alasdair Graham 21 May 1929 Living 4 years
1980 Norman MacLeod Living 2 years
1982 Iona Campagnolo 18 October 1932 Living 4 years
1986 J. J. Michel Robert 29 January 1938 Living 4 years
1990 Don Johnston 26 June 1936 Living 4 years
1994 Dan Hays 24 April 1939 Living 4 years
1998 Stephen LeDrew 1953 Living 5 years
2003 Michael Eizenga 1956 Living 3 years
2006 Marie Poulin 21 June 1945 Living 2 years
2008 Doug Ferguson Living 1 year
March 2009 Alfred Apps Living
January 14, 2012 Mike Crawley Living 2 years
Election results[edit]
Election
# of candidates nominated
# of seats won
# of total votes
% of popular vote
result
1867
65 62 60,818 22.67% Cons. majority
1872
111 95 110,556 34.72% Cons. majority
1874
140
129
128,059
39.49%
majority government
1878
121 63 180,074 33.05% Cons. majority
1882
112 72 160,547 31.10% Cons. majority
1887
184 79 312,736 43.13% Cons. majority
1891
194 90 350,512 45.22% Cons. majority
1896
190
117
401,425
41.37%
majority government
1900
209
128
477,758
50.25%
majority government
1904
208
137
521,041
50.88%
majority government
1908
213
133
570,311
48.87%
majority government
1911
214 85 596,871 45.82% Cons. majority
1917*
213 82 729,756 38.80% coalition government
1921
204
118
1,285,998
41.15%
majority government
1925
216
100
1,252,684
39.74%
minority government
1926
189
114
1,294,072
42.74%
majority government
1930
226 90 1,716,798 44.03% Cons. majority
1935
245
173
1,967,839
44.68%
majority government
1940
242
179
2,365,979
51.32%
majority government
1945
236
117
2,086,545
39.78%
majority government
1949
259
190
2,878,097
49.15%
majority government
1953
263
169
2,743,013
48.62%
majority government
1957
265 105 2,703,687 40.91% PC minority
1958
265 49 2,444,909 33.50% PC majority
1962
264 100 2,862,001 37.17% PC minority
1963
265
128
3,276,995
41.52%
minority government
1965
265
131
3,099,521
40.18%
minority government
1968
263
155
3,686,801
47.53%
majority government
1972
263
109
3,717,804
38.42%
minority government
1974
264
141
4,102,853
43.15%
majority government
1979
282 114 4,595,319 40.11% PC minority
1980
282
147
4,855,425
44.40%
majority government
1984
282 40 3,516,486 28.02% PC majority
1988
294 83 4,205,072 31.92% PC majority
1993
295
177
5,598,775
41.24%
majority government
1997
301
155
4,994,377
38.46%
majority government
2000
301
172
5,251,961
40.85%
majority government
2004
308
135
4,951,107
36.7%
minority government
2006
308 103 4,477,217 30.09% Cons. minority
2008
308 76 3,629,990 26.24% Cons. minority
2011
308 34 2,783,175 18.91% Cons. majority
2015
338
184
6,930,136
39.47%
majority government
1953-1968 includes one Liberal-Labour Member of Parliament.
* In 1917, some Liberals ran under the Unionist banner, figures only count those who ran as "Laurier Liberals"
Further reading[edit]
Bickerton, James, and Alain G. Gagnon. Canadian Politics (5th ed. 2009), 415pp; university textbook
Bliss, Michael. Right Honourable Men: The Descent of Canadian Politics from Macdonald to Mulroney (1994), essays on Prime Ministers
Clarkson, Stephen. The Big Red Machine: How the Liberal Party Dominates Canadian Politics (2005)
Cohen, Andrew, J. L. Granatstein, eds. Trudeau's Shadow: the life and legacy of Pierre Elliott Trudeau (1999).
Gagnon, Alain G. and Brian Tanguay. Canadian Parties in Transition (3rd ed. 2007), 574pp; university textbook
Granatstein, J.L. Mackenzie King: His Life and World (1977).
Hillmer, Norman, and Steven Azzi. "Canada's Best Prime Ministers," Maclean's June 20, 2011 online
McCall, Christina; Stephen Clarkson. "Liberal Party". The Canadian Encyclopedia.
Neatby, H. Blair. Laurier and a Liberal Quebec: A Study in Political Management (1973)
Wallace, W.S. (1948). "History of the Liberal Party of Canada". The Encyclopedia of Canada. IV. Toronto: University Associates of Canada. pp. 75–76.
