text:
Navigation Acts
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Navigation Acts were a series of English laws that restricted colonial trade to England. They were first enacted in 1651 and throughout that time until 1663,[1] and were repealed in 1849. They reflected the policy of mercantilism, which sought to keep all the benefits of trade inside the Empire, and to minimize the loss of gold and silver to foreigners. They prohibited the colonies from trading directly with the Netherlands, Spain, France, and their colonies. The original ordinance of 1651 was renewed at the Restoration by Acts of 1660, 1663, 1670, and 1673, with subsequent minor amendments. The Acts formed the basis for English overseas trade for nearly 200 years. Additionally the Acts restricted the employment of non-English sailors to a quarter of the crew on returning East India Company ships.
The major impetuses for the Navigation Acts were the ruinous deterioration of English trade in the aftermath of the Eighty Years' War, and the concomitant lifting of the Spanish embargoes on trade between the Spanish Empire and the Dutch Republic. The end of the embargoes in 1647 unleashed the full power of the Amsterdam Entrepôt and other Dutch competitive advantages in world trade. Within a few years, English merchants had practically been overwhelmed in the trade in the Iberian Peninsula, the Mediterranean and the Levant. Even the trade with English colonies (partly still in the hands of the royalists, as the English Civil War was in its final stages and the Commonwealth of England had not yet imposed its authority throughout the English colonies) was "engrossed" by Dutch merchants. English direct trade was crowded out by a sudden influx of commodities from the Levant, Mediterranean and the Spanish and Portuguese empires, and the West Indies via the Dutch Entrepôt, carried in Dutch ships and for Dutch account.[2]
The obvious solution seemed to be to seal off the English and Scottish markets to these unwanted imports. A precedent was the Act the Greenland Company had obtained from Parliament in 1645 prohibiting the import of whale products into England, except in ships owned by that company. This principle was now generalised. In 1648 the Levant Company petitioned Parliament for the prohibition of imports of Turkish goods "...from Holland and other places but directly from the places of their growth."[3] Baltic traders added their voices to this chorus. In 1650 the Standing Council for Trade and the Council of State of the Commonwealth prepared a general policy designed to impede the flow of Mediterranean and colonial commodities via Holland and Zeeland into England.[4]
On the whole, the Acts of Trade and Navigation were obeyed, except for the Molasses Act of 1733, which led to extensive smuggling because no effective means of enforcement was provided until the 1750s. Stricter enforcement under the Sugar Act of 1764 became one source of resentment of Great Britain by merchants in the American colonies. This in turn helped push the colonies to start the American Revolution in the late 18th century, even though the consensus view among modern economic historians and economists is that the "costs imposed on [American] colonists by the trade restrictions of the Navigation Acts were small."[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical precedents
2 Navigation Act 1651
3 The Navigation Acts
3.1 Molasses Act 1733
3.2 Repeal
4 Effects on Britain
5 Effects on American colonies
6 Notes
7 References
7.1 Econometric studies
8 External links
Historical precedents[edit]
Some principles of English mercantile legislation pre-date both the passage of the 1651 navigation act and the settlement of its early foreign possessions. A 1381 act passed under King Richard II provided "that, to increase the navy of England, no goods or merchandises shall be either exported or imported, but only in ships belonging to the King's subjects." The letters patent granted to the Cabots by Henry VII in 1498, stipulated that the commerce resulting from their discoveries must be with England, (specifically Bristol).[6] Henry VIII established a second principle by statute, that such a vessel must be English-built and a majority of the crew must be English-born. Legislation during the reign of Elizabeth I also dealt with these questions and resulted in a large increase for English merchant shipping.[7] Soon after actual settlements had been made in America, these early requirements illustrate the English theory then-held regarding the governmental control of maritime commerce.[8]
With the establishment of overseas colonies a distinct colonial policy began to develop, and the principles embodied in the early Navigation and Trade Acts also had some more immediate precedents in the provisions of the charters granted to the London and Plymouth Company, in the various royal patents later bestowed by Charles I and Charles II, as well as in the early regulations concerning the tobacco trade, the first profitable colonial export. An order in council of October 24, 1621 prohibited the Virginia colony to export tobacco and other commodities to foreign countries.[9] The London Company lost its charter in 1624; the same year a proclamation, followed by orders in council, prohibited the use of foreign ships for the Virginia tobacco trade.[7] These early companies held the monopoly on trade with their plantation; this meant that the developed commerce was to be England's. The Crown's purpose was to restrict for England the future commerce with America; it is well shown in the patent granted by Charles I to William Berkeley in 1639, by which the patentee was "to oblige the masters of vessels, freighted with productions of the colony, to give bond before their departure to bring same into England ... and to forbid all trade with foreign vessels, except upon necessity."[8]
