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Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)
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For the 1851 treaty, see Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851).
General William T. Sherman (third from left) and Commissioners in Council with chiefs and headmen, Fort Laramie, 1868
Signed
April 29 – November 6, 1868[a]
Location
Fort Laramie, Wyoming
Negotiators
Indian Peace Commission
Signatories
Arapaho
Sioux
United States
Ratifiers
US Senate
Language
English
Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 at Wikisource
The Treaty of Fort Laramie (also called the Sioux Treaty of 1868[b]) was an agreement between the United States and the Oglala, Miniconjou, and Brulé bands of Lakota people, Yanktonai Dakota and Arapaho Nation[3] signed on April 29, 1868 at Fort Laramie in the Wyoming Territory, guaranteeing the Lakota ownership of the Black Hills, and further land and hunting rights in South Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana. The Powder River Country was to be henceforth closed to all whites. The treaty ended Red Cloud's War. Animosities over the treaty rose quickly, with neither side fully honoring the terms. Open war again broke out in 1876, and the US Government unilaterally annexed land covered under the treaty in 1877.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Articles
3 Signing
3.1 Signatories
3.1.1 Commissioners
3.1.2 Chiefs and headmen
4 Aftermath and legacy
4.1 United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians
4.2 Commemoration
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Background[edit]
Map showing the major battles of Red Cloud's War along with major treaty boundaries
The first Treaty of Fort Laramie, signed in 1851, attempted to resolve disputes between tribes and the US Government, as well as among tribes themselves, in the modern areas of Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska, and North and South Dakota. It set out that the tribes would make peace among one another, allow for certain outside access to their lands (for activities such as travelling, surveying, and the construction of some government outposts and roads), and that tribes would be responsible for wrongs committed by their people. In return, the US Government would offer protection to the tribes, and pay an annuity of $50,000 over 10 to 15 years.[4][5]
However, the 1851 treaty had a number of shortcomings which contributed to the deterioration of relations, and subsequent violence over the next several years. The federal government never kept its obligation to protect tribal resources and hunting grounds, and only made a single payment toward the annuity. Although the federal government operated via representative democracy, the tribes did so through consensus, and although local chiefs signed the treaty as representatives, they had limited power to control others who themselves had not consented to its terms. Finally, the discovery of gold in the west, and the construction of the Union Pacific Railroad led to substantially increased travel through the area. This increasingly led to clashes between the tribes, settlers, and the US government, and eventually open war beginning in 1866.[4][5][6] That year the United States Department of the Interior called on tribes to negotiate safe passage through the Bozeman Trail, while the United States Department of War moved Henry B. Carrington along with a column of 700 men into the Powder River Basin, sparking Red Cloud's War.[7]
After losing resolve to continue the war, following defeat in the Fetterman Fight, sustained guerrilla warfare by the Native Americans, exorbitant rates for freight through the area, and difficulty finding contractors to work the rail lines, the US Government, organized the Indian Peace Commission to negotiate an end to ongoing hostilities.[2][8] A peace counsel chosen by the government arrived on April 19, 1868, at Fort Laramie, in what would later become the state of Wyoming.[8][9]:2
Articles[edit]
The treaty was laid out in a series of 17 articles:
Article I
Article one called for the cessation of hostilities, stating "all war between the parties to this agreement shall for ever cease." If crimes were committed by "bad men" among white settlers, the government agreed to arrest and punish the offender, and reimburse any losses suffered by injured parties. The tribes agreed to turn over criminals among them, any "bad men among the Indians," to the government for trial and punishment, and to reimburse any losses suffered by injured parties.[10] These terms effectively relinquished the authority of the tribes to punish crimes committed against them by white settlers. It also provided that if the tribes failed to deliver wrongdoers to the government, the government was authorized to reimburse losses out of annuities owed the tribe.[11]:37
Similar provisions appeared in nine such treaties with various tribes. In practice, the "bad men among the whites" clause was seldom enforced. The first plaintiff to win a trial case on the provision did so in 2009, based on the 1868 Fort Laramie treaty.[12]:2521
Article II
Front page of 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie, from US Government archives
