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Boston Tea Party
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Coordinates: 42°21′13″N 71°03′09″W / 42.3536°N 71.0524°W / 42.3536; -71.0524 (Boston Tea Party)
Boston Tea Party
Part of the American Revolution
Source: W.D. Cooper. "Boston Tea Party.", The History of North America. London: E. Newberry, 1789. Engraving. Plate opposite p. 58. Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (40)
Date
16 December 1773
Location
Boston, Province of Massachusetts Bay
Caused by
Tea Act
Goals
To protest British Parliament's tax on tea. "No taxation without representation."
Methods
Throw the tea into Boston Harbor
Resulted in
Intolerable Acts
Parties to the civil conflict
Thirteen Colonies
People of Boston
Great Britain
East India Company
Parliament
Lead figures
Samuel Adams
Paul Revere
William Molineux
and other «Sons of Liberty»...
N/A
This article is part of a series about the
American Revolution
1765-1783
Origins[show]
Sugar Act
Currency Act
Quartering Acts
Stamp Act 1765
Declaratory Act
No taxation without representation
Townshend Acts
Tea Act
Boston Massacre
Boston Tea Party
Intolerable Acts
Revolutionary War[show]
Continental Army
Continental Navy
Minutemen
Battles
Intelligence
Treaty of Paris
Costs
Declaration of Independence[show]
Continental Congress
Committee of Five
Lee Resolution
Articles of Confederation
United States Constitution[show]
Philadelphia Convention
Annapolis Convention
The Federalist Papers
Bill of Rights
A New Republic[show]
Republicanism
American Enlightenment
Liberalism
First Great Awakening
Role of Women
Legacy[show]
Atlantic Revolutions
Bicentennial
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This iconic 1846 lithograph by Nathaniel Currier was entitled "The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor"; the phrase "Boston Tea Party" had not yet become standard. Contrary to Currier's depiction, few of the men dumping the tea were actually disguised as Native Americans.[1]
The Boston Tea Party was a political protest by the Sons of Liberty in Boston, Massachusetts, on December 16, 1773. The demonstrators, some disguised as Native Americans, in defiance of the Tea Act of May 10, 1773, destroyed an entire shipment of tea sent by the East India Company. They boarded the ships and threw the chests of tea into Boston Harbor. The British government responded harshly and the episode escalated into the American Revolution. The Tea Party became an iconic event of American history, and since then other political protests such as the Tea Party movement have referred to themselves as historical successors to the Boston protest of 1773.
The Tea Party was the culmination of a resistance movement throughout British America against the Tea Act, which had been passed by the British Parliament in 1773. Colonists objected to the Tea Act because they believed that it violated their rights as Englishmen to "No taxation without representation", that is, to be taxed only by their own elected representatives and not by a British parliament in which they were not represented. Protesters had successfully prevented the unloading of taxed tea in three other colonies, but in Boston, embattled Royal Governor Thomas Hutchinson refused to allow the tea to be returned to Britain.
The Boston Tea Party was a significant event in the growth of the American Revolution. Parliament responded in 1774 with the Coercive Acts, or Intolerable Acts, which, among other provisions, ended local self-government in Massachusetts and closed Boston's commerce. Colonists up and down the Thirteen Colonies in turn responded to the Coercive Acts with additional acts of protest, and by convening the First Continental Congress, which petitioned the British monarch for repeal of the acts and coordinated colonial resistance to them. The crisis escalated, and the American Revolutionary War began near Boston in 1775.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 Tea trade to 1767
1.2 Townshend duty crisis
2 Tea Act of 1773
3 Resisting the Tea Act
4 Standoff in Boston
5 Destruction of the tea
6 Reaction
7 Legacy
7.1 Boston Tea Party Ships and Museum
7.2 Participants
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Background
Plaque affixed to side of the Independence Wharf building (2009)
The Boston Tea Party arose from two issues confronting the British Empire in 1765: the financial problems of the British East India Company; and an ongoing dispute about the extent of Parliament's authority, if any, over the British American colonies without seating any elected representation. The North Ministry's attempt to resolve these issues produced a showdown that would eventually result in revolution.[2]
Tea trade to 1767
As Europeans developed a taste for tea in the 17th century, rival companies were formed to import the product from China.[3] In England, Parliament gave the East India Company a monopoly on the importation of tea in 1698.[4] When tea became popular in the British colonies, Parliament sought to eliminate foreign competition by passing an act in 1721 that required colonists to import their tea only from Great Britain.[5] The East India Company did not export tea to the colonies; by law, the company was required to sell its tea wholesale at auctions in England. British firms bought this tea and exported it to the colonies, where they resold it to merchants in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston.[6]
Until 1767, the East India Company paid an ad valorem tax of about 25% on tea that it imported into Great Britain.[7] Parliament laid additional taxes on tea sold for consumption in Britain. These high taxes, combined with the fact that tea imported into the Dutch Republic was not taxed by the Dutch government, meant that Britons and British Americans could buy smuggled Dutch tea at much cheaper prices.[8] The biggest market for illicit tea was England—by the 1760s the East India Company was losing £400,000 per year to smugglers in Great Britain[9]—but Dutch tea was also smuggled into British America in significant quantities.[10]
In 1767, to help the East India Company compete with smuggled Dutch tea, Parliament passed the Indemnity Act, which lowered the tax on tea consumed in Great Britain, and gave the East India Company a refund of the 25% duty on tea that was re-exported to the colonies.[11] To help offset this loss of government revenue, Parliament also passed the Townshend Revenue Act of 1767, which levied new taxes, including one on tea, in the colonies.[12] Instead of solving the smuggling problem, however, the Townshend duties renewed a controversy about Parliament's right to tax the colonies.
Townshend duty crisis
For more details on this topic, see Townshend Acts.
Controversy between Great Britain and the colonies arose in the 1760s when Parliament sought, for the first time, to impose a direct tax on the colonies for the purpose of raising revenue. Some colonists, known in the colonies as Whigs, objected to the new tax program, arguing that it was a violation of the British Constitution. Britons and British Americans agreed that, according to the constitution, British subjects could not be taxed without the consent of their elected representatives. In Great Britain, this meant that taxes could only be levied by Parliament. Colonists, however, did not elect members of Parliament, and so American Whigs argued that the colonies could not be taxed by that body. According to Whigs, colonists could only be taxed by their own colonial assemblies. Colonial protests resulted in the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766, but in the 1766 Declaratory Act, Parliament continued to insist that it had the right to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever".
