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World Scout Jamboree
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World Scout Jamboree
Scouts at the 22nd World Scout Jamboree
Owner
World Organization of the Scout Movement
Date
1920
Scouting portal
The World Scout Jamboree is a Scouting jamboree of the World Organization of the Scout Movement, typically attended by several tens of thousands of Scouts from around the world, aged 14 to 17.
The first World Scout Jamboree was organized by The Boy Scout Association in London. With exceptions for the war years, it has been organized approximately every four years, in the more recent years by the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM), in different locations over the world. The 21st World Scout Jamboree in 2007 was held in Hylands Park, Essex, United Kingdom, and celebrated the Centenary of Scouting. The 22nd World Scout Jamboree was at Rinkaby in Sweden from 27 July 2011 to 8 August 2011, the 23rd World Scout Jamboree was at Kirara-hama, Yamaguchi City in Japan - it opened on 28 July 2015, and closed 8 August 2015.[1] The next World Scout Jamboree will be in United States from 22 July 2019 - 2 August 2019.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
2 History
3 Related world-wide events
3.1 Jamboree on the Air
3.2 Jamboree on the Internet
3.3 Jamboree on the Trail
4 Smaller events
5 List of events
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Terminology[edit]
In lexicography, "Jamboree" is considered an Americanism that traces back to 1860–65 and refers to a joyful, noisy gathering.[3] The term is believed to originate from the words jabber (rapid, indistinct talk) and shivaree (noisy celebration), with "m" from jam (crowd).[4]
History[edit]
While World Scout Jamboree is the expression used by the World Organization of the Scout Movement,[5] other organizations held events called "jamborees" for their members.
The Scouting program became an international success following its founding by Robert Baden-Powell in 1907. With its continuing growth, the founder of the movement saw a need for a gathering of representatives of Scouting from all around the world. The general aim was to foster a worldwide brotherhood, and to help the young Scouts in the movement learn about other peoples and nations by direct interaction with them.
The idea of organizing such periodical international gatherings was originally conveyed to Baden-Powell by the General Chief of the Scouts of Greece, Konstantinos ("Kokos") Melas, during the 1918 international Scout meeting, in England.[6][7]Captain Melas proposed the gatherings should repeat every four years, in the same way Olympic Games were held in Ancient Greece. The suggestion was accepted with enthusiasm by Baden-Powell, who named the gatherings "Jamborees".
It was in 1920 that the first World Scout Jamboree was realized, held in the Olympia halls in Kensington, London. Symbolically, the Jamboree site bore the name of the birthplace of the Olympic Games, Olympia. 8,000 Scouts from 34 countries attended the event.
Cartoon in Punch, published in 1929 for the 3rd World Scout Jamboree
Thereafter, a Jamboree has been held every four years. There are two exceptions to this: no Jamboree was held between 1937 and 1947 because of the Second World War, and the 1979 Jamboree, which was to be held in Iran, was cancelled due to the political upheaval in the region at that time. The Jamboree has been held in different countries around the world. The first seven Jamborees were held in Europe. The eighth World Jamboree was held in North America where the tradition of moving the Jamboree among the continents began. As yet, Africa has not hosted a jamboree.
To replace the cancelled event of 1979, the World Scout Committee determined that an alternative celebration, the World Jamboree Year should take place. Several regional camps took place, such as the 12th Australian/4th Asia-Pacific Jamboree, held in Perth, Western Australia, along with countless Join-in-Jamboree activities — designed to allow Scouts from around the world to participate in an activity that thousands of other Scouts around the world were also participating in at the same time. This Join-in programme was reproduced again as part of the Scouting 2007 Centenary celebrations.
So far, the greatest attendance of all Jamborees was in 2011, where over 40,000 members from around the world descended upon Rinkaby in Sweden. This number represented the permanent contingent who remained for the entire event. They were joined by hundreds of thousands of visiting Scouts who participated on a day basis.
The first Jamboree was more akin to an exhibition of Scouting, allowing visitors to see how things were done in other parts of the world. The Second Jamboree was conducted on a camp basis and each successive Jamboree has developed on this format where the programme is typically more activity oriented, with plenty of time for Scouts from different nations to interact and learn about each other in less formal ways than an exhibition would allow.
The 2007 Jamboree coincided with the Scouting Centenary celebrations. Because of this, the honour of hosting the event was again bestowed upon the United Kingdom, as the birthplace of Scouting. Over 40,000 young people camped in August at Hylands Park in Chelmsford, Essex. Hundreds of thousands of day visitors attended events in the south-east of England as part of the Jamboree.
The following Jamboree was held at Rinkaby in Sweden, opening on 27 July 2011, followed in 2015 by Japan, and the Jamboree in 2019 will be at The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve in West Virginia.
Related world-wide events[edit]
JOTA/JOTI 2006 Logo
Jamboree on the Air[edit]
Main article: Jamboree on the Air
Jamboree on the Air, usually referred to as JOTA, is an international Scouting and Guiding activity held annually on the third full weekend in October. The event was first held in conjunction with the fiftieth anniversary of Scouting in 1957, and was devised by radio amateur operator Leslie R. Mitchell who used the callsign G3BHK. It is now considered the largest event organized by the WOSM annually.[8]
Scouts talking on the radio during Jamboree On The Air
Amateur radio operators from all over the world participate with over 500,000 Scouts and Guides to teach them about radio and to assist them to contact their fellow Scouts and Guides by means of amateur radio and since 2004, by the VOIP-based Echolink. Scouts and Guides are also encouraged to send paper or electronic confirmations known as "QSL cards", or "eQSLs" when they are sent electronically. This provides the Scouts and Guides with a means of learning about fellow Scouts and Guides from around the world. It is an adjunct to the World Scout Jamboree.
The event is recognized as one of international participation by the various Scout and Guide organisations, and supports several awards which are a part of Scouting and Guiding programmes.[citation needed]
Jamboree on the Internet[edit]
Main article: Jamboree on the Internet
Scouts at their computers during Jamboree on the Internet
Jamboree on the Internet, known by its acronym JOTI, is an international Scouting activity held annually. Participants, through the use of designated Chats from all over the world, can contact their fellow Scouts by means of the Internet. Common communication methods include ScoutLink (IRC), e-mail, and VOIP. This provides the Scouts with a means of learning about fellow Scouts from around the world. JOTI operates alongside JOTA (Jamboree on the Air) and is an official event of the World Organization of the Scout Movement.
