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Monsoon of South Asia
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Theographical features of the Indian subcontinent]], along with associated atmospheric, oceanic, and geophysical factors, inluence the behavior of the monsoon. Because of its effect on agriculture, on flora and fauna, and on the climates of nations such as India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka — among other economic, social, and environmental effects — the monsoon is one of the most anticipated, tracked,[1] and studied weather phenomena in the region. It has a significant effect on the overall well-being of residents and has even been dubbed the "real finance minister of India".[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 Background
3 Changes of the Monsoon
3.1 Effect of geographical relief features
4 Features of monsoon rains
4.1 "Bursting"
4.2 Rain variability ("vagaries")
5 Ideal and normal monsoon rains
6 Theories for mechanism of monsoon
6.1 Traditional theory
6.1.1 Process of monsoon creation
6.2 Dynamic theory
6.2.1 Process of monsoon creation
6.3 Jet stream theory
6.3.1 Process of monsoon creation
7 Theories for "bursting"
7.1 Dynamic theory
7.2 Jet stream theory
8 Theories for monsoon variability
8.1 The jet stream effect
8.2 El Niño-Southern Oscillation effect
8.3 Indian Ocean dipole effect
8.3.1 Equatorial Indian Ocean oscillation
9 Impact of climate change on the monsoon
10 Monsoon rain prediction models
10.1 Seasonal Prediction of Indian Monsoon (SPIM)
10.2 Indian Meteorological Department model
11 Significance
11.1 Geographical (wettest spots on Earth)
11.2 Agricultural
11.3 Economic
11.4 Social
11.5 Travel
11.6 Environmental
12 See also
13 Notes
14 References
15 External links
Definition[edit]
The word monsoon (derived from the Arabic "mausam," meaning "season"), although generally defined as a system of winds characterized by a seasonal reversal of direction,[4] lacks a consistent, detailed definition. Some examples are:
The American Meteorological Society calls it a name for seasonal winds, first applied to the winds blowing over the Arabian Sea from the northeast for six months and from the southwest for six months.[4] The term has since been extended to similar winds in other parts of the world.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) describes a monsoon as a tropical and subtropical seasonal reversal in both surface winds and associated precipitation, caused by differential heating between a continental-scale land mass and the adjacent ocean.[5]
The Indian Meteorological Department defines it as the seasonal reversal of the direction of winds along the shores of the Indian Ocean, especially in the Arabian Sea, which blow from the southwest for half of the year and from the northeast for the other half.[6]
Colin Stokes Ramage, in Monsoon Meteorology, defines the monsoon as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation.[7]
Background[edit]
Observed initially by sailors in the Arabian Sea[8] traveling between Africa, India, and Southeast Asia, the monsoon can be categorized into two branches based on their spread over the subcontinent:
Arabian Sea branch
Bay of Bengal branch
Southwest monsoon clouds over Tamil Nadu.
Alternatively, it can be categorized into two segments based on the direction of rain-bearing winds:
Southwest (SW) monsoon
Northeast (NE) monsoon[Note 1]
Based on the time of year that these winds bring rain to India, the monsoon can also be categorized into two periods:
Summer monsoon (May to September)
Winter monsoon (October to November)
The complexity of the monsoon of South Asia is not completely understood, making it difficult to accurately predict the quantity, timing, and geographic distribution of the accompanying precipitation. These are the most monitored components of the monsoon, and they determine the water availability in India for any given year.[9]
Changes of the Monsoon[edit]
Main article: Monsoon § South Asian Monsoon
Monsoon over India
Monsoons typically occur in tropical areas.[10] One area that monsoons impact greatly is India.[10] In India monsoons create an entire season in which the winds reverse completely.[10]
Various atmospheric conditions influence the monsoon winds. The first condition is the differential heating and cooling of land and water. This creates low pressure on the landmass, while high pressure is created over the seas during daytime, but is reversed during the night time.
The second condition is the shift in the position of Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). In summer, the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of the equator moves over the Ganga plain creating a monsoon trough during the monsoon season.
The third condition is the presence of the high-pressure area that develops east of Madagascar. It is approximately at 20°S over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high-pressure area affects the Indian Monsoon.
The fourth condition develops during the summer. The Tibetan Plateau gets intensely heated resulting in strong vertical air currents and high pressure over the plateau about 9 km above sea level. The fifth condition develops during the summer due to the movement of the westerly jet streams to the north of the Himalayas and the presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian Peninsula.
Changes in pressure over the southern oceans also affect the monsoons. In certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions. This periodic change in pressure conditions is known as the Southern Oscillation, or SO.
The Southern Oscillation is connected to El Nino, which is a warm ocean current that flows past the Peruvian Coast. It flows every two to five years in place of the cold Peruvian current. The phenomenon is, referred to as ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillations). In India, the monsoon lasts for 100 to 120 days from early June and to mid-September. The monsoon winds encounter various atmospheric conditions on their way and hence are pulsating in nature, and not steady.
The monsoon arrives with a sudden downpour of rainfall that continues for several days. This is known as the ‘burst’ of the monsoon.
The rainfall is a result of the convergence of wind flow from the Bay of Bengal and reverse winds from the South China Sea.[11]
The onset of the monsoon occurs over the Bay of Bengal in May,[11] arriving at the Indian Peninsula by June,[10] and then the winds move towards the South China Sea.[11] By early September, the monsoon starts to withdraw or retreat and is a more gradual process. By mid-October, it withdraws completely from the northern half of the peninsula. The withdrawal takes place progressively from north to south from the first week of December to the first week of January. This is the start of the winter season.
The retreating monsoon winds move over the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, and collect moisture on the way. These monsoon winds reach the southern states of India by October, and are responsible for a second round of rainfall. These are called the winter monsoons. The winter monsoon is experienced in the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh in the first week of January.
Effect of geographical relief features[edit]
Although the southwest and northeast monsoon winds are seasonally reversible, they do not cause precipitation on their own.
Main article: Rain § Formation
Two factors are essential for rain formation:
Moisture-laden winds
Droplet formation
Additionally, one of the causes of rain must happen. In the case of the monsoon, the cause is primarily orographic, due to the presence of highlands in the path of the winds. Orographic barriers force wind to rise. Precipitation then occurs on the windward side of the highlands because of adiabatic cooling and condensation of the moist rising air.
Main article: Orographic lift
The unique geographic relief features of the Indian subcontinent come into play in allowing all of the above factors to occur simultaneously. The relevant features in explaining the monsoon mechanism are as follows:
The presence of abundant water bodies around the subcontinent: the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, and Indian Ocean. These help moisture accumulate in the winds during the hot season.
The presence of abundant highlands like the Western Ghats and the Himalayas right across the path of the southwest monsoon winds. These are the main cause of the substantial orographic precipitation throughout the subcontinent.[Note 2]
The Western Ghats are the first highlands of India that the southwest monsoon winds encounter.[Note 3] The Western Ghats rise abruptly from the Western Coastal Plains of the subcontinent, making effective orographic barriers for the monsoon winds.
