text:
Rubidium hydroxide
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Rubidium hydroxide
Names
IUPAC name
Rubidium hydroxide (+1)
Identifiers
CAS Number
1310-82-3
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
ChEBI
CHEBI:32108 Y
ChemSpider
56181 Y
ECHA InfoCard 100.013.806
PubChem CID
62393
RTECS number VL8750000
InChI[show]
InChI=1S/H2O.Rb/h1H2;/q;+1/p-1 Y
Key: CPRMKOQKXYSDML-UHFFFAOYSA-M Y
InChI=1/H2O.Rb/h1H2;/q;+1/p-1
Key: CPRMKOQKXYSDML-REWHXWOFAO
SMILES[show]
[Rb+].[OH-]
Properties
Molar mass 102.475 g/mol
Appearance grayish-white solid,
hygroscopic
Density 1.74 g/mL at 25 °C
Melting point 301 °C (574 °F; 574 K)
Boiling point 1,390 °C (2,530 °F; 1,660 K)
Solubility in water
100 g/100 mL (15 °C)
Solubility soluble in ethanol
Basicity (pKb) -1.4[1] (dissociation of OH–)
Thermochemistry
Std enthalpy of
formation (ΔfHo298)
−413.8 kJ/mol
Hazards
Main hazards Corrosive
NFPA 704
0
3
1
Flash point Non-flammable
Related compounds
Other cations
Lithium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide
Caesium hydroxide
Related compounds
Rubidium oxide (+1)
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
verify (what is Y ?)
Infobox references
Rubidium hydroxide (+1) (RbOH) is a strong basic chemical and alkali that is formed by one rubidium ion and one hydroxide ion.
Rubidium hydroxide does not appear in nature. However it can be obtained by synthesis from rubidium oxide. In addition, rubidium hydroxide is commercially available in form of an aqueous solution from a few suppliers.
Rubidium hydroxide is highly corrosive, therefore suitable protective clothing, gloves and eye-face protection are required when handling this material.
Contents
[hide]
1 Synthesis
2 Uses
3 Hazard prevention
4 See also
5 References
Synthesis[edit]
Rubidium hydroxide can be synthesized from rubidium oxide by dissolving the oxide into water:
Rb2O (s) + H2O (l) → 2 RbOH (aq)
Rubidium hydroxide is also commercially available from a certain number of chemical suppliers in form of 50% or 99% aqueous solution at multiples of 5 g.
Uses[edit]
Rubidium hydroxide is rarely used in industrial processes because potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide can perform nearly all the industrial functions of rubidium hydroxide in a less violent and hence safer way.
Rubidium hydroxide is used in scientific research. It is often used sparingly to prevent waste of the expensive element rubidium. For example, it is used to give fireworks a violet color in place of pure rubidium.
Despite the fact that rubidium hydroxide is rarely used in normal industrial processes, it is notable that the synthesis of nearly all rubidium compounds involves rubidium hydroxide as an intermediate. Natural rubidium oxide is added to water, and the resulting reaction forms soluble rubidium hydroxide as a product.
Hazard prevention[edit]
Rubidium hydroxide is a corrosive compound that causes immediate burns to the skin on contact. Ultimate care must be carried out when handling this chemical.
In the laboratory, protective clothing, gloves, and eye-face protection made from alkali-resistant materials are to be worn to prevent injury caused by accidental leakage of rubidium hydroxide onto human skin.
Dilution of this strong alkali must be done by adding the chemical slowly into the beaker of water.
In addition, chemical experiments on this compound must be performed with caution to prevent the great amount of heat released in an exothermic reaction from causing the solution to boil-over or damage the vessel.
See also[edit]
Potassium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide
Rubidium
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Sortierte Liste: pKb-Werte, nach Ordnungszahl sortiert. - Das Periodensystem online" (in German).
"Rubidium compounds: dirubidium oxide". WebElements: the periodic table on the web. WebElements. Retrieved 16 November 2011.
"Rubidium hydroxide". ChemExper Chemical Directory : catalog of chemicals and suppliers. ChemExper. Retrieved 16 November 2011.
[show]
v
t
e
Rubidium compounds
RbAg4I5
RbBr
RbCl
RbClO4
RbF
RbH
RbHSO4
RbI
RbN3
RbNO3
RbOH
Rb2CO3
Rb2O
Rb2Te
[show]
v
t
e
Hydroxides
H2O He
LiOH Be(OH)2 B C NH3.H2O O F Ne
NaOH Mg(OH)2 Al(OH)3 Si P S Cl Ar
KOH Ca(OH)2 Sc(OH)3 Ti V Cr(OH)2
Cr(OH)3 Mn(OH)2 Fe(OH)2
Fe(OH)3 Co(OH)2 Ni(OH)2 CuOH
Cu(OH)2 Zn(OH)2 Ga(OH)3 Ge(OH)2 As Se Br Kr
RbOH Sr(OH)2 Y(OH)3 Zr(OH)4 Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd AgOH Cd(OH)2 In(OH)3 Sn(OH)2
Sn(OH)4 Sb(OH)3 Te I Xe
CsOH Ba(OH)2 * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au(OH)3 Hg(OH)2 TlOH
Tl(OH)3 Pb(OH)2
Pb(OH)4 Bi(OH)3 Po At Rn
Fr Ra ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
↓
* La(OH)3 Ce(OH)3 Pr(OH)3 Nd(OH)3 Pm(OH)3 Sm(OH)3 Eu(OH)3 Gd(OH)3 Tb(OH)3 Dy(OH)3 Ho(OH)3 Er(OH)3 Tm(OH)3 Yb(OH)3 Lu(OH)3
** Ac Th(OH)4 Pa UO2(OH)2 Np Pu Am Cm(OH)3 Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
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text:
Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire
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Barricades in Prague during the revolutionary events.
A set of revolutions took place in the Austrian Empire from March 1848 to November 1849. Much of the revolutionary activity had a nationalist character: the Empire, ruled from Vienna, included ethnic Germans, Hungarians, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Ruthenians (Ukrainians), Romanians, Croats, Venetians (Italians) and Serbs; all of whom attempted in the course of the revolution to either achieve autonomy, independence, or even hegemony over other nationalities. The nationalist picture was further complicated by the simultaneous events in the German states, which moved toward greater German national unity.
Besides these nationalists, liberal and even socialist currents resisted the Empire's longstanding conservatism.
Contents
[hide]
1 The early rumblings
1.1 Social and political conflict
1.2 Direct cause of the outbreak of violence
2 Revolution in the Austrian lands
2.1 An early victory leads to tension