As early as 1641 some English merchants urged that these rules be embodied in an act of Parliament, and during the Long Parliament, movement began in that direction. The Ordinance for Free Trade with the plantations in New England was passed in November 1644. In 1645, to both conciliate the colonies and encourage English shipping, the Long Parliament prohibited the shipment of whalebone, except in English-built ships;[10] they later prohibited the importation of French wine, wool, and silk from France;[11] More generally and significantly on 23 January 1647, they passed the Ordinance granting privileges for the encouragement of Adventurers to plantations in Virginia, Bermudas, Barbados, and other places of America; it enacted that for three years no export duty be levied on goods intended for the colonies, provided they were forwarded in English vessels.[7] Adam Anderson notes this law also included "security being given here, and certificates from thence, that the said goods be really exported thither. and for the only use of the said plantations;" He concludes: "Hereby the foundation was laid for the navigation acts afterward, which may be justly termed the Commercial Palladium of Britain."[12]
The English were well aware of their inferior competitive trading position. Three acts of the Rump parliament in 1650 and 1651 are notable in the historical development of England's commercial and colonial programs. These include the first Commission of Trade to be established by an Act of Parliament on 1 August 1650, to advance and regulate national trade.[13] The instructions to the named commissioners included consideration of both domestic and foreign trade, the trading companies, manufactures, free ports, customs, excise, statistics, coinage and exchange, and fisheries, but also the plantations and the best means of promoting their welfare and rendering them useful to England. This act's statesmanlike and comprehensive instructions, was followed by the October act prohibiting trade with pro-royalist colonies and the first Navigation Act of the following October. These acts formed the first definitive expression of England's commercial policy. They represent the first attempt to establish a legitimate control of commercial and colonial affairs, and the instructions indicate the beginnings of a policy which had the prosperity and wealth of England exclusively at heart.[14] The 1650 act prohibiting trade with royalist colonies was more encompassing however, because it included that all foreign ships were prohibited from trading with any English Plantations, without license, and it was made lawful to seize and make prizes of any ships violating the act. While this act, sometimes referred to as the Navigation Act of 1650, was hastily passed as a war measure during the English Civil Wars, it would be followed by a carefully conceived act in the following year.[8]
Navigation Act 1651[edit]
For more details on this topic, see First Anglo-Dutch War.
The Navigation Act was passed on 9 October 1651[15] by the Rump Parliament led by Oliver Cromwell. It authorised the Commonwealth to regulate trade within the colonies.[16] It reinforced a long-standing principle of government policy that English trade should be carried in English vessels. It was a reaction to the failure of the English diplomatic mission (led by Oliver St John and Walter Strickland) to The Hague seeking a political union of the Commonwealth with the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, after the States of Holland had made some cautious overtures to Cromwell to counter the monarchical aspirations of stadtholder William II of Orange.[17] The stadtholder had suddenly died, however, and the States were now embarrassed by Cromwell taking the idea too seriously. The English proposed the joint conquest of all remaining Spanish and Portuguese possessions. England would take America and the Dutch would take Africa and Asia. But the Dutch had just ended their war with Spain and already taken over most Portuguese colonies in Asia, so they saw little advantage in this grandiose scheme and proposed a free trade agreement as an alternative to a full political union. This again was unacceptable to the British, who would be unable to compete on such a level playing field, and was seen by them as a deliberate affront.
