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Effects of the Cold War
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The Cold War had many effects on society, both today and in the past. In Russia, military spending was cut dramatically and quickly. The effects of this were very large, seeing as the military-industrial sector had previously employed one of every five Soviet adults[1] and its dismantling left hundreds of millions throughout the former Soviet Union unemployed.[1]
After Russia embarked on capitalist economic reforms in the 1990s, it suffered a financial crisis and a recession more severe than the United States and Germany had experienced during the Great Depression.[2] Russian living standards have worsened overall in the post–Cold War years, although the economy has resumed growth since 1995.[2]
The legacy of the Cold War continues to influence world affairs.[3][4] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the post–Cold War world is widely considered as unipolar, with the United States the sole remaining superpower.[5][6][7] The Cold War defined the political role of the United States in the post–World War II world: by 1989 the United States held military alliances with 50 countries, and had 1.5 million troops posted abroad in 117 countries.[8] The Cold War also institutionalized a global commitment to huge, permanent peacetime military-industrial complexes and large-scale military funding of science.[8]
Military expenditures by the US during the Cold War years were estimated to have been $8 trillion, while nearly 100,000 Americans lost their lives in the Korean War and Vietnam War.[9] Although the loss of life among Soviet soldiers is difficult to estimate, as a share of their gross national product the financial cost for the Soviet Union was far higher than that of the United States.[10]
In addition to the loss of life by uniformed soldiers, millions died in the superpowers' proxy wars around the globe, most notably in Southeast Asia.[11] Most of the proxy wars and subsidies for local conflicts ended along with the Cold War; the incidence of interstate wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, as well as refugee and displaced persons crises has declined sharply in the post–Cold War years.[12]
The legacy of Cold War conflict, however, is not always easily erased, as many of the economic and social tensions that were exploited to fuel Cold War competition in parts of the Third World remain acute.[3] The breakdown of state control in a number of areas formerly ruled by Communist governments has produced new civil and ethnic conflicts, particularly in the former Yugoslavia.[3] In Eastern Europe, the end of the Cold War has ushered in an era of economic growth and a large increase in the number of liberal democracies, while in other parts of the world, such as Afghanistan, independence was accompanied by state failure.[3]
Many nuclear legacies can be identified from the Cold War, such as the availability of new technologies for nuclear power and energy, and the use of radiation for improving medical treatment and health. Environmental remediation, industrial production, research science, and technology development have all benefited from the carefully managed application of radiation and other nuclear processes.
On the other hand, despite the end of the Cold War, military development and spending has continued, particularly in the deployment of nuclear-armed ballistic missiles and defensive systems.
Because there was no formalized treaty ending the Cold War, the former superpowers have continued to various degrees to maintain and even improve or modify existing nuclear weapons and delivery systems. Moreover, other nations not previously acknowledged as nuclear-weapons states have developed and tested nuclear-explosive devices.
The risk of nuclear and radiological terrorism by possible sub-national organizations or individuals is now a concern.
The international nonproliferation regime inherited from the Cold War still provides disincentives and safeguards against national or sub-national access to nuclear materials and facilities. Formal and informal measures and processes have effectively slowed national incentives and the tempo of international nuclear-weapons proliferation.
Numerous and beneficial uses of nuclear energy have evolved such as the use of nuclear energy to create electricity. Commercial nuclear-reactor operation and construction have persisted, with some notable increase in worldwide energy production. The management of nuclear waste remains somewhat unresolved, depending very much on government policies. However, the quantity of waste produced from nuclear power plants is relatively small, and nuclear waste has been proven to be recyclable. Several countries, including France, Japan, and Finland, currently reprocess nuclear waste.[13]
As nuclear weapons are becoming surplus to national military interests, they are slowly being dismantled, and in some cases their fissile material is being recycled to fuel civilian nuclear-reactors.
Contents
[hide]
1 Radiation legacies
2 Security legacies
3 Military legacies
4 Institutional legacies
5 Economic legacies
6 Footnotes
7 References
Radiation legacies[edit]
Because of the military and non-military exploitation of nuclear fission, the Cold War brought forth some significant involuntary exposures to high-level radiation. The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki caused large-scale destruction through intense blast and fire, as well as acute and lingering radiation. Moreover, as a result of decades of nuclear-weapons production, experimentation, and testing, exposure to radiation above normal background levels occurred to scientists, technicians, military personnel, civilians, and animals. Several significant radiation-related accidents occurred at military and civilian nuclear reactors and facilities, causing direct fatalities, as well as involuntary occupational and public exposures.
