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Screw thread
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Screw thread, used to convert torque into the linear force in the flood gate. The operator rotates the two vertical bevel gears that have threaded holes, thereby raising or lowering the two long vertical threaded shafts which are not free to rotate (via bevel gear).
A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to convert between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw thread is a ridge wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former being called a straight thread and the latter called a tapered thread. A screw thread is the essential feature of the screw as a simple machine and also as a fastener.
The mechanical advantage of a screw thread depends on its lead, which is the linear distance the screw travels in one revolution.[1] In most applications, the lead of a screw thread is chosen so that friction is sufficient to prevent linear motion being converted to rotary, that is so the screw does not slip even when linear force is applied, as long as no external rotational force is present. This characteristic is essential to the vast majority of its uses. The tightening of a fastener's screw thread is comparable to driving a wedge into a gap until it sticks fast through friction and slight elastic deformation.
Contents
1 Applications
2 Design
2.1 Gender
2.2 Handedness
2.3 Form
2.4 Angle
2.5 Lead, pitch, and starts
2.5.1 Coarse versus fine
2.6 Diameters
2.6.1 Major diameter
2.6.2 Minor diameter
2.6.3 Pitch diameter
2.7 Classes of fit
2.7.1 Tolerance classes
2.7.2 Thread limit
2.8 Standardization and interchangeability
2.9 Thread depth
2.10 Taper
3 Standardization
3.1 ISO standard threads
3.2 Other current standards
3.3 History of standardization
4 Engineering drawing
5 Generation
6 Inspection
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Applications[edit]
Screw threads have several applications:
Fastening:
Fasteners such as wood screws, machine screws, nuts, and bolts.
Connecting threaded pipes and hoses to each other and to caps and fixtures.
Gear reduction via worm drives
Moving objects linearly by converting rotary motion to linear motion, as in the leadscrew of a jack.
Measuring by correlating linear motion to rotary motion (and simultaneously amplifying it), as in a micrometer.
Both moving objects linearly and simultaneously measuring the movement, combining the two aforementioned functions, as in a leadscrew of a lathe.
In all of these applications, the screw thread has two main functions:
It converts rotary motion into linear motion.
It prevents linear motion without the corresponding rotation.
Design[edit]
Gender[edit]
Main article: Gender of connectors and fasteners
Every matched pair of threads, external and internal, can be described as male and female. For example, a screw has male threads, while its matching hole (whether in nut or substrate) has female threads. This property is called gender.
Handedness[edit]
Main article: Handedness
Right- and left-handed screw threads
The right-hand rule of screw threads
The helix of a thread can twist in two possible directions, which is known as handedness. Most threads are oriented so that the threaded item, when seen from a point of view on the axis through the center of the helix, moves away from the viewer when it is turned in a clockwise direction, and moves towards the viewer when it is turned counterclockwise. This is known as a right-handed (RH) thread, because it follows the right hand grip rule. Threads oriented in the opposite direction are known as left-handed (LH).
By common convention, right-handedness is the default handedness for screw threads. Therefore, most threaded parts and fasteners have right-handed threads. Left-handed thread applications include:
Where the rotation of a shaft would cause a conventional right-handed nut to loosen rather than to tighten due to applied torque or to fretting induced precession. Examples include:
The left hand pedal on a bicycle.[2]
The left-hand grinding wheel on a bench grinder.
The lug nuts on the left side of some automobiles.
The securing nut on some circular saw blades - the large torque at startup should tend to tighten the nut.
The spindle on brushcutter and line trimmer heads, so that the torque tends to tighten rather than loosen the connection
In combination with right-hand threads in turnbuckles and clamping studs.[3]
In some gas supply connections to prevent dangerous misconnections, for example:
In gas welding the flammable gas supply uses left-handed threads, while the oxygen supply if there is one has a conventional thread
The POL valve for LPG cylinders
In a situation where neither threaded pipe end can be rotated to tighten or loosen the joint (e.g. in traditional heating pipes running through multiple rooms in a building). In such a case, the coupling will have one right-handed and one left-handed thread.
In some instances, for example early ballpoint pens, to provide a "secret" method of disassembly.
In mechanisms to give a more intuitive action as:
The leadscrew of the cross slide of a lathe to cause the cross slide to move away from the operator when the leadscrew is turned clockwise.
The depth of cut screw of a "Bailey" (or "Stanley-Bailey") type metal plane (tool) for the blade to move in the direction of a regulating right hand finger.
Some Edison base lamps and fittings (such as those formerly used on the New York City Subway) have a left-hand thread to deter theft, since they cannot be used in other light fixtures.
Form[edit]
Different threads including metric, USC, USF, BSW
The cross-sectional shape of a thread is often called its form or threadform (also spelled thread form). It may be square, triangular, trapezoidal, or other shapes. The terms form and threadform sometimes refer to all design aspects taken together (cross-sectional shape, pitch, and diameters).
Most triangular threadforms are based on an isosceles triangle. These are usually called V-threads or vee-threads because of the shape of the letter V. For 60° V-threads, the isosceles triangle is, more specifically, equilateral. For buttress threads, the triangle is scalene.
The theoretical triangle is usually truncated to varying degrees (that is, the tip of the triangle is cut short). A V-thread in which there is no truncation (or a minuscule amount considered negligible) is called a sharp V-thread. Truncation occurs (and is codified in standards) for practical reasons—the thread-cutting or thread-forming tool cannot practically have a perfectly sharp point, and truncation is desirable anyway, because otherwise:
The cutting or forming tool's edge will break too easily;
The part or fastener's thread crests will have burrs upon cutting, and will be too susceptible to additional future burring resulting from dents (nicks);
The roots and crests of mating male and female threads need clearance to ensure that the sloped sides of the V meet properly despite (a) error in pitch diameter and (b) dirt and nick-induced burrs.
The point of the threadform adds little strength to the thread.
In ball screws, the male-female pairs have bearing balls in between. Roller screws use conventional thread forms and threaded rollers instead of balls.
Angle[edit]
Main article: Thread angle
The included angle characteristic of the cross-sectional shape is often called the thread angle. For most V-threads, this is standardized as 60 degrees, but any angle can be used. The cross section to measure this angle lies on a plane which includes the axis of the cylinder or cone on which the thread is produced.
Lead, pitch, and starts[edit]
"Threads per inch" redirects here. For woven fabrics, see Units of textile measurement § Thread count.
