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Brazilian cuisine
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Brazilian cuisine is the set of cooking practices and traditions of Brazil, and is characterized by African, Amerindian, Asian (mostly japanese) and European influences.[1] It varies greatly by region, reflecting the country's mix of native and immigrant populations, and its continental size as well. This has created a national cuisine marked by the preservation of regional differences.[2]
Ingredients first used by native peoples in Brazil include cassava, guaraná, açaí, cumaru, cashew and tucupi. From there, the many waves of immigrants brought some of their typical dishes, replacing missing ingredients with local equivalents. For instance, the European immigrants (primarily from Portugal, Italy, Spain, Germany, Poland and Switzerland) were accustomed to a wheat-based diet, and introduced wine, leafy vegetables, and dairy products into Brazilian cuisine. When potatoes were not available they discovered how to use the native sweet manioc as a replacement.[3] Enslaved Africans also had a role in developing Brazilian cuisine, especially in the coastal states. The foreign influence extended to later migratory waves – Japanese immigrants brought most of the food items that Brazilians would associate with Asian cuisine today,[4] and introduced large-scale aviaries, well into the 20th century.[5]
Root vegetables such as cassava (locally known as mandioca, aipim or macaxeira, among other names), yams, and fruit like açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, guava, orange, passion fruit, pineapple, and hog plum are among the local ingredients used in cooking.
Some typical dishes are feijoada, considered the country's national dish;[6] and regional foods such as beiju (pt), feijão tropeiro (pt), vatapá, moqueca, polenta (from Italian cuisine) and acarajé (from African cuisine).[7] There is also caruru, which consists of okra, onion, dried shrimp, and toasted nuts (peanuts or cashews), cooked with palm oil until a spread-like consistency is reached; moqueca capixaba, consisting of slow-cooked fish, tomato, onions and garlic, topped with cilantro; and linguiça, a mildly spicy sausage.
The national beverage is coffee, while cachaça is Brazil's native liquor. Cachaça is distilled from sugar cane and is the main ingredient in the national cocktail, caipirinha.
Cheese buns (pães-de-queijo), and salgadinhos such as pastéis, coxinhas, risólis (from pierogy of Polish cuisine) and kibbeh (from Arabic cuisine) are common finger food items, while cuscuz branco (milled tapioca) is a popular dessert.
Contents
1 Regional cuisines
1.1 Southeast Brazil's cuisine
1.2 North Brazil's cuisine
1.3 Center-West Brazil's cuisine
1.4 Northeast Brazil's cuisine
1.5 Southern Brazil's cuisine
2 Popular dishes
3 Drinks
4 Typical and popular desserts
4.1 Typical cakes (Bolos)
4.2 Other popular and traditional desserts
5 Daily meals
6 Restaurant styles
7 Vegetarian
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Regional cuisines[edit]
There is not an exact single "national Brazilian cuisine", but there is an assortment of various regional traditions and typical dishes. This diversity is linked to the origins of the people inhabiting each dam.
For instance, the culinary in Bahia is heavily influenced by a mix of African, Indigenous and Portuguese cuisines. Chili (including chili sauces) and palm oil are very common. But in the Northern states, due to the abundance of forest and freshwater rivers, fish and cassava are staple foods. In the deep south like Rio Grande do Sul, the influence shifts more towards gaúcho traditions shared with its neighbors Argentina and Uruguay, with many meat based products, due to this region livestock based economy – the churrasco, a kind of barbecue, is a local tradition.
Southeast Brazil's cuisine[edit]
Feijoada (left) and Pastel (right)
Pão de queijo, coffee and a little bottle of cachaça.
Moqueca from Espírito Santo State. There are two versions of Moqueca Recipe Dish inside Brazil: The Moqueca Capixaba and The Moqueca Baiana. The Capixaba Moqueca is a dish made with no palm oil, bell pepper or coconut milk in its ingredients, and the replacement for these ingredients left are: using of Annatto Spice and Sweet Olive oil Sauce with fresh Tomato and its found in the Brazilian Espírito Santo State, and Moqueca Baiana version is found in Brazilian State of Bahia
Stuffed Blue Crab Shells known as Casquinha de Siri being enjoyed in one of a Rio de Janeiro City's restaurant, in the West Zone of Rio de Janeiro City.
Cooked Crab
Cooked Crab with Tomato Sauce, being enjoyed in a restaurant in Rio de Janeiro
Frango à Passarinho or Chicken Bird Dish being enjoyed in a restaurant in the south of Brazilian State of Minas.
In Rio, São Paulo, Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais, the Brazilian Feijoada (a black bean and meat stew rooted, recipe registered for the first time in Recife, state of Pernambuco) is popular especially as a Wednesday or Saturday lunch. Also consumed frequently is picadinho (literally, diced meat) or rice and beans.[8][9]
In Rio de Janeiro, besides the feijoada, a popular plate is any variation of grilled bovine fillet, rice and beans, farofa and French fries, commonly called Filé à Osvaldo Aranha. Seafood is very popular in coastal areas, as is roasted chicken (galeto). The strong Portuguese heritage also endowed the city with a taste for bolinhos de bacalhau (fried cod balls), being one of the most common street foods there.