When new taxes were levied in the Townshend Revenue Act of 1767, Whig colonists again responded with protests and boycotts. Merchants organized a non-importation agreement, and many colonists pledged to abstain from drinking British tea, with activists in New England promoting alternatives, such as domestic Labrador tea.[13] Smuggling continued apace, especially in New York and Philadelphia, where tea smuggling had always been more extensive than in Boston. Dutied British tea continued to be imported into Boston, however, especially by Richard Clarke and the sons of Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson, until pressure from Massachusetts Whigs compelled them to abide by the non-importation agreement.[14]
Parliament finally responded to the protests by repealing the Townshend taxes in 1770, except for the tea duty, which Prime Minister Lord North kept to assert "the right of taxing the Americans".[15] This partial repeal of the taxes was enough to bring an end to the non-importation movement by October 1770.[16] From 1771 to 1773, British tea was once again imported into the colonies in significant amounts, with merchants paying the Townshend duty of three pence per pound.[17] Boston was the largest colonial importer of legal tea; smugglers still dominated the market in New York and Philadelphia.[18]
Tea Act of 1773
Main article: Tea Act
The Indemnity Act of 1767, which gave the East India Company a refund of the duty on tea that was re-exported to the colonies, expired in 1772. Parliament passed a new act in 1772 that reduced this refund, effectively leaving a 10% duty on tea imported into Britain.[19] The act also restored the tea taxes within Britain that had been repealed in 1767, and left in place the three pence Townshend duty in the colonies. With this new tax burden driving up the price of British tea, sales plummeted. The company continued to import tea into Great Britain, however, amassing a huge surplus of product that no one would buy.[20] For these and other reasons, by late 1772 the East India Company, one of Britain's most important commercial institutions, was in a serious financial crisis.[21] The severe famine in Bengal from 1769 to 1773 had drastically reduced the revenue of the East India Company from India bringing the Company to the verge of bankruptcy and the Tea Act of 1773 was enacted to help the East India Company.
Eliminating some of the taxes was one obvious solution to the crisis. The East India Company initially sought to have the Townshend duty repealed, but the North ministry was unwilling because such an action might be interpreted as a retreat from Parliament's position that it had the right to tax the colonies.[22] More importantly, the tax collected from the Townshend duty was used to pay the salaries of some colonial governors and judges.[23] This was in fact the purpose of the Townshend tax: previously these officials had been paid by the colonial assemblies, but Parliament now paid their salaries to keep them dependent on the British government rather than allowing them to be accountable to the colonists.[24]
Another possible solution for reducing the growing mound of tea in the East India Company warehouses was to sell it cheaply in Europe. This possibility was investigated, but it was determined that the tea would simply be smuggled back into Great Britain, where it would undersell the taxed product.[25] The best market for the East India Company's surplus tea, so it seemed, was the American colonies, if a way could be found to make it cheaper than the smuggled Dutch tea.[26]
The North ministry's solution was the Tea Act, which received the assent of King George on May 10, 1773.[27] This act restored the East India Company's full refund on the duty for importing tea into Britain, and also permitted the company, for the first time, to export tea to the colonies on its own account. This would allow the company to reduce costs by eliminating the middlemen who bought the tea at wholesale auctions in London.[28] Instead of selling to middlemen, the company now appointed colonial merchants to receive the tea on consignment; the consignees would in turn sell the tea for a commission. In July 1773, tea consignees were selected in New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Charleston.[29]
The Tea Act retained the three pence Townshend duty on tea imported to the colonies. Some members of Parliament wanted to eliminate this tax, arguing that there was no reason to provoke another colonial controversy. Former Chancellor of the Exchequer William Dowdeswell, for example, warned Lord North that the Americans would not accept the tea if the Townshend duty remained.[30] But North did not want to give up the revenue from the Townshend tax, primarily because it was used to pay the salaries of colonial officials; maintaining the right of taxing the Americans was a secondary concern.[31] According to historian Benjamin Labaree, "A stubborn Lord North had unwittingly hammered a nail in the coffin of the old British Empire."[32]
Even with the Townshend duty in effect, the Tea Act would allow the East India Company to sell tea more cheaply than before, undercutting the prices offered by smugglers, but also undercutting colonial tea importers, who paid the tax and received no refund. In 1772, legally imported Bohea, the most common variety of tea, sold for about 3 shillings (3s) per pound.[33] After the Tea Act, colonial consignees would be able to sell it for 2 shillings per pound (2s), just under the smugglers' price of 2 shillings and 1 penny (2s 1d).[34] Realizing that the payment of the Townshend duty was politically sensitive, the company hoped to conceal the tax by making arrangements to have it paid either in London once the tea was landed in the colonies, or have the consignees quietly pay the duties after the tea was sold. This effort to hide the tax from the colonists was unsuccessful.[35]
Resisting the Tea Act
This 1775 British cartoon, "A Society of Patriotic Ladies at Edenton in North Carolina", satirizes the Edenton Tea Party, a group of women who organized a boycott of English tea.
Statue of Samuel Adams (with marathon bib number) outside the Boston Tea Party Ship and Museum in Boston
In September and October 1773, seven ships carrying East India Company tea were sent to the colonies: four were bound for Boston, and one each for New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston.[36] In the ships were more than 2,000 chests containing nearly 600,000 pounds of tea.[37] Americans learned the details of the Tea Act while the ships were en route, and opposition began to mount.[38] Whigs, sometimes calling themselves Sons of Liberty, began a campaign to raise awareness and to convince or compel the consignees to resign, in the same way that stamp distributors had been forced to resign in the 1765 Stamp Act crisis.[39]
The protest movement that culminated with the Boston Tea Party was not a dispute about high taxes. The price of legally imported tea was actually reduced by the Tea Act of 1773. Protesters were instead concerned with a variety of other issues. The familiar "no taxation without representation" argument, along with the question of the extent of Parliament's authority in the colonies, remained prominent.[40] Samuel Adams considered the British tea monopoly to be "equal to a tax" and to raise the same representation issue whether or not a tax was applied to it.[41] Some regarded the purpose of the tax program—to make leading officials independent of colonial influence—as a dangerous infringement of colonial rights.[42] This was especially true in Massachusetts, the only colony where the Townshend program had been fully implemented.[43]
Colonial merchants, some of them smugglers, played a significant role in the protests. Because the Tea Act made legally imported tea cheaper, it threatened to put smugglers of Dutch tea out of business.[44] Legitimate tea importers who had not been named as consignees by the East India Company were also threatened with financial ruin by the Tea Act.[45] Another major concern for merchants was that the Tea Act gave the East India Company a monopoly on the tea trade, and it was feared that this government-created monopoly might be extended in the future to include other goods.[46]
South of Boston, protesters successfully compelled the tea consignees to resign. In Charleston, the consignees had been forced to resign by early December, and the unclaimed tea was seized by customs officials.[47] There were mass protest meetings in Philadelphia. Benjamin Rush urged his fellow countrymen to oppose the landing of the tea, because the cargo contained "the seeds of slavery".[48] By early December, the Philadelphia consignees had resigned and the tea ship returned to England with its cargo following a confrontation with the ship's captain.[49] The tea ship bound for New York City was delayed by bad weather; by the time it arrived, the consignees had resigned, and the ship returned to England with the tea.[50]
Standoff in Boston
In every colony except Massachusetts, protesters were able to force the tea consignees to resign or to return the tea to England.[51] In Boston, however, Governor Hutchinson was determined to hold his ground. He convinced the tea consignees, two of whom were his sons, not to back down.[52]
This notice from the "Chairman of the Committee for Tarring and Feathering" in Boston denounced the tea consignees as "traitors to their country".