Because numerous diagnostic and epidemiological studies have since been conducted, the medical effects of radiation exposure are now better understood than they were during the Cold War. Comparatively large and involuntary doses and effects from radiation, chemical, and biological agents have been documented. Some exposures were from deliberate human medical experiments and some from residues of highly toxic materials at contaminated sites.
While the nuclear facilities and residual products of the Cold War are mostly contained within secure boundaries, that is not necessarily the case for nuclear-propelled submarines that have been sunk at sea.[citation needed]
Security legacies[edit]
Because of potential risk to national and international security, nuclear-weapons states have inherited substantial responsibilities in protecting and stabilizing their nuclear forces.
Not only must nuclear weapons and their delivery systems be secured and protected, other nuclear facilities and devices, such as reactors and propulsion systems, must be safeguarded. An appropriate continuing level of security is necessary through all life-cycle phases, from production to decommissioning. In addition, the entire military nuclear infrastructure requires protection, and that requires a commensurate allocation of funding.
Having once had widespread overseas nuclear bases and facilities, both the United States and the former Soviet Union have inherited particular responsibilities and costs. Moreover, all nuclear-weapons states had developed not only production and servicing facilities, but also sometimes extensive military staging and storage.
Although the Cold War has ended, domestic basing and overseas deployment of nuclear weapons has not ended. Moreover, the nuclear-weapon states remain in various reduced but palpable conditions of defensive alert.
Risks of deliberate, accidental, or unauthorized nuclear devastation remain. Moreover, terrorists and hackers continue to interfere with nuclear stability and confidence.[citation needed]
World inventories of weapons-grade fissile materials are substantial,[citation needed] much greater than now needed for military purposes. Until these materials can be demilitarized, they need to be security safeguarded. Many production facilities are yet to be shut down.
In the meantime, sensitive materials have to be safely and securely stored, pending their conversion to non-military use. In particular, the successor states of the former Soviet Union were generally not in a position to finance and maintain secure safeguards when the Cold War came to such an unprepared and relatively sudden end.
National security and defense for nuclear-weapons states must be frequently reevaluated. The international arms-control treaty and verification regime inherited from the Cold War is only slowly being updated to reflect the realities of a broken international security environment.
Military legacies[edit]
Internal national-security military postures still dominate behavior among sovereign nations. The former superpowers have not formally consummated their stand-down from Cold War military equipoise.
Strategic and tactical nuclear and conventional forces remain at levels comparatively high for a peacetime environment. Localized conflicts and tensions have replaced the former bilateral nuclear confrontation.
As a lingering result, large inventories of nuclear weapons and facilities remain. Some are being recycled, dismantled, or recovered as valuable substances. As well, some chemical and biological weapons that were developed during the Cold War are still in existence, although many are being demilitarized.
Military policies and strategies are slowly being modified to reflect the increasing interval without major confrontation.
Because of large extant inventories of weapons, fissile materials, and rapid-response delivery systems, a mutual danger coexists for accidental, misjudged, or miscalculated incidents or warfare.
Other Cold War weapons states, are slowly reducing their arsenals. In the meantime, they have not abandoned their dependency on nuclear deterrence, while a few more nations have attempted or succeeded in carrying out nuclear-explosive tests and thus creating their own nuclear deterrence.
During the Cold War, an international fabric of arms-control constraint had evolved, much of it carried over as a beneficial heritage with institutional mechanisms for multilateral or international function and verification.
Institutional legacies[edit]
Aside from tangible measures of national defense, such as standing military and security forces and hardware, are various institutional structures of government and functionality that have less to do directly with military or security factors, but more to do with underlying public attitudes and risks. These institutional structures and perceptions have had their own challenges and adjustments after the Cold War.
Strong impressions were made and continue to affect national psyche as a result of close brushes with all-out nuclear warfare. In some cases this had resulted in aversion to warfare, in other cases to callousness regarding nuclear threats. Peaceful applications of nuclear energy received a stigma still difficult to exorcize.
Heightened fear of nuclear risk can result in resistance to military draw down. What at one time was fastidious attention regarding nuclear security, secrecy, and safety could deteriorate to lax attitudes.
