text:
Gun laws in Virginia
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Location of Virginia in the United States
Gun laws in Virginia regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the state of Virginia in the United States.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Summary table
2 Overview
3 See also
4 External links
5 References
Summary table[edit]
Subject/Law
Long Guns
Handguns
Relevant Statutes
Notes
Permit to purchase required? No No
Firearm registration? No No § 18.2-295 Fully-automatic firearms (machine guns) are required to be registered with the state police.
Owner license required? No No Proof of age and citizenship required for the purchase of "assault weapons".
Carry permits required? No Yes § 18.2-308 Virginia is a "shall issue" state for concealed carry. Permits are issued to non-residents and training is permitted online or in person.
Open carry permitted? Yes Yes § 15.2-915.2
§ 18.2-287.4
§ 18.2-282.
Open carry is generally allowed without a permit for people 18 years of age and older. The following cities and counties have exceptions that disallow the open carry of "assault weapons" (any firearm that is equipped with a magazine that will hold more than 20 rounds of ammunition or is designed by the manufacturer to accommodate a silencer or equipped with a folding stock) or shotguns equipped with a magazine that holds more than 7 rounds: the Cities of Alexandria, Chesapeake, Fairfax, Falls Church, Newport News, Norfolk, Richmond, and Virginia Beach and in the Counties of Arlington, Fairfax, Henrico, Loudoun, and Prince William. These restrictions do not apply to valid concealed carry permit holders. Stated differently, you may open carry an assault weapon/shotgun with more than 7 rounds with a permit in the aforementioned locations, but do not need a permit to do so in any other locality in Virginia.
For open carry in a vehicle, the firearm must be "properly secured in a container or compartment within the vehicle" (ie glove box, center console, trunk, etc). The container/compartment does not have to be locked, the firearm may be within the reach of the driver or a passenger, and the firearm may be loaded. This does not preempt an employer from prohibiting firearms "at a place of employment if there is a company policy or signage prohibiting firearms on the premises."[3] Furthermore, a "county or city may by ordinance make it unlawful for any person to transport, possess or carry a loaded shotgun or loaded rifle in any vehicle on any public street, road, or highway within such locality." However, this does not "apply to duly authorized law-enforcement officers or military personnel in the performance of their lawful duties, nor to any person who reasonably believes that a loaded rifle or shotgun is necessary for his personal safety in the course of his employment or business."
In addition, a firearm may be considered "open carry" in a vehicle if the firearm is openly visible, though this is not as well established as the "secured in a container/compartment" rule.
State preemption of local restrictions? Yes Yes § 15.2-915 Virginia has state preemption for most but not all firearm laws.
Assault weapon law? Yes Yes § 18.2-308.2:2
§ 18.2-308.2:01 § 18.2-308.7
Proof of age (18+ for long arms, 21+ for pistols) and proof of citizenship (or permanent residence license) are required for the purchase of "assault weapons". "Assault weapons" are defined as a semi-automatic, centerfire, firearm equipped with a folding/adjustable stock, or equipped at the time with a magazine capable of holding more than 20 rounds, or capable of accommodating a silencer/suppressor.
Magazine restriction? No No § 18.2-287.4
§ 18.2-282.
Magazines capable of holding more than 20 rounds are legal but, they make the firearm an "assault weapon", subject to law accordingly.
NFA weapons restricted? Yes Yes § 18.2-308.8
§ 18.2-308.5
§ 18.2-295 Fully-automatic firearms (machine guns) must be registered with the state police. Plastic firearms and some destructive devices (such as the striker 12 shotgun) are prohibited outside law enforcement. SBS, SBR, AOWs, and suppressors are legal with NFA paperwork.
Background checks required for private sales? No No
Gun laws in Virginia
Constitution
Constitution sections
Article I, §13.
Synopsis [show]
"[...] the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; [...]"
Preemption and local regulation
Preemption sections
§ 15.2-915.,
§ 15.2–915.1.,
§ 15.2–915.2.,
§ 15.2–915.4.,
§ 15.2-914.
Synopsis [show]
Localities may regulate the transportation of a loaded rifle or shotgun, regulate the use of pneumatic guns, and the possession and storage of firearms by persons who provide child-care services.
Registration
Ownership registration sections
§ 18.2–295.
Synopsis [show]
Machine guns must be registered with the Virginia State Police.[4]
Purchase registration [show]
No purchase registration
Lost/stolen registration [show]
No lost/stolen registration
Restricted or prohibited items
Restricted firearms sections
§ 18.2–308.8.,
§ 18.2–308.5.
Synopsis [show]
Armsel Striker, also known as the Striker 12, and similar shotguns are prohibited. Plastic firearms are prohibited.