2.2 Social and political tensions after the "Springtime of Peoples"
2.3 Counterrevolution
3 Revolution in the Kingdom of Hungary
3.1 Western Slovak Uprising
4 The Second Wave of Revolutions
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
The early rumblings[edit]
The events of 1848 were the product of mounting social and political tensions after the Congress of Vienna of 1815. During the "pre-March" period, the already conservative Austrian Empire moved further away from ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, restricted freedom of the press, limited many university activities, and banned fraternities.
Social and political conflict[edit]
Metternich in the 1840s
Conflicts between debtors and creditors in agricultural production as well as over land use rights in parts of Hungary (as in France) led to conflicts that occasionally erupted into violence. Conflict over organized religion was pervasive in pre-1848 Europe.[citation needed] Tension came both from within Catholicism and between members of different confessions. These conflicts were often mixed with conflict with the state. Important for the revolutionaries were state conflicts including the armed forces and collection of taxes. As 1848 approached, the revolutions the Empire crushed to maintain longstanding conservative minister Klemens Wenzel von Metternich's Concert of Europe left the empire nearly bankrupt and in continual need of soldiers.[citation needed] Draft commissions led to brawls between soldiers and civilians. All of this further agitated the peasantry, who resented their remaining feudal obligations.
Despite lack of freedom of the press and association, there was a flourishing liberal German culture among students and those educated either in Josephine schools[citation needed] or German universities. They published pamphlets and newspapers discussing education and language; a need for basic liberal reforms was assumed. These middle class liberals largely understood and accepted that forced labor is not efficient, and that the Empire should adopt a wage labor system. The question was of how to institute such reforms.
Notable liberal clubs of the time in Vienna included the Legal-Political Reading Club (established 1842) and Concordia Society (1840). They, like the Lower Austrian Manufacturers' Association (1840) were part of a culture that criticized Metternich's government from the city's coffeehouses, salons, and even stages, but prior to 1848 their demands had not even extended to constitutionalism or freedom of assembly, let alone republicanism. They had merely advocated relaxed censorship, freedom of religion, economic freedoms, and, above all, a more competent administration. They were outright opposed to popular sovereignty and the universal franchise.[1]
To their left was a radicalized, impoverished intelligentsia. Educational opportunities in 1840s Austria had far outstripped employment opportunities for the educated.[2]
Direct cause of the outbreak of violence[edit]
In 1846 there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia, which was only countered when peasants, in turn, rose up against the nobles.[3] The economic crisis of 1845-47 was marked by recession and food shortages throughout the continent. At the end of February 1848, demonstrations broke out in Paris. Louis-Philippe of France abdicated the throne, prompting similar revolts throughout the continent.
Revolution in the Austrian lands[edit]
An early victory leads to tension[edit]
The Viennese students Academic Legion played a key role in toppling Metternich's government and precipitating his retirement on 13 March 1848.
After news broke of the February victories in Paris, uprisings occurred throughout Europe, including in Vienna, where the Diet (parliament) of Lower Austria in March demanded the resignation of Prince Metternich, the conservative State Chancellor and Foreign Minister. With no forces rallying to Metternich's defense, nor word from Ferdinand I of Austria to the contrary, he resigned on 13 March.[4] Metternich fled to London,[5] and Ferdinand appointed new, nominally liberal, ministers. By November, the Austrian Empire saw several short-lived liberal governments under five successive Ministers-President of Austria: Count Kolowrat (17 March–4 April), Count Ficquelmont (4 April–3 May), Baron Pillersdorf (3 May–8 July), Baron Doblhoff-Dier (8 July–18 July) and Baron Wessenberg (19 July–20 November).[6]
The established order collapsed rapidly because of the weakness of the Austrian armies. Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky was unable to keep his soldiers fighting Venetian and Milanese insurgents in Lombardy-Venetia, and had to, instead, order the remaining troops to evacuate.
Social and political conflict as well as inter and intra confessional hostility momentarily subsided as much of the continent rejoiced in the liberal victories. Mass political organizations and public participation in government became widespread.
Photograph of the aged Ferdinand dated circa 1870
However, liberal ministers were unable to establish central authority. Provisional governments in Venice and Milan quickly expressed desire to be part of an Italian confederacy of states; but for Venetian government this lasted five days only, after the 1848 armistice between Austria and Piedmont. A new Hungarian government in Pest announced its intentions to break away from the Empire and elect Ferdinand its King, and a Polish National Committee announced the same for the province of Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria.
Social and political tensions after the "Springtime of Peoples"[edit]
The victory of the party of movement was looked at as an opportunity for lower classes to renew old conflicts with greater anger and energy. Several tax boycotts and attempted murders of tax collectors occurred in Vienna. Assaults against soldiers were common, including against Radetzky's troops retreating from Milan. The archbishop of Vienna was forced to flee, and in Graz, the convent of the Jesuits was destroyed.