In São Paulo, a typical dish is virado à paulista, made with rice, tutu de feijão, sauteed kale, and pork. São Paulo is also the home of pastel, a food consisting of thin pastry envelopes wrapped around assorted fillings, then deep fried in vegetable oil. It is a common belief that they originated when Japanese immigrants adapted the recipe of fried spring rolls to sell as snacks at weekly street markets.
In Minas Gerais, the regional dishes include corn, pork, beans, chicken (including the very typical dish frango com quiabo, or chicken with okra), tutu de feijão (paste of beans and cassava flour), and local soft ripened traditional cheeses.
In Espírito Santo, there is significant Italian and German influence in local dishes, both savory and sweet.[citation needed] The state dish, though, is of Amerindian origin,[citation needed] called moqueca capixaba which is a tomato and fish stew prepared in a Panela de Barro(clay pot). Amerindian and Italian cuisine are the two main pillars of Capixaba cuisine. Seafood dishes in general are very popular in Espírito Santo but unlike other Amerindian dishes the use of olive oil is almost mandatory. Bobó de camarão, Torta Capixaba, Polenta are also very popular.
North Brazil's cuisine[edit]
The cuisine of this region, which includes the states of Acre, Amazonas, Amapá, Pará, Rondônia, Roraima, and Tocantins, is heavily influenced by indigenous cuisine. In the state of Pará, there are several typical dishes including:
Pato no tucupi (duck in tucupi) – one of the most famous dishes from Pará. It is associated to the Círio de Nazaré, a great local Roman Catholic celebration. The dish is made with tucupi (yellow broth extracted from cassava, after the fermentation process of the broth remained after the starch had been taken off, from the raw ground manioc root, pressed by a cloth, with some water; if added maniva, the manioc ground up external part, that is poisonous because of the cyanic acid, and so must be cooked for several days). The duck, after cooking, is cut into pieces and boiled in tucupi, where is the sauce for some time. The jambu is boiled in water with salt, drained and put on the duck. It is served with white rice and manioc flour and corn tortillas
Center-West Brazil's cuisine[edit]
In the state of Goiás, the pequi is used in a lot of typical foods, specially the "arroz com pequi" (rice cooked with pequi), and in snacks, mostly as a filling for pastel. Also, a mixture of chicken and rice known as galinhada is very popular.
Northeast Brazil's cuisine[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2010)
Vatapá
Bobó de camarão.
The Brazilian Northeastern cuisine is heavily influenced by African cuisine from the coastal areas of Pernambuco to Bahia, as well as the eating habits of indigenous populations that lived in the region.
The vatapá is a Brazilian dish made from bread, shrimp, coconut milk, finely ground peanuts and palm oil mashed into a creamy paste.
The Bobó de camarão is a dish made with cassava and shrimp (camarão).
The acarajé is a dish made from peeled black-eyed peas formed into a ball and then deep-fried in dendê (palm oil). Often sold as street food, it is served split in half and then stuffed with vatapá and caruru.[10] Acarajé is typically available outside of the state of Bahia as well, including the markets of Rio de Janeiro.
In other areas, more to the west or away from the coast, the plates are most reminiscent of the indigenous cuisine, with many vegetables being cultivated in the area since before the arrival of the Portuguese. Examples include baião de dois, made with rice and beans, dried meat, butter, queijo coalho and other ingredients. Jaggery is also heavily identified with the Northeast, as it is carne-de-sol, paçoca de pilão, and bolo de rolo.
Tapioca flatbreads or pancakes are also commonly served for breakfast in some states, with a filling of either coconut, cheese or condensed milk, butter, and certain meats. They can also be filled with dessert toppings as well.
Southern Brazil's cuisine[edit]
In Southern Brazil, due to the long tradition in livestock production and the heavy German immigration, red meat is the basis of the local cuisine.[11]
Besides many of the pasta, sausage and dessert dishes common to continental Europe, churrasco is the term for a barbecue (similar to the Argentine, Uruguayan, Paraguayan and Chilean asado) which originated in southern Brazil. It contains a variety of meats which may be cooked on a purpose-built "churrasqueira", a barbecue grill, often with supports for spits or skewers. Portable "churrasqueiras" are similar to those used to prepare the Argentine, Chilean, Paraguayan and Uruguayan asado, with a grill support, but many Brazilian "churrasqueiras" do not have grills, only the skewers above the embers. The meat may alternatively be cooked on large metal or wood skewers resting on a support or stuck into the ground and roasted with the embers of charcoal (wood may also be used, especially in the State of Rio Grande do Sul).