JOTI was pioneered in 1995 by Queanbeyan Rovers whilst one Rover, Norvan Vogt was on a student exchange in the Netherlands, with the home crew in Australia co-ordinated by Brett Sheffield. They connected Putten, Netherlands and Queanbeyan, Australia with dedicated IRC servers.[9] In November 1996 the World Scout Committee, noting that Scouting already had a considerable presence on the Internet, and that there was already an informal and rapidly growing Jamboree on the Internet, decided that JOTI should become an official international Scouting event, and that it should be held on the same weekend as the Jamboree on the Air (JOTA).[citation needed]
JOTI Radio Logo
2011 saw the first ever 'JOTI Radio' station, a broadcast internet radio station based in the UK to provide entertainment for the JOTI weekend, which had live interviews from Scouts all over the world, in its initial year organised by Scout Radio the National Broadcast Radio team for the UK in conjunction with local Scouters who later formed Avon Scout Radio who now run JOTI Radio with the support of Scout Radio. JOTI Radio is now part of the annual JOTA/JOTI weekend.[citation needed]
Jamboree on the Trail[edit]
Main article: Jamboree on the Trail
JOTT 2006 logo
Following on the idea of the Join-in events from the World Jamboree Year, Jamboree on the Trail (or JOTT),[10] is a co-ordinated event where Scouts around the world simultaneously participate in local hikes. It takes place on an annual basis on the 2nd Saturday in May.
This type of event allows Scouts to take part in activities at the same time as other Scouts, promoting the idea of the Scouting brotherhood. Participants are awarded a JOTT badge as a recognition of having participated in this worldwide event.
Smaller events[edit]
There are up to ten smaller Jamboree (or Jamborette) events held each year around the world. This includes Regional Jamborees, which are held every three years in their areas of the world. Scouts from outside these regions are invited, but attendance is generally lower (for example, the EuroJam 2005 event hosted 10,000 Scouts, mostly from Europe).
National associations, and sub-national groups, also organise a number of events, such as the WINGS event and KIJ, which is organised by a County level body.
List of events[edit]
Year[11]
Event
Location
Host Country
Theme/Name
Dates
Attendance
Countries Attended
1920 1st World Scout Jamboree London United Kingdom Develop World Peace[12] 000000001920-07-30-0000July 30, 1920–
000000001920-08-08-0000August 8, 1920[13] 8,000 34
1924 2nd World Scout Jamboree Ermelunden Denmark World Citizenship[12] 000000001924-08-10-0000August 10, 1924–
000000001924-08-17-0000August 17, 1924?[14][15] 4,549 32
1929 3rd World Scout Jamboree Upton, Merseyside United Kingdom Coming of Age 000000001929-07-31-0000July 31, 1929–
000000001929-08-13-0000August 13, 1929[16][17] 30,000[18] 69
1933 4th World Scout Jamboree Gödöllő Hungary Face New Adventures[12] 000000001933-08-02-0000August 2, 1933–
000000001933-08-15-0000August 15, 1933 25,792 33
1937 5th World Scout Jamboree Bloemendaal[19] Netherlands Lead Happy Lives[12] 000000001937-07-31-0000July 31, 1937–
000000001937-08-09-0000August 9, 1937[20][21][22][23] 28,750 54
1947 6th World Scout Jamboree Moisson France Jamboree of Peace 000000001947-08-09-0000August 9, 1947–
000000001947-08-20-0000August 20, 1947[24] 24,152 71
1951 7th World Scout Jamboree Bad Ischl Austria Jamboree of Simplicity 000000001951-08-03-0000August 3, 1951–
000000001951-08-13-0000August 13, 1951[25] 12,884 61
1955 8th World Scout Jamboree Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario Canada New Horizons 000000001955-08-18-0000August 18, 1955–
000000001955-08-28-0000August 28, 1955[26][27] 11,139 71
1957 9th World Scout Jamboree Sutton Park, Warwickshire United Kingdom 50th Anniversary of Scouting 000000001957-08-01-0000August 1, 1957–
000000001957-08-12-0000August 12, 1957[28] 31,426 82
1959 10th World Scout Jamboree Los Baños, Laguna Philippines Building Tomorrow Today 000000001959-07-17-0000July 17, 1959–
000000001959-07-26-0000July 26, 1959[29] 12,203 44
1963 11th World Scout Jamboree Marathon Greece Higher and Wider 000000001963-08-01-0000August 1, 1963–
000000001963-08-11-0000August 11, 1963[30]
11,398 89
1967 12th World Scout Jamboree Farragut State Park, Idaho United States For Friendship 000000001967-08-01-0000August 1, 1967–
000000001967-08-09-0000August 9, 1967[31] 12,011 105
1971 13th World Scout Jamboree Fujinomiya, Shizuoka Japan For Understanding 000000001971-08-02-0000August 2, 1971–
000000001971-08-10-0000August 10, 1971[32] 23,758 87
1975 14th World Scout Jamboree Lillehammer Norway[33] Five Fingers, One Hand 000000001975-07-29-0000July 29, 1975–
000000001975-08-05-0000August 5, 1975[34][35] 17,259 91
1979 (15th World Scout Jamboree) Nishapur Iran 000000001979-07-15-0000July 15, 1979–
000000001979-07-23-0000July 23, 1979[36] cancelled
1983 15th World Scout Jamboree Kananaskis, Alberta Canada The Spirit Lives On 000000001983-07-05-0000July 5, 1983–
000000001983-07-15-0000July 15, 1983[12] 14,752 106
1987–1988 16th World Scout Jamboree Sydney Australia Bringing the World Together 000000001987-12-31-0000December 31, 1987–
000000001988-01-07-0000January 7, 1988 14,434 84
1991 17th World Scout Jamboree Seoraksan National Park South Korea Many Lands, One World 000000001991-08-08-0000August 8, 1991–
000000001991-08-16-0000August 16, 1991[12] 19,083 135
1995 18th World Scout Jamboree Dronten Netherlands Future is Now 000000001995-08-01-0000August 1, 1995–
000000001995-08-11-0000August 11, 1995[12] 28,960 166
1998–1999 19th World Scout Jamboree Picarquín Chile Building Peace Together 000000001998-12-27-0000December 27, 1998–
000000001999-01-06-0000January 6, 1999 31,534 157
2002–2003 20th World Scout Jamboree Sattahip Thailand Share our World, Share our Cultures 000000002002-12-28-0000December 28, 2002–
000000002003-01-08-0000January 8, 2003 24,000 147
2007 21st World Scout Jamboree Chelmsford, Essex United Kingdom One World, One Promise
Scouting Centenary 000000002007-07-28-0000July 28, 2007–
000000002007-08-08-0000August 8, 2007 37,868 155
2011 22nd World Scout Jamboree Kristianstad Sweden Simply Scouting 000000002011-07-27-0000July 27, 2011–
000000002011-08-07-0000August 7, 2011 40,061 146
2015 23rd World Scout Jamboree Kirarahama, Yamaguchi Japan A Spirit of Unity 000000002015-07-28-0000July 28, 2015–
000000002015-08-08-0000August 8, 2015[37] 33,628 155
2019[38] 24th World Scout Jamboree Glen Jean, West Virginia United States[39] Unlock a New World[40] 000000002019-07-22-0000July 22, 2019–
000000002019-08-02-0000August 2, 2019[41]
2023 25th World Scout Jamboree Saemangeum South Korea[42] Draw Your Dream[42]
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to World Scout Jamboree.