The Act banned foreign ships from transporting goods from outside Europe to England or its colonies, and banned third-party countries' ships from transporting goods from a country elsewhere in Europe to England. These rules specifically targeted the Dutch, who controlled much of Europe's international trade and even much of England's coastal shipping. It excluded the Dutch from essentially all trade with England, as the Dutch economy was competitive with, not complementary to the English, and the two countries therefore exchanged few commodities. This Anglo-Dutch trade, however, constituted only a small fraction of total Dutch trade flows. The Act is often mentioned as a major cause of the First Anglo-Dutch War, though it was only part of a larger British policy to engage in war after the negotiations had failed. The English naval victories in 1653 (the Battles of Portland, the Gabbard and the Scheveningen) showed the supremacy of the Commonwealth navy in home waters. However, farther afield the Dutch predominated and were able to close down English commerce in the Baltic and the Mediterranean. Both countries held each other in a stifling embrace.[18]
The Treaty of Westminster (1654) ended the impasse. The Dutch failed to have the Act repealed or amended, but it seems to have had relatively little influence on their trade. The Act offered England only limited solace. It could not limit the deterioration of England's overseas trading position, except in the cases where England herself was the principal consumer, such as the Canaries wine trade and the trade in Puglian olive oil. In the trade with the West Indies, the Dutch kept up a flourishing "smuggling" trade, thanks to the preference of English planters for Dutch import goods and the better deal the Dutch offered in the sugar trade. The Dutch colony of New Netherlands offered a loophole (through intercolonial trade) wide enough to drive a shipload of Virginian tobacco through.[19]
The Navigation Acts[edit]
The 1651 Act (like other laws of the Commonwealth period) was declared void on the Restoration of Charles II, having been passed by 'usurping powers'. Parliament therefore passed new legislation. This is generally referred to as the "Navigation Acts", and (with some amendments) remained in force for nearly two centuries.
The Navigation Act 1660 (passed on 13 September) added a twist to Oliver Cromwell's Act: ships' crews had to be three-quarters English, and "enumerated" products not produced by the mother country, such as tobacco, cotton, and sugar were to be shipped from the colonies only to England or other English colonies. Ship captains were required to post a bond to ensure compliance and could recoup the funds upon arrival.[20]
The Navigation Act 1663 (also called the Act for the Encouragement of Trade, passed on 27 July) required all European goods bound for America (or other colonies) to be shipped through England first.[20] In England, the goods would be unloaded, inspected, paid duties, approved, and finally reloaded. The trade had to be carried in English vessels ("bottoms"), which included those of its colonies. Furthermore, imports of 'enumerated commodities' (such as sugar, rice, and tobacco) had to be landed and pay tax before going on to other countries. This increased the cost to the colonies, and increased the shipping time. "England" here includes Wales, though it was little involved in trade to distant parts. After the Act of Union 1707, Scotland enjoyed the same privileges.
This Act entitled colonial shipping and seamen to enjoy the full benefits of the exclusive provisions. There was no bar put in the way of colonists who might wish to trade in their own shipping with foreign plantations or European countries other than England, provided they did not violate the enumerated commodity clause.[21] "English bottoms" included vessels built in English plantations (i.e. colonies), for example in America. Further Navigation Acts were passed in 1673 to close a loophole and in 1696 to strengthen enforcement.[20]
The Acts were in full force for a short time only. After the Second Anglo-Dutch War, which ended disastrously for England, the Dutch obtained the right to ship commodities produced in their German hinterland to England as if these were Dutch goods. Even more importantly, England conceded the principle of "free ship, free good" which provided freedom from molestation by the Royal Navy of Dutch shipping on the high seas in wars in which the Dutch Republic was neutral. This more or less gave the Dutch freedom to conduct their "smuggling" unhindered as long as they were not caught red-handed in territorial waters controlled by England. These provisions were reconfirmed in the Treaty of Westminster (1674) after the Third Anglo-Dutch War.[22]
Molasses Act 1733[edit]
The 1733 Molasses Act levied heavy duties on the trade of sugar from the French West Indies to the American colonies, forcing the colonists to buy the more expensive sugar from the British West Indies instead. The law was widely flouted, but efforts by the British to prevent smuggling created hostility and contributed to the American Revolution. The Molasses Act was the first of the Sugar Acts. The Act was set to expire in 1763, but in 1764 it was renewed as the Sugar Act, which caused further unrest among the colonists.
Repeal[edit]