When the tea ship Dartmouth[a], arrived in the Boston Harbor in late November, Whig leader Samuel Adams called for a mass meeting to be held at Faneuil Hall on November 29, 1773. Thousands of people arrived, so many that the meeting was moved to the larger Old South Meeting House.[53] British law required the Dartmouth to unload and pay the duties within twenty days or customs officials could confiscate the cargo (ie unload it onto American soil).[54] The mass meeting passed a resolution, introduced by Adams and based on a similar set of resolutions promulgated earlier in Philadelphia, urging the captain of the Dartmouth to send the ship back without paying the import duty. Meanwhile, the meeting assigned twenty-five men to watch the ship and prevent the tea—including a number of chests from Davison, Newman and Co. of London—from being unloaded.[55]
Governor Hutchinson refused to grant permission for the Dartmouth to leave without paying the duty. Two more tea ships, the Eleanor and the Beaver, arrived in Boston Harbor (there was another tea ship headed for Boston, the William, but it encountered a storm and put aground at Cape Code - where the tea cargo was successfully landed - before it could reach its destination[56][57]). On December 16—the last day of the Dartmouth's deadline—about 7,000 people had gathered around the Old South Meeting House.[58] After receiving a report that Governor Hutchinson had again refused to let the ships leave, Adams announced that "This meeting can do nothing further to save the country." According to a popular story, Adams's statement was a prearranged signal for the "tea party" to begin. However, this claim did not appear in print until nearly a century after the event, in a biography of Adams written by his great-grandson, who apparently misinterpreted the evidence.[59] According to eyewitness accounts, people did not leave the meeting until ten or fifteen minutes after Adams's alleged "signal", and Adams in fact tried to stop people from leaving because the meeting was not yet over.[60]
Destruction of the tea
1789 engraving of the destruction of the tea
While Samuel Adams tried to reassert control of the meeting, people poured out of the Old South Meeting House to prepare to take action. In some cases, this involved donning what may have been elaborately prepared Mohawk costumes.[61] While disguising their individual faces was imperative, because of the illegality of their protest, dressing as Mohawk warriors was a specific and symbolic choice. It showed that the Sons of Liberty identified with America, over their official status as subjects of Great Britain.[62]
That evening, a group of 30 to 130 men, some dressed in the Mohawk warrior disguises, boarded the three vessels and, over the course of three hours, dumped all 342 chests of tea into the water.[63] The precise location of the Griffin's Wharf site of the Tea Party has been subject to prolonged uncertainty; a comprehensive study[64] places it near the foot of Hutchinson Street (today's Pearl Street).
Reaction
Whether or not Samuel Adams helped plan the Boston Tea Party is disputed, but he immediately worked to publicize and defend it.[65] He argued that the Tea Party was not the act of a lawless mob, but was instead a principled protest and the only remaining option the people had to defend their constitutional rights.[66]
By "constitution" he referred to the idea that all governments have a constitution, written or not, and that the constitution of Great Britain could be interpreted as banning the levying of taxes without representation. For example, the Bill of Rights of 1689 established that long-term taxes could not be levied without Parliament, and other precedents said that Parliament must actually represent the people it ruled over, in order to "count".
Governor Thomas Hutchinson had been urging London to take a hard line with the Sons of Liberty. If he had done what the other royal governors had done and let the ship owners and captains resolve the issue with the colonists, the Dartmouth, Eleanor and the Beaver would have left without unloading any tea.
In Britain, even those politicians considered friends of the colonies were appalled and this act united all parties there against the colonies. The Prime Minister Lord North said, "Whatever may be the consequence, we must risk something; if we do not, all is over".[67] The British government felt this action could not remain unpunished, and responded by closing the port of Boston and putting in place other laws known as the "Coercive Acts." Benjamin Franklin stated that the destroyed tea must be paid for, all ninety thousand pounds (which, at two shillings per pound, came to £9,000, or £1.05 million [2014, approx. $1.7 million US]).[68] Robert Murray, a New York merchant, went to Lord North with three other merchants and offered to pay for the losses, but the offer was turned down.[69]
The incident resulted in a similar effect in America when news of the Boston Tea Party reached London in January and Parliament responded with a series of acts known collectively in the colonies as the Intolerable Acts. These were intended to punish Boston for the destruction of private property, restore British authority in Massachusetts, and otherwise reform colonial government in America. Although the first two, the Boston Port Act and the Massachusetts Government Act, applied only to Massachusetts, colonists outside that colony feared that their governments could now also be changed by legislative fiat in England. The Intolerable Acts were viewed as a violation of constitutional rights, natural rights, and colonial charters, and united many colonists throughout America,[70] exemplified by the calling of the First Continental Congress in September 1774.
A number of colonists were inspired by the Boston Tea Party to carry out similar acts, such as the burning of the Peggy Stewart. The Boston Tea Party eventually proved to be one of the many reactions that led to the American Revolutionary War.[citation needed] In his December 17, 1773 entry in his diary, John Adams wrote:
Last Night 3 Cargoes of Bohea Tea were emptied into the Sea. This Morning a Man of War sails.
This is the most magnificent Movement of all. There is a Dignity, a Majesty, a Sublimity, in this last Effort of the Patriots, that I greatly admire. The People should never rise, without doing something to be remembered—something notable And striking. This Destruction of the Tea is so bold, so daring, so firm, intrepid and inflexible, and it must have so important Consequences, and so lasting, that I cant but consider it as an Epocha in History.[71]
There was a repeat performance on March 7, 1774, but it was much less destructive.[72]
In February 1775, Britain passed the Conciliatory Resolution, which ended taxation for any colony that satisfactorily provided for the imperial defense and the upkeep of imperial officers. The tax on tea was repealed with the Taxation of Colonies Act 1778, part of another Parliamentary attempt at conciliation that failed.