World Scout Moot
World Scout Indaba
World Camp (Guiding)
References[edit]
This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (January 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Jump up ^ "23rd World Scout Jamboree". www.23wsj.jp (in Japanese). Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "24th World Scout Jamboree". www.2019wsj.org. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Definition of JAMBOREE". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "the definition of jamboree". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "History of the World Scout Jamboree". www.scout.org. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ ""PROSKOPOS" - 2nd E.P. of Patras - 11th World Jamboree - What is a Jaboree". www.proskopos.com. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "uniforms at boy scout jamborees". histclo.com. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "JOTA-JOTI (Jamboree On The Air - Jamboree On The Internet) is the largest event in world Scouting.". JOTA-JOTI. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ Walker, B: Calling Home, page 4. Queanbeyan Age, 23/10/1995.
Jump up ^ "JOTT - Jamboree on the Trail". JOTT - Jamboree on the Trail. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "History of the World Scout Jamboree". www.scout.org. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Overseas Scout Jamborees (From a South African perspective)
Jump up ^ "Jamboree 1920". www.scoutmuseum.nl. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ Inc, Boy Scouts of America (7 January 2017). "Boys' Life". Boy Scouts of America, Inc. – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ "Jamboree 1924". www.scoutmuseum.nl. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ Hopkins, John Castell (1 January 1930). "The Canadian Annual Review of Public Affairs". Annual Review Publishing Company – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ "Jamboree 1929". www.scoutmuseum.nl. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ Official Photobook 23rd World Scout Jamboree, Japan
Jump up ^ Main camp at Vogelenzang and Sea Scout camp at Bennebroek, now both part of the municipality Bloemendaal
Jump up ^ "Wereldjamboree 1937 in Vogelenzang-Bloemendaal (Opening)". 31 July 1937 – via Internet Archive.
Jump up ^ "Free Visits to Holland". Argus (Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 - 1957). 1937-01-12. p. 4. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Jamboree 1937". www.scoutmuseum.nl. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "De zeeverkenners naar de Kaag". De Gooi- en Eemlander : nieuws- en advertentieblad. 1937-07-30. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Jamboree 1947". www.scoutmuseum.nl. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Jamboree 1951". www.scoutmuseum.nl. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Jamboree 1955". www.scoutmuseum.nl. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "8th World Scout Jamboree 1955". wj55.org. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Jamboree 1957". www.scoutmuseum.nl. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Jamboree 1959". www.scoutmuseum.nl. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Jamboree 1963". www.scoutmuseum.nl. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Jamboree 1967". www.scoutmuseum.nl. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Jamboree 1971 Japan". www.scoutmuseum.nl. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ Co-hosted with Denmark , Finland, Iceland , and Sweden
Jump up ^ Inc, Boy Scouts of America. "Scouting". Boy Scouts of America, Inc. – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ "Jamboree 1975". www.scoutmuseum.nl. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ Inc, Boy Scouts of America (1 October 1978). "Boys' Life". Boy Scouts of America, Inc. – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ "23rd World Scout Jamboree". www.23wsj.jp (in Japanese). Retrieved 2017-07-25.
Jump up ^ Wendell, Bryan (13 January 2011). "The Summit will host the 2019 World Scout Jamboree".
Jump up ^ to be hosted with Canada and Mexico
Jump up ^ Kurzbericht über den Verlauf der 39. World Scout Conference (WSC) in Curitiba (Brasilien) (German)
Jump up ^ Summit Bechtel Reserve (7 August 2015). "2019 World Scout Jamboree" – via YouTube.
^ Jump up to: a b "sae man guem, korea 2023" (in Korean). Retrieved 2017-07-25.