Public impressions and insecurities gained during the Cold War could carry over to the peacetime environment.[4] Continuing support for the weapons establishment depends on public support despite diminished threats to national security. Agencies and departments created during a time of crisis no longer need to fill the same role.
In fact, these same institutional structures can be modified to carry out knowledgeable new missions associated with the cleanup and storage of highly dangerous and toxic materials. Some materials can be converted to non-military uses. Others need to be secured and safely stored almost indefinitely.
Also, misunderstandings that were prominent during the Cold War now need clarification so that closure can be reached, especially about the ability to demilitarize and peacefully use nuclear materials.
Underhanded practices in the name of national security are no longer countenanced. The existence of many third-world insurgencies and interventions is now being uncovered as the former cloak of secrecy unveils or their perpetrators confess.
Economic legacies[edit]
Among the more specific consequences of the Cold War was a huge fiscal mortgage placed on many domestic economies. Financial obligations included those necessary to avoid further dislocations while the change took place from a wartime footing to a peacetime environment. National military establishments and alliances had to be reconfigured. Highly dependent institutional frameworks were to be restructured, and new obligations were acquired by nations that were once bystanders to the East-West confrontation.
In the wake of the Cold War, freed or newly founded nations inherited expenses, commitments, and resources for which they were not prepared. The successor states also found themselves with contemporary national-security burdens and substantial environmental contamination legacies, all to be financed while new or revised civilian economies had to be instituted. Since the superpowers carried much of the confrontational burden, both Russia and the United States ended up with substantial economic liabilities. [14]
Footnotes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Åslund, p. 49
^ Jump up to: a b Nolan, pp. 17–18
^ Jump up to: a b c d Halliday 2001, p. 2e
^ Jump up to: a b "The Effects of the Cold War on us Education by Michael Totten". Education Space 360. Retrieved 2013-11-27.
Jump up ^ Country profile: United States of America. BBC News. Retrieved on March 11, 2007
Jump up ^ Nye, p. 157
Jump up ^ Blum 2006, p. 87
^ Jump up to: a b Calhoun, Craig (2002). "Cold War (entire chapter)". Dictionary of the Social Sciences. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512371-9. Retrieved 2008-06-16.
Jump up ^ LaFeber 2002, p. 1
Jump up ^ Gaddis 2005, p. 213
Jump up ^ Gaddis 2005, p. 266
Jump up ^ Monty G. Marshall and Ted Gurr, Peace and Conflict 2005 Archived June 24, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. (PDF), Center for Systemic Peace (2006). Retrieved on June 14, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Radioactive Waste Management - Nuclear Waste Disposal - World Nuclear Association". www.world-nuclear.org. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Immigration History Archives - Boundless Immigration". Boundless Immigration. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
References[edit]
Alexander DeVolpi (2009): Nuclear Insights: The Cold War Legacy, Volume 2: Nuclear Threats and Prospects (A Knowledgeable Assessment)
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Skid row
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This article is about high-vagrancy neighborhoods. For other uses, see Skid row (disambiguation).
This article's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Two photos of the original "Skid Road" (Mill Street, now Yesler Way) in Seattle, Washington. Top: View looking west to Yesler's Mill at the end of the street (see smokestack) and nearby cookhouse; the tall pole in the road on the right is where the Pioneer Square pergola stands today, (1874) Bottom: Yesler's Mill, stores, and taverns on Skid Road
A skid row or skid road is an impoverished area, typically urban, whose inhabitants are people "on the skids;" this specifically refers to the poor, the homeless, or others either considered disreputable or forgotten by society.[1] A skid row may be anything from an impoverished urban district to a red-light district to a gathering area for the homeless. In general skid row areas are inhabited or frequented by individuals marginalized by poverty or through drug addiction. Urban areas considered skid rows are marked by high vagrancy, and they often feature cheap taverns, dilapidated buildings, and drug dens as well as other features of urban blight. Used figuratively, it may indicate the state of a poor person's life.