Legacy
External video
Booknotes interview with Alfred Young on The Shoemaker and the Tea Party, November 21, 1999, C-SPAN[73]
The Boston Tea Party Museum in Fort Point Channel
In 1973 the US Post Office issued a set of four stamps, together making one scene of the Boston Tea Party
John Adams and many other Americans considered tea drinking to be unpatriotic following the Boston Tea Party. Tea drinking declined during and after the Revolution, resulting in a shift to coffee as the preferred hot drink.[74]
According to historian Alfred Young, the term "Boston Tea Party" did not appear in print until 1834.[75] Before that time, the event was usually referred to as the "destruction of the tea". According to Young, American writers were for many years apparently reluctant to celebrate the destruction of property, and so the event was usually ignored in histories of the American Revolution. This began to change in the 1830s, however, especially with the publication of biographies of George Robert Twelves Hewes, one of the few still-living participants of the "tea party", as it then became known.[76]
The issue was never the tax but how the tax was passed without American input; United States Congress taxed tea from 1789 to 1872.[77]
The Boston Tea Party has often been referenced in other political protests. When Mohandas K. Gandhi led a mass burning of Indian registration cards in South Africa in 1908, a British newspaper compared the event to the Boston Tea Party.[78] When Gandhi met with the British viceroy in 1930 after the Indian salt protest campaign, Gandhi took some duty-free salt from his shawl and said, with a smile, that the salt was "to remind us of the famous Boston Tea Party."[79]
American activists from a variety of political viewpoints have invoked the Tea Party as a symbol of protest. In 1973, on the 200th anniversary of the Tea Party, a mass meeting at Faneuil Hall called for the impeachment of President Richard Nixon and protested oil companies in the ongoing oil crisis. Afterwards, protesters boarded a replica ship in Boston Harbor, hanged Nixon in effigy, and dumped several empty oil drums into the harbor.[80] In 1998, two conservative US Congressmen put the federal tax code into a chest marked "tea" and dumped it into the harbor.[81]
In 2006, a libertarian political party called the "Boston Tea Party" was founded. In 2007, the Ron Paul "Tea Party" money bomb, held on the 234th anniversary of the Boston Tea Party, broke the one-day fund-raising record by raising $6.04 million in 24 hours.[82] Subsequently, these fund-raising "Tea parties" grew into the Tea Party movement, which dominated politics for the next two years, culminating in a voter victory for the Republicans in 2010 who were widely elected to seats in the United States House of Representatives.
Boston Tea Party Ships and Museum
The Boston Tea Party Museum is located on the Congress Street Bridge in Boston. It features reenactments, a documentary, and a number of interactive exhibits. The museum features two replica ships of the period, the Eleanor and the Beaver. Additionally, the museum possesses one of two known tea chests from the original event, part of its permanent collection.[83]
Participants
Phineas Stearns[84]
See also
Boston portal
Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760–1789)
Burning of the Peggy Stewart, 1774
Notes
Jump up ^ The Dartmouth had delivered whale oil to London and taken on the tea as return cargo
Jump up ^ Young, Shoemaker, 183–85.
Jump up ^ Benjamin L. Carp, Defiance of the Patriots: The Boston Tea Party and the Making of America (2010) ch. 1
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 3–4.
Jump up ^ Knollenberg, Growth, 90.
Jump up ^ Knollenberg, Growth, 90; Labaree, Tea Party, 7.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 8–9.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 6–8; Knollenberg, Growth, 91; Thomas, Townshend Duties, 18.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 6.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 59.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 6–7.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 13; Thomas, Townshend Duties, 26–27. This kind of refund or rebate is known as a "drawback".
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 21.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 27–30.
Jump up ^ Labaree, "Tea Party", 32–34.
Jump up ^ Knollenberg, Growth, 71; Labaree, Tea Party, 46.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 46–49.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 50–51.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 52.
Jump up ^ The 1772 tax act was 12 Geo. III c. 60 sec. 1; Knollenberg, Growth, 351n12.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Townshend Duties, 248–49; Labaree, Tea Party, 334.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 58, 60–62.
Jump up ^ Knollenberg, Growth, 90–91.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Townshend Duties, 252–54.
Jump up ^ Knollenberg, Growth, 91.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Townshend Duties, 250; Labaree, Tea Party, 69.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 70, 75.
Jump up ^ Knollenberg, Growth, 93.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 67, 70.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 75–76.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 71; Thomas, Townshend Duties, 252.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Townshend Duties, 252.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 72–73.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 51.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Townshend Duties, 255; Labaree, Tea Party, 76–77.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 76–77.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 78–79.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 77, 335.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 89–90.
Jump up ^ Knollenberg, Growth, 96.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Townshend Duties, 246.
Jump up ^ Gross, David M. (2014). 99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns. Picket Line Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-1490572741.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 106.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Townshend Duties, 245.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 102; see also John W. Tyler, Smugglers & Patriots: Boston Merchants and the Advent of the American Revolution (Boston, 1986).
Jump up ^ Thomas, Townshend Duties, 256.
Jump up ^ Knollenberg, Growth, 95–96.
Jump up ^ Knollenberg, Growth, 101.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 100. See also Alyn Brodsky, Benjamin Rush (Macmillan, 2004), 109.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 97.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 96; Knollenberg, Growth, 101–02.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 96–100.
Jump up ^ Labaree, Tea Party, 104–05.
Jump up ^ This was not an official town meeting, but a gathering of "the body of the people" of greater Boston; Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 123.
Jump up ^ Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 124.
Jump up ^ Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 123.
Jump up ^ The Story of the Boston Tea Party Ships by The Boston Tea Party Historical Society
Jump up ^ Boston Tea Party Facts
Jump up ^ Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 125.
Jump up ^ Raphael, Founding Myths, 53.
Jump up ^ Maier, Old Revolutionaries, 27–28n32; Raphael, Founding Myths, 53. For firsthand accounts that contradict the story that Adams gave the signal for the tea party, see L. F. S. Upton, ed., "Proceeding of Ye Body Respecting the Tea," William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 22 (1965), 297–98; Francis S. Drake, Tea Leaves: Being a Collection of Letters and Documents, (Boston, 1884), LXX; Boston Evening-Post, December 20, 1773; Boston Gazette, December 20, 1773; Massachusetts Gazette and Boston Weekly News-Letter, December 23, 1773.
Jump up ^ "Boston Tea Party Historical Society".
Jump up ^ "Boston Tea Party Historical Society".
Jump up ^ Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 125–26; Labaree, Tea Party, 141–44.
Jump up ^ "Where Was the Actual Boston Tea Party Site?".
Jump up ^ Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 126.
Jump up ^ Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 129.
Jump up ^ Cobbett, Parliamentary History of England, XVII, pg. 1280-1281
Jump up ^ UK Consumer Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved November 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Ketchum, Divided Loyalties, 262.
Jump up ^ Ammerman, In the Common Cause, 15.
