text:
Ganges
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Ganges (disambiguation).
The Ganges River (Ganga)
The Ganges in Varanasi
Country
India
Bangladesh
States
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal
Tributaries
- left Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, Koshi, Mahananda
- right Yamuna, Tamsa, Son, Punpun
Cities
Rishikesh, Haridwar, Kannauj, Farrukhabad, Kanpur, Allahabad, Varanasi, Buxar, Patna, Hajipur, Munger, Katihar,Sahibgang, Farakka, Murshidabad, Plassey, Nabadwip
Source
Gangotri Glacier, Satopanth Glacier, Khatling Glacier, and waters from melted snow from such peaks as Nanda Devi, Trisul, Kedarnath, Nanda Kot, and Kamet.
- location Uttarakhand, India
- elevation 3,892 m (12,769 ft)
- coordinates 30°59′N 78°55′E / 30.983°N 78.917°E / 30.983; 78.917
Length
2,525 km (1,569 mi) [1]
Depth
17 m (56 ft)
Basin
1,080,000 km2 (416,990 sq mi) [2]
Discharge
for Farakka Barrage
- average 16,648 m3/s (587,919 cu ft/s) [3]
- max 70,000 m3/s (2,472,027 cu ft/s)
- min 2,000 m3/s (70,629 cu ft/s)
Discharge elsewhere (average)
- Bay of Bengal 38,129 m3/s (1,346,513 cu ft/s) [3]
Map of the combined drainage basins of the Ganges (orange), Brahmaputra (violet), and Meghna (green)
Coordinates: 25°18′N 83°01′E / 25.30°N 83.01°E / 25.30; 83.01
Part of a series on
Hinduism
Hindu
History
Concepts[show]
God / Highest Reality
Brahman
Ishvara
God in Hinduism
God and gender
Life
Atman
Maya
Karma
Samsara
Purusharthas
Dharma
Artha
Kama
Moksha
Ethics
Niti shastra
Yamas
Niyama
Ahimsa
Asteya
Aparigraha
Brahmacharya
Satya
Damah
Dayā
Akrodha
Ārjava
Santosha
Tapas
Svādhyāya
Shaucha
Mitahara
Dāna
Liberation
Bhakti yoga
Jnana yoga
Karma yoga
Schools[show]
Six Astika schools
Samkhya
Yoga
Nyaya
Vaisheshika
Mimamsa
Vedanta
Advaita
Dvaita
Vishishtadvaita
Other schools
Pasupata
Saiva
Pratyabhijña
Raseśvara
Īśvara
Pāṇini Darśana
Charvaka
Deities[show]
Trimurti
Brahma
Vishnu
Shiva
Other major Devis / Devas
Vedic
Indra
Agni
Prajapati
Rudra
Devi
Saraswati
Ushas
Varuna
Vayu
Post-Vedic
Durga
Ganesha
Hanuman
Kali
Kartikeya
Krishna
Lakshmi
Parvati
Radha
Rama
Shakti
Sita
Texts[show]
Scriptures
Vedas
Rigveda
Yajurveda
Samaveda
Atharvaveda
Divisions
Samhita
Brahmana
Aranyaka
Upanishad
Upanishads
Rigveda:
Aitareya
Kaushitaki
Yajurveda:
Brihadaranyaka
Isha
Taittiriya
Katha
Shvetashvatara
Maitri
Samaveda:
Chandogya
Kena
Atharvaveda:
Mundaka
Mandukya
Prashna
Other scriptures
Bhagavad Gita
Agama (Hinduism)
Other texts
Vedangas
Shiksha
Chandas
Vyakarana
Nirukta
Kalpa
Jyotisha
Puranas
Vishnu Purana
Bhagavata Purana
Nāradeya Purana
Vāmana Purana
Matsya Purana
Garuda Purana
Brahma Purana
Brahmānda Purana
Brahma Vaivarta Purana
Bhavishya Purana
Padma Purana
Agni Purana
Shiva Purana
Linga Purana
Kūrma Purana
Skanda Purana
Varaha Purana
Mārkandeya Purana
Itihasas
Ramayana
Mahabharata
Upavedas
Ayurveda
Dhanurveda
Gandharvaveda
Sthapatyaveda
Shastras and Sutras
Dharma Shastra
Artha Śastra
Kamasutra
Brahma Sutras
Samkhya Sutras
Mimamsa Sutras
Nyāya Sūtras
Vaiśeṣika Sūtra
Yoga Sutras
Pramana Sutras
Charaka Samhita
Sushruta Samhita
Natya Shastra
Panchatantra
Divya Prabandha
Tirumurai
Ramcharitmanas
Yoga Vasistha
Swara yoga
Shiva Samhita
Gheranda Samhita
Panchadasi
Stotra
Sutras
Text classification
Śruti Smriti
Timeline of Hindu texts
Practices[show]
Worship
Puja
Temple
Murti
Bhakti
Japa
Bhajana
Yajna
Homa
Vrata
Prāyaścitta
Tirtha
Tirthadana
Matha
Nritta-Nritya
Meditation and Charity
Tapa
Dhyana
Dāna
Yoga
Sadhu
Yogi
Asana
Hatha yoga
Jnana yoga
Bhakti yoga
Karma yoga
Raja yoga
Kundalini Yoga