The term skid road originally referred to the path along which timber workers skidded logs.[2] Its current sense appears to have originated in the Pacific Northwest.[3] Areas identified by this name include Pioneer Square in Seattle;[4] Old Town Chinatown in Portland, Oregon;[5] Downtown Eastside in Vancouver; Skid Row in Los Angeles; the Tenderloin District of San Francisco; and the Bowery of lower Manhattan.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Seattle
3 Vancouver
4 Los Angeles
5 San Francisco
6 New York
7 Chicago
8 Philadelphia
9 Houston
10 Popular references
11 See also
12 References
12.1 Notes
12.2 Bibliography
13 External links
Origins[edit]
The term "skid road" dates back to the 17th century, when it referred to a log road, used to skid or drag logs through woods and bog.[3] The term was in common usage in the mid-19th century and came to refer not just to the corduroy roads themselves, but to logging camps and mills all along the Pacific Coast. When a logger was fired he was "sent down the skid road."[6]
The source of the term "skid road" as an urban district is heavily debated, and is generally identified as originating in either Seattle or Vancouver.[3]
Seattle[edit]
The name "Skid Road" was in use in Seattle by 1850s when the city's historic Pioneer Square neighborhood began to expand from its commercial core.[7] The district centered near the end of what is now Yesler Way, the original "Skid Road" named after the freshly‑cut logs that were skidded downhill toward Henry Yesler’s mill.[8]
Henry Yesler acquired land from Doc Maynard at a small point of land at what is today near the intersection of 1st Avenue and Yesler Way.[citation needed] He also acquired a swath of land 450 feet wide from his property up First Hill to a box of land about 10 acres in size full of timber spanning what is today 20th to 30th Avenues.[citation needed] His steam-powered logging mill was built in 1853[7] on the point of land that looked south towards a small island (Denny's Island, part of his land purchase from Doc Maynard) that has since been filled in around and is the heart of today's Pioneer Square. The mill operated seven days a week, 24 hours per day on the waterfront.[7] The street's end near the mill, attracted cookhouses and inexpensive hotels for itinerant workers, along with several establishments that served beer and liquor.[7]
The Skid Road was built on that 450 foot wide slice of land from the top of First Hill to the logging mill on the point.[citation needed] Timber cut in nearby forests was greased and skidded down a long, steeply sloping dirt road.[7] Since the building of the mill much of what is today's Seattle is the result of extensive terra-forming by the local people to make the hilly landscape of Seattle habitable. At the time of the building of the mill it was some of the only flat land available. The Skid Road became the demarcation line between the affluent members of Seattle and the mill workers and more rowdy portion of the population.[9] The road became Mill Street, and eventually Yesler Way, but the nickname "Skid Road" was permanently associated with the district at the street's end.[7]
Vancouver[edit]
Main article: Downtown Eastside
The 100-block of East Hastings Street in Vancouver, British Columbia, the heart of that city's "skid road" neighborhood, lies on a historical skid road. The Vancouver Skid Road was part of a complex of such roads in the dense forests surrounding the Hastings Mill and adjacent to the settlement of Granville, Burrard Inlet (Gastown).[10]
The city began as a sawmill settlement called Granville, in the early 1870s.[11] By at least the 1950s, "Skid Road" was commonly used to describe the more dilapidated areas in the city's Downtown Eastside,[12] which is focused on the original "strip" along East Hastings Street due to a concentration of single room occupancy hotels (SROs) and associated drinking establishments in the area. The area's seedy origins date back to the early concentration of saloons in pre-Canadian Prohibition (1915–1919) and its popularity with loggers, miners and fishermen whose work was seasonal and who spent their salaries in the area's cheap accommodations and public houses.[citation needed]
Opium and heroin use became popular early on; Vancouver was for many years the main port-of-entry for the North American opium supply. During the Great Depression, the railway rights-of-way and other vacant lots in the area were thronged by the unemployed and poor, and the pattern of social decay became well-established. In the 1970s, the endemic alcohol and poverty problems in the area were exacerbated by the expansion of the drug trade, with crack cocaine becoming high-profile in the 1980s as well as a reconcentration of the prostitution trade in the area because of the relocation of hooker strolls in conjunction with city policy for Expo 86.[citation needed]
A portion of Vancouver's Skid Row, Gastown, has also been gentrified; however it is in a difficult coexistence with the nearby impoverished Downtown Eastside along East Hastings Street.[citation needed]
The Downtown Eastside is deemed to be one of the poorest urban areas in Canada.[13] You will find it wedged between popular tourist destinations such as, Downtown, Chinatown and Gastown. East Hastings Street is also a major thoroughfare. These avenues of exposure make the Downtown Eastside a highly visible example of a skid row.