The Himalayas play more than the role of orographic barriers for the monsoon. They also help confine it to the subcontinent. Without them, the southwest monsoon winds would blow right over the Indian subcontinent into Tibet, Afghanistan, and Russia without causing any rain.[Note 4]
For the northeast monsoon, the highlands of the Eastern Ghats play the role of orographic barrier.
Pink arrow: Southwest monsoon wind direction; green arrow: northeast monsoon wind direction.
Orographic precipitation.
Geographical features of the Indian subcontinent.
Daytime scene showing the pre-monsoon air over India.
Recent trends in average annual precipitation from monsoons.
Features of monsoon rains[edit]
There are some unique features of the rains that the monsoon brings to the Indian subcontinent.
"Bursting"[edit]
"Monsoon burst" over Mumbai.
Bursting of monsoon refers to the sudden change in weather conditions in India (typically from hot and dry weather to wet and humid weather during the southwest monsoon), characterized by an abrupt rise in the mean daily rainfall.[12][13] Similarly, the burst of the northeast monsoon refers to an abrupt increase in the mean daily rainfall over the affected regions.[14]
Rain variability ("vagaries")[edit]
One of the most commonly used words to describe the erratic nature of the monsoon is "vagaries," used in newspapers,[15] magazines,[16] books,[17] web portals[18] to insurance plans,[19] and India's budget discussions.[20] In some years, it rains too much, causing floods in parts of India; in others, it rains too little or not at all, causing droughts. In some years, the rain quantity is sufficient but its timing arbitrary. Sometimes, despite average annual rainfall, the daily distribution or geographic distribution of the rain is substantially skewed. In the recent past, rainfall variability in short time periods (about a week) were attributed to desert dust over the Arabian Sea and Western Asia.[21]
Ideal and normal monsoon rains[edit]
Annual average rainfall in India.
Normally, the southwest monsoon can be expected to "burst" onto the western coast of India (near Thiruvananthapuram) at the beginning of June and to cover the entire country by mid-July.[9][22][23] Its withdrawal from India typically starts at the beginning of September and finishes by the beginning of October.[24][25]
The northeast monsoon usually "bursts" around 20 October and lasts for about 50 days before withdrawing.[14]
However, a rainy monsoon is not necessarily a normal monsoon — that is, one that performs close to statistical averages calculated over a long period. A normal monsoon is generally accepted to be one involving close to the average quantity of precipitation over all the geographical locations under its influence (mean spatial distribution) and over the entire expected time period (mean temporal distribution). Additionally, the arrival date and the departure date of both the southwest and northeast monsoon should be close to the mean dates. The exact criteria for a normal monsoon are defined by the Indian Meteorological Department with calculations for the mean and standard deviation of each of these variables.[26]
A monsoon with excess rain can cause floods, and one with too little rain can lead to widespread drought, famine, and economic losses. Therefore, a normal monsoon with mean performance is the most desirable monsoon.
Theories for mechanism of monsoon[edit]
Theories of the mechanism of the monsoon primarily try to explain the reasons for the seasonal reversal of winds and the timing of their reversal.
Traditional theory[edit]
Main article: Sea breeze
Because of differences in the specific heat capacity of land and water, continents heat up faster than seas. Consequently, the air above coastal lands heats up faster than the air above seas. This creates areas of low air pressure above coastal lands compared with pressure over the seas, causing winds to flow from the seas onto the neighboring lands. This is known as sea breeze.
Process of monsoon creation[edit]
Main article: Monsoon § Process
A: sea breeze; B: land breeze.
Also known as the thermal theory or the differential heating of sea and land theory, the traditional theory portrays the monsoon as a large-scale sea breeze. It states that during the hot subtropical summers, the massive landmass of the Indian Peninsula heats up at a different rate than the surrounding seas, resulting in a pressure gradient from south to north. This causes the flow of moisture-laden winds from sea to land. On reaching land, these winds rise because of the geographical relief, cooling adiabatically and leading to orographic rains. This is the southwest monsoon. The reverse happens during the winter, when the land is colder than the sea, establishing a pressure gradient from land to sea. This causes the winds to blow over the Indian subcontinent toward the Indian Ocean in a northeasterly direction, causing the northeast monsoon. Because the southwest monsoon flows from sea to land, it carries more moisture, and therefore causes more rain, than the northeast monsoon. Only part of the northeast monsoon passing over the Bay of Bengal picks up moisture, causing rain in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu during the winter months.
However, many meteorologists argue that the monsoon is not a local phenomenon as explained by the traditional theory, but a general weather phenomenon along the entire tropical zone of Earth. This criticism does not deny the role of differential heating of sea and land in generating monsoon winds, but casts it as one of several factors rather than the only one.
Dynamic theory[edit]
The atmospheric circulation system with associated pressure belts and latitudes.
Main article: Prevailing winds
Main article: Atmospheric circulation
The prevailing winds of the atmospheric circulation arise because of the difference in pressure at various latitudes and act as means for distribution of thermal energy on the planet. This pressure difference is because of the differences in solar insolation received at different latitudes and the resulting uneven heating of the planet. Alternating belts of high pressure and low pressure develop along the equator, the two tropics, the Arctic and Antarctic circles, and the two polar regions, giving rise to the trade winds, the westerlies, and the polar easterlies. However, geophysical factors like Earth's orbit, its rotation, and its axial tilt cause these belts to shift gradually north and south, following the Sun's seasonal shifts.
Process of monsoon creation[edit]
The dynamic theory explains the monsoon on the basis of the annual shifts in the position of global belts of pressure and winds. According to this theory, the monsoon is a result of the shift of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) under the influence of the vertical sun. Though the mean position of the ITCZ is taken as the equator, it shifts north and south with the migration of the vertical sun toward the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn during the summer of the respective hemispheres (Northern and Southern Hemisphere). As such, during the northern summer (May and June), the ITCZ moves north, along with the vertical sun, toward the Tropic of Cancer. The ITCZ, as the zone of lowest pressure in the tropical region, is the target destination for the trade winds of both hemispheres. Consequently, with the ITCZ at the Tropic of Cancer, the southeast trade winds of the Southern Hemisphere have to cross the equator to reach it.[Note 5] However, because of the Coriolis effect (which causes winds in the Northern Hemisphere to turn right, whereas winds in the Southern Hemisphere turn left), these southeast trade winds are deflected east in the Northern Hemisphere, transforming into southwest trades.[Note 6] These pick up moisture while traveling from sea to land and cause orographic rain once they hit the highlands of the Indian Peninsula. This results in the southwest monsoon.
The dynamic theory explains the monsoon as a global weather phenomenon rather than just a local one. And when coupled with the traditional theory (based on the heating of sea and land), it enhances the explanation of the varying intensity of monsoon precipitation along the coastal regions with orographic barriers.
Jet stream theory[edit]
Main article: Jet stream
Jet streams of Earth
This theory tries to explain the establishment of the northeast and southwest monsoons, as well as unique features like "bursting" and variability.
