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Atmospheric electricity
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Cloud to ground lightning. Typically, lightning discharges 30,000 amperes, at up to 100 million volts, and emits light, radio waves, x-rays and even gamma rays.[1] Plasma temperatures in lightning can approach 28,000 kelvins.
Atmospheric electricity is the study of electrical charges in the Earth's atmosphere (or that of another planet). The movement of charge between the Earth's surface, the atmosphere, and the ionosphere is known as the global atmospheric electrical circuit. Atmospheric electricity is an interdisciplinary topic, involving concepts from electrostatics, atmospheric physics, meteorology and Earth science.[2]
Thunderstorms act as a giant battery in the atmosphere, charging up the ionosphere to about 400,000 volts with respect to the surface. This sets up an electric field throughout the atmosphere, which decreases with increase in altitude. Atmospheric ions created by cosmic rays and natural radioactivity move in the electric field, so a very small current flows through the atmosphere, even away from thunderstorms. Near the surface of the earth, the magnitude of the field is around 100 V/m.[3]
Atmospheric electricity involves both thunderstorms, which create lightning bolts to rapidly discharge huge amounts of atmospheric charge stored in storm clouds, and the continual electrification of the air due to ionization from cosmic rays and natural radioactivity, which ensure that the atmosphere is never quite neutral.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Description
2.1 Variations
2.2 Near space
2.3 Cosmic radiation
2.4 Earth-Ionosphere cavity
2.5 Thunderstorms and lightning
2.6 Corona discharges
2.7 Electrical system grounding
3 See also
4 References and external articles
4.1 Citations and notes
4.2 General references
4.2.1 Journals
4.3 Other reading
4.4 Websites
5 Further reading
6 External links
History[edit]
Main article: History of electromagnetic theory
Sparks drawn from electrical machines and from Leyden jars suggested to the early experimenters, Hauksbee, Newton, Wall, Nollet, and Gray, that lightning was caused by electric discharges. In 1708, Dr. William Wall was one of the first to observe that spark discharges resembled miniature lightning, after observing the sparks from a charged piece of amber.
Benjamin Franklin's experiments showed that electrical phenomena of the atmosphere were not fundamentally different from those produced in the laboratory, by listing many similarities between electricity and lightning. By 1749, Franklin observed lightning to possess almost all the properties observable in electrical machines.
In July 1750, Franklin hypothesized that electricity could be taken from clouds via a tall metal aerial with a sharp point. Before Franklin could carry out his experiment, in 1752 Thomas-François Dalibard erected a 40-foot (12 m) iron rod at Marly-la-Ville, near Paris, drawing sparks from a passing cloud. With ground-insulated aerials, an experimenter could bring a grounded lead with an insulated wax handle close to the aerial, and observe a spark discharge from the aerial to the grounding wire. In May 1752, Dalibard affirmed that Franklin's theory was correct.
Around June 1752, Franklin reportedly performed his famous kite experiment. The kite experiment was repeated by Romas, who drew from a metallic string sparks 9 feet (2.7 m) long, and by Cavallo, who made many important observations on atmospheric electricity. Lemonnier (1752) also reproduced Franklin's experiment with an aerial, but substituted the ground wire with some dust particles (testing attraction). He went on to document the fair weather condition, the clear-day electrification of the atmosphere, and its diurnal variation. Beccaria (1775) confirmed Lemonnier's diurnal variation data and determined that the atmosphere's charge polarity was positive in fair weather. Saussure (1779) recorded data relating to a conductor's induced charge in the atmosphere. Saussure's instrument (which contained two small spheres suspended in parallel with two thin wires) was a precursor to the electrometer. Saussure found that the atmospheric electrification under clear weather conditions had an annual variation, and that it also varied with height. In 1785, Coulomb discovered the electrical conductivity of air. His discovery was contrary to the prevailing thought at the time, that the atmospheric gases were insulators (which they are to some extent, or at least not very good conductors when not ionized). Erman (1804) theorized that the Earth was negatively charged, and Peltier (1842) tested and confirmed Erman's idea.
Several researchers contributed to the growing body of knowledge about atmospheric electrical phenomena. Francis Ronalds began observing the potential gradient and air-earth currents around 1810, including making continuous automated recordings.[4] He resumed his research in the 1840s as the inaugural Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory, where the first extended and comprehensive dataset of electrical and associated meteorological parameters was created. He also supplied his equipment to other facilities around the world with the goal of delineating atmospheric electricity on a global scale.[5] Kelvin's new water dropper collector and divided-ring electrometer [6] were introduced at Kew Observatory in the 1860s, and atmospheric electricity remained a speciality of the observatory until its closure. For high-altitude measurements, kites were once used, and weather balloons or aerostats are still used, to lift experimental equipment into the air. Early experimenters even went aloft themselves in hot-air balloons.