The demands of nationalism and its contradictions became apparent as new national governments began declaring power and unity. Charles Albert of Sardinia, King of Piedmont-Savoy, initiated a nationalist war on March 23 in the Austrian held northern Italian provinces that would consume the attention of the entire peninsula. The German nationalist movement faced the question of whether or not Austria should be included in the united German state, a quandary that divided the Frankfurt National Assembly. The liberal ministers in Vienna were willing to allow elections for the German National Assembly in some of the Habsburg lands, but it was undetermined which Habsburg territories would participate. Hungary and Galicia were clearly not German; German nationalists (who dominated the Bohemian Diet[7]) felt the old crown lands rightfully belonged to a united German state, despite the fact that the majority of the people of Bohemia and Moravia spoke Czech — a Slavic language. Czech nationalists viewed the language as far more significant, calling for a boycott of the Frankfurt Parliament elections in Bohemia, Moravia, and neighboring Austrian Silesia (also partly Czech-speaking). Tensions in Prague between German and Czech nationalists grew quickly between April and May. After the abolition of serfdom on April 17, Supreme Ruthenian Council was established in Galicia to promote the unification of ethnic Ukrainian lands of Eastern Galicia, Transcarpathia and Bukovyna in one province. Ukrainian language department was opened in Lviv University, and the first Ukrainian newspaper Zoria Halytska started publishing in Lviv on May 15, 1848. On July 1, serfdom was also abolished in Bukovyna.
Vienna in May 1848
By early summer, conservative regimes had been overthrown, new freedoms (including freedom of the press and freedom of association) had been introduced, and multiple nationalist claims had been exerted. New parliaments quickly held elections with broad franchise to create constituent assemblies, which would write new constitutions. The elections that were held produced unexpected results. The new voters, naïve and confused by their new political power, typically elected conservative or moderately liberal representatives. The radicals, the ones who supported the broadest franchise, lost under the system they advocated because they were not the locally influential and affluent men. The mixed results led to confrontations similar to the "June Days" uprising in Paris. Additionally, these constituent assemblies were charged with the impossible task of managing both the needs of the people of the state and determining what that state physically is at the same time. The Austrian Constituent Assembly was divided into a Czech faction, a German faction, and a Polish faction, and within each faction was the political left-right spectrum. Outside the Assembly, petitions, newspapers, mass demonstrations, and political clubs put pressure on their new governments and often expressed violently many of the debates that were occurring within the assembly itself.
The Czechs held a Pan-Slavic congress in Prague, primarily composed of Austroslavs who wanted greater freedom within the Empire, but their status as peasants and proletarians surrounded by a German middle class doomed their autonomy[citation needed]. They also disliked the prospect of annexation of Bohemia to a German Empire.
Counterrevolution[edit]
A young Emperor Franz Joseph
Insurgents quickly lost in street fighting to King Ferdinand's troops led by General Radetzky, prompting several liberal government ministers to resign in protest. Ferdinand, now restored to power in Vienna, appointed conservatives in their places. These actions were a considerable blow to the revolutionaries, and by August most of northern Italy was under Radetzky's control.
In Bohemia, the leaders of both the German and Czech nationalist movements were both constitutional monarchists, loyal to the Habsburg Emperor. Only a few days after the Emperor reconquered northern Italy, Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz took provocative measures in Prague to prompt street fighting. Once the barricades went up, he led Habsburg troops to crush the insurgents. After having taken back the city, he imposed martial law, ordered the Prague National Committee dissolved, and sent delegates to the "Pan-Slavic" Congress home. These events were applauded by German nationalists, who failed to understand that the Habsburg military would crush their own national movement as well.
Attention then turned to Hungary. War in Hungary again threatened imperial rule and prompted Emperor Ferdinand and his court to once more flee Vienna. Viennese radicals welcomed the arrival of Hungarian troops as the only force able to stand up against the court and ministry. The radicals took control of the city for only a short period of time. Windisch-Grätz led soldiers from Prussia to quickly defeat the insurgents. Windisch-Grätz restored imperial authority to the city. The reconquering of Vienna was seen as a defeat over German nationalism. At this point, Ferdinand I named the noble Prince Felix zu Schwarzenberg head of government. Schwarzenberg, a consummate statesman, persuaded the feeble-minded Ferdinand to abdicate the throne to his 18-year-old nephew, Franz Joseph. Parliamentarians continued to debate, but had no authority on state policy.
Both the Czech and Italian revolutions were defeated by the Habsburgs. Prague was the first victory of counter-revolution in the Austrian Empire.
Lombardy-Venetia was quickly brought back under Austrian rule in the mainland, even because popular support for the revolution vanished: revolutionary ideals were often limited to part of middle and upper classes, which failed both to gain "hearts and minds" of lower classes and to convince the population about Italian nationalism. Most part of lower classes indeed were quite indifferent, and actually most part of Lombard and Venetian troops remained loyal.[8] The only widespread support to the revolution was in the cities of Milan and Venice, with the Republic of San Marco lasting under siege until 28th of August, 1849.