The Downtown Eastside (sometimes abbreviated D.T.E.S.) is also home to Insite, the only legal intravenous drug safe injection site in North America, part of a harm reduction policy aimed at helping the area's drug addicted residents.[citation needed]
Los Angeles[edit]
Main article: Skid Row, Los Angeles
Local homeless count estimates have ranged from 3,668 to 5,131. In 2011, the homeless population estimate for Los Angeles' Skid Row was 4,316.[14] L.A.'s Skid Row is sometimes called "the Nickel", referring to a section of Fifth Street.[15]
Several of the city's homeless and social-service providers (such as Weingart Center Association, Volunteers of America, Frontline Foundation, Midnight Mission, Union Rescue Mission and Downtown Women's Center) are based in Skid Row. Between 2005 and 2007, several local hospitals and suburban law-enforcement agencies were accused by Los Angeles Police Department and other officials of transporting those homeless people in their care to Skid Row.[16][17]
San Francisco[edit]
O'Farrell Street in the Tenderloin section of downtown San Francisco, near Union Square
Main article: Tenderloin, San Francisco
The Tenderloin neighborhood is a small, dense neighborhood near downtown San Francisco. In addition to its history and diverse and artistic community, there is significant poverty, homelessness, and crime.[18]
It is known for its immigrant populations, single room occupancy hotels, ethnic restaurants, bars and clubs, alternative arts scene, large homeless population, public transit and close proximity to Union Square, the Financial District, and Civic Center.[18] The 2000 census reported a population of 28,991 persons, with a population density of 44,408/mi² (17,146/km²), in the Tenderloin's 94102 Zip Code Tabulation Area, which also includes the nearby Hayes Valley neighborhood.[19]
During the 1960s, when development interests and the Redevelopment Agency were using eminent domain to clear out a large area populated by retired men in the South of Market area, that area was termed "Skid Row" in the media. The City's convention center was built after the clearing of long term low-income residents.[20][21]
New York[edit]
In New York, Skid Row was a nickname given to the Bowery during much of the 20th century.[22]
Chicago[edit]
Traditional Skid Row areas in Chicago were centered along West Madison Street just west of the Chicago River[23] and, to a lesser degree, North Clark Street just north of the Chicago River.[24] Since the 1980s both of these areas have been gentrified.[citation needed]
Philadelphia[edit]
Philadelphia once had a highly visible skid row centered on Vine Street, just west of the approaches to the Benjamin Franklin Bridge. This area was essentially obliterated by highway construction starting in the 1970s.[25][26]
Houston[edit]
1920 map of the six wards of Houston
In the 1800s much of what was the Third Ward, the present day south side of Downtown Houston. According to some, the eastern boundary is a low rent group of houses near Texas Southern University referred to as "Sugar Hill." and among musicians, the Third Ward's boundaries are usually thought of as extending southward from the junction of Interstate 45 (Gulf Freeway) and Interstate 69/U.S. Route 59 (Southwest Freeway) to the Brays Bayou, with Main Street forming the western boundary. The Third Ward was what Stephen Fox, an architectural historian who lectured at Rice University, referred to as "the elite neighborhood of late 19th-century Houston." Ralph Bivins of the Houston Chronicle said that Fox said that area was "a silk-stocking neighborhood of Victorian-era homes." Bivins said that the construction of Union Station, which occurred around 1910, caused the "residential character" of the area to "deteriorate." Hotels opened in the area to service travelers. Afterwards, according to Bivins, the area "began a long downward slide toward the skid row of the 1990s" and the hotels were changed into flophouses. Passenger trains stopped going to Union Station. The City of Houston abolished the ward system in the early 1900s, but the name "Third Ward" was continued to be used to refer to the territory that it used to cover.[27]
Popular references[edit]
"The Wall Street Shuffle" by 10cc mentions Skid row in the lyrics.
"Skid Row" is the name of an American heavy metal band formed in New Jersey.
"Skid Row" is also the name of a Dublin, Ireland-based blues-rock band from the late 1960s and early 1970s that included such musicians as singer Phil Lynott and guitarist Gary Moore, both of whom later were part of Thin Lizzy.