Restricted ammunition [show]
No restricted ammunition
Restricted accessories [show]
No restricted accessories
Restricted or prohibited places
Restricted places sections
§ 18.2–283.,
AG Opinion 11-043,
§ 18.2–283.1.,
§ 18.2–287.01.,
§ 18.2–287.4.,
§ 18.2–308.1.,
4VAC15-40-60.,
4VAC10-30-170.,
8VAC35-60-20.
GA JRC Rule,
§ 18.2–308.
Synopsis [show]
Places of religious worship, without good and sufficient reason. The Attorney General has opined that personal protection constitutes a good and sufficient reason.
Courthouses.
Air carrier airport terminals.
Certain high-capacity firearms in public places in certain counties and cities; except certain persons.
Public, private or religious elementary, middle or high schools and associated buildings, grounds, buses, and events; except certain persons.
On George Mason University property in academic buildings, administrative office buildings, student residence buildings, dining facilities, or while attending sporting, entertainment or educational events; except police officers.
Anywhere on a Virginia Commonwealth University campus, without the written authorization of the president of the university; except persons whose duties lawfully require the possession of firearms.
The Capitol and the General Assembly building; except for members of the General Assembly, persons with concealed handgun permits, and law enforcement personnel.
Private property where prohibited by the owner.
Restricted or prohibited persons
Underage persons sections
§ 18.2–56.2.,
§ 18.2–308.7.
Synopsis [show]
Persons under the age of 12, except while supervised.
Persons over the age of 12, but under the age of 18, except while supervised; or unsupervised with parental and property owner permission.
Alien persons sections
§ 18.2–308.2:01.
Synopsis [show]
Persons who are not lawfully present in the United States may not possess, transport or carry any firearm.
Persons who are not citizens or lawful permanent residents may not possess an "assault firearm."
Restricted persons sections
§ 18.2–308.1:1.,
§ 18.2–308.1:2.,
§ 18.2–308.1:3.,
§ 18.2–308.1:4.
Synopsis [show]
Persons acquitted by reason of insanity.
Persons adjudicated legally incompetent, mentally incapacitated.
Persons involuntarily admitted to a facility or ordered to mandatory outpatient treatment.
Persons subject to protective orders.
Convicted persons sections
§ 18.2–290.,
§ 18.2–308.1:5.,
§ 18.2–308.2.
Synopsis [show]
Persons convicted of a crime of violence in any court of record may not possess a machine gun.
Persons convicted of certain drug offenses; for a period of five years.
Persons who have been convicted of a felony, kidnapping, robbery by the threat or presentation of firearms, or rape.
Manufacturing
Manufacturing regulations sections
§ 18.2–294.,
§ 18.2–304.,
§ 18.2–308.5.
Synopsis [show]
Manufacturers must keep a record of all machine guns, sawed-off rifles and sawed-off shotguns that they manufacture.
Manufacturers are subject to police inspection of their stock of machine guns, sawed-off rifles, and sawed-off shotguns.
It is unlawful to manufacture firearms containing less than 3.7 ounces of electromagnetically detectable metal in the barrel, slide, cylinder, frame or receiver.
Sale, purchase, and transfer
Dealer regulations sections
§ 18.2–294.,
§ 18.2–304.,
§ 18.2–308.2:1.,
§ 18.2–308.2:3.
§ 18.2–308.2:2.,
Synopsis [show]
Dealers are subject to police inspection of their stock of machine guns, sawed-off rifles, and sawed-off shotguns.
Dealers may not sell or otherwise furnish firearms to any person he knows is prohibited from possessing or transporting a firearm.
Criminal background checks of employees of gun dealers are required before they may transfer firearms.
Criminal history record information check required for the transfer of certain firearms.
Non-residents may purchase rifle and shotguns only
Private sale regulations sections
§ 18.2–308.2:1.,
§ 18.2–308.2:2.
Synopsis [show]
Private sellers may not sell or otherwise furnish firearms to any person he knows is prohibited from possessing or transporting a firearm.
Private sellers may sell long guns and handguns.
Transportation and carry
Transportation restrictions sections
§ 15.2–915.2.,
§ 18.2–308.
Synopsis [show]
Localities may regulate the transportation of a loaded rifle or shotgun.
Persons lawfully possessing a handgun may transport such handgun loaded and in a secure compartment in a vehicle or vessel.
Open carry restrictions sections
§ 18.2–308.
Synopsis [show]
There is no law against a law-abiding citizen openly carrying a firearm, therefore it is legal and no permit or license is required.[5]
"Open carry" is the carrying of a firearm that is not concealed. Virginia defines concealed as "hidden from common observation" and "a weapon shall be deemed to be hidden from common observation when it is observable but is of such deceptive appearance as to disguise the weapon's true nature."
Concealed carry restrictions sections
§ 18.2–308,
§ 18.2–308.012
Synopsis [show]
Only persons who hold certain positions, comply with certain rules or restrictions, and/or who have a Concealed Handgun Permit (CHP) may carry concealed handguns.