External links[edit]
World Scout Jamboree
Jamboree on the Air and Jamboree on the Internet
Jamboree on the Trail
What we do - World Scout Jamboree
History of the World Scout Jamboree
8th World Scout Jamboree 1955
11th World Scout Jamboree 1963
23rd World Scout Jamboree 2015
24th World Scout Jamboree 2019
Svojsik's Dream - 4th World Scout Jamboree bid by Czechoslovakia (in Czech)
Jamboree on the Air and Jamboree on the Internet
ScoutLink's Website
JOTT's main site
JOTT's UK site
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World Scout Moot
Scouting portal
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Heller School for Social Policy and Management
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Heller School for Social Policy and Management
Motto
"Knowledge Advancing Social Justice"
Type
Private – Research
Established
1959
Parent institution
Brandeis University
Endowment
Total revenues: $31.7 million
Total expenses: $30 million[1]
Dean
David Weil
Academic staff
68
Students
533
Location
Waltham, MA, USA
Campus
Semi-Urban
Affiliations
APSIA - AACSB
Website
www.heller.brandeis.edu
The Heller School for Social Policy and Management is one of the four graduate schools of Brandeis University located in Waltham, Massachusetts, United States.[2] It is consistently ranked as one of the top ten schools of social policy and one of the top 50 graduate schools of public affairs in America since 2013 by the U.S. News and World Report.[3][4]
It is an AACSB[5] and APSIA[6] certified school. The school provides seven academic programs conferring both masters and doctoral degrees. It is also a leading research institution and is the home to 10 institutes and centers focused on both global and domestic social policy issues.[7] Founded in 1959 as the university's first professional school, Heller is located on the Brandeis University main campus along with the Brandeis University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Brandeis International Business School, and the Rabb School of Continuing Studies.[8][9]
Prominent current faculty members at the Heller School include Stuart Altman, Peter Conrad, Anita Hill, Robert Kuttner, and Thomas Shapiro.[10] Former U.S. Secretary of Labor Robert Reich previously taught at the Heller School.[11] World Bank lists the Heller School as one of eight training institutions in the United States approved to host World Bank scholars pursuing graduate degrees.[12] Heller School has strong links with AmeriCorps, Peace Corps, Tufts University and Northeastern University.[13] The school has a cross-registration consortium with Boston College, Boston University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Tufts University.[14] The school currently houses Our Generation Speaks, a fellowship program and startup incubator whose mіѕѕіоn іѕ to bring together young Israeli and Palestinian leaders through entrepreneurship.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Academics
2.1 Faculty
3 Campus
4 Research Centers
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Founded in 1959 as Florence G. Heller Graduate School for Advanced Studies in Social Welfare, it became Brandeis first professional graduate school.[15] The school is named after Florence G. Heller the first female president of the National Jewish Welfare Board. Charles I. Schottland, a former Federal Commissioner on Social Security, was appointed as the first dean of the school.[16] In 1988, Heller faculty members conducted a research study titled, “Support Services in Senior Housing,” that led federal policy makers to enact the National Affordable Housing Act of 1990.[17] In 1998, the 14th Dalai Lama visited Heller and accepted an honorary degree from Brandeis.[18] In 2007, Bill Clinton gave an inaugural lecture at Heller's new building.[19]
Academics[edit]
Heller has 3,700 alumni, with 81% living in the United States and 19% living abroad. As of Fall 2015, it has 533 students with a third of them coming from 65 countries. It has 68 faculty members including 29 scientists and 28 visiting scholars. In 2015, it had $19 million of sponsored research from corporations, foundations, and agencies including from United States Department of Justice, the National Institutes of Health and the World Bank.[20] Heller School is one of three New England schools (along with Harvard Kennedy School and University of Connecticut) to be placed in the U.S. News & World Report’s top 50 graduate schools for public affairs, according to the magazine’s 2016 rankings. The Heller School also lands in the top 10 schools for social policy.[21]
Ph.D in Social Policy
M.B.A. in Nonprofit Management
M.A in Sustainable International development (MA-SID)
M.S in Global Health Policy and Management
M.A in Conflict Resolution and Coexistence
M.A in Public Policy
Joint degree programs:
Heller MBA with Tufts Doctor of Medicine
Heller MBA with Tufts Master of Biomedical Sciences
Heller MA Sustainable International Development with Northeastern School of Law Juris Doctor
Heller MA Sustainable International Development with Northeastern School of Law Master of Laws
Faculty[edit]
Heller has 68 facility members.[22] The key members include, PhD program director Dr. Jeffrey Prottas (PhD, MIT),[23] M.A SID director Dr. Joan Dassin (PhD, Stanford),[24] health policy director Dr. Diana Bowser (PhD, Harvard),[25] MBA program director Brenda Anderson (PhD, Amherst),[26] MPP program director Michael Doonan (PhD, Brandeis),[27] Conflict Resolution Director Alain Lempereur (PhD, Harvard),[28] Director Executive Education Dr. Jon A. Chilingerian (PhD, MIT)[29] and undergraduate program director Darren Zinner (PhD, Harvard).[30] Its current dean is Dr. David Weil (PhD, Harvard)[31] while its dean from 2008 to 2014, Dr. Lisa M. Lynch (PhD, LSE), now serves as the president of Brandeis University.[32]
Campus[edit]
The Heller School is located on the campus of Brandeis University at Waltham, Massachusetts. The building occupied by the school is the Schneider building which was designed by Lewis.Tsurumaki.Lewis (LTL Architects) in 2007. It spread at 30,000 Sf, the building includes a library, media center lecture, and breakout spaces, lounges and study areas, faculty and administrative offices, and an open multi-story public “forum” space.[33]
Research Centers[edit]
Heller School is home to 10 research institutes.[34]
Schneider Institutes for Health Policy
Institute on Healthcare Systems
Institute for Behavioral Health
Institute for Global Health and Development
Institute on Assets and Social Policy
Institute for Child, Youth and Family Policy
Center for Youth and Communities
Lurie Institute for Disability Policy
Sillerman Center for the Advancement of Philanthropy
Center for Global Development and Sustainability
References[edit]
Jump up ^ FINANCIAL PROFILE (FY 2015)
Jump up ^ Brandeis University - Academics
Jump up ^ The Heller School For Social Policy and Management - An Overview
Jump up ^ "Heller ranked among nation's top graduate schools for social policy and public affairs | The Heller School at Brandeis University". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-17.
Jump up ^ "AACSB DataDirect - General". datadirect.aacsb.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ APSIA. "Brandeis University • APSIA". www.apsia.org. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "The Heller School". Retrieved 2016-02-20.
Jump up ^ Brandeis University - About Heller
Jump up ^ The Heller School Academic Programs - Ph.D., M.A., M.S., M.B.A. and Executive Leadership
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ [2]
Jump up ^ JJ/WBGS Program - Countries (A - Z) of Universities to Study: 2008-2009
Jump up ^ "Brandeis University Heller School for Social Policy and Management". Corporation for National and Community Service. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
Jump up ^ "Boston Area Graduate Consortium | Brandeis University". www.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
Jump up ^ "Heller's History | The Heller School at Brandeis University". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Charles Irwin Schottland | Past Presidents | Office of the President | Brandeis University". www.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "42 U.S. Code § 12703 - Purposes of Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act". LII / Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ Lama, The Office of His Holiness the 14th Dalai. "Award & Honors: 1957 - 1999 | The Office of His Holiness The Dalai Lama". www.dalailama.com. Archived from the original on 2014-02-14. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "Former President Bill Clinton Charges Brandeis Crowd to Become "Social Entrepreneurs" | The Heller School at Brandeis University". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "About the Heller School | The Heller School at Brandeis University". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-17.
Jump up ^ "Heller ranked among nation's top graduate schools for social policy and public affairs | The Heller School at Brandeis University". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-17.