Hoffert (1888) identified individual lightning downward strokes using early cameras.[7] Elster and Geitel, who also worked on thermionic emission, proposed a theory to explain thunderstorms' electrical structure (1885) and, later, discovered atmospheric radioactivity (1899) from the existence of positive and negative ions in the atmosphere.[8] Pockels (1897) estimated lightning current intensity by analyzing lightning flashes in basalt (c. 1900)[9] and studying the left-over magnetic fields caused by lightning.[10] Discoveries about the electrification of the atmosphere via sensitive electrical instruments and ideas on how the Earth's negative charge is maintained were developed mainly in the 20th century, with CTR Wilson playing an important part.[11][12] Current research on atmospheric electricity focuses mainly on lightning, particularly high-energy particles and transient luminous events, and the role of non-thunderstorm electrical processes in weather and climate.
Nikola Tesla and Hermann Plauson investigated the production of energy and power via atmospheric electricity.[13] Tesla also proposed to use the atmospheric electrical circuit to transceive wireless energy over large distances, but no feasible apparatus to extract energy from atmospheric electricity has been built.[14][15]
Description[edit]
Atmospheric electricity is always present, and during fine weather away from thunderstorms, the air above the surface of Earth is positively charged, while the Earth's surface charge is negative. It can be understood in terms of a difference of potential between a point of the Earth's surface, and a point somewhere in the air above it. Because the atmospheric electric field is negatively directed in fair weather, the convention is to refer to the potential gradient, which has the opposite sign and is about 100V/m at the surface. There is a weak conduction current of atmospheric ions moving in the atmospheric electric field, about 2 picoAmperes per square metre, and the air is weakly conductive due to the presence of these atmospheric ions.
Variations[edit]
Global daily cycles in the atmospheric electric field, with a minimum around 03 UT and peaking roughly 16 hours later, were researched by the Carnegie Institution of Washington in the 20th century. This Carnegie curve[16] variation has been described as "the fundamental electrical heartbeat of the planet".[17]
Even away from thunderstorms, atmospheric electricity can be highly variable, but, generally, the electric field is enhanced in fogs and dust whereas the atmospheric electrical conductivity is diminished.
Near space[edit]
The electrosphere layer (from tens of kilometers above the surface of the earth to the ionosphere) has a high electrical conductivity and is essentially at a constant electric potential. The ionosphere is the inner edge of the magnetosphere and is the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. (Photoionization is a physical process in which a photon is incident on an atom, ion or molecule, resulting in the ejection of one or more electrons.)
Cosmic radiation[edit]
Main articles: Background radiation and Cosmic ray
The Earth, and almost all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outer space. This radiation primarily consists of positively charged ions from protons to iron and larger nuclei derived sources outside our solar system. This radiation interacts with atoms in the atmosphere to create an air shower of secondary ionising radiation, including X-rays, muons, protons, alpha particles, pions, and electrons. Ionization from this secondary radiation ensures that the atmosphere is weakly conductive, and that the slight current flow from these ions over the Earth's surface balances the current flow from thunderstorms.[3] Ions have characteristic parameters such as mobility, lifetime, and generation rate that vary with altitude.
Earth-Ionosphere cavity[edit]
Main article: Schumann resonance
The potential difference between the ionosphere and the Earth is maintained by thunderstorms. In the Earth-ionosphere cavity, the electric field and conduction current in the lower atmosphere are primarily controlled by ions.
The Schumann resonance is a set of spectrum peaks in the extremely low frequency (ELF) portion of the Earth's electromagnetic field spectrum. Schumann resonance is due to the space between the surface of the Earth and the conductive ionosphere acting as a waveguide. The limited dimensions of the earth cause this waveguide to act as a resonant cavity for electromagnetic waves. The cavity is naturally excited by energy from lightning strikes.
Thunderstorms and lightning[edit]
Main articles: Thunderstorms and lightning
World map showing frequency of lightning strikes, in flashes per km² per year (equal-area projection). Lightning strikes most frequently in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Combined 1995–2003 data from the Optical Transient Detector and 1998–2003 data from the Lightning Imaging Sensor.
If the quantity of water that is condensed in and subsequently precipitated from a cloud is known, then the total energy of a thunderstorm can be calculated. In an average thunderstorm, the energy released amounts to about 10,000,000 kilowatt-hours (3.6×1013 joule), which is equivalent to a 20-kiloton nuclear warhead. A large, severe thunderstorm might be 10 to 100 times more energetic.
Collisions between ice and soft hail (graupel) inside cumulonimbus clouds causes separation of positive and negative charges within the cloud, essential for the generation of lightning. How lightning initially forms is still a matter of debate: Scientists have studied root causes ranging from atmospheric perturbations (wind, humidity, and atmospheric pressure) to the impact of solar wind and energetic particles.