The jet streams are systems of upper-air westerlies. They give rise to slowly moving upper-air waves, with 250-knot winds in some air streams. First observed by World War II pilots, they develop just below the tropopause over areas of steep pressure gradient on the surface. The main types are the polar jets, the subtropical westerly jets, and the less common tropical easterly jets. They follow the principle of geostrophic winds.[Note 7]
Process of monsoon creation[edit]
The Tibetan Plateau lies north of the Himalayas.
Over India, a subtropical westerly jet develops in the winter season and is replaced by the tropical easterly jet in the summer season. The high temperature during the summer over the Tibetan Plateau, as well as over Central Asia in general, is believed to be the critical factor leading to the formation of the tropical easterly jet over India.
The mechanism affecting the monsoon is that the westerly jet causes high pressure over northern parts of the subcontinent during the winter. This results in the north-to-south flow of the winds in the form of the northeast monsoon. With the northward shift of the vertical sun, this jet shifts north, too. The intense heat over the Tibetan Plateau, coupled with associated terrain features like the high altitude of the plateau, generate the tropical easterly jet over central India. This jet creates a low-pressure zone over the northern Indian plains, influencing the wind flow toward these plains and assisting the development of the southwest monsoon[clarification needed].
Theories for "bursting"[edit]
The "bursting"[12] of the monsoon is primarily explained by the jet stream theory and the dynamic theory.
Dynamic theory[edit]
According to this theory, during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere, the ITCZ shifts north, pulling the southwest monsoon winds onto the land from the sea. However, the huge landmass of the Himalayas restricts the low-pressure zone onto the Himalayas themselves. It is only when the Tibetan Plateau heats up significantly more than the Himalayas that the ITCZ abruptly and swiftly shifts north, leading to the bursting of monsoon rains over the Indian subcontinent. The reverse shift takes place for the northeast monsoon winds, leading to a second, minor burst of rainfall over the eastern Indian Peninsula during the Northern Hemisphere winter months.
Jet stream theory[edit]
According to this theory, the onset of the southwest monsoon is driven by the shift of the subtropical westerly jet north from over the plains of India toward the Tibetan Plateau. This shift is due to the intense heating of the plateau during the summer months. The northward shift is not a slow and gradual process, as expected for most changes in weather pattern. The primary cause is believed to be the height of the Himalayas. As the Tibetan Plateau heats up, the low pressure created over it pulls the westerly jet north. Because of the lofty Himalayas, the westerly jet's movement is inhibited. But with continuous dropping pressure, sufficient force is created for the movement of the westerly jet across the Himalayas after a significant period. As such, the shift of the jet is sudden and abrupt, causing the bursting of southwest monsoon rains onto the Indian plains. The reverse shift happens for the northeast monsoon.
Theories for monsoon variability[edit]
The jet stream effect[edit]
The jet stream theory also explains the variability in timing and strength of the monsoon.
Timing: A timely northward shift of the subtropical westerly jet at the beginning of summer is critical to the onset of the southwest monsoon over India. If the shift is delayed, so is the southwest monsoon. An early shift results in an early monsoon.
Strength: The strength of the southwest monsoon is determined by the strength of the easterly tropical jet over central India. A strong easterly tropical jet results in a strong southwest monsoon over central India, and a weak jet results in a weak monsoon.
El Niño-Southern Oscillation effect[edit]
Main article: El Niño-Southern Oscillation
Effects of El Niño on the weather of the subcontinent.
El Niño is a warm ocean current originating along the coast of Peru that replaces the usual cold Humboldt Current. The warm surface water moving toward the coast of Peru with El Niño is pushed west by the trade winds, thereby raising the temperature of the southern Pacific Ocean. The reverse condition is known as La Niña.
Southern oscillation, a phenomenon first observed by Sir Gilbert Thomas Walker, director general of observatories in India, refers to the seesaw relationship of atmospheric pressures between Tahiti and Darwin, Australia.[27] Walker noticed that when pressure was high in Tahiti, it was low in Darwin, and vice versa.[27] A Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), based on the pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin, has been formulated by the Bureau of Meteorology (Australia) to measure the strength of the oscillation.[28] Walker noticed that the quantity of rainfall in the Indian subcontinent was often negligible in years of high pressure over Darwin (and low pressure over Tahiti). Conversely, low pressure over Darwin bodes well for precipitation quantity in India. Thus, Walker established the relationship between southern oscillation and quantities of monsoon rains in India.[27]
Ultimately, the southern oscillation was found to be simply an atmospheric component of the El Niño/La Niña effect, which happens in the ocean.[27] Therefore, in the context of the monsoon, the two together came to be known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) effect. The effect is known to have a pronounced influence on the strength of the southwest monsoon over India, with the monsoon being weak (causing droughts) during El Niño years, while La Niña years bring particularly strong monsoons.[27]
Indian Ocean dipole effect[edit]
Main article: Indian Ocean Dipole
Although the ENSO effect was statistically effective in explaining several past droughts in India, in recent decades, its relationship with the Indian monsoon seemed to weaken.[29] For example, the strong ENSO of 1997 did not cause drought in India.[27] However, it was later discovered that, just like ENSO in the Pacific Ocean, a similar seesaw ocean-atmosphere system in the Indian Ocean was also in play. This system was discovered in 1999 and named the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD). An index to calculate it was also formulated. IOD develops in the equatorial region of the Indian Ocean from April to May and peaks in October.[27] With a positive IOD, winds over the Indian Ocean blow from east to west. This makes the Arabian Sea (the western Indian Ocean near the African coast) much warmer and the eastern Indian Ocean around Indonesia colder and drier.[27] In negative dipole years, the reverse happens, making Indonesia much warmer and rainier.
A positive IOD index often negates the effect of ENSO, resulting in increased monsoon rains in years such as 1983, 1994, and 1997.[27] Further, the two poles of the IOD — the eastern pole (around Indonesia) and the western pole (off the African coast) — independently and cumulatively affect the quantity of monsoon rains.[27]
Equatorial Indian Ocean oscillation[edit]
As with ENSO, the atmospheric component of the IOD was later discovered and the cumulative phenomenon named Equatorial Indian Ocean oscillation (EQUINOO).[27] When EQUINOO effects are factored in, certain failed forecasts, like the acute drought of 2002, can be further accounted for.[27] The relationship between extremes of the Indian summer monsoon rainfall, along with ENSO and EQUINOO,[30] have been studied, and models to better predict the quantity of monsoon rains have been statistically derived.[30]
Impact of climate change on the monsoon[edit]
Since 1950s, the South Asian summer monsoon underwent a gradual decline, with a reduction of up to 10% over central India.[31] This is primarily due to a weakening monsoon circulation as a result of the rapid warming in the Indian Ocean[32][33], and changes in land use and land cover[34]. Since the strength of the monsoon is partially dependent on the temperature difference between the ocean and the land, higher ocean temperatures in the Indian Ocean have weakened the moisture bearing winds from the ocean to the land. The reduction in the summer monsoon rainfall have grave consequences over central India because at least 60% of the agriculture in this region is still largely rain-fed.
