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History of road transport
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The history of road transport started with the development of tracks by humans and their beasts of burden.
Contents
1 Early roads
1.1 Harappan roads
1.2 Wheeled transport
1.3 Roman roads
1.4 Early tar-paved roads
2 New road networks
2.1 Toll roads
3 Industrial civil engineering
3.1 Metcalf
3.2 Trésaguet
3.3 Telford
3.4 Macadam roads
4 Modern roads
5 See also
6 References
7 Notes
8 External links
Early roads[edit]
The first forms of road transport were horses, oxen carrying goods over tracks that often followed game trails, such as the Natchez Trace.[1] In the Paleolithic Age, humans did not need constructed tracks in open country. The first improved trails would have been at fords, mountain passes and through swamps.[2] The first improvements would have consisted largely of clearing trees and big stones from the path. As commerce increased, the tracks were often flattened or widened to accommodate human and animal traffic. Some of these dirt tracks were developed into fairly extensive networks, allowing communications, trade and governance over wide areas. The Incan Empire in South America and the Iroquois Confederation in North America, neither of which had the wheel, are examples of effective use of such paths.
The first goods transport was on human backs and heads, but the use of pack animals, including donkeys and horses, developed during the Neolithic Age. The first vehicle is believed to have been the travois, a frame used to drag loads, which probably developed in Eurasia after the first use of bullocks (castrated cattle) for pulling ploughs. In about 5000 BC, sleds developed, which are more difficult to build than travois, but are easier to propel over smooth surfaces. Pack animals, ridden horses and bullocks dragging travois or sleds require wider paths and higher clearances than people on foot and improved tracks were required.[3] As a result, by about 5000 BC roads, including the Ridgeway, developed along ridges in England to avoid crossing rivers and bogging.[4] In central Germany, such ridgeways remained the predominant form of long-distance road till the mid 18th century.[5]
Harappan roads[edit]
Street paving has been found from the first human settlements around 4000 BC in cities of the Indus Valley Civilization on the Indian subcontinent in modern day Pakistan, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Roads in the towns were straight and long, intersecting one another at right angles.
Wheeled transport[edit]
Greek street - 4th or 3rd century BC - The Porta Rosa was the main street of Elea. It connects the northern quarter with the southern quarter. The street is five meters wide and has an incline of 18% in the steepest part. It is paved with limestone blocks and on one side there is a small gutter for drainage.
Wheels appear to have been developed in ancient Sumer in Mesopotamia around 5000 BC, perhaps originally for the making of pottery. Their original transport use may have been as attachments to travois or sleds to reduce resistance. It has been argued that logs were used as rollers under sleds prior to the development of wheels, but there is no archeological evidence for this.[6] Most early wheels appear to have been attached to fixed axles, which would have required regular lubrication by animal fats or vegetable oils or separation by leather to be effective.[7] The first simple two-wheel carts, apparently developed from travois, appear to have been used in Mesopotamia and northern Iran in about 3000 BC and two-wheel chariots appeared in about 2800 BC. They were hauled by onagers, related to donkeys.[7]
Heavy four-wheeled wagons developed about 2500 BC, which were only suitable for oxen-haulage, and therefore were only used where crops were cultivated, particularly Mesopotamia.[7] Two-wheeled chariots with spoked wheels appear to have been developed around 2000 BC by the Andronovo culture in southern Siberia and Central Asia. At much the same time the first primitive harness enabling horse-haulage was invented.[7]
Wheeled-transport created the need for better roads. Generally natural materials cannot be both soft enough to form well-graded surfaces and strong enough to bear wheeled vehicles, especially when wet, and stay intact. In urban areas it began to be worthwhile to build stone-paved streets and, in fact, the first paved streets appear to have been built in Ur in 4000 BC. Corduroy roads were built in Glastonbury, England in 3300 BC[8] and brick-paved roads were built in the Indus Valley Civilization on the Indian subcontinent from around the same time. Improvements in metallurgy meant that by 2000 BC stone-cutting tools were generally available in the Middle East and Greece allowing local streets to be paved.[9] Notably, in about 2000 BC, the Minoans built a 50 km paved road from Knossos in north Crete through the mountains to Gortyn and Lebena, a port on the south coast of the island, which had side drains, a 200 mm thick pavement of sandstone blocks bound with clay-gypsum mortar, covered by a layer of basaltic flagstones and had separate shoulders. This road could be considered superior to any Roman road.[10]
In 500 BC, Darius I the Great started an extensive road system for Persia (Iran), including the famous Royal Road which was one of the finest highways of its time. The road was used even after the Roman times. Because of the road's superior quality, mail couriers could travel 2,699 kilometres (1,677 mi) in seven days.
From 268 BCE to 22 BCE, Ashoka built roads, edicts, water wells, education centres, rest houses and hospitals for human and animals along the highways across Indian subcontinent and planted trees like banyan and mango groves for the benefit of travelers.[11][12][13]
Roman roads[edit]
Main article: Roman roads
Road construction, depicted on Trajan's Column
With the advent of the Roman Empire, there was a need for armies to be able to travel quickly from one area to another, and the roads that existed were often muddy, which greatly delayed the movement of large masses of troops. To solve this problem, the Romans built great roads. These 'Roman roads' used deep roadbeds of crushed stone as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from the crushed stone, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. The legions made good time on these roads and some are still used millennia later.
On the more heavily traveled routes, there were additional layers that included six sided capstones, or pavers, that reduced the dust and reduced the drag from wheels. The pavers allowed the Roman chariots to travel very quickly, ensuring good communication with the Roman provinces. Farm roads were often paved first on the way into town, to keep produce clean. Early forms of springs and shocks to reduce the bumps were incorporated in horse-drawn transport, as the original pavers were sometimes not perfectly aligned.
Roman roads deteriorated in medieval Europe because of lack of resources and skills to maintain them, but many continued to be used. The alignments are still partially used today, for instance, parts of England's A1.
Early tar-paved roads[edit]
In the medieval Islamic world, many roads were built throughout the Arab Empire. The most sophisticated roads were those of Baghdad, Iraq, which were paved with tar in the 8th century. Tar was derived from petroleum, accessed from oil fields in the region, through the chemical process of destructive distillation.[14]
New road networks[edit]
In medieval Europe, before the 1200s, there were no organized networks of streets inside cities, merely shifting footpaths. With the invention of the horse harness and wagons with swivelled front axles that could make tight turns, urban street networks stabilized.[15]
As states developed and became richer, especially with the Renaissance, new roads and bridges began to be built, often based on Roman designs. Although there were attempts to rediscover Roman methods, there was little useful innovation in road building before the 18th century.
