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Reactance (psychology)
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Reactance is a motivational reaction to offers, persons, rules, or regulations that threaten or eliminate specific behavioral freedoms. Reactance occurs when a person feels that someone or something is taking away their choices or limiting the range of alternatives.
Reactances can occur when someone is heavily pressured to accept a certain view or attitude. Reactance can cause the person to adopt or strengthen a view or attitude that is contrary to what was intended, and also increases resistance to persuasion. People using reverse psychology are playing on at least an informal awareness of reactance, attempting to influence someone to choose the opposite of what they request.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 Theory
3 Effects
4 Empirical evidence
5 Measurement
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Bibliography
Definition[edit]
Psychological reactance occurs in response to threats to perceived behavioral freedoms.[1][2] An example of such behavior can be observed when an individual engages in a prohibited activity in order to deliberately taunt the authority who prohibits it, regardless of the utility or disutility that the activity confers. An individual's freedom to select when and how to conduct their behavior, and the level to which they are aware of the relevant freedom—and are able to determine behaviors necessary to satisfy that freedom—affect the generation of psychological reactance. It is assumed that if a person's behavioral freedom is threatened or reduced, they become motivationally aroused. The fear of loss of further freedoms can spark this arousal and motivate them to re-establish the threatened freedom. Because this motivational state is a result of the perceived reduction of one's freedom of action, it is considered a counterforce, and thus is called "psychological reactance".
There are four important elements to reactance theory: perceived freedom, threat to freedom, reactance, and restoration of freedom. Freedom is not an abstract consideration, but rather a feeling associated with real behaviors, including actions, emotions, and attitudes.
Reactance also explains denial as it is encountered in addiction counselling. According to William R. Miller,[3] "Research demonstrates that a counselor can drive resistance (denial) levels up and down dramatically according to his or her personal counseling style". Use of a "respectful, reflective approach" described in motivational interviewing and applied as motivation enhancement therapy, rather than by argumentation, the accusation of "being in denial", and direct confrontations, lead to the motivation to change and avoid the resistance and denial, or reactance, elicited by strong direct confrontation.[4]
Theory[edit]
Reactance theory assumes there are "free behaviors" individuals perceive and can take part in at any given moment. For a behavior to be free, the individual must have the relevant physical and psychological abilities to partake in it, and must know they can engage in it at the moment, or in the near future.
"Behavior" includes any imaginable act. More specifically, behaviors may be explained as "what one does (or doesn't do)", "how one does something", or "when one does something". It is not always clear, to an observer, or the individuals themselves, if they hold a particular freedom to engage in a given behavior. When a person has such a free behavior they are likely to experience reactance whenever that behavior is restricted, eliminated, or threatened with elimination.
There are several rules associated with free behaviors and reactance:
When certain free behaviors are threatened or removed, the more important a free behavior is to a certain individual the greater the magnitude of the reactance.
The level of reactance has a direct relationship to the importance of the eliminated or threatened behavioral freedom, in relationship to the importance of other freedoms at the time.
With a given set of free behaviors, the greater the proportion threatened or eliminated, the greater will be the total level of reactance.
When an important free behavior has been threatened with elimination, the greater will be the threat, and the greater will be the level of reactance.
When there is a loss of a single free behavior, there may be by implication a related threat of removal of other free behaviors now or in the future.
A free behavior may be threatened or eliminated by virtue of the elimination (or threat of elimination) of another free behavior; therefore a free behavior may be threatened by the relation of the elimination of (or threat to) another person's free behavior.