Main article: Lead (engineering)
For other uses, see Pitch.
Lead and pitch for two screw threads; one with one start and one with two starts
Lead /ˈliːd/ and pitch are closely related concepts. They can be confused because they are the same for most screws. Lead is the distance along the screw's axis that is covered by one complete rotation of the screw (360°). Pitch is the distance from the crest of one thread to the next. Because the vast majority of screw threadforms are single-start threadforms, their lead and pitch are the same. Single-start means that there is only one "ridge" wrapped around the cylinder of the screw's body. Each time that the screw's body rotates one turn (360°), it has advanced axially by the width of one ridge. "Double-start" means that there are two "ridges" wrapped around the cylinder of the screw's body.[4] Each time that the screw's body rotates one turn (360°), it has advanced axially by the width of two ridges. Another way to express this is that lead and pitch are parametrically related, and the parameter that relates them, the number of starts, very often has a value of 1, in which case their relationship becomes equality. In general, lead is equal to pitch times the number of starts.
Whereas metric threads are usually defined by their pitch, that is, how much distance per thread, inch-based standards usually use the reverse logic, that is, how many threads occur per a given distance. Thus, inch-based threads are defined in terms of threads per inch (TPI). Pitch and TPI describe the same underlying physical property—merely in different terms. When the inch is used as the unit of measurement for pitch, TPI is the reciprocal of pitch and vice versa. For example, a 1⁄4-20 thread has 20 TPI, which means that its pitch is 1⁄20 inch (0.050 in or 1.27 mm).
As the distance from the crest of one thread to the next, pitch can be compared to the wavelength of a wave. Another wave analogy is that pitch and TPI are inverses of each other in a similar way that period and frequency are inverses of each other.
Coarse versus fine[edit]
Coarse threads are those with larger pitch (fewer threads per axial distance), and fine threads are those with smaller pitch (more threads per axial distance). Coarse threads have a larger threadform relative to screw diameter, where fine threads have a smaller threadform relative to screw diameter. This distinction is analogous to that between coarse teeth and fine teeth on a saw or file, or between coarse grit and fine grit on sandpaper.
The common V-thread standards (ISO 261 and Unified Thread Standard) include a coarse pitch and a fine pitch for each major diameter. For example, 1⁄2-13 belongs to the UNC series (Unified National Coarse) and 1⁄2-20 belongs to the UNF series (Unified National Fine). Similarly, ISO261 M10 (10mm (398 thou) nominal outer diameter) has a coarse thread version at 1.25mm pitch (49 thou) and a fine thread version at 1 mm (39 thou) pitch.
The term coarse here does not mean lower quality, nor does the term fine imply higher quality. The terms when used in reference to screw thread pitch have nothing to do with the tolerances used (degree of precision) or the amount of craftsmanship, quality, or cost. They simply refer to the size of the threads relative to the screw diameter.
Coarse threads are more resistant to stripping and cross threading because they have greater flank engagement. Coarse threads install much faster as they require fewer turns per unit length. Finer threads are stronger as they have a larger stress area for the same diameter thread. Fine threads are less likely to vibrate loose as they have a smaller helix angle and allow finer adjustment. Finer threads develop greater preload with less tightening torque.[5]
Diameters[edit]
The three diameters that characterize threads
There are three characteristic diameters of threads: major diameter, minor diameter, and pitch diameter: Industry standards specify minimum (min.) and maximum (max.) limits for each of these, for all recognized thread sizes. The minimum limits for external (or bolt, in ISO terminology), and the maximum limits for internal (nut), thread sizes are there to ensure that threads do not strip at the tensile strength limits for the parent material. The minimum limits for internal, and maximum limits for external, threads are there to ensure that the threads fit together.
Major diameter[edit]
The major diameter of threads is the larger of two extreme diameters delimiting the height of the thread profile, as a cross-sectional view is taken in a plane containing the axis of the threads. For a screw, this is its outside diameter (OD). The major diameter of a nut may not be directly measured, but it may be tested with go/no-go gauges.
The major diameter of external threads is normally smaller than the major diameter of the internal threads, if the threads are designed to fit together. But this requirement alone does not guarantee that a bolt and a nut of the same pitch would fit together: the same requirement must separately be made for the minor and pitch diameters of the threads. Besides providing for a clearance between the crest of the bolt threads and the root of the nut threads, one must also ensure that the clearances are not so excessive as to cause the fasteners to fail.
Minor diameter[edit]
The basic profile of all UTS threads is the same as that of all ISO metric screw threads. Only the commonly used values for Dmaj and P differ between the two standards.
The minor diameter is the lower extreme diameter of the thread. Major diameter minus minor diameter, divided by two, equals the height of the thread. The minor diameter of a nut is its inside diameter. The minor diameter of a bolt can be measured with go/no-go gauges or, directly, with an optical comparator.
As shown in the figure at right, threads of equal pitch and angle that have matching minor diameters, with differing major and pitch diameters, may appear to fit snugly, but only do so radially; threads that have only major diameters matching (not shown) could also be visualized as not allowing radial movement. The reduced material condition, due to the unused spaces between the threads, must be minimized so as not to overly weaken the fasteners.
Pitch diameter[edit]
Variants of snug fit. Only threads with matched PDs are truly snug, axially as well as radially.
The pitch diameter (PD, or D2) of a particular thread, internal or external, is the diameter of a cylindrical surface, axially concentric to the thread, which intersects the thread flanks at equidistant points, when viewed in a cross-sectional plane containing the axis of the thread, the distance between these points being exactly one half the pitch distance. Equivalently, a line running parallel to the axis and a distance D2 away from it, the "PD line," slices the sharp-V form of the thread, having flanks coincident with the flanks of the thread under test, at exactly 50% of its height. We have assumed that the flanks have the proper shape, angle, and pitch for the specified thread standard. It is generally unrelated to the major (D) and minor (D1) diameters, especially if the crest and root truncations of the sharp-V form at these diameters are unknown. Everything else being ideal, D2, D, & D1, together, would fully describe the thread form. Knowledge of PD determines the position of the sharp-V thread form, the sides of which coincide with the straight sides of the thread flanks: e.g., the crest of the external thread would truncate these sides a radial displacement D - D2 away from the position of the PD line.
