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Capillary
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For other uses, see Capillary (disambiguation).
Capillary
Capillary vessel
Transmission electron microscope image of a cross-section of a capillary occupied by a red blood cell.
A simplified illustration of a capillary network (lacking precapillary sphincters, which are not present in all capillaries[1]).
Details
Identifiers
Latin
vas capillare[2]
Code
TH H3.09.02.0.02001
TA
A12.0.00.025
TH
H3.09.02.0.02001
FMA
63195
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
A capillary (/ˈkæpɪlɛri/ in US; /kəˈpɪləri/ in UK) is a small blood vessel from 5 to 10 micrometres (µm) in diameter, and having a wall one endothelial cell thick. They are the smallest blood vessels in the body: they convey blood between the arterioles and venules. These microvessels are the site of exchange of many substances with the interstitial fluid surrounding them. Substances which exit include water (proximal portion), oxygen, and glucose; substances which enter include water (distal portion), carbon dioxide, uric acid, lactic acid, urea and creatinine.[3] Lymph capillaries connect with larger lymph vessels to drain lymphatic fluid collected in the microcirculation.
During early embryonic development[4] new capillaries are formed through vasculogenesis, the process of blood vessel formation that occurs through a de novo production of endothelial cells which then form vascular tubes.[5] The term angiogenesis denotes the formation of new capillaries from pre-existing blood vessels and already present endothelium which divides.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Types
1.1.1 Continuous
1.1.2 Fenestrated
1.1.3 Sinusoidal (discontinuous)
2 Function
2.1 Variables
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Therapeutics
3.2 Blood sampling
4 History
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Structure[edit]
Diagram of a capillary
Blood flows from the heart through arteries, which branch and narrow into arterioles, and then branch further into capillaries where nutrients and wastes are exchanged. The capillaries then join and widen to become venules, which in turn widen and converge to become veins, which then return blood back to the heart through the venae cavae.
Individual capillaries are part of capillary bed, an interweaving network of capillaries supplying tissues and organs. The more metabolically active a tissue is, the more capillaries are required to supply nutrients and carry away waste products. There are two types of capillaries: true capillaries, which branch from arterioles and provide exchange between tissue and the capillary blood, and metarterioles, found only in the mesenteric circulation. They are short vessels that directly connect the arterioles and venules at opposite ends of the beds. Metarterioles are found primarily in the mesenteric microcirculation.[1][1] The physiological mechanisms underlying precapillary resistance is no longer considered to be a result of precapillary sphincters outside of the mesentery organ.[1]
Lymphatic capillaries are slightly larger in diameter than blood capillaries, and have closed ends (unlike the blood capillaries open at one end to the arterioles and open at the other end to the venules). This structure permits interstitial fluid to flow into them but not out. Lymph capillaries have a greater internal oncotic pressure than blood capillaries, due to the greater concentration of plasma proteins in the lymph.[7]
Types[edit]
There are three types of blood capillaries:
Depiction of the three types of capillaries. The fenestrated type in center shows fenestrations; the sinusoidal type on the right shows intercellular gaps and an incomplete basement membrane .
Continuous[edit]
Continuous capillaries are continuous in the sense that the endothelial cells provide an uninterrupted lining, and they only allow smaller molecules, such as water and ions to pass through their intercellular clefts.[citation needed] However lipid-soluble molecules can passively diffuse through the endothelial cell membranes along concentration gradients.[citation needed] Tight junctions can be further divided into two subtypes:[citation needed]
Those with numerous transport vesicles, which are found primarily in skeletal muscles, fingers, gonads, and skin.
Those with few vesicles, which are primarily found in the central nervous system. These capillaries are a constituent of the blood–brain barrier.
Fenestrated[edit]
Fenestrated capillaries (derived from fenestra, Latin for "window") have pores in the endothelial cells (60–80 nm in diameter) that are spanned by a diaphragm of radially oriented fibrils and allow small molecules and limited amounts of protein to diffuse.[8][9] In the renal glomerulus there are cells with no diaphragms, called podocyte foot processes or pedicels, which have slit pores with a function analogous to the diaphragm of the capillaries. Both of these types of blood vessels have continuous basal laminae and are primarily located in the endocrine glands, intestines, pancreas, and the glomeruli of the kidney.
Sinusoidal (discontinuous)[edit]
Main article: Sinusoid (blood vessel)
Sinusoidal capillaries (also known as a discontinuous capillary) are a special type of open-pore capillary, that have larger openings (30–40 µm in diameter)[citation needed] in the endothelium. These types of blood vessels allow red and white blood cells (7.5 µm – 25 µm diameter) and various serum proteins to pass, aided by a discontinuous basal lamina. These capillaries lack pinocytotic vesicles, and therefore utilize gaps present in cell junctions to permit transfer between endothelial cells, and hence across the membrane. Sinusoid blood vessels are primarily located in the bone marrow, lymph nodes,[citation needed] and adrenal glands. Some sinusoids are distinctive in that they do not have the tight junctions between cells. They are called discontinuous sinusoidal capillaries, and are present in the liver and spleen, where greater movement of cells and materials is necessary.[citation needed] A capillary wall is only 1 cell thick and is simple squamous epithelium.[citation needed]
Function[edit]
Simplified image showing blood-flow through the body, passing through capillary networks in its path.
The capillary wall performs an important function by allowing nutrients and waste substances to pass across it. Molecules larger than 3 nm such as albumin and other large proteins pass through transcellular transport carried inside vesicles, a process which requires them to go through the cells that form the wall. Molecules smaller than 3 nm such as water, ions and gases cross the capillary wall through the space between cells in a process known as paracellular transport.[10] These transport mechanisms allow bidirectional exchange of substances depending on osmotic gradients and can be further quantified by the Starling equation.[11] Capillaries that form part of the blood–brain barrier however only allow for transcellular transport as tight junctions between endothelial cells seal the paracellular space.[12]
Capillary beds may control their blood flow via autoregulation. This allows an organ to maintain constant flow despite a change in central blood pressure. This is achieved by myogenic response, and in the kidney by tubuloglomerular feedback. When blood pressure increases, arterioles are stretched and subsequently constrict (a phenomenon known as the Bayliss effect) to counteract the increased tendency for high pressure to increase blood flow.[citation needed]
In the lungs special mechanisms have been adapted to meet the needs of increased necessity of blood flow during exercise. When the heart rate increases and more blood must flow through the lungs, capillaries are recruited and are also distended to make room for increased blood flow. This allows blood flow to increase while resistance decreases.[citation needed]
Capillary permeability can be increased by the release of certain cytokines, anaphylatoxins, or other mediators (such as leukotrienes, prostaglandins, histamine, bradykinin, etc.) highly influenced by the immune system.[citation needed]
Depiction of the filtration and reabsorption present in capillaries.
The Starling equation defines the forces across a semipermeable membrane and allows calculation of the net flux:
J v = K f ( [ P c − P i ] − σ [ π c − π i ] ) {\displaystyle \ J_{v}=K_{f}([P_{c}-P_{i}]-\sigma [\pi _{c}-\pi _{i}])}
where:
( [ P c − P i ] − σ [ π c − π i ] ) {\displaystyle ([P_{c}-P_{i}]-\sigma [\pi _{c}-\pi _{i}])} is the net driving force,
K f {\displaystyle K_{f}} is the proportionality constant, and
J v {\displaystyle J_{v}} is the net fluid movement between compartments.