Jump up ^ Diary of John Adams, Volume 2 http://www.masshist.org/publications/apde/portia.php?id=DJA02d100
Jump up ^ Diary of John Adams, March 8, 1774; Boston Gazette, March 14, 1774
Jump up ^ "The Shoemaker and the Tea Party". C-SPAN. November 21, 1999. Retrieved March 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ (1) Adams, John (July 6, 1774). "John Adams to Abigail Adams". The Adams Papers: Digital Editions: Adams Family Correspondence, Volume 1. Massachusetts Historical Society. Archived from the original on February 26, 2014. Retrieved 2014-02-25. I believe I forgot to tell you one Anecdote: When I first came to this House it was late in the Afternoon, and I had ridden 35 miles at least. “Madam” said I to Mrs. Huston, “is it lawfull for a weary Traveller to refresh himself with a Dish of Tea provided it has been honestly smuggled, or paid no Duties?” “No sir, said she, we have renounced all Tea in this Place. I cant make Tea, but I'le make you Coffee.” Accordingly I have drank Coffee every Afternoon since, and have borne it very well. Tea must be universally renounced. I must be weaned, and the sooner, the better.
(2) Stone, William L. (1867). "Continuation of Mrs. General Riedesel's Adventures". Mrs. General Riedesel: Letters and Journals relating to the War of Independence and the Capture of the Troops at Saratoga (Translated from the Original German). Albany: Joel Munsell. p. 147. She then became more gentle, and offered me bread and milk. I made tea for ourselves. The woman eyed us longingly, for the Americans love it very much; but they had resolved to drink it no longer, as the famous duty on the tea had occasioned the war. At Google Books. Note: Fredricka Charlotte Riedesel was the wife of General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel, commander of all German and Indian troops in General John Burgoyne's Saratoga campaign and American prisoner of war during the American Revolution.
(3) Heiss, Mary Lou; Heiss, Robert .J (2007). "A History of Tea: The Boston Tea Party". The Story of Tea: A Cultural History and Drinking Guide. pp. 21–24. ISBN 9781607741725. At Google Books.
(4) Zuraw, Lydia (April 24, 2013). "How Coffee Influenced The Course Of History". NPR. Archived from the original on February 26, 2014. Retrieved 2014-02-25.
(5) DeRupo, Joseph (July 3, 2013). "American Revolution: Stars, Stripes—and Beans". NCA News. National Coffee Association. Archived from the original on February 26, 2014. Retrieved 2014-02-25.
(6) Luttinger, Nina; Dicum, Gregory (2006). The coffee book: anatomy of an industry from crop to the last drop. The New Press. p. 33. ISBN 9781595587244. At Google Books.
Jump up ^ Young, Shoemaker, xv.
Jump up ^ Young, Shoemaker.
Jump up ^ Davis Dewey, Financial History of the United States, 1791-1901 (New York: Longmans, Green, 1902), 80-82.
Jump up ^ Erik H. Erikson, Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (New York: Norton, 1969), 204.
Jump up ^ Erikson, Gandhi's Truth, 448.
Jump up ^ Young, Shoemaker, 197.
Jump up ^ Young, Shoemaker, 198.
Jump up ^ "Ron Paul's "tea party" breaks fund-raising record".
Jump up ^ "Boston Tea Party Ships & Museum". Retrieved June 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ Denehy 1906, p. 226.
References
Alexander, John K. Samuel Adams: America's Revolutionary Politician. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002. ISBN 0-7425-2115-X.
Ammerman, David (1974). In the Common Cause: American Response to the Coercive Acts of 1774. New York: Norton.
Carp, Benjamin L. Defiance of the Patriots: The Boston Tea Party and the Making of America (Yale U.P., 2010) ISBN 978-0-300-11705-9
Denehy, John William (1906). A History of Brookline, Massachusetts, from the First Settlement of Muddy River Until the Present Time: 1630-1906; Commemorating the Two Hundredth Anniversary of the Town, Based on the Early Records and Other Authorities and Arranged by Leading Subjects. Containing Portraits and Sketches of the Town's Prominent Men Past and Present; Also Illustrations of Public Buildings and Residences. Brookline Press.
Ketchum, Richard. Divided Loyalties: How the American Revolution came to New York. 2002. ISBN 0-8050-6120-7.
Knollenberg, Bernhard. Growth of the American Revolution, 1766–1775. New York: Free Press, 1975. ISBN 0-02-917110-5.
Labaree, Benjamin Woods. The Boston Tea Party. Originally published 1964. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-930350-05-7.
Maier, Pauline. The Old Revolutionaries: Political Lives in the Age of Samuel Adams. New York: Knopf, 1980. ISBN 0-394-51096-8.
Raphael, Ray. Founding Myths: Stories That Hide Our Patriotic Past. New York: The New Press, 2004. ISBN 1-56584-921-3.
Thomas, Peter D. G. The Townshend Duties Crisis: The Second Phase of the American Revolution, 1767–1773. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-19-822967-4.
Thomas, Peter D. G. Tea Party to Independence: The Third Phase of the American Revolution, 1773–1776. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991. ISBN 0-19-820142-7.
Young, Alfred F. The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution. Boston: Beacon Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8070-5405-4; ISBN 978-0-8070-5405-5.
Further reading
Unger, Harlow G. (2011). American Tempest: How the Boston Tea Party Sparked a Revolution. Boston, MA: Da Capo. ISBN 0306819627. OCLC 657595563.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Boston Tea Party.
Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Boston Tea Party.
The Boston Tea Party Historical Society
Eyewitness Account of the Event
Boston Tea Party Ships & Museum
Tea Party Finds Inspiration In Boston History – audio report by NPR
Booknotes interview with Alfred Young on The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution, November 21, 1999
BBC Radio program about the 'forgotten truth' behind the Boston Tea Party
Eyewitness to History: The Boston Tea Party, 1773
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Elliot Stabler
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Elliot Stabler
Law & Order character
First appearance
"Payback"
Last appearance
"Smoked"
Portrayed by
Christopher Meloni
Time on show
1999–2011
Seasons
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
Credited appearances
272 episodes (SVU)
2 episodes (L&O)
1 episode (TBJ)
275 episodes (total)
Information
Title
NYPD Detective 1st Grade
Family
Wife: Kathy Stabler
Children:
Maureen Stabler (daughter)
Kathleen Stabler (daughter)
Richard "Dickie" Stabler (son)
Elizabeth "Lizzie" Stabler (daughter)
Elliot "Eli" Stabler Jr. (son)
Parents: Joseph Stabler (father, deceased)
Bernadette Stabler (mother)
Siblings: three brothers
two sisters[1]
Partner
Olivia Benson
Donald Cragen
Lucius Blaine[2] (temporary)
Danielle Beck (temporary)
Elliot Stabler is a fictional character portrayed by Christopher Meloni and one of the lead characters on the NBC police procedural series Law & Order: Special Victims Unit during the first twelve seasons. As a result of Meloni's sudden departure from the cast at the end of the twelfth season, Stabler abruptly retires from the police force off-screen during the thirteenth-season premiere.