Provided that there are moderate non-negative clearances between the root and crest of the opposing threads, and everything else is ideal, if the pitch diameters of a screw and nut are exactly matched, there should be no play at all between the two as assembled, even in the presence of positive root-crest clearances. This is the case when the flanks of the threads come into intimate contact with one another, before the roots and crests do, if at all.
However, this ideal condition would in practice only be approximated and would generally require wrench-assisted assembly, possibly causing the galling of the threads. For this reason, some allowance, or minimum difference, between the PDs of the internal and external threads has to generally be provided for, to eliminate the possibility of deviations from the ideal thread form causing interference and to expedite hand assembly up to the length of engagement. Such allowances, or fundamental deviations, as ISO standards call them, are provided for in various degrees in corresponding classes of fit for ranges of thread sizes. At one extreme, no allowance is provided by a class, but the maximum PD of the external thread is specified to be the same as the minimum PD of the internal thread, within specified tolerances, ensuring that the two can be assembled, with some looseness of fit still possible due to the margin of tolerance. A class called interference fit may even provide for negative allowances, where the PD of the screw is greater than the PD of the nut by at least the amount of the allowance.
The pitch diameter of external threads is measured by various methods:
A dedicated type of micrometer, called a thread mic or pitch mic, which has a V-anvil and a conical spindle tip, contacts the thread flanks for a direct reading.
A general-purpose micrometer (flat anvil and spindle) is used over a set of three wires that rest on the thread flanks, and a known constant is subtracted from the reading. (The wires are truly gauge pins, being ground to precise size, although "wires" is their common name.) This method is called the 3-wire method. Sometimes grease is used to hold the wires in place, helping the user to juggle the part, mic, and wires into position.
An optical comparator may also be used to determine PD graphically.
Classes of fit[edit]
The way in which male and female fit together, including play and friction, is classified (categorized) in thread standards. Achieving a certain class of fit requires the ability to work within tolerance ranges for dimension (size) and surface finish. Defining and achieving classes of fit are important for interchangeability. Classes include 1, 2, 3 (loose to tight); A (external) and B (internal); and various systems such as H and D limits.
Tolerance classes[edit]
Thread limit[edit]
Thread limit or pitch diameter limit is a standard used for classifying the tolerance of the thread pitch diameter for taps. For imperial, H or L limits are used which designate how many units of 5 ten thousandths of an inch over or undersized the pitch diameter is from its basic value, respectively. Thus a tap designated with an H limit of 3, denoted H3, would have a pitch diameter 5 ten thousandths × 3 = 1.5 thousandths of an inch larger than base pitch diameter and would thus result in cutting an internal thread with a looser fit than say an H2 tap. Metric uses D or DU limits which is the same system as imperial, but uses D or DU designators for over and undersized respectively, and goes by units of 0.013 mm (0.51 mils).[6] Generally taps come in the range of H1 to H5 and rarely L1.
The pitch diameter of a thread is measured where the radial cross section of a single thread equals 0.5 × pitch example: 16 pitch thread = 1/16 in = 0.0625 in the pitch actual pitch diameter of the thread is measured at the radial cross section measures 0.03125 in.
Standardization and interchangeability[edit]
To achieve a predictably successful mating of male and female threads and assured interchangeability between males and between females, standards for form, size, and finish must exist and be followed. Standardization of threads is discussed below.
Thread depth[edit]
Screw threads are almost never made perfectly sharp (no truncation at the crest or root), but instead are truncated, yielding a final thread depth that can be expressed as a fraction of the pitch value. The UTS and ISO standards codify the amount of truncation, including tolerance ranges.
A perfectly sharp 60° V-thread will have a depth of thread ("height" from root to crest) equal to 0.866 of the pitch. This fact is intrinsic to the geometry of an equilateral triangle — a direct result of the basic trigonometric functions. It is independent of measurement units (inch vs mm). However, UTS and ISO threads are not sharp threads. The major and minor diameters delimit truncations on either side of the sharp V.
The nominal diameter of Metric (e.g. M8) and Unified (e.g. 5/16") threads is the theoretical major diameter of the male thread, which is truncated (diametrically) by 0.866/4 of the pitch from the dimension over the tips of the "fundamental" (sharp cornered) triangles. The resulting flats on the crests of the male thread are theoretically one eighth of the pitch wide (expressed with the notation 1⁄8p or 0.125p), although the actual geometry definition has more variables than that. A full (100%) UTS or ISO thread has a height of around 0.65p.
Threads can be (and often are) truncated a bit more, yielding thread depths of 60% to 75% of the 0.65p value. For example, a 75% thread sacrifices only a small amount of strength in exchange for a significant reduction in the force required to cut the thread. The result is that tap and die wear is reduced, the likelihood of breakage is lessened and higher cutting speeds can often be employed.
This additional truncation is achieved by using a slightly larger tap drill in the case of female threads, or by slightly reducing the diameter of the threaded area of workpiece in the case of male threads, the latter effectively reducing the thread's major diameter. In the case of female threads, tap drill charts typically specify sizes that will produce an approximate 75% thread. A 60% thread may be appropriate in cases where high tensile loading will not be expected. In both cases, the pitch diameter is not affected. The balancing of truncation versus thread strength is similar to many engineering decisions involving the strength, weight and cost of material, as well as the cost to machine it.
Taper[edit]
Tapered threads are used on fasteners and pipe. A common example of a fastener with a tapered thread is a wood screw.
The threaded pipes used in some plumbing installations for the delivery of fluids under pressure have a threaded section that is slightly conical. Examples are the NPT and BSP series. The seal provided by a threaded pipe joint is created when a tapered externally threaded end is tightened into an end with internal threads. Normally a good seal requires the application of a separate sealant into the joint, such as thread seal tape, or a liquid or paste pipe sealant such as pipe dope, however some threaded pipe joints do not require a separate sealant.
Standardization[edit]
An example of M16, ISO metric screw thread
Standardization of screw threads has evolved since the early nineteenth century to facilitate compatibility between different manufacturers and users. The standardization process is still ongoing; in particular there are still (otherwise identical) competing metric and inch-sized thread standards widely used.[7] Standard threads are commonly identified by short letter codes (M, UNC, etc.) which also form the prefix of the standardized designations of individual threads.
Additional product standards identify preferred thread sizes for screws and nuts, as well as corresponding bolt head and nut sizes, to facilitate compatibility between spanners (wrenches) and other tools.