A recent assessment of the monsoonal changes indicate that the land warming has increased during 2002-2014, possibly reviving the strength of the monsoon circulation and rainfall[35]. Future changes in the monsoon will depend on a competition between land and ocean—on which is warming faster than the other.
Meanwhile, there has been a three-fold rise in widespread extreme rainfall events during the years 1950 to 2015, over the entire central belt of India, leading to a steady rise in the number of flash floods with significant socioeconomic losses[36][37]. Widespread extreme rainfall events are those rainfall events which are larger than 150 mm/day and spread over a region large enough to cause floods.
Monsoon rain prediction models[edit]
Since the Great Famine of 1876–78 in India, various attempts have been made to predict monsoon rainfall.[38] At least five prediction models exist.[39]
Seasonal Prediction of Indian Monsoon (SPIM)[edit]
The Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (CDAC) at Bengaluru facilitated the Seasonal Prediction of Indian Monsoon (SPIM) experiment on the PARAM Padma supercomputing system.[40] This project involved simulated runs of historical data from 1985 to 2004 to try to establish the relationship of five atmospheric general circulation models with monsoon rainfall distribution.[39]
Indian Meteorological Department model[edit]
The department has tried to forecast the monsoon for India since 1884,[38] and is the only official agency entrusted with making public forecasts about the quantity, distribution, and timing of the monsoon rains. Its position as the sole authority on the monsoon was cemented in 2005[39] by the Department of Science and Technology (DST), New Delhi. In 2003, IMD substantially changed its forecast methodology, model,[41] and administration.[42] A sixteen-parameter monsoon forecasting model used since 1988 was replaced in 2003.[41] However, following the 2009 drought in India (worst since 1972),[43] The department decided in 2010 that it needed to develop an "indigenous model"[44] to further improve its prediction capabilities.
Significance[edit]
Western Ghats,Maharashtra on 28 May in dry season
Western Ghats,Maharashtra on 28 August in rainy season
The monsoon is the primary delivery mechanism for fresh water in the Indian subcontinent. As such, it affects the environment (and associated flora, fauna, and ecosystems), agriculture, society, hydro-power production, and geography of the subcontinent (like the availability of fresh water in water bodies and the underground water table), with all of these factors cumulatively contributing to the health of the economy of affected countries.
The monsoon turns large parts of India from semi-deserts into green grasslands. See photos taken only three months apart in the Western Ghats.
Geographical (wettest spots on Earth)[edit]
Mawsynram and Cherrapunji, both in the Indian state of Meghalaya, alternate as the wettest places on Earth given the quantity of their rainfall,[45] though there are other cities with similar claims. They receive more than 11,000 millimeters of rain each from the monsoon.
Agricultural[edit]
In India, which has historically had a primarily agrarian economy, the services sector recently overtook the farm sector in terms of GDP contribution. However, the agriculture sector still contributes 17-20% of GDP[46] and is the largest employer in the country, with about 60% of Indians dependent on it for employment and livelihood.[46] About 49% of India's land is agricultural; that number rises to 55% if associated wetlands, dryland farming areas, etc., are included. Because more than half of these farmlands are rain-fed, the monsoon is critical to food sufficiency and quality of life.
Despite progress in alternative forms of irrigation, agricultural dependence on the monsoon remains far from insignificant. Therefore, the agricultural calendar of India is governed by the monsoon. Any fluctuations in the time distribution, spatial distribution, or quantity of the monsoon rains may lead to floods or droughts, causing the agricultural sector to suffer. This has a cascading effect on the secondary economic sectors, the overall economy, food inflation, and therefore the general population's quality and cost of living.
Economic[edit]
The economic significance of the monsoon is aptly described by Pranab Mukherjee's remark that the monsoon is the "real finance minister of India".[2][3] A good monsoon results in better agricultural yields, which brings down prices of essential food commodities and reduces imports, thus reducing food inflation overall.[46] Better rains also result in increased hydroelectric production.[46] All of these factors have positive ripple effects throughout the economy of India.[46]
The down side however is that when monsoon rains are weak, crop production is low leading to higher food prices with limited supply.[47] As a result, the Indian government is actively working with farmers and the nation's meteorological department to produce more drought resistant crops.[47]
Social[edit]
D. Subbarao, former governor of the Reserve Bank of India, emphasized during a quarterly review of India's monetary policy that the lives of Indians depend on the performance of the monsoon.[48] His own career prospects, his emotional well-being, and the performance of his monetary policy are all "a hostage" to the monsoon, he said, as is the case for most Indians.[48] Additionally, farmers rendered jobless by failed monsoon rains tend to migrate to cities. This crowds city slums and aggravates the infrastructure and sustainability of city life.[49]
Travel[edit]
In the past, Indians usually refrained from traveling during monsoons for practical as well as religious reasons. But with the advent of globalization, such travel is gaining popularity. Places like Kerala and the Western Ghats get a large number of tourists, both local and foreigners, during the monsoon season. Kerala is one of the top destinations for tourists interested in Ayurvedic treatments and massage therapy. One major drawback of traveling during the monsoon is that most wildlife sanctuaries are closed. Also, some mountainous areas, especially in Himalayan regions, get cut off when roads are damaged by landslides and floods during heavy rains.[50]
Environmental[edit]
The monsoon is the primary bearer of fresh water to the area. The peninsular/Deccan rivers of India are mostly rain-fed and non-perennial in nature, depending primarily on the monsoon for water supply.[51] Most of the coastal rivers of Western India are also rain-fed and monsoon-dependent.[51][52] As such, the flora, fauna, and entire ecosystems of these areas rely heavily on the monsoon.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Weather portal
India portal
East Asian Monsoon
Monsoon (photographs) of India, 1960
Climate of India (section Monsoon)
Asian brown cloud
Tropical monsoon climate (section Factors)
Tibetan Plateau (section Role in monsoons)
Himalayas (section Impact on climate)
Indian Meteorological Department
Drought in India
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The name of the wind is based on the direction that it blows from. Southwest winds blow onto the land from the southwest. Northeast winds flow from the northeast toward the southwest, onto the land.
Jump up ^ The Aravalli Mountains also lie in the path of the southwest monsoon but do not result in much precipitation because they are in the direction of the path of the southwest winds and not across them, causing no orographic lift of the winds.
Jump up ^ Other major highlands, like the Cardamom Hills, Anaimalai Hills, and Nilgiri Mountains, that play active roles in the monsoon are considered major extensions of the Western Ghats and are thus not discussed separately.
Jump up ^ First, the Himalayas serve as orographic barriers to the southwest monsoon winds. Second, they help confine the winds to the subcontinent, hampering their northward progress. Third, they contribute to the convergence of the Bay of Bengal branch and Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoon winds, increasing the intensity of precipitation over the northern part of the subcontinent. Fourth, they are a major factor in the bursting of the monsoon under the jet stream theory. Fifth, they help determine the direction of the Bay of Bengal branch of the northeast monsoon. Their role is still a matter of active study, and understanding of them is evolving regularly.