Article two of the treaty changed the boundaries for tribal land and established the Great Sioux Reservation, to include areas of present day South Dakota west of the Missouri River including the Black Hills. This waz set aside for the "absolute and undisturbed use and occupation of the Indians".[10][2] In total, it allicatwd about 25% of the Dakota Territory as it exited at the time.[9]:4 It made the total tribal lands smaller, and moved them further eastward. This was to "take away access to the prime buffalo herds that occupied the area and encourage the Sioux to become farmers."[13]:2
The government agreed that no parties, other than those authorized by the treaty, would be allowed to "pass over, settle upon, or reside in the territory".[10] According to one source writing on article two, "What remained unstated in the treaty, but would have been obvious to Sherman and his men, is that land not place in the reservation was to be considered United States property, and not Indian territory."[11]:37–8
Article III
Article three provided for allotments of up to 160 acres (65 ha) of tillable land to be set aside for farming by members of the tribes.[10][14]:15 By 1871, 200 farms of 80 acres (32 ha) and 200 farms of 40 40 acres (16 ha) had been established including 80 homes. By 1877, this had risen to 153 homes "50 of which had shingle roofs and most had board floors" according to an 1876 report by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.[14]:15
Article IV
The government agreed to build a number of buildings on the reservation:
Warehouse
Store-room
Agency Building
Physician residence
Carpenter residence
Farmer residence
Blacksmith residence
Miller residence
Engineer residence
School house
Saw mill[10]
Article four also provided for the establishment of an agency on the reservation for the purpose of government administration. In practice, five were constructed and two more later added. These original five were composed of the Grand River Agency (Later Standing Rock), Cheyenne River Agency, Whetstone Agency, Crow Creek Agency, and Lower Brulé Agency. Another would be set up on the White River, and another on the North Platte River, later moved to also be on the White.[9]:5–6
Article V
The government agreed that the agent for the Bureau of Indian Affairs shall keep his office open to complaints, which he will investigate and forward to the Commissioner. The decision of the Commissioner, subject to review by the Secretary of the Interior, "shall be binding on the parties".[10]
Article VI
Article six laid out provisions for members of the tribes to take legal individual ownership of previously commonly held land, up to 320 acres (130 ha) for the heads of families, and 80 acres (32 ha) for any adult who was not the head of a family.[10][9]:5 This land then "may be occupied and held in the exclusive possession of the person selecting it, and of his family, so long as he or they may continue to cultivate it."[10]
Article VII
Article seven addressed education for those aged six to 16, in order to, as the treaty states, "insure the civilization of the Indians entering into this treaty".[10][9]:5 The tribes agreed to compel both male and females to attend school, and the government agreed to provide a schoolhouse and teacher for every 30 student who could be made to attend.[10]
Article VIII
In article eight, the government agreed to provide seeds, tools, and training for any of the residents who selected tracts of land, and agreed to farm them. This was to be in the amount of up to $100 dollars worth for the first year, and up to $25 worth for the second and third years.[10] These were one of a number of provisions of the treaty designed to encourage farming, rather than hunting, and move the tribes "closer to the white man's way of life."[15]:44
Article IX
After ten years the government may withdraw the individuals from article 13, but if so, will provide $10,000 annually "devoted to the education of said Indians ... as will best promote the education and moral improvement of said tribes." These are to be managed by a local Indian agent under the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.[10][16]
Article X
Article 10 provided for an allotment of clothes, and food, in addition to one "good American cow" and two oxen for each lodge or family who moved to the reservation.[10][9]:5 It further provided for an annual payment over 30 years of $10 for each person who hunted, and $20 for those who farmed, to be used by the Secretary of the Interior for the "purchase of such articles as from time to time the condition and necessities of the Indians may indicate to be proper."[10]
Article XI
One of the signature pages from the treaty, including X marks for the tribal leaders, as a substitute for signed names
Article eleven included several provisions stating the tribes agreed to withdraw opposition to the construction of railroads, military posts and roads, and will not attack or capture white settlers or their property. The government agreed to reimburse the tribes for damages cause in the construction of works on the reservation, in the amount assessed by "three disinterested commissioners" appointed by the President.[10] It guaranteed the tribes access to the area to the north and west of the Black Hills[c] as hunting grounds, "so long as the buffalo may range thereon in such numbers as to justify the chase."[17]:4