Virginia issues a CHP to residents and non-residents.
CHP applicants must provide proof of demonstrated competence with a handgun.
Some persons are deemed disqualified from obtaining a CHP, even though they may lawfully possess and carry a firearm.
Virginia maintains concealed handgun permit reciprocity with other States and recognizes some licenses from other States without a formal reciprocity agreement. The list of such states is maintained by the Virginia State Police.[6]
Consuming an alcoholic beverage in ABC on-premises licensed restaurants and clubs, while carrying a concealed handgun, is prohibited. Openly carrying and consuming an alcoholic beverage is permitted. No person may carry a concealed handgun in a public place while under the influence of alcohol or illegal drugs.
§ 18.2–308, which regulates concealed weapons, shall not apply to any person while in his own place of abode or the curtilage thereof.
Except as provided in subsection J1, being "under the influence", § 18.2–308 shall not apply to:
Any person while in his own place of business;
Any person who may lawfully possess a firearm and is carrying a handgun while in a personal, private motor vehicle or vessel and such handgun is secured in a container or compartment in the vehicle or vessel;
Certain current and retired law-enforcement officers and certain State employees.
Overview[edit]
The Constitution of Virginia protects the right of the people to keep and bear arms from government infringement.[7] The Commonwealth of Virginia preempts local regulation of several aspects of firearms, though some local regulation is explicitly permitted. Virginia passed the Uniform Machine Gun Act, which was drafted by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws.[8][9] The only firearms in Virginia that are prohibited are the Armsel Striker, also known as the Striker 12, similar shotguns, and any "plastic firearms." Firearms must contain at least 3.7 ounces of electromagnetically detectable metal in the barrel, slide, cylinder, frame or receiver, and when subjected to x-ray machines, generate an image that accurately depicts their shape.[10] For example, Glock pistols which have polymer frames and metal slides and barrels are legal. There are no magazine capacity limitations, except that a concealed handgun permit (CHP) is required in order to carry magazines with more than 20 rounds in some urban, public areas.[1][2]
Prohibited places include courthouses, air carrier terminals, schools, Capitol and General Assembly buildings (open carrying only, members of the General Assembly and those with a valid CHP are permitted in the Capitol General Assembly buildings), and churches, though some exceptions apply, including a 2011 Attorney General opinion that personal protection constitutes good and sufficient reason to carry at a church.[11] George Mason University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Virginia Polytechnic University (Virginia Tech) currently possess rules that prohibit firearms on school property.
A 2006 opinion issued by State Attorney General Robert F. McDonnell stated “...the governing boards of Virginia’s public colleges and universities may not impose a general prohibition on the carrying of concealed weapons by permitted individuals... Pursuant to specific grants of statutory authority, however, it is my opinion that colleges and universities may regulate the conduct of students and employees to prohibit them from carrying concealed weapons on campus.”.[12]
In 2011, the Virginia Supreme Court found that the language used by George Mason University (GMU) to “...not impose a total ban of weapons on campus. Rather, the regulation is tailored, restricting weapons only in those places where people congregate and are most vulnerable – inside campus buildings and at campus events. Individuals may still carry or possess weapons on the open grounds of GMU, and in other places on campus not enumerated in the regulation.”[12]
There are age restrictions on the possession of firearms and some people are prohibited from possessing firearms due to certain criminal convictions. Licensed dealers must have the Virginia State Police conduct a background check prior to completing the sale of certain firearms. Persons who are not in the business of selling firearms, but make occasional, private sales, are not required to perform a background check before selling their firearms. Before July 1, 2012, a person could not purchase more than one handgun per 30-day period, though some exceptions applied; most significantly, holders of valid Concealed Handgun Permits (CHP) from Virginia were exempt from this restriction.[1][2] The bill that repealed the "one-handgun-a-month law" was signed into law by Governor Bob McDonnell on February 28 of that year.[13]
Open carry of a handgun without a permit is legal in Virginia at age 18, withstanding other applicable laws. Concealed carry of a handgun is allowed for persons who hold a valid CHP (concealed handgun permit), comply with certain restrictions, or who hold certain positions. Virginia shall issue a CHP to applicants 21 years of age or older, provided that they meet certain safety training requirements and do not have any disqualifying criminal convictions. Consuming an alcoholic beverage in ABC on-premises licensed restaurants and clubs, while carrying a concealed handgun, is prohibited; nor may any person carry a concealed handgun in a public place while under the influence of alcohol or illegal drugs. Any person permitted to carry a concealed firearm may not carry one in such manner in a public place while intoxicated. Possession of a firearm can compound the penalty for various other offenses, including illegal drug possession. Open carry while intoxicated is not addressed in the law and can presumed to be legal unless otherwise specified.[14][1][2][15]
There are some restrictions on the use of weapons. Brandishing a firearm is punishable by up to a year in jail.[16]
See also[edit]
Law of Virginia
External links[edit]
"Crimes Involving Health and Safety". Legislative Information System. Virginia General Assembly.