An average bolt of lightning carries a negative electric current of 40 kiloamperes (kA) (although some bolts can be up to 120 kA), and transfers a charge of five coulombs and energy of 500 MJ, or enough energy to power a 100-watt lightbulb for just under two months. The voltage depends on the length of the bolt, with the dielectric breakdown of air being three million volts per meter, and lightning bolts often being several hundred meters long. However, lightning leader development is not a simple matter of dielectric breakdown, and the ambient electric fields required for lightning leader propagation can be a few orders of magnitude less than dielectric breakdown strength. Further, the potential gradient inside a well-developed return-stroke channel is on the order of hundreds of volts per meter or less due to intense channel ionization, resulting in a true power output on the order of megawatts per meter for a vigorous return-stroke current of 100 kA .[9]
Lightning sequence (Duration: 0.32 seconds)
Corona discharges[edit]
A depiction of atmospheric electricity in a Martian dust storm, which has been suggested as a possible explanation for enigmatic chemistry results from Mars (see also Viking lander biological experiments)[18]
St. Elmo's Fire is an electrical phenomenon in which luminous plasma is created by a coronal discharge originating from a grounded object. Ball lightning is often erroneously identified as St. Elmo's Fire, whereas they are separate and distinct phenomena.[19] Although referred to as "fire", St. Elmo's Fire is, in fact, plasma, and is observed, usually during a thunderstorm, at the tops of trees, spires or other tall objects, or on the heads of animals, as a brush or star of light.
Corona is caused by the electric field around the object in question ionizing the air molecules, producing a faint glow easily visible in low-light conditions. Approximately 1,000 – 30,000 volts per centimetre is required to induce St. Elmo's Fire; however, this is dependent on the geometry of the object in question. Sharp points tend to require lower voltage levels to produce the same result because electric fields are more concentrated in areas of high curvature, thus discharges are more intense at the end of pointed objects. St. Elmo's Fire and normal sparks both can appear when high electrical voltage affects a gas. St. Elmo's fire is seen during thunderstorms when the ground below the storm is electrically charged, and there is high voltage in the air between the cloud and the ground. The voltage tears apart the air molecules and the gas begins to glow. The nitrogen and oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere causes St. Elmo's Fire to fluoresce with blue or violet light; this is similar to the mechanism that causes neon signs to glow.
Electrical system grounding[edit]
Main article: Earthing system
Atmospheric charges can cause undesirable, dangerous, and potentially lethal charge potential buildup in suspended electric wire power distribution systems. Bare wires suspended in the air spanning many kilometers and isolated from the ground can collect very large stored capacitance at high voltage static charge potentials, even when there is no thunderstorm or lightning occurring. This charge potential will seek to discharge itself through the path of least insulation, which can occur when a person reaches out to activate a power switch or to use an electric device.
To dissipate atmospheric charge buildup, one side of the electrical distribution system is connected to the earth at many points throughout the distribution system, as often as on every support pole. The one earth-connected wire is commonly referred to as the "protective earth", and provides path for the charge potential to dissipate without causing damage, and provides redundancy in case any one of the ground paths is poor due to corrosion or poor ground conductivity. The additional electric grounding wire that carries no power serves a secondary role, providing a high-current short-circuit path to rapidly blow fuses and render a damaged device safe, rather than have an ungrounded device with damaged insulation become "electrically live" via the grid power supply, and hazardous to touch.
Each transformer in an alternating current distribution grid segments the grounding system into a new separate circuit loop. These separate grids must also be grounded on one side to prevent charge buildup within them relative to the rest of the system, and which could cause damage from charge potentials discharging across the transformer coils to the other grounded side of the distribution network.
See also[edit]
General
Geophysics, Atmospheric sciences, Atmospheric physics, Atmospheric dynamics, Journal of Geophysical Research, Earth system model, Atmospheric chemistry, Ionosphere, Air quality, Lightning rocket
Electromagnetism
Earth's magnetic field, Sprites and lightning, Whistler (radio), Telluric currents, relaxation time, electrode effect, potential gradient
Other
Charles Chree Medal, Electrodynamic tethers, Solar radiation
People
Egon Schweidler, Charles Chree, Nikola Tesla, Hermann Plauson, Joseph Dwyer, Giles Harrison, Michael Rycroft, Charles Thomson Rees Wilson
References and external articles[edit]
Citations and notes[edit]
Jump up ^ See Flashes in the Sky: Earth's Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning
Jump up ^ Chalmers, J. Alan (1967). Atmospheric Electricity. Pergamon Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Harrison, R. G. (2011-01-01). "Fair weather atmospheric electricity". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 301 (1): 012001. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/301/1/012001. ISSN 1742-6596.
Jump up ^ Ronalds, B.F. (2016). Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph. London: Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-78326-917-4.
Jump up ^ Ronalds, B.F. (June 2016). "Sir Francis Ronalds and the Early Years of the Kew Observatory". Weather. 71: 131–134. Bibcode:2016Wthr...71..131R. doi:10.1002/wea.2739.
Jump up ^ Aplin, K. L.; Harrison, R. G. (2013-09-03). "Lord Kelvin's atmospheric electricity measurements". History of Geo- and Space Sciences. 4 (2): 83–95. arXiv:1305.5347  . Bibcode:2013HGSS....4...83A. doi:10.5194/hgss-4-83-2013. ISSN 2190-5010.
Jump up ^ Proceedings of the Physical Society: Volumes 9-10. Institute of Physics and the Physical Society, Physical Society (Great Britain), Physical Society of London, 1888. Intermittent Lightning-Flashes. By HH Hoffert. Page 176.