Between 1725 and 1737 General George Wade constructed 250 miles (400 km) of road and 40 bridges to improve Britain's control of the Scottish Highlands, using Roman road designs with large stones at the bottom and gravel on top, with a typical overall depth of two metres. They were so poorly aligned and steep, according to Thomas Telford, "as to be unfit for the purposes of civil life" and also rough and poorly drained.[16]
Toll roads[edit]
Main article: Turnpike trusts
The Great North Road near Highgate on the approach to London before turnpiking. The highway was deeply rutted and spread onto adjoining land.
Responsibility for the state of the roads lay with the local parish since Tudor times. In 1656 the parish of Radwell, Hertfordshire petitioned Parliament for help to maintain their section of the Great North Road.[17] Parliament passed an act that gave the local justices powers to erect toll-gates on a section of the Great North Road, between Wadesmill, Hertfordshire; Caxton, Cambridgeshire; and Stilton, Huntingdonshire for a period of eleven years and the revenues so raised should be used for the maintenance of the Great North Road in their jurisdictions.[17][18] The toll-gate erected at Wadesmill became the first effective toll-gate in England.
The first scheme that had trustees who were not justices was established through a Turnpike Act in 1707, for a section of the London-Chester road between Fornhill and Stony Stratford. The basic principle was that the trustees would manage resources from the several parishes through which the highway passed, augment this with tolls from users from outside the parishes and apply the whole to the maintenance of the main highway. This became the pattern for the turnpiking of a growing number of highways, sought by those who wished to improve flow of commerce through their part of a county.[17]
The schedule of maximum tolls allowed on the Woodstock to Rollright Turnpike Trust on the Great Road to Worcester in 1751
During the first three decades of the 18th century, sections of the main radial roads into London were put under the control of individual turnpike trusts. The pace at which new turnpikes were created picked up in the 1750s as trusts were formed to maintain the cross-routes between the Great Roads radiating from London. Roads leading into some provincial towns, particularly in Western England, were put under single trusts and key roads in Wales were turnpiked. In South Wales, the roads of complete counties were put under single turnpike trusts in the 1760s. A further surge of trust formation occurred in the 1770s, with the turnpiking of subsidiary connecting roads, routes over new bridges, new routes in the growing industrial areas and roads in Scotland. About 150 trusts were established by 1750; by 1772 a further 400 were established and, in 1800, there were over 700 trusts.[19] In 1825 about 1,000 trusts controlled 18,000 miles (29,000 km) of road in England and Wales.[20]
The Acts for these new trusts and the renewal Acts for the earlier trusts incorporated a growing list of powers and responsibilities. From the 1750s, Acts required trusts to erect milestones indicating the distance between the main towns on the road. Users of the road were obliged to follow what were to become rules of the road, such as driving on the left and not damaging the road surface. Trusts could take additional tolls during the summer to pay for watering the road in order to lay the dust thrown up by fast-moving vehicles. Parliament also passed a few general Turnpike Acts dealing with the administration of the trusts and restrictions on the width of wheels - narrow wheels were said to cause a disproportionate amount of damage to the road.
The quality of early turnpike roads was varied.[21] Although turnpiking did result in some improvement to each highway, the technologies used to deal with geological features, drainage, and the effects of weather, were all in their infancy. Road construction improved slowly, initially through the efforts of individual surveyors such as John Metcalf in Yorkshire in the 1760s.[22] British turnpike builders began to realise the importance of selecting clean stones for surfacing, and excluding vegetable material and clay to make better lasting roads.[16][23]
Main article: History of turnpikes and canals in the United States
Turnpikes were also later built in the United States. They were usually built by private companies under a government franchise. They typically paralleled or replaced routes already with some volume of commerce, hoping the improved road would divert enough traffic to make the enterprise profitable. Plank roads were particularly attractive as they greatly reduced rolling resistance and mitigated the problem of getting mired in mud. Another improvement, better grading to lessen the steepness of the worst stretches, allowed draft animals to haul heavier loads.
Industrial civil engineering[edit]
Metcalf[edit]
John Metcalf, also known as Blind Jack of Knaresborough. Drawn by J R Smith in The Life of John Metcalf published 1801.
By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, new methods of highway construction had been pioneered by the work of two British engineers, Thomas Telford and John Loudon McAdam, and by the French road engineer Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet.
The first professional road builder to emerge during the Industrial Revolution was John Metcalf, who constructed about 180 miles (290 km) of turnpike road, mainly in the north of England, from 1765, when Parliament passed an act authorising the creation of turnpike trusts to build new toll funded roads in the Knaresborough area. Metcalf won a contract to build a three-mile (5 km) section of road between Minskip and Ferrensby on a new road from Harrogate to Boroughbridge. He explored the section of countryside alone and worked out the most practical route.
He believed a good road should have good foundations, be well drained and have a smooth convex surface to allow rainwater to drain quickly into ditches at the side. He understood the importance of good drainage, knowing it was rain that caused most problems on the roads. He worked out a way to build a road across a bog using a series of rafts made from ling (a type of heather) and furze (gorse) tied in bundles as foundations. This established his reputation as a road builder since other engineers had believed it could not be done. He acquired a mastery of his trade with his own method of calculating costs and materials, which he could never successfully explain to others.
Trésaguet[edit]
Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet is widely credited with establishing the first scientific approach to road building in France at the same time. He wrote a memorandum on his method in 1775, which became general practice in France. It involved a layer of large rocks, covered by a layer of smaller gravel. The lower layer improved on Roman practice in that it was based on the understanding that the purpose of this layer (the sub-base or base course) is to transfer the weight of the road and its traffic to the ground, while protecting the ground from deformation by spreading the weight evenly. Therefore, the sub-base did not have to be a self-supporting structure. The upper running surface provided a smooth surface for vehicles, while protecting the large stones of the sub-base.
Trésaguet understood the importance of drainage by providing deep side ditches, but he insisted on building his roads in trenches, so that they could be accessed from the sides, which undermined this principle. Well-maintained surfaces and drains protect the integrity of the sub-base and Trésaguet introduced a system of continuous maintenance, where a roadman was allocated a section of road to be kept up to a standard.[24]
Telford[edit]
Thomas Telford, the "Colossus of the Roads" in early 19th century Britain
The surveyor and engineer Thomas Telford also made substantial advances in the engineering of new roads and the construction of bridges. His method of road building involved the digging of a large trench in which a foundation of heavy rock was set. He also designed his roads so that they sloped downwards from the centre, allowing drainage to take place, a major improvement on the work of Trésaguet. The surface of his roads consisted of broken stone. He also improved on methods for the building of roads by improving the selection of stone based on thickness, taking into account traffic, alignment and slopes. During his later years, Telford was responsible for rebuilding sections of the London to Holyhead road, a task completed by his assistant of ten years, John MacNeill.