Since gaúchos were nomadic and lived off the land, they had no way of preserving food, the gauchos would gather together after butchering a cow, and skewer and cook the large portions of meat immediately over a wood burning fire. The slow-cooked meat basted in its own juices and resulted in tender, flavorful steaks. This style would carry on to inspire many contemporary churrascaria which emulate the cooking style where waiters bring large cuts of roasted meat to diners' tables and carve portions to order.[12]
The chimarrão is the regional beverage, often associated with the gaúcho image.
Popular dishes[edit]
Coxinha is a popular Brazilian snack.
Brazilian cheese.
Rice and beans is an extremely popular dish, considered basic at table; a tradition Brazil shares with several Caribbean nations. Brazilian rice and beans usually are cooked utilizing either lard or the nowadays more common edible vegetable fats and oils, in a variation of the Mediterranean sofrito locally called refogado which usually includes garlic in both recipes.
In variation to rice and beans, Brazilians usually eat pasta (including spaghetti, lasagne, yakisoba, lamen, and bīfun), pasta salad, various dishes using either potato or manioc, and polenta as substitutions for rice, as well as salads, dumplings or soups of green peas, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, broad beans, butter beans, soybeans, lentils, moyashi (which came to Brazil due to the Japanese tradition of eating its sprouts), azuki, and other legumes in substitution for the common beans cultivated in South America since Pre-Columbian times. It is more common to eat substitutions for daily rice and beans in festivities such as Christmas and New Year's Eve (the tradition is lentils), as follow-up of churrasco (mainly potato salad/carrot salad, called maionese, due to the widespread use of both industrial and home-made mayonnaise, which can include egg whites, raw onion, green peas, sweetcorn or even chayote squashes, and pronounced almost exactly as in English and French) and in other special occasions.
Either way the basis of Brazilian daily cuisine is the starch (most often a cereal), legume, protein and vegetable combination. There is also a differentiation between vegetables of the verduras group, or greens, and the legumes group (no relation to the botanic concept), or non-green vegetables.
Salgadinhos are small savoury snacks (literally salties). Similar to Spanish tapas, these are mostly sold in corner shops and a staple at working class and lower middle-class familiar celebrations. There are many types of pastries:
Pão de queijo (literally "cheese bread"), a typical Brazilian snack, is a small, soft roll made of manioc flour, eggs, milk, and minas cheese. It can be bought ready-made at a corner store or frozen and ready to bake in a supermarket and is gluten-free.
Coxinha is a chicken croquette shaped like a chicken thigh.
Kibe/Quibe: extremely popular, it corresponds to the Lebanese dish kibbeh and was brought to mainstream Brazilian culture by Syrian and Lebanese immigrants. It can be served baked, fried, or raw.
Esfiha: another Middle Eastern dish, despite being a more recent addition to Brazilian cuisine they are nowadays easily found everywhere, specially in Northeastern, Southern and Southeastern regions. They are pies/cakes with fillings like beef, mutton, cheese curd, or seasoned vegetables.
Pastéis are pastries with a wide variety of fillings. Similar to Spanish fried Empanadas but of Japanese origin (and brought to Brazil by the Japanese diaspora). Different shapes are used to tell apart the different flavours, the two most common shapes being half-moon (cheese) and square (meat). Size, flavour, and shape may vary greatly.
Empadas are snacks that resemble pot pies in a small scale. Filled with a mix of palm hearts, peas, flour and chicken or shrimp.
Misto-quente (pt) is grilled ham and cheese sandwich.
Cuscuz branco is a dessert consisting of milled tapioca cooked with coconut milk and sugar and is the couscous equivalent of rice pudding.
Açaí, cupuaçu, carambola, and many other tropical fruits are shipped from the Amazon Rainforest and consumed in smoothies or as fresh fruit. Other aspects of Amazonian cuisine are also gaining a following.
Cachorro-quente (pt) is the Brazilian version of hot dogs, usually garnished with tomato sauce, corn, peas and potato chips.
Cheese: the dairy-producing state of Minas Gerais is known for such cheeses as Queijo Minas, a soft, mild-flavored fresh white cheese usually sold packaged in water; requeijão, a mildly salty, silky-textured, spreadable cheese sold in glass jars and eaten on bread; and Catupiry, a soft processed cheese sold in a distinctive round wooden box.
Pinhão is the pine nut of the Araucaria angustifolia, a common tree in the highlands of southern Brazil. The nuts are boiled and eaten as a snack in the winter months. It is typically eaten during the festas juninas.
Risoto (risotto) is a rice dish cooked with chicken, shrimp, and seafood in general or other protein staples sometimes served with vegetables, another very popular dish in Southern Brazil.
Mortadella sandwich
Sugarcane juice, mixed with fruit juices such as pineapple or lemon.
Angu is a popular side dish (or a substitution for the rice fulfilling the "starch element" of use common in Southern and Southeastern Brazil). It is similar to the Italian polenta.
Arroz com pequi is a traditional dish from the Brazilian Cerrado, and the symbol of Center-Western Brazil's cuisine. It is basically made with rice seasoned on pequi, also known as a souari nut, and often chicken.