Contents
[hide]
1 Character overview
2 Family
3 Partners
3.1 Olivia Benson
3.2 Dani Beck
3.3 Jo Marlowe
4 Awards and decorations
5 References
Character overview[edit]
Stabler is an NYPD Detective 1st Grade with Manhattan's 16th Precinct, which investigates sex crimes. His partner during the first twelve years is Detective Olivia Benson (Mariska Hargitay). Stabler is dedicated to his job, but often takes cases personally, thus affecting his judgment. Nonetheless, Stabler has a 97-percent case-closure rate as of 2007.[3] His badge number is 6313.[1][4]
Stabler is an Irish American Catholic[1] and lives at 72-12 Castleside Street, Glen Oaks, Queens with his wife Kathy and five children (Maureen, Kathleen, Richard "Dickie", Elizabeth "Lizzie", and Elliot "Eli", Jr.). Stabler was born October 20, 1966.[1] He is devoted to his family and frequently mentions or thinks about them while working cases. He is also a practicing Catholic whose faith sometimes complicates the cases on which he works.
Stabler was born and raised in Bayside, Queens. His father, Joseph Stabler, was a policeman who lost his pension and eventually died of cancer. Stabler had a difficult relationship with his father, who physically and emotionally abused him.[4] His mother, Bernadette (née McGinley) (Ellen Burstyn), has bipolar disorder and once nearly killed her son during a manic phase. As a result, Stabler has "erased his childhood", and maintains little contact with his mother.[5]
Stabler was a Marine and served in Operation Desert Storm.[6] During his time in the military, he was a hand-to-hand combat specialist.[7] He also has three tattoos, notably the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor tattoo on his forearm (the official emblem of the Marine Corps), and the crucifixion of Christ on his left bicep. One of his best friends died in the September 11 attacks.[1] He has a B.A. from Queens College.[1]
Stabler harbors a great deal of anger that is sometimes fed by his job. He is often openly aggressive and intimidating towards suspects, which can either complicate the case further, or lead to speedy confessions. When his wife Kathy leaves him in season 6, Stabler's anger rises closer to the surface, and in a few episodes, threatens to boil over. During an interrogation, serial killer Gordon Ricketts (Matthew Modine), whom Stabler had investigated 14 years earlier, tells him that they harbor the same kind of rage, and that if it weren't for his family and his job, Stabler would be just like him. When Benson and Stabler catch Ricketts about to kill a young girl, Stabler appears ready to kill him in cold blood; it is only Benson's intervention that prevents him from doing so.[8] In season 7, he goes to see a psychiatrist, Dr. Rebecca Hendrix (Mary Stuart Masterson), after using excessive force on an abusive parent. Stabler eventually opens up to Hendrix about his personal demons,[4] and they become close until Hendrix is transferred.[9] By season 9, he and Kathy reconcile, and Stabler learns to better deal with his problems.
In the season 12 finale, Stabler is forced to shoot and kill a young woman who opens fire in the Special Victims squad room. Before dying in Stabler's arms, she had killed two suspects involved in the rape and murder of her mother and injured a third, as well as killing recurring character Sister Peg (Charlayne Woodard).[10] After the shootout, Stabler is placed on administrative leave by IAB.[11] Although he is eventually cleared, it is nonetheless his sixth career "good shooting" and according to Cragen, IAB "wants to go over his entire jacket...if Elliot wants to keep his job, he's gonna have to submit to a psych eval, anger management, a lot of hoops." Confirming Benson's assurance that he will instead tell them to "go to hell", Stabler subsequently retires from the police force off screen during the thirteenth-season premiere.[12] Benson and Cragen agree that he's earned it "and then some". Nevertheless, Benson is quietly devastated by his resignation as she breaks down sobbing in the interrogation room.
Family[edit]
He married his wife, Kathy, when they were both 17 years old, and at the beginning of the series, they have four school-aged children: Maureen (born September 30, 1984),[13] Kathleen Louise (born July 13, 1989),[14] and twins Richard "Dickie", and Elizabeth "Lizzie" (both born February 21, 1993).[15] Richard (he stopped using his nickname upon entering adolescence) is named after Col. Richard Finley, a friend whom Stabler greatly admired. After years of the stress involved with being married to a police officer, Kathy Stabler leaves her husband, taking their children, and temporarily moves in with her mother.[16] Following a case involving a divorce that turned violent, Stabler signs the divorce papers, saying, "when love warps to hate, there's nothing you won't do."[17] However, after being cleared in the death of a suspect, Stabler realizes that he cannot bear to lose either his job or his family, so he seeks reconciliation with his wife.[18] A short time later, Kathy announces that she is pregnant and asks Stabler to come home.[19] After a serious car accident, Kathy delivers a healthy baby boy, Elliot Stabler, Jr. (Eli) (born November 17, 2007); however, the crash nearly cost Kathy her own life as her heartbeat flatlines while en route to the hospital in the FDNY Ambulance, but miraculously, they are able to save her.[20]
Of his five children, Kathleen and Dickie have most directly affected his job. Kathleen is twice charged with DUI;[19] he uses his clout as a police officer to make the first charge disappear, but he eventually realizes that he has to let her face the consequences of her actions, and she is sentenced to community service.[21] Kathleen then steals her father's credit card and gives it to her boyfriend, who rings up thousands of dollars in charges.[22] She is later arrested for breaking and entering and robbery, at which time doctors and her family realize that she suffers from bipolar disorder, which she inherited from her paternal grandmother, Bernadette Stabler (Ellen Burstyn). After speaking with her grandmother, Kathleen agrees to treatment.[5] She later becomes an advocate for sexual assault victims, and in one episode, helps her father on a case.[23] Dickie also occasionally gives his father problems. In an 11th-season episode, he runs away from school and tries to join the Army, something Stabler disapproves of. It later turns out that Dickie was acting out because his friend, Shane, had been murdered. Stabler refuses to sign a parental consent form for Dickie to join the Army, but resolves to be a more attentive parent.[24]
Stabler is fiercely protective of his children and becomes defensive if a suspect asks about his family; it is suggested that he sees aspects of his children in every victim. As a result, he harbors an intense hatred of pedophiles, admitting to a police psychiatrist that he sometimes fantasizes about killing them.[25] He almost loses his job as a result.[26] Stabler has occasionally seen aspects of himself in a child abuser; during one case, the actions of an abusive parent prompt him to recall an incident in which he lost his temper and raised his hand to slap his daughter Maureen, then a toddler.[27] In another, he beats up a pedophile (Tom Noonan) who posts a picture of Elizabeth on his website.[28]
Child victims tend to respond to him. For example, Stabler successfully reaches out to a 15-year-old girl (Rachael Bella) who regresses to a childlike state after being attacked by her father. SVU's resident psychiatrist, Dr. George Huang (B.D. Wong), theorizes that only Stabler would be able to reach her, as he is a father, and she is looking for another father figure.[29]
Partners[edit]
Olivia Benson[edit]
Stabler is partnered with Olivia Benson for 12 years. They are best friends, and trust each other completely. Stabler is Benson's longest relationship with a man,[30] and they have even each promised to give the other a kidney should they need a transplant.[20]
Their relationship is not without friction, however. The two sometimes argue over the cases they work on; Benson tends to be quicker to side with the victims. For example, during a case in which three women are charged with raping a male stripper, Benson and ADA Alexandra Cabot (Stephanie March) believe the man's story, while Stabler takes a cynical view of his claim from the start.[31]
Benson and Stabler are separated at times during the show. She asks for a new partner after Stabler expects her to jeopardize his life to shoot a convicted sex offender (Lou Diamond Phillips) who had kidnapped two children and killed one of them.[32] Instead, she is briefly reassigned to Computer Crimes and replaced by a Queens SVU detective, Lucius Blaine (Anthony Anderson).[2] Benson and Stabler become partners again after her replacement, Dani Beck, leaves the squad.[33] They remain partners for the rest of Stabler's time in the precinct.