The Navigation Acts were repealed in 1849 under the influence of a free trade philosophy. The Navigation Acts were passed under the economic theory of mercantilism, under which wealth was to be increased by restricting colonial trade to the mother country rather than through free trade. By 1849 "a central part of British import strategy was to reduce the cost of food through cheap foreign imports and in this way to reduce the cost of maintaining labour power" (van Houten). Repealing the Navigation Acts along with the Corn Laws eventually served this purpose (towards the end of the century), but also led to the end of the formal empire[clarification needed] in favour of an informal empire, in which private enterprises under the British banner extended trading relations and opened new markets. The East India trading company is an excellent example of this, gaining full provincial control over Bengal and its sub-regions with the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad, while being governed privately rather than directly by the British government.
Effects on Britain[edit]
The Acts caused Britain's shipping industry to develop in isolation. However, it had the advantage to English shippers of severely limiting the ability of Dutch ships to participate in the carrying trade to England. By reserving British colonial trade to British shipping, the Acts may have significantly assisted in the growth of London as a major entrepôt for American colonial wares at the expense of Dutch cities. The maintenance of a certain level of merchant shipping and of trade generally also facilitated a rapid increase in the size and quality of the Royal Navy, which eventually (after the Anglo-Dutch Alliance of 1689 limited the Dutch navy to three-fifths of the size of the English one) led to Britain becoming a global superpower, which it remained until the mid-20th century. That naval might, however, never limited Dutch trading power — because the Dutch enjoyed enough leverage over overseas markets and shipping resources (combined with a financial power that was only overtaken by Britain during the 18th century) to enable them to put enough pressure on the English to prevent them from sustaining naval campaigns long enough to wrest maritime concessions from the Dutch.[23]
Effects on American colonies[edit]
The Navigation Acts, while enriching Britain, caused resentment in the colonies and contributed to the American Revolution. The Navigation Acts required all of a colony's imports to be either bought from England or resold by English merchants in England, no matter what price could be obtained elsewhere.
Historian Robert Thomas (1965) argues that the impact of the Acts on the economies of the 13 American colonies was minimal; the cost was about ₤4 per ₤1000 of income per year. The average personal income was about ₤100 per year.[24] However Ransom (1968) says that the net burden imposed by the Acts was small in size, yet their overall impact on the shape[clarification needed] and growth rate of the economy was significant. That was because the Acts differentially affected different groups, helping some and hurting others.[25] Walton concludes that the political friction caused by the Acts was more serious than the negative economic impact, especially since the merchants most affected were politically most active.[26] Sawers (1992) points out that the political issue is what would have been the future impact of the Acts after 1776[clarification needed] as the colonial economy matured and was blocked by the Acts from serious competition with British manufacturers.[27] In 1995, a random survey of 178 members of the Economic History Association found that 89 percent of economists and historians would generally agree that the "costs imposed on [American] colonists by the trade restrictions of the Navigation Acts were small."[28]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ V Bevan, The Development of British Immigration Law (1986) 91
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), pp. 305–309
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), p. 309
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), pp. 309–310
Jump up ^ Whaples, Robert (March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions". The Journal of Economic History. Cambridge University Press. 55 (1): 140. JSTOR 2123771. doi:10.1017/S0022050700040602 – via JSTOR. (Registration required (help)).
Jump up ^ 1498 - The letters patent of King Henry the Seventh Granted unto Iohn Cabot and his Three Sonnes, Lewis, Sebastian and Sancius for the Discouerie of New and Unknowen Lands; March 5
^ Jump up to: a b c Charles McLean Andrews, Colonial Self-Government, 1652-1689, p.10 (1904)
^ Jump up to: a b c Chapter III - The Commercial Policy of England Toward the American Colonies: the Acts of Trade, in Emory R. Johnson, T. W. Van Metre, G. G. Huebner, D. S. Hanchett, History of Domestic and Foreign Commerce of the United States - Vol. 1, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1915. – via Questia (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Charles M. Andrews, British Committees, Commissions and Councils of Trade and Plantations 1622-1675, 1908
Jump up ^ 6 May 1645 Ordinance to prevent the importation by foreigners of whale oil, fins or gills, commonly called whalebone.
Jump up ^ 28 August 1649 Act prohibiting the importation of any Wines of the Growth of France, and all manufactures of wool and silk made in France.
Jump up ^ Adam Anderson, An historical and chronological deduction of the origin of commerce: from the earliest accounts. ..., Vol. 2, p.404. Published 1787
Jump up ^ August 1650: An Act for the Advancing and Regulating of the Trade of this Commonwealth.