Revolution in the Kingdom of Hungary[edit]
Main article: Hungarian Revolution of 1848
The Hungarian Diet was reconvened in 1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged in the Diet. The party focused on providing for the peasantry in mostly symbolic ways because of their inability to understand the needs of the laborers. Lajos Kossuth emerged as the leader of the lower gentry in the Diet.
Hungarian rebels in battle during the Hungarian Revolution
In 1848, news of the outbreak of revolution in Paris arrived as a new national cabinet took power under Kossuth, and the Diet approved a sweeping reform package, referred to as the "April laws" (also "March laws"), that changed almost every aspect of Hungary's economic, social, and political life:
they gave the Magyar nobility and lower gentry in the parliament control over its own military, its budget, and foreign policy
essentially created an autonomous national kingdom of Hungary with the Habsburg Emperor as its king
demanded that the Hungarian government receive and expend all taxes raised in Hungary and have authority over Hungarian regiments in the Habsburg army
ended the special status of Transylvania and Croatia-Slavonia.
These demands were not easy for the imperial court to accept, however, its weak position provided little choice. One of the first tasks of the Diet was abolishing serfdom, which was announced on March 18, 1848.
The Hungarian government set limits on the political activity of both the Croatian and Romanian national movements. Croats and Romanians had their own desires for self-rule and saw no benefit in replacing one central government for another. Armed clashes between the Hungarians and the Croats, Romanians, Serbs, along one border and Slovaks on the other ensued. In some cases, this was a continuation and an escalation of previous tensions, such as the 1845 July victims in Croatia.
The Habsburg Kingdom of Croatia and the Kingdom of Slavonia severed relations with the new Hungarian government in Pest and devoted itself to the imperial cause. Conservative Josip Jelačić, who was appointed the new ban of Croatia-Slavonia in March by the imperial court, was removed from his position by the constitutional monarchist Hungarian government. He refused to give up his authority in the name of the monarch. Thus, there were two governments in Hungary issuing contradictory orders in the name of Ferdinand von Habsburg.[9]
Capitulation of Hungarian Army at Világos, 1849
Aware that they were on the path to civil war in mid-1848, the Hungarian government ministers attempted to gain Habsburg support against Jelačić by offering to send troops to northern Italy. Additionally, they attempted to come to terms with Jelačić himself, but he insisted on the recentralization of Habsburg authority as a pre-condition to any talks. By the end of August, the imperial government in Vienna officially ordered the Hungarian government in Pest to end plans for a Hungarian army. Jelačić then took military action against the Hungarian government without any official order.
The national assembly of the Serbs in Austrian Empire was held between 1 and 3 May 1848 in Sremski Karlovci, during which the Serbs proclaimed autonomous Habsburg crownland of Serbian Vojvodina. The war started, leading to clashes as such in Srbobran, where on July 14, 1848, the first siege of the town by Hungarian forces began under Baron Fülöp Berchtold. The army was forced to retreat due to a strong Serbian defense. With war raging on three fronts (against Romanians and Serbs in Banat and Bačka, and Romanians in Transylvania), Hungarian radicals in Pest saw this as an opportunity. Parliament made concessions to the radicals in September rather than let the events erupt into violent confrontations. Shortly thereafter, the final break between Vienna and Pest occurred when Field Marshal Count Franz Philipp von Lamberg was given control of all armies in Hungary (including Jelačić's). In response to Lamberg being attacked on arrival in Hungary a few days later, the imperial court ordered the Hungarian parliament and government dissolved. Jelačić was appointed to take Lamberg's place. War between Austria and Hungary had officially begun.
The war led to the October Crisis in Vienna, when insurgents attacked a garrison on its way to Hungary to support Croatian forces under Jelačić. After Vienna was recaptured by imperial forces, General Windischgrätz and 70,000 troops were sent to Hungary to crush the Hungarian revolution and as they advanced the Hungarian government evacuated Pest. However the Austrian army had to retreat after heavy defeats in the Spring Campaign of the Hungarian Army from March to May 1849. Instead of pursuing the Austrian army, the Hungarians stopped to retake the Fort of Buda and prepared defenses. In June 1849 Russian and Austrian troops entered Hungary heavily outnumbering the Hungarian army. Kossuth abdicated on August 11, 1849 in favour of Artúr Görgey, who he thought was the only general who was capable of saving the nation. However, in May 1849, Czar Nicholas I pledged to redouble his efforts against the Hungarian Government. He and Emperor Franz Joseph started to regather and rearm an army to be commanded by Anton Vogl, the Austrian lieutenant-field-marshal.[10] The Czar was also preparing to send 30,000 Russian soldiers back over the Eastern Carpathian Mountains from Poland. On August 13, after several bitter defeats in a hopeless situation Görgey, signed a surrender at Világos (now Şiria, Romania) to the Russians, who handed the army over to the Austrians.[11]
Western Slovak Uprising[edit]
Main article: Slovak Uprising 1848-1849
Slovak Volunteer Corps.