By convention, outward force is defined as positive, and inward force is defined as negative. The solution to the equation is known as the net filtration or net fluid movement (Jv). If positive, fluid will tend to leave the capillary (filtration). If negative, fluid will tend to enter the capillary (absorption). This equation has a number of important physiologic implications, especially when pathologic processes grossly alter one or more of the variables.[citation needed]
Variables[edit]
According to Starling's equation, the movement of fluid depends on six variables:
Capillary hydrostatic pressure ( Pc )
Interstitial hydrostatic pressure ( Pi )
Capillary oncotic pressure ( πc )
Interstitial oncotic pressure ( πi )
Filtration coefficient ( Kf )
Reflection coefficient ( σ )
Clinical significance[edit]
Disorders of capillary formation as a developmental defect or acquired disorder are a feature in many common and serious disorders. Within a wide range of cellular factors and cytokines, issues with normal genetic expression and bioactivity of the vascular growth and permeability factor vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) appear to play a major role in many of the disorders. Cellular factors include reduced number and function of bone-marrow derived endothelial progenitor cells.[13] and reduced ability of those cells to form blood vessels.[14]
Formation of additional capillaries and larger blood vessels (angiogenesis) is a major mechanism by which a cancer may help to enhance its own growth. Disorders of retinal capillaries contribute to the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration.
Reduced capillary density (capillary rarefaction) occurs in association with cardiovascular risk factors[15] and in patients with coronary heart disease.[14]
Therapeutics[edit]
Major diseases where altering capillary formation could be helpful include conditions where there is excessive or abnormal capillary formation such as cancer and disorders harming eyesight; and medical conditions in which there is reduced capillary formation either for familial or genetic reasons, or as an acquired problem.
In patients with the retinal disorder, neovascular age-related macular degeneration, local anti-VEGF treatment to limit the bio-activity of vascular endothelial growth factor has been shown to protect vision by limiting progression.[16] In a wide range of cancers, treatment approaches have been studied, or are in development, aimed at decreasing tumour growth by reducing angiogenesis.[17]
Blood sampling[edit]
Capillary blood sampling can be used to test for, for example, blood glucose (such as in blood glucose monitoring), hemoglobin, pH and lactate[18]
Capillary blood sampling is generally performed by creating a small cut using a blood lancet, followed by sampling by capillary action on the cut with a test strip or small pipe.[citation needed]
History[edit]
Contrary to a popular misconception, William Harvey did not explicitly predict the existence of capillaries, but he clearly saw the need for some sort of connection between the arterial and venous systems. He wrote, "…the blood doth enter into every member through the arteries, and does return by the veins, and that the veins are the vessels and ways by which the blood is returned to the heart itself; and that the blood in the members and extremities does pass from the arteries into the veins (either mediately by an anastomosis, or immediately through the porosities of the flesh, or both ways) as before it did in the heart and thorax out of the veins, into the arteries…"[19]
Marcello Malpighi was the first to observe directly and correctly describe capillaries, discovering them in a frog's lung in 1661.[20]
See also[edit]
Alveolar–capillary barrier
Hagen–Poiseuille equation
Vasculogenesis
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Sakai et. al (2013). "Are the precapillary sphincters and metarterioles universal components of the microcirculation? An historical review". J Physiol Sci. 2013; 63: 319–331. 63 (5): 319–31. doi:10.1007/s12576-013-0274-7. PMC 3751330  . PMID 23824465.
Jump up ^ "THH:3.09 The cardiovascular system". Retrieved June 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins; Charles William McLaughlin; Susan Johnson; Maryanna Quon Warner; David LaHart; Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1. [page needed]
Jump up ^ http://www.wormbook.org/chapters/www_embryovariationdevelop/embryovariationdevelop.html
Jump up ^ John S. Penn (11 March 2008). Retinal and Choroidal Angiogenesis. Springer. pp. 119–. ISBN 978-1-4020-6779-2. Retrieved 26 June 2010.
Jump up ^ "Endoderm – Developmental Biology – NCBI Bookshelf". Retrieved 2010-04-07.
Jump up ^ Guyton, Arthur; Hall, John (2006). "Chapter 16: The Microcirculation and the Lymphatic System". In Gruliow, Rebecca. Textbook of Medical Physiology (Book) (11th ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Elsevier Inc. pp. 187–188. ISBN 0-7216-0240-1
Jump up ^ Histology image:22401lba from Vaughan, Deborah (2002). A Learning System in Histology: CD-ROM and Guide. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195151732.
Jump up ^ Pavelka, Margit; Jürgen Roth (2005). Functional Ultrastructure: An Atlas of Tissue Biology and Pathology. Springer. p. 232.
Jump up ^ Sukriti, S; Tauseef, M; Yazbeck, P; Mehta, D (2014). "Mechanisms regulating endothelial permeability". Pulmonary circulation. 4 (4): 535–551. doi:10.1086/677356. PMC 4278616  . PMID 25610592.
Jump up ^ Nagy, JA; Benjamin, L; Zeng, H; Dvorak, AM; Dvorak, HF (2008). "Vascular permeability, vascular hyperpermeability and angiogenesis". Angiogenesis. 11 (2): 109–119. doi:10.1007/s10456-008-9099-z. PMC 2480489  . PMID 18293091.
Jump up ^ Bauer, HC; Krizbai, IA; Bauer, H; Traweger, A (2014). ""You Shall Not Pass"-tight junctions of the blood brain barrier". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 8. doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00392. PMC 4253952  . PMID 25520612.
Jump up ^ Gittenberger-De Groot, Adriana C.; Winter, Elizabeth M.; Poelmann, Robert E (2010). "Epicardium derived cells (EPDCs) in development, cardiac disease and repair of ischemia". Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine. 14 (5): 1056–60. doi:10.1111/j.1582-4934.2010.01077.x. PMID 20646126.
^ Jump up to: a b Lambiase, P. D.; Edwards, RJ; Anthopoulos, P; Rahman, S; Meng, YG; Bucknall, CA; Redwood, SR; Pearson, JD; Marber, MS (2004). "Circulating Humoral Factors and Endothelial Progenitor Cells in Patients with Differing Coronary Collateral Support". Circulation. 109 (24): 2986–92. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000130639.97284.EC. PMID 15184289.
Jump up ^ Noon, J P; Walker, B R; Webb, D J; Shore, A C; Holton, D W; Edwards, H V; Watt, G C (1997). "Impaired microvascular dilatation and capillary rarefaction in young adults with a predisposition to high blood pressure". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 99 (8): 1873–9. doi:10.1172/JCI119354. PMC 508011  . PMID 9109431.
Jump up ^ Bird, Alan C. (2010). "Therapeutic targets in age-related macular disease". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 120 (9): 3033–41. doi:10.1172/JCI42437. PMC 2929720  . PMID 20811159.