Whitaker, Reginald. The Government Party: Organizing and Financing the Liberal Party of Canada, 1930-1958 (1977)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Alain-G. Gagnon, and A. Brain Tanguay, Canadian Parties in Transition (3rd ed. 2007)
Jump up ^ Steve Patten, "The Evolution of the Canadian Party System". in Gagnon, and Tanguay, eds. Canadian Parties in Transition pp. 57-58
Jump up ^ Stephen Clarkson, The Big Red Machine: How the Liberal Party Dominates Canadian Politics (2005)
Jump up ^ Bernard Ostry, "Conservatives, Liberals, and Labour in the 1870s," Canadian Historical Review, June 1960, Vol. 41#2 pp 93-127
Jump up ^ Ian Ross Robertson, "Political Realignment in Pre-Confederation Prince Edward Island, 1863-1870," Acadiensis, Fall 1985, Vol. 15#1 pp 35-58
Jump up ^ K. M. McLaughlin, "W. S. Fielding and the Liberal Party in Nova Scotia, 1891-1896," Acadiensis, Spring 1974, Vol. 3#2 pp 65-79
Jump up ^ The Liberal Party of Canada
Jump up ^ (PDF) https://web.archive.org/web/20080414000929/http://www.queensu.ca/cora/polls/2003/April13-CBC-War_in_Iraq.pdf. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 14, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2008. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ [1] Archived April 14, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ (PDF) https://web.archive.org/web/20080414000931/http://www.queensu.ca/cora/polls/2003/July18-Iraq_mistake.pdf. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 14, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2008. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ http://www.Liberal.ca/leadership2006_candidate_e.aspx
Jump up ^ The Star. Toronto https://web.archive.org/web/20070311141916/http://www.thestar.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=thestar%2FLayout%2FArticle_Type1&c=Article&pubid=968163964505&cid=1139747045377&col=968705899037&call_page=TS_News&call_pageid=968332188492&call_pagepath=News%2FNews. Archived from the original on 2007-03-11. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ http://www.politicswatch.com/adscam-may11-2006.htm
Jump up ^ "Dion rejects calls for removal of party's director". CBC News. 28 September 2007. Archived from the original on December 8, 2008.
Jump up ^ The Globe and Mail. Toronto https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070928.wliberals28/BNStory/National/home. Missing or empty |title= (help)[dead link]
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-06-09. Retrieved 2008-10-14.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-10-14.
Jump up ^ "Liberals' national director alleges party defamed him". CBC News. 2 October 2007. Archived from the original on June 7, 2008.
Jump up ^ Elaine O'Connor (October 28, 2007). "West Vancouver-Sunshine coast MP has unpaid debts, allegations of improper campaign spending". The Province. Archived from the original on October 30, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-28.
Jump up ^ "CBC News In Depth". CBC News. 4 December 2006. Archived from the original on September 24, 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-31.
Jump up ^ http://www2.macleans.ca/2011/05/06/a-new-power-couple/
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Liberal_Party_of_Canada&oldid=852447223"
Categories:
Liberal Party of Canada
History by political party
Political history of Canada
History of organizations based in Canada
Hidden categories:
Pages with citations lacking titles
Pages with citations having bare URLs
Webarchive template wayback links
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from September 2013
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2014
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 29 July 2018, at 02:03 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