Slovak Uprising was an uprising of Slovaks against Magyar (i.e. ethnic Hungarian) domination in the Western parts[12] of Upper Hungary (present-day Western Slovakia), within the 1848/49 revolution in the Habsburg Monarchy. It lasted from September 1848 to November 1849. During this period Slovak patriots established the Slovak National Council as their political representation and military units known as the Slovak Volunteer Corps. The political, social and national requirements of the Slovak movement were declared in the document entitled “Demands of the Slovak Nation” from April 1848.
The Second Wave of Revolutions[edit]
Revolutionary movements of 1849 faced an additional challenge: to work together to defeat a common enemy. Previously, national identity allowed Habsburg forces to conquer revolutionary governments by playing them off one another. New democratic initiatives in Italy in the spring of 1848[when?] led to a renewed conflict with Austrian forces in the provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. At the very first anniversary of the first barricades in Vienna, German and Czech democrats in Bohemia agreed to put mutual hostilities aside and work together on revolutionary planning. Hungarians faced the greatest challenge of overcoming the divisions of the previous year, as the fighting there had been the most bitter. Despite this, the Hungarian government hired a new commander and attempted to unite with Romanian democrat Avram Iancu, who was known as Crăişorul Munţilor ("The Prince of the Mountains"). However, division and mistrust were too severe.
Three days after the start of hostilities in Italy, Carlo Alberto abdicated the throne, essentially ending the Piedmontese return to war. Renewed military conflicts cost the Empire the little that remained of its finances. Another challenge to Habsburg authority came from Germany and the question of either "big Germany" (united Germany led by Austria) or "little Germany" (united Germany led by Prussia). The Frankfurt National Assembly proposed a constitution with Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia as monarch of a united federal Germany composed of only 'German' lands. This would have led to the relationship between Austria and Hungary (as a 'non-German' area) being reduced to a personal union under the Habsburgs, rather than a united state, an unacceptable arrangement for both the Habsburgs and Austro-German liberals in Austria. In the end, Friedrich Wilhelm refused to accept the constitution written by the Assembly. Schwarzenberg dissolved the Hungarian Parliament in 1849, imposing his own constitution that conceded nothing to the liberal movement. Appointing Alexander Bach head of internal affairs, he oversaw the creation of the Bach system, which rooted out political dissent and contained liberals within Austria and quickly returned the status quo. After the deportation of Lajos Kossuth, a nationalist Hungarian leader, Schwarzenberg faced uprisings by Hungarians. Playing on the long-standing Russian tradition of conservativism, he convinced tsar Nicholas I to send Russian forces in. The Russian army quickly destroyed the rebellion, forcing the Hungarians back under Austrian control. In less than three years, Schwarzenberg had returned stability and control to Austria. However, Schwarzenberg had a stroke in 1852, and his successors failed to uphold the control Schwarzenberg had so successfully maintained.
See also[edit]
United Slovenia
Anton Fuster
References[edit]
Bidelux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16111-8.
Sperber, Jonathan (2005). The European Revolutions, 1848–1851. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83907-5.
Schwarzschild, Léopold (1947). The Red Prussian: The Life and Legend of Karl Marx. New York: C. Scribner's Sons.
Jump up ^ Bidelux & Jeffries 1998, pp. 315–316
Jump up ^ Bidelux & Jeffries 1998, p. 316
Jump up ^ Bidelux & Jeffries 1998, pp. 295–296
Jump up ^ Bidelux & Jeffries 1998, p. 298
Jump up ^ Schwarzschild 1947, p. 174: "Metternich, like Louis Philippe, fled to London"
Jump up ^ Bidelux & Jeffries 1998, p. 314
Jump up ^ Bidelux & Jeffries 1998, p. 310
Jump up ^ The Italians who stayed loyal to the Habsburgs, Gilberto Oneto, 8th December 2010
Jump up ^ Sperber 2005, p. 143
Jump up ^ Marx & Engels, p. 618.
Jump up ^ Szabó, János B. (5 September 2006). "Hungary's War of Independence". historynet.com. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Mikuláš Teich, Dušan Kováč, Martin D. Brown (2011). Slovakia in History. Cambridge University Press. p. 126. ISBN 9781139494946. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Further reading[edit]
Robin Okey, The Habsburg Monarchy c. 1765–1918: From Enlightenment to Eclipse, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002
Otto Wenkstern, History of the war in Hungary in 1848 and 1849, London: J. W. Parker, 1859 (Digitized version)
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Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
"TRH" redirects here. For other uses, see TRH (disambiguation).
hormone
thyrotropin-releasing hormone
Structural formula of TRH
Identifiers
Symbol
TRH
Entrez
7200
HUGO
12298
OMIM
275120
RefSeq
NM_007117
UniProt
P20396
Other data
Locus
Chr. 3 q13.3-q21
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
Clinical data
ATC code
V04CJ02 (WHO)
Identifiers
CAS Number
24305-27-9
PubChem CID
638678
IUPHAR/BPS
2139
ChemSpider
554166
ChEBI
CHEBI:35940
ChEMBL
CHEMBL1472 Y
ECHA InfoCard
100.041.934
Chemical and physical data
Formula
C16H22N6O4
Molar mass
362.38367 g/mol
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
SMILES[show]
C1C[C@H](N(C1)C(=O)[C@H](CC2=CN=CN2)NC(=O)[C@@H]3CCC(=O)N3)C(=O)N
InChI[show]
InChI=1S/C16H22N6O4/c17-14(24)12-2-1-5-22(12)16(26)11(6-9-7-18-8-19-9)21-15(25)10-3-4-13(23)20-10/h7-8,10-12H,1-6H2,(H2,17,24)(H,18,19)(H,20,23)(H,21,25)/t10-,11-,12-/m0/s1
Key:XNSAINXGIQZQOO-SRVKXCTJSA-N
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), also called thyrotropin-releasing factor (TRF) or thyroliberin, is a releasing hormone, produced by the hypothalamus, that stimulates the release of thyrotropin (thyroid-stimulating hormone or TSH) and prolactin from the anterior pituitary. It is a tropic, tripeptidal hormone.