Jump up ^ Cao, Yihai (2009). "Tumor angiogenesis and molecular targets for therapy". Frontiers in Bioscience. 14 (14): 3962–73. doi:10.2741/3504. PMID 19273326.
Jump up ^ Krleza, Jasna Lenicek; Dorotic, Adrijana; Grzunov, Ana; Maradin, Miljenka (2015-10-15). "Capillary blood sampling: national recommendations on behalf of the Croatian Society of Medical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine". Biochemia Medica. 25 (3): 335–358. doi:10.11613/BM.2015.034. ISSN 1330-0962. PMID 26524965.
Jump up ^ Harvey, William (1653). On the motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals. pp. 59–60.
Jump up ^ John Cliff, Walter (1976). Blood Vessels. CUP Archives. p. 14.
External links[edit]
Look up capillary in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Capillaries.
Histology image: 00903loa – Histology Learning System at Boston University
The Microcirculatory Society, Inc.
The Histology Guide – Capillaries
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GND: 4163250-3
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Thief (series)
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Thief
Logo used in Thief: Deadly Shadows
Genres
Stealth
Developer(s)
Looking Glass Studios (1998-2000)
Ion Storm (2004)
Eidos Montréal (2014-present)
Publisher(s)
Eidos Interactive (1998-2004)
Square Enix (2014-present)
Platforms
Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox, Xbox 360, Xbox One
Platform of origin
Microsoft Windows
First release
Thief: The Dark Project
November 30, 1998
Latest release
Thief
February 25, 2014
Thief is a series of stealth video games in which the player takes the role of Garrett, a master thief in a fantasy steampunk world resembling a cross between the Late Middle Ages and the Victorian era, with more advanced technologies interspersed.[1]
The series consists of Thief: The Dark Project (1998), Thief II: The Metal Age (2000), Thief: Deadly Shadows (2004) and Thief (2014). An expanded version of Thief: The Dark Project, titled Thief Gold, was released in 1999 and features three extra maps and several bug fixes. Looking Glass Studios developed both The Dark Project and The Metal Age. After the studio had gone out of business in 2000, many former employees moved to Ion Storm and began developing the third part of the series, Deadly Shadows. Eidos Montréal was subsequently given the reins for Thief.
Contents
[hide]
1 Gameplay
2 Games
2.1 Thief: The Dark Project (1998)
2.2 Thief II: The Metal Age (2000)
2.3 Thief: Deadly Shadows (2004)
2.4 Thief (2014)
3 Game editing
4 Characters
4.1 Garrett
4.2 Viktoria
4.3 Other characters
5 The world of Thief
6 Film
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Gameplay[edit]
The main tactic of Thief is to avoid fights and instead sneak around the enemies. Thief is sometimes described as either a "first-person sneaker", "sneak-em-up" or a "first-person looter" to emphasize this difference. Classification of the game has been slow coming, as three-dimensional stealth games, such as Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell and Assassin's Creed, only became more common years after the first Thief. Another innovation employed extensively by Thief is the careful use of sound effects as an integral part of gameplay. Sound cues not only tell the player of other characters in the vicinity, but also indicate how much noise Garrett makes when moving about an area. Too much noise can alert nearby guards, who will grow suspicious and come looking for intruders. There are a variety of tactics to avoid being heard, however, such as walking gently, steering clear of noisy pavement, or using moss arrows to create a carpet that muffles the sound of footsteps. In a similar vein, using light and dark became one of the most important strategies. A gauge at the bottom of the screen (called the 'Light Gem') indicates how visible the protagonist is. Entering deeper shadows or ducking makes the character less likely to be noticed. Walking about increases the risk of being spotted, and having a sword or bow drawn makes him very conspicuous in the game. The astute player is constantly keeping an eye on areas of light or shadow, guard patrol routes, and the type of terrain they are walking on, in case a hiding place is needed in a hurry. A light source, such as a torch or gas lamp, can be doused with a Water Arrow, creating an area of darkness in which the player may hide. Electrically powered lights, in all games, may simply be shut off by using a nearby switch or button; however, if no light switch is available, the electrical light will not turn off by simply shooting a Water Arrow at it. In Thief: Deadly Shadows, the player can simply 'pinch out' a lit candle by pressing the use button on it. A guard or any civilian may notice if a light source has been put out, likewise if something valuable has been stolen.
Another large component of game play in "Thief", along with the stealth, is exploration. In most missions, especially in the first two "Thief" games, players can freely explore the game environment without much hindrance. Players are also free to experiment with how they approach the AI, as one may choose to take out all the AI either by blackjack, sword, or arrow, or one may choose to avoid any confrontation with the AI. "Ghosting" is a play style by which one tries to leave no trace behind them as they explore and complete the objectives in each mission.
Games[edit]
Aggregate review scores
As of February 24, 2014.
Game
Metacritic
Thief: The Dark Project
(PC) 92[2]
Thief II: The Metal Age
(PC) 87[3]
Thief: Deadly Shadows
(PC) 85[4]
(Xbox) 82[5]
Thief
(PC) 70[6]
(XONE) 69[7]
(PS4) 67[8]
Thief: The Dark Project (1998)[edit]
Main article: Thief: The Dark Project
Released by Looking Glass Studios in 1998 and powered by their own in-house developed Dark Engine, Thief: The Dark Project was considered by many to be a revolutionary game. The foremost defense of this position is that it was arguably the first morally ambiguous video game to receive a major release (as one might expect from its title). Cast in the role of the thief, Garrett, the player can forgo all morality or choose to exercise restraint in multiple situations. This represented a departure from popular video games of the time, which tended to rely upon a Manichean conception of conflict along with "black and white" settings and objectives. Another groundbreaking facet of the game was that although it utilized a first-person perspective, it was not an action-oriented shooter like almost all other first-person games. Instead, the emphasis was on stealth: The character is unusually agile, but is not a particularly skilled fighter, and much of the gameplay involves using shadows to avoid enemies. However, for those who desire action, there are weapons available that allow direct confrontation. A skilled player can often break cover and go head-to-head with the enemies. An even more skilled player can stay in cover and never let the enemies know that he was there. The game's original gameplay quickly developed a cult following. A re-release of Thief: The Dark Project entitled Thief Gold fixed various bugs and added three new levels (mostly derived from, but not identical to, content that was planned for the original game but cut for budget or time constraints) which contributed significantly to the existing plot. The package also contains bonus content such as the DromEd Dark Engine editor, a behind-the-scenes "making of" video, and a desktop theme designed for Windows 98. Looking Glass was working on a similar re-release of Thief II: The Metal Age, provisionally entitled "Thief II Gold", at the time they went out of business in 2000.[9]
Thief II: The Metal Age (2000)[edit]
Main article: Thief II: The Metal Age
Looking Glass Studios released the sequel to Thief in 2000. Utilizing the same Dark Engine that powered the original Thief, Thief II had an almost identical look and feel, with at some points differences in architecture and technology caused by the events of the first game, and only minor graphic and programming improvements, such as colored lighting. The basic gameplay was also fundamentally similar to the original Thief, but many new elements had been added, including technological gadgets such as a remote eye camera. Other changes include an increase in the number of AI behaviors. Responding to criticism of the original Thief that more time was spent on combat than actually living up to the title of the game, the missions in Thief II were designed much more around typical thief-like behavior, and much of the game is spent robbing the rich denizens of the City rather than battling monsters. In fact, the player encounters almost none of the monsters from the original Thief except for burrick (dinosaur-like creatures) heads mounted as trophies in some of the mansions, and a few zombies, undead and ghostly apparitions. The designers stated that, unlike the original Thief, where levels were developed to suit the plot, in Thief II levels were designed first and making the plot work with them was somewhat of a retrofit. A re-release of Thief II: The Metal Age entitled Thief II Gold was a game in development by Looking Glass Studios before the company closed down in 2000.[9] It is believed to have been an expansion to Thief II similar to Thief Gold.