"Virginia Gun Laws Summary". National Rifle Association Institute for Legislative Action. March 2, 2016.
Jouvenal, Justin; Lamothe, Dan. "Senior Navy official charged with pointing gun at men during argument". The Washington Post. July 19, 2016.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Gun Laws: Virginia". National Rifle Association – Institute for Legislative Action. 2012-07-25. Retrieved 2012-12-30.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Virginia State Law Summary". Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. 2012-01-01. Retrieved 2012-12-30.
Jump up ^ "Attorney General Opinion" (PDF).
Jump up ^ http://www.vsp.state.va.us/Firearms_MachineGun.shtm
Jump up ^ "Virginia State Police Letter Confirming Legality of Open Carry" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-12-23.
Jump up ^ "Virginia State Police – Firearms Reciprocity/Recognition". Vsp.state.va.us. Retrieved 2011-12-23.
Jump up ^ "Article I, Section 13. Militia; standing armies; military subordinate to civil power". Legis.state.va.us. Retrieved 2011-12-23.
Jump up ^ "Second Amendment Foundation – Firearm Regulation, by John Brabner-Smith". Saf.org. Retrieved 2011-12-23.
Jump up ^ "University of Pennsylvania Law Review, Note, 98 (1950): 905. F.J.K". Saf.org. Retrieved 2011-12-23.
Jump up ^ "Code of Virginia § 18.2–308.5". Leg1.state.va.us. Retrieved 2011-12-23.
Jump up ^ "Attorney General Opinion" (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b "Virginia Supreme Court Rules Against Campus Carry". Concealedcampus.org. 2011-01-13. Retrieved 2013-09-30.
Jump up ^ Meola, Olympia (2012-02-29). "McDonnell signs repeal of one-gun-a-month law". Richmond Times-Dispatch. Retrieved 2012-04-18.
Jump up ^ "Code of Virginia".
Jump up ^ "LIS > Code of Virginia > 18.2-308". Leg1.state.va.us. 2010-07-01. Retrieved 2011-12-23.
Jump up ^ https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/public-safety/senior-navy-official-charged-for-allegedly-pointing-gun-at-men-during-argument/2016/07/19/9b231ad4-4dc7-11e6-aa14-e0c1087f7583_story.html?wpisrc=nl_buzz&wpmm=1
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text:
Parking brake
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Hand brake" redirects here. It is not to be confused with HandBrake.
This article is about the mechanical part. For the metalworking machine, see Box and pan brake.
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (August 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Hand brake lever from a Geo Storm. In this photo, the lever mechanism is shown not installed in the car.
Brake warning light
ISO symbol used to indicate that the parking brake is applied
In road vehicles, the parking brake, also called[1] hand brake, emergency brake, or e-brake, is used to keep the vehicle stationary and in many cases also perform an emergency stop. Parking brakes on older vehicles often consist of a cable connected to two wheel brakes at one end and the other end to a pulling mechanism which is operated with the driver's hand or foot. The mechanism may be a hand-operated lever, at floor level beside the driver, or a straight pull handle located near the steering column, or a (foot-operated) pedal located beside the drivers leg. In most automobiles the parking brake operates only on the rear wheels,[2] which have reduced traction while braking. Some automobiles have the parking brake operate on the front wheels, for example most Citroens manufactured since the end of World War II, and the early models of the Saab 900.
The most common use for a parking brake is to keep a vehicle motionless when it is parked. The park brake has a ratchet or other locking mechanism that will keep it engaged until manually released. On vehicles with automatic transmissions, this is usually used in concert with a parking pawl in the transmission.
Electric park brake switch of a Volkswagen Touran
Contents
[hide]
1 Electric parking brake
2 Emergency brake
3 Driving and parking techniques
4 Types of brakes
5 Large vehicles
6 Jacking
7 Railroad hand brakes
8 See also
9 Notes
10 External links
Electric parking brake[edit]
Further information: Electric park brake
A recent variation is the electric parking brake. First installed in the 2001 BMW 7 Series (E65), electric park brakes have since appeared in a number of vehicles. Two variations are available: In the more-traditional "cable-pulling" type, an electric motor simply pulls the parking brake cable on the push or pull of a button rather than a mechanical pedal or handle in the cabin. A more complex unit [3] (first seen on the 2003 Audi A8) uses a computer-controlled motor attached to each of the two rear brake calipers referred to as the Motor on Caliper(MoC) system.
It is expected that these systems will incorporate other features in the future. Jaguar, Landrover, BMW, Renault, Subaru and VW already have a system where the parking brake engages when the engine is stopped and is released when the gas pedal is pressed. An extension of this system, called the hill-hold function, prevents roll-back when stopping and starting on a hill. The OEM can easily turn off the system. Some electric parking brakes function similar to "park" on an automatic transmission and will not engage when the vehicle is in motion, there is no emergency brake in this case.