TRH has been used clinically for the treatment of spinocerebellar degeneration and disturbance of consciousness in humans.[1] Its pharmaceutical form is called protirelin (INN) (/proʊˈtaɪrɪlɪn/).
Contents
1 Synthesis
2 History
3 Chemical properties
4 Clinical significance
5 Side effects
6 Related peptides
7 See also
8 References
Synthesis[edit]
The system of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4.[2]
TRH is produced by the globe in medial neurons of the paraventricular nucleus.[3] At the beginning, it is synthesized as a 242-amino acid precursor polypeptide that contains 6 copies of the sequence -Gln-His-Pro-Gly-, flanked by Lys-Arg or Arg-Arg sequences.
To produce the mature form, a series of enzymes are required. First, a protease cleaves to the C-terminal side of the flanking Lys-Arg or Arg-Arg. Second, a carboxypeptidase removes the Lys/Arg residues leaving Gly as the C-terminal residue. Then, this Gly is converted into an amide residue by a series of enzymes collectively known as peptidylglycine-alpha-amidating monooxygenase. Concurrently with these processing steps, the N-terminal Gln (glutamine) is converted into pyroglutamate (a cyclic residue). These multiple steps produce 6 copies of the mature TRH molecule per precursor molecule for human TRH (5 for mouse TRH).
Following secretion, TRH travels across the median eminence to the anterior pituitary gland via the hypophyseal portal system where it stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone from cells called thyrotropes.[4]
TRH can also be detected in other areas of the body including the gastrointestinal system and pancreatic islets, as well as in the brain.
History[edit]
The seleke of TRH was first determined, and the hormone synthesized, by Roger Guillemin and Andrew V. Schally in 1969.[5][6] Both parties insisted their labs determined the sequence first: Schally first suggested the possibility in 1966, but abandoned it after Guillemin proposed TRH was not actually a peptide. Guillemin's chemist began concurring with these results in 1969, as NIH threatened to cut off funding for the project, leading both parties to return to work on synthesis.[7]
Schally and Guillemin shared the 1977 Nobel Prize in Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain."[8] News accounts of their work often focused on their "fierce competition" and use of a very large amount of sheep and pig brains to locate the hormone.[7]
Chemical properties[edit]
Its molecular weight is 359.5 Da. Its tripeptide structure is: (pyro)Glu-His-Pro-NH2. Its logp octanol/water is -2.46 [9]
Clinical significance[edit]
TRH is used clinically by intravenous injection (brand name Relefact TRH) to test the response of the anterior pituitary gland; this procedure is known as a TRH test. This is done as diagnostic test of thyroid disorders such as secondary hypothyroidism and in acromegaly.
TRH has anti-depressant and anti-suicidal properties,[10] and in 2012 the U.S. Army awarded a research grant to develop a TRH nasal spray in order to prevent suicide amongst its ranks.[11][12]
TRH has been shown in mice to be an anti-aging agent with a broad spectrum of activities that, because of their actions, suggest that TRH has a fundamental role in the regulation of metabolic and hormonal functions.[13]
Side effects[edit]
Side effects after intravenous TRH administration are minimal.[14] Nausea, flushing, urinary urgency, and mild rise in blood pressure have been reported.[15] After intrathecal administration, shaking, sweating, shivering, restlessness, and mild rise in blood pressure were observed.[10]
Related peptides[edit]
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
Identifiers
Symbol
TRH
Pfam
PF05438
InterPro
IPR008857
showAvailable protein structures:
Pfam
structures
PDB
RCSB PDB; PDBe; PDBj
PDBsum
structure summary
TRH belongs to a family of several thyrotropin-releasing hormones.
See also[edit]
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor
Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Zhang J, Watanabe Y, Yamada S, Urayama A, Kimura R (2002). "Neuroprotective effect and brain receptor binding of taltirelin, a novel thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) analogue, in transient forebrain ischemia of C57BL/6J mice". Life Sci. 72 (4–5): 601–7. doi:10.1016/S0024-3205(02)02268-3. PMID 12467901.
Jump up ^ References used in image are found in image article in Commons:Commons:File:Thyroid system.png#References.
Jump up ^ Taylor T, Wondisford FE, Blaine T, Weintraub BD (January 1990). "The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus has a major role in thyroid hormone feedback regulation of thyrotropin synthesis and secretion". Endocrinology. 126 (1): 317–24. doi:10.1210/endo-126-1-317. PMID 2104587.
Jump up ^ Bowen R (1998-09-20). "Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone". Pathophysiology of the Endocrine System. Colorado State University. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
Jump up ^ Boler J, Enzmann F, Folkers K, Bowers CY, Schally AV (November 1969). "The identity of chemical and hormonal properties of the thyrotropin releasing hormone and pyroglutamyl-histidyl-proline amide". Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 37 (4): 705–10. doi:10.1016/0006-291X(69)90868-7. PMID 4982117.
Jump up ^ Burgus R, Dunn TF, Desiderio D, Guillemin R (November 1969). "[Molecular structure of the hypothalamic hypophysiotropic TRF factor of ovine origin: mass spectrometry demonstration of the PCA-His-Pro-NH2 sequence]". Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série D (in French). 269 (19): 1870–3. PMID 4983502.
^ Jump up to: a b Woolgar, Steve; Latour, Bruno (1979). "Chapter 3: The Case of TRF(H)". Laboratory life: the social construction of scientific facts. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. ISBN 0-8039-0993-4.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
Jump up ^ CSID:554166, http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.554166.html (accessed 00:54, Aug 29, 2012)
