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Molecule
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For the scientific journal, see Molecules (journal).
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) image of a PTCDA molecule, which contains clusters of five carbon rings.[1]
A scanning tunneling microscopy image of pentacene molecules, which consist of linear chains of five carbon rings.[2]
AFM image of 1,5,9-trioxo-13-azatriangulene and its chemical structure.[3]
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.[4][5][6][7][8] Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge. However, in quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the term molecule is often used less strictly, also being applied to polyatomic ions.
In the kinetic theory of gases, the term molecule is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. According to this definition, noble gas atoms are considered molecules as they are in fact monoatomic molecules.[9]
A molecule may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of one chemical element, as with oxygen (O2); or it may be heteronuclear, a chemical compound composed of more than one element, as with water (H2O). Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are generally not considered single molecules.[10]
Molecules as components of matter are common in organic substances (and therefore biochemistry). They also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere. However, the majority of familiar solid substances on Earth, including most of the minerals that make up the crust, mantle, and core of the Earth, contain many chemical bonds, but are not made of identifiable molecules. Also, no typical molecule can be defined for ionic crystals (salts) and covalent crystals (network solids), although these are often composed of repeating unit cells that extend either in a plane (such as in graphene) or three-dimensionally (such as in diamond, quartz, or sodium chloride). The theme of repeated unit-cellular-structure also holds for most condensed phases with metallic bonding, which means that solid metals are also not made of molecules. In glasses (solids that exist in a vitreous disordered state), atoms may also be held together by chemical bonds with no presence of any definable molecule, nor any of the regularity of repeating units that characterizes crystals.
Contents
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1 Molecular science
2 History and etymology
3 Bonding
3.1 Covalent
3.2 Ionic
4 Molecular size
5 Molecular formulas
5.1 Chemical formula types
5.2 Structural formula
6 Molecular geometry
7 Molecular spectroscopy
8 Theoretical aspects
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Molecular science[edit]
The science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics, depending on whether the focus is on chemistry or physics. Molecular chemistry deals with the laws governing the interaction between molecules that results in the formation and breakage of chemical bonds, while molecular physics deals with the laws governing their structure and properties. In practice, however, this distinction is vague. In molecular sciences, a molecule consists of a stable system (bound state) composed of two or more atoms. Polyatomic ions may sometimes be usefully thought of as electrically charged molecules. The term unstable molecule is used for very reactive species, i.e., short-lived assemblies (resonances) of electrons and nuclei, such as radicals, molecular ions, Rydberg molecules, transition states, van der Waals complexes, or systems of colliding atoms as in Bose–Einstein condensate.
History and etymology[edit]
Main article: History of molecular theory
According to Merriam-Webster and the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word "molecule" derives from the Latin "moles" or small unit of mass.
Molecule (1794) – "extremely minute particle", from French molécule (1678), from New Latin molecula, diminutive of Latin moles "mass, barrier". A vague meaning at first; the vogue for the word (used until the late 18th century only in Latin form) can be traced to the philosophy of Descartes.[11][12]
The definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased. Earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical properties.[13] This definition often breaks down since many substances in ordinary experience, such as rocks, salts, and metals, are composed of large crystalline networks of chemically bonded atoms or ions, but are not made of discrete molecules.
Bonding[edit]
Molecules are held together by either covalent bonding or ionic bonding. Several types of non-metal elements exist only as molecules in the environment. For example, hydrogen only exists as hydrogen molecule. A molecule of a compound is made out of two or more elements.[14]
Covalent[edit]
Main article: Covalent bonding
A covalent bond forming H2 (right) where two hydrogen atoms share the two electrons
A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are termed shared pairs or bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is termed covalent bonding.[15]
Ionic[edit]
Main article: Ionic bonding
Sodium and fluorine undergoing a redox reaction to form sodium fluoride. Sodium loses its outer electron to give it a stable electron configuration, and this electron enters the fluorine atom exothermically.