Jump up ^ Fricke, Rudolf G. A.; Schlegel, Kristian (2017-01-04). "Julius Elster and Hans Geitel – Dioscuri of physics and pioneer investigators in atmospheric electricity". History of Geo- and Space Sciences. 8 (1): 1–7. Bibcode:2017HGSS....8....1F. doi:10.5194/hgss-8-1-2017. ISSN 2190-5010.
^ Jump up to: a b Vladimir A. Rakov, Martin A. Uman (2003) Lightning: Physics and Effects. Cambridge University Press
Jump up ^ Basalt, being a ferromagnetic mineral, becomes magnetically polarised when exposed to a large external field such as those generated in a lightning strike. See Anomalous Remanent Magnetization of Basalt pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1083e/report.pdf for more.
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism - Page 359
Jump up ^ Harrison, Giles (2011-10-01). "The cloud chamber and CTR Wilson's legacy to atmospheric science". Weather. 66 (10): 276–279. Bibcode:2011Wthr...66..276H. doi:10.1002/wea.830. ISSN 1477-8696.
Jump up ^ Nikola Tesla, The Problem of Increasing Human Energy.
Jump up ^ Thomas Valone Harnessing the wheelwork of nature: Tesla's science of energy
Jump up ^ See his Wardenclyffe Tower and Magnifying Transmitter)
Jump up ^ Harrison, R. Giles (2012). "The Carnegie Curve". Surveys in Geophysics. 34: 209–232. Bibcode:2013SGeo...34..209H. doi:10.1007/s10712-012-9210-2.
Jump up ^ Atmospheric electricity affects cloud height - physicsworld.com http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2013/mar/06/atmospheric-electricity-affects-cloud-height
Jump up ^ Harrison, R. G.; Barth, E.; Esposito, F.; Merrison, J.; Montmessin, F.; Aplin, K. L.; Borlina, C.; Berthelier, J. J.; Déprez, G. (2016-04-12). "Applications of Electrified Dust and Dust Devil Electrodynamics to Martian Atmospheric Electricity". Space Science Reviews. 203 (1–4): 299–345. Bibcode:2016SSRv..203..299H. doi:10.1007/s11214-016-0241-8. ISSN 0038-6308.
Jump up ^ Barry, J.D. (1980a) Ball Lightning and Bead Lightning: Extreme Forms of Atmospheric Electricity. 8–9. New York and London: Plenum Press. ISBN 0-306-40272-6
General references[edit]
Journals[edit]
Articles
Anderson, F. J.; Freier, G. D. (1969). "Interactions of the thunderstorm with a conducting atmosphere". J. Geophys. Res. 74: 5390–5396. Bibcode:1969JGR....74.5390A. doi:10.1029/jc074i023p05390.
Brook, M., "Thunderstorm electrification", Problems of Atmospheric and Space Electricity. S. C. Coroniti (Ed.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 280–283, 1965.
Farrell, W. M.; Aggson, T. L.; Rodgers, E. B.; Hanson, W. B. (1994). "Observations of ionospheric electric fields above atmospheric weather systems". J. Geophys. Res. 99: 19475–19484. Bibcode:1994JGR....9919475F. doi:10.1029/94ja01135.
Fernsler, R. F.; Rowland, H. L. (1996). "Models of lightning-produced sprites and elves". J. Geophys. Res. 101: 29653–29662. Bibcode:1996JGR...10129653F. doi:10.1029/96jd02159.
Fraser-Smith, A. C. (1993). "ULF magnetic fields generated by electrical storms and their significance to geomagnetic pulsation generation". Geophys. Res. Lett. 20: 467–470. Bibcode:1993GeoRL..20..467F. doi:10.1029/93gl00087.
Krider, E. P.; Blakeslee, R. J. (1985). "The electric currents produced by thunderclouds". J. Electrostatics. 16: 369–378. doi:10.1016/0304-3886(85)90059-2.
Lazebnyy, B. V.; Nikolayenko, A. P.; Rafal'skiy, V. A.; Shvets, A. V. (1988). "Detection of transverse resonances of the Earth-ionosphere cavity in the average spectrum of VLF atmospherics". Geomagn. Aeron. 28: 281–282.
Ogawa, T (1985). "Fair-weather electricity". J. Geophys. Res. 90: 5951–5960. Bibcode:1985JGR....90.5951O. doi:10.1029/jd090id04p05951.
Sentman, D. D. (1996). "Schumann resonance spectra in a two-scale-height Earth-ionosphere cavity". J. Geophys. Res. 101: 9479–9487. Bibcode:1996JGR...101.9479S. doi:10.1029/95jd03301.
Wåhlin, L (1994). "Elements of fair weather electricity". J. Geophys. Res. 99: 10767–10772. Bibcode:1994JGR....9910767W. doi:10.1029/93jd03516.
Other reading[edit]
Richard E. Orville (ed.), "Atmospheric and Space Electricity". ("Editor's Choice" virtual journal) – "American Geophysical Union". (AGU) Washington, DC 20009-1277 USA
Schonland, B. F. J., "Atmospheric Electricity". Methuen and Co., Ltd., London, 1932.