Emergency brake[edit]
The emergency brake was originally intended for one particular emergency and that was "no other way to stop", as was the case when the footbrake suddenly failed due to a loss of hydraulic pressure or other issue. Drivers had to respond when brakes failed, so they were expected to learn how to stop a speeding vehicle using the emergency brake alone. Safety regulations became almost universal by 1980, so modern brake systems are very reliable, using dual-circuit hydraulics and more recently low-brake-fluid sensors.[4] As modern brakes no longer cause emergencies in normal contexts (a brake warning light comes on after the first sign of trouble)[citation needed], it is no longer necessary for the average driver to learn to use this brake for emergencies.
Some drivers benefiting from the "park" function on their automatic transmissions do not use this brake at all (daily use of the parking brake is recommended, to ensure it does not seize up). After a lack of recent braking emergencies, automakers stopped using the term and started referring it by its other use, the "parking brake", even though the ability to function at a high speed was still there. On an increasing number of modern vehicles, the parking brake can only be engaged when the vehicle is at a stop, and they no longer have an emergency brake.[citation needed]
The emergency brake in some cars is completely mechanical; that is, by pulling the lever, the driver pulls a cable, which in turn causes the brake shoes inside a drum brake to press against the cylinder. In a car with a completely mechanical emergency brake, the driver would be able to apply the brake even in if there was a complete loss of hydraulic pressure and a stopped engine (which would mean that there would be no power braking).
Driving and parking techniques[edit]
Parking brakes do not stop very well, as the stopping force provided is less than half the force of normal braking and takes much longer to stop a vehicle. Parking brakes also provide much less braking than what a car with power braking (also called "brake booster") would provide. For vehicles with manual transmissions, the mechanical parking brake is routinely used to assist in "hill starts" (when the car is being started on a hill) as this frees both feet for use on the accelerator and clutch pedals. Even an unskilled motorist can get started without rolling backwards. It is inadvisable to use rear wheel parking brakes when the standard brakes are available, unless there is a problem with the front wheels such as a tire blowout or slippery conditions risking skidding and a loss of control. Using the parking brake while driving changes the traction balance between the front and rear of the vehicle, if over applied may lock the back wheels and skid the car into a handbrake turn.
Handbrake turns are often intentionally used in street racing and offroad rally racing to initiate rear wheel drift. In conditions near freezing where it is both wet and icy, the parking brake mechanics may freeze and be impossible to release until thawed.[5] If only using the "park" function on a transmission to hold the car parked, there is no freezing problem. The parking brake is also used to keep a parked manual transmission car from unintentionally moving when it is parked on a hill. Even though it is possible to keep a parked manual transmission car in place by putting it in gear in the opposite direction of the slope (e.g., if parking pointing downhill, put the car in "reverse"), the parking brake is still typically used, as if the engine were to lose compression, the car could roll forward. As a further precaution, some driving instructors tell students to point the wheels of hill-parked standard transmission cars towards the curb.
Types of brakes[edit]
The hand brake lever in a Saab 9-5 automobile.
In vehicles with rear disc brakes, the parking brake either actuates the disc calipers (again, with much less force) or a small drum brake housed within the hub assembly (the inner circumference of the disc is often used instead of a separate drum).
Hudson automobiles used an unusual hybrid hydraulic-mechanical dual-brake system which operated the rear brakes through the otherwise conventional mechanical parking brake system when a failure of the hydraulic system allowed the pedal to travel beyond its normal limit.[6]
A number of production vehicles, light and medium duty trucks, and motor homes have been made with a separate drum brake on the driveline; called a transmission brake. This has an advantage of being completely independent of other braking systems. This is effective when there are multiple driving axles, all driven wheels are braked at once.
A line lock is a temporary parking brake that makes use of the vehicles standard hydraulic brakes. Often used for off road conditions stopping on steep grades. By trapping hydraulic pressure in the brake lines, all four wheels can be locked.
Large vehicles[edit]
Large vehicles are usually fitted with power operated or power assisted parking brakes. Power assisted parking brakes are usually found on large vans as well as some older heavy vehicles. These operate in the same way as a conventional parking brakes, but pulling the lever operates a valve that allows air or hydraulic pressure or vacuum into a cylinder which applies force to the brake shoes and makes applying the parking brake easier. When releasing the parking brake, the same mechanism also provides assistance to the driver in disengaging the ratchet. Particularly on commercial vehicles with air operated brakes, this has the added benefit of making it much harder or even impossible to release the parking brake when insufficient air pressure is available to operate the brakes. A reservoir or accumulator is usually provided so a limited amount of power assistance is available with the engine off.