Other core concepts of the theory are justification and legitimacy. A possible effect of justification is a limitation of the threat to a specific behavior or set of behaviors. For example, if Mr Doe states that he is interfering with Mrs. Smith's expectations because of an emergency, this keeps Mrs Smith from imagining that Mr Doe will interfere on future occasions as well. Likewise, legitimacy may point to a set of behaviors threatened since there will be a general assumption that an illegitimate interference with a person's freedom is less likely to occur. With legitimacy there is an additional implication that a person's freedom is equivocal.
Effects[edit]
In the phenomenology of reactance, there is no assumption that a person will be aware of reactance. When a person becomes aware of reactance, they will feel a higher level of self-direction in relationship to their own behavior. In other words, they will feel that if they are able to do what they want, then they do not have to do what they do not want. In this case, when the freedom is in question, that person alone is the director of their own behavior.
When considering the direct re-establishment of freedom, the greater the magnitude of reactance, the more the individual will try to re-establish the freedom that has been lost or threatened. When a freedom is threatened by a social pressure, then reactance will lead a person to resist that pressure. Also, when there are restraints against a direct re-establishment of freedom, there can be attempts at re-establishment by implication whenever possible.
Freedom can and may be reestablished by a social implication. When an individual has lost a free behavior because of a social threat, then the participation in a free-like behavior by a similar person will allow one to re-establish one's own freedom.
In summary, the definition of psychological reactance is a motivational state that is aimed at re-establishment of a threatened or eliminated freedom. A short explanation of the concept is that the level of reactance has a direct relationship between the importance of a freedom which is eliminated or threatened, and a proportion of free behaviors eliminated or threatened.
Empirical evidence[edit]
A number of studies have looked at psychological reactance, providing empirical evidence for the behaviour; some key studies are discussed below.
Brehm's 1981 study "Psychological reactance and the attractiveness of unobtainable objects: sex differences in children's responses to an elimination of freedom" examined the differences in sex and age in a child's view of the attractiveness of obtained and unobtainable objects. The study reviewed how well children respond in these situations and determined if the children being observed thought the "grass was greener on the other side". It also determined how well the child made peace with the world if they devalued what they could not have. This work concluded that when a child cannot have what they want, they experience emotional consequences of not getting it.[5]
In this study the results were duplicated from a previous study by Hammock and J. Brehm (1966). The male subjects wanted what they could not obtain, however the female subjects did not conform to the theory of reactance. Although their freedom to choose was taken away, it had no overall effect on them.
Silvia's 2005 study "Deflecting reactance: The role of similarity in increasing compliance and reducing resistance" concluded that one way to increase the activity of a threatened freedom is to censor it, or provide a threatening message toward the activity. In turn a "boomerang effect" occurs, in which people choose forbidden alternatives. This study also shows that social influence has better results when it does not threaten one's core freedoms. Two concepts revealed in this study are that a communicator may be able to increase the positive force towards compliance by increasing their credibility, and that increasing the positive communication force and decreasing the negative communication force simultaneously should increase compliance.[6]
Miller and colleagues concluded in their 2006 study, "Identifying principal risk factors for the initiation of adolescent smoking behaviors: The significance of psychological reactance", that psychological reactance is an important indicator in adolescent smoking initiation. Peer intimacy, peer individuation, and intergenerational individuation are strong predictors of psychological reactance. The overall results of the study indicate that children think that they are capable of making their own decisions, although they are not aware of their own limitations. This is an indicator that adolescents will experience reactance to authoritative control, especially the proscriptions and prescriptions of adult behaviors that they view as hedonically relevant.[7]