Rites of passage
Garbhadhana
Pumsavana
Simantonayana
Jatakarma
Namakarana
Nishkramana
Annaprashana
Chudakarana
Karnavedha
Vidyarambha
Upanayana
Keshanta
Ritushuddhi
Samavartana
Vivaha
Antyeshti
Ashrama Dharma
Ashrama: Brahmacharya
Grihastha
Vanaprastha
Sannyasa
Festivals
Diwali
Holi
Shivaratri
Navaratri
Durga Puja
Ramlila
Vijayadashami-Dussehra
Raksha Bandhan
Ganesh Chaturthi
Vasant Panchami
Rama Navami
Janmashtami
Onam
Makar Sankranti
Kumbha Mela
Pongal
Ugadi
Vaisakhi
Bihu
Puthandu
Vishu
Ratha Yatra
Gurus, saints, philosophers[show]
Ancient
Agastya
Angiras
Aruni
Ashtavakra
Atri
Bharadwaja
Gotama
Jamadagni
Jaimini
Kanada
Kapila
Kashyapa
Pāṇini
Patanjali
Raikva
Satyakama Jabala
Valmiki
Vashistha
Vishvamitra
Vyasa
Yajnavalkya
Medieval
Nayanars
Alvars
Adi Shankara
Basava
Akka Mahadevi
Allama Prabhu
Siddheshwar
Jñāneśvar
Chaitanya
Gangesha Upadhyaya
Gaudapada
Gorakshanath
Jayanta Bhatta
Kabir
Kumarila Bhatta
Matsyendranath
Mahavatar Babaji
Madhusudana
Madhva
Haridasa Thakur
Namdeva
Nimbarka
Prabhakara
Raghunatha Siromani
Ramanuja
Sankardev
Purandara Dasa
Kanaka Dasa
Ramprasad Sen
Jagannatha Dasa
Vyasaraya
Sripadaraya
Raghavendra Swami
Gopala Dasa
Śyāma Śastri
Vedanta Desika
Tyagaraja
Tukaram
Tulsidas
Vachaspati Mishra
Vallabha
Vidyaranya
Modern
Aurobindo
Bhaktivinoda Thakur
Chinmayananda
Dayananda Saraswati
Mahesh Yogi
Jaggi Vasudev
Krishnananda Saraswati
Narayana Guru
Prabhupada
Ramakrishna
Ramana Maharshi
Radhakrishnan
Sarasvati
Sivananda
U. G. Krishnamurti
Sai Baba
Vivekananda
Nigamananda
Yogananda
Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade
Tibbetibaba
Trailanga
Society[show]
Varna
Brahmin
Kshatriya
Vaishya
Shudra
Dalit
Jati
Denominations
Persecution
Nationalism
Hindutva
Other topics[show]
Hinduism by country
Balinese Hinduism
Criticism
Calendar
Iconography
Mythology
Pilgrimage sites
Hinduism and Jainism / and Buddhism / and Sikhism / and Judaism / and Christianity / and Islam
Glossary of Hinduism terms
Hinduism portal
v
t
e
The Ganges (/ˈɡændʒiːz/ GAN-jeez), also known as Ganga (Hindustani: [ˈɡəŋɡaː]), is a trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through the nations of India and Bangladesh. The 2,525 km (1,569 mi) river rises in the eastern Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttarakhand, and flows south and east through the Gangetic Plain of North India, after entering West Bengal, it is divided into two rivers, one is Hugly river or Adi Ganga, flowing through several districts of West Bengal and finally submerged with Bay of Bengal near Ganga Sagar. The second part is named as Padma flows into Bangladesh, where it empties into the Bay of Bengal. It is the third largest river in the world by discharge.
The Ganges is one of the most sacred rivers to Hindus, although there was no mention of Ganga River both in Rigveda and in Ramayana written by sage Valmiki.[4] It is also a lifeline to millions of Indians who live along its course and depend on it for their daily needs. It is worshipped as the goddess Ganga in Hinduism.[5] It has also been important historically, with many former provincial or imperial capitals (such as [6] Kannauj, Kampilya, [6] Kara, Prayag or Allahabad, Kashi, Pataliputra or Patna, Hajipur, Munger, Bhagalpur, Murshidabad, Baharampur, Nabadwip, Saptagram, Kolkata and Dhaka) located on its banks.
The Ganges is highly polluted. Pollution threatens not only humans, but also more than 140 fish species, 90 amphibian species and the endangered Ganges river dolphin.[7] The levels of fecal coliform from human waste in the waters of the river near Varanasi are more than 100 times the Indian government's official limit.[7] The Ganga Action Plan, an environmental initiative to clean up the river, has been a major failure thus far,[a][b][8] due to corruption, lack of technical expertise,[c] poor environmental planning,[d] and lack of support from religious authorities.[e]
Contents
[hide]
1 Course
2 Geology
3 Hydrology
4 History
5 Religious and cultural significance
5.1 Embodiment of sacredness
5.2 Avatarana or Descent of the Ganges
5.3 Redemption of the Dead
5.4 The Purifying Ganges
5.5 Consort, Shakti, and Mother
5.6 Ganges in classical Indian iconography
5.7 Kumbh Mela
6 Irrigation
6.1 Canals
6.2 Dams and barrages
7 Economy
7.1 Tourism
8 Ecology and environment
8.1 Fish
8.2 Crocodilians and turtles
8.3 Ganges river dolphin
8.4 Effects of climate change
9 Pollution and environmental concerns
9.1 Water shortages
9.2 Mining
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 Sources
14 Further reading
15 External links
Course[edit]
Bhagirathi River at Gangotri.
Devprayag, confluence of Alaknanda (right) and Bhagirathi (left) rivers, beginning of the Ganges proper.
The Himalayan headwaters of the Ganges River in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand, India. The headstreams and rivers are labelled in italics; the heights of the mountains, lakes, and towns are displayed in parentheses in metres.
The main stream of the Ganges begins at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers in the town of Devprayag in the Garhwal division of the Indian state of Uttarakhand. The Bhagirathi is considered to be the source in Hindu culture and mythology, although the Alaknanda is longer, and, therefore, hydrologically the source stream.[9][10] The headwaters of the Alakananda are formed by snowmelt from peaks such as Nanda Devi, Trisul, and Kamet. The Bhagirathi rises at the foot of Gangotri Glacier, at Gomukh, at an elevation of 3,892 m (12,769 ft), being mythologically referred to as, residing in the matted locks of Shiva, symbolically Tapovan, being a meadow of ethereal beauty at the feet of Mount Shivling, just 5 km (3.1 mi) away.[11][12]
Although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganges, the six longest and their five confluences are considered sacred. The six headstreams are the Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Nandakini, Pindar, Mandakini, and Bhagirathi rivers. The five confluences, known as the Panch Prayag, are all along the Alaknanda. They are, in downstream order, Vishnuprayag, where the Dhauliganga joins the Alaknanda; Nandprayag, where the Nandakini joins; Karnaprayag, where the Pindar joins, Rudraprayag, where the Mandakini joins; and finally, Devprayag, where the Bhagirathi joins the Alaknanda to form the Ganges River proper.[9]
After flowing 250 km (155.343 mi) [12] through its narrow Himalayan valley, the Ganges emerges from the mountains at Rishikesh, then debouches onto the Gangetic Plain at the pilgrimage town of Haridwar.[9] At Haridwar, a dam diverts some of its waters into the Ganges Canal, which irrigates the Doab region of Uttar Pradesh, whereas the river, whose course has been roughly southwest until this point, now begins to flow southeast through the plains of northern India.
The Ganges follows an 800 km (500 mi) arching course passing through the cities of Kannauj, Farukhabad, and Kanpur. Along the way it is joined by the Ramganga, which contributes an average annual flow of about 500 m3/s (18,000 cu ft/s).[13] The Ganges joins the Yamuna at the Triveni Sangam at Allahabad, a holy confluence in Hinduism. At their confluence the Yamuna is larger than the Ganges, contributing about 2,950 m3/s (104,000 cu ft/s),[13] or about 58.5% of the combined flow.[14]
Now flowing east, the river meets the Tamsa River (also called Tons), which flows north from the Kaimur Range and contributes an average flow of about 190 m3/s (6,700 cu ft/s). After the Tamsa the Gomti River joins, flowing south from the Himalayas. The Gomti contributes an average annual flow of about 234 m3/s (8,300 cu ft/s). Then the Ghaghara River (Karnali River), also flowing south from the Himalayas of Nepal, joins. The Ghaghara (Karnali), with its average annual flow of about 2,990 m3/s (106,000 cu ft/s), is the largest tributary of the Ganges. After the Ghaghara (Karnali) confluence the Ganges is joined from the south by the Son River, contributing about 1,000 m3/s (35,000 cu ft/s). The Gandaki River, then the Kosi River, join from the north flowing from Nepal, contributing about 1,654 m3/s (58,400 cu ft/s) and 2,166 m3/s (76,500 cu ft/s), respectively. The Kosi is the third largest tributary of the Ganges, after the Ghaghara (Karnali) and Yamuna.[13]
Along the way between Allahabad and Malda, West Bengal, the Ganges passes the towns of Chunar, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Patna, Hajipur, Chapra, Bhagalpur, Ballia, Buxar, Simaria, Sultanganj, and Saidpur. At Bhagalpur, the river begins to flow south-southeast and at Pakur, it begins its attrition with the branching away of its first distributary, the Bhāgirathi-Hooghly, which goes on to become the Hooghly River. Just before the border with Bangladesh the Farakka Barrage controls the flow of the Ganges, diverting some of the water into a feeder canal linked to the Hooghly for the purpose of keeping it relatively silt-free. The Hooghly River is formed by the confluence of the Bhagirathi River and Jalangi River at Nabadwip, and Hooghly has a number of tributaries of its own. The largest is the Damodar River, which is 541 km (336 mi) long, with a drainage basin of 25,820 km2 (9,970 sq mi).[15] The Hooghly River empties into the Bay of Bengal near Sagar Island.[16] Between Malda and the Bay of Bengal, the Hooghly river passes the towns and cities of Murshidabad, Nabadwip, Kolkata and Howrah.
After entering Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganges is known as the Padma. The Padma is joined by the Jamuna River, the largest distributary of the Brahmaputra. Further downstream, the Padma joins the Meghna River, the second largest distributary of the Brahmaputra, and takes on the Meghna's name as it enters the Meghna Estuary, which empties into the Bay of Bengal. Here it forms the 1,430 by 3,000 km (890 by 1,860 mi) Bengal Fan, the world's largest submarine fan,[17] which alone accounts for 10–20% of the global burial of organic carbon.[18]
The Ganges Delta, formed mainly by the large, sediment-laden flows of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, is the world's largest delta, at about 59,000 km2 (23,000 sq mi).[19] It stretches 322 km (200 mi) along the Bay of Bengal.[20]
Only the Amazon and Congo rivers have a greater average discharge than the combined flow of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Surma-Meghna river system.[20] In full flood only the Amazon is larger.[21]
Geology[edit]
The Indian subcontinent lies atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[22] Its defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when, as a part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, it began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.[22] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountain ranges.[22] In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled with sediment borne by the Indus and its tributaries and the Ganges and its tributaries,[23] now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[24]
The Indo-Gangetic Plain is geologically known as a foredeep or foreland basin.[25]
Hydrology[edit]
A 1908 map showing the course of the Ganges and its tributaries.
Catchment region of the Ganga
Major left-bank tributaries include Gomti (Gumti), Ghaghara (Gogra), Gandaki (Gandak), and Kosi (Kusi); major right-bank tributaries include Yamuna (Jumna), Son, Punpun and Damodar.
The hydrology of the Ganges River is very complicated, especially in the Ganges Delta region. One result is different ways to determine the river's length, its discharge, and the size of its drainage basin.
The river Ganges at Kolkata, with Howrah Bridge in the background
Lower Ganges in Lakshmipur, Bangladesh
The Mahatma Gandhi Setu bridge over the Ganges connecting the cities of Patna and Hajipur
The name Ganges is used for the river between the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers, in the Himalayas, and the India-Bangladesh border, near the Farakka Barrage and the first bifurcation of the river. The length of the Ganges is frequently said to be slightly over 2,500 km (1,600 mi) long, about 2,505 km (1,557 mi),[26] to 2,525 km (1,569 mi),[27][14] or perhaps 2,550 km (1,580 mi).[28] In these cases the river's source is usually assumed to be the source of the Bhagirathi River, Gangotri Glacier at Gomukh, and its mouth being the mouth of the Meghna River on the Bay of Bengal.[27][14][26][28] Sometimes the source of the Ganges is considered to be at Haridwar, where its Himalayan headwater streams debouch onto the Gangetic Plain.[29]
In some cases, the length of the Ganges is given for its Hooghly River distributary, which is longer than its main outlet via the Meghna River, resulting in a total length of about 2,620 km (1,630 mi), from the source of the Bhagirathi,[19] or 2,135 km (1,327 mi), from Haridwar to the Hooghly's mouth.[30] In other cases the length is said to be about 2,240 km (1,390 mi), from the source of the Bhagirathi to the Bangladesh border, where its name changes to Padma.[31]
For similar reasons, sources differ over the size of the river's drainage basin. The basin covers parts of four countries, India, Nepal, China, and Bangladesh; eleven Indian states, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, West Bengal, and the Union Territory of Delhi.[32] The Ganges basin, including the delta but not the Brahmaputra or Meghna basins, is about 1,080,000 km2 (420,000 sq mi), of which 861,000 km2 (332,000 sq mi) are in India (about 80%), 140,000 km2 (54,000 sq mi) in Nepal (13%), 46,000 km2 (18,000 sq mi) in Bangladesh (4%), and 33,000 km2 (13,000 sq mi) in China (3%).[33] Sometimes the Ganges and Brahmaputra–Meghna drainage basins are combined for a total of about 1,600,000 km2 (620,000 sq mi),[21] or 1,621,000 km2 (626,000 sq mi).[20] The combined Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin (abbreviated GBM or GMB) drainage basin is spread across Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and China.[34]
The Ganges basin ranges from the Himalaya and the Transhimalaya in the north, to the northern slopes of the Vindhya range in the south, from the eastern slopes of the Aravalli in the west to the Chota Nagpur plateau and the Sunderbans delta in the east. A significant portion of the discharge from the Ganges comes from the Himalayan mountain system. Within the Himalaya, the Ganges basin spreads almost 1,200 km from the Yamuna-Satluj divide along the Simla ridge forming the boundary with the Indus basin in the west to the Singalila Ridge along the Nepal-Sikkim border forming the boundary with the Brahmaputra basin in the east. This section of the Himalaya contains 9 of the 14 highest peaks in the world over 8,000m in height, including Mount Everest which is the high point of the Ganges basin.[35] The other peaks over 8,000m in the basin are Kangchenjunga,[36] Lhotse,[37] Makalu,[38] Cho Oyu,[39] Dhaulagiri,[40] Manaslu,[41] Annapurna[42] and Shishapangma.[43] The Himalayan portion of the basin includes the south-eastern portion of the state of Himachal Pradesh, the entire state of Uttarakhand, the entire country of Nepal and the extreme north-western portion of the state of West Bengal.[citation needed]
The discharge of the Ganges also differs by source. Frequently, discharge is described for the mouth of the Meghna River, thus combining the Ganges with the Brahmaputra and Meghna. This results in a total average annual discharge of about 38,000 m3/s (1,300,000 cu ft/s),[20] or 42,470 m3/s (1,500,000 cu ft/s).[19] In other cases the average annual discharges of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna are given separately, at about 16,650 m3/s (588,000 cu ft/s) for the Ganges, about 19,820 m3/s (700,000 cu ft/s) for the Brahmaputra, and about 5,100 m3/s (180,000 cu ft/s) for the Meghna.[27]
Hardinge Bridge, Bangladesh, crosses the Ganges-Padma River. It is one of the key sites for measuring streamflow and discharge on the lower Ganges.
The maximum peak discharge of the Ganges, as recorded at Hardinge Bridge in Bangladesh, exceeded 70,000 m3/s (2,500,000 cu ft/s).[44] The minimum recorded at the same place was about 180 m3/s (6,400 cu ft/s), in 1997.[45]
The hydrologic cycle in the Ganges basin is governed by the Southwest Monsoon. About 84% of the total rainfall occurs in the monsoon from June to September. Consequently, streamflow in the Ganges is highly seasonal. The average dry season to monsoon discharge ratio is about 1:6, as measured at Hardinge Bridge. This strong seasonal variation underlies many problems of land and water resource development in the region.[31] The seasonality of flow is so acute it can cause both drought and floods. Bangladesh, in particular, frequently experiences drought during the dry season and regularly suffers extreme floods during the monsoon.[45]
In the Ganges Delta many large rivers come together, both merging and bifurcating in a complicated network of channels. The two largest rivers, the Ganges and Brahmaputra, both split into distributary channels, the largest of which merge with other large rivers before themselves joining. This current channel pattern was not always the case. Over time the rivers in Ganges Delta have changed course, sometimes altering the network of channels in significant ways.
Before the late 12th century the Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary was the main channel of the Ganges and the Padma was only a minor spill-channel. The main flow of the river reached the sea not via the modern Hooghly River but rather by the Adi Ganga. Between the 12th and 16th centuries the Bhagirathi-Hooghly and Padma channels were more or less equally significant. After the 16th century the Padma grew to become the main channel of the Ganges.[16] It is thought that the Bhagirathi-Hooghly became increasingly choked with silt, causing the main flow of the Ganges to shift to the southeast and the Padma River. By the end of the 18th century the Padma had become the main distributary of the Ganges.[19] One result of this shift to the Padma was that the Ganges joined the Meghna and Brahmaputra rivers before emptying into the Bay of Bengal, together instead of separately. The present confluence of the Ganges and Meghna formed about 150 years ago.[46]
Also near the end of the 18th century, the course of the lower Brahmaputra changed dramatically, altering its relationship with the Ganges. In 1787 there was a great flood on the Teesta River, which at the time was a tributary of the Ganges-Padma River. The flood of 1787 caused the Teesta to undergo a sudden change course (an avulsion), shifting east to join the Brahmaputra and causing the Brahmaputra to shift its course south, cutting a new channel. This new main channel of the Brahmaputra is called the Jamuna River. It flows south to join the Ganges-Padma. Since ancient times the main flow of the Brahmaputra was more easterly, passing by the city of Mymensingh and joining the Meghna River. Today this channel is a small distributary but retains the name Brahmaputra, sometimes Old Brahmaputra.[47] The site of the old Brahmaputra-Meghna confluence, in the locality of Langalbandh, is still considered sacred by Hindus. Near the confluence is a major early historic site called Wari-Bateshwar.[16]