Jump up ^ Charles M. Andrews, British Committees, Commissions and Councils of Trade and Plantations 1622-1675, Chapter II, Control of Trade and Plantations During the Interregnum, p.24 (1908)
Jump up ^ Blair Worden (1977). The Rump Parliament 1648-53. Cambridge UP. p. 299.
Jump up ^ Pestana, Carla Gardina (2004). The English Atlantic in an Age of Revolution: 1640-1661. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press. p. 120.
Jump up ^ Godwin, William (1827). History of the Commonwealth of England Vol. 3. H. Colburn. pps.372-382.
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), p. 316
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), p.310-311
^ Jump up to: a b c Purvis, Thomas L. (23 April 1997). A dictionary of American history. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 278. ISBN 978-1-57718-099-9. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Craven, p. 35
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), pp. 316–317
Jump up ^ Israel (1997), pp. 317–318
Jump up ^ Thomas, Robert P. (1964). "A Quantitative Approach to the Study of the Effects of British Imperial Policy of Colonial Welfare: Some Preliminary Findings". Journal of Economic History. 25 (4): 615–638. JSTOR 2116133.
Jump up ^ Ransom, Roger L. (1968). "British Policy and Colonial Growth: Some Implications of the Burden from the Navigation Acts". Journal of Economic History. 28 (3): 427–35. JSTOR 2116467.
Jump up ^ Walton, Gary M. (1971). "The New Economic History and the Burdens of the Navigation Acts". Economic History Review. 24 (4): 533–542. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1971.tb00192.x.
Jump up ^ Sawers, Larry (1992). "The Navigation Acts revisited". Economic History Review. 45 (2): 262–284. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1992.tb01301.x.
Jump up ^ Whaples, Robert (March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions". The Journal of Economic History. Cambridge University Press. 55 (1): 140. JSTOR 2123771. doi:10.1017/S0022050700040602 – via JSTOR. (Registration required (help)).
References[edit]
Craven, Wesley Frank (1968). The Colonies in Transition. On North America
Clapham, J. H. (1910). "The last years of the Navigation Acts". English Historical Review. 25 (99): 480–501. JSTOR 549885. doi:10.1093/ehr/xxv.xcix.480.
Dickerson, Oliver Morton (1951). The Navigation Acts and the American Revolution.
Harper, Lawrence Averell (1959). The Effect of the Navigation Acts on the Thirteen Colonies.
Harper, Lawrence Averell (1939). The English Navigation Laws: A Seventeenth‐Century Experiment in Social Engineering.
Israel, J. I. (1997). "England's Mercantilist Response to Dutch World Trade Primacy, 1647–74". Conflicts of Empires. Spain, the Low Countries and the struggle for world supremacy 1585–1713. Hambledon Press. pp. 305–318. ISBN 1-85285-161-9.
Econometric studies[edit]
Loschky, David J. (1973). "Studies of the Navigation Acts: New Economic Non-History?". Economic History Review. 26 (4): 689–691. JSTOR 2593707. doi:10.2307/2593707.
Ransom, Roger L. (1968). "British Policy and Colonial Growth: Some Implications of the Burden from the Navigation Acts". Journal of Economic History. 28 (3): 427–35. JSTOR 2116467.
Sawers, Larry (1992). "The Navigation Acts revisited". Economic History Review. 45 (2): 262–284. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1992.tb01301.x.
Thomas, Robert P. (1964). "A Quantitative Approach to the Study of the Effects of British Imperial Policy of Colonial Welfare: Some Preliminary Findings". Journal of Economic History. 25 (4): 615–638. JSTOR 2116133.
Walton, Gary M. (1971). "The New Economic History and the Burdens of the Navigation Acts". Economic History Review. 24 (4): 533–542. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1971.tb00192.x.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Navigation Acts
Navigation Act 1651 at British-Civil-Wars.co.uk
[show]
v
t
e
United Kingdom legislation
Pre-Parliamentary legislation
List of English statutes
Charter of Liberties
Magna Carta
Acts of Parliament by states preceding
the Kingdom of Great Britain
Acts of the Parliament of England
to 1483
1485–1601
1603–1641
Interregnum (1642–1660)
1660–1699
1700–1706
Acts of the Parliament of Scotland
Acts of Parliament of the
Kingdom of Great Britain
1707–1719
1720–1739
1740–1759
1760–1779
1780–1800
Acts of the Parliament of Ireland
to 1700
1701–1800
Acts of Parliament of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland and the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
1801–1819
1820–1839
1840–1859
1860–1879
1880–1899
1900–1919
1920–1939
1940–1959
1960–1979
1980–1999
2000 to date
Halsbury's Statutes
Legislation.gov.uk
Short titles
Church of England measures
List
Church of England Assembly (Powers) Act 1919
Legislation of devolved institutions
Acts of the Scottish Parliament
List
Acts and Measures of the National Assembly for Wales
List
Acts of the Northern Ireland Assembly
Acts of the Parliament of Northern Ireland
Orders in Council for Northern Ireland
Orders-in-Council
Order in Council
Secondary legislation
United Kingdom Statutory Instruments
Scottish Statutory Instruments
Acts of Sederunt
Acts of Adjournal
Legislation relating to the European Union
1972 to date
[show]
v
t
e
British law and the American Revolution
Royal Proclamations, Acts of Parliament, and other legal issues relating to the American Revolution