ISO standard threads[edit]
Main article: ISO metric screw thread
The most common threads in use are the ISO metric screw threads (M) for most purposes and BSP threads (R, G) for pipes.
These were standardized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1947. Although metric threads were mostly unified in 1898 by the International Congress for the standardization of screw threads, separate metric thread standards were used in France, Germany, and Japan, and the Swiss had a set of threads for watches.
Other current standards[edit]
In particular applications and certain regions, threads other than the ISO metric screw threads remain commonly used, sometimes because of special application requirements, but mostly for reasons of backward compatibility:
Unified Thread Standard (UTS), is the dominant thread standard used in the United States and Canada. It is defined in ANSI/ASME B1.1 Unified Inch Screw Threads, (UN and UNR Thread Form). This standard includes:
Unified Coarse (UNC), commonly referred to as National Coarse (NC) in retailing.
Unified Fine (UNF), commonly referred to as National Fine (NF) in retailing.
Unified Extra Fine (UNEF)
Unified Special (UNS)
National pipe thread (NPT), used (in the U.S.) for plumbing of water and gas pipes, and threaded electrical conduit.
NPTF (National Pipe Thread Fuel)
British Standard Whitworth (BSW), and for other Whitworth threads including:
British Standard Fine (BSF)
Cycle Engineers' Institute (CEI) or British Standard Cycle (BSC)
British standard pipe thread (BSP) which exists in a taper and non taper variant; used for other purposes as well
British Standard Pipe Taper (BSPT)
British Association screw threads (BA), primarily electronic/electrical, moving coil meters and to mount optical lenses
British Standard Buttress Threads (BS 1657:1950)
British Standard for Spark Plugs BS 45:1972
British Standard Brass a fixed pitch 26tpi thread
Glass Packaging Institute threads (GPI), primarily for glass bottles and vials
Power screw threads
Acme thread form
Square thread form
Buttress thread
Royal Microscopical Society (RMS) thread, also known as society thread, is a special 0.8" diameter x 36 thread-per-inch (tpi) Whitworth thread form used for microscope objective lenses.
Microphone stands:
⅝″ 27 threads per inch (tpi) Unified Special thread (UNS, USA and the rest of the world)
¼″ BSW (not common in the US, but used in the rest of the world)
⅜″ BSW (not common in the US, but used in the rest of the world)
Stage lighting suspension bolts (in some countries only; some have gone entirely metric, others such as Australia have reverted to the BSW threads, or have never fully converted):
⅜″ BSW for lighter luminaires
½″ BSW for heavier luminaires
Tapping screw threads (ST) – ISO 1478
Aerospace inch threads (UNJ) – ISO 3161
Aerospace metric threads (MJ) – ISO 5855
Tyre valve threads (V) – ISO 4570
Metal bone screws (HA, HB) – ISO 5835
Panzergewinde (Pg) (German) is an old German 80° thread (DIN 40430) that remained in use until 2000 in some electrical installation accessories in Germany.
Fahrradgewinde (Fg) (English: bicycle thread) is a German bicycle thread standard (per DIN 79012 and DIN 13.1), which encompasses a lot of CEI and BSC threads as used on cycles and mopeds everywhere (http://www.fahrradmonteur.de/fahrradgewinde.php)
Edison base Incandescent light bulb holder screw thread
Fire hose connection (NFPA standard 194)
Hose Coupling Screw Threads (ANSI/ASME B1.20.7-1991 [R2003]) for garden hoses and accessories
Löwenherz thread,[8] a German metric thread used for measuring instruments[9]
Sewing machine thread[10]
History of standardization[edit]
Graphic representation of formulas for the pitches of threads of screw bolts
A good summary of screw thread standards in current use in 1914 was given in Colvin FH, Stanley FA (eds) (1914): American Machinists' Handbook, 2nd ed, New York and London, McGraw-Hill, pp. 16–22. USS, metric, Whitworth, and BA standards are discussed. The SAE series was not mentioned—at the time this edition of the Handbook was being compiled, they were either still in development or just newly introduced.
A table of standard sizes for machine screws as provided by the American Screw Company of Providence, Rhode Island, USA, and published in a Mechanical Engineers' Handbook of 1916. Standards seen here overlap with those found elsewhere marked as ASME and SAE standards and with the later Unified Thread Standard (UTS) of 1949 and afterward. One can see the theme of how later standards reflect a degree of continuation from earlier standards, sometimes with hints of long-ago intracompany origins. For example, compare the 6-32, 8-32, 10-24, and 10-32 options in this table with the UTS versions of those sizes, which are not identical but are so close that interchange would work.
Survey results on the use of SAE standards (including screw size standards), reported in the journal Horseless Age, 1916
Standardization of screw threads began many centuries ago, the first time a craftsman who carved and filed screw threads ever tried to make two screws, or two mated pairs of screw and nut, come out alike. However, in craft production of individual threads or mated pairs of threads, interchangeability was not a requirement; custom fitting was the norm.
Therefore, the first historically important intra-company standardization of screw threads began with Henry Maudslay around 1800, when the modern screw-cutting lathe made interchangeable V-thread machine screws a practical commodity.[11] During the next 40 years, standardization continued to occur on the intra- and inter-company levels.[12] No doubt many mechanics of the era participated in this zeitgeist; Joseph Clement was one of those whom history has noted. In 1841, Joseph Whitworth created a design that, through its adoption by many British railroad companies, became a national standard for the United Kingdom called British Standard Whitworth. During the 1840s through 1860s, this standard was often used in the United States and Canada as well, in addition to myriad intra- and inter-company standards. In April 1864, William Sellers presented a paper to the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, proposing a new standard to replace the US' poorly standardized screw thread practice. Sellers simplified the Whitworth design by adopting a thread profile of 60° and a flattened tip (in contrast to Whitworth's 55° angle and rounded tip).[13][14] The 60° angle was already in common use in America,[15] but Sellers's system promised to make it and all other details of threadform consistent.
The Sellers thread, easier for ordinary machinists to produce, became an important standard in the U.S. during the late 1860s and early 1870s, when it was chosen as a standard for work done under U.S. government contracts, and it was also adopted as a standard by highly influential railroad industry corporations such as the Baldwin Locomotive Works and the Pennsylvania Railroad. Other firms adopted it, and it soon became a national standard for the U.S.,[15] later becoming generally known as the United States Standard thread (USS thread). Over the next 30 years the standard was further defined and extended and evolved into a set of standards including National Coarse (NC), National Fine (NF), and National Pipe Taper (NPT). Meanwhile, in Britain, the British Association screw threads were also developed and refined.