MacGorman, Donald R., W. David Rust, D. R. Macgorman, and W. D. Rust, "The Electrical Nature of Storms". Oxford University Press, March 1998. ISBN 0-19-507337-1
Cowling, Thomas Gilbert, "On Alfven's theory of magnetic storms and of the aurora", Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, 47, 209–214, 1942.
H. H. Hoffert, "Intermittent Lightning-Flashes". Proc. Phys. Soc. London 10 No 1 (June 1888) 176–180.
Volland, H., "Atmospheric Electrodynamics", Springer, Berlin, 1984.
Websites[edit]
Bateman, Monte, "Atmospheric Electricity Homepage".
"International Commission on Atmospheric Electricity". Commission of the International Association of Meteorology And Atmospheric Physics.
"Lightning and Atmospheric Electricity". Global Hydrology and Climate Center, NASA.
Kieft, Sandy, "The Langmuir Laboratory for Atmospheric Research". New Mexico Institute of Mining & Technology.
"Power from the Air". Science and invention (Formerly Electrical Experimenter), Feb. 1922, no. 10. Vol IX, Whole No. 106. New York. (nuenergy.org)
"Power from the Air". Science and invention (Formerly Electrical Experimenter), March 1922. (nuenergy.org).
"RF Energy via Ionosphere". RF Energy Concepts Sec. 101 Rev. Nov., 2003
Peter Winkler, "Early observations of and knowledge on air electricity and magnetism at Hohenpeißenberg during the Palatina". German Weather Service, Meteorological Observatory. (PDF)
"Atmospheric Electricity". Meridian International Research.
"Atmospheric Electricity and Plants"
Do cosmic rays cause lightning? Ask the Experts – sciam.com January 24, 2008
"The Earth's Electrical Environment". CPSMA, USA National Academies Press.
Further reading[edit]
James R. Wait, Some basic electromagnetic aspects of ULF field variations in the atmosphere. Journal Pure and Applied Geophysics, Volume 114, Number 1 / January, 1976 Pages 15–28 Birkhäuser Basel ISSN 0033-4553 (Print) 1420-9136 (Online) DOI 10.1007/BF00875488
National Research Council (U.S.)., & American Geophysical Union. (1986). The Earth's electrical environment. Washington, D.C: National Academy Pres
Solar Dynamics and Its Effects on the Heliosphere and Earth By D. N. Baker, International Space Science Institute
Solar variability, weather, and climate By National Research Council (U.S.). Geophysics Study Committee
External links[edit]
Electric Current through the Atmosphere
The Global Circuit, phys.uh.edu
Soaking in atmospheric electricity 'Fair weather' measurements important to understanding thunderstorms. science.nasa.gov
Atmospheric Electricity HomePage, uah.edu
Tjt, Fair-weather atmospheric electricity. ava.fmi.fi
ICAE – International Commission on Atmospheric Electricity Homepage
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Renaissance humanism
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Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man (c. 1490) shows the correlations of ideal human body proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in his De Architectura. Vitruvius described the human figure as being like the principal source of proportion among the Classical orders of architecture.
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Renaissance humanism is the study of classical antiquity, at first in Italy and then spreading across Western Europe in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. The term Renaissance humanism is contemporary to that period — Renaissance (rinascimento "rebirth") and "humanist" (whence modern humanism; also Renaissance humanism to distinguish it from later developments grouped as humanism).[1]
Renaissance humanism was a response to the utilitarian approach and what came to be depicted as the "narrow pedantry" associated with medieval scholasticism.[2] Humanists sought to create a citizenry able to speak and write with eloquence and clarity and thus capable of engaging in the civic life of their communities and persuading others to virtuous and prudent actions. This was to be accomplished through the study of the "studia humanitatis", today known as the humanities: grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy.
According to one scholar of the movement,
Early Italian humanism, which in many respects continued the grammatical and rhetorical traditions of the Middle Ages, not merely provided the old Trivium with a new and more ambitious name (Studia humanitatis), but also increased its actual scope, content and significance in the curriculum of the schools and universities and in its own extensive literary production. The studia humanitatis excluded logic, but they added to the traditional grammar and rhetoric not only history, Greek, and moral philosophy, but also made poetry, once a sequel of grammar and rhetoric, the most important member of the whole group.[3]
Humanism was a pervasive cultural mode and not the program of a small elite, a program to revive the cultural legacy, literary legacy, and moral philosophy of classical antiquity. There were important centres of humanism in Florence, Naples, Rome, Venice, Genoa, Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin
2 Paganism and Christianity in the Renaissance
3 Humanists
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Further reading
7 External links
Origin[edit]
Some of the first humanists were great collectors of antique manuscripts, including Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Coluccio Salutati, and Poggio Bracciolini. Of the four, Petrarch was dubbed the "Father of Humanism" because of his devotion to Greek and Roman scrolls. Many worked for the Catholic Church and were in holy orders, like Petrarch, while others were lawyers and chancellors of Italian cities, and thus had access to book copying workshops, such as Petrarch's disciple Salutati, the Chancellor of Florence.