Jump up ^ "Faculty and Researchers | The Heller School for Social Policy and Management at Brandeis". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "The Heller School Faculty and Researchers | Jeffrey Prottas". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "The Heller School Faculty and Researchers | Joan Dassin". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "The Heller School Faculty and Researchers | Diana Bowser". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "The Heller School Faculty and Researchers | Brenda Anderson". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "The Heller School Faculty and Researchers | Michael Doonan". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "The Heller School Faculty and Researchers | Alain Lempereur". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "The Heller School Faculty and Researchers | Jon Chilingerian". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "The Heller School Faculty and Researchers | Darren E. Zinner". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "The Heller School Faculty and Researchers | David Weil". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "Lisa M. Lynch Biography | Office of the President | Brandeis University". www.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "Heller School | Brandeis University". LLT Architects. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
Jump up ^ "Graduate School for Social Policy and Management | The Heller School at Brandeis University". heller.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
External links[edit]
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text:
List of towns and cities with 100,000 or more inhabitants/cityname: D
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This is a list of towns and cities in the world believed to have 100,000 or more inhabitants, as of 2006.
Index
By country name: A-B • C • D-E-F • G-H-I-J-K • L-M-N-O • P-Q-R-S • T-U-V-W • X-Y-Z
By city name: A • B • C-Ç • D • E • F • G • H • I-İ • J • K • L • M • N • O-Ö • P • Q • R • S-Ş • T • U-Ü • V • W • X • Y • Z
Dakar, Senegal
Dallas, Texas, United States
Damascus, Syria
Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania
Darwin, Australia
Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia
Denver, Colorado, United States
Depok, West Java, Indonesia
Detroit, Michigan, United States
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Dili, Timor-Leste
Djibouti City, Djibouti
Dnipro, Ukraine
Doha, Qatar
Dongguan, China
Dortmund is one of the least stressful cities in the world. Germany
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Dublin, Ireland
Dushanbe, Tajikistan
Düsseldorf, Germany
List of cities beginning with letter D[edit]
City
Country
Da Nang Vietnam
Dabgram India
Dąbrowa Górnicza Poland
Dadu Pakistan
Daegu South Korea
Daejeon South Korea
Dagupan Philippines
Daitō Japan
Dakar Senegal
Da Lat Vietnam
Dali China
Dalian China
Dallas United States
Daloa Ivory Coast
Daly City United States
Damanhur Egypt
Damascus Syria
Dammam Saudi Arabia
Damoh India
Danao City Philippines
Dandong China
Dangyang China
Danjiangkou China
Danyang China
Daqing China
Dar Es Salaam Tanzania
Daraga Philippines
Darbhanga India
Darlington United Kingdom
Darmstadt Germany
Darwin Australia
Daska Pakistan
Dasmariñas Philippines
Daşoguz Turkmenistan
Datong China
Daugavpils Latvia
Davangere India
Davao City Philippines
Dayton United States
Dazhou China
Debrecen Hungary
Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia Sri Lanka
Dehradun India
Deir ez Zor Syria
Delhi India
Delmas Haiti
Dengzhou China
Denizli Turkey
Denpasar Indonesia
Denver United States
Depok Indonesia
Dera Ghazi Khan Pakistan
Derbent Russia
Derby United Kingdom
Derince Turkey
Des Moines United States
Dessie Ethiopia
Detroit United States
Dewas India
Deyang China
Dezful Iran
Dezhou China
Dhaka Bangladesh
Dhanbad India
Dhule India
Diadema Brazil
Diaobingshan China
Dibrugarh India
Digos City Philippines
Dijon France
Dili Timor-Leste
Dimitrovgrad Russia
Dinajpur Bangladesh
Dindigul India
Dingzhou China
Dipolog City Philippines
Dire Dawa Ethiopia
Divinópolis Brazil
Diwaniyah Iraq
Diyarbakır Turkey
Djelfa Algeria
Djibouti Djibouti
Dnipro Ukraine
Doboj Bosnia and Herzegovina
Dobrich Bulgaria
Dodoma Tanzania
Doha Qatar
Donetsk Ukraine
Dongchuan China
Dongguan China
Dongtai China
Dongyang China
Dongying China
Dordrecht Netherlands
Dortmund Germany
Dos Quebradas Colombia
Douala Cameroon
Dourados Brazil
Dombivli India
Downey United States
Dresden Germany
Drobeta-Turnu Severin Romania
Dubai United Arab Emirates
Dublin Ireland
Dudley United Kingdom
Duisburg Germany
Duitama Colombia
Dujiangyan China
Dumaguete City Philippines
Dundee United Kingdom
Dunedin New Zealand
Dunhua China
Dunhuang China
Dunkerque France
Duque de Caxias Brazil
Durango Mexico
Durban South Africa
Durg India
Durgapur India
Durham United States
Durrës Albania
Dushanbe Tajikistan
Duyun China
Düsseldorf Germany
Dzerzhinsk Russia
Davenport United States
See also[edit]
World largest cities
References[edit]
Population of capital cities and cities of 100,000 and more inhabitants United Nations Statistics Division, accessed 24 August 2006
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/cityname:_D&oldid=831025400"
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History of Fox News
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2017)
The Fox News Channel (FNC) is an American basic cable and satellite news television channel that was founded by media mogul Rupert Murdoch in 1996. Murdoch appointed Roger Ailes as permanent CEO of the news operation. FNC (along with MSNBC) was created as an alternative to CNN. In January 2002, the ratings of the channel surpassed top-rated CNN to become the #1 news cable channel. The network has since maintained its #1 cable rating, with increasing viewership and international access helping it become a subject of controversy.
Contents
1 Through second term of Bill Clinton (1996–2000)
1.1 The Edge
1.2 The O'Reilly Factor
1.3 Your World with Neil Cavuto
1.4 Hannity & Colmes
1.5 Fox Magazine
1.6 Fox & Friends
1.7 Drudge
2 Through first term of George W. Bush (2001–2004)
3 Through second term of George W. Bush (2005-2009)
4 Through the Barack Obama administration (2009-2017)
4.1 Obama administration conflict with Fox News
5 Through first term of Donald Trump (2017-present)
6 Sexual harassment scandals
6.1 Roger Ailes resignation
6.2 Firing of Bill O'Reilly
7 References
Through second term of Bill Clinton (1996–2000)[edit]
The channel was created by Australian-born American media mogul Rupert Murdoch, who hired Roger Ailes as its founding CEO. The channel was launched on October 7, 1996[1] to 17 million cable subscribers. Prior to founding Fox News, Murdoch had gained significant experience in the 24-hour news business when News Corporation's BSkyB subsidiary started Europe's first 24-hour news channel, Sky News, in the United Kingdom in 1989.[2] With the success of his fourth network efforts in the United States,[3][4] experience gained from Sky News, and turnaround of 20th Century Fox, Murdoch announced on January 31, 1996, that his company would be launching a 24-hour news channel to air on both cable and satellite systems as part of a News Corp. "worldwide platform" for Fox programming, reasoning that "The appetite for news – particularly news that explains to people how it affects them – is expanding enormously."[5]
Exterior of the Fox News Channel studios in New York City
In February 1996, after former NBC executive and Republican political strategist[6] Roger Ailes left America's Talking (now MSNBC), Murdoch called him to start the Fox News Channel. Ailes worked individuals through five months of 14-hour workdays and several weeks of rehearsal shows before launch, on October 7, 1996.[7]
At launch, only 10 million households were able to watch Fox News, with none in the major media markets of New York City and Los Angeles. According to published reports, many media reviewers had to watch the first day's programming at Fox News' studios because it was not readily available. The rolling news coverage during the day consisted of 20-minute single topic shows like Fox on Crime or Fox on Politics surrounded by news headlines. Interviews had various facts at the bottom of the screen about the topic or the guest.