History[edit]
The birth of Ganges
The Late Harappan period, about 1900–1300 BCE, saw the spread of Harappan settlement eastward from the Indus River basin to the Ganges-Yamuna doab, although none crossed the Ganges to settle its eastern bank. The disintegration of the Harappan civilisation, in the early 2nd millennium BC, marks the point when the centre of Indian civilisation shifted from the Indus basin to the Ganges basin.[48] There may be links between the Late Harappan settlement of the Ganges basin and the archaeological culture known as "Cemetery H", the Indo-Aryan people, and the Vedic period.
This river is the longest in India.[49] During the early Vedic Age of the Rigveda, the Indus and the Sarasvati River were the major sacred rivers, not the Ganges. But the later three Vedas gave much more importance to the Ganges.[f] The Gangetic Plain became the centre of successive powerful states, from the Maurya Empire to the Mughal Empire.[9][50]
The first European traveller to mention the Ganges was Megasthenes (ca. 350–290 BCE). He did so several times in his work Indica: "India, again, possesses many rivers both large and navigable, which, having their sources in the mountains which stretch along the northern frontier, traverse the level country, and not a few of these, after uniting with each other, fall into the river called the Ganges. Now this river, which at its source is 30 stadia broad, flows from north to south, and empties its waters into the ocean forming the eastern boundary of the Gangaridai, a nation which possesses a vast force of the largest-sized elephants." (Diodorus II.37)[51] In the rainy season of 1809, the lower channel of the Bhagirathi, leading to Kolkata, had been entirely shut; but in the following year it opened again, and was nearly of the same size with the upper channel; both however suffered a considerable diminution, owing probably to the new communication opened below the Jalanggi on the upper channel.[citation needed]
In 1951 a water sharing dispute arose between India and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), after India declared its intention to build the Farakka Barrage. The original purpose of the barrage, which was completed in 1975, was to divert up to 1,100 m3/s (39,000 cu ft/s) of water from the Ganges to the Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary in order to restore navigability at the Port of Kolkata. It was assumed that during the worst dry season the Ganges flow would be around 1,400 to 1,600 m3/s (49,000 to 57,000 cu ft/s), thus leaving 280 to 420 m3/s (9,900 to 14,800 cu ft/s) for the then East Pakistan.[52] East Pakistan objected and a protracted dispute ensued. In 1996 a 30-year treaty was signed with Bangladesh. The terms of the agreement are complicated, but in essence they state that if the Ganges flow at Farakka was less than 2,000 m3/s (71,000 cu ft/s) then India and Bangladesh would each receive 50% of the water, with each receiving at least 1,000 m3/s (35,000 cu ft/s) for alternating ten-day periods. However, within a year the flow at Farakka fell to levels far below the historic average, making it impossible to implement the guaranteed sharing of water. In March 1997, flow of the Ganges in Bangladesh dropped to its lowest ever, 180 m3/s (6,400 cu ft/s). Dry season flows returned to normal levels in the years following, but efforts were made to address the problem. One plan is for another barrage to be built in Bangladesh at Pangsha, west of Dhaka. This barrage would help Bangladesh better utilise its share of the waters of the Ganges.[g]
Religious and cultural significance[edit]
Embodiment of sacredness[edit]
Chromolithograph, "Indian woman floating lamps on the Ganges," by William Simpson, 1867.
The Ganges is a sacred river to Hindus along every fragment of its length. All along its course, Hindus bathe in its waters,[53] paying homage to their ancestors and to their gods by cupping the water in their hands, lifting it and letting it fall back into the river; they offer flowers and rose petals and float shallow clay dishes filled with oil and lit with wicks (diyas).[53] On the journey back home from the Ganges, they carry small quantities of river water with them for use in rituals (Ganga jal, literally water of the Ganges).[54]
The Ganges is the embodiment of all sacred waters in Hindu mythology.[55] Local rivers are said to be like the Ganges, and are sometimes called the local Ganges (Ganga).[55] The Kaveri river of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in Southern India is called the Ganges of the South; the Godavari, is the Ganges that was led by the sage Gautama to flow through Central India.[55] The Ganges is invoked whenever water is used in Hindu ritual, and is therefore present in all sacred waters.[55] In spite of this, nothing is more stirring for a Hindu than a dip in the actual river, which is thought to remit sins, especially at one of the famous tirthas such as Gangotri, Haridwar, Prayag, or Varanasi.[55] The symbolic and religious importance of the Ganges is one of the few things that Hindu India, even its skeptics, are agreed upon.[56] Jawaharlal Nehru, a religious iconoclast himself, asked for a handful of his ashes to be thrown into the Ganges.[56] "The Ganga," he wrote in his will, "is the river of India, beloved of her people, round which are intertwined her racial memories, her hopes and fears, her songs of triumph, her victories and her defeats. She has been a symbol of India's age-long culture and civilization, ever-changing, ever-flowing, and yet ever the same Ganga."[56]
Avatarana or Descent of the Ganges[edit]
Descent of Ganga – painting by Raja Ravi Varma
In late May or early June every year, Hindus celebrate the avatarana or descent of the Ganges from heaven to earth.[57] The day of the celebration, Ganga Dashahara, the dashami (tenth day) of the waxing moon of the Hindu calendar month Jyestha, brings throngs of bathers to the banks of the river.[57] A soak in the Ganges on this day is said to rid the bather of ten sins (dasha = Sanskrit "ten"; hara = to destroy) or alternatively, ten lifetimes of sins.[57] Those who cannot journey to the river, however, can achieve the same results by bathing in any nearby body of water, which, for the true believer, in the Hindu tradition, takes on all the attributes of the Ganges.[57]
The avatarana is an old theme in Hinduism with a number of different versions of the story.[57] In the Vedic version, Indra, the Lord of Svarga (Heaven) slays the celestial serpent, Vritra, releasing the celestial liquid, the soma, or the nectar of the gods which then plunges to the earth and waters it with sustenance.[57]
In the Vaishnava version of the myth, Indra has been replaced by his former helper Vishnu.[57] The heavenly waters are now a river called Vishnupadi (padi: Skt. "from the foot of").[57] As he completes his celebrated three strides—of earth, sky, and heaven—Vishnu as Vamana stubs his toe on the vault of heaven, punches open a hole, and releases the Vishnupadi, which until now had been circling around the cosmic egg within.[58] Flowing out of the vault, she plummets down to Indra's heaven, where she is received by Dhruva, the once steadfast worshipper of Vishnu, now fixed in the sky as the polestar.[58] Next, she streams across the sky forming the Milky Way and arrives on the moon.[58] She then flows down earthwards to Brahma's realm, a divine lotus atop Mount Meru, whose petals form the earthly continents.[58] There, the divine waters break up, with one stream, the Alaknanda, flowing down one petal into Bharatvarsha (India) as the Ganges.[58]
It is Shiva, however, among the major deities of the Hindu pantheon, who appears in the most widely known version of the avatarana story.[59] Told and retold in the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and several Puranas, the story begins with a sage, Kapila, whose intense meditation has been disturbed by the sixty thousand sons of King Sagara. Livid at being disturbed, Kapila sears them with his angry gaze, reduces them to ashes, and dispatches them to the netherworld. Only the waters of the Ganges, then in heaven, can bring the dead sons their salvation. A descendant of these sons, King Bhagiratha, anxious to restore his ancestors, undertakes rigorous penance and is eventually granted the prize of Ganga's descent from heaven. However, since her turbulent force would also shatter the earth, Bhagiratha persuades Shiva in his abode on Mount Kailash to receive Ganga in the coils of his tangled hair and break her fall. Ganga descends, is tamed in Shiva's locks, and arrives in the Himalayas. She is then led by the waiting Bhagiratha down into the plains at Haridwar, across the plains first to the confluence with the Yamuna at Prayag and then to Varanasi, and eventually to Ganga Sagar, where she meets the ocean, sinks to the netherworld, and saves the sons of Sagara.[59] In honour of Bhagirath's pivotal role in the avatarana, the source stream of the Ganges in the Himalayas is named Bhagirathi, (Sanskrit, "of Bhagiratha").[59]
Redemption of the Dead[edit]
Preparations for cremations on the banks of the Ganges in Varanasi, 1903. The dead are being bathed, wrapped in cloth and covered with wood. The photograph has caption, "Who dies in the waters of the Ganges obtains heaven."
Since Ganga had descended from heaven to earth, she is also the vehicle of ascent, from earth to heaven.[60] As the Triloka-patha-gamini, (Skt. triloka= "three worlds", patha = "road", gamini = "one who travels") of the Hindu tradition, she flows in heaven, earth, and the netherworld, and, consequently, is a "tirtha," or crossing point of all beings, the living as well as the dead.[60] It is for this reason that the story of the avatarana is told at Shraddha ceremonies for the deceased in Hinduism, and Ganges water is used in Vedic rituals after death.[60] Among all hymns devoted to the Ganges, there are none more popular than the ones expressing the worshipers wish to breathe his last surrounded by her waters.[60] The Gangashtakam expresses this longing fervently:[60]
O Mother! ... Necklace adorning the worlds!
Banner rising to heaven!
I ask that I may leave of this body on your banks,
Drinking your water, rolling in your waves,
Remembering your name, bestowing my gaze upon you.[61]
No place along her banks is more longed for at the moment of death by Hindus than Varanasi, the Great Cremation Ground, or Mahashmshana.[60] Those who are lucky enough to die in Varanasi, are cremated on the banks of the Ganges, and are granted instant salvation.[62] If the death has occurred elsewhere, salvation can be achieved by immersing the ashes in the Ganges.[62] If the ashes have been immersed in another body of water, a relative can still gain salvation for the deceased by journeying to the Ganges, if possible during the lunar "fortnight of the ancestors" in the Hindu calendar month of Ashwin (September or October), and performing the Shraddha rites.[62]
Hindus also perform pinda pradana, a rite for the dead, in which balls of rice and sesame seed are offered to the Ganges while the names of the deceased relatives are recited.[63] Every sesame seed in every ball thus offered, according to one story, assures a thousand years of heavenly salvation for the each relative.[63] Indeed, the Ganges is so important in the rituals after death that the Mahabharata, in one of its popular ślokas, says, "If only (one) bone of a (deceased) person should touch the water of the Ganges, that person shall dwell honoured in heaven."[64] As if to illustrate this truism, the Kashi Khanda (Varanasi Chapter) of the Skanda Purana recounts the remarkable story of Vahika, a profligate and unrepentant sinner, who is killed by a tiger in the forest. His soul arrives before Yama, the Lord of Death, to be judged for the hereafter. Having no compensating virtue, Vahika's soul is at once dispatched to hell. While this is happening, his body on earth, however, is being picked at by vultures, one of whom flies away with a foot bone. Another bird comes after the vulture, and in fighting him off, the vulture accidentally drops the bone into the Ganges below. Blessed by this happenstance, Vahika, on his way to hell, is rescued by a celestial chariot which takes him instead to heaven.[65]
The Purifying Ganges[edit]
Devotees taking holy bath during festival of Ganga Dashara at Har-ki-Pauri, Haridwar
Hindus consider the waters of the Ganges to be both pure and purifying.[66] Nothing reclaims order from disorder more than the waters of the Ganges.[67] Moving water, as in a river, is considered purifying in Hindu culture because it is thought to both absorb impurities and take them away.[67] The swiftly moving Ganges, especially in its upper reaches, where a bather has to grasp an anchored chain in order to not be carried away, is considered especially purifying.[67] What the Ganges removes, however, is not necessarily physical dirt, but symbolic dirt; it wipes away the sins of the bather, not just of the present, but of a lifetime.[67]
A popular paean to the Ganges is the Ganga Lahiri composed by a seventeenth century poet Jagannatha who, legend has it, was turned out of his Hindu Brahmin caste for carrying on an affair with a Muslim woman. Having attempted futilely to be rehabilitated within the Hindu fold, the poet finally appeals to Ganga, the hope of the hopeless, and the comforter of last resort. Along with his beloved, Jagannatha sits at the top of the flight of steps leading to the water at the famous Panchganga Ghat in Varanasi. As he recites each verse of the poem, the water of the Ganges rises up one step, until in the end it envelops the lovers and carry them away.[67] "I come to you as a child to his mother," begins the Ganga Lahiri.[68]
I come as an orphan to you, moist with love.
I come without refuge to you, giver of sacred rest.
I come a fallen man to you, uplifter of all.
I come undone by disease to you, the perfect physician.
I come, my heart dry with thirst, to you, ocean of sweet wine.
Do with me whatever you will.[68]
Consort, Shakti, and Mother[edit]
Ganga is a consort to all three major male deities of Hinduism.[69] As Brahma's partner she always travels with him in the form of water in his kamandalu (water-pot).[69] She is also Vishnu's consort.[69] Not only does she emanate from his foot as Vishnupadi in the avatarana story, but is also, with Sarasvati and Lakshmi, one of his co-wives.[69] In one popular story, envious of being outdone by each other, the co-wives begin to quarrel. While Lakshmi attempts to mediate the quarrel, Ganga and Sarasvati, heap misfortune on each other. They curse each other to become rivers, and to carry within them, by washing, the sins of their human worshippers. Soon their husband, Vishnu, arrives and decides to calm the situation by separating the goddesses. He orders Sarasvati to become the wife of Brahma, Ganga to become the wife of Shiva, and Lakshmi, as the blameless conciliator, to remain as his own wife. Ganga and Sarasvati, however, are so distraught at this dispensation, and wail so loudly, that Vishnu is forced to take back his words. Consequently, in their lives as rivers they are still thought to be with him.[70]
Shiva, as Gangadhara, bearing the Descent of the Ganges, as the goddess Parvati, the sage Bhagiratha, and the bull Nandi look on (circa 1740).
It is Shiva's relationship with Ganga, that is the best-known in Ganges mythology.[71] Her descent, the avatarana is not a one time event, but a continuously occurring one in which she is forever falling from heaven into his locks and being forever tamed.[71] Shiva, is depicted in Hindu iconography as Gangadhara, the "Bearer of the Ganga," with Ganga, shown as spout of water, rising from his hair.[71] The Shiva-Ganga relationship is both perpetual and intimate.[71] Shiva is sometimes called Uma-Ganga-Patiswara ("Husband and Lord of Uma (Parvati) and Ganga"), and Ganga often arouses the jealousy of Shiva's better-known consort Parvati.[71]
Ganga is the shakti or the moving, restless, rolling energy in the form of which the otherwise recluse and unapproachable Shiva appears on earth.[69] As water, this moving energy can be felt, tasted, and absorbed.[69] The war-god Skanda addresses the sage Agastya in the Kashi Khand of the Skanda Purana in these words:[69]
One should not be amazed ... that this Ganges is really Power, for is she not the Supreme Shakti of the Eternal Shiva, taken in the form of water?
This Ganges, filled with the sweet wine of compassion, was sent out for the salvation of the world by Shiva, the Lord of the Lords.
Good people should not think this Triple-Pathed River to be like the thousand other earthly rivers, filled with water.[69]
The Ganges is also the mother, the Ganga Mata (mata="mother") of Hindu worship and culture, accepting all and forgiving all.[68] Unlike other goddesses, she has no destructive or fearsome aspect, destructive though she might be as a river in nature.[68] She is also a mother to other gods.[72] She accepts Shiva's incandescent seed from the fire-god Agni, which is too hot for this world, and cools it in her waters.[72] This union produces Skanda, or Kartikeya, the god of war.[72] In the Mahabharata, she is the wife of Shantanu, and the mother of heroic warrior-patriarch, Bhishma.[72] When Bhishma is mortally wounded in battle, Ganga comes out of the water in human form and weeps uncontrollably over his body.[72]
The Ganges is the distilled lifeblood of the Hindu tradition, of its divinities, holy books, and enlightenment.[69] As such, her worship does not require the usual rites of invocation (avahana) at the beginning and dismissal (visarjana) at the end, required in the worship of other gods.[69] Her divinity is immediate and everlasting.[69]
Ganges in classical Indian iconography[edit]
Photograph (1875) of goddess Ganga (Gupta Period, 5th or 6th century CE) from Besnagar, Madhya Pradesh, now in Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Goddess Ganga with left hand resting on a dwarf attendant's head from the Rameshwar Temple, Ellora Caves, Maharashtra. Date of Sculpture, 6th century
The goddess Ganga stands on her mount, the makara, with a kumbha, a full pot of water, in her hand, while an attendant holds a parasol over her. Terracotta, Ahichatra, Uttar Pradesh, Gupta, 5th century, now in National Museum, New Delhi
The goddess Ganga (right) in tribhanga pose with retinue. Pratihara, 10th century, now in National Museum, New Delhi