In Italy, the humanist educational program won rapid acceptance and, by the mid-15th century, many of the upper classes had received humanist educations, possibly in addition to traditional scholasticist ones. Some of the highest officials of the Catholic Church were humanists with the resources to amass important libraries. Such was Cardinal Basilios Bessarion, a convert to the Catholic Church from Greek Orthodoxy, who was considered for the papacy, and was one of the most learned scholars of his time. There were several 15th-century and early 16th-century humanist Popes[4] one of whom, Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II), was a prolific author and wrote a treatise on The Education of Boys.[5] These subjects came to be known as the humanities, and the movement which they inspired is shown as humanism.
The migration waves of Byzantine Greek scholars and émigrés in the period following the Crusader sacking of Constantinople and the end of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 greatly assisted the revival of Greek and Roman literature and science via their greater familiarity with ancient languages and works.[6][7] They included Gemistus Pletho, George of Trebizond, Theodorus Gaza, and John Argyropoulos.
Italian humanism spread northward to France, Germany, the Low Countries, and England with the adoption of large-scale printing after the end of the era of incunabula (or books printed prior to 1501), and it became associated with the Protestant Reformation. In France, pre-eminent humanist Guillaume Budé (1467–1540) applied the philological methods of Italian humanism to the study of antique coinage and to legal history, composing a detailed commentary on Justinian's Code. Budé was a royal absolutist (and not a republican like the early Italian umanisti) who was active in civic life, serving as a diplomat for François I and helping to found the Collège des Lecteurs Royaux (later the Collège de France). Meanwhile, Marguerite de Navarre, the sister of François I, was a poet, novelist, and religious mystic[8] who gathered around her and protected a circle of vernacular poets and writers, including Clément Marot, Pierre de Ronsard, and François Rabelais.
Paganism and Christianity in the Renaissance[edit]
Many humanists were churchmen, most notably Pope Pius II (Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini), Sixtus IV, and Leo X,[9][10] and there was often patronage of humanists by senior church figures.[11] Much humanist effort went into improving the understanding and translations of Biblical and early Christian texts, both before and after the Protestant Reformation, which was greatly influenced by the work of non-Italian, Northern European figures such as Desiderius Erasmus, Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, William Grocyn, and Swedish Catholic Archbishop in exile Olaus Magnus.
The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy describes the rationalism of ancient writings as having tremendous impact on Renaissance scholars:
Here, one felt no weight of the supernatural pressing on the human mind, demanding homage and allegiance. Humanity—with all its distinct capabilities, talents, worries, problems, possibilities—was the center of interest. It has been said that medieval thinkers philosophised on their knees, but, bolstered by the new studies, they dared to stand up and to rise to full stature.[12]
Inevitably, the rediscovery of classical philosophy and science would eventually challenge traditional religious beliefs. In 1417, for example, Poggio Bracciolini discovered the manuscript of Lucretius, De rerum natura, which had been lost for centuries and which contained an explanation of Epicurean doctrine, though at the time this was not commented on much by Renaissance scholars, who confined themselves to remarks about Lucretius's grammar and syntax.[13] Lorenzo Valla, however, puts a defense of epicureanism in the mouth of one of the interlocutors of one of his dialogues.[14] Valla's defense, or adaptation, of Epicureanism was later taken up in The Epicurean by Erasmus, the "Prince of humanists:"
If people who live agreeably are Epicureans, none are more truly Epicurean than the righteous and godly. And if it is names that bother us, no one better deserves the name of Epicurean than the revered founder and head of the Christian philosophy Christ, for in Greek epikouros means "helper." He alone, when the law of Nature was all but blotted out by sins, when the law of Moses incited to lists rather than cured them, when Satan ruled in the world unchallenged, brought timely aid to perishing humanity. Completely mistaken, therefore, are those who talk in their foolish fashion about Christ's having been sad and gloomy in character and calling upon us to follow a dismal mode of life. On the contrary, he alone shows the most enjoyable life of all and the one most full of true pleasure.[15]
This passage exemplifies the way in which the humanists saw pagan classical works, such as the philosophy of Epicurus, as being in harmony with their interpretation of Christianity.
Renaissance Neo-Platonists such as Marsilio Ficino (whose translations of Plato's works into Latin were still used into the 19th century) attempted to reconcile Platonism with Christianity, according to the suggestions of early Church fathers Lactantius and Saint Augustine. In this spirit, Pico della Mirandola attempted to construct a syncretism of all religions (he was not a humanist[clarification needed] but an Aristotelian trained in Paris), but his work did not win favor with the church authorities.