As one source examined the treaty language with regard to "so long as the buffalo may range", the tribes considered this language to be a perpetual guarantee, because "they could not envision a day when buffalo would not roam the plains"; however:
The concept was clear enough to the commissioners … [who] well knew that hide hunters, with Sherman’s blessing, were already beginning the slaughter that would eventually drive the Indians to complete dependence on the government for their existence.[1]
Article XII
Article seven required the agreement of "three-fourths of all the adult male Indians" for a treaty with the tribes to "be of any validity".[11]:44[10] Hedren reflected on article 12 writing that the provision indicated the government "already anticipated a time when different needs would demand the abrogation of the treaty terms."[9]:5 These provisions have since been controversial, because subsequent treaties amending that of 1868 did not include the required agreement of three-fourths of adult males, and so under the terms of 1868, are invalid.[13]:2[d]
Article XIII
The government agreed to furnish the tribes with a "physician, teachers, carpenter, miller, engineer, farmer, and blacksmiths".[16][10]
Article XIV
The government agreed to provide $100 in prizes for those who "in the judgment of the agent may grow the most valuable crops for the respective year."[10]
Article XV
Once the promised buildings were constructed, the tribes agreed to regard the reservation as their "permanent home" and make "no permanent settlement elsewhere".[10]
Article XVI
Article 16 stated that country north of the North Platte River and east of the Big Horn Mountains would be "unceded Indian territory" that no white settlers could occupy without the consent of the tribes.[2] This included 33,000,000 acres (13,000,000 ha) of land outside the reservation which were previously set aside by the 1851 treaty, as well as around an additional 25,000,000 acres (10,000,000 ha).[19]:268 As part of this, the government agreed to close the forts associated with the Bozeman Trail. Article 16 did not however, address issues related to important hunting grounds north and northwest of the reservation.[9]:5
Article XVII
The treaty, as agreed to "shall be construed as abrogating and annulling all treaties and agreements heretofore entered into."[10]
Signing[edit]
Over the course of 192 days ending November 6, the treaty was signed by a total of 156 Sioux, and 25 Arapaho, in addition to the commissioners, and an additional 34 signatories as witnesses.[20] Although the commissioners signed the document on April 29 along with the Brulé, the party broke up in May, with only two remaining at Fort Laramie to conclude talks there, before traveling up the Missouri River to gather additional signatures from tribes elsewhere.[15]:44 Throughout this process, no further amendments were made to the terms. As one writer phrased it, "the commissioners essientially cycled Sioux in and out of Fort Laramie ... seeking only the formality of the chiefs' marks and forgoing true agreement in the spirit that the Indians understood it."[12]:2537–8
Sioux Chiefs (left) and members of the Peace Commission (right) at Fort Laramie, 1868
Following initial negotiations, those from the Peace Commission did not discuss the conditions of the treaty to subsequent tribes who arrived over the following months to sign. Rather, the treaty was read aloud, and it was allowed "some time for the chiefs to speak" before "instructing them to place their marks on the prepared document."[15]:44 As the source continues:
These tribes had little interest in or understanding of what had taken place at the Fort Laramie councils. They wanted the whites out of their country and would fight as long as necessary.[15]:44
The process of abandoning the forts associated with the Bozeman Trail, as part of the conditions agreed to, proved to be a long process, and was stalled by difficulty arranging the sale of the goods from the fort to the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Fort C.F. Smith was not emptied until July 29, and Fort Phil Kearny and Fort Reno until August 1. Once abandoned, Red Cloud and his followers, who had been monitoring the activities of the troops rode down and burned what remained.[15]:45–6
The peace commission dissolved on October 10 after presenting its report to Congress, which among other things, recommended the government "cease to recognize the Indian tribes as domestic dependent nations," and that no further "treaties shall be made with any Indian tribe."[15]:46 William Dye, the commander at Fort Laramie was left to represent the commission, and met with Red Cloud, who was among the last to sign the treaty on November 6.[9]:3[15]:46 The government remained unwilling to negotiate the terms further, and after two days, Red Cloud is reported to have "washed his hands with the dust of the floor" and signed, formally ending the war.[15]:46
The US Senate ratified the treaty on Feb. 16, 1869.[21]:1
Signatories[edit]
Notable signatories presented in the order they signed are as follows. Two exceptions are included. Henderson was a commissioner, but did not sign the treaty. Red Cloud was among the last to sign, but is listed out-of-order along with the other Oglala.