Measurement[edit]
Dillard & Shen have provided evidence that psychological reactance can be measured,[8] in contrast to the contrary opinion of Jack Brehm, who developed the theory. In their work they measured the impact of psychological reactance with two parallel studies: one advocating flossing and the other urging students to limit their alcohol intake.
They formed several conclusions about reactance. Firstly reactance is mostly cognitive; this allows reactance to be measurable by self-report techniques. Also, in support of previous research, they conclude reactance is in part related to an anger response. This verifies Brehm's description that during the reactance experience one tends to have hostile or aggressive feelings, often aimed more at the source of a threatening message than at the message itself. Finally, within reactance, both cognition and affect are intertwined; Dillard and Shen suggest they are so intertwined that their effects on persuasion cannot be distinguished from each other.
Dillard and Shen's research indicates reactance can effectively be studied using established self-report methods. Furthermore, it provided a better understanding of reactance theory and its relationship to persuasive health communication.
Miller and colleagues conducted their 2007 study Psychological reactance and promotional health messages: the effects of controlling language, lexical concreteness, and the restoration of freedom at the University of Oklahoma, with the primary goal being to measure the effects of controlling language in promotional health messages. Their research revisited the notion of restoring freedom by examining the use of a short postscripted message tagged on the end of a promotional health appeal. Results of the study indicated that more concrete messages generate greater attention than less concrete (more abstract) messages. Also, the source of concrete messages can be seen as more credible than the source of abstract messages. They concluded that the use of more concrete, low-controlling language, and the restoration of freedom through inclusion of a choice-emphasizing postscript, may offer the best solution to reducing ambiguity and reactance created by overtly persuasive health appeals.[9]
See also[edit]
Bre'er Rabbit and the Tar Baby, an Uncle Remus trickster tale known for its quotation "Please don't fling me in that briar patch"
Reverse psychology (and iterations including "double[-]reverse psychology", etc.)
Streisand effect, the phenomenon whereby an attempt to hide, remove, or censor a piece of information has the unintended consequence of publicizing the information more widely, usually facilitated by the Internet.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. Academic Press.
Jump up ^ Brehm, S. S., & Brehm, J. W. (1981). Psychological Reactance: A Theory of Freedom and Control. Academic Press.
Jump up ^ Miller, W. R. (2000) Motivational Enhancement Therapy: Description of Counseling Approach. in Boren, J. J. Onken, L. S., & Carroll, K. M. (Eds.) Approaches to Drug Abuse Counseling, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2000, pp. 89–93.
Jump up ^ Miller, W.R. & Rollnick, S. Motivational Interviewing: Preparing People to Change Addictive Behavior. NY: Guilford Press, 1991.
Jump up ^ Brehm, Sharon S. (1981). Psychological reactance and the attractiveness of unobtainable objects: Sex differences in children's responses to an elimination of freedom. Sex Roles, Volume 7, Number 9, 937–949
Jump up ^ Silvia, P. J. (2005). Deflecting reactance: The role of similarity in increasing compliance and reducing resistance. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 27, 277–284.
Jump up ^ Miller, C. H., Burgoon, M., Grandpre, J., & Alvaro, E. (2006). Identifying principal risk factors for the initiation of adolescent smoking behaviors: The significance of psychological reactance. Health Communication 19, 241–252.
Jump up ^ Dillard, J., & Shen, L. (2005). On the nature of reactance and its role in persuasive health communication. Communication Monographs, 72, 144–168.
Jump up ^ Miller, C. H., Lane, L. T., Deatrick, L. M., Young, A. M., & Potts, K. A. (2007). Psychological reactance and promotional health messages: The effects of controlling language, lexical concreteness, and the restoration of freedom. Human Communication Research, 33, 219–240.
Bibliography[edit]
Baron, Robert A.; et al. (2006). Social Psychology. Pearson. ISBN 9780205444120.
Mead, Nicole L. (2007). "Reactance". In Baumeister, Roy; Vohs, Kathleen. Encyclopedia of Social Psychology. SAGE Publications. doi:10.4135/9781412956253.n433. ISBN 9781412916707.