During this era, in continental Europe, the British and American threadforms were well known, but also various metric thread standards were evolving, which usually employed 60° profiles. Some of these evolved into national or quasi-national standards. They were mostly unified in 1898 by the International Congress for the standardization of screw threads at Zurich, which defined the new international metric thread standards as having the same profile as the Sellers thread, but with metric sizes. Efforts were made in the early 20th century to convince the governments of the U.S., UK, and Canada to adopt these international thread standards and the metric system in general, but they were defeated with arguments that the capital cost of the necessary retooling would drive some firms from profit to loss and hamper the economy. (The mixed use of dueling inch and metric standards has since cost much, much more, but the bearing of these costs has been more distributed across national and global economies rather than being borne up front by particular governments or corporations, which helps explain the lobbying efforts.)[citation needed]
Sometime between 1912 and 1916, the Society of Automobile Engineers (SAE) created an "SAE series" of screw thread sizes reflecting parentage from earlier USS and ASME standards.
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, engineers found that ensuring the reliable interchangeability of screw threads was a multi-faceted and challenging task that was not as simple as just standardizing the major diameter and pitch for a certain thread. It was during this era that more complicated analyses made clear the importance of variables such as pitch diameter and surface finish.
A tremendous amount of engineering work was done throughout World War I and the following interwar period in pursuit of reliable interchangeability. Classes of fit were standardized, and new ways of generating and inspecting screw threads were developed (such as production thread-grinding machines and optical comparators). Therefore, in theory, one might expect that by the start of World War II, the problem of screw thread interchangeability would have already been completely solved. Unfortunately, this proved to be false. Intranational interchangeability was widespread, but international interchangeability was less so. Problems with lack of interchangeability among American, Canadian, and British parts during World War II led to an effort to unify the inch-based standards among these closely allied nations, and the Unified Thread Standard was adopted by the Screw Thread Standardization Committees of Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States on November 18, 1949 in Washington, D.C., with the hope that they would be adopted universally. (The original UTS standard may be found in ASA (now ANSI) publication, Vol. 1, 1949.) UTS consists of Unified Coarse (UNC), Unified Fine (UNF), Unified Extra Fine (UNEF) and Unified Special (UNS). The standard was widely taken up in the UK, although a small number of companies continued to use the UK's own British standards for Whitworth (BSW), British Standard Fine (BSF) and British Association (BA) micro-screws.
However, internationally, the metric system was eclipsing inch-based measurement units. In 1947, the ISO was founded; and in 1960, the metric-based International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French Système International) was created. With continental Europe and much of the rest of the world turning to SI and ISO metric screw thread, the UK gradually leaned in the same direction. The ISO metric screw thread is now the standard that has been adopted worldwide and is slowly displacing all former standards, including UTS. In the U.S., where UTS is still prevalent, over 40% of products contain at least some ISO metric screw threads. The UK has completely abandoned its commitment to UTS in favour of ISO metric threads, and Canada is in between. Globalization of industries produces market pressure in favor of phasing out minority standards. A good example is the automotive industry; U.S. auto parts factories long ago developed the ability to conform to the ISO standards, and today very few parts for new cars retain inch-based sizes, regardless of being made in the U.S.
Even today, over a half century since the UTS superseded the USS and SAE series, companies still sell hardware with designations such as "USS" and "SAE" to convey that it is of inch sizes as opposed to metric. Most of this hardware is in fact made to the UTS, but the labeling and cataloging terminology is not always precise.
Engineering drawing[edit]
In American engineering drawings, ANSI Y14.6 defines standards for indicating threaded parts. Parts are indicated by their nominal diameter (the nominal major diameter of the screw threads), pitch (number of threads per inch), and the class of fit for the thread. For example, “.750-10UNC-2A” is male (A) with a nominal major diameter of 0.750 in, 10 threads per inch, and a class-2 fit; “.500-20UNF-1B” would be female (B) with a 0.500 in nominal major diameter, 20 threads per inch, and a class-1 fit. An arrow points from this designation to the surface in question.[16]
Generation[edit]
Main article: Threading (manufacturing)
There are many ways to generate a screw thread, including the traditional subtractive types (e.g., various kinds of cutting [single-pointing, taps and dies, die heads, milling]; molding; casting [die casting, sand casting]; forming and rolling; grinding; and occasionally lapping to follow the other processes); newer additive techniques; and combinations thereof.
Inspection[edit]
Main article: Threading (manufacturing) § Inspection
Another common inspection point is the straightness of a bolt or screw. This topic comes up often when there are assembly issues with predrilled holes as the first troubleshooting point is to determine if the fastener or the hole is at fault. ASME B18.2.9 "Straightness Gage and Gaging for Bolts and Screws" was developed to address this issue. Per the scope of the standard, it describes the gage and procedure for checking bolt and screw straightness at maximum material condition (MMC) and provides default limits when not stated in the applicable product standard.
See also[edit]
Acme Thread Form
Bicycle thread
multi start thread
Buttress Thread Form
Dryseal Pipe Threads Form
Filter thread
Garden hose thread form
Metric: M Profile Thread Form
National Thread Form
National Pipe Thread Form
Nut (hardware)
Tapered thread
Tap and die
Thread angle
Thread pitch gauge
Thread protector
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Burnham, Reuben Wesley (4 April 2018). "Mathematics for Machinists". John Wiley & sons, Incorporated. Retrieved 4 April 2018 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Brown, Sheldon. "Bicycle Glossary: Pedal". Sheldon Brown. Retrieved 2010-10-19.
Jump up ^ "Threaded stud / steel / clamping - S&W Manufacturing Co., Inc". www.directindustry.com. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Bhandari, p. 205.
Jump up ^ "Coarse Threads vs. Fine Threads". katonet.com.
Jump up ^ Green, Robert, ed. (1996). Machinery's Handbook (25 ed.). p. 893. ISBN 0-8311-2575-6.
Jump up ^ ISO/TC/ 1 Business Plan, 2007-03-05, Version 1.3. Table 3: The market share of each screw thread, p. 7.