Before 1763
Navigation Acts
Wool Act (1699)
Hat Act (1732)
Molasses Act (1733)
Iron Act (1750)
Grenville ministry
(1763–1765)
Royal Proclamation of 1763
Sugar Act (1764)
Currency Act (1764)
Quartering Act (1765)
Stamp Act (1765)
Rockingham ministry
(1765–1766)
Repeal Act (March 1766)
Declaratory Act (March 1766)
Revenue Act (June 1766)
Chatham and Grafton
ministries (1766–1770)
Townshend Acts (1767)
North ministry
(1770–1782)
Repeal Act (1770)
Tea Act (1773)
Coercive Acts (1774)
Conciliatory Resolution (February 1775)
Restraining Acts (March & April 1775)
Proclamation of Rebellion (August 1775)
Prohibitory Act (December 1775)
Taxation of Colonies Act (1778)
Other legal issues
Rights of Englishmen
Writ of assistance
Admiralty courts
Parson's Cause (1763)
Taxation without representation
[show]
v
t
e
Economy of the United Kingdom
Companies
Co-operatives
Employee-owned companies
FTSE 100 Index
FTSE 250 Index
FTSE Fledgling Index
FTSE SmallCap Index
Government-owned companies
Currency,
governance,
regulation
Bank of England
Governor of the Bank of England
Budget
Company law
Competition Commission
Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy
Financial Conduct Authority
Gilts
HM Revenue and Customs
HM Treasury
Chancellor of the Exchequer
Debt Management Office
Monetary Policy Committee
Office for Budget Responsibility
Office of Fair Trading
Pound sterling
Banknotes
Coinage
Taxation
UK Statistics Authority
UK Trade & Investment
History
Chronological
1659–1849 Navigation Acts
Agricultural Revolution
Industrial Revolution
Panic of 1796–97
1815–46 Corn Laws
New Imperialism 1830s–1945
Second Industrial Revolution 1860s–1914
1873–79 Long Depression
1926 general strike
1929–39 Great Depression
1948–52 Marshall Plan
1974 Three-Day Week
1979 Winter of Discontent
1986 Big Bang
1992 Black Wednesday
Late-2000s recession
2008 bank rescue package
2009 bank rescue package
Recurrent
Economic geography
Free trade
Gold standard
Recessions and recoveries
National champions policy
Economic liberalism
Privatisation
Nationalisation
Nations,
regions,
cities
England
Atlantic Gateway
Birmingham
Big City Plan
Bristol
Cornwall
Croydon
Croydon Vision 2020
Devon
Expansion plans for Milton Keynes
Fishing
Leeds
List of counties by GVA
Liverpool
London
East London Tech City
London Plan
M4 corridor
M11 Corridor
Manchester
Reading
Sheffield
Silicon Fen
Thames Gateway
Tourism
Transport
N. Ireland
Belfast
Transport
Scotland
Aberdeen
Agriculture
Edinburgh
Industrialisation
Fishing
Oil and gas
Renewable energy
Silicon Glen
Tourism
Transport
Whisky
Wales
Cardiff (Cardiff Bay)
Swansea
Tourism
Transport
People
and labour
Billionaires
Businesspeople
Demography
Income
Poverty
Labour law
Equal opportunities
Minimum wage
Working Time Directive
Pensions
Trades unions
Trades Union Congress
Unemployment
Sectors
Resource and
production
Energy/Renewable energy
Biodiesel
Coal
Geothermal
Fracking
Hydroelectricity
Marine
North Sea oil
Solar
Wind
Food
Agriculture
Cider
Wine
Beer
Fishing
English
Scottish
Materials
Forestry
Mining
Financial
services
Baltic Exchange
Banking
List of banks
List of UK building societies
Canary Wharf
The City
Royal Albert Dock (future)
Euronext.liffe
Glasgow International Financial Services District
Insurance
Lloyd's of London
LCH
London Interbank Offered Rate
London Metal Exchange
London Platinum and Palladium Market
London Stock Exchange
Alternative Investment Market
Other
Education
Entertainment & Media
Cinema
Gambling
Newspapers
Radio
Television
Theatre
Healthcare
Legal services
Manufacturing
Aerospace
Automotive
Pharmaceuticals
Exports
Property
Architecture
Construction
Housing
Real estate
Science and technology
Internet
Telecommunications
Supermarkets
Tourism
Transport
Aviation
Rail
Inter-city
High-speed
Trade and
business
organisations
Business organisations
British Bankers' Association
British Chambers of Commerce
Confederation of British Industry
Co-operatives UK
EEF
Federation of Small Businesses
Industry trade groups
Institute of Directors
UK Payments Administration
Category
Commons
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Navigation_Acts&oldid=804005152"
Categories:
Great Britain Acts of Parliament 1712
1651 in the Thirteen Colonies
1651 in England
Acts of the Parliament of England
Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain
Economic history of England
Economic nationalism
Laws leading to the American Revolution
English admiralty law
Repealed Great Britain Acts of Parliament
History of English colonialism
English nationalism
Economic history of Great Britain
Hidden categories:
Pages with login required references or sources
Subscription required using via
Pages containing links to subscription-only content
Articles lacking in-text citations from July 2015
All articles lacking in-text citations
Use British English from June 2012
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2016
Use dmy dates from June 2012
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikisource
Languages
Català
Čeština
Deutsch
Español
Français
한국어
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Polski
Português
Русский
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Suomi
ไทย
Türkçe
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 6 October 2017, at 02:09.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href title