Power operated parking brakes are fitted to heavy commercial vehicles with air brakes, such as trucks and buses. These are usually spring applied, with air pressure being used to hold the brake off and powerful springs holding the brakes on. In most cases, a small lever in the cab is connected to a valve which can admit air to the parking brake cylinders to release the parking brake, or release the air to apply the brake. On some modern vehicles the valve is operated electrically from a lever or button in the cab. The system is relatively safe since if air pressure is lost the springs will apply the brakes. Also, the system prevents the parking brake being released if there is insufficient air pressure to apply the foot brake. A disadvantage to this system is that if a vehicle requires towing and cannot provide its own air supply, an external supply must be provided to allow the parking brake to be released, or the brake shoes must be manually wound off against the springs.
Jacking[edit]
It is important to know which wheels are providing the braking action when lifting the car with a jack, for example when a motorist is changing a flat tire. Usually the rear wheels are stopped with parking brakes. Most Citroens, the Alfasud, Saab 99s, early 900s, and most early Subarus applied the parking brake force to the front wheels, which makes them notable exceptions. If one lifts the braking wheels off the ground then the car can move and fall off the jack. This could injure persons who are underneath or near the car. This is the reason manufacturers recommend jacking be conducted on level ground and with chocks immobilizing the wheels that will remain on the ground.
Railroad hand brakes[edit]
Further information: Emergency brake (train)
Virtually all railroad rolling stock is equipped with manually operated mechanical hand brake devices that set and release the brakes. Most of these involve a chain linked to the brake rigging, most often at the brake cylinder, that when tightened pull the piston out against the releasing springs, thus applying the brakes on the car (if there is only one brake cylinder per car) or bogie (if there is more than once cylinder per car). Newer locomotives have electric systems that simply place an electric motor in place of the chain winding mechanism. This brake acts independent of the action of the automatic air brakes, which function collectively when coupled in a train and are under the control of the locomotive driver / engineer.
Manual hand brakes serve to keep a piece of rolling stock stationary after it has been spotted in a rail yard or at a customer for unloading or loading. They are also used to secure a parked train from inadvertent movement, especially while unmanned.
Before the development of locomotive-actuated train braking systems in the late 19th century, designated railroad employees known as brakemen would move about the tops of cars, setting hand brakes in an effort to stop the train in a timely manner. This process was imprecise and extremely dangerous. Many brakemen lost life and limb as a result of falling from a moving train, icy and wet conditions often adding to the hazards involved in negotiating the top of a swaying boxcar.[7] In the U.S., an 1893 federal law, the Railroad Safety Appliance Act, required automatic brakes on all railroads, effective in 1900.[8]
See also[edit]
Handbrake turn
Johnson bar (vehicle)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ tekstlab.uio.no
Jump up ^ military.com
Jump up ^ trw.com
Jump up ^ 5.2.3 unece.org
Jump up ^ mobiloil.com
Jump up ^ "Hudson Motor Car Company - Hudson Car Club - Hudson, Essex, Terraplane Cars". Hudsonclub.org. 2009-03-09. Retrieved 2011-04-24.
Jump up ^ McDonald, Charles (1993). The Federal Railroad Safety Program (PDF). Washington, DC: U.S. Federal Railroad Administration. pp. 2–5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-07-31.
Jump up ^ United States. Act of Mar. 2, 1893, 27 Stat. 531, recodified, as amended, 49 U.S.C. § 20302.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hand brakes.
Family Car Parts. "A Short Course on Brakes: Parking."
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Enthalpy of vaporization
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Temperature-dependency of the heats of vaporization for water, methanol, benzene, and acetone.
The enthalpy of vaporization, (symbol ∆Hvap) also known as the (latent) heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the amount of energy (enthalpy) that must be added to a liquid substance, to transform a quantity of that substance into a gas. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.
The enthalpy of vaporization is often quoted for the normal boiling temperature of the substance; although tabulated values are usually corrected to 298 K, that correction is often smaller than the uncertainty in the measured value.
The heat of vaporization is temperature-dependent, though a constant heat of vaporization can be assumed for small temperature ranges and for reduced temperature T r {\displaystyle T_{r}} ≪ 1 {\displaystyle \ll 1} . The heat of vaporization diminishes with increasing temperature and it vanishes completely at a certain point called the critical temperature ( T r = 1 {\displaystyle T_{r}=1} ). Above the critical temperature, the liquid and vapor phases are indistinguishable, and the substance is called a supercritical fluid.
Contents
[hide]
1 Units
2 Enthalpy of condensation
3 Thermodynamic background
4 Vaporization enthalpy of electrolyte solutions
5 Selected values
5.1 Elements
5.2 Other common substances
6 See also
7 References
Units[edit]
Values are usually quoted in J/mol or kJ/mol (molar enthalpy of vaporization), although kJ/kg or J/g (specific heat of vaporization), and older units like kcal/mol, cal/g and Btu/lb are sometimes still used, among others.