Kurt Cobain, playing in a band that at the time had no name, came up with the name "Skid Row" to put on the marquee at a gig on the spur of the moment. That band's name would change frequently after that. He would later go on to form Nirvana.[28]
SKiDROW is one of the prominent warez groups in software. Whether this is based on the band is unknown.
Breaking Bad Season 4 Episode 4 features Jesse turning his house into a Skid Row for the homeless.
The Little Shop of Horrors films and subsequent musical are all set in various downtown neighborhoods called Skid Row and include the song Skid Row (Downtown). The original 1960 film was set in Los Angeles while the 1982 musical and its 1986 film adaptation were set in New York.
See also[edit]
Stingaree, San Diego
Skidder
Homeless dumping
Deinstitutionalization
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Skid Row". Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged (2012 Digital ed.). HarperCollins. 2012.
Jump up ^ "Skid road". The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Retrieved 23 September 2015. A squalid district inhabited chiefly by derelicts and vagrants. [Alteration of SKID ROAD (from the fact that it once referred to a downtown area frequented by loggers).]
^ Jump up to: a b c Turner, Wallace (December 2, 1986). "A Clash Over Aid Effort on the First 'Skid Row'". The New York Times. p. A20. Retrieved 23 September 2015. . Convenience link on ProQuest (requires account - This resource requires a valid Seattle Public Library card.).
Jump up ^ National Park Service (2010-07-09). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
Jump up ^ "Portland's History". Retrieved 2011-10-09.
Jump up ^ Rochester, Junius; Crowley, Walt (October 17, 2002). "Yesler, Henry L. (1810-1892)". History Ink. Retrieved 2007-01-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Keniston-Longrie, Joy (2009). Seattle's Pioneer Square. Chicago, San Francisco, & Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-7385-7144-7.
Jump up ^ Morrison, Patt (1987-03-24). "Original 'Skid Road': Homeless Add a Sad Note to Gentrified Seattle Area". Los Angeles Times. ISSN 0458-3035. Archived from the original on 2015-10-25. Yesler Way—the nation’s original ‘Skid Row’ . . . Skid Road was christened here in the 1850s, when logs were ‘skidded’ by horses, mules or oxen down the steep, timber‑lined path to Henry Yesler’s thriving sawmill on Elliott Bay.
Jump up ^ William C. Speidel, "Sons of the Profits, The Seattle Story 1851 to 1901"
Jump up ^ "Gastown". Virtual Vancouver. Retrieved 2008-02-10.
Jump up ^ "About Vancouver". City of Vancouver. 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-27.
Jump up ^ "Demolish City's Skid Road, Murder Protest Demands." Vancouver Sun. April 6, 1962. p. 1.
Jump up ^ Kalache, Stefan (January 12, 2007). "The Poorest Postal Code Vancouver's Downtown Eastside in Photos". The Dominion. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
Jump up ^ "2011 Greater Los Angeles Homeless Count (page 38 -- Skid Row section)" (PDF). Los Angeles Homeless Services Authority. Retrieved 2011-11-16.
Jump up ^ "For Some, L.A.'s Skid Row Is For Beginnings". NPR. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ "LA Downtown News Online". Downtownnews.com. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ "A Plan to Spread Homeless Countywide - Los Angeles Times". Latimes.com. 2006-03-24. Archived from the original on 15 July 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b The Sidewalks of San Francisco by Heather Mac Donald, City Journal Autumn 2010. City-journal.org (2010-10-14). Retrieved on 2012-09-16.
Jump up ^ American FactFinder, United States Census Bureau. "941 3-Digit ZCTA by 5-digit ZIP Code Tabulation Area – GCT-PH1. Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density: 2000". Factfinder.census.gov. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ Hartman, Chester. 1984. The Transformation of San Francisco. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Allanheld.
Jump up ^ Averbach, Alvin. 1973. "San Francisco's South of Market District, 1858-1958: The Emergence of a Skid Row." California Historical Quarterly 52(3):196223.
Jump up ^ Jesse McKinley (2002-10-13). "Along the Bowery, Skid Row Is on the Skids". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-04-06.
Jump up ^ "Bummed Out: How Skid Row went from "The Land of the Living Dead" to cappuccinos and condos".
Jump up ^ "Charles W. Cushman Photograph Collection>> Results >> Details". indiana.edu.