Dani Beck[edit]
Stabler is assigned a temporary partner named Dani Beck (Connie Nielsen) while Benson is undercover in Oregon, embedded in an eco-terrorist group at the request of the FBI in season 8 (Mariska Hargitay was pregnant and on maternity leave). Beck takes well to the job, and she and Stabler become close. There is also some sexual tension between the two, and during one case they share a kiss.[34] The relationship goes no further, however, as Beck leaves when she realizes that she will not be able to save every victim.[35]
Jo Marlowe[edit]
Jo Marlowe (played by Sharon Stone) was Stabler's training officer. She is appointed by Jack McCoy to be the new ADA for the SVU squad during a four-episode run in season 11. Stabler reveals that he has not seen her for 15 years when she first arrives as the new ADA. Marlowe was a lieutenant in 1995 when she left the NYPD after her command decision resulted in the deaths of two of her officers.[36] She was diagnosed with an "aggressive" type of breast cancer and had a bilateral radical mastectomy a year before joining the SVU squad.[37]
Awards and decorations[edit]
The following are the medals and service awards worn by Detective Stabler, as seen in "Dolls".
American Flag Breast Bar
NYPD Medal of Honor
NYPD Unit Citation Bar
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Hate". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 5. Episode 13. January 13, 2004. NBC.
^ Jump up to: a b "Fat". Law & Order: SVU. Season 7. Episode 20. May 2, 2006. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Haystack". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 8. Episode 15. February 20, 2007. NBC.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Ripped". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 7. Episode 4. October 11, 2005. NBC.
^ Jump up to: a b "Swing". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 10. Episode 3. October 14, 2008. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Goliath". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 6. Episode 23. May 24, 2005. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Annihilated". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 8. Episode 20. May 8, 2007. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Rage". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 6. Episode 17. March 1, 2005. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Philadelphia". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 8. Episode 16. February 27, 2007. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Smoked". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 12. Episode 24. May 18, 2011. NBC.
Jump up ^ Bryant, Adam; Abrams, Natalie (August 30, 2011). "Mega Buzz: Tiva Time on NCIS? Plus: Fringe's Future and Stabler's SVU Exit". TV Guide. Retrieved February 25, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Scorched Earth". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 13. Episode 1. September 21, 2011. NBC.
Jump up ^ Maureen is said to be 15 in episode "Wrong Is Right". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 2. Episode 1. October 20, 2000. NBC.
Jump up ^ Kathleen is said to be 19 in episode "Swing". Law & Order: SVU. Season 10. Episode 3. October 14, 2008. NBC.
Jump up ^ Lizzie is said to be 15 in episode "Confession". Law & Order: SVU. Season 10. Episode 2. September 30, 2008. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Doubt". Law & Order: SVU. Season 6. Episode 8. November 23, 2004. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Burned". Law & Order: SVU. Season 8. Episode 11. January 8, 2007. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Dependent". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 8. Episode 14. February 13, 2007. NBC.
^ Jump up to: a b "Screwed". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 8. Episode 22. May 22, 2007. NBC.
^ Jump up to: a b "Paternity". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 9. Episode 9. November 27, 2007. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Alternate". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 9. Episode 1. September 25, 2007. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Trials". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 10. Episode 1. September 23, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Gray". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 12. Episode 9. November 17, 2010. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Turmoil". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 11. Episode 8. November 11, 2009. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Slaves". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 1. Episode 22. May 19, 2000. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Wrong is Right". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 2. Episode 1. October 20, 2000. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Shaken". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 5. Episode 10. March 25, 2003. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Confession". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 10. Episode 2. September 30, 2008. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Resilience". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 4. Episode 10. December 6, 2002. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Futility". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 4. Episode 22. April 25, 2003. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Ridicule". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 3. Episode 10. December 14, 2001. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Fault". Law & Order: SVU. Season 7. Episode 19. April 4, 2006. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Choreographed". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 8. Episode 9. November 28, 2006. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Underbelly". Law & Ordr: Special Victims Unit. Season 8. Episode 7. November 14, 2006. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Cage". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 8. Episode 8. November 21, 2006. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Ace". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 11. Episode 22. May 5, 2010. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Shattered". Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Season 11. Episode 24. May 19, 2010. NBC.
[hide]
v
t
e
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit
Characters
Detectives
Elliot Stabler
Olivia Benson
John Munch
Monique Jeffries
Fin Tutuola
Chester Lake
Nick Amaro
Amanda Rollins
Dominick Carisi Jr.