His engineering work on the Holyhead Road (now the A5) in the 1820s reduced the journey time of the London mail coach from 45 hours to just 27 hours, and the best mail coach speeds rose from 5-6 mph (8–10 km/h) to 9-10 mph (14–16 km/h). Between London and Shrewsbury, most of his work on the road amounted to improvements. Beyond Shrewsbury, and especially beyond Llangollen, the work often involved building a highway from scratch. Notable features of this section of the route include the Waterloo Bridge across the River Conwy at Betws-y-Coed, the ascent from there to Capel Curig and then the descent from the pass of Nant Ffrancon towards Bangor. Between Capel Curig and Bethesda, in the Ogwen Valley, Telford deviated from the original road, built by Romans during their occupation of this area.[25]
Macadam roads[edit]
It was another Scottish engineer, John Loudon McAdam, who designed the first modern roads. He developed an inexpensive paving material of soil and stone aggregate (known as macadam). His road building method was simpler than Telford's, yet more effective at protecting roadways: he discovered that massive foundations of rock upon rock were unnecessary, and asserted that native soil alone would support the road and traffic upon it, as long as it was covered by a road crust that would protect the soil underneath from water and wear.[26]
Construction of the first macadamized road in the United States (1823). In the foreground, workers are breaking stones "so as not to exceed 6 ounces in weight or to pass a two-inch ring".[27]
Also unlike Telford and other road builders, McAdam laid his roads as level as possible. His 30-foot-wide (9.1 m) road required only a rise of three inches from the edges to the center. Cambering and elevation of the road above the water table enabled rain water to run off into ditches on either side.[28]
Size of stones was central to McAdam's road building theory. The lower 200-millimetre (7.9 in) road thickness was restricted to stones no larger than 75 millimetres (3.0 in). The upper 50-millimetre (2.0 in) layer of stones was limited to 20 millimetres (0.79 in) size and stones were checked by supervisors who carried scales. A workman could check the stone size himself by seeing if the stone would fit into his mouth. The importance of the 20 mm stone size was that the stones needed to be much smaller than the 100 mm width of the iron carriage tyres that traveled on the road.
McAdam believed that the "proper method" of breaking stones for utility and rapidity was accomplished by people sitting down and using small hammers, breaking the stones so that none of them was larger than six ounces in weight. He also wrote that the quality of the road would depend on how carefully the stones were spread on the surface over a sizeable space, one shovelful at a time.[29]
McAdam directed that no substance that would absorb water and affect the road by frost should be incorporated into the road. Neither was anything to be laid on the clean stone to bind the road. The action of the road traffic would cause the broken stone to combine with its own angles, merging into a level, solid surface that would withstand weather or traffic.[30]
Through his road-building experience McAdam had learned that a layer of broken angular stones would act as a solid mass and would not require the large stone layer previously used to build roads. By keeping the surface stones smaller than the tyre width, a good running surface could be created for traffic. The small surface stones also provided low stress on the road, so long as it could be kept reasonably dry.[31] In practice, his roads proved to be twice as strong as Telford's roads.[32]
Although McAdam had been adamantly opposed to the filling of the voids between his small cut stones with smaller material, in practice road builders began to introduce filler materials such as smaller stones, sand and clay, and it was observed that these roads were stronger as a result. Macadam roads were being built widely in the United States and Australia in the 1820s and in Europe in the 1830s and 1840s.[33]
Modern roads[edit]
Edgar Purnell Hooley, inventor of tarmac
Macadam roads were adequate for use by horses and carriages or coaches, but they were very dusty and subject to erosion with heavy rain.
The Good Roads Movement occurred in the United States between the late 1870s and the 1920s. Advocates for improved roads led by bicyclists such as the League of American Bicyclists turned local agitation into a national political movement.
Outside cities, roads were dirt or gravel; mud in the winter and dust in the summer. Early organizers cited Europe where road construction and maintenance was supported by national and local governments. In its early years, the main goal of the movement was education for road building in rural areas between cities and to help rural populations gain the social and economic benefits enjoyed by cities where citizens benefited from railroads, trolleys and paved streets. Even more than traditional vehicles, the newly invented bicycles could benefit from good country roads.
Later on, they did not hold up to higher-speed motor vehicle use. Methods to stabilise macadam roads with tar date back to at least 1834 when John Henry Cassell, operating from Cassell's Patent Lava Stone Works in Millwall, patented "Pitch Macadam".[34] This method involved spreading tar on the subgrade, placing a typical macadam layer, and finally sealing the macadam with a mixture of tar and sand. Tar-grouted macadam was in use well before 1900, and involved scarifying the surface of an existing macadam pavement, spreading tar, and re-compacting. Although the use of tar in road construction was known in the 19th century, it was little used and was not introduced on a large scale until the motorcar arrived on the scene in the early 20th century.
Modern tarmac was patented by British civil engineer Edgar Purnell Hooley, who noticed that spilled tar on the roadway kept the dust down and created a smooth surface.[35] He took out a patent in 1901 for tarmac.[36]
Hooley's 1901 patent for Tarmac involved mechanically mixing tar and aggregate prior to lay-down, and then compacting the mixture with a steamroller. The tar was modified by adding small amounts of Portland cement, resin, and pitch.[37]
See also[edit]
Auto trails in the United States
Caravanserai
Dromography
Trade route
Horses in the Middle Ages
References[edit]
Johnson, Allen (1915). Union and Democracy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Lay, M G (1992). Ways of the World. Sydney: Primavera Press. p. 401. ISBN 1-875368-05-1.
Dalakoglou, Dimitris (2017). The road: An Ethnography of (im)mobility, spaces and cross-border infrastructures in the Balkans. Manchester: Manchester University press.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Lay (1992), p5
Jump up ^ Lay (1992), p7
Jump up ^ Lay (1992), p25
Jump up ^ Lay (1992), p9
Jump up ^ Landau, Georg: Beiträge zur Geschichte der alten Heer- und Handelsstraßen in Deutschland, Kassel, Bärenreiter, 1958
Jump up ^ Lay (1992), p27
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lay (1992), p28
Jump up ^ Lay (1992), p51
Jump up ^ Lay (1992), p43
Jump up ^ Lay (1992), p44
Jump up ^ Patrick Whelan, 2015, Kaplan AP World History 2016.
Jump up ^ Andrea L. Stanton, Edward Ramsamy, Peter J. Seybol, 2012, Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia, p 41.
Jump up ^ Sudeshna Sengupta, 2008, History & Civics 9, page 97.
Jump up ^ Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). The Miracle of Islam Science (2nd ed.). Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0-911119-43-4.
Jump up ^ http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1913.htm
^ Jump up to: a b Lay (1992), p72
^ Jump up to: a b c Webb. English Local Government. pp. 157-159
Jump up ^ Statute, 15 Car. II, c.1.
Jump up ^ Pawson 1977, pp. 341, 260.
Jump up ^ Hampshire Maps University of Portsmouth. Accessdate 6 December 2012
Jump up ^ Parliamentary Papers, 1840, Vol 256 xxvii.