Jump up ^ www.mipraso.de, Michael Prandl,. "Löwenherz Thread". www.gewinde-normen.de. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Ryffel 1988, p. 1603.
Jump up ^ www.mipraso.de, Michael Prandl,. "Sewing Machine Thread (Nähnorm 100)". www.gewinde-normen.de. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Quentin R. Skrabec, Jr. (2005). "The Metallurgic Age: The Victorian Flowering of Invention and Industrial Science". p. 169. McFarland
Jump up ^ Roe 1916, pp. 9–10.
Jump up ^ "ASME 125th Anniversary: Special 2005 Designation of Landmarks: Profound Influences in Our Lives: The United States Standard Screw Threads". asme.org. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Roe 1916, pp. 248–249.
^ Jump up to: a b Roe 1916, p. 249.
Jump up ^ Wilson pp. 77–78 (page numbers may be from an earlier edition).
References[edit]
Bhandari, V B (2007), Design of Machine Elements, Tata McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-061141-2 .
Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4.
Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D.; Horton, Holbrook L.; Ryffel, Henry H. (1996), Green, Robert E.; McCauley, Christopher J., eds., Machinery's Handbook (25th ed.), New York, NY, USA: Industrial Press, ISBN 978-0-8311-2575-2, OCLC 473691581.
Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American Tool Builders, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, LCCN 16011753 . Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (LCCN 27-24075); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (ISBN 978-0-917914-73-7).
Wilson, Bruce A. (2004), Design Dimensioning and Tolerancing (4th ed.), Goodheart-Wilcox, ISBN 1-59070-328-6 .
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Screw threads.
International Thread Standards
ModelFixings - Thread Data
NASA RP-1228 Fastener Design Manual
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Screw_thread&oldid=856716340"
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Fasteners
Screws
Threading (manufacturing)
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text:
Famous in Love
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Famous in Love
Genre
Drama
Based on
Famous in Love
by Rebecca Serle
Developed by
I. Marlene King and Rebecca Serle
Starring
Bella Thorne
Charlie DePew
Georgie Flores
Carter Jenkins
Niki Koss
Keith Powers
Pepi Sonuga
Perrey Reeves
Composer(s)
Michael Suby
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
2
No. of episodes
20 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Dan Farah
Christopher Fife
Miguel Arteta
I. Marlene King
Producer(s)
Tawnya Bhattacharya & Ali Laventhol
Hynndie Wali
Cinematography
Larry Reibman
Camera setup
Single-camera
Running time
38–42 minutes
Production company(s)
Long Lake
Carmina Productions
Farah Films
Warner Horizon Television
Distributor
Warner Bros. Television Distribution[1]
Release
Original network
Freeform
Original release
April 18, 2017 (2017-04-18) – present
External links
Website
Production website
Famous in Love is an American drama television series that premiered on Freeform on April 18, 2017, and is based on the novel of the same name by Rebecca Serle. The series stars Bella Thorne, Charlie DePew, Georgie Flores, Carter Jenkins, Niki Koss, Keith Powers, Pepi Sonuga, and Perrey Reeves.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast and characters
2.1 Main
2.2 Recurring
3 Production
3.1 Development
3.2 Casting
4 Episodes
4.1 Series overview
4.2 Season 1 (2017)
4.3 Season 2 (2018)
5 Broadcast
6 Ratings
7 Nominations
8 References
9 External links
Plot[edit]
Paige Townsen, an ordinary college student, gets her big break after auditioning for the starring role in a Hollywood blockbuster and must now navigate her new star-studded life and undeniable chemistry with her co-lead and her best friend.
Cast and characters[edit]
Main[edit]
Bella Thorne as Paige Townsen, a young college student who gets cast in the movie adaptation of a blockbuster book series called Locked, which causes her life to change overnight
Charlie DePew as Jake Salt, a down-to-earth guy from the Midwest with an edge who aspires to be a screenwriter and an indie filmmaker. He is Paige's best friend and one of her love interests. Charlie DePew replaced Jesse Henderson in the role from the original pilot.
Georgie Flores as Cassandra "Cassie" Perkins, Paige's roommate and close friend
Carter Jenkins as Rainer Devon, the son of famous producer Nina Devon, and, as later revealed, Alan Mills. He is labeled the "sexiest man alive", and is a famous actor. He has a complicated friendship with Jordan Wilder and soon develops a romantic interest in Paige Townsen.
Niki Koss as Alexis Glenn, Rainer's old friend who competes for the same role as Paige. She is secretly bisexual.
Keith Powers as Jordan Wilder, a troubled star who lands the role of the other point in the movie's famous love triangle. He and Rainer have a complicated history which is further heightened by the fact that both share a past with Tangey.
Pepi Sonuga as Tangey Turner, a pop star with a controlling mother. She was sleeping with Jordan Wilder while dating Rainer Devon, which creates tension between the two men.
Perrey Reeves as Nina Devon, Rainer's smart and cunning mother. Confident and manipulative, she will do whatever it takes to make sure things go her way.
Recurring[edit]
Jason Antoon as Wyatt, the original director of the movie adaptation of Locked, who leaves the production on the film during its two-month hiatus (season 1)
Nathan Stewart-Jarrett as Barrett, an entertainment and gossip reporter whose beat is Hollywood (season 1)
Shawn Christian as Alan Mills, the head of the film studio producing the movie
Vanessa Williams as Ida, Tangey's mother and manager
Tom Maden as Adam, a production assistant on the movie and Cassie's boyfriend
Danielle Campbell as Harper, a former child star whom Rainer meets in rehab and with whom he quickly becomes involved (season 2)
Claudia Lee as Billy, an actress working as a waitress whom Jake hires to replace Paige as the lead on his independent film (season 2)
Sofia Carson as Sloane Silver, Alexis' best friend and the daughter of a famous movie mogul producer. She is a recent graduate of Yale (season 2)
Production[edit]
Development[edit]
Freeform, then known as ABC Family, had picked up the pilot for fast-track development on March 19, 2015.[2] The pilot was shot in November 2015; Freeform greenlit the pilot on April 7, 2016,[3] and shooting began on July 13, 2016, and wrapped up on October 19, 2016.[4] On November 18, 2016, Freeform announced that the series would premiere on April 18, 2017. Freeform also released the entire season for viewing online on April 18, 2017. The series is based on the novel of the same name, written by Rebecca Serle. Serle worked with I. Marlene King to develop the novel into a television series.[5][6] Freeform renewed the series for a second season on August 3, 2017.[7] The table read for the second season started on October 30, 2017.[8] The second season premiered on Freeform on April 4, 2018.