In the 2000 presidential election, Fox News, which was available in 56 million homes nationwide, saw a staggering 440% increase in viewers, the biggest gain among the three cable news television networks.[8]
The Edge[edit]
Hosted by Paula Zahn, The Edge was one of the original programs on the network, focusing on talk between the host and newsmakers, like other programs on the network at the time. During the program's later years, John Gibson became host when the network discovered Zahn was in the midst of contract negotiations with CNN. The show was cancelled in 2002.
The O'Reilly Factor[edit]
On October 7, 1996, The O'Reilly Report aired its first episode, hosted by Bill O'Reilly. It was later renamed because of a suggestion by a friend. The O'Reilly Factor, unlike many other Fox News programs, is pre-recorded, or "live-to-tape," except when covering breaking news or special events. Some guests are interviewed before the "live-to-tape" period and are slotted in the program as appropriate. O'Reilly's producers have said that video editing takes place only when an interview exceeds the available length in a program, of which the total is 43 minutes (for an hour-long slot, once commercials and news breaks are added), though some critics have suggested that interviews are sometimes edited after taping to suit O'Reilly's agenda.[9][10]
O'Reilly and his producers discuss potential topics twice a week.[11] A producer will research the story and book guests for O'Reilly, and an information packet will be produced with possible angles for O'Reilly to explore. The producers will often "pre-interview" the guest so that they know what potential points he or she might make.[12] For each show, O'Reilly, with the assistance of his staff, will produce a script with the words for the "Talking Points Memo" and "Most Ridiculous Item of the Day" segments, and points of discussion and questions for the guests that will appear on the program. On February 2, 2009, the show began airing in high definition and moved to the previous set used by the Fox Report.
Your World with Neil Cavuto[edit]
Debuting as the Cavuto Business Report on the network's launch in 1996, Your World with Neil Cavuto has become a very popular show, hosted by fiscal conservative reporter and commentator Neil Cavuto. The program covers the latest business news stories of the day, in addition to giving analysis on how the stock market moved through the day. It also covers political stories, such as how political actions may affect the markets, in addition to analysis of the markets by a group of analysts from one of the Cost of Freedom business block programs. Closing the program, the show has a commentary segment called "Common Sense," in which Neil gives his point of view on a news story of the day. The program is broadcast live weekdays at 4 p.m. ET.
Hannity & Colmes[edit]
FNC's Studio D for Your World and Hannity & Colmes
Hannity & Colmes was an American television show on Fox News Channel, hosted by Sean Hannity[13] and Alan Colmes,[14] who respectively presented a conservative and liberal perspective. The series premiered in October 1996, and the final episode aired on January 9, 2009. It was the precursor to the current Hannity series, which currently airs in the same timeslot.
Fox Magazine[edit]
Fox Magazine was launched in 1997 as a weekly newsmagazine on the Fox News Channel. Hosted by Laurie Dhue, the program was a weekly in-depth look into some of the previous week's stories, in addition to special series produced by the program itself, such as its constant series about Nashville. Included in the programming were a recap of the previous week's commentaries from a number of the network's commentators. The program would come to an end on September 11, 2005, with Dhue leaving the network to work on Geraldo at Large.
Fox & Friends[edit]
Fox & Friends is a morning news show that debuted in 1998. It is currently hosted by Ainsley Earhardt, Steve Doocy, and Brian Kilmeade during the week. Weekends are hosted by Abby H, Clayton Morris and Tucker Carlson.
Drudge[edit]
Drudge was a television series on Fox News Channel that was hosted by Matt Drudge. Drudge left the show in 1999 after network executives refused to let him show a picture of Samuel Armas.[15]
Through first term of George W. Bush (2001–2004)[edit]
Following Al Gore's loss in the 2000 election, many critics have said that Fox News was against their campaign. Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott was clearly a fan of Fox News Channel. Some Democrats say Fox was "an avowed enemy of the Gore campaign," as Al Gore spokesman Mark Fabiani told The New York Times. Such comments reinforce the perception of Rupert Murdoch's network as a conservative bastion – an image that Fox News President Roger Ailes insists is not the case. One reason for Fox's right-leaning reputation early on was its prime-time talk lineup. As even some network insiders acknowledge, the chat consistently tilts to the conservative side.[16]
When George W. Bush took office, there was a change in the West Wing; television sets that were almost always tuned to CNN during the Clinton years were now on Fox News Channel, whose political talk shows are dominated by conservative commentators. And after eight years of feeling frozen out, reporters from news outlets with conservative programming are winning a much friendlier reception from Bush and his aides. The shift started on the campaign trail. Bush's audiences occasionally booed CNN reporter Candy Crowley and held up signs slamming the "Clinton News Network." Sometimes they cheered Carl Cameron of Fox News. "It was flattering and unsettling. It suggested a perception that I would often disabuse people of." Fox News reporters warmly received on the campaign trail are getting more access to top aides. It's part of a strategy to get more coverage – and more positive coverage – by spending time with right-leaning and outside-the-Washington-beltway journalists. In the Clinton White House, press secretaries were sometimes dismissive of reporters from conservative newspapers and stations – or they ignored them.[17]
Through second term of George W. Bush (2005-2009)[edit]
Through the Barack Obama administration (2009-2017)[edit]
Obama administration conflict with Fox News[edit]
Through first term of Donald Trump (2017-present)[edit]
Sexual harassment scandals[edit]
Roger Ailes resignation[edit]
Firing of Bill O'Reilly[edit]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ American Public Media: News Archive for October 7, 1996 Archived November 23, 2010, at WebCite
Jump up ^ Shah, Saeed. (September 24, 2002) The Independent Business Analysis: Unstoppable Sky machine rolls on as ITV troubles worsen Dawn Airey's free-to-air television experience will be invaluable to BSkyB as it moves beyond its pay-TV model. Section: Business; Page 21.