value: b

values: Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check

value: span

value: small

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes

values:
/wiki/English_Empire
mw-redirect
English Empire

values:
/wiki/Board_of_Trade
mw-redirect
Board of Trade

values: An Act for prohibiting Trade with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego

values:
/wiki/English_Civil_Wars
mw-redirect
English Civil Wars

values: Republic of the Seven United Netherlands

values:
/wiki/States_of_Holland
mw-redirect
States of Holland

values:
/wiki/William_II_of_Orange
mw-redirect
William II of Orange

values:
/wiki/New_Netherlands
mw-redirect
New Netherlands

values:
/wiki/The_Restoration
mw-redirect
The Restoration

values:
/wiki/Act_of_Union_1707
mw-redirect
Act of Union 1707

values: The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2016)

values:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Effects on American colonies

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2123771

values: The site requires registration to access this page.

values: font-size:0.95em; font-size: 90%; color: #555

values:
/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_History
mw-redirect
Journal of Economic History

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2116133

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2116467

values:
/wiki/Economic_History_Review
mw-redirect
Economic History Review

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/English_Historical_Review
mw-redirect
English Historical Review

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/549885

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2Fxxv.xcix.480

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2593707

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F2593707

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of England

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of England to 1483

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of England, 1485–1601

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of England, 1603–41

values: List of Ordinances and Acts of the Parliament of England, 1642–60

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of England, 1660–99

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of England, 1700–06

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of Scotland to 1707

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain, 1707–19

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain, 1720–39

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain, 1740–59

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain, 1760–79

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain, 1780–1800

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of Ireland to 1700

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of Ireland, 1701–1800

values: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 1801–19

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 1820–39

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 1840–59

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 1860–79

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 1880–99

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 1900–19

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 1920–39

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 1940–59

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 1960–79

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 1980–99

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 2000–present

values: Church of England Assembly (Powers) Act 1919

values: List of Acts of the Scottish Parliament from 1999

values: Measure of the National Assembly for Wales

values: List of Acts and Measures of the National Assembly for Wales

values: List of Acts of the Northern Ireland Assembly

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of Northern Ireland

values: List of Orders in Council for Northern Ireland

values: Delegated legislation in the United Kingdom

values:
/wiki/Statutory_Instrument_(UK)
mw-redirect
Statutory Instrument (UK)

values: List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom relating to the European Communities / European Union

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: Template:British law and the American Revolution

values: Template talk:British law and the American Revolution

values:
/wiki/British_law
mw-redirect
British law

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Template talk:Economy of the United Kingdom

values: Category:Employee-owned companies of the United Kingdom

values: Category:Government-owned companies of the United Kingdom

values:
/wiki/United_Kingdom_budget
mw-redirect
United Kingdom budget

values: Economic geography of the United Kingdom

values: List of recessions in the United Kingdom

values:
/wiki/Economy_of_Croydon
mw-redirect
Economy of Croydon

values: List of ceremonial counties in England by gross value added

values: Category:Oil and gas industry in Scotland

values:
/wiki/Working_Time_Directive
mw-redirect
Working Time Directive

values: List of renewable resources produced and traded by the United Kingdom

values: Hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom

values: Financial services industry of the United Kingdom

values: International Financial Services District

values: List of newspapers in the United Kingdom by circulation

values: Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom

values: Automotive industry in the United Kingdom

values: Pharmaceutical industry in the United Kingdom

values: Construction industry of the United Kingdom

values: Affordability of housing in the United Kingdom

values: Science and technology in the United Kingdom

values: Telecommunications in the United Kingdom

values: List of supermarket chains in the United Kingdom

values: Structure of the rail industry in the United Kingdom

values: Category:Business organisations based in the United Kingdom

values: Category:Industry trade groups based in the United Kingdom

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: commons:Category:Economy of the United Kingdom

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: Category:Great Britain Acts of Parliament 1712

values: Category:Acts of the Parliament of England

values: Category:Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain

values: Category:Laws leading to the American Revolution

values: Category:Repealed Great Britain Acts of Parliament

values: Category:Economic history of Great Britain

values: Category:Pages with login required references or sources

values: Category:Subscription required using via

values: Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content

values: Category:Articles lacking in-text citations from July 2015

values: Category:All articles lacking in-text citations

values: Category:Use British English from June 2012

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2016

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Navigation_Acts
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: חוקי הסחר הימי – Hebrew

values: სანავიგაციო აქტები – Georgian

values: Навигационный акт – Russian

values: Навигацијски акт – Serbian

values: พระราชบัญญัติการเดินเรือ – Thai

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Navigation_Acts rootpage-Navigation_Acts vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view