Commissioners[edit]
Nathaniel Green Taylor, Commissioner of Indian Affairs[10]
William Tecumseh Sherman, then lieutenant general, US Army[10][e]
William S. Harney, then brevetted as major general, US Army[10]
John B. Sanborn, former general, US Army, and former member of a previous peace commission organized by Alfred Sully[1]
Samuel F. Tappan, journalist, abolitionist, and activist who rose to prominence after investigating the Sand Creek massacre[1]
Christopher C. Augur, then brevetted as major general, and director of the Department of the Platte[1][f]
Alfred Terry, then brevetted as major general, US Army[10]
John B. Henderson, then US Senator and Chairman of the United States Senate Committee on Indian Affairs[22][g]
Chiefs and headmen[edit]
Brulé
Iron Shell
Spotted Tail
White Bull
Oglala
Young Man Afraid Of His Horses
Sitting Bull[h]
American Horse
Blue Horse
Red Cloud[i]
Miniconjou
Lone Horn
Spotted Elk
Big Eagle
Yanctonais
Little Soldier
Red Horse
Little Shield
Aftermath and legacy[edit]
Map of the 1868 Great Sioux Reservation, and the subsequent changes in reservation borders
Although the treaty required the consent of three fourth of the males of the tribes, many did not sign or recognize the results.[4] Others would later complain that the treaty contained complex language that was not well explained in order to avoid arousing suspicion.[13]:1–2 Yet others would not fully learn the terms of the agreement until 1870, when Red Cloud returned from a trip to Washington D.C.[15]:47
The treaty overall, and in comparison with the 1851 agreement, represented a departure from earlier considerations of tribal customs, and demonstrated instead the government's "more heavy-handed position with regard to tribal nations, and ... desire to assimilate the Sioux into American property arrangements and social customs."[23]
According to one source, "animosities over the treaty arose almost immediately" when a group of Miniconjou were informed they were no long welcome to trade at Fort Laramie, being south of their newly establish territory. This was notwithstanding that the treaty did not make any stipulation that the tribes could not travel outside their land, only that they would not permanently occupy outside land, and only expressly forbid the traveling of white settlers on the reservation.[1]
Both the tribes and the government chose to ignore portions of the treaty, or to "comply only as long as conditions met their favor," and between 1869 and 1876, at least seven separate skirmishes occurred.[9]:6–7 The government eventually broke the terms of the treaty following the Black Hills Gold Rush and an expedition into the area by George Armstrong Custer in 1874, and failed to prevent white settlers from moving onto tribal lands. Rising tensions eventually lead again to open conflict in the Great Sioux War of 1876.[6][24][11]:46
The 1868 treaty would be modified three times by the US Congress between 1876 and 1889, each time taking more land originally granted, including unilaterally seizing the Black Hills in 1877.[23]
United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians[edit]
On June 30, 1980, in United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians,[25] the United States Supreme Court ruled that the government had illegally taken the land. It upheld an award of $15.5 million for the market value of the land in 1877, along with 103 years worth of interest at 5 percent, for an additional $105 million. The Lakota Sioux, however, have refused to accept payment and instead continue to demand the return of the territory from the United States.[26] As of 24 August 2011[update] the Sioux interest on the money has compounded to over 1 billion dollars.[27]
Commemoration[edit]
Marking the 150th anniversary of the treaty, the South Dakota Legislature passed Senate Resolution 1, reaffirming the legitimacy of the treaty, and according to the original text, illustrating to the federal government that the Sioux are "still here" and are "seeking a future of forward-looking, positive relationships with full respect for the sovereign status of Native American nations confirmed by the treaty."[28][29]
On March 11, 2018, the Governor of Wyoming, Matt Mead signed a similar bill into law, calling on "the federal government to uphold its federal trust responsibilities," and calling for a permanent display of the original treaty, on file with the National Archives and Records Administration, in the Wyoming Legislature.[30][31]