Thief: Deadly Shadows (2004)[edit]
Main article: Thief: Deadly Shadows
A major departure from the first two games in the series, Thief: Deadly Shadows was developed by Ion Storm rather than Looking Glass Studios (albeit with many of the same people). The game was powered by the Unreal-based Deus Ex: Invisible War engine. Unlike the original two games, the third Thief was developed simultaneously for Windows and the Xbox. Because of all these factors, Thief: Deadly Shadows was different (and vastly updated) from the first two games in the series in both appearance and gameplay. One of the game's major new features was the ability to explore the City. While previous games sent Garrett straight from mission to mission, Thief: Deadly Shadows allows him to walk the City streets between missions, where he can steal from passersby, spy on the townspeople's daily lives, and search for sidequests in addition to major story missions. Unlike sandbox games such as Grand Theft Auto III, the city is not one large continuous map, but rather several small neighborhood maps connected by load zones (similar to Postal 2). The game also introduced an ability to switch between first- and third-person views, and to flatten against walls. In addition, the lighting engine was updated to accommodate moving shadows and light sources, which dynamically affected where the player could hide, an innovation originally precluded by the more technically limited Dark Engine. Smaller improvements were made to AI behavior, allowing for guards who noted when items went missing from their field of view or when doors were left open, along with an overhauled sound-propagation mechanic.
Thief (2014)[edit]
Main article: Thief (2014 video game)
Thief is the fourth game in the Thief series, developed by Eidos Montréal and published by Square Enix. Since early 2008, several rumors had been circulating regarding a fourth Thief game, which was allegedly under development. Eidos Montréal's General Manager Stéphane D'Astous commented in an interview for Deus Ex: Human Revolution that confirmation of the company's second "AAA title", which its website states "begins with the letter 'T'", would occur "over the next year" or so.[10] The game was unveiled on May 11, 2009, originally titled as Thief 4.[11]
Game editing[edit]
With the release of DromEd, a map editor for the first two games, an active community of fans began providing a wealth of home-grown missions for the first two games, known as Fan Missions. Thousands of fan missions for these games have been created, some equally or more complex than the original game missions. These fan missions can be played by other fans using a loader. T3Ed, a map editor for the third game Deadly Shadows, was released in February 2005 after a letter-writing campaign by fans. This allows fans to design their level with all the interactive objects seen in original missions, as well as place stealable loot and lighting, factors which drastically affect gameplay. Human NPCs and creatures from all the various factions can be added into missions, and their behaviors (such as patrol routes) configured. Missions may be packaged and distributed to other players, who need a loader to play them.
Characters[edit]
The following are recurring characters, information on non-recurring characters may be found in Thief: The Dark Project, Thief II: The Metal Age and Thief: Deadly Shadows.
Garrett[edit]
Main article: Garrett (character)
Viktoria[edit]
Viktoria (voiced by Terri Brosius) is a wood nymph in the series. She was a primary antagonist during the events of The Dark Project, being the one to remove Garrett's eye. However, she and her followers become allies for Garrett's war on the Mechanists during Metal Age. At the start there is little trust on Garrett's part, but over time it becomes clear that she was able to gain Garrett's respect, loyalty and, uncharacteristically of the cynical thief, care. Even to the point of Garrett being willing to defend her directly, immediately rushing to her aid upon hearing of her assault on Soulforge. It seems that this degree of respect and general sentiment on Garrett's part is only seen in his relationships with Viktoria and the Keeper Artemus.
The character was well received. In 2000, Viktoria was included in GameSpot's list of the ten best female characters according to readers' choice, with the staff commenting: "Viktoria didn't make our TenSpot, which was a shame. We editors apologize to those of you who lamented our oversight." It was also accompanied by a poll asking who should play Viktoria in the movie adaptation of the Thief games (Catherine Zeta-Jones, Elizabeth Hurley, Salma Hayek or Jennifer Lopez).[12] In 2007, Tom's Games included this "bad girl with charisma and style" on the list of the 50 greatest female characters in video game history, noting how "evolves from a deceptive villain in the first game to a more benevolent companion to Garrett in the sequel, which ends her heroic, sacrificial death" and applauding her "hypnotic voice" provided by Brosius. Tom's Games stated she should be played in the live-action adaptation by "Naomi Watts, who's got the sexy voice, beauty and charisma for the part."[13] In 2013, Gameranx ranked her as the third sexiest female game villain in history.[14]
Other characters[edit]
Keeper Artemus - The Keeper and mentor who took Young Garrett in and taught him in Thief: The Dark Project. Artemus is the main point of contact between Garrett and the Keepers throughout the series and attempts to enlist his help with the various Keeper prophecies, much to Garrett's reluctance. He holds genuine affection for Garrett, in spite of Garrett's rejection of the Keeper ways, and carries a strong independent and rebellious streak of his own. Artemus also appears to be the only Keeper whose stealth skills rival Garrett's and occasionally manages to sneak up on him. Artemus is believed to have been killed towards the end of Thief: Deadly Shadows.
Keeper Orland - A member of the Keeper organization with a strong dislike of Garrett. Orland eventually becomes the leader of the Keepers in Thief: Deadly Shadows. His leadership quickly proves officious, bureaucratic, and secretive, and Garrett quickly learns to dislike him. He first appeared in Thief II: The Metal Age, albeit voiced by a different actor.
Interpreter Caduca - An old woman in the Keeper organization in charge of reading and interpreting the Glyph Prophecies. Prophecies are central to the Keepers' work, so Caduca plays a very important role in the organization, and even the Keeper leader listens to her advice. In reality, Caduca is relatively young. Prolonged exposure to the Glyphs causes accelerated aging, an effect which limits the amount of knowledge and power any single Keeper can obtain from studying the Glyphs. caduca is the Spanish feminine word for "decrepit, obsolete"[15] or the Portuguese word for "old, obsolete".[16] She is murdered by The Hag in Thief: Deadly Shadows.
Translator Gamall - Caduca's assistant, an eerie pale and emotionless girl who translates Caduca's interpretations into English. As the Translator, Gamall will succeed Caduca as interpreter when Caduca is no longer able to fulfill her duties. Gamall turns out to be a guise of The Hag.