Also noteworthy are:
Special ethnic foods and restaurants that are frequently found in Brazil include Arab cuisine (Lebanese and Syrian), local variations of Chinese cuisine (nevertheless closer to the traditional than American Chinese cuisine), Italian cuisine, and Japanese cuisine (sushi bars are a constant in major metropolises, and people from Rio de Janeiro are more used to temaki than people from São Paulo, home of more than 70% of the Japanese diaspora in the country).
Pizza is also extremely popular. It is usually made in a wood-fire oven with a thin, flexible crust, little or very little sauce, and a number of interesting toppings. In addition to the "traditional" Italian pizza toppings, items like guava cheese and Minas cheese, banana and cinnamon, poultry (either milled chicken meat or smoked turkey breast) and catupiry, and chocolate are available. Traditionally olive oil is poured over the pizza, but in some regions people enjoy ketchup, mustard and even mayonnaise on pizza.
Brazil nut cake is a cake in Brazilian cuisine that is common and popular in the Amazon region of Brazil, Bolivia and Peru[13]
Broa, corn bread with fennel.
Drinks[edit]
Cachaça is Brazil's native liquor, distilled from sugar cane, and it is the main ingredient in the national drink, the Caipirinha. Other drinks include mate tea, chimarrão and tereré (both made up of yerba maté), coffee, fruit juice, beer (mainly Pilsen variety), rum, guaraná and batidas. Guaraná is a caffeinated soft drink made from guaraná seeds and batida is a type of fruit punch.[1]
Brazilian Cachaça
Caipirinha, a national drink
Chimarrão
Typical and popular desserts[edit]
See also: List of Brazilian sweets and desserts
Brazil has a variety of candies such as brigadeiros (chocolate fudge balls), cocada (a coconut sweet), beijinhos (coconut truffles and clove) and romeu e julieta (cheese with a guava jam known as goiabada). Peanuts are used to make paçoca, rapadura and pé-de-moleque. Local common fruits like açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, cocoa, cashew, guava, orange, passionfruit, pineapple, and hog plum are turned in juices and used to make chocolates, ice pops and ice cream.[14]
Typical cakes (Bolos)[edit]
Bolo de rolo
Nega maluca (chocolate cake with chocolate cover and chocolate sprinkles)
Pão de mel (honey cake, somewhat resembling gingerbread, usually covered with melted chocolate)
Bolo de rolo (roll cake, a thin mass wrapped with melted guava)
Bolo de cenoura (carrot cake with chocolate cover made with butter and cocoa)
Bolo prestígio (chocolate cake with a coconut and milk cream filling, covered with brigadeiro)
Bolo de fubá (corn flour cake)
Bolo de milho (Brazilian-style corn cake)
Bolo de maracujá (passion fruit cake)
Bolo de mandioca (cassava cake)
Bolo de queijo (literally "cheese cake")
Bolo de laranja (orange cake)
Bolo de banana (banana cake spread with cinnamon)
Other popular and traditional desserts[edit]
A Brazilian chocolate candy (Brigadeiro).
Paçoca
Pé-de-moleque
Rapadura
Fig, papaya, mango, orange, citron, pear, peach, pumpkin, sweet potato (among others) sweets and preserves, often eaten with solid fresh cheese or doce de leite.
Quindim (egg custard with coconut)[1]
Brigadeiro (a Brazilian chocolate candy)
Biscoitos de maizena (cornstarch cookies)
Beijinho (coconut "truffles" with clove)
Cajuzinho (peanut and cashew "truffles")
Cocada (coconut sweet)
Olho-de-sogra
Pudim de pão (literally "bread pudding", a pie made with bread "from yesterday" immersed in milk instead of flour (plus the other typical pie ingredients like eggs, sugar etc.) with dried orange slices and clove)
Manjar branco (coconut pudding with caramel cover and dried plums)
Doce de leite
Arroz-doce (rice pudding)
Canjica (similar to rice pudding, but made with white corn)
Romeu e Julieta: goiabada (guava cheese) with white cheese (most often Minas cheese or requeijão)
Torta de Limão (literally "Lime Pie", a shortcrust pastry with creamy lime-flavored filling)
Pé-de-moleque (made with peanuts and sugar caramel)
Paçoca (similar to Spanish polvorones, but made with peanuts instead of almonds and without addition of fats)
Pudim de leite (condensed milk-based crème caramel, of French origin)
Brigadeirão (a pudim de leite with chocolate or a chocolate cake)
Rapadura
Doce de banana (different types of banana sweets, solid or creamy)
Maria-mole
Pamonha (a traditional Brazilian food made from fresh corn and milk wrapped in corn husks and boiled). It can be savoury or sweet.
Papo-de-anjo
"Açaí na tigela" (usually consists of an açaí (Brazilian fruit) mixture with bananas and cereal or strawberries and cereal (usually granola or muslix))
Avocado cream (avocado, lime and confectionery sugar; blended and chilled)[1]
Daily meals[edit]
A Brazilian breakfast buffet.