Early in ancient Indian culture, the river Ganges was associated with fecundity, its redeeming waters and its rich silt providing sustenance to all who lived along its banks.[73] A counterpoise to the dazzling heat of the Indian summer, the Ganges came to be imbued with magical qualities and to be revered in anthropomorphic form.[74] By the 5th century CE, an elaborate mythology surrounded the Ganges, now a goddess in her own right, and a symbol for all rivers of India.[75] Hindu temples all over India had statues and reliefs of the goddess carved at their entrances, symbolically washing the sins of arriving worshippers and guarding the gods within.[76] As protector of the sanctum sanctorum, the goddess soon came to depicted with several characteristic accessories: the makara (a crocodile-like undersea monster, often shown with an elephant-like trunk), the kumbha (an overfull vase), various overhead parasol-like coverings, and a gradually increasing retinue of humans.[77]
Central to the goddess's visual identification is the makara, which is also her vahana, or mount. An ancient symbol in India, it pre-dates all appearances of the goddess Ganga in art.[77] The makara has a dual symbolism. On the one hand, it represents the life-affirming waters and plants of its environment; on the other, it represents fear, both fear of the unknown it elicits by lurking in those waters and real fear it instils by appearing in sight.[77] The earliest extant unambiguous pairing of the makara with Ganga is at Udayagiri Caves in Central India (circa 400 CE). Here, in Cave V, flanking the main figure of Vishnu shown in his boar incarnation, two river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna appear atop their respective mounts, makara and kurma (a turtle or tortoise).[77]
The makara is often accompanied by a gana, a small boy or child, near its mouth, as, for example, shown in the Gupta period relief from Besnagar, Central India, in the left-most frame above.[78] The gana represents both posterity and development (udbhava).[78] The pairing of the fearsome, life-destroying makara with the youthful, life-affirming gana speaks to two aspects of the Ganges herself. Although she has provided sustenance to millions, she has also brought hardship, injury, and death by causing major floods along her banks.[79] The goddess Ganga is also accompanied by a dwarf attendant, who carries a cosmetic bag, and on whom she sometimes leans, as if for support.[76] (See, for example, frames 1, 2, and 4 above.)
The purna kumbha or full pot of water is the second most discernible element of the Ganga iconography.[80] Appearing first also in the relief in Udayagiri Caves (5th century), it gradually appeared more frequently as the theme of the goddess matured.[80] By the seventh century it had become an established feature, as seen, for example, the Dashavatara temple, Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh (seventh century), the Trimurti temple, Badoli, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, and at the Lakshmaneshwar temple, Kharod, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh,[80] (ninth or tenth century), and seen very clearly in frame 3 above and less clearly in the remaining frames. Worshipped even today, the full pot is emblematic of the formless Brahman, as well as of woman, of the womb, and of birth.[81] Furthermore, The river goddesses Ganga and Saraswati were both born from Brahma's pot, containing the celestial waters.[81]
In her earliest depictions at temple entrances, the goddess Ganga appeared standing beneath the overhanging branch of a tree, as seen as well in the Udayagiri caves.[82] However, soon the tree cover had evolved into a chatra or parasol held by an attendant, for example, in the seventh-century Dasavatara temple at Deogarh.[82] (The parasol can be clearly seen in frame 3 above; its stem can be seen in frame 4, but the rest has broken off.) The cover undergoes another transformation in the temple at Kharod, Bilaspur (ninth or tenth century), where the parasol is lotus-shaped,[82] and yet another at the Trimurti temple at Badoli where the parasol has been replaced entirely by a lotus.[82]
As the iconography evolved, sculptors in the central India especially were producing animated scenes of the goddess, replete with an entourage and suggestive of a queen en route to a river to bathe.[83] A relief similar to the depiction in frame 4 above, is described in Pal 1997, p. 43 as follows:
A typical relief of about the ninth century that once stood at the entrance of a temple, the river goddess Ganga is shown as a voluptuously endowed lady with a retinue. Following the iconographic prescription, she stands gracefully on her composite makara mount and holds a water pot. The dwarf attendant carries her cosmetic bag, and a ... female holds the stem of a giant lotus leaf that serves as her mistress's parasol. The fourth figure is a male guardian. Often in such reliefs the makara's tail is extended with great flourish into a scrolling design symbolizing both vegetation and water.[76]
Kumbh Mela[edit]
A procession of Akharas marching over a makeshift bridge over the Ganges River. Kumbh Mela at Allahabad, 2001.
Main article: Kumbh Mela
Kumbh Mela is a mass Hindu pilgrimage in which Hindus gather at the Ganges River. The normal Kumbh Mela is celebrated every 3 years, the Ardh (half) Kumbh is celebrated every six years at Haridwar and Prayag,[84] the Purna (complete) Kumbh takes place every twelve years[85] at four places (Prayag (Allahabad), Haridwar, Ujjain, and Nashik). The Maha (great) Kumbh Mela which comes after 12 'Purna Kumbh Melas', or 144 years, is held at Prayag (Allahabad).[85]
The major event of the festival is ritual bathing at the banks of the river. Other activities include religious discussions, devotional singing, mass feeding of holy men and women and the poor, and religious assemblies where doctrines are debated and standardized. Kumbh Mela is the most sacred of all the pilgrimages.[86][87] Thousands of holy men and women attend, and the auspiciousness of the festival is in part attributable to this. The sadhus are seen clad in saffron sheets with ashes and powder dabbed on their skin per the requirements of ancient traditions. Some, called naga sanyasis, may not wear any clothes.[88]
Irrigation[edit]
The Ganges and its all tributaries, especially the Yamuna, have been used for irrigation since ancient times.[89] Dams and canals were common in gangetic plain by fourth century BCE.[90] The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin has a huge hydroelectric potential, on the order of 200,000 to 250,000 megawatts, nearly half of which could be easily harnessed. As of 1999, India tapped about 12% of the hydroelectric potential of the Ganges and just 1% of the vast potential of the Brahmaputra.[91]
Canals[edit]
Head works of the Ganges canal in Haridwar (1860). photograph by Samuel Bourne.
Megasthenes, a Greek ethnographer who visited India during third century BCE when Mauryans ruled India described the existence of canals in the gangetic plain. Kautilya (also known as Chanakya), an advisor to Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of Maurya Empire, included the destruction of dams and levees as a strategy during war.[90] Firuz Shah Tughlaq had many canals built, the longest of which, 240 km (150 mi), was built in 1356 on the Yamuna River. Now known as the Western Yamuna Canal, it has fallen into disrepair and been restored several times. The Mughal emperor Shah Jahan built an irrigation canal on the Yamuna River in the early 17th century. It fell into disuse until 1830, when it was reopened as the Eastern Yamuna Canal, under British control. The reopened canal became a model for the Upper Ganges Canal and all following canal projects.[89]
The Ganges Canal highlighted in red stretching between its headworks off the Ganges River in Hardwar and its confluences with the Jumna River in Etawah and with the Ganges in Cawnpore (now Kanpur).
The first British canal in India—with no Indian antecedents—was the Ganges Canal built between 1842 and 1854.[92] Contemplated first by Col. John Russell Colvin in 1836, it did not at first elicit much enthusiasm from its eventual architect Sir Proby Thomas Cautley, who balked at idea of cutting a canal through extensive low-lying land in order to reach the drier upland destination. However, after the Agra famine of 1837–38, during which the East India Company's administration spent Rs. 2,300,000 on famine relief, the idea of a canal became more attractive to the Company's budget-conscious Court of Directors. In 1839, the Governor General of India, Lord Auckland, with the Court's assent, granted funds to Cautley for a full survey of the swath of land that underlay and fringed the projected course of the canal. The Court of Directors, moreover, considerably enlarged the scope of the projected canal, which, in consequence of the severity and geographical extent of the famine, they now deemed to be the entire Doab region.[93]
The enthusiasm, however, proved to be short lived. Auckland's successor as Governor General, Lord Ellenborough, appeared less receptive to large-scale public works, and for the duration of his tenure, withheld major funds for the project. Only in 1844, when a new Governor-General, Lord Hardinge, was appointed, did official enthusiasm and funds return to the Ganges canal project. Although the intervening impasse had seemingly affected Cautley's health and required him to return to Britain in 1845 for recuperation, his European sojourn gave him an opportunity to study contemporary hydraulic works in the United Kingdom and Italy. By the time of his return to India even more supportive men were at the helm, both in the North-Western Provinces, with James Thomason as Lt. Governor, and in British India with Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General. Canal construction, under Cautley's supervision, now went into full swing. A 560 km (350 mi) long canal, with another 480 km (300 mi) of branch lines, eventually stretched between the headworks in Hardwar, splitting into two branches below Aligarh, and its two confluences with the Yamuna (Jumna in map) mainstem in Etawah and the Ganges in Kanpur (Cawnpore in map). The Ganges Canal, which required a total capital outlay of £2.15 million, was officially opened in 1854 by Lord Dalhousie.[94] According to historian Ian Stone:
It was the largest canal ever attempted in the world, five times greater in its length than all the main irrigation lines of Lombardy and Egypt put together, and longer by a third than even the largest USA navigation canal, the Pennsylvania Canal.
Dams and barrages[edit]
A major barrage at Farakka was opened on 21 April 1975,[95] It is located close to the point where the main flow of the river enters Bangladesh, and the tributary Hooghly (also known as Bhagirathi) continues in West Bengal past Kolkata. This barrage, which feeds the Hooghly branch of the river by a 42 km (26 mi) long feeder canal, and its water flow management has been a long-lingering source of dispute with Bangladesh.[96] Indo-Bangladesh Ganges Water Treaty signed in December 1996 addressed some of the water sharing issues between India and Bangladesh.[95]
Tehri Dam was constructed on Bhagirathi River, tributary of the Ganges. It is located 1.5 km downstream of Ganesh Prayag, the place where Bhilangana meets Bhagirathi. Bhagirathi is called Ganges after Devprayag.[97] Construction of the dam in an earthquake prone area[98] was controversial.[99]
Bansagar Dam was built on the Son River, a tributary of the Ganges for both irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.[100]
Economy[edit]
A girl selling plastic containers for carrying Ganges water, Haridwar.
The Ganges Basin with its fertile soil is instrumental to the agricultural economies of India and Bangladesh. The Ganges and its tributaries provide a perennial source of irrigation to a large area. Chief crops cultivated in the area include rice, sugarcane, lentils, oil seeds, potatoes, and wheat. Along the banks of the river, the presence of swamps and lakes provide a rich growing area for crops such as legumes, chillies, mustard, sesame, sugarcane, and jute. There are also many fishing opportunities along the river, though it remains highly polluted. Also the major industrial towns of Unnao, Kanpur, situated on the banks of the river with the predominance of tanning industries add to the pollution.[101]
Tourism[edit]
Tourism is another related activity. Three towns holy to Hinduism—Haridwar, Prayag (Allahabad), and Varanasi—attract thousands of pilgrims to its waters to take a dip in the Ganges, which is believed to cleanse oneself of sins and help attain salvation. The rapids of the Ganges also are popular for river rafting, attracting adventure seekers in the summer months. Also, several cities such as Kanpur, Kolkata and Patna have developed riverfront walkways along the banks to attract tourists.[102][103][104][105]
Ecology and environment[edit]
Ganges from Space
Human development, mostly agriculture, has replaced nearly all of the original natural vegetation of the Ganges basin. More than 95% of the upper Gangetic Plain has been degraded or converted to agriculture or urban areas. Only one large block of relatively intact habitat remains, running along the Himalayan foothills and including Rajaji National Park, Jim Corbett National Park, and Dudhwa National Park.[106] As recently as the 16th and 17th centuries the upper Gangetic Plain harboured impressive populations of wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), Bengal tigers (Panthera t. tigris), Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), gaurs (Bos gaurus), barasinghas (Rucervus duvaucelii), sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) and Indian lions (Panthera leo persica).[106] In the 21st century there are few large wild animals, mostly deer, wild boars, wildcats, and small numbers of Indian wolves, golden jackals, and red and Bengal foxes. Bengal tigers survive only in the Sundarbans area of the Ganges Delta.[9] The Sundarbands freshwater swamp ecoregion, however, is nearly extinct.[107] Threatened mammals in the upper Gangetic Plain include the tiger, elephant, sloth bear, and four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis).[106]
Lesser florican (Sypheotides indicus)
Many types of birds are found throughout the basin, such as myna, Psittacula parakeets, crows, kites, partridges, and fowls. Ducks and snipes migrate across the Himalayas during the winter, attracted in large numbers to wetland areas.[9] There are no endemic birds in the upper Gangetic Plain. The great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) and lesser florican (Sypheotides indicus) are considered globally threatened.[106]
The natural forest of the upper Gangetic Plain has been so thoroughly eliminated it is difficult to assign a natural vegetation type with certainty. There are a few small patches of forest left, and they suggest that much of the upper plains may have supported a tropical moist deciduous forest with sal (Shorea robusta) as a climax species.[106]
A similar situation is found in the lower Gangetic Plain, which includes the lower Brahmaputra River. The lower plains contain more open forests, which tend to be dominated by Bombax ceiba in association with Albizzia procera, Duabanga grandiflora, and Sterculia vilosa. There are early seral forest communities that would eventually become dominated by the climax species sal (Shorea robusta), if forest succession was allowed to proceed. In most places forests fail to reach climax conditions due to human causes.[108] The forests of the lower Gangetic Plain, despite thousands of years of human settlement, remained largely intact until the early 20th century. Today only about 3% of the ecoregion is under natural forest and only one large block, south of Varanasi, remains. There are over forty protected areas in the ecoregion, but over half of these are less than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi).[108] The fauna of the lower Gangetic Plain is similar to the upper plains, with the addition of a number of other species such as the smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) and the large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha).[108]
Fish[edit]
The catla (Catla catla) is one of the Indian carp species that support major fisheries in the Ganges
It has been estimated that about 350 fish species live in the entire Ganges drainage, including several endemics.[109] In a major 2007–2009 study of fish in the Ganges basin (including the river itself and its tributaries, but excluding the Brahmaputra and Meghna basins), a total of 143 fish species were recorded, including 10 non-native introduced species.[110] The most diverse orders are Cypriniformes (barbs and allies), Siluriformes (catfish) and Perciformes (perciform fish), each comprising about 50%, 23% and 14% of the total fish species in the drainage.[110]
There are distinct differences between the different sections of the river basin, but Cyprinidae is the most diverse throughout. In the upper section (roughly equalling the basin parts in Uttarakhand) more than 50 species have been recorded and Cyprinidae alone accounts for almost 80% those, followed by Balitoridae (about 15.6%) and Sisoridae (about 12.2%).[110] Sections of the Ganges basin at altitudes above 2,400–3,000 m (7,900–9,800 ft) above sea level are generally without fish. Typical genera approaching this altitude are Schizothorax, Tor, Barilius, Nemacheilus and Glyptothorax.[110] About 100 species have been recorded from the middle section of the basin (roughly equalling the sections in Uttar Pradesh and parts of Bihar) and more than 55% of these are in family Cyprinidae, followed by Schilbeidae (about 10.6%) and Clupeidae (about 8.6%).[110] The lower section (roughly equalling the basin in parts of Bihar and West Bengal) includes major floodplains and is home to almost 100 species. About 46% of these are in the family Cyprinidae, followed by Schilbeidae (about 11.4%) and Bagridae (about 9%).[110]
The Ganges basin supports major fisheries, but these have declined in recent decades. In the Allahabad region in the middle section of the basin, catches of carp fell from 424.91 metric tons in 1961–1968 to 38.58 metric tons in 2001–2006, and catches of catfish fell from 201.35 metric tons in 1961–1968 to 40.56 metric tons in 2001–2006.[110] In the Patna region in the lower section of the basin, catches of carp fell from 383.2 metric tons to 118, and catfish from 373.8 metric tons to 194.48.[110] Some of the fish commonly caught in fisheries include catla (Catla catla), golden mahseer (Tor putitora), tor mahseer (Tor tor), rohu (Labeo rohita), walking catfish (Clarias batrachus), pangas catfish (Pangasius pangasius), goonch catfish (Bagarius), snakeheads (Channa), bronze featherback (Notopterus notopterus) and milkfish (Chanos chanos).[9][110]