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds. The ions are atoms that have lost one or more electrons (termed cations) and atoms that have gained one or more electrons (termed anions).[16] This transfer of electrons is termed electrovalence in contrast to covalence. In the simplest case, the cation is a metal atom and the anion is a nonmetal atom, but these ions can be of a more complicated nature, e.g. molecular ions like NH4+ or SO42−. Basically, an ionic bond is the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal for both atoms to obtain a full valence shell.
Molecular size[edit]
Most molecules are far too small to be seen with the naked eye, but there are exceptions. DNA, a macromolecule, can reach macroscopic sizes, as can molecules of many polymers. Molecules commonly used as building blocks for organic synthesis have a dimension of a few angstroms (Å) to several dozen Å, or around one billionth of a meter. Single molecules cannot usually be observed by light (as noted above), but small molecules and even the outlines of individual atoms may be traced in some circumstances by use of an atomic force microscope. Some of the largest molecules are macromolecules or supermolecules.
The smallest molecule is the diatomic hydrogen (H2), with a bond length of 0.74 Å.[17]
Effective molecular radius is the size a molecule displays in solution.[18][19] The table of permselectivity for different substances contains examples.
Molecular formulas[edit]
Chemical formula types[edit]
Main article: Chemical formula
The chemical formula for a molecule uses one line of chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, and plus (+) and minus (−) signs. These are limited to one typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts.
A compound's empirical formula is a very simple type of chemical formula.[20] It is the simplest integer ratio of the chemical elements that constitute it.[21] For example, water is always composed of a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms, and ethyl alcohol or ethanol is always composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 2:6:1 ratio. However, this does not determine the kind of molecule uniquely – dimethyl ether has the same ratios as ethanol, for instance. Molecules with the same atoms in different arrangements are called isomers. Also carbohydrates, for example, have the same ratio (carbon:hydrogen:oxygen= 1:2:1) (and thus the same empirical formula) but different total numbers of atoms in the molecule.
The molecular formula reflects the exact number of atoms that compose the molecule and so characterizes different molecules. However different isomers can have the same atomic composition while being different molecules.
The empirical formula is often the same as the molecular formula but not always. For example, the molecule acetylene has molecular formula C2H2, but the simplest integer ratio of elements is CH.
The molecular mass can be calculated from the chemical formula and is expressed in conventional atomic mass units equal to 1/12 of the mass of a neutral carbon-12 (12C isotope) atom. For network solids, the term formula unit is used in stoichiometric calculations.
Structural formula[edit]
Main article: Structural formula
3D (left and center) and 2D (right) representations of the terpenoid molecule atisane
For molecules with a complicated 3-dimensional structure, especially involving atoms bonded to four different substituents, a simple molecular formula or even semi-structural chemical formula may not be enough to completely specify the molecule. In this case, a graphical type of formula called a structural formula may be needed. Structural formulas may in turn be represented with a one-dimensional chemical name, but such chemical nomenclature requires many words and terms which are not part of chemical formulas.
Molecular geometry[edit]
Main article: Molecular geometry
Structure and STM image of a "cyanostar" dendrimer molecule.[22]
Molecules have fixed equilibrium geometries—bond lengths and angles— about which they continuously oscillate through vibrational and rotational motions. A pure substance is composed of molecules with the same average geometrical structure. The chemical formula and the structure of a molecule are the two important factors that determine its properties, particularly its reactivity. Isomers share a chemical formula but normally have very different properties because of their different structures. Stereoisomers, a particular type of isomer, may have very similar physico-chemical properties and at the same time different biochemical activities.