Historian Steven Kreis expresses a widespread view (derived from the 19th-century Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt), when he writes that:
The period from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth worked in favor of the general emancipation of the individual. The city-states of northern Italy had come into contact with the diverse customs of the East, and gradually permitted expression in matters of taste and dress. The writings of Dante, and particularly the doctrines of Petrarch and humanists like Machiavelli, emphasized the virtues of intellectual freedom and individual expression. In the essays of Montaigne the individualistic view of life received perhaps the most persuasive and eloquent statement in the history of literature and philosophy.[16]
Two noteworthy trends in Renaissance humanism were Renaissance Neo-Platonism and Hermeticism, which through the works of figures like Nicholas of Kues, Giordano Bruno, Cornelius Agrippa, Campanella and Pico della Mirandola sometimes came close to constituting a new religion itself. Of these two, Hermeticism has had great continuing influence in Western thought, while the former mostly dissipated as an intellectual trend, leading to movements in Western esotericism such as Theosophy and New Age thinking.[17] The "Yates thesis" of Frances Yates holds that before falling out of favour, esoteric Renaissance thought introduced several concepts that were useful for the development of scientific method, though this remains a matter of controversy.
Though humanists continued to use their scholarship in the service of the church into the middle of the sixteenth century and beyond, the sharply confrontational religious atmosphere following the Protestant reformation resulted in the Counter-Reformation that sought to silence challenges to Catholic theology,[18] with similar efforts among the Protestant denominations. However, a number of humanists joined the Reformation movement and took over leadership functions, for example, Philipp Melanchthon, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, and William Tyndale.
With the Counter Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent (1545-1563), positions hardened and a strict Catholic orthodoxy based on Scholastic philosophy was imposed. Some humanists, even moderate Catholics such as Erasmus, risked being declared heretics for their perceived criticism of the church.[19]
The historian of the Renaissance Sir John Hale cautions against too direct a linkage between Renaissance humanism and modern uses of the term humanism: "Renaissance humanism must be kept free from any hint of either "humanitarianism" or "humanism" in its modern sense of rational, non-religious approach to life ... the word "humanism" will mislead ... if it is seen in opposition to a Christianity its students in the main wished to supplement, not contradict, through their patient excavation of the sources of ancient God-inspired wisdom"[20]
Humanists[edit]
Main article: List of Renaissance humanists
See also[edit]
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Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The term la rinascita (rebirth) first appeared, however, in its broad sense in Giorgio Vasari's Vite de' più eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori Italiani (The Lives of the Artists, 1550, revised 1568) Panofsky, Erwin. Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art, New York: Harper and Row, 1960. "The term umanista was used in fifteenth-century Italian academic slang to describe a teacher or student of classical literature and the arts associated with it, including that of rhetoric. The English equivalent 'humanist' makes its appearance in the late sixteenth century with a similar meaning. Only in the nineteenth century, however, and probably for the first time in Germany in 1809, is the attribute transformed into a substantive: humanism, standing for devotion to the literature of ancient Greece and Rome, and the humane values that may be derived from them" Nicholas Mann "The Origins of Humanism", Cambridge Companion to Humanism, Jill Kraye, editor [Cambridge University Press, 1996], p. 1–2). The term "Middle Ages" for the preceding period separating classical antiquity from its "rebirth" first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas.
Jump up ^ Craig W. Kallendorf, introduction to Humanist Educational Treatises, edited and translated by Craig W. Kallendorf (Cambridge, Massachusetts and London England: The I Tatti Renaissance Library, 2002) p. vii.
Jump up ^ Paul Oskar Kristeller, Renaissance Thought II: Papers on Humanism and the Arts (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1965), p. 178. See also Kristeller's Renaissance Thought I, "Humanism and Scholasticism In the Italian Renaissance", Byzantion 17 (1944–45), pp. 346–74. Reprinted in Renaissance Thought (New York: Harper Torchbooks), 1961.
Jump up ^ They include Innocent VII, Nicholas V, Pius II, Sixtus IV, Alexander VI, Julius II and Leo X. Innocent VII, patron of Leonardo Bruni, is considered the first humanist Pope. See James Hankins, Plato in the Italian Renaissance (New York: Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition, 1990), p. 49; for the others, see their respective entries in Sir John Hale's Concise Encyclopaedia of the Italian Renaissance (Oxford University Press, 1981).
Jump up ^ See Humanist Educational Treatises, (2001) pp. 126–259. This volume (pp. 92–125) contains an essay by Leonardo Bruni, entitled "The Study of Literature", on the education of girls.
Jump up ^ Byzantines in Renaissance Italy
Jump up ^ Greeks in Italy
Jump up ^ She was the author of Miroir de l'ame pecheresse (The Mirror of a Sinful Soul), published after her death, among other devotional poetry. See also "Marguerite de Navarre: Religious Reformist" in Jonathan A. Reid, King's sister--queen of dissent: Marguerite of Navarre (1492-1549) and her evangelical network (Studies in medieval and Reformation traditions, 1573-4188; v. 139). Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2009. (2 v.: (xxii, 795 p.) ISBN 978-90-04-17760-4 (v. 1), 9789004177611 (v. 2)
Jump up ^ Löffler, Klemens (1910). "Humanism". The Catholic Encyclopedia. VII. New York: Robert Appleton Company. pp. 538–542.
Jump up ^ See note two, above.
Jump up ^ Davies, 477
Jump up ^ "Humanism". The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Second Edition. Cambridge University Press. 1999. p.397 quotation:
The unashamedly humanistic flavor of classical writings had a tremendous impact on Renaissance scholar.