"Benny" - A recurring drunkard guard whose mood swings and amusing ramblings endeared him to many fans of the series. The name is informal, but comes from a specific drunken guard in the Sheriff's mansion during the Metal Age. The character's voice is used for a number of different guards throughout the series. In Thief: Deadly Shadows he is at one point called "Sinclair". Several "episodes" of a series of conversations called "Benny's Ailment" can also be listened to in Deadly Shadows.
Basso the Boxman - An acquaintance of Garrett's whom he rescued from a Hammerite prison, although this uncharacteristic act of kindness was merely performed because Garrett had his eye on Basso's sister, who he hoped would be "grateful". Garrett also helps to rescue Basso's betrothed Jeneviere from indentured servitude in the first mission of Thief II: The Metal Age.
The world of Thief[edit]
The universe of Thief is a dark fantasy setting and is centered mostly on a dense, sprawling metropolitan complex known only as "The City", which has some resemblance to 18th/19th century London, minus the widespread use of electricity and an altogether more Medieval culture, reflected in the style of dress and semi-feudal social structure, along with a lack of firearms. It is a steampunk metropolis constantly being fought over by a corrupt aristocracy, an order of religious fanatics and a horde of vengeful woodland beings, all under the eye of a secret organization. Thief takes place hundreds of years after the original games, possibly with a heavier emphasis on the identity of "The City".[17] Garrett works with the underground economy of the City, making a lucrative living for himself. Occasionally Garrett would leave the confines of the City and rob mansions, prisons, or graveyards.
Film[edit]
Straight Up Films announced that they have acquired the film rights to Thief with plans to develop a movie, Adam Mason and Simon Boyes will write the screenplay, Straight Up Films’ President of Production Sandra Condito will serve as executive producer along with Khalid Jones of Source Rock and Square Enix while Straight Up principals Marisa Polvino and Kate Cohen will produce alongside Roy Lee and Adrian Askarieh.[18]
In 2015 Adrian Askarieh told IGN in an interview that he may oversee a film universe with Just Cause, Hitman, Tomb Raider, Deus Ex[19] and Thief.[20]
See also[edit]
List of Square Enix franchises
The Dark Mod
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "City Timeline – A Revisionist Perspective". Btinternet.com. Archived from the original on June 30, 2012. Retrieved August 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Thief: The Dark Project Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved June 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Thief II: The Metal Age Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved June 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Thief: Deadly Shadows Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved June 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Thief: Deadly Shadows Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved June 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Thief Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Thief Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Thief Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "TNL Developer Spotlight: Looking Glass Studios". TNL. Archived from the original on December 10, 2014. Retrieved February 1, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Thief 4 stepping out of shadows May 11?". May 4, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Eidos Confirms Thief 4". May 11, 2009.
Jump up ^ "GameSpot's Readers' Choice TenSpot: Best Female Characters". August 18, 2000. Archived from the original on August 18, 2000.
Jump up ^ "The 50 Greatest Female Characters in Video Game History - Tom's Games". October 14, 2008.
Jump up ^ Gameranx Staff, Top 11 Hottest Female Villains: #3 Viktoria, Gameranx, September 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Diccionario de la lengua española - Vigésima segunda edición". Lema.rae.es. Retrieved August 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Dicionário Priberam da LÃngua Portuguesa". Priberam.pt. Retrieved August 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Thief 4 Storyboard Concept Images Leaked; Set in London? « GamingBolt.com: Video Game News, Reviews, Previews and Blog". Gamingbolt.com. Retrieved August 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (March 4, 2016). "'Thief' Videogame Being Adapted Into Movie With Roy Lee". Variety.
Jump up ^ "Deus Ex: Human Revolution" – via www.imdb.com.
Jump up ^ Krupa, Daniel (September 9, 2015). "JUST CAUSE MOVIE WILL TAKE CUES FROM JUST CAUSE 3". IGN.
External links[edit]
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Inuit cuisine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Inuit elders eating Maktaaq
Inuit consume a diet of foods that are fished, hunted, and gathered locally.
According to Edmund Searles in his article "Food and the Making of Modern Inuit Identities", they consume this type of diet because a mostly meat diet is "effective in keeping the body warm, making the body strong, keeping the body fit, and even making that body healthy".[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Food sources
2 Hunting practices
3 Nutrition
4 Eating habits and food preparation
4.1 Food sharing in the community
5 Perceived benefits and beliefs of the diet
5.1 Hunting beliefs
5.2 Healing beliefs
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Food sources[edit]
Hunted meats:
Sea mammals such as walrus, seal, and whale. Whale meat generally comes from the narwhal narwhal, beluga whale and the bowhead whale. The latter is able to feed an entire community for nearly a year from its meat, blubber, and skin. Inuit hunters most often hunt juvenile whales which, compared to adults, are safer to hunt and have tastier skin. Ringed seal and bearded seal are the most important aspect of an Inuit diet and is often the largest part of an Inuit hunter's diet.[1]
Land mammals such as caribou, polar bear, and muskox
Birds and their eggs
Saltwater and freshwater fish including sculpin, Arctic cod, Arctic char, capelin and lake trout.
While it is not possible to cultivate native plants for food in the Arctic, Inuit have traditionally gathered those that are naturally available,[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] including:
Berries including crowberry and cloudberry
Herbaceous plants such as grasses and fireweed
Tubers and stems including mousefood, roots of various tundra plants which are cached by voles in underground burrows.