Molecular spectroscopy[edit]
Main article: Spectroscopy
Hydrogen can be removed from individual H2TPP molecules by applying excess voltage to the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope (STM, a); this removal alters the current-voltage (I-V) curves of TPP molecules, measured using the same STM tip, from diode like (red curve in b) to resistor like (green curve). Image (c) shows a row of TPP, H2TPP and TPP molecules. While scanning image (d), excess voltage was applied to H2TPP at the black dot, which instantly removed hydrogen, as shown in the bottom part of (d) and in the rescan image (e). Such manipulations can be used in single-molecule electronics.[23]
Molecular spectroscopy deals with the response (spectrum) of molecules interacting with probing signals of known energy (or frequency, according to Planck's formula). Molecules have quantized energy levels that can be analyzed by detecting the molecule's energy exchange through absorbance or emission.[24] Spectroscopy does not generally refer to diffraction studies where particles such as neutrons, electrons, or high energy X-rays interact with a regular arrangement of molecules (as in a crystal).
Microwave spectroscopy commonly measures changes in the rotation of molecules, and can be used to identify molecules in outer space. Infrared spectroscopy measures changes in vibration of molecules, including stretching, bending or twisting motions. It is commonly used to identify the kinds of bonds or functional groups in molecules. Changes in the arrangements of electrons yield absorption or emission lines in ultraviolet, visible or near infrared light, and result in colour. Nuclear resonance spectroscopy actually measures the environment of particular nuclei in the molecule, and can be used to characterise the numbers of atoms in different positions in a molecule.
Theoretical aspects[edit]
The study of molecules by molecular physics and theoretical chemistry is largely based on quantum mechanics and is essential for the understanding of the chemical bond. The simplest of molecules is the hydrogen molecule-ion, H2+, and the simplest of all the chemical bonds is the one-electron bond. H2+ is composed of two positively charged protons and one negatively charged electron, which means that the Schrödinger equation for the system can be solved more easily due to the lack of electron–electron repulsion. With the development of fast digital computers, approximate solutions for more complicated molecules became possible and are one of the main aspects of computational chemistry.
When trying to define rigorously whether an arrangement of atoms is sufficiently stable to be considered a molecule, IUPAC suggests that it "must correspond to a depression on the potential energy surface that is deep enough to confine at least one vibrational state".[4] This definition does not depend on the nature of the interaction between the atoms, but only on the strength of the interaction. In fact, it includes weakly bound species that would not traditionally be considered molecules, such as the helium dimer, He2, which has one vibrational bound state[25] and is so loosely bound that it is only likely to be observed at very low temperatures.
Whether or not an arrangement of atoms is sufficiently stable to be considered a molecule is inherently an operational definition. Philosophically, therefore, a molecule is not a fundamental entity (in contrast, for instance, to an elementary particle); rather, the concept of a molecule is the chemist's way of making a useful statement about the strengths of atomic-scale interactions in the world that we observe.
See also[edit]
Atom
Chemical polarity
Covalent bond
Diatomic molecule
List of compounds
List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules
Molecular biology
Molecular design software
Molecular engineering
Molecular geometry
Molecular Hamiltonian
Molecular ion
Molecular modelling
Molecular orbital
Non-covalent bonding
Periodic systems of small molecules
Small molecule
Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling
Van der Waals molecule
World Wide Molecular Matrix
Chemistry portal
Molecular and cell biology portal
Physics portal
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Chang RL; Deen WM; Robertson CR; Brenner BM (1975). "Permselectivity of the glomerular capillary wall: III. Restricted transport of polyanions". Kidney Int. 8 (4): 212–218. doi:10.1038/ki.1975.104. PMID 1202253.
Jump up ^ Chang RL; Ueki IF; Troy JL; Deen WM; Robertson CR; Brenner BM (1975). "Permselectivity of the glomerular capillary wall to macromolecules. II. Experimental studies in rats using neutral dextran". Biophys. J. 15 (9): 887–906. Bibcode:1975BpJ....15..887C. doi:10.1016/S0006-3495(75)85863-2. PMC 1334749  . PMID 1182263.