The Ganges basin is home to about 30 fish species that are listed as threatened with the primary issues being overfishing (sometimes illegal), pollution, water abstraction, siltation and invasive species.[110] Among the threatened species is the critically endangered Ganges shark (Glyphis gangeticus).[111] Several fish species migrate between different sections of the river, but these movements may be prevented by the building of dams.[110]
Crocodilians and turtles[edit]
The threatened gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) is a large fish-eating crocodilian that is harmless to humans[112]
The main sections of the Ganges River are home to the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris), and the delta is home to the saltwater crocodile (C. porosus). Among the numerous aquatic and semi-aquatic turtles in the Ganges basin are the northern river terrapin (Batagur baska; only in the lowermost section of the basin), three-striped roofed turtle (B. dhongoka), red-crowned roofed turtle (B. kachuga), black pond turtle (Geoclemys hamiltonii), Brahminy river turtle (Hardella thurjii), Indian black turtle (Melanochelys trijuga), Indian eyed turtle (Morenia petersi), brown roofed turtle (Pangshura smithii), Indian roofed turtle (Pangshura tecta), Indian tent turtle (Pangshura tentoria), Indian flapshell turtle (Lissemys punctata), Indian narrow-headed softshell turtle (Chitra indica), Indian softshell turtle (Nilssonia gangetica), Indian peacock softshell turtle (N. hurum) and Cantor's giant softshell turtle (Pelochelys cantorii; only in the lowermost section of Ganges basin).[113] Most of these are seriously threatened.[113]
Ganges river dolphin[edit]
The Gangetic dolphin in a sketch by Whymper and P. Smit, 1894.
The river's most famed fauna is the freshwater dolphin Platanista gangetica gangetica, the Ganges river dolphin,[106] recently declared India's national aquatic animal.[114]
This dolphin used to exist in large schools near to urban centres in both the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, but is now seriously threatened by pollution and dam construction. Their numbers have now dwindled to a quarter of their numbers of fifteen years before, and they have become extinct in the Ganges' main tributaries.[e] A recent survey by the World Wildlife Fund found only 3,000 left in the water catchment of both river systems.[115]
The Ganges river dolphin is one of only five true freshwater dolphins in the world. The other four are the baiji (Lipotes vexillifer) of the Yangtze River in China, now likely extinct; the Indus river dolphin of the Indus River in Pakistan; the Amazon river dolphin of the Amazon River in South America; and the Araguaian river dolphin (not considered a separate species until 2014[116]) of the Araguaia–Tocantins basin in Brazil. There are several marine dolphins whose ranges include some freshwater habitats, but these five are the only dolphins who live only in freshwater rivers and lakes.[108]
Effects of climate change[edit]
The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said that the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term; but issued a strong warning:
Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world.... In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows... In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines for Asian rivers, including the Indus and the Ganges. Once they vanish, water supplies in those regions will be in peril.[117]
In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in its Fourth Report, stated that the Himalayan glaciers which feed the river, were at risk of melting by 2035.[118] The IPCC has now withdrawn that prediction, as the original source admitted that it was speculative and the cited source was not a peer reviewed finding.[h] In its statement, the IPCC stands by its general findings relating to the Himalayan glaciers being at risk from global warming (with consequent risks to water flow into the Gangetic basin).
Pollution and environmental concerns[edit]
Main article: Pollution of the Ganges
People bathing and washing clothes in the Ganges in Varanasi.
The Ganges suffers from extreme pollution levels, caused by the 400 million people who live close to the river.[119][120] Sewage from many cities along the river's course, industrial waste and religious offerings wrapped in non-degradable plastics add large amounts of pollutants to the river as it flows through densely populated areas.[8][121][122] The problem is exacerbated by the fact that many poorer people rely on the river on a daily basis for bathing, washing, and cooking.[121] The World Bank estimates that the health costs of water pollution in India equal three percent of India's GDP.[i] It has also been suggested that eighty percent of all illnesses in India and one-third of deaths can be attributed to water-borne diseases.[e]
Varanasi, a city of one million people that many pilgrims visit to take a "holy dip" in the Ganges, releases around 200 million litres of untreated human sewage into the river each day, leading to large concentrations of faecal coliform bacteria.[121] According to official standards, water safe for bathing should not contain more than 500 faecal coliforms per 100ml, yet upstream of Varanasi's ghats the river water already contains 120 times as much, 60,000 faecal coliform bacteria per 100 ml.[123][124]
After the cremation of the deceased at Varanasi's ghats the bones and ashes are thrown into the Ganges. However, in the past thousands of uncremated bodies were thrown into the Ganges during cholera epidemics, spreading the disease. Even today, holy men, pregnant women, people with leprosy/chicken pox, people who had been bitten by snakes, people who had committed suicide, the poor, and children under 5 are not cremated at the ghats but are floated free to decompose in the waters. In addition, those who cannot afford the large amount of wood needed to incinerate the entire body, leave behind a lot of half burned body parts.[125][126]
After passing through Varanasi, and receiving 32 streams of raw sewage from the city, the concentration of fecal coliforms in the river's waters rises from 60,000 to 1.5 million,[123][124] with observed peak values of 100 million per 100 ml.[121] Drinking and bathing in its waters therefore carries a high risk of infection.[121]
Between 1985 and 2000, Rs. 10 billion, around US$226 million, or less than 4 cents per person per year,[127] were spent on the Ganga Action Plan,[8] an environmental initiative that was "the largest single attempt to clean up a polluted river anywhere in the world."[d] The Ganga Action Plan has been described variously as a "failure",[128][j][k] a "major failure".[a][b][i]
According to one study,[128]
The Ganga Action Plan, which was taken on priority and with much enthusiasm, was delayed for two years. The expenditure was almost doubled. But the result was not very appreciable. Much expenditure was done over the political propaganda. The concerning governments and the related agencies were not very prompt to make it a success. The public of the areas was not taken into consideration. The releasing of urban and industrial wastes in the river was not controlled fully. The flowing of dirty water through drains and sewers were not adequately diverted. The continuing customs of burning dead bodies, throwing carcasses, washing of dirty clothes by washermen, and immersion of idols and cattle wallowing were not checked. Very little provision of public latrines was made and the open defecation of lakhs of people continued along the riverside. All these made the Action Plan a failure.
The failure of the Ganga Action Plan, has also been variously attributed to "environmental planning without proper understanding of the human–environment interactions,"[d] Indian "traditions and beliefs,"[l] "corruption and a lack of technical knowledge"[c] and "lack of support from religious authorities."[e]
In December 2009 the World Bank agreed to loan India US$1 billion over the next five years to help save the river.[129] According to 2010 Planning Commission estimates, an investment of almost Rs. 70 billion (Rs. 70 billion, approximately US$1.5 billion) is needed to clean up the river.[8]
In November 2008, the Ganges, alone among India's rivers, was declared a "National River", facilitating the formation of a National Ganga River Basin Authority that would have greater powers to plan, implement and monitor measures aimed at protecting the river.[130]
In July 2014, the Government of India announced an integrated Ganges-development project titled Namami Ganga and allocated ₹2,037 crore for this purpose.[131]
In March 2017 the High Court of Uttarakhand declared the Ganges River a legal "person", in a move that according to one newspaper, "could help in efforts to clean the pollution-choked rivers."[132] As of 6 April 2017[update], the ruling has been commented on in Indian newspapers to be hard to enforce,[133] that experts do not anticipate immediate benefits,[133] that the ruling is "hardly game changing,"[134] that experts believe "any follow-up action is unlikely,"[135] and that the "judgment is deficient to the extent it acted without hearing others (in states outside Uttarakhand) who have stakes in the matter."[136]
The incidence of water-borne and enteric diseases—such as gastrointestinal disease, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis A and typhoid—among people who use the river's waters for bathing, washing dishes and brushing teeth is high, at an estimated 66% per year.[121]
Recent studies by Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) say that the river is so full of killer pollutants that those living along its banks in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Bengal are more prone to cancer than anywhere else in the country. Conducted by the National Cancer Registry Programme under the ICMR, the study throws up shocking findings indicating that the river is thick with heavy metals and lethal chemicals that cause cancer. According to Deputy Director General of NCRP A. Nandkumar, the incidence of cancer was highest in the country in areas drained by the Ganges and stated that the problem would be studied deeply and with the findings presented in a report to the health ministry.[137]
Water shortages[edit]
Along with ever-increasing pollution, water shortages are getting noticeably worse. Some sections of the river are already completely dry. Around Varanasi, the river once had an average depth of 60 metres (200 ft), but in some places, it is now only 10 metres (33 ft).[138]
To cope with its chronic water shortages, India employs electric groundwater pumps, diesel-powered tankers, and coal-fed power plants. If the country increasingly relies on these energy-intensive short-term fixes, the whole planet's climate will bear the consequences. India is under enormous pressure to develop its economic potential while also protecting its environment—something few, if any, countries have accomplished. What India does with its water will be a test of whether that combination is possible.[139]
Mining[edit]
Illegal mining in the Ganges river bed for stones and sand for construction work has been a long problem in Haridwar district, Uttarakhand, where it touches the plains for the first time. This is despite the fact that quarrying has been banned in Kumbh Mela area zone covering 140 km2 area in Haridwar.[140]
See also[edit]
Fair river sharing
Ganga Pushkaram
Gangaputra Brahmin
Ganges in Hinduism
List of rivers by discharge
List of rivers by length
List of rivers of India
National Waterway 1
Swach Ganga (Clean Ganga) Campaign
Unnao dead bodies row
River bank erosion along the Ganges in Malda and Murshidabad districts
India portal
Varanasi portal
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Haberman (2006)
"The Ganga Action Plan, commonly known as GAP, was launched dramatically in the holy city of Banares (Varanasi) on 14 June 1985, by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, who promised, 'We shall see that the waters of the Ganga become clean once again.' The stated task was 'to improve water quality, permit safe bathing all along the 2,525 kilometers from the Ganges's origin in the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal, and make the water potable at important pilgrim and urban centres on its banks.' The project was designed to tackle pollution from twenty-five cities and towns along its banks in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal by intercepting, diverting, and treating their effluents. With the GAP's Phase II, three important tributaries—Damodar, Gomati, and Yamuna—were added to the plan. Although some improvements have been made to the quality of the Ganges's water, many people claim that the GAP has been a major failure. The environmental lawyer M. C. Mehta, for example, filed public interest litigation against project, claiming 'GAP has collapsed.'"
^ Jump up to: a b Gardner (2003)
"The Ganges, also known as the Ganga, is one of the world's major rivers, running for more than 2,500 kilometres from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal. It is also one of the most polluted, primarily from sewage, but also from animal carcasses, human corpses, and soap and other pollutants from bathers. Indeed, scientists measure fecal coliform levels at thousands of times what is permissible and levels of oxygen in the water are similarly unhealthy. Renewal efforts have centred primarily on the government-sponsored Ganga Action Plan (GAP), started in 1985 with the goal of cleaning up the river by 1993. Several western-style sewage treatment plants were built along the river, but they were poorly designed, poorly maintained and prone to shut down during the region's frequent power outages. The GAP has been a colossal failure, and many argue that the river is more polluted now than it was in 1985." (pa.166)
^ Jump up to: a b Sheth (2008)
"But the Indian government, as a whole, appears typically ineffective. Its ability to address itself to a national problem like environmental degradation is typified by the 20-year, $100 million Ganga Action Plan, whose purpose was to clean up the Ganges River. Leading Indian environmentalists call the plan a complete failure, due to the same problems that have always beset the government: poor planning, corruption, and a lack of technical knowledge. The river, they say, is more polluted than ever." (pp. 67–68)
^ Jump up to: a b c Singh & Singh (2007)
"In February 1985, the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India launched the Ganga Action Plan, an environmental project to improve the river water quality. It was the largest single attempt to clean up a polluted river anywhere in the world and has not achieved any success in terms of preventing pollution load and improvement in water quality of the river. Failure of the Ganga Action Plan may be directly linked with the environmental planning without proper understanding of the human–environment interactions. The bibliography of selected environmental research studies on the Ganga River is, therefore, an essentially first step for preserving and maintaining the Ganga River ecosystem in future."
^ Jump up to: a b c d Puttick (2008)
"Sacred ritual is only one source of pollution. The main source of contamination is organic waste—sewage, trash, food, and human and animal remains. Around a billion litres of untreated raw sewage are dumped into the Ganges each day, along with massive amounts of agricultural chemicals (including DDT), industrial pollutants, and toxic chemical waste from the booming industries along the river. The level of pollution is now 10,000 percent higher than the government standard for safe river bathing (let alone drinking). One result of this situation is an increase in waterborne diseases, including cholera, hepatitis, typhoid, and amoebic dysentery. An estimated 80 percent of all health problems and one-third of deaths in India are attributable to waterborne illnesses." (p. 247)
"There have been various projects to clean up the Ganges and other rivers, led by the Indian government's Ganga Action Plan launched in 1985 by Rajiv Gandhi, grandson of Jawaharlal Nehru. Its relative failure has been blamed on mismanagement, corruption, and technological mistakes, but also on lack of support from religious authorities. This may well be partly because the Brahmin priests are so invested in the idea of the Ganges' purity and afraid that any admission of its pollution will undermine the central role of the water in ritual, as well as their own authority. There are many temples along the river, conducting a brisk trade in ceremonies, including funerals, and sometimes also the sale of bottled Ganga jal. The more traditional Hindu priests still believe that blessing Ganga jal purifies it, although they are now a very small minority in view of the scale of the problem." (p. 248)
"Wildlife is also under threat, particularly the river dolphins. They were one of the world's first protected species, given special status under the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC. They're now a critically endangered species, although protected once again by the Indian government (and internationally under the CITES convention). Their numbers have shrunk by 75 per cent over the last 15 years, and they have become extinct in the main tributaries, mainly because of pollution and habitat degradation." (p. 275)
Jump up ^ Thapar (1971)
"The stabilising of what were to be the Arya-lands and the mleccha-lands took some time. In the Ṛg Veda the geographical focus was the sapta-sindhu (the Indus valley and the Punjab) with Sarasvatī as the sacred river, but within a few centuries ārya-varta is located in the Gaṅgā-Yamūnā Doāb with the Ganges becoming the sacred river." (p. 415)
Jump up ^ Salman & Uprety (2002, pp. 172, 178–87, 387–91)Treaty Between the Government of the Republic of India and the Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh on Sharing of the Ganga/Ganges Waters at Farakka.
Jump up ^ The IPCC report is based on a non-peer reviewed work by the World Wildlife Federation. They, in turn, drew their information from an interview conducted by New Scientist with Dr. Hasnain, an Indian glaciologist, who admitted that the view was speculative. See: "Sifting climate facts from speculation". 13 January 2010. and "Pachauri calls Indian govt. report on melting Himalayan glaciers as 'voodoo science'". Thaindian News. 9 January 2010. On the IPCC statement withdrawing the finding, see: "IPCC statement on the melting of Himalayan glaciers" (PDF). IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 20 January 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Bharati (2006)