Enthalpy of condensation[edit]
The enthalpy of condensation (or heat of condensation) is by definition equal to the enthalpy of vaporization with the opposite sign: enthalpy changes of vaporization are always positive (heat is absorbed by the substance), whereas enthalpy changes of condensation are always negative (heat is released by the substance).
Thermodynamic background[edit]
The enthalpy of vaporization can be written as
Δ H v a p = Δ U v a p + p Δ V {\displaystyle \Delta {}H_{\mathrm {vap} }=\Delta {}U_{\mathrm {vap} }+p\Delta \,V}
It is equal to the increased internal energy of the vapor phase compared with the liquid phase, plus the work done against ambient pressure. The increase in the internal energy can be viewed as the energy required to overcome the intermolecular interactions in the liquid (or solid, in the case of sublimation). Hence helium has a particularly low enthalpy of vaporization, 0.0845 kJ/mol, as the van der Waals forces between helium atoms are particularly weak. On the other hand, the molecules in liquid water are held together by relatively strong hydrogen bonds, and its enthalpy of vaporization, 40.65 kJ/mol, is more than five times the energy required to heat the same quantity of water from 0 °C to 100 °C (cp = 75.3 J K−1 mol−1). Care must be taken, however, when using enthalpies of vaporization to measure the strength of intermolecular forces, as these forces may persist to an extent in the gas phase (as is the case with hydrogen fluoride), and so the calculated value of the bond strength will be too low. This is particularly true of metals, which often form covalently bonded molecules in the gas phase: in these cases, the enthalpy of atomization must be used to obtain a true value of the bond energy.
An alternative description is to view the enthalpy of condensation as the heat which must be released to the surroundings to compensate for the drop in entropy when a gas condenses to a liquid. As the liquid and gas are in equilibrium at the boiling point (Tb), ΔvG = 0, which leads to:
Δ v S = S g a s − S l i q u i d = Δ v H / T b {\displaystyle \Delta \,_{v}S=S_{gas}-S_{liquid}=\Delta \,_{v}H/T_{b}}
As neither entropy nor enthalpy vary greatly with temperature, it is normal to use the tabulated standard values without any correction for the difference in temperature from 298 K. A correction must be made if the pressure is different from 100 kPa, as the entropy of a gas is proportional to its pressure (or, more precisely, to its fugacity): the entropies of liquids vary little with pressure, as the compressibility of a liquid is small.
These two definitions are equivalent: the boiling point is the temperature at which the increased entropy of the gas phase overcomes the intermolecular forces. As a given quantity of matter always has a higher entropy in the gas phase than in a condensed phase ( Δ v S {\displaystyle \Delta \,_{v}S} is always positive), and from
Δ G = Δ H − T Δ S {\displaystyle \Delta \,G=\Delta \,H-T\Delta \,S} ,
the Gibbs free energy change falls with increasing temperature: gases are favored at higher temperatures, as is observed in practice.
Vaporization enthalpy of electrolyte solutions[edit]
Estimation of the enthalpy of vaporization of electrolyte solutions can be simply carried out using equations based on the chemical thermodynamic models, such as Pitzer model[1] or TCPC model.[2]
Selected values[edit]
Elements[edit]
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Enthalpies of vaporization of the elements
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Group →
↓ Period
1
H0.44936 He0.0845
2
Li145.92 Be292.40 B489.7 C355.8 N2.7928 O3.4099 F3.2698 Ne1.7326
3
Na96.96 Mg127.4 Al293.4 Si300 P12.129 S1.7175 Cl10.2 Ar6.447
4
K79.87 Ca153.6 Sc314.2 Ti421 V452 Cr344.3 Mn226 Fe349.6 Co376.5 Ni370.4 Cu300.3 Zn115.3 Ga258.7 Ge330.9 As34.76 Se26.3 Br15.438 Kr9.029
5
Rb72.216 Sr144 Y363 Zr581.6 Nb696.6 Mo598 Tc660 Ru595 Rh493 Pd357 Ag250.58 Cd100 In231.5 Sn295.8 Sb77.14 Te52.55 I20.752 Xe12.636
6
Cs67.74 Ba142 Hf575 Ta743 W824 Re715 Os627.6 Ir604 Pt510 Au334.4 Hg59.229 Tl164.1 Pb177.7 Bi104.8 Po60.1 At27.2 Rn16.4
7
Frn/a Ra37 Rfn/a Dbn/a Sgn/a Bhn/a Hsn/a Mtn/a Dsn/a Rgn/a Cnn/a Nhn/a Fln/a Mcn/a Lvn/a Tsn/a Ogn/a
La414 Ce414 Prn/a Ndn/a Pmn/a Smn/a Eun/a Gdn/a Tbn/a Dyn/a Hon/a Ern/a Tmn/a Ybn/a Lun/a
Acn/a Th514.4 Pan/a Un/a Npn/a Pun/a Amn/a Cmn/a Bkn/a Cfn/a Esn/a Fmn/a Mdn/a Non/a Lrn/a
Enthalpy in kJ/mol, measured at their respective normal boiling points
0–10 kJ/mol 10–100 kJ/mol 100–300 kJ/mol >300 kJ/mol
The vaporization of metals is a key step in metal vapor synthesis, which exploits the increased reactivity of metal atoms or small particles relative to the bulk elements.