Roots such as tuberous spring beauty and sweet vetch
Seaweed
Hunting practices[edit]
Harpon or unaaq MHNT
There has been a decline of hunting partially due to the fact that young people lack the skills to survive off the land. They are no longer skilled in hunting like their ancestors and are growing more accustomed to the Qallunaat ("white people") food that they receive from the south. The high costs of hunting equipment—snowmobiles, rifles, sleds, camping gear, gasoline, and oil—is also causing a decline in families who hunt for their meals.[8]
An Inuit hunter skinning a ringed seal
Seal: Depending on the season, Inuit hunt for different types of seal: harp seal, harbour seal, and bearded seal. Ringed seals are hunted all year, while harp seals are only available during the summer.[7] Because seals need to break through the ice to reach air, they form breathing holes with their teeth and claws. Through these, Inuit hunters are able to capture seals.[7] When a hunter arrives at these holes, they set up a seal indicator that alerts the hunter when a seal is coming up for a breath of air. When the seal comes up, the hunter notices movement in the indicator and uses his harpoon to capture the seal in the water.[7]
Walrus hunting
Walrus are often hunted during the winter and spring since hunting them in summer is much more dangerous. A walrus is too large to be controlled by one man, so it cannot be hunted alone.[7] In Uqalurait: An Oral History of Nunavut, an Inuit elder describes the hunt of a walrus in these words: "When a walrus was sighted, the two hunters would run to get close to it and at a short distance it is necessary to stop when the walrus's head was submerged... the walrus would hear you approach. [They] then tried to get in front of the walrus and it was harpooned while its head was submerged. In the meantime, the other person would drive the harpoon into the ice through the harpoon loop to secure it."[7]
Similar to walrus, bowhead whales are captured by harpoon. The hunters use active pursuit to harpoon the whale and follow it during attack. At times, Inuit were known for using a more passive approach when hunting whales. According to John Bennett and Susan Rowley, a hunter would harpoon the whale and instead of pursuing it, would "wait patiently for the winds, currents, and spirits to aid him in bringing the whale to shore."[7]
Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus), caught in an Inuit subsistence whale hunt in Igloolik, Nunavut in 2002
During the majority of the year caribou roam the tundra in small herds, but twice a year large herds of caribou cross the inland regions. Caribou have excellent senses of smell and hearing so that the hunters must be very careful when in pursuit. Often, Inuit hunters set up camp miles away from the caribou crossing and wait until they are in full view to attack.[7] There are many ways in which the caribou can be captured, including spearing, forcing caribou into the river, using blinders, scaring the caribou, and stalking the caribou. When spearing caribou, hunters put the string of the spear in their mouths and the other end they use to gently spear the animal.[7]
Fish are caught by jigging. The hunter cuts a square hole in the ice on the lake and fishes using a fish lure and spear. Instead of using a hook on a line, Inuit use a fake fish attached to the line. They lower it into the water and move it around as if it is real. When the live fish approach it, they spear the fish before it has a chance to eat the fake fish.[7]
Nutrition[edit]
Caribou meat from hunt. Greenland
Because the climate of the Arctic is ill-suited for agriculture and lacks forageable plant matter for much of the year, the traditional Inuit diet is lower in carbohydrates and higher in fat and animal protein compared to the global average. When carbohydrate intake is inadequate for total energy requirements, protein is broken down in the liver through gluconeogenesis and utilized as an energy source. Inuit studied in the 1970s were found to have abnormally large livers, presumably to assist in this process. Their urine volumes were also high, a result of additional urea which the body uses to purge waste products from gluconeogenesis.[9] However, in multiple studies the traditional Inuit diet has not been shown to be a ketogenic diet.[10][11][12][13] Not only have multiple researchers been unable to detect any evidence of ketosis resulting from the traditional Inuit Diet, but the ratios of fatty-acid to glucose were observed to be well below the generally accepted level of ketogenesis.[10][11][12][13]
Inuit actually consume more carbohydrates than most nutritionists have assumed.[14] Because some of the meat the Inuit eat is raw and fresh, or freshly frozen, they can obtain more carbohydrates from their meat, as dietary glycogen, than Westerners can.[14][15] The Inuit practice of preserving a whole seal or bird carcass under an intact whole skin with a thick layer of blubber also permits some proteins to ferment, or hydrolyze, into carbohydrates.[14] Furthermore, the blubber, organs, muscle and skin of the marine mammals that Inuit eat have significant glycogen stores, which assist those animals when oxygen is depleted on prolonged dives.[16][17][18] For instance, when blubber is analyzed by direct carbohydrate measurements, it has been shown to contain as much as 8—30% carbohydrates.[17] While postmortem glycogen levels are often depleted through the onset of rigor mortis, marine mammals have a much delayed onset of rigor mortis, even in warm conditions, presumably due to the high content of oxymyoglobin in the muscle that may permit aerobic metabolism to continue slowly for some time after the death of the animal.[17][19] Additionally, in cold conditions, glycogen's depletion is halted at -18 °C (-0.4 °F) and lower temperatures in comminuted meat.[20][21]
Traditional Inuit diets derive approximately 50% of their calories from fat, 30–35% from protein and 15–20% of their calories from carbohydrates, largely in the form of glycogen from the raw meat they consumed.[22][23] This high fat content provides valuable energy and prevents protein poisoning, which historically was sometimes a problem in late winter when game animals grew lean through winter starvation. It has been suggested that because the fats of the Inuit's wild-caught game are largely monounsaturated and rich in omega-3 fatty acids, the diet does not pose the same health risks as a typical Western high-fat diet.[24] However, actual evidence has shown that Inuit have a similar prevalence of coronary artery disease as non-Inuit populations and they have excessive mortality due to cerebrovascular strokes, with twice the risk to that of the North American population.[25][26] Indeed, the cardiovascular risk of this diet is so severe that the addition of a more standard American diet has reduced the incidence of mortality in Inuit population.[27] Furthermore, fish oil supplement studies have failed to support claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes.[28][29][30]
Vitamins and minerals which are typically derived from plant sources are nonetheless present in most Inuit diets. Vitamins A and D are present in the oils and livers of cold-water fishes and mammals. Vitamin C is obtained through sources such as caribou liver, kelp, whale skin, and seal brain; because these foods are typically eaten raw or frozen, the vitamin C they contain, which would be destroyed by cooking, is instead preserved.[31]
Eating habits and food preparation[edit]
Searles defines Inuit food as mostly "eaten frozen, raw, or boiled, with very little mixture of ingredients and with very few spices added."[1] Some preparations include:
Akutaq: berries mixed with fat.
Bannock: flatbread
Food preservation techniques include fermenting fish and meat in the form of Igunaq
Labrador tea
Suaasat a traditional soup made from seal, whale, caribou, or seabirds.
whale's bone
One common way to eat the meat hunted is frozen. Many hunters will eat the food that they hunt on location where they found it. This keeps their blood flowing and their bodies warm. One peculiar custom of eating meat at the hunting site pertains to fish. In Overland to Starvation Cove: A History, Heinrich Klutschak explains the custom: "...no fish could be eaten in a cooked state on the spot where caught but could only be enjoyed raw; only when one is a day's march away from the fishing site is it permitted to cook the fish over the flame of a blubber lamp."[32]
Inuit eat only two main meals a day, but it is common to eat many snacks every hour.[32] Customs among Inuit when eating and preparing food are very strict and may seem odd for people of different cultures.[32]
When eating a meal, Inuit place large slabs of meat, blubber, and other parts of the animal on a piece of metal, plastic, or cardboard on the floor.[1] From here, anyone in the house is able to cut off a piece of meat. At these meals, no one is obliged to join in the meal; Inuit eat only when hungry.[1] Sometimes, though, meals are announced to the whole camp. A woman does this by the shout of "Ujuk!" which means "cooked meat".[32]
After a hunt, the eating habits differ from normal meals.[33] When a seal is brought home, the hunters quickly gather around it to receive their pieces of meat first. This happens because the hunters are the coldest and hungriest among the camp and need the warm seal blood and meat to warm them.[33] The seal is cut in a specific way directly after a hunt. Borré explains the cutting of the seal is this way "one of the hunters slits the abdomen laterally, exposing the internal organs. Hunters first eat pieces of liver or they use a tea cup to gather some blood to drink."[33] At this time, hunters may also chop up pieces of fat and the brain to mix together and eat with meat.[33]
Women and children are accustomed to eating different parts of the seal because they wait until the hunters are done eating. Intestines are the first thing to be chosen and then any leftover pieces of the liver are consumed.[33] Finally, ribs and backbone are eaten and any remaining meat is distributed among the camp.[33]
Food sharing in the community[edit]
Inuit are known for their practice of food sharing, a form of food distribution where one person catches the food and shares with the entire community. Food sharing was first documented among the Inuit in 1910 when a little girl decided to take a platter around to four neighboring families who had no food of their own.[34]
Sharing of frozen, aged walrus meat among Inuit families
According to Uqalurait: An Oral History of Nunavut, "food sharing was necessary for the physical and social welfare of the entire group."[7] Younger couples would give food from their hunt to the elders, most often their parents, as a sign of respect. Food sharing was not only a tradition, but also a way for families to make bonds with one another. Once you shared food with someone, you were in a "lifelong partnership" with them.[7]
Inuit often are relentless in making known that they are not like Qallunaat in the sense that they do not eat the same food and they are communal with their food. Qallunaat believe that the person who purchases the food is the owner of the food and is free to decide what happens to the food. Searles describes the Inuit perspective on food by saying that "in the Inuit world of goods, foods as well as other objects associated with hunting, fishing, and gathering are more or less communal property, belonging not to individuals but to a larger group, which can include multiple households." Food in an Inuit household is not meant to be saved for the family who has hunted, fished, gathered, or purchased it, but instead for anyone who is in need of it. Searles and his wife were visiting a family in Iqaluit and he asked for permission to have a cup of orange juice. This small gesture of asking was taken as offensive because Inuit do not consider food belonging to one person.[1]
Perceived benefits and beliefs of the diet[edit]
Arctic char fishing
The Inuit believe that their diet has many benefits over the western Qallunaat food. They are adamant about proving that their diet will make one stronger, warmer, and full of energy.