"The World Bank estimates the health costs of water pollution in India to be equivalent to three per cent of the country's gross domestic product. With Indian rivers being severely polluted, interlinking them may actually increase these costs. Also, with the widely recognised failure of the Ganga Action Plan, there is a danger that contaminants from the Gangetic basin might enter other basins and destroy their natural cleansing processes. The new areas that will be river-fed after the introduction of the scheme may experience crop failures or routing due to alien compounds carried into their streams from the polluted Gangetic basin streams." (p. 26)
Jump up ^ Caso & Wolf (2010)
"Chronology: 1985 *India launches Phase I of the Ganga Action Plan to restore the Ganges River; most deem it a failure by the early 1990s." (p. 320)
Jump up ^ Dudgeon (2005)
"To reduce the water pollution in one of Asia's major rivers, the Indian Government initiated the Ganga Action Plan in 1985. The objective of this centrally funded scheme was to treat the effluent from all the major towns along the Ganges and reduce pollution in the river by at least 75%. The Ganga Action Plan built upon the existing, but weakly enforced, 1974 Water Prevention and Control Act. A government audit of the Ganga Action Plan in 2000 reported limited success in meeting effluent targets. Development plans for sewage treatment facilities were submitted by only 73% of the cities along the Ganges, and only 54% of these were judged acceptable by the authorities. Not all the cities reported how much effluent was being treated, and many continued to discharge raw sewage into the river. Test audits of installed capacity indicated poor performance, and there were long delays in constructing planned treatment facilities. After 15 yr. of implementation, the audit estimated that the Ganga Action Plan had achieved only 14% of the anticipated sewage treatment capacity. The environmental impact of this failure has been exacerbated by the removal of large quantities of irrigation water from the Ganges which offset any gains from effluent reductions."
Jump up ^ Tiwari (2008)
"Many social traditions and customs are not only helping in environmental degradation but are causing obstruction to environmental management and planning. The failure of the Ganga Action Plan to clean the sacred river is partly associated to our traditions and beliefs. The disposal of dead bodies, the immersion of idols and public bathing are the part of Hindu customs and rituals which are based on the notion that the sacred river leads to the path of salvation and under no circumstances its water can become impure. Burning of dead bodies through wood, bursting of crackers during Diwali, putting thousands of tonnes of fuel wood under fire during Holi, immersion of Durga and Ganesh idols into rivers and seas etc. are part of Hindu customs and are detrimental to the environment. These and many other rituals need rethinking and modification in the light of contemporary situations." (p. 92)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jain, Agarwal & Singh 2007.
Jump up ^ Suvedī 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b Kumar, Singh & Sharma 2005.
Jump up ^ Alter, Stephen (2001), Sacred Waters: A Pilgrimage Up the Ganga River to the Source of Hindu Culture, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Trade & Reference Publishers, ISBN 978-0151005857, retrieved 30 July 2013
Jump up ^ Bhattacharji, Sukumari; Bandyopadhyay, Ramananda (1995). Legends of Devi. Orient Blackswan. p. 54. ISBN 978-8125007814. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Ghosh 1990.
^ Jump up to: a b Rice, Earle (2012), The Ganges River, Mitchell Lane Publishers, Incorporated, pp. 25–, ISBN 978-1612283685
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Clean Up Or Perish", The Times of India, 19 March 2010
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Ganges River". Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library ed.). 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Penn, James R. (2001). Rivers of the world: a social, geographical, and environmental sourcebook. ABC-CLIO. p. 88. ISBN 978-1576070420. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Gangotri Tapovan Trekking".
^ Jump up to: a b Krishna Murti 1991, p. 19.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jain, Agarwal & Singh 2007, p. 341.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gupta 2007, p. 347.
Jump up ^ Dhungel & Pun 2009, p. 215.
^ Jump up to: a b c Chakrabarti 2001, pp. 126–27.
Jump up ^ Shanmugam, G. (2016). "Submarine fans: A critical retrospective (1950–2015)". Journal of Palaeogeography. 5 (2): 110–184. Bibcode:2016JPalG...5..110S. doi:10.1016/j.jop.2015.08.011.
Jump up ^ Galy, V.; O. Beyssac; C. France-Lanord; and T. Eglinton (2008). "Recycling of graphite during erosion: A geological stabilization of carbon in the crust". Science. 322 (5903): 943–945. Bibcode:2008Sci...322..943G. doi:10.1126/science.1161408. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Parua 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Arnold 2000.
^ Jump up to: a b Elhance 1999, pp. 156–58.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ali & Aitchison 2005.
Jump up ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 7
Jump up ^ Prakash, B.; Sudhir Kumar; M. Someshwar Rao; S. C. Giri (2000). "Holocene tectonic movements and stress field in the western Gangetic plains" (PDF). Current Science. 79 (4): 438–49. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Dmowska, Renata (2003). Advances in Geophysics. Academic Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0120188468. Retrieved 6 May 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Merriam-Webster (1997). Merriam-Webster's geographical dictionary. Merriam-Webster. p. 412. ISBN 978-0877795469. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jain, Agarwal & Singh 2007, pp. 334–342.
^ Jump up to: a b Berga 2006, p. 1304.
Jump up ^ Dhungel & Pun 2009, p. 210.
Jump up ^ Dhungel & Pun 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Mirza 2004.
Jump up ^ Roger Revelle; V. Lakshminarayan (9 May 1975). "The Ganges Water Machine". Science. 188 (4188): 611–16. Bibcode:1975Sci...188..611R. doi:10.1126/science.188.4188.611. PMID 17740017.
Jump up ^ Suvedī 2005, p. 61.
Jump up ^ Eric Servat; IAHS International Commission on Water Resources Systems (2002). FRIEND 2002: Regional Hydrology: Bridging the gap between research and practice. IAHS. p. 308. ISBN 978-1901502817. Retrieved 18 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Mount Everest, China/Nepal". Retrieved 12 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Kāngchenjunga, India/Nepal". Retrieved 12 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Lhotse, China/Nepal". Retrieved 12 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Makalu, China/Nepal". Retrieved 12 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Cho Oyu, China/Nepal". Retrieved 12 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Dhaulāgiri, Nepal". Retrieved 12 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Manaslu, Nepal". Retrieved 12 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Annapūrna, Nepal". Retrieved 12 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Shishapangma, China". Retrieved 12 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Krishna Murti 1991, p. 10.
^ Jump up to: a b Salman & Uprety 2002, p. 133.
Jump up ^ Catling, David (1992). Rice in deep water. International Rice Research Institute. p. 175. ISBN 978-9712200052. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Brahmaputra River". Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library ed.). 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
Jump up ^ McIntosh, Jane (2008). The ancient Indus Valley: new perspectives. ABC-CLIO. pp. 99–101. ISBN 978-1576079072. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Largest, Longest, Highest and Smallest In India". onlineGKguide.com. Retrieved 7 September 2008.
Jump up ^ Wink 2002.
Jump up ^ W. W. Tarn (1923). "Alexander and the Ganges". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 43 (2): 93–101. JSTOR 625798.
Jump up ^ Salman & Uprety 2002, pp. 136–37.
^ Jump up to: a b Eck 1982, p. 212
Jump up ^ Eck 1982, pp. 212–13
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Eck 1982, p. 214
^ Jump up to: a b c Eck 1982, pp. 214–15
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Eck 1998, p. 144
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Eck 1998, pp. 144–45
^ Jump up to: a b c Eck 1998, p. 145
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Eck 1998, pp. 145–46
Jump up ^ Quoted in: Eck 1998, pp. 145–46
^ Jump up to: a b c Eck 1982, p. 215
^ Jump up to: a b Eck 1982, pp. 215–16
Jump up ^ Quoted in: Eck 1982, p. 216
Jump up ^ Eck 1982, p. 216
Jump up ^ Eck 1982, pp. 216–17
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Eck 1982, p. 217
^ Jump up to: a b c d Quoted in Eck 1982, p. 218
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Eck 1982, p. 219
Jump up ^ Eck 1998, p. 146
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Eck 1998, p. 147
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Eck 1998, p. 149
Jump up ^ Blurton 1993, p. 100
Jump up ^ Wangu 2003, p. 90
Jump up ^ Wangu 2003, p. 90, Pal 1997, p. 43
^ Jump up to: a b c Pal 1997, p. 43
^ Jump up to: a b c d Darian 2001, p. 114
^ Jump up to: a b Darian 2001, p. 118
Jump up ^ Darian 2001, pp. 119–20
^ Jump up to: a b c Darian 2001, p. 125
^ Jump up to: a b Darian 2001, p. 126
^ Jump up to: a b c d Darian 2001, p. 130
Jump up ^ Los Angeles County Museum of Art & Pal 1988, p. 33
Jump up ^ "The Urn Festival]". TIME. 8 February 1960. Retrieved 10 May 2013. (subscription required)
^ Jump up to: a b J. C. Rodda, Lucio Ubertini, International Association of Hydrological Sciences, IAHS International Commission on Water Resources Systems, Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche (Italy). (2004). The Basis of Civilization: Water Science?. International Association of Hydrological Science. p. 165. ISBN 1901502570. Retrieved 10 May 2013. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Life". A Million Hindus Wash Away Their Sins. 18: 25–29. 1 May 1950.
Jump up ^ Maharaj (25 October 2012). "Kumbh Mela, most sacred of Hindu pilgrimages". Guardian. Retrieved 10 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Mani, Rajiv (9 February 2013). "The 17 'shringars' of Naga sadhus". Times of India. Allahabad. Retrieved 10 May 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Singh 2005, pp. 69–79.
^ Jump up to: a b Hill 2008.
Jump up ^ Elhance 1999, p. 163.
Jump up ^ Stone 2002, p. 16
Jump up ^ Khanna, Dr C. L. (1 September 2010). "Uttar Pradesh General Knowledge". Upkar Prakashan – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Prakash 1999, p. 162.
^ Jump up to: a b Brichieri-Colombi & Bradnock 2003.
Jump up ^ M. Rafiqul Islam (1987). "The Ganges Water Dispute: An Appraisal of a Third Party Settlement". Asian Survey. 27 (8): 918–34. doi:10.1525/as.1987.27.8.01p0082a.
Jump up ^ Sharma, Bahuguna & Chauan 2008.
Jump up ^ Brune 1993.
Jump up ^ Fred Pearce; Rob Butler (26 January 1991). "The dam that should not be built". NewScientist.
Jump up ^ "Bansagar Dam project" (PDF). Government of India Ministry of Water Sources. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Report of the committee on pollution caused by leather tanning industry to the water bodies / ground water in Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh" (PDF) (PDF). Retrieved 23 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Sushovan Sircar (11 March 2014). "Take a walk along the Hooghly". The Telegraph. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Piyush Kumar Tripathi (3 August 2013). "Funds flow for riverfront project". The Telegraph. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "Ganga pathway to be complete in three years". The Times of India. 22 April 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "Central govt approval to KDA's riverfront development project". The Times of India Mobile Site.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Upper Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 6 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 6 May 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 6 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Allen, D.J.; S. Molur; and B.A. Daniel, eds. (2010). The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalaya. IUCN. p. 23. ISBN 978-2-8317-1324-3. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Sarkar; Pathak; Sinha; Sivakumar; Pandian; Pandey; Dubey; and Lakra (2012). "Freshwater fish biodiversity in the River Ganga (India): changing pattern, threats and conservation perspectives". Rev Fish Biol Fisheries. 22: 251–272. doi:10.1007/s11160-011-9218-6. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "Glyphis gangeticus, Ganges shark". FishBase. Retrieved 7 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "Gharial biology". Gharial Conservation Alliance. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b van Dijk; Iverson; Rhodin; Shaffer; and Bour (2014). "Turtles of the World, 7th Edition: Annotated Checklist of Taxonomy, Synonymy, Distribution with Maps, and Conservation Status". In Rhodin; Pritchard; Dijk; Saumure; Buhlmann; Iverson; and Mittermeier. Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group. Chelonian Research Monographs. 5. IUCN. doi:10.3854/crm.5.000.checklist.v7.2014. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "Ganges River Dolphin Declared India's National Aquatic Animal". WildPolitics.net. Retrieved 6 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "Ganges River dolphin". wwf.panda.org. WWF. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Hrbek, Tomas; Da Silva, Vera Maria Ferreira; Dutra, Nicole; Gravena, Waleska; Martin, Anthony R.; Farias, Izeni Pires (22 January 2014). Turvey, Samuel T., ed. "A New Species of River Dolphin from Brazil or: How Little Do We Know Our Biodiversity". PLOS One. 9 (1): e83623. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...983623H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083623. PMC 3898917  . PMID 24465386.
Jump up ^ AFP (17 August 2009). "Global warming benefits to Tibet: Chinese official". Google.com. Archived from the original on 23 January 2010. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
Jump up ^ "See s. 10.6 of the WGII part of the report at" (PDF). Retrieved 28 November 2010.
Jump up ^ "June 2003 Newsletter". Clean Ganga. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Salemme, Elisabeth (22 January 2007). "The World's Dirty Rivers". Time. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Abraham 2011.
Jump up ^ Akanksha Jain (23 April 2014). "'Draw plan to check Ganga pollution by sugar mills'". The Hindu. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "India and pollution: Up to their necks in it", The Economist, 27 July 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "Ganga can bear no more abuse". Times of India. 18 July 2009.
Jump up ^ Hindu Funderals, Cremation and Varanasi Archived 16 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Miller-stone's Travel Blog: Varanasi: The Rich, The Poor, and The Afterlife". 14 December 2010.
Jump up ^ "Journey of River Ganga, from Purest to the Dirtiest river of the World –". m.indiatvnews.com. Mobile Site India TV News.
^ Jump up to: a b Mandal, R. B. (2006), Water Resource Management, Concept Publishing Company, ISBN 978-8180693182
Jump up ^ "World Bank loans India $1bn for Ganges river clean up". BBC News. 3 December 2009. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
Jump up ^ "Ganga gets a tag: national river – Vote whiff in step to give special status", The Telegraph, 5 November 2008
Jump up ^ "Namami Ganga development Project gets 2037 crores". IANS. news.biharprabha.com. Retrieved 10 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Trivedi, Anupam; Jagati, Kamal (22 March 2017). "Uttarakhand HC declares Ganga, Yamuna living entities, gives them legal rights". Hindustan Times. Dehradun/Nainital: Hindustan Times. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b [citation needed] De Sarkar, Dipankar (24 March 2017). "Rights of rivers, hard to enforce". Live Mint.
Jump up ^ Ghosh, Shibani (27 March 2017). "The river as being". The Hindu.
Jump up ^ Goswami, Urmi (25 March 2017). "Will granting legal rights to rivers like the Ganga, change the on-ground situation?". Economic Times.
Jump up ^ Bhaskar, B. R. P. (24 March 2017). "By Making Ganga, Yamuna Living Entities, Did High Court Unwittingly Open The Door For River Pollution Victims To Sue For Damages?". Outlook.
Jump up ^ "Ganga is now a deadly source of cancer, study says", Anirban Ghosh' 17 October 2012, http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-10-18/patna/34554229_1_gall-bladder-cancer-cancer-patients-prostate
Jump up ^ "How India's Success is Killing its Holy River." Jyoti Thottam. Time Magazine. 19 July 2010, pp. 12–17.
Jump up ^ "How India's Success is Killing its Holy River." Jyoti Thottam. Time Magazine. 19 July 2010, p. 15.
Jump up ^ "Looting the Ganga shamelessly". The Tribune. 16 June 2011.
Sources[edit]
Abraham, Wolf-Rainer (2011). "Megacities as Sources for Pathogenic Bacteria in Rivers and Their Fate Downstream" (PDF). International Journal of Microbiology. 2011 (798292): 1–13. doi:10.1155/2011/798292.
Ali, Jason R.; Aitchison, Jonathan C. (2005). "Greater India". Earth-Science Reviews. 72 (3–4): 169–88. Bibcode:2005ESRv...72..169A. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.07.005.
Alley, Kelly D. (2002), On the banks of the Gaṅgā: when wastewater meets a sacred river, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 978-0472068081, retrieved 26 July 2011
Alter, Stephen (2001), Sacred waters: a pilgrimage up the Ganges River to the source of Hindu culture, Harcourt, ISBN 978-0151005857, retrieved 26 July 2011
Arnold, Guy (2000). World Strategic Highways (1st ed.). Fitzroy Dearborn. pp. 223–27. doi:10.4324/9781315062204. ISBN 978-1579580988.
Berga, L. (2006). Dams and Reservoirs, Societies and Environment in the 21st Century. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Dams in the Societies of the 21st Century, 22nd International Congress on Large Dams (ICOLD). Barcelona, Spain: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0415404235.
Bharati, Radha Kant (2006), Interlinking of Indian rivers, Lotus, ISBN 978-8183820417
Blurton, T. Richard (1993), Hindu art, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674391895, retrieved 26 July 2011
Brichieri-Colombi, Stephen; Bradnock, Robert W. (2003). "Geopolitics, water and development in South Asia: cooperative development in the Ganges–Brahmaputra delta". The Geographical Journal. 169 (1): 43–64. doi:10.1111/1475-4959.t01-1-00002.
Brune, James N. (1993). "The seismic hazard at Tehri dam". Tectonophysics. Elsevier. 218 (1–3): 281–86. Bibcode:1993Tectp.218..281B. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(93)90274-N.
Caso, Frank; Wolf, Aaron T. (2010), Freshwater Supply Global Issues, Infobase, ISBN 978-0816078264