See also[edit]
Indigenous peoples of North America portal
Black Hills Land Claim, ongoing dispute between the Sioux and the US Government
Dakota Access Pipeline, underground oil pipeline, opposed by some Sioux based on the terms of the 1851 and 1868 treaties
Indian Appropriations Act, series of legislation passed by the US government related to tribal lands
List of United States treaties, articles on treaties to which the US was a party
Medicine Lodge Treaty - Negotiated by the Peace Commission with southern Plains Indian tribes in 1867
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Iron Shell was the first to sign the document on April 29. Red Cloud and five others were the last on November 6.[1]
Jump up ^ officially the Treaty with the Sioux–Brulé, Oglala, Miniconjou, Yanktonai, Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, Cuthead, Two Kettle, Sans Arcs, and Santee–and Arapaho, 1968[2]
Jump up ^ Modern day Wyoming and Montana
Jump up ^ In the case of the 1876 proposal to relinquish the territory of the Black Hills, the document was signed by only 10% of adult males. Congress none-the-less passed an act in 1877 enacting the terms.[18]
Jump up ^ Sherman was recalled to Washington D.C. in the previous November.[1] According to one source, he "would come and go throughout he life of the commission."[15]:39 According to the same source, Sherman was also recalled to Washington D.C. the following April to testify in the Impeachment of Andrew Johnson.[15]:42–3
Jump up ^ Augur replaced Sherman as commissioner when Sherman was recalled.[15]:39
Jump up ^ Henderson is listed in the first paragraph of the treaty as a party, but unlike the remaining commissioners, his signature does not appear in the original document following the text of the treaty. Compare also this excerpt from the original document from the National Archives and Records Administration. According to one source, the previous November, both Sherman and Henderson were recalled to Washington D.C. "to attend urgent business."[1] Around October, one source has Henderson in Washington attending to the impeachment proceedings of President Johnson.
Jump up ^ Some sources appear to disputed this[4]
Jump up ^ Red Cloud was among the last to sign the treaty, insisting he wait until the army had cleared forts along the Bozeman Trail as they had agreed to. He supposedly replied to attempts to bring him to the talks "We are on the mountains looking down on the soldiers and forts. When we see the soldiers moving away and the forts abandoned, then I will come down and talk."[9]:3 His arrival at the fort is variously reported as both November 4[1] and October 4,[9]:3 although both agree he signed the treaty on November 6.[1]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Douglas C. McChristian (13 March 2017). Fort Laramie: Military Bastion of the High Plains. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-5859-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Charles M. Robinson, III (12 September 2012). A Good Year to Die: The Story of the Great Sioux War. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-82337-3.
Jump up ^ "Fort Laramie Treaty, 1851." Archives of the West. (retrieved 19 Dec 2010)
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Section 3: The Treaties of Fort Laramie, 1851 & 1868". North Dakota Studies, North Dakota State Government. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 (Horse Creek Treaty)" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Wyoming: Fort Laramie National Historic Site". National Park Service. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Ostlind, Emilene (November 8, 2014). "Red Cloud's War". Wyoming State Historical Society. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sioux Treaty of 1868". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Paul L. Hedren (1988). Fort Laramie and the Great Sioux War. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3049-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x "Fort Laramie Treaty, 1868". Avalon Project. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Jennifer Viegas (2006). The Fort Laramie Treaty, 1868: A Primary Source Examination of the Treaty that Established a Sioux Reservation in the Black Hills of Dakota. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4042-0438-6.