Commanding officers
Donald Cragen
Olivia Benson
Assistant District Attorneys
Alexandra Cabot
Casey Novak
Kim Greylek
Rafael Barba
Doctors
George Huang
Melinda Warner
Other characters
Barry Moredock
Brian Cassidy
Elizabeth Donnelly
Michael Cutter
Sonya Paxton
Jack McCoy
Seasons
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Notable episodes
"Payback"
"911"
"Authority"
"Cold"
"Zebras"
"Behave"
"Smoked"
"Scorched Earth"
"Justice Denied"
"Father Dearest"
"Rhodium Nights"
"Lost Reputation"
"Above Suspicion"
"Acceptable Loss"
"Manhattan Vigil"
"Comic Perversion"
"Glasgowman's Wrath"
"Chicago Crossover"
See also
Cast members
Awards and nominations
Law & Order franchise
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elliot_Stabler&oldid=837593875"
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Education in Chad
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Education in Chad is challenging due to the nation's dispersed population and a certain degree of reluctance on the part of parents to send their children to school. Although attendance is compulsory, only 68% of boys continue their education past primary school, and over half of the population is illiterate. Higher education is provided at the University of N'Djamena.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Higher education
3 Vocational education
4 References
History[edit]
The establishment of Protestant mission schools in southern Chad in the 1920s marked the beginning of Western education in the country. From the outset, the colonial administration required that all instruction be in French, with the exception of religion classes. A standard curriculum was imposed on all institutions desiring official recognition and government subsidies.[3]
Education in Chad is chiefly focused on primary instruction. Until 1942, students who desired a secular secondary education had to go to schools in Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo, severely limiting the number of secondary-school students. State secondary schools were opened in Chad in 1942, but recognized certificate programs did not begin until the mid-1950s.[3]
At independence in 1960, the government established a goal of universal primary education, and school attendance was made compulsory until age twelve. Nevertheless, the development of standard curricula was hampered by the limited number of schools, the existence of two- and three-year establishments alongside the standard five- and seven-year collèges and lycées, and the Muslim preference for Quranic education. Even so, by the mid-1960s 17 percent of students between the ages of six and eight were in school. Quranic schools throughout the Saharan and Sahelian zones teach students to read Arabic and recite Quranic verse. In Chad, modern Islamic secondary schools have included the Ecole Mohamed Illech, founded in 1918.[3]
Despite the government's efforts, overall educational levels remained low at the end of the first decade of independence. In 1971 about 88 percent of men and 99 percent of women over the age of fifteen could not read, write, or speak French, which at the time was the only official national language; literacy in Arabic stood at 7.8 percent. In 1982 the overall literacy rate stood at about 15 percent. Major problems have hindered the development of Chadian education since independence. Financing has been very limited. Limited facilities and personnel also have made it difficult for the education system to provide adequate instruction. Overcrowding is a major problem; some classes have up 100 students, many of whom are repeaters. In the years just after independence, many primary-school teachers had only marginal qualifications. On the secondary level, the situation was even worse.[3]
In the 1970s and 1980s, Chad made considerable progress in dealing with problems of facilities and personnel. To improve instruction, review sessions and refresher programmes have been instituted for primary-school teachers. On the secondary level, increasing numbers of Chadians have taken their places in the ranks of the faculty. Furthermore, during the 1971-72 school year, the Université du Tchad opened its doors.[3]
Another problem at independence was that the French curricula of Chadian schools limited their effectiveness. Primary instruction was in French, although most students did not speak that language when they entered school. In addition, the academic program inherited from the French did not prepare students for employment options in Chad. Beginning in the late 1960s, the government attempted to address these problems. Model schools discarded the French-style classical education in favor of a new approach that taught children to reinterpret and modify their social and economic environment.[3]
The Chadian Civil War also posed problems to education. Lack of security in vast parts of the country has made it difficult to send teachers to their posts and to maintain them there. In addition, the mobility occasioned by the war has created havoc with attempts to get children to attend classes regularly. The diversion of resources to the conflict has also prevented the government from maintaining the expenditure levels found at independence. Finally, the violence has taken its toll among teachers, students, and facilities.[3]
The government has made major efforts to overcome these problems. In 1983 the Ministry of Planning and Reconstruction reported that the opening of the 1982-83 school year was the most successful since the upheavals of 1979. In 1984 the Université du Tchad, the Ecole Nationale d'Administration, and the Ecole Nationale des Travaux Publics reopened their doors as well.[3]
In the late 1980s, the Ministry of Education had administrative responsibility for all formal schooling. Because of years of civil strife, however, local communities had assumed many of the ministry's functions, including the construction and maintenance of schools, and payment of teachers' salaries.[3]

However, the government is unable to adequately fund education, and parents in practice make significant payments for tuition and teacher salaries. In 2002, the gross primary enrollment rate was 76 percent, and the net primary enrollment rate was 61 percent. Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of students formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance. In 2004, 39.6 percent of children ages 5 to 14 years were attending school. Educational opportunities for girls are limited, mainly due to cultural traditions. Fewer girls enroll in secondary school than boys, primarily due to early marriage. In 1999, 54.0 percent of children starting primary school reached grade 5.[4]
Higher education[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2010)
When the country became independent in 1960, Chad had no university. For the first decade of the nation's life, students who wished to study beyond the secondary level had to go abroad. In the 1966-67 school year, eighty-three Chadians were studying outside the country; the following year, this number rose to 200. In the early years, almost all students seeking advanced education were male. The largest number went to France (30 percent in the academic year 1966-67, for example), but some Chadians studied in Belgium, Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, and Congo. At that time, most students were pursuing degrees in education, liberal arts, agriculture, and medicine.[3]
Pursuant to an agreement with France, the Université du Tchad opened in the 1971-72 academic year. Financed almost entirely through French assistance, the faculty of 25 welcomed 200 students the first year. By the 1974-75 academic year, enrollment had climbed to 500, and the university graduated its first class of 45. The imposition of compulsory yondo rites greatly disrupted the following school year, but after the overthrow of Tombalbaye and the end of the authenticité movement, the university continued to grow. Enrollment rose from 639 in 1976-77 to a high of 1,046 in 1977-78, then dropped slightly to 974 in 1978-79. Unfortunately, the Chadian Civil War curtailed university activities in 1979 and 1980, when the first and second battles of N'Djamena threatened facilities and students alike. With the return of relative calm in the early 1980s, the university reopened. In 1983-84 the university had 141 teachers and 1,643 students.[3]
In addition to the university, higher learning in Chad included one advanced teacher—training institution, the Ecole Normale Supérieure, which trained secondary-school instructors. Enrollment in the 1982-83 and 1983-84 school years came to about 200 students. Degree programs included history-geography, modern literature, English and French, Arabic and French, mathematics and physics, and biology-geology-chemistry.[3]
Vocational education[edit]
This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2010)
In 1983 vocational education was offered at three lycées techniques industrielles (in Sarh, N'Djamena, and Moundou), and the Collège d'Enseignement Technique in Sarah Enrollment figures for three of the four technical schools stood at 1,490 in 1983.[3]
Primary-school graduates interested in technical or vocational training could follow two courses. They either could enter a first level, three-year programme (première cycle) at a collège (after which they could transfer to one of the four technical schools) or they could enroll directly in one of the lycées for a six-year program. Students completing the three-year première cycle received professional aptitude certificates; those finishing the entire six-year course were awarded diplomas.[3]
Apart from the lycées techniques, several other institutions offered vocational training in Chad in the early 1980s. These included the Ecole Nationale d'Administration, which opened in 1963 in N'Djamena; a postal and telecommunications school in Sarh; a school for technical education related to public works; and the Ba-Illi agricultural school. Other Chadians studied at technical training centres abroad.[3]
In the late 1980s, advanced medical education was not available in Chad. The only medical training institution was the National School of Public Health and Social Work (Ecole Nationale de Santé Publique et de Service Social—ENSPSS) in N'Djamena. Its enrollment, however, has been very limited; in 1982 there were only twenty-eight students in nursing, three in social work, and thirty-three in public health.[3]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Background Notes: Chad
Jump up ^ "Chad",Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Chad country study. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
Jump up ^ "Chad". 2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor Archived December 1, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
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