Jump up ^ "Philadelphia Begins Demolition Of It's (sic) Skid Row".
Jump up ^ "Waiting for the Wrecking Ball: Skid Row in Postindustrial Philadelphia".
Jump up ^ Wood, Roger. Down in Houston: Bayou City Blues (Issue 8 of Jack and Doris Smothers series in Texas history, life, and culture). 2003, University of Texas Press. 1st Edition. ISBN 0292786638, 9780292786639.
Jump up ^ Who killed Kurt Cobain, Chapter 2. Retrieved 2009-09-21 – via Google Books.
Bibliography[edit]
Holbrook, Stewart H. (1961). "Yankee Loggers". New York: International Paper Company. .
Newell, Gordon (1956). "Totem Tales of Old Seattle". Seattle: Superior Publishing Company. .
Morgan, Murray (1960). "Skid Road". Ballantine Books. (revised edition; first edition was 1951).
External links[edit]
Some Seattle history
Pioneer Square history
Guardian Article
Down On Skid Row, A Tape's Rolling! Special Documentary produced by Twin Cities Public Television
A group page for Portland, Oregon's "Felony Flats"
Yelp review page for Portland's "Felony Flats"
Article from 2008 on gentrification in Portland's "Felony Flats"
Opinion column from a Portland cab driver on "Felony Flats"
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Domain (biology)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Domain (disambiguation).
135px
The three-domain system is made up of
Eukaryota (represented by the Australian green tree frog, left), Bacteria (represented by Staphylococcus aureus, middle) and
Archaea (represented by Sulfolobus, right).
The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. Life is divided into domains, which are subdivided into further groups. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown.
In biological taxonomy, a domain (Latin: regio[1]), also superkingdom or empire,[2] is the highest taxonomic rank of organisms in the three-domain system of taxonomy designed by Carl Woese, an American microbiologist and biophysicist. According to the Woese system, introduced in 1990, the tree of life consists of three domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.[1] The first two are all prokaryotic microorganisms, or single-celled organisms whose cells have no nucleus. All life that has a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, and multicellular organisms, is included in the Eukarya.
Contents
1 Domain or dominion
2 Characteristics of the three domains
2.1 Archaea
2.2 Bacteria
2.3 Eukarya
3 Exclusion of viruses and prions
4 Alternative classifications
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Domain or dominion[edit]
The term "domain" was proposed by Woese et al. (1990) in his three-domain system. This term represents a synonym for the category of dominion (Lat. dominium), introduced by Moore in 1974.[3] However, only Stefan Luketa uses the term "dominion".[4] He created two additional domains ("dominions") for Prions and Viruses.
Characteristics of the three domains[edit]
A speculatively rooted tree for RNA genes, showing major branches Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryota
The three-domains tree and the Eocyte hypothesis (Two domains tree), 2008.[5]
Phylogenetic tree showing the relationship between the eukaryotes and other forms of life, 2006[6] Eukaryotes are colored red, archaea green, and bacteria blue.
Each of these three domains contains unique rRNA. This forms the basis of the three-domain system. While the presence of a nuclear membrane differentiates the Eukarya from the Archaea and Bacteria, both of which lack a nuclear membrane, distinct biochemical and RNA markers differentiate the Archaea and Bacteria from each other.
Archaea[edit]
Further information: Archaea
Archaea are prokaryotic cells, typically characterized by membrane lipids that are branched hydrocarbon chains attached to glycerol by ether linkages. The presence of these other linkages in Archaea adds to their ability to withstand extreme temperatures and highly acidic conditions, but many archea live in mild environments. Halophiles, organisms that thrive in highly salty environments, and hyperthermophiles, organisms that thrive in extremely hot environments, are examples of Archaea.
Archaea evolved many cell sizes, but all are relatively small. Their size ranges from 0.1 μm to 15 μm diameter and up to 200 μm long. They are about the size of bacteria, or similar in size to the mitochondria found in a eukaryotic cells. Members of the genus Thermoplasma are the smallest of the archaea.
Bacteria[edit]
Further information: Bacteria
Even though bacteria are prokaryotic cells just like Archaea, their membranes are made of unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol by ester linkages. Cyanobacteria and mycoplasmas are two examples of bacteria. They characteristically do not have ether linkages like Archaea, and they are grouped into a different category—and hence a different domain. There is a great deal of diversity in this domain. Confounded by that diversity and horizontal gene transfer, it is next to impossible to determine how many species of bacteria exist on the planet, or to organize them in a tree-structure, without cross-connections between branches.