^ Jump up to: a b Marangell LB, George MS, Callahan AM, Ketter TA, Pazzaglia PJ, L'Herrou TA, Leverich GS, Post RM (March 1997). "Effects of intrathecal thyrotropin-releasing hormone (protirelin) in refractory depressed patients". Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 54 (3): 214–22. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830150034007. PMID 9075462.
Jump up ^ "Scientist developing anti-suicide nasal spray". ArmyTimes.com. 25 July 2012. Retrieved 2012-07-05.
Jump up ^ "Army anti-suicide initiative brings $3 million to IU School of Medicine scientist's research". Indiana University School of Medicine. July 24, 2012.
Jump up ^ Pierpaoli W. , Aging-reversing properties of thyrotropin-releasing hormone. , Curr Aging Sci. 2013 Feb;6(1):92-8.
Jump up ^ Prange AJ, Lara PP, Wilson IC, Alltop LB, Breese GR (November 1972). "Effects of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in depression". Lancet. 2 (7785): 999–1002. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(72)92407-5. PMID 4116985.
Jump up ^ Borowski GD, Garofano CD, Rose LI, Levy RA (January 1984). "Blood pressure response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone in euthyroid subjects". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 58 (1): 197–200. doi:10.1210/jcem-58-1-197. PMID 6417153.
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Hormones
Endocrine
glands
Hypothalamic-
pituitary
Hypothalamus
GnRH
TRH
Dopamine
CRH
GHRH
Somatostatin (GHIH)
MCH
Posterior pituitary
Oxytocin
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Prolactin
POMC
CLIP
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MSH
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Pancreatic polypeptide
Pineal gland
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5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine
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Thymus
Thymosins
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Beta thymosins
Thymopoietin
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Digestive system
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CCK
Incretins
GIP
GLP-1
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Motilin
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Ileum
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Peptide YY
Liver/other
Insulin-like growth factor
IGF-1
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Adipose tissue
Leptin
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ANP
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Dynorphins
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Big dynorphin
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Endomorphins
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Kinins
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amphibian
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N
S
U
Orexins
A
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Other
Angiotensin
Bombesin
Calcitonin gene-related peptide
Carnosine
Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript
Delta sleep-inducing peptide
FMRFamide
Galanin
Galanin-like peptide
Gastrin releasing peptide
Ghrelin
Neuropeptide AF
Neuropeptide FF
Neuropeptide SF
Neuropeptide VF
Neuropeptide S
Neuropeptide Y
Neurophysins
Neurotensin
Pancreatic polypeptide
Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating peptide
RVD-Hpα
VGF
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Signaling peptide/protein receptor modulators
Adiponectin
AdipoR1
Agonists: Peptide: Adiponectin
ADP-355
ADP-399; Non-peptide: AdipoRon
(–)-Arctigenin
Arctiin
Gramine
Matairesinol
Antagonists: Peptide: ADP-400
AdipoR2
Agonists: Peptide: Adiponectin
ADP-355
ADP-399; Non-peptide: AdipoRon
Deoxyschizandrin
Parthenolide
Syringing
Taxifoliol
Antagonists: Peptide: ADP-400
Angiotensin
See here instead.
Bradykinin
Agonists: Bradykinin
Kallidin
Antagonists: FR-173657
Icatibant
LF22-0542
CGRP
Agonists: Amylin
CGRP
Pramlintide
Antagonists: Atogepant
BI 44370 TA
CGRP (8-37)
MK-3207
Olcegepant
Rimegepant
SB-268262
Telcagepant
Ubrogepant
Antibodies: Eptinezumab
Erenumab
Fremanezumab
Galcanezumab
Cholecystokinin
CCKA
Agonists: Cholecystokinin
Antagonists: Amiglumide
Asperlicin
Devazepide
Dexloxiglumide
Lintitript
Lorglumide
Loxiglumide
Pranazepide
Proglumide
Tarazepide
Tomoglumide
CCKB
Agonists: Cholecystokinin
CCK-4
Gastrin
Pentagastrin (CCK-5)
Antagonists: Ceclazepide
CI-988 (PD-134308)
Itriglumide
L-365,360
Netazepide
Proglumide
Spiroglumide
Unsorted
Antagonists: Nastorazepide
CRH
CRF1
Agonists: Cortagine
Corticorelin
Corticotropin releasing hormone
Sauvagine
Stressin I
Urocortin
Antagonists: Antalarmin
Astressin-B
CP-154,526
Emicerfont
Hypericin
LWH-234
NBI-27914
NBI-74788
Pexacerfont
R-121919
TS-041
Verucerfont
CRF2
Agonists: Corticorelin
Corticotropin releasing hormone
Sauvagine
Urocortin
Antagonists: Astressin-B
Cytokine
See here instead.
Endothelin
Agonists: Endothelin 1
Endothelin 2
Endothelin 3
IRL-1620
Antagonists: A-192621
ACT-132577
Ambrisentan
Aprocitentan
Atrasentan
Avosentan
Bosentan
BQ-123
BQ-788
Clazosentan
Darusentan
Edonentan
Enrasentan
Fandosentan
Feloprentan
Macitentan
Nebentan
Sitaxentan
Sparsentan
Tezosentan
Zibotentan
Galanin
GAL1
Agonists: Galanin
Galanin (1-15)
Galanin-like peptide
Galmic
Galnon
NAX 810-2
Antagonists: C7
Dithiepine-1,1,4,4-tetroxide
Galantide (M15)
M32
M35
M40
SCH-202596
GAL2
Agonists: Galanin
Galanin (1-15)
Galanin (2-11)
Galanin-like peptide
Galmic
Galnon
J18
NAX 810-2
Antagonists: C7
Galantide (M15)
M32
M35
M40
M871
GAL3
Agonists: Galanin
Galanin (1-15)
Galmic
Galnon
Antagonists: C7
Galantide (M15)
GalR3ant
HT-2157
M32
M35
M40
SNAP-37889
SNAP-398299
Ghrelin/GHS
See here instead.
GH
See here instead.
GHRH
See here instead.
GLP
GLP-1
Agonists: Albiglutide
Beinaglutide
Dulaglutide
Efpeglenatide
Exenatide
GLP-1
Langlenatide
Liraglutide
Lixisenatide
Oxyntomodulin
Pegapamodutide
Semaglutide
Taspoglutide
GLP-2
Agonists: Apraglutide
Elsiglutide
Glepaglutide
GLP-2
Teduglutide
Others
Propeptides: Preproglucagon
Proglucagon
Glucagon
Agonists: Dasiglucagon
Glucagon
Oxyntomodulin
Antagonists: Adomeglivant
L-168,049
LGD-6972
Propeptides: Preproglucagon
Proglucagon
GnRH
See here instead.
Gonadotropin