Breakfast,¹ the café-da-manhã (literally, "morning coffee"): Every region has its own typical breakfast. It usually consists of a light meal, and it is not uncommon to have only a fruit or slice of bread and a cup of coffee. Traditional items include tropical fruits, typical cakes, crackers, bread, butter, cold cuts, cheese, requeijão, honey, jam, doce de leite, coffee (usually sweetened and with milk), juice, chocolate milk, or tea.
Elevenses or brunch,² the lanche-da-manhã (literally, "morning snack"): Usually had between 9 and 11 am, consists of similar items as people have for breakfast.
Midday dinner or lunch,¹ the almoço: This is usually the biggest meal and the most common times range from 11 am to 2 pm. Traditionally, people will go back to their houses to have lunch with their families, although nowadays that is not possible for most people, in which case it is common to have lunch in groups at restaurants or cafeterias. Rice is a staple of the Brazilian diet, albeit it is not uncommon to eat pasta instead. It is usually eaten together with beans and accompanied by salad, protein (most commonly red meat or chicken) and a side dish, such as polenta, potatoes, corn, etc...
Tea,² the lanche-da-tarde or café-da-tarde (literally "afternoon snack" or "afternoon coffee"): It is a meal had between lunch and dinner, and basically everything people eat in the breakfast, they also eat in the afternoon snack. Nevertheless, fruits are less common.
Night dinner or supper,¹ the jantar: For most Brazilians, jantar is a light affair, while others dine at night. Sandwiches, soups, salads, pasta, hamburgers or hot-dogs, pizza or repeating midday dinner foods are the most common dishes.
Late supper,² the ceia: Brazilians eat soups, salads, pasta and what would be eaten at the elevenses if their jantar was a light one early at the evening and it is late at night or dawn. It is associated with Christmas and New Year's Eve.
¹ Main meals, that are served nearly everywhere, and are eaten in nearly all households above poverty line.
² Secondary meals. People usually have a meal at the tea time, while elevenses and late suppers depend in peculiarities on one's daily routine or certain diets.
Restaurant styles[edit]
A simple and usually inexpensive option, which is also advisable for vegetarians, is comida a quilo or comida por quilo restaurants (literally "food by kilo value"), a buffet where food is paid for by weight. Another common style is the all-you-can-eat restaurant where customers pay a prix fixe. In both types (known collectively as "self-services"), customers usually assemble the dishes of their choice from a large buffet.
Rodízio is a common style of service, in which a prix fixe is paid, and servers circulate with food. This is common in churrascarias, pizzerias and sushi (Japanese cuisine) restaurants, resulting in an all-you-can-eat meat barbecue and pizzas of varied flavours, usually one slice being served at the time.
The regular restaurant where there is a specific price for each meal is called "restaurante à la carte".
Vegetarian[edit]
Although many traditional dishes are prepared with meat or fish, it is not difficult to live on vegetarian food as well, at least in the mid-sized and larger cities of Brazil. There is a rich supply of all kinds of fruits and vegetables, and on city streets one can find cheese buns (pão de queijo); in some cities even the version made of soy.
In the 2000s, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Porto Alegre have gained several vegetarian and vegan restaurants.[15] However outside big metropolises, vegetarianism is not very common in the country. Not every restaurant will provide vegetarian dishes and some seemingly vegetarian meals may turn out to include unwanted ingredients, for instance, using lard for cooking beans. Commonly "meat" is understood to mean "red meat," so some people might assume a vegetarian eats fish and chicken. Comida por quilo and all-you-can eat restaurants prepare a wide range of fresh dishes. Diners can more easily find food in such restaurants that satisfies dietary restrictions.
See also[edit]
Brazil portal
Food portal
List of Brazilian dishes
List of Brazilian sweets and desserts
Culinary art
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Brittin, Helen (2011). The Food and Culture Around the World Handbook. Boston: Prentice Hall. pp. 20–21.
Jump up ^ "Way of Life". Encarta. MSN. Archived from the original on 2009-10-31. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
Jump up ^ Burns, E. Bradford (1993). A History of Brazil. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 38. ISBN 0231079559.
Jump up ^ (in Portuguese) One century of Japanese immigration to Brazil – News –Japanese immigrants helped a 'revolution' in Brazilian agriculture
Jump up ^ (in Portuguese) One century of Japanese immigration to Brazil – News – Immigrants made a city in São Paulo in a great egg producer
Jump up ^ Roger, "Feijoada: The Brazilian national dish Archived 2009-11-29 at the Wayback Machine." braziltravelguide.com.
Jump up ^ Cascudo, Luis da Câmara. História da Alimentação no Brasil. São Paulo/Belo Horizonte: Editora USP/Itatiaia, 1983.