Jump up ^ The Turnpike Trust Schools History.org, Accessed July 2011
Jump up ^ Huxford, Robert (3 September 2003). "How old is that route?" (pdf). Institution of Civil Engineers. Retrieved 2007-01-19.
Jump up ^ Lay (1992), p73-74
Jump up ^ Bellis, Mary (2007). "Thomas Telford". About: inventors. About, Inc, New York Times. Retrieved 2007-01-19.
Jump up ^ Craig, David, "The Colossus of Roads", Palimpsest, Strum.co.uk, retrieved 18 June 2010
Jump up ^ "1823 - First American Macadam Road" (Painting - Carl Rakeman) US Department of Transportation - Federal Highway Administration (Accessed 2008-10-10)
Jump up ^ McAdam (1824), p.38
Jump up ^ McAdam (1824), pp.39-40
Jump up ^ McAdam (1824), p.41
Jump up ^ Lay (1992), pp.76-77
Jump up ^ Lay (1992), p77
Jump up ^ Lay (1992), p83
Jump up ^ From: 'Northern Millwall: Tooke Town', Survey of London: volumes 43 and 44: Poplar, Blackwall and Isle of Dogs (1994), pp. 423-433 Date accessed: 24 May 2009
Jump up ^ Ralph Morton (2002), Construction UK: Introduction to the Industry, Oxford: Blackwell Science, p. 51, ISBN 0-632-05852-8, retrieved 22 June 2010 . (Details of this story vary a bit, but the essence of is the same, as are the basic facts).
Jump up ^ Harrison, Ian (2004), The Book of Inventions, Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, p. 277, ISBN 978-0-7922-8296-9, retrieved 23 June 2010
Jump up ^ Hooley, E. Purnell, U.S. Patent 765,975, "Apparatus for the preparation of tar macadam", July 26, 1904
External links[edit]
Macadam - Road Building in America
UK Vehicle Recovery History
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The Book of Genesis (from the Latin Vulgate, in turn borrowed or transliterated from Greek γένεσις, meaning "Coming into Being"; Hebrew: בְּרֵאשִׁית, Bərēšīṯ, "In [the] beginning") is the first book of the Hebrew Bible (the Tanakh) and the Christian Old Testament.[1]
The basic narrative of the Book of Genesis is centered around a few themes: God, the creation of the world, the creation of Adam and Eve and how man was appointed as the regent of God. Later on the book describes man's disobedience of God, and the exile of Adam and Eve from the garden of Eden.
The book continues to describe how God destroyed the world through the Flood. The new post-Flood world is also corrupt. God does not destroy it, instead calling one man, Abraham, to be the seed of its salvation. At God's command Abraham descends from his home into the land of Canaan, given to him by God, where he dwells as a sojourner, as does his son Isaac and his grandson Jacob. Jacob's name is changed to Israel, and through the agency of his son Joseph, the children of Israel descend into Egypt, 70 people in all with their households, and God promises them a future of greatness. Genesis ends with Israel in Egypt, ready for the coming of Moses and the Exodus. The narrative is punctuated by a series of covenants with God, successively narrowing in scope from all mankind (the covenant with Noah) to a special relationship with one people alone (Abraham and his descendants through Isaac and Jacob).[2]
The book's author or authors appear to have structured it around ten "toledot" sections (the "these are the generations of..." phrases), but modern commentators see it in terms of a "primeval history" (chapters 1–11) followed by the cycle of Patriarchal stories (chapters 12–50).[3] In Judaism, the theological importance of Genesis centers on the covenants linking God to his chosen people and the people to the Promised Land. Christianity has interpreted Genesis as the prefiguration of certain cardinal Christian beliefs, primarily the need for salvation (the hope or assurance of all Christians) and the redemptive act of Christ on the Cross as the fulfillment of covenant promises as the Son of God.
Tradition credits Moses as the author of Genesis, as well as Exodus, Book of Leviticus, Numbers and most of Book of Deuteronomy, but modern scholars increasingly see them as a product of the 6th and 5th centuries BC.[4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
2 Summary
3 Composition
3.1 Title and textual witnesses
3.2 Origins
3.3 Genre
4 Themes
4.1 Promises to the ancestors
4.2 God's chosen people
5 Judaism's weekly Torah portions
6 First phrase
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Bibliography
10.1 Commentaries on Genesis
10.2 General
11 External links
Structure[edit]
Genesis appears to be structured around the recurring phrase elleh toledot, meaning "these are the generations," with the first use of the phrase referring to the "generations of heaven and earth" and the remainder marking individuals—Noah, the "sons of Noah", Shem, etc., down to Jacob.[6] It is not clear, however, what this meant to the original authors, and most modern commentators divide it into two parts based on subject matter, a "primeval history" (chapters 1–11) and a "patriarchal history" (chapters 12–50).[7][note 1][note 2] While the first is far shorter than the second, it sets out the basic themes and provides an interpretive key for understanding the entire book.[9] The "primeval history" has a symmetrical structure hinging on chapters 6–9, the flood story, with the events before the flood mirrored by the events after.[10]
Summary[edit]
See also: Primeval history and Patriarchal age
The Angel Hinders the Offering of Isaac (Rembrandt, 1635)
God creates the world in six days and consecrates the seventh as a day of rest. God creates the first humans Adam and Eve and all the animals in the Garden of Eden but instructs them not to eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. A talking serpent portrayed as a deceptive creature or trickster, entices Eve into eating it anyway, and she entices Adam, whereupon God curses them and throws them out in the fall of man. Eve bears two sons, Cain and Abel. Cain kills Abel after God accepts Abel's offering but not Cain's. God then curses Cain. Eve bears another son, Seth, to take Abel's place.
After many generations of Adam have passed from the lines of Cain and Seth, the world becomes corrupted by the sin of man and Nephilim, and God determines to wipe out mankind. First, he instructs the righteous Noah and his family to build a huge boat and put examples of all the animals on it. Then God sends a great flood to wipe out the rest of the world. When the waters recede, God promises that he will not destroy the world a second time with water with the rainbow as the symbol of his promise. But upon seeing mankind cooperating to build a great tower city, the Tower of Babel, God divides humanity with many languages and sets them apart with confusion.
God instructs Abram to travel from his home in Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan. There, God makes a covenant with Abram, promising that his descendants shall be as numerous as the stars, but that people will suffer oppression in a foreign land for four hundred years, after which they will inherit the land "from the river of Egypt to the great river, the river Euphrates". Abram's name is changed to Abraham and that of his wife Sarai to Sarah, and circumcision of all males is instituted as the sign of the covenant. Because Sarah is old, she tells Abraham to take her Egyptian handmaiden, Hagar, as a second wife. Through Hagar, Abraham fathers Ishmael.