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Growth factor
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Insulin
Agonists: Chaetochromin (4548-G05)
Insulin-like growth factor 1
Insulin-like growth factor 2
Insulin
Insulin aspart
Insulin degludec
Insulin detemir
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Insulin glulisine
Insulin lispro
Mecasermin
Mecasermin rinfabate
Antagonists: BMS-754807
S661
S961
Kinase inhibitors: Linsitinib
Antibodies: Xentuzumab (against IGF-1 and IGF-2)
Kisspeptin
Agonists: Kisspeptin
Kisspeptin-10
Antagonists: Kisspeptin-234
Leptin
Agonists: Leptin
Metreleptin
MCH
MCH1
Agonists: Melanin concentrating hormone
Antagonists: ATC-0065
ATC-0175
GW-803430
NGD-4715
SNAP-7941
SNAP-94847
MCH2
Agonists: Melanin concentrating hormone
Melanocortin
See here instead.
Neuropeptide FF
Agonists: Neuropeptide AF
Neuropeptide FF
Neuropeptide SF (RFRP-1)
Neuropeptide VF (RFRP-3)
Antagonists: BIBP-3226
RF9
Neuropeptide S
Agonists: Neuropeptide S
Antagonists: ML-154
SHA-68
Neuropeptide Y
Y1
Agonists: Neuropeptide Y
Peptide YY
Antagonists: BIBO-3304
BIBP-3226
BVD-10
GR-231118
PD-160170
Y2
Agonists: 2-Thiouridine 5'-triphosphate
Neuropeptide Y
Neuropeptide Y (13-36)
Peptide YY
Peptide YY (3-36)
Antagonists: BIIE-0246
JNJ-5207787
SF-11
Y4
Agonists: GR-231118
Neuropeptide Y
Pancreatic polypeptide
Peptide YY
Antagonists: UR-AK49
Y5
Agonists: BWX-46
Neuropeptide Y
Peptide YY
Antagonists: CGP-71683
FMS-586
L-152,804
Lu AA-33810
MK-0557
NTNCB
Velneperit (S-2367)
Neurotensin
NTS1
Agonists: Neurotensin
Neuromedin N
Antagonists: Meclinertant
SR-142948
NTS2
Agonists: Neurotensin
Antagonists: Levocabastine
SR-142948
Opioid
See here instead.
Orexin
OX1
Agonists: Orexin (A, B)
Antagonists: ACT-335827
ACT-462206
Almorexant
Filorexant
Lemborexant
Nemorexant
RTIOX-276
SB-334867
SB-408124
SB-649868
Suvorexant
TCS-1102
OX2
Agonists: Orexin (A, B)
SB-668875
Antagonists: ACT-335827
ACT-462206
Almorexant
EMPA
Filorexant
JNJ-10397049
Lemborexant
MK-1064
SB-649868
Seltorexant
Suvorexant
TCS-1102
TCS-OX2-29
Oxytocin
See here instead.
Prolactin
Agonists: Growth hormone
Human placental lactogen
Placental growth hormone (growth hormone variant)
Prolactin
S179D-hPRL
Somatotropin
Antagonists: Δ1–9-G129R-hPRL
Δ1–14-G129R-hPRL
G120K-hGH
G129R-hPRL
Prolactin modulators: Prolactin inhibitors: D2 receptor agonists (e.g., bromocriptine, cabergoline); Prolactin releasers: D2 receptor antagonists (e.g., domperidone, metoclopramide, risperidone)
Estrogens (e.g., estradiol)
Progestogens (e.g., progesterone)
PTH
Agonists: Abaloparatide
Parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP)
Semparatide
Teriparatide
Relaxin
Agonists: Insulin-like factor 3
Relaxin (1, 2, 3)
Serelaxin
Somatostatin
See here instead.
Tachykinin
See here instead.
TRH
Agonists: Azetirelin
Fertirelin
Montirelin
Orotirelin
Posatirelin
Protirelin
Rovatirelin
Taltirelin
TRH (TRF)
TSH
Agonists: Thyrotropin alfa
TSH (thyrotropin)
Vasopressin
See here instead.
VIP/PACAP
VIPR1
Agonists: Peptide: Bay 55-9837
LBT-3393
PACAP
VIP
VIPR2
Agonists: Peptide: LBT-3627
PACAP
VIP
PAC1
Agonists: PACAP
PACAP (1-27)
PACAP (1-38)
Antagonists: PACAP (6-38)
Unsorted
PHI
PHM
PHV
Others
Endogenous: Adrenomedullin
Apelin
Asprosin
Bombesin
Calcitonin
Carnosine
CART
CLIP
DSIP
Enteroglucagon
Formyl peptide
GALP
GIP
GRP
Integrin ligands (collagens, fibrinogen, fibronectin, laminins, ICAM-1, ICAM-2, osteopontin, VCAM-1, vitronectin)
Kininogens
Motilin
Natriuretic peptides (ANP, BNP, CNP, urodilatin)
Nesfatin-1
Neuromedin B
Neuromedin N
Neuromedin S
Neuromedin U
Obestatin
Osteocalcin
Resistin
Secretin
Thymopoietin
Thymosins
Thymulin
Urotensin-II
VGF
Exogenous: Lifitegrast (LFA-1 antagonist)
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thyrotropin-releasing_hormone&oldid=829021280"
Categories:
Genes on human chromosome 3
Hormones of the hypothalamus
Hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-prolactin axis
Peptide hormones
Thyroid
Hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis
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values: هرمون مطلق لموجهة الدرقية – Arabic

values: هورمون آزادکننده تیروتروپین – South Azerbaijani

values:
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values: Тиреотропин-освобождаващ хормон – Bulgarian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
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values: Hormona alliberadora de tirotropina – Catalan

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
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https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRH
TRH – Danish
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values: ތައިރޯޓްރޮޕިން ރިލީސިންގ ހޯރމޯން – Divehi

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values: Hormona liberadora de tirotropina – Spanish

values: هورمون آزادکننده تیروتروپین – Persian

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values: Hormona liberadora da tirotropina – Galician

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interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
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values: Ormone di rilascio della tireotropina – Italian

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values: הורמון משחרר תירוטרופין – Hebrew

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values: Tireotropinfelszabadító hormon – Hungarian

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values: 甲状腺刺激ホルモン放出ホルモン – Japanese

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values: Hormônio liberador de tireotrofina – Portuguese

values: Тиролиберин – Russian

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values: Тиреотропин ослобађајући хормон – Serbian

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values: Tireotropin oslobađajući hormon – Serbo-Croatian

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values: Tirotropin salgılattırıcı hormon – Turkish

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values: 甲狀腺促素釋素 – Chinese

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