Jump up ^ "A feijoada não é invenção brasileira" (in Portuguese). Superinteressante. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "O Carapuceiro (jornal)" (in Portuguese). Fundaj. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Blazes, Marian. "Brazilian Black-Eyed Pea and Shrimp Fritters – Acarajé". About.com. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Somwaru, A.; Valdes, C. (2004). Brazil's Beef Production and Its Efficiency : A Comparative Study of Scale Economies – 1–19.
Jump up ^ Sumayao, Marco. "What Is a Churrascaria?". WiseGeek. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
Jump up ^ Castella, K. (2012). A World of Cake. Storey Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-1-60342-446-2.
Jump up ^ Freyre, Gilberto. Açúcar. Uma Sociologia do Doce, com Receitas de Bolos e Doces do Nordeste do Brasil. São Paulo, Companhia das Letras, 1997.
Jump up ^ "Vegetarian Restaurants in Brazil". Retrieved 2011-05-30.
External links[edit]
Media related to Cuisine of Brazil at Wikimedia Commons
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Cannabis drug testing
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Cannabis drug testing describes various drug test methodologies for the use of cannabis in medicine, sport, and law. Cannabis use is highly detectable and can be detected by urinalysis, hair analysis, as well as saliva tests for days or weeks.
Unlike alcohol, for which impairment can be reasonably measured using a breathalyser (and confirmed with a blood alcohol content measurement), valid detection for cannabis is time-consuming, and tests cannot determine an approximate degree of impairment. The lack of suitable tests and agreed-upon intoxication levels is an issue in the legality of cannabis debate, especially regarding intoxicated driving.
The concentrations obtained from such analyses can often be helpful in distinguishing active use from passive exposure, elapsed time since use, and extent or duration of use.
The Duquenois-Levine test is commonly used as a screening test in the field, but it cannot definitively confirm the presence of cannabis, as a large range of substances have been shown to give false positives.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biological timeline
2 Testing methods
2.1 Urine testing
2.2 Duquenois–Levine reagent
2.3 Azo dyes (Fast Blue B/BB)
2.4 Beam's CBD Test
2.5 Hair testing
2.6 Saliva testing
2.7 Blood testing
2.8 Neurological testing
3 Usage in law
4 References
Biological timeline[edit]
Main article: Effects of cannabis
Most cannabinoids are lipophilic (fat soluble) compounds that easily store in fat, thus yielding a long elimination half-life relative to other recreational drugs. The THC molecule, and related compounds, are usually detectable in urine drug tests from 3 days up to 10 days according to Redwood Laboratories; heavy users can produce positive tests for 1–3 months after ceasing cannabis use.[1][2] The length of time varies greatly according to metabolism, quantity, and frequency of use.[citation needed]
Testing methods[edit]
Urine testing[edit]
Marijuana use can be detected up to 2–5 days after exposure for infrequent users; for heavy users: 1–15 days; for chronic users and/or users with high body fat: 1–30 days[3][4]
Burning marijuana that has been contaminated with lead, (medically reported in the field as high as 50% by weight) will result in a core temperature in the joint of around 1200 °C in comparison to a standard cigarette with a core temperature of around 700 °C or pipe (common for marijuana) with a core temperature of around 500 °C, resulting in far greater THC absorption and can extend the detection time reliably to around 6 weeks. A responsible adult user of 5-10 grams per week of contaminated cannabis will reach levels of over 500 ng/ml a couple days to weeks after use in place of 150-200 ng/ml for uncontaminated cannabis and a single time user consuming just a couple of puffs of contaminated smoke will reach levels significantly over 50 ng/ml, though this has also been scientifically shown to be true of second hand marijuana smoke without lead exposure as well. This has been recorded in three occasions on a larger scale, in Massachusetts[5] and Germany,[6] and may occur in other areas as well.
Under the typical 50 ng/mL cutoff for THC in the United States, an occasional or on-off user would be very unlikely to test positive beyond 3–4 days since the last use, and a chronic user would be unlikely to test positive much beyond 7 days. Using a more sensitive cutoff of 20 ng/mL (less common but still used by some labs), the most likely maximum times are 7 days and 21 days, respectively.[7] In extraordinary circumstances of extended marijuana use, detection times of more than 30 days are possible in some individuals at the 20 ng/mL cutoff.[8]
However, one must remember that every individual is different, and detection times can vary due to metabolism or other factors. It also depends on whether actual THC or THC metabolites are being tested for, the latter having a much longer detection time than the former. THC (found in marijuana) may only be detectable in saliva/oral fluid for 2–24 hours in most cases.[citation needed]
The main metabolite excreted in the urine is 11-nor-delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid (delta9-THC-COOH). Most THC drug tests yields a positive result when the concentration of marijuana in urine exceeds 50 ng/mL.[citation needed] Urine Testing is an immunoassay based test on the principle of competitive binding. Drugs which may be present in the urine specimen compete against their respective drug conjugate for binding sites on their specific antibody. During testing, a urine specimen migrates upward by capillary action. A drug, if present in the urine specimen below its cut-off concentration, will not saturate the binding sites of its specific antibody. The antibody will then react with the drug-protein conjugate and a visible colored line will show up in the test line region of the specific drug strip.[citation needed]
Cannabis use is included in the "10-panel urine screen", as well as the "SAMHSA-5", the five drugs tested for in standard NIDA approved drug tests.