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Jump up ^ Hirsch, Brandon E.; Lee, Semin; Qiao, Bo; Chen, Chun-Hsing; McDonald, Kevin P.; Tait, Steven L.; Flood, Amar H. (2014). "Anion-induced dimerization of 5-fold symmetric cyanostars in 3D crystalline solids and 2D self-assembled crystals". Chemical Communications. 50 (69): 9827–30. doi:10.1039/C4CC03725A. PMID 25080328.
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text:
Ross Sea
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
A deep bay of the Southern Ocean in Antarctica
Ross Sea
Sea ice in the Ross Sea
Seas of Antarctica, with the Ross Sea in the bottom-left
Location
Antarctica
Type
Sea
Etymology
James Ross
Primary outflows
Southern Ocean
The Ross Sea is a deep bay of the Southern Ocean in Antarctica, between Victoria Land and Marie Byrd Land and within the Ross Embayment, and is the southernmost sea on Earth. It derives its name from the British explorer James Ross who visited this area in 1841. To the west of the sea lies Ross Island and Victoria Land, to the east Roosevelt Island and Edward VII Peninsula in Marie Byrd Land, while the southernmost part is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf, and is about 200 miles (320 km) from the South Pole. Its boundaries and area have been defined by the New Zealand National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research as having an area of 637,000 square kilometres (246,000 sq mi).[1]
The circulation of the Ross Sea is dominated by a wind-driven ocean gyre and the flow is strongly influenced by three submarine ridges that run from southwest to northeast[citation needed]. The circumpolar deep water current is a relatively warm, salty and nutrient-rich water mass that flows onto the continental shelf at certain locations. The Ross Sea is covered with ice for most of the year[citation needed].
The nutrient-laden water supports an abundance of plankton and this encourages a rich marine fauna. At least ten mammal species, six bird species and 95 fish species are found here, as well as many invertebrates, and the sea remains relatively unaffected by human activities. New Zealand has claimed that the sea comes under their jurisdiction as part of the Ross Dependency. Marine biologists consider the sea to have a high level of biological diversity and it is the site of much scientific research. It is also the focus of some environmentalist groups who have campaigned to have the area proclaimed as a world marine reserve. In 2016 an international agreement established the region as a marine park.[2]
Contents
1 Description
2 Geology
2.1 The continental shelf
2.2 Stratigraphy
2.3 Geologic Drilling
2.4 Basement
3 Oceanography
3.1 Circulation
4 Ecological importance and conservation
4.1 Biodiversity
4.2 Toothfish Fishery
4.3 Marine Protected Area
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Description[edit]
The Ross Sea was discovered by James Ross in 1841. In the west of the Ross Sea is Ross Island with the Mt. Erebus volcano, in the east Roosevelt Island. The southern part is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf.[3] Roald Amundsen started his South Pole expedition in 1911 from the Bay of Whales, which was located at the shelf. In the west of the Ross sea, McMurdo Sound is a port which is usually free of ice during the summer. The southernmost part of the Ross Sea is Gould Coast, which is approximately two hundred miles from the geographic South Pole.