Jump up ^ When the southeast trade winds cross the equator, they are perceived in the Northern Hemisphere as equatorial westerlies because they seem to blow from the equator toward the Tropic Of Cancer. Similarly, when the ITCZ is at the Tropic of Cancer, the northeast trade winds are confined to the area north of the Tropic of Cancer.
Jump up ^ Change of direction or origin of winds alters their nomenclature as noted above.
Jump up ^ Geostrophic winds blow parallel to the isobars and keep low-pressure zones to their left in the Northern Hemisphere and to their right in the Southern Hemisphere. The reversal is a result of the Coriolis effect.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Alexander Frater (1 May 2005). Chasing the Monsoon. Picador. ISBN 978-0-330-43313-6. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b News Service, Indo-Asian (31 May 2010). "India cheers as monsoon arrives; hopes of better farm output raised". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b IANS (1 June 2010). "India cheers as monsoon arrives in Kerala". Retrieved 2 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). "Monsoon". American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 22 March 2008. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
Jump up ^ "IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007, Glossary". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "IMD terminologies & glossary". Indian Meteorological Department. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Colin S. Ramage (1971). Monsoon meteorology. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-576650-0. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Helaine Selin, ed. (1997). Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures. Springer. pp. 766–. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Indian Meteorological Department". imd.gov.in. Archived from the original on 24 December 2010. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Class 9 CBSE Geography Climate The Mechanism of Monsoons - Wiki". www.learnnext.com. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c Zhang, Zuqiang; Chan, Johnny C. L.; Ding, Yihui (2004-10-01). "Characteristics, evolution and mechanisms of the summer monsoon onset over Southeast Asia". International Journal of Climatology. 24 (12): 1461–1482. Bibcode:2004IJCli..24.1461Z. doi:10.1002/joc.1082. ISSN 1097-0088.
^ Jump up to: a b Michael Allaby (2002). Encyclopedia of weather and climate. Infobase Publishing. pp. 373–. ISBN 978-0-8160-4801-4. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
Jump up ^ M. Hanif (1 January 2005). Encyclopaedia of Agricultural Geography. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. pp. 163–. ISBN 978-81-261-2482-4. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Bin Wang (2006). The Asian monsoon. Springer. pp. 188–. ISBN 978-3-540-40610-5. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Kasabe, Nanda Dabhole (23 July 1997). "Vagaries apart, monsoon is normal". the Indian Express. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Pratiyogita Darpan (October 2007). Pratiyogita Darpan. Pratiyogita Darpan. pp. 93–. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Krishnamacharyulu (1 September 2003). Cases In Rural Marketing: An Integrated Approach. Pearson Education India. pp. 106–. ISBN 978-81-317-0188-1. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Agronomic Measures in Dryland Agriculture: An Overview". India Water Portal. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Weather Insurance To Protect A Few". Financial Express. 16 July 2004. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Budget must focus on Growth, Food Inflation, FDI, Govt B/s: G Chokkalingam". myIris.com. 22 February 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Vinoj, V.; Rasch, Philip J.; Wang, Hailong; Yoon, Jin-Ho; Ma, Po-Lun; Landu, Kiranmayi; Singh, Balwinder. "Short-term modulation of Indian summer monsoon rainfall by West Asian dust". Nature Geoscience. 7 (4): 308–313. doi:10.1038/ngeo2107. Retrieved 20 April 2018. More than one of |website= and |journal= specified (help)
Jump up ^ "SW Monsoon Normal Onset Dates". Indian Meteorological Department. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Monsoon Onset dates on Map of India". Indian Meteorological Department. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "SW Monsoon Normal Withdrawal Dates". Indian Meteorological Department. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Monsoon withdrawal dates on Map of India". Indian Meteorological Department. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Met. Terminologies and Glossary - Monsoon". Indian Meteorological Department. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Gopal Raj, N (4 May 2004). "El Nino & the Indian Ocean Dipole". The Hindu. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Climate glossary - Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)". Bureau of Meteorology (Australia). 3 April 2007. Retrieved 4 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Kumar, K. K.; Balaji Rajagopalan; Mark A. Cane (25 June 1999). "On the Weakening Relationship Between the Indian Monsoon and ENSO". Science. 284 (5423): 2156–2159. doi:10.1126/science.284.5423.2156. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Gadgil, Sulochana; P. N. Vinayachandran; P. A. Francis (1 January 2004). "Extremes of the Indian summer monsoon rainfall, ENSO and equatorial Indian Ocean oscillation". Geophysical Research Letters. 31 (12). Bibcode:2004GeoRL..3112213G. doi:10.1029/2004GL019733. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Roxy, Mathew Koll; Ritika, Kapoor; Terray, Pascal; Murtugudde, Raghu; Ashok, Karumuri; Goswami, B. N. (2015-06-16). "Drying of Indian subcontinent by rapid Indian Ocean warming and a weakening land-sea thermal gradient". Nature Communications. 6: 7423. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6E7423R. doi:10.1038/ncomms8423. PMID 26077934.
Jump up ^ Roxy, Mathew Koll; Ritika, Kapoor; Terray, Pascal; Masson, Sébastien (2014-09-11). "The Curious Case of Indian Ocean Warming". Journal of Climate. 27 (22): 8501–8509. Bibcode:2014JCli...27.8501R. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00471.1. ISSN 0894-8755.
Jump up ^ "Warming Indian Ocean, weakening monsoon". India Climate Dialogue. 2015-06-16. Retrieved 2016-06-18.
Jump up ^ Paul, Supantha; Ghosh, Subimal; Oglesby, Robert; Pathak, Amey; Chandrasekharan, Anita; Ramsankaran, RAAJ (2016-08-24). "Weakening of Indian Summer Monsoon Rainfall due to Changes in Land Use Land Cover". Scientific Reports. 6 (1). Bibcode:2016NatSR...632177P. doi:10.1038/srep32177. ISSN 2045-2322.
Jump up ^ Roxy, Mathew Koll. "Land warming revives monsoon". Nature Climate Change. 7 (8): 549–550. Bibcode:2017NatCC...7..549R. doi:10.1038/nclimate3356.
Jump up ^ Roxy, M. K.; Ghosh, Subimal; Pathak, Amey; Athulya, R.; Mujumdar, Milind; Murtugudde, Raghu; Terray, Pascal; Rajeevan, M. (2017-10-03). "A threefold rise in widespread extreme rain events over central India". Nature Communications. 8 (1). Bibcode:2017NatCo...8..708R. doi:10.1038/s41467-017-00744-9. ISSN 2041-1723.
Jump up ^ Simpkins, Graham (2017-11-02). "Hydroclimate: Extreme rain in India". Nature Climate Change. 7 (11): 760–760. Bibcode:2017NatCC...7..760S. doi:10.1038/nclimate3429. ISSN 1758-6798.