Roeckelein, J. E., ed. (2006). "Reactance theory". Elsevier's Dictionary of Psychological Theories. Elsevier. pp. 507–508. ISBN 9780080460642.
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N2 road (South Africa)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
National route N2
Route information
Maintained by SANRAL, City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality[1]
Major junctions
West end:
Buitengracht Street in Cape Town
N1 in Cape Town
N9 / N12 near George
N10 near Coega
N6 in East London
N3 in Durban
East end:
N11 / N17 in Ermelo
Location
Major cities:
Cape Town, George, Port Elizabeth, Grahamstown, King William's Town, East London, Mthatha, Durban, Richards Bay, Ermelo
Highway system
Numbered routes of South Africa
← N1 N3 →
The N2 is a national route in South Africa that runs from Cape Town through Port Elizabeth, East London and Durban to Ermelo.[2] It is the main highway along the Indian Ocean coast of the country. Its total distance of 2,255 kilometres (1,401 mi) makes it the longest numbered route in South Africa.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Route
1.1 Western Cape
1.2 Eastern Cape
1.3 KwaZulu-Natal
1.4 Mpumalanga
2 Disruption to route
3 References
4 See also
Route[edit]
Major towns and cities along the route of the N2 include Cape Town, Somerset West, Caledon, Swellendam, Mossel Bay, George, Knysna, Plettenberg Bay, Humansdorp, Port Elizabeth, Grahamstown, King William's Town, Bhisho, East London, Mthatha, Kokstad, Port Shepstone, Durban, KwaDukuza, Empangeni, Piet Retief, and Ermelo.
Western Cape[edit]
The N2, which is also known at this point as the Eastern Boulevard (now Nelson Mandela Boulevard), as it enters the City Bowl of Cape Town.
The N2 begins in central Cape Town at the northern end of Buitengracht Street outside the entrance to the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront. The first section of the N2 is shared with the beginning of the N1; it is a four-lane elevated freeway that runs along a strip of land between the city centre and the Port of Cape Town. On the eastern edge of the city centre the two roads split, and the N2 turns south as Nelson Mandela Boulevard, crossing above the yards and approach tracks of Cape Town railway station.
The N2 descends to ground level in Woodstock before approaching the major interchange known as "Hospital Bend" because of its proximity to Groote Schuur Hospital. In this interchange, the N2 and the M3 merge to form a massive 10-lane freeway before diverging again. Because Hospital Bend is built on a steeply sloping curve, and lane-changing is often necessary to travel through the intersection, it was notorious for congestion and accidents, until it was upgraded between 2008 and 2010. [1][2]
After Hospital Bend the N2 turns east to travel across the Cape Flats as a 6-lane freeway to Somerset West; this section is known as Settler's Way. Along this route it crosses the M5, M7 and R300 freeways; it also travels just past the end of the main runway at Cape Town International Airport. In Somerset West it is reduced to an undivided highway, passing through several intersections with traffic lights, which cause frequent congestion.
East of Somerset West the N2 climbs Sir Lowry's Pass to enter the Overberg region. It passes near the town of Grabouw on the Hottentots-Holland plateau before descending the Houwhoek Pass to Botrivier. After Botrivier it passes across the agricultural plains through the towns of Caledon, Riviersonderend, Swellendam and Riversdale to re-approach the coast at Mossel Bay, which marks the beginning of the Garden Route.
N2 Freeway between George and Mossel Bay
Just west of Mossel Bay the N2 again becomes a divided freeway, and remains one as far as the intersection with the N9 just outside George. From there it travels across Kaaiman's Pass (see below) to Wilderness and on to Knysna and Plettenberg Bay. After Plettenberg Bay a section of the road is tolled as the Tsitsikamma Toll Route, primarily because of the Bloukrans Bridge; an alternative route used to run through Nature's Valley but this is no longer available due to flood damage.[3] The Bloukrans Bridge marks the border with the Eastern Cape and is the site of the worlds highest bridge bungy, Bloukrans Bridge Bungy.[4]
Bloukrans Bridge
Eastern Cape[edit]
In the Eastern Cape the N2 passes near Humansdorp and Jeffrey's Bay before becoming a four-lane divided freeway through the city of Port Elizabeth, ending at Colchester, Eastern Cape. The N2 continues in a north-easterly direction from Port Elizabeth, moving away from the coast towards Grahamstown; en route the N10 splits from the N2, going northwards towards Middelburg. After Grahamstown the N2 passes through the former Ciskei; at King William's Town it turns back towards the coast, meeting it at East London. The N2 passes around East London on a bypass; it meets the N6 which runs northwards from East London towards Bloemfontein.