God resolves to destroy the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah for the sins of their people. Abraham protests and gets God to agree not to destroy the cities if 10 righteous men can be found. Angels save Abraham's nephew Lot and his family, but his wife looks back on the destruction against their command and is turned into a pillar of salt. Lot's daughters, concerned that they are fugitives who will never find husbands, get him drunk to become pregnant by him, and give birth to the ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites.
Abraham and Sarah go to the foreign land of Gerar, pretending to be brother and sister (they are half-siblings). The King of Gerar takes Sarah for his wife, but God warns him to return her, and he obeys. God sends Sarah a son to be named Isaac, through whom the covenant will be established. At Sarah's insistence, Ishmael and his mother Hagar are driven out into the wilderness, but God saves them and promises to make Ishmael a great nation.
God tests Abraham by demanding that he sacrifice Isaac. As Abraham is about to lay the knife upon his son, God restrains him, promising him numberless descendants. On the death of Sarah, Abraham purchases Machpelah (believed to be modern Hebron) for a family tomb and sends his servant to Mesopotamia to find among his relations a wife for Isaac, and Rebekah is chosen. Other children are born to Abraham by another wife, Keturah, among whose descendants are the Midianites, and he dies in a prosperous old age and is buried in his tomb at Hebron.
Isaac's wife Rebecca gives birth to the twins Esau, father of the Edomites, and Jacob. Through deception, Jacob becomes the heir instead of Esau and gains his father's blessing. He flees to his uncle where he prospers and earns his two wives, Rachel and Leah. Jacob's name is changed to Israel, and by his wives and their handmaidens he has twelve sons, the ancestors of the twelve tribes of the Children of Israel, and a daughter, Dinah.
Joseph, Jacob's favorite son, is sold into slavery in Egypt by his jealous brothers. But Joseph prospers, after hardship, with God's guidance of interpreting Pharaoh's dream of upcoming famine. He is then reunited with his father and brothers, who don't recognize him but who plead for food. After much manipulation, he reveals himself and lets them and their households into Egypt, where Pharaoh assigns to them the land of Goshen. Jacob calls his sons to his bedside and reveals their future before he dies. Joseph lives to an old age and exhorts his brethren, if God should lead them out of the country, to take his bones with them.
Composition[edit]
Abram's Journey from Ur to Canaan (József Molnár, 1850)
Title and textual witnesses[edit]
Genesis takes its Hebrew title from the first word of the first sentence, Bereshit, meaning "In the beginning"; in the Greek Septuagint it was called Genesis, from the phrase "the generations of heaven and earth".[11] There are four major textual witnesses to the book: the Masoretic Text, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and fragments of Genesis found at Qumran. The Qumran group provides the oldest manuscripts but covers only a small proportion of the book; in general, the Masoretic Text is well preserved and reliable, but there are many individual instances where the other versions preserve a superior reading.[12]
Origins[edit]
Main article: Documentary hypothesis
For much of the 20th century most scholars agreed that the five books of the Pentateuch—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy—came from four sources, the Yahwist, the Elohist, the Deuteronomist and the Priestly source, each telling the same basic story, and joined together by various editors.[13] Since the 1970s there has been a revolution in scholarship: the Elohist source is now widely regarded as no more than a variation on the Yahwist, while the Priestly source is increasingly seen not as a document but as a body of revisions and expansions to the Yahwist (or "non-Priestly") material. (The Deuteronomistic source does not appear in Genesis).[14]
Examples of repeated and duplicate stories are used to identify the separate sources. In Genesis these include three different accounts of a Patriarch claiming that his wife was his sister, the two creation stories, and the two versions of Abraham sending Hagar and Ishmael into the desert.[15]
This leaves the question of when these works were created. Scholars in the first half of the 20th century came to the conclusion that the Yahwist was produced in the monarchic period, specifically at the court of Solomon, 10th century BC, and the Priestly work in the middle of the 5th century BC (the author was even identified as Ezra), but more recent thinking is that the Yahwist was written either just before or during the Babylonian exile of the 6th century BC, and the Priestly final edition was made late in the Exilic period or soon after.[5]
As for why the book was created, a theory which has gained considerable interest, although still controversial is "Persian imperial authorisation". This proposes that the Persians of the Achaemenid Empire, after their conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, agreed to grant Jerusalem a large measure of local autonomy within the empire, but required the local authorities to produce a single law code accepted by the entire community. The two powerful groups making up the community—the priestly families who controlled the Temple and who traced their origin to Moses and the wilderness wanderings, and the major landowning families who made up the "elders" and who traced their own origins to Abraham, who had "given" them the land—were in conflict over many issues, and each had its own "history of origins", but the Persian promise of greatly increased local autonomy for all provided a powerful incentive to cooperate in producing a single text.[16]
Genre[edit]
Genesis is perhaps best seen as an example of "antiquarian history", a type of literature telling of the first appearance of humans, the stories of ancestors and heroes, and the origins of culture, cities and so forth.[17] The most notable examples are found in the work of Greek historians of the 6th century BC: their intention was to connect notable families of their own day to a distant and heroic past, and in doing so they did not distinguish between myth, legend, and facts.[18] Professor Jean-Louis Ska of the Pontifical Biblical Institute calls the basic rule of the antiquarian historian the "law of conservation": everything old is valuable, nothing is eliminated.[19] Ska also points out the purpose behind such antiquarian histories: antiquity is needed to prove the worth of Israel's traditions to the nations (the neighbours of the Jews in early Persian Palestine), and to reconcile and unite the various factions within Israel itself.[19]
Themes[edit]
Joseph recognized by his brothers (Léon Pierre Urban Bourgeois, 1863)
Promises to the ancestors[edit]
In 1978 David Clines published his influential The Theme of the Pentateuch – influential because he was one of the first to take up the question of the theme of the entire five books. Clines' conclusion was that the overall theme is "the partial fulfillment – which implies also the partial nonfulfillment – of the promise to or blessing of the Patriarchs". (By calling the fulfillment "partial" Clines was drawing attention to the fact that at the end of Deuteronomy the people are still outside Canaan).[20]