^ Jump up to: a b "A Bad Man is Hard to Find" (PDF). Harvard Law Review. 127. June 20, 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bell, Robert A. (2018). "The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 and the Sioux: Is the United States Honoring the Agreements it Made?". Indigenous Policy Journal. 28 (3). Retrieved 9 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Report - United States, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Planning Support Group, Issue 267. United States Bureau of Indian Affairs. 1876. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Oman, Kerry R. (2002). "The Beginning Of The End The Indian Peace Commission Of 1867~1868". Great Plains Quarterly. 2323. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "1868: Fort Laramie Treaty promises to provide health care, services". United States National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Mark Hollabaugh (June 2017). The Spirit and the Sky: Lakota Visions of the Cosmos. U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-1-4962-0040-2.
Jump up ^ "United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, 448 U.S. 371 (1980)". Justia. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Edward Lazarus (1999). Black Hills White Justice: The Sioux Nation Versus the United States, 1775 to the Present. U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-7987-6.
Jump up ^ "Fort Laramie, 1868". Lakota County Times. Center for American Indian Research and Native Studies. May 4, 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Congressional Edition, Report No. 77, Claims of Sioux Tribe of Indians Before Court of Claims. [[United States Government Publishing Office]]. 1919.
Jump up ^ "150th Anniversary – Treaty of Fort Laramie Exhibition". Brinton Museum. Retrieved 13 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Matson, Laura (2017). "Treaties & Territory: Resource Struggles and the Legal Foundations of the U.S./American Indian Relationship". Open Rivers: Rethinking The Mississippi. University of Minnesota Libraries. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Black Hills Expedition (1874)". Smithsonian Institution Archives. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
Jump up ^ 448 U.S. 371 (1980)
Jump up ^ Frederic Frommer (Aug 19, 2001). "Black Hills Are Beyond Price to Sioux". Los Angeles Times. Bellevue Community College. Archived from the original (Suggested Reading Black Elk Speaks and Articles Below) on 2014-11-11. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
Jump up ^ Streshinsky, Maria (February 9, 2011). "Saying No to $1 Billion". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
Jump up ^ "S.D. Senate Passes Resolution Confirming South Dakota's Support for the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie". South Dakota Democratic Party. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Senate Resolution No. 1". State of South Dakota. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Wyoming Governor Signs 41 Bills into Law". KGAB. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "SJ0002 - 150th Anniversary of the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie". Wyoming Legislature. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
Further reading[edit]
"Treaty with the Sioux — Brulé, Oglala, Miniconjou, Yanktonai, Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, Cuthead, Two Kettle, Sans Arcs, and Santee — and Arapaho, 1868" (Treaty of Fort Laramie, 1868). 15 Stat. 635, Apr. 29, 1868. Ratified Feb. 16, 1868; proclaimed Feb. 24, 1868. In Charles J. Kappler, compiler and editor, Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties — Vol. II: Treaties. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904, pp. 998–1007. Through Oklahoma State University Library, Electronic Publishing Center...
Suzan Shown Harjo (2014). Nation to Nation: Treaties Between the United States and American Indian Nations. Nation to Nation. Washington D.C.: National Museum of the American Indian. p. 127. ISBN 1588344789.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868).
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868
American Indian Rights And Treaties – The Story Of The 1868 Treaty Of Fort Laramie, video from Insider Exclusive
Fort Laramie Treaty: Case Study from the National Museum of the American Indian
Collection of Photographs by Alexander Gardner (photographer), from his travels with the Peace Commission at Fort Laramie in 1868, from the Minnesota Historical Society
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