Other common substances[edit]
Enthalpies of vaporization of common substances, measured at their respective standard boiling points:
Compound
Boiling Point at normal pressure
Heat of vaporization
(J mol−1)
Heat of vaporization
(J g−1)
Acetone 329 K, 56 °C, 133 °F 31300 538.9
Aluminium 2792 K, 2519 °C, 4566 °F 294000 10500
Ammonia 240 K, −33.34 °C, −28 °F 23350 1371
Butane 272–274 K, −1 °C, 30–34 °F 21000 320
Diethyl ether 307.8 K, 34.6 °C, 94.3 °F 26170 353.1
Ethanol 352 K, 78.37 °C, 173 °F 38600 841
Hydrogen 20.271 K, -252.879 °C, -423.182 °F 460[dubious – discuss] 451.9
Iron 3134 K, 2862 °C, 5182 °F 340000 6090
Isopropyl alcohol 356 K, 82.6 °C, 181 °F 44000 732.2
Methane 112 K, −161 °C, −259 °F 8170 480.6
Methanol 338 K, 64.7 °C, 148 °F 35200[3] 1104
Propane 231 K,-42 °C, −44 °F 15700 356
Phosphine 185 K, −87.7 °C, −126 °F 14600 429.4
Water 373.15 K, 100 °C, 212 °F 40660 2257
See also[edit]
Enthalpy of fusion (Specific heat of melting)
Enthalpy of sublimation
Joback method (Estimation of the heat of vaporization at the normal boiling point from molecular structures)
References[edit]
This article has an unclear citation style. The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of citation and footnoting. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Jump up ^ Ge, Xinlei; Wang, Xidong (20 May 2009). "Estimation of Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Vaporization Enthalpies of Electrolyte Solutions". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 48 (10): 5123–5123. doi:10.1021/ie900434h.
Jump up ^ Ge, Xinlei; Wang, Xidong (2009). "Calculations of Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, Vapor Pressure and Enthalpies of Vaporization of Electrolyte Solutions by a Modified Three-Characteristic Parameter Correlation Model". Journal of Solution Chemistry. 38 (9): 1097–1117. doi:10.1007/s10953-009-9433-0. ISSN 0095-9782.
Jump up ^ NIST
CODATA Key Values for Thermodynamics
Gmelin, Leopold (1985). Gmelin-Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie / 08 a (8., völlig neu bearb. Aufl. ed.). Berlin [u.a.]: Springer. pp. 116–117. ISBN 3-540-93516-9.
NIST Chemistry WebBook
Young, Francis W. Sears, Mark W. Zemansky, Hugh D. (1982). University physics (6th ed.). Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-07199-1.
[hide]
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States of matter (list)
State
Baryonic matter
Solid
Liquid
Gas / Vapor
Plasma
Low energy
Bose–Einstein condensate
Fermionic condensate
Degenerate matter
Quantum Hall
Rydberg matter
Rydberg polaron
Strange matter
Superfluid
Supersolid
Photonic matter
High energy
QCD matter
Lattice QCD
Quark–gluon plasma
Color-glass condensate
Supercritical fluid
Other states
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Transitions
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Recombination
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Supercooling
Triple point
Vaporization
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Quantities
Enthalpy of fusion
Enthalpy of sublimation
Enthalpy of vaporization
Latent heat
Latent internal energy
Trouton's ratio
Volatility
Concepts
Binodal
Compressed fluid
Cooling curve
Equation of state
Leidenfrost effect
Macroscopic quantum phenomena
Mpemba effect
Order and disorder (physics)
Spinodal
Superconductivity
Superheated vapor
Superheating
Thermo-dielectric effect
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Normal boiling point

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values: Molar enthalpy of zinc above 298.15 K and at 1 atm pressure, showing discontinuities at the melting and boiling points. The enthalpy of melting (ΔH°m) of zinc is 7323 J/mol, and the enthalpy of vaporization (ΔH°v) is 115 330 J/mol.

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values: \Delta{}H_{\mathrm{vap}} = \Delta{}U_{\mathrm{vap}} + p\Delta\,V

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values: \Delta\,_v S = S_{gas} - S_{liquid} = \Delta\,_v H/T_b

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values: {\displaystyle \Delta \,G=\Delta \,H-T\Delta \,S}

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