Jump up ^ Only in 1564 did French commentator Denys Lambin (1519–72) announce in the preface to the work that "he regarded Lucretius's Epicurean ideas as 'fanciful, absurd, and opposed to Christianity". Lambin's preface remained standard until the nineteenth century. (See Jill Kraye's essay, "Philologists and Philosophers" in the Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism [1996], p. 153.) Epicurus's unacceptable doctrine that pleasure was the highest good "ensured the unpopularity of his philosophy" (Kraye [1996] p. 154.)
Jump up ^ Charles Trinkhaus regards Valla's "epicureanism" as a ploy, not seriously meant by Valla, but designed to refute Stoicism, which he regarded together with epicureanism as equally inferior to Christianity. See Trinkaus, In Our Image and Likeness Vol. 1 (University of Chicago Press, 1970), pp. 103–170
Jump up ^ John L. Lepage (5 December 2012). The Revival of Antique Philosophy in the Renaissance. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-137-28181-4.
Jump up ^ Kreis, Steven (2008). "Renaissance Humanism". Retrieved 2009-03-03.
Jump up ^ Plumb, 95
Jump up ^ "Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture: Humanism". The Library of Congress. 2002-07-01. Retrieved 2009-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Humanism". Encyclopedic Dictionary of Religion. F–N. Corpus Publications. 1979. p. 1733. ISBN 0-9602572-1-7.
Jump up ^ Hale, 171. See also Davies, 479-480 for similar caution.
Further reading[edit]
Bolgar, R. R. The Classical Heritage and Its Beneficiaries: from the Carolingian Age to the End of the Renaissance. Cambridge, 1954.
Cassirer, Ernst. Individual and Cosmos in Renaissance Philosophy. Harper and Row, 1963.
Cassirer, Ernst (Editor), Paul Oskar Kristeller (Editor), John Herman Randall (Editor). The Renaisssance Philosophy of Man. University of Chicago Press, 1969.
Cassirer, Ernst. Platonic Renaissance in England. Gordian, 1970.
Celenza, Christopher S. The Lost Italian Renaissance: Humanism, Historians, and Latin's Legacy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 2004 ISBN 978-0-8018-8384-2
Erasmus, Desiderius. "The Epicurean". In Colloquies.
Garin, Eugenio. Science and Civic Life in the Italian Renaissance. New York: Doubleday, 1969.
Garin, Eugenio. Italian Humanism: Philosophy and Civic Life in the Renaissance. Basil Blackwell, 1965.
Garin, Eugenio. History of Italian Philosophy. (2 vols.) Amsterdam/New York: Rodopi, 2008. ISBN 978-90-420-2321-5
Grafton, Anthony. Bring Out Your Dead: The Past as Revelation. Harvard University Press, 2004 ISBN 0-674-01597-5
Grafton, Anthony. Worlds Made By Words: Scholarship and Community in the Modern West. Harvard University Press, 2009 ISBN 0-674-03257-8
Hale, John. A Concise Encyclopaedia of the Italian Renaissance. Oxford University Press, 1981, ISBN 0-500-23333-0.
Kallendorf, Craig W, editor. Humanist Educational Treatises. Cambridge, Mass.: The I Tatti Renaissance Library, 2002.
Kraye, Jill (Editor). The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism. Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Kristeller, Paul Oskar. Renaissance Thought and Its Sources. Columbia University Press, 1979 ISBN 978-0-231-04513-1
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni. Oration on the Dignity of Man. In Cassirer, Kristeller, and Randall, eds. Renaissance Philosophy of Man. University of Chicago Press, 1969.
Skinner, Quentin. Renaissance Virtues: Visions of Politics: Volume II. Cambridge University Press, [2002] 2007.
McManus, Stuart M. "Byzantines in the Florentine Polis: Ideology, Statecraft and Ritual during the Council of Florence". Journal of the Oxford University History Society, 6 (Michaelmas 2008/Hilary 2009).
Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-19-517510-7.
Nauert, Charles Garfield. Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe (New Approaches to European History). Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Plumb, J. H. ed.: The Italian Renaissance 1961, American Heritage, New York, ISBN 0-618-12738-0 (page refs from 1978 UK Penguin edn).
Rossellini, Roberto. The Age of the Medici: Part 1, Cosimo de' Medici; Part 2, Alberti 1973. (Film Series). Criterion Collection.
Symonds, John Addington.The Renaissance in Italy. Seven Volumes. 1875-1886.
Trinkaus, Charles (1973). "Renaissance Idea of the Dignity of Man". In Wiener, Philip P. Dictionary of the History of Ideas. ISBN 0-684-13293-1. Retrieved 2009-12-02.
Trinkaus, Charles. The Scope of Renaissance Humanism. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1983.
Wind, Edgar. Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance. New York: W.W. Norton, 1969.
Witt, Ronald. "In the footsteps of the ancients: the origins of humanism from Lovato to Bruni." Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2000
External links[edit]
Humanism 1: An Outline by Albert Rabil, Jr.
"Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture: Humanism". The Library of Congress. 2002-07-01
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Renaissance humanism
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