^ Jump up to: a b "Introduction". Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, India. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gadgil, Sulochana; J. Srinivasan (10 February 2011). "Seasonal prediction of the Indian monsoon" (PDF). Current Science. 3. 100: 343–353. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Seasonal Prediction of Indian Monsoon(SPIM)". Centre for Development of Advanced Computing. Archived from the original on 2 March 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Rajeevapn, M.; D. S. Pai; S. K. Dikshit; R. R. Kelkar (10 February 2004). "IMD's new operational models for long-range forecast of southwest monsoon rainfall over India and their verification for 2003" (PDF). Current Science. 3. 86: 422–431. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
Jump up ^ BAGLA, PALLAVA (28 April 2003). "Man behind old monsoon model goes out quietly". Express India. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
Jump up ^ AFP (30 September 2009). "'Drought in India worst since 1972'". Times of India. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "India needs indigenous monsoon model for better prediction, says IMD chief". ExpressIndia. 10 June 2010. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Philip, A J (24 August 2003). "Cherrapunji no longer wettest Challenge comes from nearby village". The Tribune. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "How monsoon impacts the Indian economy". Rediff.com. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Monsoon affects economy, health in India". WORLD MONSOONS. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
^ Jump up to: a b IANS (27 July 2010). "All Indians 'chasing the monsoon'". Thaindia.com. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
Jump up ^ MITRA, SUBHANKAR (29 August 2009). "The monsoon effect". IndianExpress. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Traveling in India during monsoons".
^ Jump up to: a b "Rivers-Profile-Know India". India.gov.in. Archived from the original on 2011-02-04. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Indian Geography". IndiaBook.com. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
External links[edit]
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The Warehouse (New Orleans)
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The Warehouse, located at 1820 Tchoupitoulas Street, was the main venue for rock music in New Orleans in the 1970s.[1] Concert posters from the early 1970s printed the name as a warehouse. It was founded by the partners in Beaver Productions.[2]
The venue opened on January 30, 1970, with The Flock, Fleetwood Mac and the Grateful Dead. The Allman Brothers Band were regulars.
Rock history was made there. The members of the Grateful Dead were arrested on the venue's opening weekend for drug possession when police raided their hotel rooms. The incident was immortalized in the band's song "Truckin'," with the lines "busted down on Bourbon Street, set up like a bowling pin." On February 1, there was a "Bread for the Dead" concert to raise money for legal fees. The Flock could not stay but Fleetwood Mac and the Grateful Dead performed, and concluded with an almost 40-minute jam together on "Turn on Your Lovelight".
Jim Morrison's last concert, with the Doors, was at the Warehouse on December 12, 1970[1], including the only time "Riders on the Storm" was performed live. The opening band for The Doors show was an early version of Kansas (which is now known to fans as Kansas I.) ZZ Top's live recording of "Jailhouse Rock" at the Warehouse was included on the 1975 album, Fandango!
Talking Heads performed there on closing night, September 10, 1982. The Warehouse was finally demolished in April 1989.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Warehouse Concerts List-Documenting Warehouse concerts and memorabilia". blackstrat.net. Retrieved 2015-06-01.
Jump up ^ Kolb, Carolyn (March 2013). "New Orleans Impresarios Put on the Shows". New Orleans magazine. Retrieved 2016-05-19.
External links[edit]
"the web-site opening of the old Warehouse in New Orleans".
"Photo Session: Sidney Smith - As told to Brian Shupe - From Hittin’ the Note - Issue 50 2006".
"BLAKE PONTCHARTRAIN, Jim Morrison's last concert with the Doors".
"Audio: Grateful Dead- The Warehouse, New Orleans 1-31-70".
"BLAKE PONTCHARTRAIN, I know the Warehouse bar closed down, but does the building still exist?".
"A Brief History of New Orleans Rock".
"the web-site opening of the old Warehouse in New Orleans La".
Coordinates: 29°55′36″N 90°4′4″W / 29.92667°N 90.06778°W / 29.92667; -90.06778
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Warehouse_(New_Orleans)&oldid=762938760"
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Catholic Bible
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The Catholic Bible is the Bible comprising the whole 73-book canon recognized by the Catholic Church, including the deuterocanonical books.
Contents
[hide]
1 Books included
1.1 Old Testament
1.2 New Testament
2 Canon law
3 Principles of translation
4 Catholic English versions
5 Differences from Catholic lectionaries
6 Differences from other Christian Bibles
7 See also
8 References
Books included[edit]
See also: Old Testament § Content, and New Testament § Content
The Catholic Bible is composed of the 46 books of the Old Testament and the 27 books of the New Testament.
Old Testament[edit]
Pentateuch : Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy
Historical books : Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Tobit, Judith, Esther, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees
Wisdom books : Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Wisdom, Sirach
Prophetic books : Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Baruch, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi
Of these books, Tobit, Judith, 1 and 2 Maccabees, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, parts of Esther and parts of Daniel are deuterocanonical, and are found in the Bibles of Eastern Christianity. These books are usually not found in the Protestant Bible, but are sometimes included in a separate inter-testamental section called the "Apocrypha".
New Testament[edit]
The Gospels : Matthew, Mark, Luke, John
Historical book : Acts
Pauline Epistles : Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, Hebrews
General Epistles : James, 1 Peter, 2 Peter, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John, Jude
Revelation
Canon law[edit]
In another sense, a "Catholic Bible" is a Bible published in accordance with the prescriptions of Catholic canon law, which states:
Books of the sacred scriptures cannot be published unless the Apostolic See or the conference of bishops has approved them. For the publication of their translations into the vernacular, it is also required that they be approved by the same authority and provided with necessary and sufficient annotations.
With the permission of the Conference of Bishops, Catholic members of the Christian faithful in collaboration with separated brothers and sisters can prepare and publish translations of the sacred scriptures provided with appropriate annotations.[1]
Principles of translation[edit]
Without diminishing the authority of the texts of the books of Scripture in the original languages, the Council of Trent declared the Vulgate the official translation of the Bible for the Latin Church, but did not forbid the making of translations directly from the original languages.[2][3] Before the middle of the 20th century, Catholic translations were often made from that text rather than from the original languages. Thus Ronald Knox, the author of what has been called the Knox Bible, wrote: "When I talk about translating the Bible, I mean translating the Vulgate."[4] Today, the version of the Bible that is used in official documents in Latin is the Nova Vulgata, a revision of the Vulgate that among other changes makes it conform more closely to manuscripts in the original languages.