The patriarchs, or ancestors, are Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, with their wives (Joseph is normally excluded).[21] Since the name YHWH had not been revealed to them, they worshipped El in his various manifestations.[22] (It is, however, worth noting that in the Jahwist source the patriarchs refer to deity by the name YHWH, for example in Genesis 15.) Through the patriarchs God announces the election of Israel, meaning that he has chosen Israel to be his special people and committed himself to their future.[23] God tells the patriarchs that he will be faithful to their descendants (i.e. to Israel), and Israel is expected to have faith in God and his promise. ("Faith" in the context of Genesis and the Hebrew bible means agreement to the promissory relationship, not a body of belief).[24]
The promise itself has three parts: offspring, blessings, and land.[25] The fulfilment of the promise to each patriarch depends on having a male heir, and the story is constantly complicated by the fact that each prospective mother – Sarah, Rebekah and Rachel – is barren. The ancestors, however, retain their faith in God and God in each case gives a son – in Jacob's case, twelve sons, the foundation of the chosen Israelites. All three promises are more richly fulfilled in each succeeding generation, until through Joseph "all the world" is saved from famine,[26] and by bringing the children of Israel down to Egypt he becomes the means through which the promise can be fulfilled.[21]
God's chosen people[edit]
Scholars generally agree that the theme of divine promise unites the patriarchal cycles, but many would dispute the efficacy of trying to examine Genesis' theology by pursuing a single overarching theme, instead citing as more productive the analysis of the Abraham cycle, the Jacob cycle, and the Joseph cycle, and the Yahwist and Priestly sources.[27] The problem lies in finding a way to unite the patriarchal theme of divine promise to the stories of Genesis 1–11 (the primeval history) with their theme of God's forgiveness in the face of man's evil nature.[28][29] One solution is to see the patriarchal stories as resulting from God's decision not to remain alienated from mankind:[29] God creates the world and mankind, mankind rebels, and God "elects" (chooses) Abraham.[2]
To this basic plot (which comes from the Yahwist) the Priestly source has added a series of covenants dividing history into stages, each with its own distinctive "sign". The first covenant is between God and all living creatures, and is marked by the sign of the rainbow; the second is with the descendants of Abraham (Ishmaelites and others as well as Israelites), and its sign is circumcision; and the last, which doesn't appear until the book of Exodus, is with Israel alone, and its sign is Sabbath. Each covenant is mediated by a great leader (Noah, Abraham, Moses), and at each stage God progressively reveals himself by his name (Elohim with Noah, El Shaddai with Abraham, Yahweh with Moses).[2]
Judaism's weekly Torah portions[edit]
Main article: Weekly Torah portion
First Day of Creation (from the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle)
Bereshit, on Genesis 1–6: Creation, Eden, Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, Lamech, wickedness
Noach, on Genesis 6–11: Noah's Ark, the Flood, Noah's drunkenness, the Tower of Babel
Lech-Lecha, on Genesis 12–17: Abraham, Sarah, Lot, covenant, Hagar and Ishmael, circumcision
Vayeira, on Genesis 18–22: Abraham's visitors, Sodomites, Lot's visitors and flight, Hagar expelled, binding of Isaac
Chayei Sarah, on Genesis 23–25: Sarah buried, Rebekah for Isaac
Toledot, on Genesis 25–28: Esau and Jacob, Esau's birthright, Isaac's blessing
Vayetze, on Genesis 28–32: Jacob flees, Rachel, Leah, Laban, Jacob's children and departure
Vayishlach, on Genesis 32–36: Jacob's reunion with Esau, the rape of Dinah
Vayeshev, on Genesis 37–40: Joseph's dreams, coat, and slavery, Judah with Tamar, Joseph and Potiphar
Miketz, on Genesis 41–44: Pharaoh's dream, Joseph's in government, Joseph's brothers visit Egypt
Vayigash, on Genesis 44–47: Joseph reveals himself, Jacob moves to Egypt
Vaychi, on Genesis 47–50: Jacob's blessings, death of Jacob and of Joseph
First phrase[edit]
Main article: Genesis 1:1
"In principio creavit deus..." First page of Genesis in a Latin bible dated 1481 (Bodleian Library)
Perhaps the most well-known passage of the Hebrew Bible, the first phrase of Genesis has long been translated as "In the beginning God created..." However, the idea that God created the world out of nothing (creatio ex nihilo) is central today to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, but it is not directly stated anywhere in the entire Hebrew Bible.[30]
See also[edit]
Bible portal
Dating the Bible
Enûma Eliš
Genesis creation narrative
Historicity of the Bible
Mosaic authorship
Paradise Lost
Protevangelium
Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Other scholars prefer a four-part division: 1:1 to 11:25 is the primeval story, 11:26 to 25:18 the story of Abraham, 25:19 to 36:43 the Jacob cycle, and 37:1 to 50:26 the Joseph story.[8]
Jump up ^ The Weekly Torah portions, Parashot, divide the book into 12 readings.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hamilton (1990), page. 1
^ Jump up to: a b c Bandstra (2004), pp. 28–29
Jump up ^ Kessler, Deurloo (2004), pp. 3–7
Jump up ^ Van Seters (1998), p. 5
^ Jump up to: a b Davies (1998), p. 37
Jump up ^ Hamilton (1990), p. 2
Jump up ^ Whybray (1997), p. 41
Jump up ^ Jon D. Levenson (2014) "Genesis" in Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler (eds.) The Jewish Study Bible (second edition). New York: Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ McKeown (2008), p. 2
Jump up ^ Walsh (2001), p. 112
Jump up ^ Carr 2000, p. 491.
Jump up ^ Hendel, R. S. (1992). Genesis, Book of. In D. N. Freedman (Ed.), The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (Vol. 2, p. 933). New York: Doubleday
Jump up ^ Gooder (2000), pp. 12–14
Jump up ^ Van Seters (2004), pp. 30–86
Jump up ^ Lawrence Boadt; Richard J. Clifford; Daniel J. Harrington (2012). Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction. Paulist Press.
Jump up ^ Ska (2006), pp. 169, 217–18
Jump up ^ Van Seters (2004) pp. 113–14
Jump up ^ Whybray (2001), p. 39
^ Jump up to: a b Ska (2006), p. 169
Jump up ^ Clines (1997), p. 30
^ Jump up to: a b Hamilton (1990), p. 50
Jump up ^ John J Collins (2007), A Short Introduction to the Hebrew Bible, Fortress Press, p. 47
Jump up ^ Brueggemann (2002), p. 61
Jump up ^ Brueggemann (2002), p. 78
Jump up ^ McKeown (2008), p. 4
Jump up ^ Wenham (2003), p. 34
Jump up ^ Hamilton (1990), pp. 38–39
Jump up ^ Hendel, R. S. (1992). Genesis, Book of. In D. N. Freedman (Ed.), The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (Vol. 2, p. 935). New York: Doubleday
^ Jump up to: a b Kugler, Hartin (2009), p.9
Jump up ^ Nebe, Gottfried (2002), Creation in Paul's Theology. In Hoffman, Yair; Reventlow, Henning Graf. "Creation in Jewish and Christian tradition", A&C Black, p. 119
Bibliography[edit]
Commentaries on Genesis[edit]
Armstrong, Karen. In the Beginning: A New Interpretation of Genesis. New York: Knopf, 1996. ISBN 0-679-45089-0.
Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2011). Creation, Un-creation, Re-creation: A discursive commentary on Genesis 1–11. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 9780567372871.
Brueggemann, Walter (1986). Genesis. Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching. Atlanta: John Knox Press. ISBN 0-8042-3101-X.
Carr, David M. (2000). "Genesis, Book of". In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 9780567372871.
Cotter, David W (2003). Genesis. Liturgical Press. ISBN 9780814650400.