text:
Railroad engineer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the operator of a train. For the professional engineer who designs railway systems, see Railway engineering.
The cab of a New South Wales Xplorer diesel multiple unit
A railroad engineer's workplace on a German ICE train
An engineer (American and Canadian), engine driver, loco pilot, motorman, train operator (British and Commonwealth English), is a person who operates a train. The driver is in charge of, and responsible for driving the engine, as well as the mechanical operation of the train, train speed, and all train handling.
For many American railroads, the following career progression is typical: assistant conductor (brakeman), conductor and finally driver. In the US, drivers are required to be certified and re-certified every two to three years.[1] In American English a hostler moves engines around train yards, but does not take them out on the normal tracks.
In India, a driver starts as a diesel assistant or electrical assistant (in case of electric locomotives). They then get promoted on a scale: goods, passenger, Mail/Express and Rajdhani/Shatabdi/Duronto.[2]
In the United States and Canada, train drivers are historically known as "locomotive engineers", or "handelers". In the United Kingdom, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia they are known as "train drivers", "engine drivers", "locomotive drivers", or "locomotive operators".
Contents
1 Notable railroad engineers
2 See also
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links
Notable railroad engineers[edit]
Ben Chifley, former Prime Minister of Australia[3]
Casey Jones, American engineer whose wreck on the Illinois Central Railroad on April 30, 1900 was immortalized in verse and music.
The United Kingdom based transport historian Christian Wolmar stated in October 2013 that train operators employed by the Rio Tinto Group to transport iron ore across the Australian outback were likely to be the highest-paid members of the occupation in the world at that time.[4]
See also[edit]
Fireman (steam engine)
Motorman
Stormy Kromer cap
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "2003 CFR Title 49, Volume 4; Part 240: Qualification and Certification of Locomotive Engineers". Code of Federal Regulations. United States National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
Jump up ^ "Train Crew". FAQ: Railway Operations. Indian Railways Fan Club. 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
Jump up ^ Waterson, D.B. "Chifley, Joseph Benedict (Ben) (1885–1951)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. Australian National University. Retrieved 2015-09-06.
Jump up ^ Elisabeth Behrmann (3 October 2013). "Rio Replacing Train Drivers Paid Like U.S. Surgeons". Bloomberg. Retrieved 3 October 2013.
Further reading[edit]
Huibregtse, Jon R. American Railroad Labor and the Genesis of the New Deal, 1919-1935 (University Press of Florida; 2010; 172 pages)
Licht, Walter. Working for the Railroad: the organization of work in the nineteenth century (1983)
Orr, John W. Set Up Running: The Life of a Pennsylvania Railroad Engineman, 1904-1949 (2001)
Tuck, Joseph Hugh. "Canadian Railways and the International Brotherhoods: Labour Organizations in the Railway Running Trades in Canada, 1865-1914" Dissertation Abstracts International, 1977, Vol. 37 Issue 10, p6681-6681
White, John H., Jr. "Oh, To Be a Locomotive Engineer," Railroad History, Dec 2003, Issue 189, pp12–33, and Summer 2004, Issue 190, pp 56–76; Examines the role of the railroad engineer 1890 to 1919, discussing qualifications for becoming an engineer and typical experiences on the job.
External links[edit]
Media related to Locomotive drivers at Wikimedia Commons
A detailed explanation of what train driving involves, and becoming a train driver in the UK
Run-A-Locomotive. Link to a site that offers an engineer experience program at a museum in California.
Train Conductor Job Information
How to become a train driver guide
The Center Of A Future Train Conductor
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Railroad_engineer&oldid=851192815"
Categories:
Railroad engineers
Railway occupations
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Беларуская
Български
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Español
Esperanto
Français
한국어
हिन्दी
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Polski
Русский
Suomi
Svenska
తెలుగు
Türkçe
Українська
中文
14 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 20 July 2018, at 17:53 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Professional_engineer
mw-redirect
Professional engineer

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: img

attrs: href class

attrs: class style

values:
/wiki/Conductor_(transportation)
mw-redirect
Conductor (transportation)

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values: Edit section: Notable railroad engineers

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.traindriver.org

values:
nofollow
external text
http://wplives.org/ral.html

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.trainconductorhq.com

values:
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
interface

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Railroad_engineer
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: Машыніст лакаматыва – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Локомотивен машинист – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: 철도기관사 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: रेलमार्ग इंजीनियर – Hindi

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masinis
Masinis – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Машинист локомотива – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: రైల్‌రోడ్ ఇంజనీర్ – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Машиніст локомотива – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Railroad_engineer rootpage-Railroad_engineer skin-vector action-view