Casting[edit]
Romeo Miller was cast as Pablo $$ in a recurring role for the second season, with his first appearance set for the second season premiere.[9] Sofia Carson is set to appear in multiple episodes of the second season as Sloane, the daughter of a movie mogul.[10]
Episodes[edit]
Series overview[edit]
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 10 April 18, 2017 (2017-04-18) June 13, 2017 (2017-06-13)
2 10 April 4, 2018 (2018-04-04) May 30, 2018 (2018-05-30)
Season 1 (2017)[edit]
The entire first season was released on digital platforms, such as OnDemand, the Freeform App and website, and Hulu, on April 18, 2017.[11]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title [12][13]
Directed by
Written by
Original air date [12][13]
U.S. viewers
(millions)
1
1 "Pilot"
Miguel Arteta
Tawnia McKiernan
Story by : Rebecca Serle
Teleplay by : I. Marlene King and Rebecca Serle April 18, 2017 (2017-04-18) 0.65[14]
The ordinary college student Paige as she gets her big break after auditioning for the starring role in a Hollywood blockbuster. She must now navigate her new star-studded life and the highs and lows that come with being the new It-Girl in town, as well as balancing her college workload. As her public profile continues to rise and the undeniable chemistry with her new co-star and Hollywood heartthrob Rainer Devon grows, the more her friendships are strained with her two best friends – particularly Jake, who may be more than just her friend.
2
2 "A Star Is Torn" Norman Buckley I. Marlene King & Christopher Fife April 25, 2017 (2017-04-25) 0.39[15]
On the eve of the big “Locked” cast announcement party, Paige is more nervous about telling her parents the truth about snagging her dream role than the actual event. With her parents set on her education taking priority, she tries to find a way to convince them – and herself – that she can do both. Meanwhile, the gossip is still swirling about Rainer and Jordan’s fight over Tangey, and Nina is determined to shut it down so it won’t hurt the film.
3
3 "Not So Easy A" Michael Goi Tawnya Bhattacharya & Ali Laventhol May 2, 2017 (2017-05-02) 0.30[16]
Having promised her parents that she would be able to balance school and the film’s schedule, Paige quickly learns that it is easier said than done. While trying to work on a crucial school paper, she keeps getting sidetracked with wardrobe fittings, photo shoots and screen tests. Leaning on Jake and Cassie for help, Paige quickly learns she may be in over her head. Meanwhile, Nina must make cuts to the movie budget, and Jake meets with an agent about his script.
4
4 "Prelude to a Diss" Mary Lou Belli Rebecca Serle May 9, 2017 (2017-05-09) 0.28[17]
Paige is determined to prove to everyone she can succeed, especially Alexis; but when everything seems to go awry on her first day on set, her confidence is shaken. And to make matters even stickier, Rainer asks Paige out on a date making her question if she wants to become the Hollywood cliché of dating her co-star or not. Meanwhile, Cassie resorts to desperate measures to pay her tuition bill, and Tangey clashes with her mother over Tangey’s career.
5
5 "Some Like It Not" Tanya Hamilton William H. Brown May 16, 2017 (2017-05-16) 0.21[18]
Paige's 21st birthday and all she wants to do is celebrate with her two best friends, but her friendship with Jake is still on the rocks after his getaway with Alexis. Rainer surprises everyone when he throws Paige a surprise birthday party, but things don't turn out as expected when Jake arrives late. Meanwhile, Jordan and Tangey renew their relationship in secret; Tangey is tired of controlled by her momager and fires back.
6
6 "Found in Translation" Ron Lagomarsino Kateland Brown May 23, 2017 (2017-05-23) 0.26[19]
Nina and Rainer take a last-minute trip to China to rescue Locked from a new setback, which derails Rainer's weekend plans with Paige. But when Alan and Rainer bond over their mutual tastes, Nina feels uncomfortable. Cassie's financial problems continue, so she feels forced to take more shifts as a topless maid. Meanwhile, Jordan deals with issues involving his mother.
7
7 "Secrets & Pies" Roger Kumble Miguel Ian Raya May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30) 0.29[20]
Thinking it would help Cassie's financial problems, Paige offers her a job as her assistant. When Cassie declines, issues in their friendship are revealed. Plus, Jake starts to learn the realities of what it means to sell a script in Hollywood, and Alexis embraces her role as Producer on the project. Meanwhile, Jordan's problems continue to mount as he learns Brandy needs more money, and Barrett Hopper reveals to him that he knows the truth about his and Brandy's past.
8
8 "Crazy Scripted Love" Geary McLeod Tawnya Bhattacharya & Ali Laventhol June 6, 2017 (2017-06-06) 0.33[21]
Paige and Cassie's fight is impacting Paige's performance, and when Jake is too busy to help, Rainer offers his own advice. Later, Jake's career takes an unexpected turn. Meanwhile, when Alan and Rainer spend some time together, Nina grows concerned. On top of her worries, she's facing a possible lawsuit, and she agrees to help Jordan with his mother's issues. Rainer surprises Nina with a helpful solution, but her happiness is short-lived when her worst fears about Alan and Rainer are confirmed.
9
9 "Fifty Shades of Red" Susanna Fogel Christopher Fife & William H. Brown June 13, 2017 (2017-06-13) 0.36[22]
Paige deals with Jake's impending move to Austin, and a revelation about Cassie fractures their friendship. Meanwhile, Rainer starts searching for his real father, but he's thrown into a tailspin after he puts the pieces together. Later, Jordan tries to mend his relationship with Tangey, who feels betrayed by his secret. But when he shares information about his past, she considers forgiving him.
10
10 "Leaving Los Angeles" Elizabeth Allen Rosenbaum Melissa Carter June 13, 2017 (2017-06-13) 0.23[22]
Rainer's downward spiral continues, and Paige searches for him after he disappears. Plus, Alexis receives bad news, and she takes revenge on Rachel. Jake briefly returns to Los Angeles, and Paige tries to confess her feelings. Meanwhile, Jordan attempts to handle the Barrett Hopper problem with an exclusive, but a shocking event stops the plan. Later, Nina stages a press conference to address Rainer's public meltdown, but things are disrupted by an unexpected appearance.