Chakrabarti, Dilip K. (2001). "4 The Archaeology of West Bengal: The Bhagirathi Mouth and the Midnapur Coast". Archaeological Geography of the Ganga Plain: The Lower and the Middle Ganga. Permanent Black. ISBN 978-8178240169.
Darian, Steven G. (2001), The Ganges in myth and history, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120817579, retrieved 26 July 2011
Dhungel, Dwarika Nath; Pun, Santa B. (2009). The Nepal-India Water Relationship: Challenges. Springer. ISBN 978-1402084027. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
Dikshit, K.R.; Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2007), "India: The Land", Encyclopædia Britannica, pp. 1–29
Dudgeon, David (2005). "River Rehabilitation for Conservation of Fish Biodiversity in Monsoonal Asia" (PDF). Ecology and Society. 10 (2:15).
Eck, Diana L. (1982), Banaras, city of light, Columbia University, ISBN 978-0231114479, retrieved 26 July 2011
Eck, Diana (1998), "Gangā: The Goddess Ganges in Hindu Sacred Geography", in Hawley, John Stratton; Wulff, Donna Marie, Devī: Goddesses of India, University of California / Motilal Banarasidass, pp. 137–53, ISBN 8120814916
Elhance, Arun P. (1999). Hydropolitics in the Third World: Conflict and Cooperation in International River Basins. United States Institute of Peace. ISBN 978-1878379900.
Gardner, Gary (2003), "Engaging Religion in the Quest for a Sustainable World", in Bright, Chris; et al., State of the World: 2003 (Special 20th anniversary ed.), Norton, pp. 152–76, ISBN 978-0393323863
Ghosh, A. (1990). An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology. Brill. p. 334. ISBN 978-9004092648.
Gupta, Avijit (2007). Large rivers: geomorphology and management. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-84987-3. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
Haberman, David L. (2006), River of Love in an Age of Pollution: The Yamuna River of Northern India, University of California, ISBN 978-0520247901
Hill, Christopher V. (2008). "3 The Mauryan Empire and the Classical Age – Irrigation in Early India". South Asia: an environmental history. p. 32. ISBN 978-1851099252.
Hillary, Sir Edmund (1980), From the ocean to the sky, Ulverscroft, ISBN 978-0708905876, retrieved 26 July 2011
Jain, Sharad K.; Agarwal, Pushpendra K.; Singh, Vijay P. (2007). Hydrology and water resources of India. Springer. ISBN 978-1402051791.
Krishna Murti, C. R. (1991). The Ganga, a scientific study. Gaṅgā Pariyojanā Nideśālaya; India Environment Research Committee. Northern Book Centre. ISBN 978-8172110215.
Kumar, Rakesh; Singh, R. D.; Sharma, K. D. (10 September 2005). "Water Resources of India" (PDF). Current Science. Bangalore: Current Science Association. 89 (5): 794–811. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
Los Angeles County Museum of Art; Pal, Pratapaditya (1988), Indian Sculpture: 700–1800, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520064775, retrieved 26 July 2011
Maclean, Kama (2008), Pilgrimage and power: the Kumbh Mela in Allahabad, 1765–1954, Oxford University Press US, ISBN 978-0195338942, retrieved 27 July 2011
Markandya, Anil; Murty, Maddipati Narasimha (2000), Cleaning-up the Ganges: a cost-benefit analysis of the Ganga Action Plan, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195649451, retrieved 29 July 2011
Mirza, M. Monirul Qader (2004). The Ganges water diversion: environmental effects and implications. Dordecht: Springer. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-2792-5. ISBN 978-9048166657.
Newby, Eric (1998), Slowly down the Ganges, Lonely Planet, ISBN 978-0864426314, retrieved 26 July 2011
Pal, Pratapaditya (1997), Divine images, human visions: the Max Tanenbaum collection of South Asian and Himalayan art in the National Gallery of Canada, National Gallery of Canada, ISBN 978-1896209050, retrieved 27 July 2011
Parua, Pranab Kumar (2009), "14 Necessity of Regional Co-operation", The Ganga: water use in the Indian subcontinent, Springer, pp. 267–72, ISBN 978-9048131020
Prakash, Gyan (1999). "6 Technologies of Government". Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India. ISBN 978-0691004532.
Puttick, Elizabeth (2008), "Mother Ganges, India's Sacred River", in Emoto, Masaru, The Healing Power of Water, Hay House, pp. 241–52, ISBN 978-1401908775
Rahaman, M.M. (2009), "Integrated Ganges Basin Management: conflicts and hope for regional development", Water Policy, 11 (2): 168–90, doi:10.2166/wp.2009.012
Rahaman, M.M. (2009), "Principles of transboundary water resources management and Ganges Treaties: An Analysis", International Journal of Water Resources Development, 25 (1): 159–73, doi:10.1080/07900620802517574
Rodda, John C.; Ubertini, Lucio (2004). "The Basis of Civilization: Water Science?". IAHS publication no. 286. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: International Association of Hydrological Sciences, IAHS International Commission on Water Resources Systems: 165. ISBN 978-1901502572.
Sack DA, Sack RB, Nair GB, Siddique AK; Sack; Nair; Siddique (2004), "Cholera", Lancet, 363 (9404): 223–33, doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15328-7, PMID 14738797 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Salman, Salman M. A.; Uprety, Kishor (2002). Conflict and cooperation on South Asia's international rivers: a legal perspective (PDF). World Bank Publications. ISBN 978-0821353523. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
Sharma, Ramesh C.; Bahuguna, Manju; Chauhan, Punam (2008). "Periphytonic diversity in Bhagirathi:Preimpoundment study of Tehri dam reservoir". Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering. 50 (4): 255–62. PMID 19697759.
Sheth, Jagdish N. (2008), Chindia Rising, Tata McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0070657083
Singh, Munendra; Singh, Amit K. (2007), "Bibliography of Environmental Studies in Natural Characteristics and Anthropogenic Influences on the Ganga River", Environ Monit Assess, 129 (1–3): 421–32, doi:10.1007/s10661-006-9374-7, PMID 17072555
Singh, Nirmal T. (2005). Irrigation and soil salinity in the Indian subcontinent: past and present. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University. ISBN 978-0934223782.
Stone, Ian (2002), Canal Irrigation in British India: Perspectives on Technological Change in a Peasant Economy, CUP, ISBN 978-0521526630, retrieved 26 July 2011
Suvedī, Sūryaprasāda (2005). International watercourses law for the 21st century: the case of the river Ganges basin. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0754645276.
Thapar, Romila (October 1971). "The Image of the Barbarian in Early India". Comparative Studies in Society and History. CUP. 13 (4): 408–36. doi:10.1017/s0010417500006393. JSTOR 178208.
Tiwari, R. C. (2008), "Environmental Scenario in India", in Dutt, Ashok K., Explorations in Applied Geography, PHI Learning, ISBN 8120333845
Wangu, Madhu Bazaz (2003), Images of Indian goddesses: myths, meanings, and models, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 978-8170174165, retrieved 26 July 2011
Wink, André (2002). "From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean: Medieval History in Geographic Perspective". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 44 (3): 416–45. doi:10.1017/s001041750200021x. JSTOR 3879375.
Further reading[edit]
Main article: Bibliography of Ganges
Berwick, Dennison. A Walk Along the Ganges. Dennison Berwick. ISBN 978-0713719680.
Cautley, Proby Thomas (1864). Ganges canal. A disquisition on the heads of the Ganges of Jumna canals, North-western Provinces. London, Printed for Private circulation.
Fraser, James Baillie (1820). Journal of a tour through part of the snowy range of the Himala Mountains, and to the sources of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. Rodwell and Martin, London.
Hamilton, Francis (1822). An account of the fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches. A. Constable and company, Edinburgh.
Singh, Indra Bir (1996), "Geological Evolution of the Ganga Plain", Journal of the Palaentological Society of India, 41: 99–137
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ganges River.
This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.
Find more aboutGangesat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Data from Wikidata
On Thinner Ice 如履薄冰: signs of trouble from the Water Tower of Asia, where headwaters feed into all the great rivers of Asia (by GRIP, Asia Society and MediaStorm)
Ganga in the Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909
Melting Glaciers Threaten Ganga
Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law. Peace Palace Library
Ganga Ma: A Pilgrimage to the Source on YouTube a documentary that follows the Ganga from the mouth to its source in the Himalayas.
An article about the land and the people of the Ganga
The impacts of water infrastructure and climate change on the hydrology of the Upper Ganga River Basin IWMI research report
Bahar Dutt, "Saving the Ganges" on YouTube CNN–IBN Live 5 May 2012.
The Ganges: A Journey into India (NPR)
It’s scientifically validated now; Ganga water is ‘holy’!
[show]
v
t
e
Hydrography of India
Inland
Alaknanda
Beas
Betwa
Bhāgīrathī
Bharatapuzha
Brahmaputra
Burhi Gandak
Chambal
Chenab
Chilika Lake
Dal Lake
Damodar
Dibang
Ganges
Ganges Basin
Ganges Delta
Ghaghara
Godavari
Gomti
Hooghly
Indira Gandhi Canal
Indus
Indus Delta
Indus Basin
Jhelum
Kali
Kaveri
Ken
Kerala backwaters
Koshi
Krishna
Kushiyara
Luni
Mahanadi
Malampuzha
Narmada
Nizam Sagar
Padma
Pamba
Periyar
Pookode Lake
Powai Lake
Ramganga
Ravi
Red Hills Lake
Roopkund (Skeleton Lake)
Sambhar Salt Lake
Sapt Koshi
Sabarmati River
Sarasvati
Sharda
Someshwari
Son
Sutlej
Tamsa
Tapti
Tons
Vaigai
Yamuna
Coastal
Arabian Sea
Bay of Bengal
Gulf of Khambhat
Gulf of Kutch
Gulf of Mannar
Indian Ocean
Laccadive Sea
Palk Strait
Ilog Pasig
Categories
Lakes of India
Reservoirs and dams in India
Rivers of India
[show]
v
t
e
Hydrography of the Indian subcontinent
Inland rivers
Beas
Betwa
Bhagirathi
Brahmaputra
Chambal
Chenab
Damodar
Godavari
Gandaki
Ganges
Ghaghara
Indus
Jhelum
Kali
Kaveri
Kosi
Krishna
Luni
Mahanadi
Mahaweli
Meghna
Narmada
Padma
Ravi
Sarasvati
Sankosh
Sharda
Son
Sutlej
Tapti
Yamuna
Inland lakes, deltas, etc.
Ganges Basin
Ganges Delta
Indus Delta
Dal Lake
Pookode Lake
Skeleton Lake
Chilika Lake
Lake Powai
Borith Lake
Saiful Muluk
Gosaikunda
Nizam Sagar
Red Hills Lake
Malampuzha
Kerala backwaters
Pulicat Lake
Coastal
Indian Ocean
Arabian Sea
Bay of Bengal
Gulf of Kutch
Gulf of Khambhat
Gulf of Mannar
Laccadive Sea
Palk Strait
Categories
Lakes of Bangladesh / India / Nepal / Pakistan
Reservoirs and dams in India
Rivers of Bangladesh / Bhutan / India / Nepal / Pakistan
[show]
v
t
e
Bangladesh articles
History
Timeline
Ancient
Vedic period
Anga
Vanga
Pundra
Suhma Kingdom
Magadha
Pradyota
Shishunaga
Nanda
Gangaridai
Maurya Empire
Shunga Empire
Kanva dynasty
Gupta Empire
Middle Ages
Kamboja
Pala
Sena
Islamic rulers in South Asia
Delhi Sultanate
Khalji dynasty
Bengal Sultanate
Sur Empire
Baro-Bhuyan
Mughal period
Mughal Bengal
Principality of Bengal
Nawabs
Porto Grande De Bengala
Battle of Plassey
Colonial period
Black Hole of Calcutta
Famine of 1770
Sepoy Rebellion
Bengali renaissance
Partition of Bengal (1905)
East Bengal
Indian independence movement
Muslim League
Pakistan Movement
Prime Minister of Bengal
Lahore Resolution
Famine of 1943
Direct Action Day
Partition of Bengal (1947)
Pakistan era
East Pakistan
Language Movement
Legislative election in 1954
Six point movement
1969 Uprising
General election in 1970
Proclamation of Independence
Bangladesh Liberation War
Provisional Government
Genocide
Rape
Timeline
Bangladesh
Famine of 1974
Military coups
1975
1981
1982
Political crisis in 2006–08
Bangladesh Rifles revolt
By topic
History of Bengal
Aviation
Banking
Literature
Military
Postal
Rulers
Tropical cyclones
Years
Geography
Administrative
Divisions
Districts
Sub-districts
By type
Cities
Islands
Lakes
Mountains
National parks
Rivers
Places
Bay of Bengal
Bengal Fan
Chittagong Hill Tracts
Cox's Bazar
Ganges Basin
Ganges Delta
Jat Area
Sundarbans Reserve Forest
Hatirjheel
Politics
Government
Cabinet
Elections
Foreign relations
Foreign policies
Jatiya Sangsad (parliament)
Constituencies
Speaker
Local government
City Corporations
Municipalities
Upazila Parishads
Union Councils
Political parties
President
Prime Minister
Law
Chief Justice
Attorney General
Constitution
High Court
Human rights
Forced disappearance
Freedom of religion
LGBT rights
International Crimes Tribunal
Supreme Court
Law enforcement
Ansar
Intelligence
NSI
Special Branch
Police
CID
RAB
SPBn
Special Security Force
Village Defence Party
Military
Air Force
Army
Navy
DGFI
Paramilitary
Border Guard
Coast Guard
President Guard Regiment
Economy
Agriculture
Automotive industry
Bangladesh Bank (central bank)
Bangladeshi taka (currency)
Banking
BEPZA
Ceramics
Chittagong Stock Exchange
Dhaka Stock Exchange
2011 Stock market scam
Electricity sector
Electronics
Financial system
Fishing
Food industry
Forestry
National Economic Council
Natural gas and petroleum
Nuclear energy
Pharmaceutical industry
Port of Chittagong
Port of Mongla
Post
Poverty
Real estate
Renewable energy
RMG sector
Shipbuilding
Steel industry
Tea production
Telecommunications
Textile industry
Tourism
Transport
Airports
Railway
Roads
Water supply and sanitation
Society
Bangladeshis
Names
Crime
Demographics
Education
Schools
Universities
Ethnic groups
Health
Religion
Society
Culture
Architecture
Baul
Calendar
Cinema
Cuisine
Ghosts
Language
Bengal Studies
Literature
Music
Public holidays
Sports
Street children
Theatre
TV and radio channels
Weddings
Symbols
Bangamata
Amar Sonar Bangla
Notuner Gaan
Ekusher Gaan
Baitul Mukarram
Dhakeshwari Temple
Flag
Government Seal
Ilish
Jackfruit
Jamuna Bridge
Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban
National Martyrs’ Memorial
Kabaddi
Mango tree
National Emblem
Oriental magpie-robin
Royal Bengal Tiger
Water lily
Outline
Index
Book
Category
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
Hinduism
Aum
Chakra
Dharma
Gurus and saints
Karma
Mantra
Moksha
Yoga
Worship
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
Hydrography of Uttarakhand
Rivers
Alaknanda
Bhagirathi
Bhilangna
Darma
Dhauliganga
Ganges
Gaula
Gomati
Gori Ganga
Gori
Gorigar
Kali
Lakshman Ganga
Mandakini
Pindar
Pushpawati
Ramganga
Sarju
Sarda
Tons
Yamuna
Lakes
Bhimtal
Deoria Tal
Dodital
Kedartal
Lakes of Kumaon hills
Nainital
Naukuchiatal
Pannatal
Roopkund
Satopanth Tal
Sattal
Hemkund
Dams/ Barrages
Asan Barrage
Bhali Dam
Bhimgoda Barrage
Dakpathar Barrage
Ichari Dam
Koteshwar Dam
Lakhwar Dam
Maneri Dam
Pashulok Barrage
Ramganga Dam
Tehri Dam
Glaciers
Gangotri
Kafni
Kalabaland
Meola
Milam
Namik
Panchchuli
Pindari
Ralam
Satopanth
Sona
Related topics
Gomukh
Hydrography of surrounding areas
Himachal Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
Nepal
[show]
v
t
e
Hydrography of Uttar Pradesh
Rivers
Main rivers
Ganges
Yamuna
Saryu
North flowing
Betwa
Chambal
Dhasan
Jamni
Kanhar
Karmanasa
Ken
Rihand
Sindh
Son
Tamsa or Tons
South flowing
Babai
Gaula
Ghaghara or Karnali
Gomti
Hindon
Kali
Kukrail
Ramganga
Rohni
Sarayu
Varuna
West Rapti
Lakes
Barua Sagar Tal
Belasagar
Chittaura Jheel
Keetham
Moti Jheel
Raja Ka Tal
Dams/ Barrages
Ganges Barrage
Matatila Dam
Parichha Dam
Rajghat Dam
Rihand Dam
Sharda Barrage
Canals
Ganges Canal
Agra Canal
Bridges
Malviya Bridge
Shahi Bridge, Jaunpur
Kamhariya Bridge, Rajesultanpur
Related topics
Aciravati
Charmanwati
Sarasvati River
Triveni Sangam
Doab
Son basin
Hydrography of
surrounding areas
Uttarakhand
Nepal
Bihar
Jharkhand
Rajasthan
Madhya Pradesh
[show]
v
t
e
Hydrography of Bihar
Rivers
North Bihar
Bagmati
Burhi Gandak
Gandaki
Ganges
Ghaghara
Kamala
Kankai
Kosi or Sapta Koshi
Lakhandei
Mahananda
Mechi
Ratua Khola
South Bihar
Ajay
Durgavati
Falgu
Karmanasa
Kiul
Lilajan/Niranjana
Mohana
Punpun
Son
Waterfalls
Kakolat
Dams, barrages
Indrapuri Barrage
Bridges
Bridges in Bihar
Digha–Sonpur rail–road bridge
Koilwar Bridge
Mahatma Gandhi Setu
Munger Ganga Bridge
Arrah–Chhapra Bridge
Jawahar Setu
Nehru Setu
Rajendra Setu
Vikramshila Setu
Related topics
Floods in Bihar
Kosi basin
Son basin
Hydrography of surrounding areas
Uttar Pradesh
Nepal
Bengal
Jharkhand
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 240776160
GND: 4019227-1
NDL: 00628411
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ganges&oldid=815686613"
Categories:
Ganges
Ganges basin
International rivers of Asia
Rivers of Bangladesh
Rivers of India
Bangladesh–India border
Border rivers
Sacred rivers
Rivers of Bihar
Rivers of Jharkhand
Rivers of Uttarakhand
Rivers of Uttar Pradesh
Rivers of West Bengal
National symbols of India
Rigvedic rivers
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter
Pages containing links to subscription-only content
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter
Webarchive template wayback links
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017
Use Indian English from June 2016
All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English
Use dmy dates from April 2017
Geobox usage tracking for other type
Coordinates on Wikidata
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012
Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016
Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2017
All articles containing potentially dated statements
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Адыгэбзэ
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
አማርኛ
Ænglisc
العربية
Aragonés
অসমীয়া
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
भोजपुरी
Български
Boarisch
བོད་ཡིག
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Буряад
Català
Чӑвашла
Cebuano
Čeština
Chi-Chewa
Corsu
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
ދިވެހިބަސް
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Fiji Hindi
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
ગુજરાતી
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
Къарачай-малкъар
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Кыргызча
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
मैथिली
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
Bahasa Melayu
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Нохчийн
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
ଓଡ଼ିଆ
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Piemontèis
Polski
Português
Română
Русиньскый
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Scots
Sicilianu
Simple English
سنڌي
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Tarandíne
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
Türkmençe
Українська
اردو
ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche
Vèneto
Vepsän kel’
Tiếng Việt
Winaray
吴语
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Kabɩyɛ
Edit links
This page was last edited on 16 December 2017, at 11:54.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Ganges_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Ganges (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attrs: colspan style