Geology[edit]
The continental shelf[edit]
Bathymetric map of the Ross Sea, Antarctica
The Ross Sea (and Ross Ice Shelf) overlies a deep continental shelf. Although the average depth of the world’s continental shelves (at the shelf break joining the continental slope) is about 130 meters,[4][5] the Ross shelf average depth is about 500 meters.[6] It is shallower in the western Ross Sea (east longitudes) than the east (west longitudes).[6] This over-deepened condition is due to cycles of erosion and deposition of sediments from expanding and contracting ice sheets overriding the shelf since Oligocene time,[7] and is also found on other locations around Antarctica.[8] Erosion was more focused on the inner parts of the shelf while deposition of sediment dominated the outer shelf, making the inner shelf deeper than the outer.[7][9]
Ross Sea Antarctica sea floor geology showing major basins and drill sites
Seismic studies in the latter half of the twentieth century defined the major features of the geology of the Ross Sea.[10] The deepest or basement rocks, are faulted into three major north trending grabens, which are basins for sedimentary fill. These basins include the Victoria Land Basin in the west, the Central Trough, and the Eastern Basin, which has approximately the same width as the other two. The Coulman High separates the Victoria Land Basin and Central Trough and the Central High separates the Central Trough and Eastern Basin. The majority of the faulting and accompanying graben formation along with crustal extension occurred during the rifting away of the Zealandia microcontinent from Antarctica in Gondwana during Cretaceous time.[11] Neogene-age faulting and extension is restricted to the Terror Rift within the Victoria Land Basin.[12]
Stratigraphy[edit]
Basement grabens are filled with rift sediments of unknown character and age.[10] A widespread unconformity has cut into the basement and sedimentary fill of the large basins.[10][13] Above this major unconformity are a series of glacial marine sedimentary units deposited during multiple advances and retreats of the Antarctic Ice Sheet across the sea floor of the Ross Sea during the Oligocene and later.[7]
Geologic Drilling[edit]
Drill holes have recovered cores of rock from the western edges of the sea.[14][15][16] Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) Leg 28 completed several holes (270-273) farther from land in the central and western portions of the sea.[17] These resulted in defining a stratigraphy for most of the glacial sequences, which comprise Oligocene and younger sediments. The Ross Sea-wide major unconformity has been proposed to mark a global climate event and the first appearance of the Antarctic Ice Sheet in the Oligocene.[18][19][20]

During 2018 Expedition 374 of the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP), the latest successor to the DSDP, drilled additional holes (U1521-1525) in the central Ross Sea for Neogene and Quaternary ice sheet history.[21]
Basement[edit]
The nature of the basement rocks and the fill within the grabens are unknown except in few locations. Basement rocks have not been sampled except at DSDP Leg 28 drill site 270 where metamorphic rocks of unknown age were recovered,[17] and in the eastern Ross Sea where a bottom dredge was collected.[22] In both these locations the metamorphic rocks are Cretaceous-age mylonites suggesting extreme stretching of the Ross Embayment during that time.[23][22] It is likely that rocks of the Ross System exposed onshore in Victoria Land form much of the basement rock in the western Ross Sea,[24][25] including the Beacon Sandstone of Devonian-Jurassic age.[26].
Marie Byrd Land - Rocks exposed in western Marie Byrd Land on the Edward VII Peninsula and within the Ford Ranges are candidates for basement in the eastern Ross Sea.[27] The oldest rocks are Permian sediments of the Swanson Formation, which is slightly metamorphosed. The Ford granodiorite of Devonian age intrudes these sediments. Cretaceous Byrd Coast granite in turn intrudes the older rocks. The Byrd Coast and older formations have been cut by basalt dikes. Scattered through the Ford Ranges and Fosdick Mountains are late Cenozoic volcanic rocks that are not found to the west on Edward VII Peninsula. Metamorphic rocks, migmatites, are found in the Fosdick Mountains and Alexandra Mountains.[28][29] These were metamorphosed and deformed in the Cretaceous.[30][31]
The Ross System - Ross System rocks exposed in the Transantarctic Mountains on the western side of the Ross Sea[24][25] are possible basement rock below the sedimentary cover of the sea floor. The rocks are of upper Precambrian to lower Paleozoic age and each group of Ross System have an echelon vein pattern demonstrating possible dextral faulting. These miogeosyncline metasedimentary rocks are usually folded about northwest and southeast axes and are partly composed of calcium carbonate, often including limestone. Groups within the Ross System include the Robertson Bay Group, Priestley Group, Skelton Group, Beardmore Group, Byrd Group, Queen Maud Group, and Koettlitz Group. The Robertson Bay Group ranges from 56 to 76% silica and compares closely with other Ross System members. The Priestley Group rocks are similar to those of the Robertson Bay Group and include dark slates, argillites, siltstones, fine sandstones and limestones. They can be found near the Priestley and Campbell glaciers. For thirty miles along the lower Skelton Glacier are the calcareous greywackes and argillites of the Skelton Group. The region between the lower Beardmore Glacier and the lower Shackelton Glacier sits the Beardmore Group. North of the Nimrod Glacier are four block faulted ranges that make up the Byrd Group. The contents of the Queen Maud Group area are mainly post-tectonic granite.