One example is the drinking of seal blood. When interviewing an Inuit elder, Searles was told that "Inuit food generates a strong flow of blood, a condition considered to be healthy and indicative of a strong body."[1] After the consumption of seal blood and meat, one could look at their veins in the wrist for proof of the strength that Inuit food provides.[1] Borré states that "seal blood is seen as fortifying human blood by replacing depleted nutrients and rejuvenating the blood supply, it is considered a necessary part of the Inuit diet."[33]
Inuit also believe that eating raw meat keeps them warmer and stronger.[35] They say that raw meat takes effect on one's body when eaten consistently.[35] One Inuk, Oleetoa, who ate a combination of "Qallunaat" and Inuit food, told of a story of his cousin Joanasee who ate a diet consisting of mostly raw Inuit food. The two compared their strengths, warmth, and energy and found that Joanasee benefited most based on his diet.[1]
Inuit choose their diet based on four concepts, according to Borré: "the relationship between animals and humans, the relationship between the body and soul and life and health, the relationship between seal blood and Inuit blood, and diet choice." Inuit are especially spiritual when it comes to the customs of hunting, cooking, and eating. The Inuit belief is that the combination of animal and human blood in one's bloodstream creates a healthy human body and soul.[33]
Hunting beliefs[edit]
One particular belief that Inuit strongly believe in is the relationship between seal and Inuit. According to Inuit hunters and elders, hunters and seals have an agreement that allows the hunter to capture and feed from the seal if only for the hunger of the hunter's family. Borré explains that through this alliance "both hunter and seal are believed to benefit: the hunter is able to sustain the life of his people by having a reliable source of food, and the seal, through its sacrifice, agrees to become part of the body of the Inuit."[33]
Inuit are under the belief that if they do not follow the alliances that their ancestors have laid out, the animals will disappear because they have been offended and will cease to reproduce.[33]
As saltwater animals, seals are always considered to be thirsty and are therefore offered a drink of fresh water as they die. This is shown as a sign of respect and gratitude toward the seal and its sacrifice. This offering is also done to please the spirit Sedna to ensure food supply.[7]
Healing beliefs[edit]
Borré tells of a time when she saw an Inuit woman fall ill who blamed her sickness on the lack of seal in her diet. Once receiving seal meat, the woman felt better within hours and said that her quick recovery was due to the consumption of seal meat and blood. Borré experienced this many times among many different members of the group and they all attributed their sickness to the lack of Inuit food.[33]
See also[edit]
Greenlandic cuisine
Yup'ik cuisine
Aboriginal food security in Canada
Country food
No-carbohydrate diet
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Searles, Edmund. "Food and the Making of Modern Inuit Identities." Food & Foodways: History & Culture of Human Nourishment 10 (2002): 55–78.
Jump up ^ Kuhnlein, Harriet (1991) [1991]. "Chapter 4. Descriptions and Uses of Plant Foods by Indigenous Peoples". Traditional Plant Foods of Canadian Indigenous Peoples: Nutrition, Botany and Use (Food and Nutrition in History and Anthropology) (1st ed.). Taylor and Francis. pp. 26–29. ISBN 978-2-88124-465-0. Retrieved 2007-11-19.
Jump up ^ Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami. "Arctic Wildlife". Archived from the original on 2007-08-13. Retrieved 2007-11-20. Not included are the myriad of other species of plants and animals that Inuit use, such as geese, ducks, rabbits, ptarmigan, swans, halibut, clams, mussels, cod, berries and seaweed.
Jump up ^ Bennett, John; Rowley, Susan (2004). "Chapter 5. Gathering". Uqalurait: An Oral History of Nunavut. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 84–85. ISBN 978-0-7735-2340-1. ...shorelines, Inuit gathered seaweed and shellfish. For some, these foods were a treat;...
Jump up ^ "kuanniq". Asuilaak Living Dictionary. Retrieved 2007-02-16.
Jump up ^ Bennett, John; Rowley, Susan (2004). "Chapter 5. Gathering". Uqalurait: An Oral History of Nunavut. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 78–85. ISBN 978-0-7735-2340-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Bennett, John, and Susan Rowley, eds. Uqalurait: An Oral History of Nunavut. Canada: McGill-Queen's Univ. Press, 2004.
Jump up ^ Condon, R.G. (1996). The Northern Copper Inuit: A History. Norman, Oklahoma: Univ of Oklahoma Press.
Jump up ^ Gadsby, Patricia (October 1, 2004). "The Inuit Paradox". Discover Magazine. p. 2. Retrieved 24 December 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Peter Heinbecker (1928). "Studies on the Metabolism of Eskimos" (PDF). J. Biol. Chem. 80 (2): 461–475. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Corcoran AC, Rabinowitch IM (1937). "A study of the blood lipids and blood protein in Canadian Eastern Arctic Eskimos". Biochem. J. 31 (3): 343–8. PMC 1266943  . PMID 16746345.
^ Jump up to: a b Ho KJ, Mikkelson B, Lewis LA, Feldman SA, Taylor CB (1972). "Alaskan Arctic Eskimo: responses to a customary high fat diet" (PDF). Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 25 (8): 737–45. PMID 5046723.
^ Jump up to: a b Sinclair, H. M. (1953). "The Diet of Canadian Indians and Eskimos" (PDF). Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 12 (01): 69–82. doi:10.1079/PNS19530016. ISSN 0029-6651. It is, however, worth noting that according to the customary convention (Woodyatt, 1921 ; Shaffer, 1921) this diet is not ketogenic since the ratio of ketogenic(FA) to ketolytic (G) aliments is 1.09. Indeed, the content of fat would have to be exactly doubled (324 g daily) to make the diet ketogenic (FA/G>1-5).