False positives have been known to be triggered by consuming hemp-seed bars and other products, although the more detailed, more expensive gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GCMS) test can tell the difference.[citation needed]
In 2011, researchers at John Jay College of Criminal Justice reported that dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of THC and other drugs in urine. Similar claims have been made in web forums on that topic.[9] However, a 2013 study conducted by researchers at the University of Utah School of Medicine refute the possibility of self-administered zinc producing false-negative urine drug tests.[10]
Common known pharmaceutical drugs which cause false positives in instant THC dip tests include:[citation needed]
Efavirenz,
Ibuprofen,
Ketoprofen,
Naproxen,
Piroxicam,
Promethazine,
Proton pump inhibitors,[11]
Sulindac,
Tolmetin
Duquenois–Levine reagent[edit]
Main article: Duquenois–Levine reagent
The Duquenois–Levine test is a simple chemical color reaction test initially developed in the 1930s by Pierre Duquénois.
To administer the test, a police officer simply has to break a seal on a tiny micropipette of chemicals, and insert a particle of the suspected substance; if the chemicals turn purple, this indicates the possibility of marijuana. But the color variations can be subtle, and readings can vary by examiner.
It was adopted in the 1950s by the United Nations as the preferred test for cannabis.
Step 1 – addition of Duquenois reagent to dried petroleum ether extract
Step 2 – addition of hydrochloric acid
Step 3 – addition of chloroform
Azo dyes (Fast Blue B/BB)[edit]
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) found the azo dyes Fast Blue B (3,3'-dimethoxybiphenyl-4,4'-bisdiazonium chloride[12]) and Fast Blue BB (4-benzoylamino-2,5-diethoxybenzenediazonium chloride[13]) superior to Duquenois–Levine, and are currently the most recommended reagents used for cannabinoid testing. The dyes, as water-soluble salts, are typically applied during thin layer chromatography. They are extremely sensitive to a variety of cannabinoids, and very specific in reaction. Fast Blue BB is slightly slower than Fast Blue B, but the resulting colors are more vivid and intense. Due to concerns about Fast Blue B being carcinogenic Fast Blue BB is often used instead,[14] although it too is a suspected carcinogen.[15][16] Other Azo dyes which are suitable for cannabinoid detection, albeit inferior to Fast Blue B/BB, include Corinth V, Blue LGC, Garnet GC (GR), Red AV, Garnet GBO, Bordeaux GP, and Red P.[16]
Beam's CBD Test[edit]
In 1911, Dr. W. Beam discovered that the tissue of hemp, which is typically low in THC but high in CBD, gives a purple color when treated with bases.[17] The test is relatively simple and inexpensive, and typically involves placing the test sample in a solution of 5% potassium hydroxide and 95% ethanol.[18] After approximately ten minutes, samples with CBD exhibit a violet/purple/pink color. The test is specific to CBD and does not react to THC.
Hair testing[edit]
Cannabis use is detectable with hair tests and is generally included in the standard hair test. Hair tests generally take the most recent 1.5 inches of growth and use those for testing. That provides a detection period of approximately 90 days.[3] If an individual's hair is shorter than 1.5 inches, this detection period will be shorter. The detection window for body hair cannabis testing will be longer, because body hair grows slower than head hair and distorts the detection timeframe. Hair drug testing measures the marijuana parent metabolite embedded inside the hairshaft and eliminates external contamination as a source of a positive result. The detection window of hair drug testing for cannabis can be as low as 1 pg/mg.[19]
Saliva testing[edit]
Cannabis is detectable by saliva testing. Just like blood testing, saliva testing detects the presence of parent drugs and not their inactive metabolites. This results in a shorter window of detection for cannabis by saliva testing.[20] Delta 9 THC is the parent compound. If a saliva sample is tested in a lab, the detection level can be as low as 0.5 ng/mL (up to 72 hours after intake)[21] and if an onsite instant saliva drug test is used, the cut off level is generally 50 ng/mL (up to 12 hours after intake).[22] Per National Institute on Drug Abuse saliva drug testing provides a reasonable alternative to other drug testing methods.[23]
Blood testing[edit]
Cannabis is detectable in the blood for approximately 12–24 hours, with heavy/frequent use detectable in the blood for up to 7 days.[citation needed] Because they are invasive and difficult to administer, blood tests are used less frequently. They are typically used in investigations of accidents, injuries and DUIs.