Oceanography[edit]
Circulation[edit]
Bloom in the Ross Sea, January 2011
The Ross Sea circulation, dominated by polynya processes, is in general very slow-moving. Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) is a relatively warm, salty and nutrient-rich water mass that flows onto the continental shelf at certain locations in the Ross Sea. Through heat flux, this water mass moderates the ice cover. The near-surface water also provides a warm environment for some animals and nutrients to excite primary production. CDW transport onto the shelf is known to be persistent and periodic, and is thought to occur at specific locations influenced by bottom topography. The circulation of the Ross Sea is dominated by a wind-driven gyre. The flow is strongly influenced by three submarine ridges that run from southwest to northeast. Flow over the shelf below the surface layer consists of two anticyclonic gyres connected by a central cyclonic flow. The flow is considerable in spring and winter, due to influencing tides. The Ross Sea is covered with ice for much of the year and ice concentrations and in the south-central region little melting occurs. Ice concentrations in the Ross Sea are influenced by winds with ice remaining in the western region throughout the austral spring and generally melting in January due to local heating. This leads to extremely strong stratification and shallow mixed layers in the western Ross Sea.[32]
Ecological importance and conservation[edit]
The Ross Sea is one of the last stretches of seas on Earth that remains relatively unaffected by human activities.[33] Because of this, it remains almost totally free from pollution and the introduction of invasive species. Consequently, the Ross Sea has become a focus of numerous environmentalist groups who have campaigned to make the area a world marine reserve, citing the rare opportunity to protect the Ross Sea from a growing number of threats and destruction. The Ross Sea is regarded by marine biologists as having a very high biological diversity and as such has a long history of human exploration and scientific research, with some datasets going back over 150 years.[34][35]
Biodiversity[edit]
The Ross Sea is home to at least 10 mammal species, half a dozen species of birds, 95 species of fish, and over 1,000 invertebrate species. Some species of birds that nest in and near the Ross Sea include the Adélie penguin, emperor penguin, Antarctic petrel, snow petrel, and south polar skua. Marine mammals in the Ross Sea include the Antarctic minke whale, killer whale, Weddell seal, crabeater seal, and leopard seal. Antarctic toothfish, Antarctic silverfish, Antarctic krill, and crystal krill also swim in the cold Antarctic water of the Ross Sea.[36]
The flora and fauna are considered similar to other southern Antarctic marine regions. Particularly in Summer, the nutrient-rich sea water supports an abundant planktonic life in turn providing food for larger species, such as fish, seals, whales, and sea- and shore-birds.
Albatrosses rely on wind to travel and cannot get airborne in a calm. The westerlies do not extend as far south as the ice edge and therefore albatrosses do not travel often to the ice-pack. An albatross would be trapped on an ice floe for many days if it landed in the calm.[37]
The coastal parts of the sea contain a number of rookeries of Adélie and Emperor penguins, which have been observed at a number of places around the Ross Sea, both towards the coast and outwards in open sea.[3]
A 10-metre (32.8 feet) long colossal squid weighing 495 kilograms (1,091 lb) was captured in the Ross Sea on February 22, 2007.[38][39][40][41][42]
Toothfish Fishery[edit]
In 2010, the Ross Sea Antarctic toothfish fishery was independently certified by the Marine Stewardship Council,[43] and has been rated as a 'Good Alternative' by the Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch program[citation needed]. However, a 2008 document submitted to the CCAMLR reported significant declines in toothfish populations of McMurdo Sound coinciding with the development of the industrial toothfishing industry since 1996, and other reports have noted a coincident decrease in the number of orcas. The report recommended a full moratorium on fishing over the Ross shelf.[44] In October 2012, Philippa Ross, James Ross' great, great, great granddaughter, voiced her opposition to fishing in the area.[45]
In the southern winter of 2017 New Zealand scientists discovered the breeding ground of the Antarctic toothfish in the northern Ross Sea seamounts for the first time[46] underscoring how little is known about the species.