Jump up ^ Schulberg, Pete. (July 15, 1994) The Oregonian Fox is a business, if not artistic, success. Section: Television; Page E1.
Jump up ^ Braxton, Greg. (April 6, 1997) Chicago Sun-Times How Fox broke from the pack to become cutting-edge network.
Jump up ^ Williams, Scott. (January 31, 1996) Associated Press Murdoch taps Ailes for new network; Former CNBC chief set to direct 24-hour news channel, take on CNN.
Jump up ^ Mifflin, Lawrie (October 7, 1996). "At the new Fox News Channel, the buzzword is fairness, separating news from bias". The New York Times. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
Jump up ^ "News Corporation: FOX News Channel". News Corporation. 2008-04-18. Archived from the original on 2010-11-23. Retrieved 2008-04-21.
Jump up ^ "Election gave cable news a wild ratings ride, but now it needs an encore.(Chicago Tribune)". Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service. December 19, 2000.
Jump up ^ "Greenroom Confessions - Boise weekly". 2005.
Jump up ^ "Bill O'Reilly.com behind the scenes Q/A".
Jump up ^ "Bostonia - BU alumni quarterly". 2001.
Jump up ^ "Accuracy in media report". 2003.
Jump up ^ "Sean Hannity Bio". FoxNews.com. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
Jump up ^ Alan Colmes' Bio, FoxNews.com October 10, 2002
Jump up ^ "The Going Gets Tough, and Matt Drudge Gets Going". The Washington Post. November 15, 1999. Retrieved 2012-06-07.
Jump up ^ Kurtz, Howard (February 5, 2001). "Doing Something Right; Fox News Sees Ratings Soar, Critics Sore". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on February 5, 2001. Retrieved June 19, 2011. Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott is clearly a fan of Fox News Channel.
Jump up ^ "Bush, aides boost access of conservative media". USA Today. March 22, 2001. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
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Inner core
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the cores of other planetary bodies, see Planetary core.
For a broader coverage related to this topic, see Earth core.
The internal structure of Earth
The Earth's inner core is the Earth's innermost part. It is primarily a solid ball with a radius of about 1,220 kilometres (760 miles), which is about 70% of the Moon's radius.[1][2] It is composed of an iron–nickel alloy and some light elements. The temperature at the inner core boundary is approximately 5700 K (5400 °C).[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Discovery
2 Composition
3 Temperature and pressure
4 Dynamics
5 History
6 See also
7 References
Discovery[edit]
The Earth was discovered to have a solid inner core distinct from its liquid outer core in 1936, by the Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann,[4] who deduced its presence by studying seismograms from earthquakes in New Zealand. She observed that the seismic waves reflect off the boundary of the inner core and can be detected by sensitive seismographs on the Earth's surface. This boundary is known as the Bullen discontinuity,[5] or sometimes as the Lehmann discontinuity.[6] A few years later, in 1940, it was hypothesized that this inner core was made of solid iron; its rigidity was confirmed in 1971.[7]
The outer core was determined to be liquid from observations showing that compressional waves pass through it, but elastic shear waves do not – or do so only very weakly.[8] The solidity of the inner core had been difficult to establish because the elastic shear waves that are expected to pass through a solid mass are very weak and difficult for seismographs on the Earth's surface to detect, since they become so attenuated on their way from the inner core to the surface by their passage through the liquid outer core. Dziewonski and Gilbert established that measurements of normal modes of vibration of Earth caused by large earthquakes were consistent with a liquid outer core.[9] It has recently been claimed that shear waves have been detected passing through the inner core; these claims were initially controversial, but are now gaining acceptance.[10]
Composition[edit]
Based on the relative prevalence of various chemical elements in the Solar System, the theory of planetary formation, and constraints imposed or implied by the chemistry of the rest of the Earth's volume, the inner core is believed to consist primarily of a nickel-iron alloy. Pure iron was found to be denser than the core by approximately 3%, implying the presence of light elements in the core (e.g. silicon, oxygen, sulfur) in addition to the probable presence of nickel.[11]
Further, if the primordial and mostly fluid (still forming) earth contained any significant mass(es) of elements denser than iron and nickel, namely the white (appearance) precious metals (and a few others) except silver, specifically the siderophile elements then these would necessarily have differentiated to the very center of the core into concentric nested spheres by Planetary differentiation. The most dense (and stable, i.e. platinum, iridium, and osmium, (etc.) in order of density) of these forming the innermost spheroid(s).[12] While unstable elements of such trans-iron/nickel density would have mostly decayed to iron/nickel/lead by the time the earth formed a discrete core.
See also: Densities of the elements (data page)
It then necessarily follows that all, or almost all, of these denser elements we have mined (or are even able to) at the surface (or near surface, or even at all "above" the core) have been delivered later as part of impact objects/masses.[13]
Temperature and pressure[edit]
The temperature of the inner core can be estimated by considering both the theoretical and the experimentally demonstrated constraints on the melting temperature of impure iron at the pressure which iron is under at the boundary of the inner core (about 330 GPa). These considerations suggest that its temperature is about 5,700 K (5,400 °C; 9,800 °F).[3] The pressure in the Earth's inner core is slightly higher than it is at the boundary between the outer and inner cores: it ranges from about 330 to 360 gigapascals (3,300,000 to 3,600,000 atm).[14] Iron can be solid at such high temperatures only because its melting temperature increases dramatically at pressures of that magnitude (see the Clausius–Clapeyron relation).[15]
A report published in the journal Science [16] concludes that the melting temperature of iron at the inner core boundary is 6230 ± 500 K, roughly 1000 K higher than previous estimates.
Dynamics[edit]
The Earth's inner core is thought to be slowly growing as the liquid outer core at the boundary with the inner core cools and solidifies due to the gradual cooling of the Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years).[17] Many scientists had initially expected that the inner core would be found to be homogeneous, because the solid inner core was originally formed by a gradual cooling of molten material, and continues to grow as a result of that same process. Even though it is growing into liquid, it is solid, due to the very high pressure that keeps it compacted together even if the temperature is extremely high. It was even suggested that Earth's inner core might be a single crystal of iron.[18] However, this prediction was disproved by observations indicating that in fact there is a degree of disorder within the inner core.[19] Seismologists have found that the inner core is not completely uniform, but instead contains large-scale structures such that seismic waves pass more rapidly through some parts of the inner core than through others.[20] In addition, the properties of the inner core's surface vary from place to place across distances as small as 1 km. This variation is surprising, since lateral temperature variations along the inner-core boundary are known to be extremely small (this conclusion is confidently constrained by magnetic field observations). Recent discoveries suggest that the solid inner core itself is composed of layers, separated by a transition zone about 250 to 400 km thick.[21] If the inner core grows by small frozen sediments falling onto its surface, then some liquid can also be trapped in the pore spaces and some of this residual fluid may still persist to some small degree in much of its interior.