Urine contains predominantly THC-COOH, while hair, oral fluid and sweat contain primarily THC. Blood may contain both substances, with the relative amounts dependent on the recency and extent of usage.[24][25][26]
Neurological testing[edit]
Though very unlikely to be used, and more unlikely in court, Electroencephalography or EEG shows somewhat more persistent alpha waves of slightly lower frequency than usual.[27] Cannabinoids produce a "marked depression of motor activity" via activation of neuronal cannabinoid receptors belonging to the CB1 subtype.[28]
Usage in law[edit]
While there are blood, urine and hair tests that can track marijuana’s active ingredient in the body, marijuana lingers around for too long a period in order for one of these tests to determine the actual intake time. Also, the variation between different metabolisms makes an objective cannabis intoxication test very difficult.[clarification needed][citation needed] Cannabis testing is common in intoxicated driving investigations, and also as in probation guidelines.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Choices, N. H. S. (2016-12-12). "How long does cannabis stay in the body after smoking? - Health questions - NHS Choices". Retrieved 2017-01-09.
Jump up ^ "Marijuana | Drug Info | Resources | Redwood Toxicology Laboratory". www.redwoodtoxicology.com. Retrieved 2017-01-09.
^ Jump up to: a b Erowid Cannabis (Marijuana) Vault: Drug Testing. Erowid.org (2010-02-28). Retrieved on August 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ Marijuana Detection Time Shorter Than Previously Assumed. norml.org (2006-02-23). Retrieved on March 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ http://commonhealth.wbur.org/2015/06/lead-medical-marijuana-regulations
Jump up ^ nejm.org
Jump up ^ http://www.ndci.org/sites/default/files/ndci/THC_Detection_Window_0.pdf THE MARIJUANA DETECTION WINDOW: DETERMINING THE LENGTH OF TIME CANNABINOIDS WILL REMAIN DETECTABLE IN URINE FOLLOWING SMOKING A CRITICAL REVIEW OF RELEVANT RESEARCH AND CANNABINOID DETECTION GUIDANCE FOR DRUG COURTS By Paul L. Cary, M.S., National Drug Court Institute
Jump up ^ ndci.org
Jump up ^ Venkatratnam, Abhishek; Nathan H. Lents (July 2011). "Zinc Reduces the Detection of Cocaine, Methamphetamine, and THC by ELISA Urine Testing". Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 35 (6): 333–340. doi:10.1093/anatox/35.6.333. PMID 21740689.
Jump up ^ Lin, Chia-Ni; Strathmann, Frederick (July 10, 2013). "Elevated Urine Zinc Concentration Reduces the Detection of Methamphetamine, Cocaine, THC and Opiates in Urine by EMIT" (PDF). Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 37: 665–669. doi:10.1093/jat/bkt056.
Jump up ^ "Protonix Drug Interaction Sheet" (PDF). Food and Drug Administration. Pfizer. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/vetec/v001655
Jump up ^ http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/f3378
Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=abw93p3C8NEC&pg=PA60&lpg=PA60
Jump up ^ https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1969-01-01_4_page006.html
^ Jump up to: a b https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1974-01-01_4_page004.html
Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=q5yFCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA676&lpg=PA676
Jump up ^ http://www.madchat.fr/esprit/texture/spices/Marijuana/Marijuana_Chemistry-Michael_Starks_2nd_edition.pdf
Jump up ^ "Hair drug testing question and answers" (PDF). Quest Diagnostics.
Jump up ^ "The ABCs of Marijuana and Drug Testing". NORML.org.
Jump up ^ "Journal of Analytical Toxicology, Vol 25, November/December 2002". Forensic Fluids Laboratory.
Jump up ^ "Instant saliva drug testing cut-off levels". testcountry.
Jump up ^ "Before the House Committee on Commerce, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations". NIDA. Retrieved 1998. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Coulter, C; Taruc, M; Tuyay, J; Moore, C. "Quantitation of tetrahydrocannabinol in hair using immunoassay and liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometric detection". Drug Test. Anal. 1 (234–239): 2009.
Jump up ^ Schwope, DM; Milman, G; Huestis, MA (2010). "Validation of an enzyme immunoassay for detection and semiquantification of cannabinoids in oral fluid". Clin. Chem. 56: 1007–1014. doi:10.1373/clinchem.2009.141754. PMC 3159868  . PMID 20360126.
Jump up ^ Huestis MA, Scheidweiler KB, Saito T, Fortner N, Abraham T, Gustafson RA, Smith ML (2008). "Excretion of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in Sweat". Forensic Sci. Int. 174 (2–3): 173–177. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2007.04.002. PMC 2277330  . PMID 17481836.
Jump up ^ H.K. Kalant; W.H.E. Roschlau (1998). Principles of Medical Pharmacology (6th ed.). pp. 373–375.
Jump up ^ Andersson, M.; Usiello, A; Borgkvist, A; Pozzi, L; Dominguez, C; Fienberg, AA; Svenningsson, P; Fredholm, BB; et al. (2005). "Cannabinoid Action Depends on Phosphorylation of Dopamine- and cAMP-Regulated Phosphoprotein of 32 kDa at the Protein Kinase A Site in Striatal Projection Neurons". Journal of Neuroscience. 25 (37): 8432–8. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1289-05.2005. PMID 16162925.

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