Eukarya[edit]
Further information: Eukaryote
Members of the domain Eukarya—called eukaryotes—have membrane-bound organelles (including a nucleus containing genetic material) and are represented by four kingdoms: Plantae, Protista, Animalia, and Fungi.
Exclusion of viruses and prions[edit]
Main article: Non-cellular life
Further information: Virus and Prion
None of the three domains in the three-domain system includes non-cellular life. As of 2011 there is talk about nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses possibly being a fourth branch domain of life, a view supported by researchers in 2012.[7]
Stefan Luketa proposed a five-domain system in 2012, adding Prionobiota (acellular and without nucleic acid) and Virobiota (acellular but with nucleic acid) to the traditional three domains.[4]
Alternative classifications[edit]
Alternative classifications of life include:
The two-empire system or superdomain system, with top-level groupings of Prokaryota (or Monera) and Eukaryota.[8][9]
The eocyte hypothesis, first proposed by James A. Lake et al. in 1984, which posits two domains (Bacteria and Archaea, with Eukaryota included in Archaea).[10][11][12]
See also[edit]
Biological dark matter
Neomura, which is the two domains of life of Archaea and Eukaryota
Phylogenetics
Protein structure
Systematics
Three-domain system
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Woese C, Kandler O, Wheelis M (1990). "Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 87 (12): 4576–9. Bibcode:1990PNAS...87.4576W. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576. PMC 54159  . PMID 2112744. Retrieved 11 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Scientific Taxonomy and Classification of all Creatures". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Moore R. T. (1974). "Proposal for the recognition of super ranks" (PDF). Taxon. 23 (4): 650–652. doi:10.2307/1218807.
^ Jump up to: a b Luketa S. (2012). "New views on the megaclassification of life" (PDF). Protistology. 7 (4): 218–237.
Jump up ^ Cox, C. J.; Foster, P. G.; Hirt, R. P.; Harris, S. R.; Embley, T. M. (2008). "The archaebacterial origin of eukaryotes". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 105 (51): 20356–61. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10520356C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0810647105. PMC 2629343  . PMID 19073919.
Jump up ^ Ciccarelli FD, Doerks T, von Mering C, Creevey CJ, Snel B, Bork P (2006). "Toward automatic reconstruction of a highly resolved tree of life" (PDF). Science. 311 (5765): 1283–7. Bibcode:2006Sci...311.1283C. doi:10.1126/science.1123061. PMID 16513982.
Jump up ^ Nasir, A; Kim, KM; Caetano-Anolles, G (2012). "Giant viruses coexisted with the cellular ancestors and represent a distinct supergroup along with superkingdoms Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya". BMC Evol. Biol. 12: 156. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-12-156. PMC 3570343  . PMID 22920653.
Jump up ^ Mayr, Ernst (1998). "Two empires or three?". PNAS. 95 (17): 9720–9723. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95.9720M. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.17.9720. PMC 33883  . PMID 9707542. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Cavalier-Smith, T. (2004). "Only six kingdoms of life" (PDF). Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 271 (1545): 1251–1262. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2705. PMC 1691724  . PMID 15306349. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
Jump up ^ Archibald, John M. (23 December 2008). "The eocyte hypothesis and the origin of eukaryotic cells". PNAS. 105 (51): 20049–20050. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10520049A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0811118106. PMC 2629348  .
Jump up ^ Lake, James A.; Henderson, Eric; Oakes, Melanie; Clark, Michael W. (June 1984). "Eocytes: A new ribosome structure indicates a kingdom with a close relationship to eukaryotes". PNAS. 81 (12): 3786–3790. Bibcode:1984PNAS...81.3786L. doi:10.1073/pnas.81.12.3786. PMC 345305  . PMID 6587394.
Jump up ^ Williams, Tom A.; Foster, Peter G.; Cox, Cymon J.; Embley, T. Martin (December 2013). "An archaeal origin of eukaryotes supports only two primary domains of life". Nature. 504 (7479): 231–236. Bibcode:2013Natur.504..231W. doi:10.1038/nature12779. PMID 24336283.
External links[edit]
Learn Biology: Classification-Domains on YouTube
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