Marine Protected Area[edit]
Beginning in 2005, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) commissioned scientific analysis and planning for Marine Protected Areas (MPA) in the Antarctic. In 2010, the CCAMLR endorsed their Scientific Committee’s proposal to develop Antarctic MPAs for conservation purposes. The US State Department submitted a proposal for a Ross Sea MPA at the September 2012 meeting of the CCAMLR.[47] At this stage, a sustained campaign by various international and national NGOs commenced to accelerate the process[48].
In July 2013, the CCAMLR held a meeting in Bremerhaven in Germany, to decide whether to turn the Ross Sea into an MPA. The deal failed due to Russia voting against it, citing uncertainty about whether the commission had the authority to establish a marine protected area.[49]
In October 2014, the MPA proposal was again defeated at the CCAMLR by votes against from China and Russia.[50] At the October 2015 meeting a revised MPA proposal from the US and New Zealand was expanded with the assistance of China, who however shifted the MPA's priorities from conservation by allowing commercial fishing. The proposal was again blocked by Russia.[51]
On 28 October 2016, at its annual meeting in Hobart, a Ross Sea marine park was finally declared by the CCAMLR, under an agreement signed by 24 countries and the European Union. It protected over 1.5 million square kilometres of sea, and was the world's largest protected area at the time. However, a sunset provision of 35 years was inserted as part of negotiations, which means it does not meet the International Union for Conservation of Nature definition of a marine protected area, which requires it to be permanent.[2]
See also[edit]
Beaufort Island
Iceberg B-15
McMurdo Station
Ross Canyon
Ross Dependency
Ross Gyre
Ross Ice Shelf
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Media related to Ross Sea at Wikimedia Commons
Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, New Zealand and United States Delegation, 2015. A proposal for the establishment of a Ross Sea Region Marine Protected Area
J.Glausiusz, 2007, Raw Data: Beacon Bird of Climate Change. Discover Magazine.
Gunn, B., nd, Geology The Ross Sea Dependency including Victoria-Land Ross Sea, Antarctica, Including the Ross Sea Dependency, the Sub-Antarctic Islands and sea, up to New Zealand from the Pole.
K.Hansen, 2007, Paleoclimate: Penguin poop adds to climate picture. Geotimes.
International Polar Foundation, 2007, Interview with Dr. Steven Emslie: The Adélie Penguins' Diet Shift. SciencePoles website.
C.Michael Hogan. 2011. Ross Sea. Eds. P.Saundry & C.J.Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC
Locarnini, R.A., 1995, the Ross Sea. Quarterdeck, vol. 1, no. 3.(Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.)
"Nth Korean boats caught fishing in conservation area". Radio New Zealand. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
http://www.antarcticocean.org/. International campaign to establish Marine Protected Areas in the Southern Ocean.
[1]
The Last Ocean, documentary film on the Ross Sea and the international debate over its fate.
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Rosssee – Afrikaans
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Mor Ross – Breton
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https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Sea
Ross Sea – Cebuano
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Rosshavet – Danish
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Rossmeer – German
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Ross-see – Western Frisian
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Laut Ross – Indonesian
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Rosshaf – Icelandic
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https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laut_Ross
Laut Ross – Malay
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Rosszee – Dutch
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Rosshavet – Norwegian
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Rosshavet – Norwegian Nynorsk
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Ross Sea – Scots
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Rosshavet – Swedish
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