After East London the N2 turns again towards the interior, to avoid the difficult terrain of the Wild Coast. It passes through the former Transkei and its former capital Mthatha. Near Kokstad, KwaZulu-Natal the N2 crosses into the province of KwaZulu-Natal.
KwaZulu-Natal[edit]
From Kokstad the N2 turns again back towards the coast, meeting it at Port Shepstone. From Port Shepstone it runs as a freeway past the resort towns of the Natal South Coast, including Umzumbe, Hibberdene, Ifafa Beach, Scottburgh, Umkomaas and Amanzimtoti, before passing on a bypass around the city of Durban. At the Westville four-level bypass the N2 meets the N3 from Johannesburg.
After Durban the N2 continues as a freeway along the Natal North Coast past Umhlanga Rocks, Ballito and Tongaat, with the freeway ending at KwaDukuza. It passes the port of Richard's Bay and turns north, moving away from the coast into the heart of Zululand. It passes close to the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park and the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve. It approaches the border with Swaziland near to the border post of Golela, and turns westwards, running just south of the border through the town of Pongola before entering Mpumalanga province.
Mpumalanga[edit]
In Mpumalanga the N2 continues close to the Swazi border to the town of Piet Retief, from which it travels north-west to end in the town of Ermelo. Ermelo is connected by the N17 to Johannesburg and Mbabane, and by the N11 to Mokopane and Ladysmith.
Disruption to route[edit]
Heavy rains triggered a mud-slide on the Kaaiman's pass section of the N2 between George and Wilderness. This caused the road to be temporarily closed from 26 August 2006. As a result of the slide a section of roadway sagged and large cracks appeared on the road surface. After an inspection by a team of engineers a single lane was reopened on 29 August for vehicles with a gross mass of under 5000 kg.
An alternative route following the Saasveld road was put into use, but this road only allows for a single lane of traffic and light vehicles. Heavy vehicles have to take an alternative route via the R62 and Langkloof pass effectively lengthening the distance from George to Wilderness from 11 km to over 600 km (news24.com story). The road has since reopened but major repairs are being done.
Traffic on the N2 has also been disrupted on numerous occasions because of protests. On 10 September 2007, residents of Joe Slovo Informal Settlement blockaded the N2 Freeway in Cape Town near Langa. Police responded with rubber bullets injuring over 30 residents.[5][6] On 4 December 2008, a few thousand residents of eMachambini, between KwaDukuza and Richards Bay in KZN, blockaded the N2 Freeway in protest against the proposed AmaZulu World Themepark. Police opened fire and injured about 23 residents and arrested about 10.[7]
On 20 October 2012, a section of the N2 was closed after heavy rainfall caused a collapse about 20 km outside Grahamstown.[8]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to N2 road (South Africa).
References[edit]
Jump up ^ N2/Settlers Freeway (“Hospital Bend”)
Jump up ^ Falkner, John (May 2012). South African Numbered Route Description and Destination Analysis (Report). National Department of Transport. pp. 7–12. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
Jump up ^ http://www.heraldlive.co.za/legal-need-provide-alternative-road/
Jump up ^ My Destination Website, retrieved 26 April 2012
Jump up ^ "Cape Town: Police wade in on Joe Slovo shackdwellers blockade". labournet.
Jump up ^ "N2 Gateway and the Joe Slovo informal settlement: the new Crossroads?". Abahlali.
Jump up ^ "Cops break up protest over KZN development". Mail & Guardian.
Jump up ^ http://www.allzanews.com/2012/10/20/section-of-n2-collapses-in-eastern-cape/
See also[edit]
National Roads in South Africa
The N2 Gateway Housing Project along the N2 freeway in Cape Town
[show]
v
t
e
National (N) Routes in South Africa
N1
N2
N3
N4
N5
N6
N7
N8
N9
N10
N11
N12
N14
N17
N18
[show]
v
t
e
Numbered routes in the Western Cape
National routes
N1
N2
N7
N9
N12
Provincial routes
R27
R43
R44
R45
R46
R60
R61
R62
R63
Regional routes
R101
R102
R300
R301
R302
R303
R304
R305
R306
R307
R310
R311
R312
R315
R316
R317
R318
R319
R320
R321
R322
R323
R324
R326
R327
R328
R339
R340
R341
R353
R354
R355
R356
R358
R362
R363
R364
R365
R366
R381
R399
R402
R404
R406
R407
[show]
v
t
e
Freeways in Cape Town
Existing
N1
N2
N7
M3
M5
M7
R300
Proposed
Peninsula Expressway
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values: City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality

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East London, South Africa

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/wiki/Numbered_routes_of_South_Africa
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Numbered routes of South Africa

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National route (South Africa)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)

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/wiki/Kokstad,_KwaZulu-Natal
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Kokstad, KwaZulu-Natal

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/wiki/City_Bowl,_Cape_Town
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City Bowl, Cape Town

values: Buitengracht Street (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/N1_(South_Africa)
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N1 (South Africa)

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/wiki/Elevated_freeway
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Elevated freeway

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/wiki/R300_(Western_Cape)
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R300 (Western Cape)

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Traffic lights

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/wiki/N9_(South_Africa)
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N9 (South Africa)

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/wiki/Jeffrey%27s_Bay
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Jeffrey's Bay

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/wiki/N10_(South_Africa)
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N10 (South Africa)

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/wiki/N6_(South_Africa)
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N6 (South Africa)

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/wiki/N3_(South_Africa)
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N3 (South Africa)

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/wiki/Umhlanga_Rocks
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Umhlanga Rocks

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/wiki/Richard%27s_Bay
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Richard's Bay

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/wiki/Greater_St_Lucia_Wetland_Park
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Greater St Lucia Wetland Park

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/wiki/Hluhluwe-Umfolozi_Game_Reserve
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Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve

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/wiki/N17_(South_Africa)
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N17 (South Africa)

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/wiki/N11_(South_Africa)
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N11 (South Africa)

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/wiki/Joe_Slovo_Informal_Settlement
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Joe Slovo Informal Settlement

values: AmaZulu World Themepark (page does not exist)

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external text
http://www.abahlali.org/node/2437

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National Roads in South Africa

values: Template talk:South African National Routes

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National Routes (South Africa)

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R27 road (South Africa)

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R43 road (South Africa)

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/wiki/R44_road_(South_Africa)
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R44 road (South Africa)

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/wiki/R45_road_(South_Africa)
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R45 road (South Africa)

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/wiki/R46_road_(South_Africa)
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R46 road (South Africa)

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/wiki/R60_road_(South_Africa)
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R60 road (South Africa)

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/wiki/R61_road_(South_Africa)
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R61 road (South Africa)

values:
/wiki/R62_road_(South_Africa)
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R62 road (South Africa)

values:
/wiki/R63_road_(South_Africa)
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R63 road (South Africa)

values:
/wiki/R302_road_(South_Africa)
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R302 road (South Africa)

values:
/wiki/R303_road_(South_Africa)
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R303 road (South Africa)

values:
/wiki/R304_road_(South_Africa)
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R304 road (South Africa)

values:
/wiki/R305_road_(South_Africa)
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R305 road (South Africa)

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/wiki/R306_road_(South_Africa)
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R306 road (South Africa)

values:
/wiki/R307_road_(South_Africa)
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R307 road (South Africa)

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/wiki/R354_road_(South_Africa)
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R354 road (South Africa)

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/wiki/R381_road_(South_Africa)
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R381 road (South Africa)

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values: Category:Infobox road maps for Wikidata migration

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values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2012

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values: Route nationale 2 (Afrique du Sud) – French

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