This does not mean keeping to any particular edition in the original language. Thus, in translating the Hebrew Bible, evidence from Qumran manuscripts and ancient versions in Greek, Aramaic or Syriac is sometimes used to adjust the Masoretic Text. The aim is to get as close as possible to what "was written by the inspired author himself and has more authority and greater weight than any, even the very best, translation whether ancient or modern".[5]
The principles expounded in Pope Pius XII's encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu regarding exegesis or interpretation, as in commentaries on the Bible, apply also to the preparation of a translation. These include the need for familiarity with the original languages and other cognate languages, the study of ancient codices and even papyrus fragments of the text and the application to them of textual criticism, "to insure that the sacred text be restored as perfectly as possible, be purified from the corruptions due to the carelessness of the copyists and be freed, as far as may be done, from glosses and omissions, from the interchange and repetition of words and from all other kinds of mistakes, which are wont to make their way gradually into writings handed down through many centuries".[6]
Catholic English versions[edit]
The following are English versions of the Bible that correspond to this description:
Abbreviation
Name
Date
DRB Douay-Rheims Bible 1582, 1609, 16101
DRC Douay-Rheims Bible Challoner Revision 1749-1752
WVSS Westminster Version of the Sacred Scripture[7] 1913–19352
SPC Spencer New Testament[8] 1941
CCD Confraternity Bible 19413
Knox Knox Bible 1950
KLNT Kleist–Lilly New Testament 19564
RSV–CE Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition 1965–66
JB Jerusalem Bible 1966
NAB New American Bible 1970
TLB–CE The Living Bible – Catholic Edition 1971
NJB New Jerusalem Bible 1985
CCB Christian Community Bible 1988
NRSV–CE New Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition 1989
GNT–CE Good News Bible Catholic Edition5 2001
RSV–2CE Revised Standard Version, Second Catholic Edition 2006
CTS–NCB CTS New Catholic Bible 20076
NABRE New American Bible Revised Edition 2011/1986 (OT/NT)
NLT-CE New Living Translation Catholic Edition[9] 2017
RNJB Revised New Jerusalem Bible[10] 2017
1The New Testament was published in 1582, the Old Testament in two volumes, one in 1609, the other in 1610.
2Released in parts between 1913–1935 with copious study and textual notes. The New Testament with condensed notes was released in 1936 as one volume.
3NT released in 1941. The OT contained material from the Challoner Revision until the entire OT was completed in 1969. This Old Testament became the basis for the 1970 NAB
4New Testament only; Gospels by James Kleist, rest by Joseph Lilly.
5Also known as the "Today's English Version"
6The Jerusalem Bible except for the Book of Psalms, which is replaced by the Grail Psalms, and with the word "Yahweh" altered to "the Lord", as directed by the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments for Bibles intended to be used in the liturgy.[11]
In addition to the above Catholic English Bibles, all of which have an imprimatur granted by a Catholic bishop, the authors of the Catholic Public Domain Version[12] of 2009 and the 2013 translation from the Septuagint by Jesuit priest Nicholas King[13] refer to them as Catholic Bibles. These versions have not been granted an imprimatur, but do include the Catholic biblical canon of 73 books.
Differences from Catholic lectionaries[edit]
Lectionaries for use in the liturgy differ somewhat in text from the Bible versions on which they are based. Many liturgies, including the Roman, omit some verses in the biblical readings that they use.[14] This sometimes necessitates grammatical alterations or the identification of a person or persons referred to in a remaining verse only by a pronoun, such as "he" or "they".
Another difference concerns the usage of the Tetragrammaton. Yahweh appears in some Bible translations such as the Jerusalem Bible (1966) throughout the Old Testament. Long-standing Jewish and Christian tradition holds that the name is not to be spoken in worship or printed in liturgical texts out of reverence.[11][15] A 2008 letter from the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments explicitly forbids the use of the Divine Name in worship texts, stating: "For the translation of the biblical text in modern languages, intended for the liturgical usage of the Church, what is already prescribed by n. 41 of the Instruction Liturgiam authenticam is to be followed; that is, the divine tetragrammaton is to be rendered by the equivalent of Adonai/Kyrios; Lord, Signore, Seigneur, Herr, Señor, etc."
As a result, Bibles used by English-speaking Catholics for study and devotion typically do not match the liturgical texts read during mass, even when based on the same translation. Today, publishers and translators alike are making new efforts to more precisely align the texts of the Lectionary with the various approved translations of the Catholic Bible.
Currently, there is only one lectionary reported to be in use corresponding exactly to an in-print Catholic Bible translation: the Ignatius Press lectionary based on the Revised Standard Version, Second Catholic (or Ignatius) Edition (RSV-2CE) approved for liturgical use in the Antilles[16] and by former Anglicans in the personal ordinariates.[17]
In 2007 the Catholic Truth Society published the "CTS New Catholic Bible," consisting of the original 1966 Jerusalem Bible text revised to match its use in lectionaries throughout most English-speaking countries, in conformity with the directives of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments[11][15] and the Pontifical Biblical Commission.[18] In it, "Yahweh" has been replaced by "the LORD" throughout the Old Testament, and the Psalms have been completely replaced by the 1963 Grail Psalter.
In 2012, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops "announced a plan to revise the New Testament of the New American Bible Revised Edition so a single version can be used for individual prayer, catechesis and liturgy" in the United States.[19] After developing a plan and budget for the revision project, work began in 2013 with the creation of an editorial board made up of five people from the Catholic Biblical Association (CBA). The revision is now underway and, after the necessary approvals from the bishops and the Vatican, is expected to be done around the year 2025.[20]
Differences from other Christian Bibles[edit]
Bibles used by Catholics differ in the number and order of books from those typically found in bibles used by Protestants, as Catholic bibles remained unchanged following the Reformation and so retain seven books that were rejected principally by Martin Luther. Its canon of Old Testament texts is somewhat larger than that in translations used by Protestants, which are typically based exclusively on the shorter Hebrew and Aramaic Masoretic Text. On the other hand, its canon, which does not accept all the books that are included in the Septuagint,[21] is shorter than that of some churches of Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy, which recognize other books as sacred scripture.
The Greek Orthodox Church generally considers Psalm 151 to be part of the Book of Psalms and accepts the "books of the Maccabees" as four in number, but generally places 4 Maccabees in an appendix, along with the Prayer of Manasseh.[22] There are differences from Western usage in the naming of some books (see, for instance, Esdras#Differences in names). Greek Orthodox generally consider the Septuagint to be divinely inspired no less than the Hebrew text of the Old Testament books.
The Bible of the Tewahedo Churches differs from the Western and Greek Orthodox Bibles in the order, naming, and chapter/verse division of some of the books. The Ethiopian "narrow" biblical canon includes 81 books altogether: The 27 books of the New Testament; the Old Testament books found in the Septuagint and that are accepted by the Eastern Orthodox (more numerous than the Catholic deuterocanonical books);[23] and in addition Enoch, Jubilees, 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras, Rest of the Words of Baruch and 3 books of Meqabyan (Ethiopian books of Maccabees entirely different in content from the 4 Books of Maccabees of the Eastern Orthodox). A "broader" Ethiopian New Testament canon includes 4 books of "Sinodos" (church practices), 2 "Books of Covenant", "Ethiopic Clement", and "Ethiopic Didascalia" (Apostolic Church-Ordinances). This "broader" canon is sometimes said to include with the Old Testament an 8-part history of the Jews based on the writings of Titus Flavius Josephus, and known as "Pseudo-Josephus" or "Joseph ben Gurion" (Yosēf walda Koryon).[24][25]
See also[edit]
Biblical canon
Christian biblical canons
Council of Trent
Divino afflante Spiritu
Second Vatican Council
Dei verbum
Liturgiam authenticam
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith
Pontifical Biblical Commission
International Commission on English in the Liturgy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Code of Canon Law, canon 825 Archived February 28, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Pope Pius XII. "Divino afflante Spiritu, 20–22". Holy See. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Akin, James. "Uncomfortable Facts About The Douay-Rheims". CatholicCulture.org. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Knox, Ronald Arbuthnott (1949). On Englishing the Bible. Burns, Oates. p. 1.