Because the inner core is not rigidly connected to the Earth's solid mantle, the possibility that it rotates slightly faster or slower than the rest of Earth has long been entertained.[22][23] In the 1990s, seismologists made various claims about detecting this kind of super-rotation by observing changes in the characteristics of seismic waves passing through the inner core over several decades, using the aforementioned property that it transmits waves faster in some directions. Estimates of this super-rotation are around one degree of extra rotation per year.
Growth of the inner core is thought to play an important role in the generation of Earth's magnetic field by dynamo action in the liquid outer core. This occurs mostly because it cannot dissolve the same amount of light elements as the outer core and therefore freezing at the inner core boundary produces a residual liquid that contains more light elements than the overlying liquid. This causes it to become buoyant and helps drive convection of the outer core.[citation needed] The existence of the inner core also changes the dynamic motions of liquid in the outer core as it grows and may help fix the magnetic field since it is expected to be a great deal more resistant to flow than the outer core liquid (which is expected to be turbulent).[citation needed]
Speculation also continues that the inner core might have exhibited a variety of internal deformation patterns. This may be necessary to explain why seismic waves pass more rapidly in some directions than in others.[24] Because thermal convection alone appears to be improbable,[25] any buoyant convection motions will have to be driven by variations in composition or abundance of liquid in its interior. S. Yoshida and colleagues proposed a novel mechanism whereby deformation of the inner core can be caused by a higher rate of freezing at the equator than at polar latitudes,[26] and S. Karato proposed that changes in the magnetic field might also deform the inner core slowly over time.[27]
There is an East–West asymmetry in the inner core seismological data. There is a model which explains this by differences at the surface of the inner core – melting in one hemisphere and crystallization in the other.[28] the western hemisphere of the inner core may be crystallizing, whereas the eastern hemisphere may be melting. This may lead to enhanced magnetic field generation in the crystallizing hemisphere, creating the asymmetry in the Earth's magnetic field.[29]
History[edit]
Main article: History of the Earth
Based on rates of cooling of the core, it is estimated that the current solid inner core started solidifying approximately 0.5 to 2 billion years ago[30] out of a fully molten core (which formed just after planetary formation). If true, this would mean that the Earth's solid inner core is not a primordial feature that was present during the planet's formation, but a feature younger than the Earth (the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old).
See also[edit]
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Structure of the Earth
Geodynamics
Iron meteorite
Structure of the Earth
Travel to the Earth's center
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Monnereau, Marc; Calvet, Marie; Margerin, Ludovic; Souriau, Annie (May 21, 2010). "Lopsided Growth of Earth's Inner Core". Science. 328 (5981): 1014–1017. Bibcode:2010Sci...328.1014M. PMID 20395477. doi:10.1126/science.1186212
Jump up ^ E. R. Engdahl; E. A. Flynn & R. P. Massé (1974). "Differential PkiKP travel times and the radius of the core". Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc. 40 (3): 457–463. Bibcode:1974GeoJI..39..457E. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1974.tb05467.x.
^ Jump up to: a b D. Alfè; M. Gillan & G. D. Price (January 30, 2002). "Composition and temperature of the Earth's core constrained by combining ab initio calculations and seismic data" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Elsevier. 195 (1–2): 91–98. Bibcode:2002E&PSL.195...91A. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00568-4.
Jump up ^ Edmond A. Mathez, ed. (2000). EARTH: INSIDE AND OUT. American Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on 2008-04-30.
Jump up ^ John C. Butler (1995). "Class Notes – The Earth's Interior". Physical Geology Grade Book. University of Houston. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Although another discontinuity is named after Lehmann, this usage still can be found: see for example: Robert E Krebs (2003). The basics of earth science. Greenwood Publishing Company. ISBN 0-313-31930-8. ,and From here to "hell," or the D layer, About.com
Jump up ^ Hung Kan Lee (2002). International handbook of earthquake and engineering seismology; volume 1. Academic Press. p. 926. ISBN 0-12-440652-1.
Jump up ^ William J. Cromie (1996-08-15). "Putting a New Spin on Earth's Core". Harvard Gazette. Retrieved 2007-05-22.
Jump up ^ A. M. Dziewonski; F. Gilbert (1971-12-24). "Solidity of the Inner Core of the Earth inferred from Normal Mode Observations". Nature. 234 (5330): 465–466. Bibcode:1971Natur.234..465D. doi:10.1038/234465a0.
Jump up ^ Robert Roy Britt (2005-04-14). "Finally, a Solid Look at Earth's Core". Retrieved 2007-05-22.
Jump up ^ Stixrude, Lars; Wasserman, Evgeny; Cohen, Ronald E. (1997-11-10). "Composition and temperature of Earth's inner core". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 102 (B11): 24729–24739. ISSN 2156-2202. doi:10.1029/97JB02125.
Jump up ^ "core – National Geographic Society".
Jump up ^ "Earth’s Precious Metals Could Be From Meteorites and Asteroids".
Jump up ^ David. R. Lide, ed. (2006–2007). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87th ed.). pp. j14–13.
Jump up ^ Anneli Aitta (2006-12-01). "Iron melting curve with a tricritical point". Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment. iop. 2006 (12): 12015–12030. Bibcode:2006JSMTE..12..015A. arXiv:cond-mat/0701283  . doi:10.1088/1742-5468/2006/12/P12015. or see preprints http://arxiv.org/pdf/cond-mat/0701283 , http://arxiv.org/pdf/0807.0187 .
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[hide]
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Structure of the Earth
Shells
Crust
Lithosphere
Mesosphere
Mantle
Asthenosphere
Lithospheric mantle
Subcontinental lithospheric mantle
Oceanic lithospheric mantle
Outer core
Inner core
Discontinuities
Conrad (continental crust)
Mohorovičić (crust–mantle)
Lehmann (upper mantle)
Gutenberg (mantle–core)
Lehmann (core)
Arguments
Plate tectonics
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