De La Torre, Miguel (2011). Genesis. Belief: A Theological Commentary on the Bible. Westminster John Knox Press.
Fretheim, Terence E. “The Book of Genesis.” In The New Interpreter's Bible. Edited by Leander E. Keck, vol. 1, pp. 319–674. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994. ISBN 0-687-27814-7.
Hamilton, Victor P (1990). The book of Genesis: chapters 1–17. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802825216.
Hamilton, Victor P (1995). The book of Genesis: chapters 18–50. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802823090.
Hirsch, Samson Raphael. The Pentateuch: Genesis. Translated by Isaac Levy. Judaica Press, 2nd edition 1999. ISBN 0-910818-12-6. Originally published as Der Pentateuch uebersetzt und erklaert Frankfurt, 1867–1878.
Kass, Leon R. The Beginning of Wisdom: Reading Genesis. New York: Free Press, 2003. ISBN 0-7432-4299-8.
Kessler, Martin; Deurloo, Karel Adriaan (2004). A Commentary on Genesis: The Book of Beginnings. Paulist Press. ISBN 9780809142057.
McKeown, James (2008). Genesis. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802827050.
Plaut, Gunther. The Torah: A Modern Commentary (1981), ISBN 0-8074-0055-6
Rogerson, John William (1991). Genesis 1–11. T&T Clark. ISBN 9780567083388.
Sacks, Robert D (1990). A Commentary on the Book of Genesis. Edwin Mellen.
Sarna, Nahum M. The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989. ISBN 0-8276-0326-6.
Speiser, E.A. Genesis: Introduction, Translation, and Notes. New York: Anchor Bible, 1964. ISBN 0-385-00854-6.
Towner, Wayne Sibley (2001). Genesis. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664252564.
Turner, Laurence (2009). Genesis, Second Edition. Sheffield Phoenix Press. ISBN 9781906055653.
Von Rad, Gerhard (1972). Genesis: A Commentary. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664227456.
Wenham, Gordon (2003). "Genesis". In James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson. Eerdmans Bible Commentary. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802837110.
Whybray, R.N (2001). "Genesis". In John Barton. Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198755005.
General[edit]
Bandstra, Barry L (2004). Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Wadsworth. ISBN 9780495391050.
Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2004). Treasures old and new: Essays in the Theology of the Pentateuch. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802826794.
Brueggemann, Walter (2002). Reverberations of faith: A Theological Handbook of Old Testament themes. Westminster John Knox. ISBN 9780664222314.
Campbell, Antony F; O'Brien, Mark A (1993). Sources of the Pentateuch: Texts, Introductions, Annotations. Fortress Press. ISBN 9781451413670.
Carr, David M (1996). Reading the Fractures of Genesis. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664220716.
Clines, David A (1997). The Theme of the Pentateuch. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 9780567431967.
Davies, G.I (1998). "Introduction to the Pentateuch". In John Barton. Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198755005.
Gooder, Paula (2000). The Pentateuch: A Story of Beginnings. T&T Clark. ISBN 9780567084187.
Hendel, Ronald (2012). The Book of "Genesis": A Biography (Lives of Great Religious Books). Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691140124.
Kugler, Robert; Hartin, Patrick (2009). The Old Testament between Theology and History: A Critical Survey. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802846365.
Levin, Christoph L (2005). The Old Testament: A Brief Introduction. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691113944.
Longman, Tremper (2005). How to read Genesis. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 9780830875603.
McEntire, Mark (2008). Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch. Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780881461015.
Newman, Murray L. (1999). Genesis (PDF). Forward Movement Publications, Cincinnati, OH.
Ska, Jean-Louis (2006). Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575061221.
Van Seters, John (1992). Prologue to History: The Yahwist As Historian in Genesis. Westminster John Knox Press.
Van Seters, John (1998). "The Pentateuch". In Steven L. McKenzie, Matt Patrick Graham. The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664256524.
Van Seters, John (2004). The Pentateuch: A Social-science Commentary. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 9780567080882.
Walsh, Jerome T (2001). Style and Structure in Biblical Hebrew Narrative. Liturgical Press. ISBN 9780814658970.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Book of Genesis.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Genesis
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Genesis
Bereshit (book of Genesis) – Mikraot Gedolot Haketer – online edition, Menachem Cohen, Bar Ilan University (Hebrew)
Book of Genesis illustrated
Genesis Reading Room (Tyndale Seminary): online commentaries and monographs on Genesis.
Bereshit with commentary in Hebrew
בראשית Bereishit – Genesis (Hebrew – English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
Genesis at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation)
01 Genesis public domain audiobook at LibriVox Various versions
Genesis (The Living Torah) Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's translation and commentary at Ort.org
Genesis (Judaica Press) at Chabad.org
Young's Literal Translation (YLT)
New International Version (NIV)
Revised Standard Version (RSV)
Westminster-Leningrad codex
Aleppo Codex
Book of Gonesis in Bible Book
Genesis in Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, Greek, Latin, and English – The critical text of the Book of Genesis in Hebrew with ancient versions (Masoretic, Samaritan Pentateuch, Samaritan Targum, Targum Onkelos, Peshitta, Septuagint, Vetus Latina, Vulgate, Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion) and English translation for each version in parallel.