Jump up ^ Divino afflante Spiritu, 16
Jump up ^ Divino afflante Spiritu, 17
Jump up ^ http://bibles.wikidot.com/westminster
Jump up ^ http://bibles.wikidot.com/spencer
Jump up ^ http://c-b-f.org/component/k2/item/76-launch-of-the-new-living-translation-catholic-edition:
Jump up ^ http://dltbooks.com/titles/2220-9780232533613-rnjb-new-testament-and-psalms
^ Jump up to: a b c Arinze, Francis; Ranjith, Malcolm. "Letter to the Bishops Conferences on The Name of God". Bible Research: Internet Resources for Students of Scripture. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Catholic Public Domain Version
Jump up ^ http://www.nicholas-king.co.uk/
Jump up ^ Booneau, Normand (1998). The Sunday Lectionary. Liturgical Press. pp. 50–±51. ISBN 9780814624579. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Gilligan, Michael. "Use of Yahweh in Church Songs". American Catholic Press. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
Jump up ^ McNamara, Edward. "Which English Translation to Use Abroad". Eternal Word Television Network. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Burnham, Andrew. "The Liturgy of the Ordinariates: Ordinary, Extraordinary, or Tertium Quid? [PDF]" (PDF). Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of Walsingham. Retrieved 16 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Roxanne King (October 15, 2008). "No ‘Yahweh’ in liturgies is no problem for the archdiocese, officials say" (PDF). Denver Catholic Register. Archdiocese of Denver. Retrieved November 25, 2014. [dead link]
Jump up ^ Bauman, MIchelle. "New American Bible to be revised into single translation". Catholic News Agency. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "NAB New Testament Revision Project". Catholic Biblical Association of America. Retrieved 21 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Pietersma, Albert; Wright, Benjamin G. (2007). A New English Translation of the Septuagint. Oxford University Press. pp. v–vi. ISBN 9780199743971. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
Jump up ^ McDonald and Sanders' The Canon Debate, Appendix C: Lists and Catalogs of Old Testament Collections, Table C-4: Current Canons of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, page 589=590.
Jump up ^ See Deuterocanonical books#Eastern Orthodoxy
Jump up ^ Ethiopian Canon, Islamic Awareness.
Jump up ^ "Fathers". Christian Classics Ethereal Library (CCEL).
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Tami Roman
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Tami Roman
Born
Tamisha Akbar
(1970-04-17) April 17, 1970 (age 47)
Mount Vernon, New York, U.S.
Nationality
American
Occupation
Television personality
model
actress
Years active
1992–present
Known for
Basketball Wives
(2010–2013); (2017-present)
Basketball Wives LA
(2015–2016)
The Real World: Los Angeles
(1992–1993)
Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars
(2015)
Spouse(s)
Kenny Anderson
(m. 1994; div. 2001)
Partner(s)
Reggie Youngblood
(2014–present)
Children
2
Website
officialtamiroman.com
Tamisha Akbar (born April 17, 1970), better known as Tami Roman is an American television personality, model, businesswoman and actress. Roman first gained fame on The Real World: Los Angeles, the second season of MTV's long-running reality television series, The Real World in 1993.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Biography
2 Filmography
2.1 Television
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Biography[edit]
Born Tamisha Akbar in Mount Vernon, New York to an African American mother and Puerto Rican father, Roman was raised as an only child in White Plains, New York Tami Roman: In 1993, she was cast on the second season of MTV's hit reality show The Real World, titled The Real World: Los Angeles. During the season, she was the first and most notable to have an abortion on reality television. Roman gained more fame as she appeared as the dealer on the 2001 revival of Card Sharks, and on several other shows, including an episode of One on One (Season 3, Episode 4). She was one of the five main cast members in the VH1 reality series Basketball Wives, which premiered in 2010.
Also, Roman was cast on the Basketball Wives spinoff Basketball Wives LA, starting with the fourth season in 2015. Roman appeared on two episodes of the CBS show, Extant. Roman can also be heard on Tami Roman's Love Talk & Hot Jamz with advice columnist and rapper Willie D of the Geto Boys and Reggie Youngblood. The show airs Monday thru Friday from 8-10pm Central time on Houston's KCOH Radio. Tami and her boyfriend Reggie Youngblood appeared on Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars for its 3rd season which premiered May 29, 2015. Roman is currently working on her hair and cosmetic lines.[2]
Roman was once married to NBA basketball player Kenny Anderson.[3] The marriage produced 2 children. [4]
Filmography[edit]
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1992–1993 The Real World: Los Angeles Cast member
1993 Married... with Children Meg 1 episode
1994 Silk Stalkings Dina 1 episode
1995 The Real World Vacations: Behind the Scenes Herself
The Real World Reunion Herself
1996 Lauren Hutton and... Herself
The Real World Reunion: Inside Out Video documentary
1997 The Real World You Never Saw Video documentary
1998 The Real World You Never Saw: Boston + Seattle Video documentary
2000 The Parkers Dena 1 episode
2001 Card Sharks Dealer
20/20 Herself 1 episode
The Steve Harvey Show Bernadette 1 episode
Sacred is the Flesh May
2002 The Drew Carey Show Susan 1 episode
2003 One on One Elizabeth 1 episode
Sabrina the Teenage Witch Saleslady #1 1 episode
2004 Hair Show Zora
Half & Half Spice 1 episode
JAG Beauty Tech 1 episode
2006 The Last Stand DeDe Calvin
2008 Moonlight Maureen "Mo" Williams 8 episodes
2010–2013; 2017–present Basketball Wives Cast member
2014 Extant Cass Hendry
2015 Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars Herself 12 episodes
Celebrity Wife Swap Herself 2 episodes
2015–16 Basketball Wives LA Cast member
2017 Wild 'n Out Special guest
2017 Tales Silk 1 episode
See also[edit]
List of Puerto Ricans
References[edit]
Jump up ^ TELEVISION : A 'Real World' of Difference : Life has changed for seven young adults who took up residence in a $2-million Venice house for six months in a soap-opera documentary series conceived and aired by MTV: Everyone knows their names
Jump up ^ Tami Roman to Release Cosmetics Line
Jump up ^ http://historylocker.com/23-nba-players-that-lost-everything/15/?a=true
Jump up ^ https://www.therichest.com/celebnetworth/celeb/tv-personality/tami-roman-net-worth/
External links[edit]
Tami Roman on IMDb
Tami Roman Twitter
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tami_Roman&oldid=823248465"
Categories:
American television personalities
1970 births
Living people
Participants in American reality television series
The Real World cast members
People from Mount Vernon, New York
People from White Plains, New York
Actresses from New York (state)
Female models from New York (state)
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This page was last edited on 31 January 2018, at 03:06.
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