values: text-align: center; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1.25em; background-color: ;

attrs: class title

values:
mergedtoprow
Location name (local name)

values: mergedbottomrow Category

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

attrs: href title

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Country/Countries in which the site lies

values:
mergedrow
State/States in which the site lies

values: Major tributaries observed as the river flows

values:
/wiki/Ghaghara_River
mw-redirect
Ghaghara River

values:
/wiki/Gandak_River
mw-redirect
Gandak River

values: Major left tributaries observed as the river flows

values: Major right tributaries observed as the river flows

values:
mergedrow
Major settlements which lie in the site

values:
mergedrow
Source elevation above sea level (ASL)

values: Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location

values:
mergedrow
Drainage basin/catchment area/watershed

values:
mergedrow
Discharge for [[Bay of Bengal]]

values: width: 256px; padding: 0; font-size: 89%;

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;border:0;

values:
/wiki/Tapas_(Sanskrit)
mw-redirect
Tapas (Sanskrit)

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values: font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed

values:
/wiki/List_of_Hindu_scriptures
mw-redirect
List of Hindu scriptures

values:
/wiki/Agama_(Hinduism)
mw-redirect
Agama (Hinduism)

values:
/wiki/N%C4%81radeya_Purana
mw-redirect
Nāradeya Purana

values:
/wiki/Brahm%C4%81nda_Purana
mw-redirect
Brahmānda Purana

values:
/wiki/M%C4%81rkandeya_Purana
mw-redirect
Mārkandeya Purana

values:
/wiki/Samkhyapravachana_Sutra
mw-redirect
Samkhyapravachana Sutra

values:
/wiki/Divya_Prabandha
mw-redirect
Divya Prabandha

values:
/wiki/Kundalini_Yoga
mw-redirect
Kundalini Yoga

values:
/wiki/Kumbha_Mela
mw-redirect
Kumbha Mela

values:
/wiki/Ratha-Yatra_(Puri)
mw-redirect
Ratha-Yatra (Puri)

values:
/wiki/Nyaya_Sutras
mw-redirect
Nyaya Sutras

values:
/wiki/Raghavendra_Swami
mw-redirect
Raghavendra Swami

values:
/wiki/Vallabha_Acharya
mw-redirect
Vallabha Acharya

values:
/wiki/Hinduism_and_Jainism
mw-redirect
Hinduism and Jainism

values:
/wiki/Hinduism_and_Christianity
mw-redirect
Hinduism and Christianity

values:
/wiki/Hinduism_and_Islam
mw-redirect
Hinduism and Islam

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border:1px solid #FFC569;

values: Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

values:
/wiki/Trans-boundary_river
mw-redirect
Trans-boundary river

values:
/wiki/Gangetic_Plain
mw-redirect
Gangetic Plain

values:
/wiki/Ganga_Sagar
mw-disambig
Ganga Sagar

values:
/wiki/Kara_(Kaushambi)
mw-redirect
Kara (Kaushambi)

values:
/wiki/Ganges_river_dolphin
mw-redirect
Ganges river dolphin

values:
/wiki/Ganga_Action_Plan
mw-redirect
Ganga Action Plan

values:
/wiki/Source_(river_or_stream)
mw-redirect
Source (river or stream)

values:
/wiki/Submarine_fan
mw-redirect
Submarine fan

values:
/wiki/Organic_carbon
mw-redirect
Organic carbon

values:
/wiki/Indus_river
mw-redirect
Indus river

values:
/wiki/Gandaki_river
mw-redirect
Gandaki river

values:
/wiki/Yamuna_river
mw-redirect
Yamuna river

values:
/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China
mw-redirect
People's Republic of China

values:
/wiki/Chota_Nagpur_plateau
mw-redirect
Chota Nagpur plateau

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2012)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Monsoon_of_Indian_subcontinent
mw-redirect
Monsoon of Indian subcontinent

values:
/wiki/Indo-Aryan_people
mw-redirect
Indo-Aryan people

values:
/wiki/Indica_(Megasthenes)
mw-redirect
Indica (Megasthenes)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)

values: Edit section: Religious and cultural significance

values:
/wiki/Kaveri_River
mw-redirect
Kaveri River

values:
/wiki/Tirtha_and_Kshetra
mw-redirect
Tirtha and Kshetra

values: Edit section: Avatarana or Descent of the Ganges

values:
/wiki/Waxing_moon
mw-redirect
Waxing moon

values:
/wiki/Sagara_(Vedic_king)
mw-redirect
Sagara (Vedic king)

values:
/wiki/Yamuna_River
mw-redirect
Yamuna River

values: Edit section: Consort, Shakti, and Mother

values:
/wiki/Ganges_river
mw-redirect
Ganges river

values: Edit section: Ganges in classical Indian iconography

values: min-height:6.1em;width:137px;line-height:1.3em;padding:2px 6px 1px 6px;margin:0px;border:none;border-width:0px

values:
/wiki/Badoli_Temples
mw-redirect
Badoli Temples

values:
/wiki/Ganges_canal
mw-redirect
Ganges canal

values:
/wiki/Proby_Thomas_Cautley
mw-redirect
Proby Thomas Cautley

values:
/wiki/Governor_General_of_India
mw-redirect
Governor General of India

values: James Thomason (British colonial governor)

values:
/wiki/British_India
mw-redirect
British India

values: James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie

values:
/wiki/Mainstem_(hydrology)
mw-redirect
Mainstem (hydrology)

values:
/wiki/Indian_lion
mw-redirect
Indian lion

values: Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

values:
/wiki/Golden_mahseer
mw-redirect
Golden mahseer

values:
/wiki/Tor_mahseer
mw-redirect
Tor mahseer

values:
/wiki/Pangas_catfish
mw-redirect
Pangas catfish

values:
/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fund
mw-redirect
World Wildlife Fund

values:
/wiki/Freshwater_dolphin
mw-redirect
Freshwater dolphin

values:
/wiki/Yangtze_River
mw-redirect
Yangtze River

values: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

values: Edit section: Pollution and environmental concerns

values:
/wiki/Faecal_coliform
mw-redirect
Faecal coliform

values:
/wiki/Chicken_pox
mw-redirect
Chicken pox

values:
/wiki/Legal_personality
mw-redirect
Legal personality

values: plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update

values: River bank erosion along the Ganges in Malda and Murshidabad districts

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;

values:
noprint metadata navbox
navigation
Portals
font-weight:bold;padding:0.4em 2em

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: lower-alpha;

values:
nofollow
http://www.gangotri-tapovan-trek.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jop.2015.08.011

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1161408

values: Category:CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17740017

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/625798

values: font-size:0.95em; font-size: 90%; color: #555

values: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

values:
/wiki/Times_of_India
mw-redirect
Times of India

values: Category:CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24465386

values:
nofollow
external text
http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR4/website/10.pdf

values:
/wiki/The_Telegraph_(Kolkata)
mw-redirect
The Telegraph (Kolkata)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1155%2F2011%2F798292

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315062204

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2166%2Fwp.2009.012

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14738797

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19697759

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17072555

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/178208

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1017%2Fs001041750200021x

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/3879375

values:
mbox-text plainlist
vertical-align:middle; font-size:95%;

values: background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000;width: 22em;

values: padding-bottom: 0.75em; text-align: center;

attrs: alt src width height style srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: display: inline-block; width: 31px; line-height: 31px; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values: display: inline-block; margin-left: 4px; width: 182px; vertical-align: middle;

values: border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 0.75em;

values: metadata plainlinks plainlist mbox-small

values: border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0.75em; background:#f9f9f9;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://asiasociety.org/onthinnerice

values:
nofollow
http://www.sacredland.org/ganges/
external text

values:
/wiki/Indus_River_Basin
mw-redirect
Indus River Basin

values:
/wiki/Mahanadi_River
mw-redirect
Mahanadi River

values:
/wiki/Red_Hills_Lake
mw-redirect
Red Hills Lake

values:
/wiki/Kali_River_(Uttarakhand)
mw-redirect
Kali River (Uttarakhand)

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Saiful_Muluk
mw-redirect
Saiful Muluk

values:
/wiki/Principality_of_Bengal
mw-redirect
Principality of Bengal

values:
/wiki/Nawabs_of_Bengal
mw-redirect
Nawabs of Bengal

values:
/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1770
mw-redirect
Bengal famine of 1770

values: East Pakistani legislative election, 1954

values: Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence

values: Rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War

values: History of Bangladesh after independence

values:
/wiki/History_of_banking_in_Bangladesh
mw-redirect
History of banking in Bangladesh

values: Postage stamps and postal history of Bangladesh

values:
/wiki/Sundarbans_Reserve_Forest
mw-redirect
Sundarbans Reserve Forest

values: List of Parliamentary constituencies in Bangladesh

values: List of Municipal Corporations of Bangladesh

values:
/wiki/Union_Councils_of_Bangladesh
mw-redirect
Union Councils of Bangladesh

values:
/wiki/Law_of_Bangladesh
mw-redirect
Law of Bangladesh

values:
/wiki/Dhaka_High_Court
mw-redirect
Dhaka High Court

values: International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh)

values: Criminal Investigation Department (Bangladesh)

values: Special Security and Protection Battalion

values: Directorate General of Forces Intelligence

values: Category:Paramilitary forces of Bangladesh

values: Bangladesh Export Processing Zone Authority

values:
/wiki/Bangladeshi_RMG_Sector
mw-redirect
Bangladeshi RMG Sector

values:
/wiki/Bangladesh_textile_industry
mw-redirect
Bangladesh textile industry

values: Water supply and sanitation in Bangladesh

values:
/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Bangladesh
mw-redirect
Ethnic groups in Bangladesh

values:
/wiki/Bengali_calendar
mw-redirect
Bengali calendar

values: List of Bangladeshi television and radio channels

values:
/wiki/Baitul_Mukarram
mw-redirect
Baitul Mukarram

values:
/wiki/Jamuna_Bridge
mw-redirect
Jamuna Bridge

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
col
navbox-title
2
background-color: #FFC569;

values:
navbox-abovebelow
2
background-color: #FFC569;

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Template talk:Hydrography of Uttarakhand

values:
/wiki/Gorigar_River
mw-redirect
Gorigar River

values:
/wiki/Sarda_River
mw-redirect
Sarda River

values: Template:Hydrography of Himachal Pradesh

values: Template talk:Hydrography of Uttar Pradesh

values:
/wiki/Rajesultanpur,Ambedkar_Nagar
mw-redirect
Rajesultanpur,Ambedkar Nagar

values:
/wiki/Template:Rivers_in_Bihar
mw-redirect
Template:Rivers in Bihar

values:
/wiki/Falgu_River
mw-redirect
Falgu River

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/240776160

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4019227-1

values: Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017

values: Category:Use Indian English from June 2016

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English

values: Category:Geobox usage tracking for other type

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2017

values: Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Ganges
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
/w/index.php?title=Ganges&action=edit
Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
e

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Alemannisch
als
als
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandis
Gandis – Old English
ang
ang
interlanguage-link-target

values: نهر الغانج – Arabic

values: গঙ্গা নদী – Assamese

values:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganxes
Ganxes – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanq
Qanq – Azerbaijani
az
az
interlanguage-link-target

values: গঙ্গা নদী – Bangla

values: Ганг – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Bavarian
bar
bar
interlanguage-link-target

values: གླང་ཆེན་ཁ་བབས། – Tibetan

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganga
Ganga – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Cebuano
ceb
ceb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganga
Ganga – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gange
Gange – Corsican
co
co
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values: ގަންގާ ކޯރު – Divehi

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Γάγγης – Greek

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gango
Gango – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganga
Ganga – Fiji Hindi
hif
hif
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gange
Gange – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values: ગંગા નદી – Gujarati

values: गंगा नदी – Hindi

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-hi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Iloko
ilo
ilo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gange
Gange – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganga
Ganga – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganga
Ganga – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangesz
Gangesz – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values: गङ्गा नदी – Maithili

values: गंगा नदी – Marathi

values: Ганга мөрөн – Mongolian

values: ဂင်္ဂါမြစ် – Burmese

values: गङ्गा नदी – Nepali

values: गङ्गा खुसि – Newari

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values: ଗଙ୍ଗା ନଦୀ – Odia

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gang
Gang – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values: ਗੰਗਾ ਦਰਿਆ – Punjabi

values:
https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gange
Gange – Piedmontese
pms
pms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gange
Gange – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values: Ґанґа (ріка) – Rusyn

values: गङ्गानदी – Sanskrit

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganga
Ganga – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: கங்கை ஆறு – Tamil

values:
https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gang
Gang – Tatar
tt
tt
interlanguage-link-target

values: గంగా నది – Telugu

values: แม่น้ำคงคา – Thai

values: Ганг (дарё) – Tajik

values:
https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gang
Gang – Turkmen
tk
tk
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: دریائے گنگا – Urdu

values: گانگ دەرياسى – Uyghur

values:
https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gange
Gange – Venetian
vec
vec
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gang
Gang – Veps
vep
vep
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges
Ganges – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values: גאנגעס – Yiddish

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Ganges rootpage-Ganges skin-vector action-view