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Noah's Ark media
Source
Genesis flood narrative in the Book of Genesis
Characters
Noah
Shem
Ham
Japheth
Wives aboard Noah's Ark
Television
Captain Noah and His Magical Ark (1967)
Noah's Island (1997)
Noah's Ark (1999)
The Ark (2015)
Film
Noah's Ark (1928)
Father Noah's Ark (1933)
The Bible: In the Beginning... (1966)
O Trapalhão na Arca de Noé (1983)
La Biblia en pasta (1984)
Genesis: The Creation and the Flood (1994)
Noah (1998)
Raining Cats and Frogs (2003)
Noah's Ark (2007)
Evan Almighty (2007)
40 Days and Nights (2012)
Noah (2014)
Ooops! Noah Is Gone... (2015)
Stage
The Flowering Peach (1954 play)
Two by Two (1970 musical)
Opera
Il diluvio universale (1830)
Le Déluge (1875)
Noé (1885)
Noye's Fludde (1958)
Songs
Captain Noah and His Floating Zoo (1970)
"The Prophet's Song" (1975)
"Animals" (1980)
"Forever Not Yours" (2002)
Games
Noah's Ark
Noah's Ark (1992)
Super 3D Noah's Ark (1994)
Literature
The Moon in the Cloud (1969)
Noah's Ark (1977)
Not Wanted on the Voyage (1984)
Many Waters (1986)
Not the End of the World (2004)
Other cultures
Flood myth
Sumerian creation myth
Gilgamesh flood myth
Ancient Greek flood myths
Finnish flood myth
Great Flood of China
Mesoamerican flood myths
Cessair
Bergelmir
Noah in Islam
Noah in rabbinic literature
Science
Black Sea deluge hypothesis
Flood geology
Searches for Noah's Ark
Geography
In Search of Noah's Ark
Mountains of Ararat
Mount Judi
Mosque of Ibn Tulun
Theories
Ararat anomaly
Durupınar site
Story within a story
Angel's Egg
Doctor Dolittle and the Secret Lake
Fantasia 2000
"Homer and Ned's Hail Mary Pass"
"This Is the Way the World Ends"
Exclusions
"The Unicorn"
Peluda
Related theology
Book of Noah
Generations of Noah
Gopher wood
Noah's wine
Seven Laws of Noah
Other
Noah's Brother
Noah's Ark replicas and derivatives
Boner's Ark
Noah's Ark silver coins
[show]
v
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Adam and Eve
Source
Genesis creation narrative in the Book of Genesis
Adam
Eve
Lucifer
Offspring
Cain and Abel
Aclima
Seth
Awan
Azura
Television
"Probe 7, Over and Out" (1963)
Film
Mama's Affair (1921)
Good Morning, Eve! (1934)
The Broken Jug (1937)
The Original Sin (1948)
The Private Lives of Adam and Eve (1960)
El pecado de Adán y Eva (1969)
La Biblia en pasta (1984)
The Annunciation (1984)
Adipapam (1988)
Adam (1992)
Man's Best Friend (1998)
Babs (2000)
The Last Eve (2005)
Year One (2009)
The Tragedy of Man (2011)
Adam and Dog (2011)
Tropico (2013)
Plays
Le Jeu d'Adam (12th century)
The Broken Jug (1808)
The Tragedy of Man (1861)
The Creation of the World and Other Business (1972)
Musicals
The Apple Tree (1966)
Dude (1972)
Up from Paradise (1973)
Children of Eden (1991)
Compositions
The Creation (1798)
structure
La mort d'Adam (1809)
Ève (1875)
Genesis Suite (1945)
Lilith (2001)
Literature
Apocalypse of Adam
Book of Moses
Book of Abraham
Books of Adam
Book of the Penitence of Adam
Cave of Treasures
"El y Ella"
Genesis A and Genesis B
Harrowing of Hell
Life of Adam and Eve
Testament of Adam
Testimony of Truth (3rd century)
Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan (6th century)
"Old Saxon Genesis" (9th century)
"Adam lay ybounden" (15th century)
Paradise Lost (1667)
Le Dernier Homme (1805)
Extracts from Adam's Diary (1904)
Eve's Diary (1905)
The Book of Genesis (2009)
Art
Bernward Doors (1015)
Tapestry of Creation (11th century)
Expulsion from the Garden of Eden (1425)
Vienna Diptych (15th century)
The Last Judgment (1482)
The Garden of Earthly Delights (1504)
Adam and Eve (1507)
Paradise and Hell (1510)
The Creation of Adam (1512)
The Haywain Triptych (1516)
Eve, the Serpent and Death (1510s or 1520s)
Adam and Eve (1528)
The Fall of Man (1550)
Maps of Ancient Israel
The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man (1617)
The Fall of Man (1628)
The Four Seasons (1660s)
The Koren Picture-Bible (1692–1696)
The First Mourning (1888)
Eve (1931)
Adam and Eve (1932)
The Serpent Chooses Adam and Eve (1958)
Adam and Eve (1992)
Songs
"Dese Bones G'wine Rise Again"
"Adam-ondi-Ahman" (1835)
"Forbidden Fruit" (1915)
"The Garden of Eden" (1956)
"Let's Give Adam and Eve Another Chance" (1970)
"Man Gave Names to All the Animals" (1979)
Albums
The Cainian Chronicle (1996)
Visions of Eden (2006)
Other cultures
Adam–God doctrine
Adam and Eve (LDS Church)
Adam in Islam
Adam in rabbinic literature
Al-A'raf
Book of Moses
Endowment
Manu (Hinduism)
Mashya and Mashyana
Serpent seed
Tree of Jiva and Atman
Tree of life (Quran)
Our Lady of Endor Coven
Geography
Adam-ondi-Ahman
Tomb of Eve
Biology
Mitochondrial Eve
Y-chromosomal Adam
The Real Eve
Story within a story
Doraemon: Nobita's Diary of the Creation of the World
Island of Love
The Visitors
Games
Demon: The Fallen (2002)
Related theology
Fall of man
Original sin
Garden of Eden
Tree of the knowledge of good and evil
Serpents in the Bible
Forbidden fruit
Apple
Fig leaf
Figs in the Bible
Adam's ale
Adamic language
Rosh Hashanah
Camael
Shamsiel
Tree of life
Allegorical interpretations of Genesis
Other
Pre-Adamite
Generations of Adam
Cave of the Patriarchs
"In-A-Gadda-Da-Leela"
"Simpsons Bible Stories"
Second Time Lucky
Adam and Eve cylinder seal
Timeline of Genesis patriarchs
Genealogies of Genesis
Carnal knowledge
Legend of the Rood
Ystorya Adaf
Snakes for the Divine
Ransom theory of atonement
[show]
v
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Cain and Abel
Book of Genesis
Biblical characters
Adam
Eve
Cain and Abel
Lucifer
Enoch
Awan
Portrayals in media
Film
East of Eden (film, 1952)
Caín (1984)
La Biblia en pasta (1984)
The Last Eve (2005)
Year One (2009)
Abel Cain
Plays
Le Jeu d'Adam (12th century)
Cain (1821)
Musicals
Children of Eden (1991)
Here's Where I Belong (1968)
Literature
Book of the Penitence of Adam
East of Eden (novel, 1952)
Abel Sánchez: The History of a Passion (1917)
The Book of Lies (2008)
Songs
"Should the Bible Be Banned" (1988)
"Cain's Blood" (1995)
Other
La mort d'Abel (composition, 1810)
The First Mourning (painting, 1888)
Cain and Abel (TV series, 2009)
Cain and Abel (DC Comics)
Kane (Command & Conquer video game character)
Related theology
Adam and Eve
Curse and mark of Cain
Serpent seed
Christian Identity
Cain and Abel in Islam
Balbira and Kalmana
Cainites
Other
Generations of Adam
Timeline of Genesis patriarchs
Land of Nod
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Genesis – Afrikaans
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Chenesi – Aragonese
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Genesis – Bavarian
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Genesis – Czech
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Genesisi – Shona
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Chenesis – Choctaw
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Genezo – Esperanto
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Geineasas – Irish
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Genesis – Scottish Gaelic
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Genezis – Upper Sorbian
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Genezo – Ido
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Genesis – Interlingua
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Ugenesis – Zulu
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Genesi – Italian
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Jenesis – Cornish
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Bereshit – Ladino
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Genesis – Limburgish
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Genesis – Ndonga
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Genese – Southern Sotho
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Tekvin – Turkish
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