attrs: href title

value: p

value: input

attrs: type role id class style

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

value: label

attrs: class for

values: toctogglelabel toctogglecheckbox

value: span

attrs: class dir

values: toctitle ltr

value: li

values:
/wiki/Party_systems
mw-redirect
Party systems

values:
/wiki/Liberals_(Canada)
mw-redirect
Liberals (Canada)

values: Conservative Party of Canada (historical)

values:
/wiki/Progressives_(Canada)
mw-redirect
Progressives (Canada)

values:
/wiki/Social_Credit_Party_(Canada)
mw-redirect
Social Credit Party (Canada)

values:
/wiki/New_Democratic_Party_of_Canada
mw-redirect
New Democratic Party of Canada

values: Progressive Conservative Party of Canada

values:
/wiki/Sir_Wilfrid_Laurier
mw-redirect
Sir Wilfrid Laurier

values:
/wiki/Rebellions_of_1837
mw-redirect
Rebellions of 1837

values:
/wiki/Reform_Party_(pre-Confederation)
mw-redirect
Reform Party (pre-Confederation)

values:
/wiki/Parti_patriote
mw-redirect
Parti patriote

values: List of elections in the Province of Canada

values:
/wiki/Canadian_confederation
mw-redirect
Canadian confederation

values:
/wiki/Vote_of_no_confidence
mw-redirect
Vote of no confidence

values:
/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Nova_Scotia)
mw-redirect
Liberal Party (Nova Scotia)

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Conscription_crisis_of_1917
mw-redirect
Conscription crisis of 1917

values:
/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church
mw-redirect
Roman Catholic Church

values:
/wiki/North-West_Territories
mw-redirect
North-West Territories

values:
/wiki/Parliamentary_rump
mw-redirect
Parliamentary rump

values:
/wiki/King-Byng_Affair
mw-redirect
King-Byng Affair

values: Secretary of State for External Affairs (Canada)

values:
/wiki/Canadian_Navy
mw-redirect
Canadian Navy

values:
/wiki/Ambassador_(diplomacy)
mw-redirect
Ambassador (diplomacy)

values: Edit section: Liberals and the social safety net

values:
/wiki/Old_age_pension
mw-redirect
Old age pension

values:
/wiki/Official_bilingualism
mw-redirect
Official bilingualism

values:
/wiki/Official_Languages_Act_of_Canada
mw-redirect
Official Languages Act of Canada

values:
/wiki/Canadian_constitution
mw-redirect
Canadian constitution

values: History of the Quebec sovereignist movement

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2014)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: The post-Trudeau party in opposition

values:
/wiki/Clyde_K._Wells
mw-redirect
Clyde K. Wells

values:
/wiki/Canada-U.S._Free_Trade_Agreement
mw-redirect
Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement

values:
/wiki/Goods_and_Services_Tax_(Canada)
mw-redirect
Goods and Services Tax (Canada)

values:
/wiki/Drop_the_writ
mw-redirect
Drop the writ

values:
/wiki/Quebec_sovereigntism
mw-redirect
Quebec sovereigntism

values:
/wiki/Metro_Toronto
mw-redirect
Metro Toronto

values:
/wiki/Harmonized_Sales_Tax
mw-redirect
Harmonized Sales Tax

values:
/wiki/1995_Quebec_referendum
mw-redirect
1995 Quebec referendum

values:
/wiki/Strategic_voting
mw-redirect
Strategic voting

values:
/wiki/Area_code_905
mw-redirect
Area code 905

values: Edit section: In Opposition and 2006 convention

values:
/wiki/La_Presse_(Canada)
mw-redirect
La Presse (Canada)

values:
/wiki/Vancouver_Province
mw-redirect
Vancouver Province

values: Edit section: Leaders of the Liberal Party since 1867

values:
/wiki/Pierre_Elliott_Trudeau
mw-redirect
Pierre Elliott Trudeau

values: Liberal Party of Canada leadership election, 1919

values: Liberal Party of Canada leadership elections

values: Edit section: Presidents of the Liberal Party since 1932

values:
/wiki/Marie_Poulin
mw-redirect
Marie Poulin

values:
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

values:
wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter
text-align:center

values:
/wiki/Neatby,_H._Blair
mw-redirect
Neatby, H. Blair

values: Category:History of organizations based in Canada

values: Category:Pages with citations lacking titles

values: Category:Pages with citations having bare URLs

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from September 2013

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2014

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-History_of_the_Liberal_Party_of_Canada rootpage-History_of_the_Liberal_Party_of_Canada skin-vector action-view