^ Jump up to: a b c Yiu H. Hui (February 1985). Principles and issues in nutrition. Wadsworth Health Sciences Division. p. 91. Retrieved 2014-05-19. Eskimos actually consume more carbohydrates than most nutritionists have assumed. Because Eskimos frequently eat their meat raw and frozen, they take in more glycogen than a person purchasing meat with a lower glycogen content in a grocery store. The Eskimo practice of preserving a whole seal or bird carcass under an intact whole skin with a thick layer of blubber also permits some proteins to ferment into carbohydrates.
Jump up ^ Rabinowitch, IM. (May 1936). "Clinical and Other Observations on Canadian Eskimos in the Eastern Arctic" (PDF). Can Med Assoc J. 34 (5): 487–501. PMC 1561651  . PMID 20320248. Retrieved 2014-04-25.
Jump up ^ Pfeiffer, Carl J. (1997). "Renal cellular and tissue specializations in the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas)" (PDF). Aquatic Mammals. 23 (2): 75–84. Retrieved 2014-04-25.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lockyer, Christina (1991). "Body composition of the sperm whale, Physeter cation, with special reference to the possible functions of fat depots" (PDF). Journal of the Marine Research Institute. 12 (2). ISSN 0484-9019. Retrieved 2014-04-25. Carbohydrate which has been directly assessed (not deduced by subtraction of other components from total weight of sample) is significant in amount, reaching levels in the range 8—30%...The significant levels of carbohydrate, probably mostly in the form of glycogen, in both blubber and muscle, may represent an instant form of energy for diving via anaerobic glycolysis.
Jump up ^ Hochachka, P.; Storey, K. (1975). "Metabolic consequences of diving in animals and man". Science. 187 (4177): 613–621. doi:10.1126/science.163485. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 163485. In the terminal stages of prolonged diving, however, even these organs must tolerate anoxia for surprisingly long times, and they typically store unusually large amounts of glycogen for this purpose.
Jump up ^ R. A. Lawrie; David Ledward (23 January 2014). Lawrie’s Meat Science. Elsevier Science. pp. 92–. ISBN 978-1-84569-161-5. A much delayed onset of rigor mortis has been observed in the muscle of the whale (Marsh, 1952b). The ATP level and the pH may remain at their high in vivo values for as much as 24h at 37ºC. No adequate explanation of this phenomenon has yet been given; but the low basal metabolic rate of whale muscle (Benedict, 1958), in combination with the high content of oxymyoglobin in vivo (cf 4.3.1), may permit aerobic metabolism to continue slowly for some time after the death of the animal, whereby ATP levels can be maintained sufficiently to delay the union of actin and myosin in rigor mortis.
Jump up ^ Peter J. Bechtel; UNKNOWN. AUTHOR (2 December 2012). Muscle as Food. Elsevier Science. pp. 171–. ISBN 978-0-323-13953-3. Retrieved 19 May 2014. Freezing does stop the postmortem metabolism but only at about −18ºC and lower temperatures. Above −18ºC increasing temperatures of storage cause an increasing rate of ATP breakdown and glycolysis that is higher in the comminuted meat than in the intact tissue (Fisher et al., 1980b). If the ATP concentration in the frozen tissue falls below ~ 1 µmol/g no contraction or rigor can occur because they are prevented by the rigid matrix of ice.
Jump up ^ Lawrie 2014, p. 298.
Jump up ^ Krogh, August; Krogh, Marie (1915). "A Study of The Diet And Metabolism of Eskimos Undertaken In 1908 On An Expedition To Greenland". Meddelelser om Grønland. 51 (1). Retrieved 2015-12-19.
Jump up ^ Kang-Jey Ho; Belma Mikkelson; Lena A. Lewis; Sheldon A. Feldman; C. Bruce Taylor (1972). "Alaskan Arctic Eskimo: responses to a customary high fat diet" (PDF). Am J Clin Nutr. 25 (8): 737–745. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
Jump up ^ Gadsby, Patricia (October 1, 2004). "The Inuit Paradox". Discover Magazine. pp. 1–4. Retrieved 24 December 2009.
Jump up ^ Fodor, George J.; Helis, Eftyhia; Yazdekhasti, Narges; Vohnout, Branislav (2014). ""Fishing" for the origins of the "Eskimos and heart disease" story. Facts or wishful thinking? A review" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Cardiology. 30: 864–868. doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2014.04.007. ISSN 0828-282X.
Jump up ^ Preston, Elizabeth (2014-08-01). "The Fishy Origins of the Fish Oil Craze". Slate. The Slate Group. Retrieved 2014-08-05. In the 1970s, a pair of Danish researchers ventured north of the Arctic Circle and into medical lore. Studying a scattered Inuit population, they concluded that eating plenty of fish and other marine animals protected this group from heart disease. The researchers would eventually suggest that everyone else’s hearts and arteries might also benefit from the "Eskimo diet," promoting a health food trend that continues to this day. The only trouble is, the two Danes never proved that the Inuit had low rates of heart disease. They never tested it at all. But today the market for fish oil pills is booming, even as scientists conduct trial after trial to hunt for a link to heart health that has never quite solidified.
Jump up ^ Bjerregaard, Peter; Young, T. Kue; Hegele, Robert A. (2003-02-01). "Low incidence of cardiovascular disease among the Inuit--what is the evidence?". Atherosclerosis. 166 (2): 351–357. doi:10.1016/s0021-9150(02)00364-7. ISSN 0021-9150. PMID 12535749.
Jump up ^ Zimmer, Carl (September 17, 2015). "Inuit Study Adds Twist to Omega-3 Fatty Acids' Health Story". New York Times. Retrieved October 11, 2015.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, Anahad (March 30, 2015). "Fish Oil Claims Not Supported by Research". New York Times. Retrieved October 11, 2015.
Jump up ^ Grey, Andrew; Bolland, Mark (March 2014). "Clinical Trial Evidence and Use of Fish Oil Supplements". JAMA Internal Medicine. 174 (3): 460–462. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.12765. PMID 24352849. Retrieved October 11, 2015.
Jump up ^ Gadsby, Patricia (October 1, 2004). "The Inuit Paradox". Discover Magazine. pp. 1–2. Retrieved 24 December 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Klutschak, Heinrich. Overland to Starvation Cove. Trans. and Ed. William Barr. Canada: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1987.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Borré, Kristen. "Seal Blood, Inuit Blood, and Diet: A Biocultural Model of Physiology and Cultural Identity." Medical Anthropology Quarterly 5 (1991): 48–62.
Jump up ^ Damas, David (1972). "Central Eskimo Systems of Food Sharing". Ethnology. 11: 220–240. doi:10.2307/3773217.
^ Jump up to: a b Tigullaraq, Elijah (May 2008). "Why eat raw meat?" (PDF). Nunavut Municipal Training Organization. Retrieved 2014-05-19. A person may sweat as the food gets processed in the stomach even when it’s extremely cold outdoors after eating raw meat. A person may find it difficult to sleep when he has eaten raw meat before bed-time. Inuit try not to eat raw meat before bed-time, because you will sweat a great deal when the food starts to get processed in the stomach. A hangover is nothing compared to “sweats” in the middle of the night, all night, from eating raw meat. Inuit are known to have warm hands when you shake hands with them. That’s from eating raw meat or mammal meat from the sea.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Inuit food.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inuit_cuisine&oldid=809435091"
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