Season 2 (2018)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title [12][13]
Directed by
Written by
Original air date [12][13]
U.S. viewers
(millions)
11
1 "The Players" Roger Kumble I. Marlene King April 4, 2018 (2018-04-04) 0.29[23]
12
2 "La La Locked" Roger Kumble Melissa Carter April 4, 2018 (2018-04-04) 0.19[23]
13
3 "Totes on a Scandal" Ron Lagomarsino Tawnya Bhattacharya & Ali Laventhol April 11, 2018 (2018-04-11) 0.26[24]
Things are looking up for Cassie as she books an important audition and for Tangey, who has a business proposition for Pablo $$.
14
4 "The Kids Aren't All Right" Geary McLeod Bryan M. Holdman April 18, 2018 (2018-04-18) 0.21[25]
Alexis receives a very cold shoulder from everyone on set after her reality show’s scandalous reveal; A "Backsplash" cast reunion brings back some old feelings and creates new tensions; Paige finds the perfect replacement for Jake's movie, but is later distressed when she finds out that Jake and his new star might be getting too close.
15
5 "Reality Bites Back" Paula Hunziker John Webb & Garth Mueller April 25, 2018 (2018-04-25) 0.26[26]
16
6 "The Goodbye Boy" Melanie Mayron Kateland Brown May 2, 2018 (2018-05-02) 0.25[27]
As “Locked” wraps production, the cast looks to the next steps in their careers, while Jake and Cassie also have to make decisions about their future. Jordan continue his Oscar campaign press tour with a stop at “Good Morning America.”
17
7 "Guess Who's (Not) Coming to Sundance?" Troian Bellisario Bryan M. Holdman May 9, 2018 (2018-05-09) 0.32[28]
Paige and Jake continue to feel further apart as Jake and Billy head to a film festival, while Paige stays in LA for a big interview and cover photo shoot. Meanwhile, Jordan has to deal with the fallout from his recent revelation and Nina takes part in a bidding war for a highly-wanted film script.
18
8 "Look Who's Stalking" Anna Mastro Tawnya Bhattacharya & Ali Laventhol May 16, 2018 (2018-05-16) 0.24[29]
Paige works with police to help find her stalker, while Pablo $$ starts to show a new side to Tangey and Alexis makes a decision that lands her in hot water.
19
9 "Full Mental Jacket" Norman Buckley Kateland Brown May 23, 2018 (2018-05-23) 0.30[30]
Paige and Rainer head to NYC to promote “Locked,” but after everything that has happened, Paige realizes that fame isn’t all that she expected. Meanwhile, Jordan is under a lot of stress and Cassie struggles with her relationship with Adam.
20
10 "The Good, the Bad and the Crazy" Norman Buckley Melissa Carter May 30, 2018 (2018-05-30) 0.22[31]
Broadcast[edit]
The second season returned with a two-hour premiere on Freeform on April 4, 2018.[32] It aired in Canada on E! on April 8, 2018, with new episodes set to air every Sunday. [33]
In the United Kingdom, it airs exclusively on Amazon Prime Video with new episodes every Thursday.[34]
In Spain, it airs exclusively on HBO Spain with new episodes every Thursday.[35]
Ratings[edit]
Season
Episodes
First aired
Last aired
Avg. viewers
(millions)
Date
Viewers
(millions)
Date
Viewers
(millions)
1 10 April 18, 2017 (2017-04-18) 0.65[14] June 13, 2017 (2017-06-13) 0.23[22] 0.33
2 10 April 4, 2018 (2018-04-04) 0.29[23] May 30, 2018 (2018-05-30) 0.22[31] 0.25
Nominations[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Nominee(s)
Result
Ref.
2017 Teen Choice Awards Choice Breakout TV Show Famous in Love Nominated [36][37]
Choice Drama TV Actress Bella Thorne Nominated [36][37]
Choice Drama TV Show Famous in Love Nominated [36][37]
2018 Teen Choice Awards Choice Drama TV Actress Bella Thorne Pending [38]
Choice Drama TV Show Famous in Love Pending [38]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Famous in Love". Warner Bros.
Jump up ^ Nellie Andreeva (March 19, 2015). "Bella Thorne to Star in ABC Family Drama Famous in Love from Marlene King". Deadline. Retrieved July 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ Nellie Andreeva (April 7, 2016). "Bella Thorne Drama Pilot Famous in Love Picked Up to Series by Freeform". Deadline. Retrieved July 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ Charlie DePew (October 20, 2016). "Wrapped season 1 of @famousinlovetv yesterday and I can't believe it's already done. I get to work with the coolest people in the business and I CANT WAIT for you all to see what we've been up to at good ol' Warner Brothers Studios. I was going to post a video of the cast doing the juju but @keithpowers makes us all look like amateurs so that one will have to wait. 😂 April 2017. The clock is ticking ⏱". Retrieved December 14, 2017 – via Instagram.
Jump up ^ Erik Pedersen (November 19, 2016). "Pretty Little Liars Final Season & New Bella Thorne Drama Famous in Love Get Premiere Dates on Freeform". Deadline. Retrieved November 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lesley Goldberg (August 29, 2016). "It's Official: Pretty Little Liars to End with Season 7". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Denise Petski (August 3, 2017). "Famous in Love Renewed for Season 2 by Freeform". Deadline. Retrieved August 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Romeo Miller (October 30, 2017). "The @famousinlovetv season 2 table read was liTty today. I feel like the new kid at school! Truly blessed and excited for this journey. Ps: We're about to make some bomb a$$ Tv for yall though. 😜💥📽". Retrieved December 14, 2017 – via Instagram.
Jump up ^ Andy Swift (November 1, 2017). "Famous in Love Courts Romeo Miller to Play Hip-Hop Superstar in Season 2". TVLine. Retrieved November 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ Denise Petski (January 29, 2018). "Pretty Little Liars: The Perfectionists: Sofia Carson Cast in Freeform Drama Pilot". Deadline. Retrieved January 29, 2018.
Jump up ^ Elizabeth Wagmeister (March 9, 2017). "Freeform's Marlene King Series Famous in Love to Launch with Full-Season Binge". Variety. Retrieved April 18, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Famous in Love Episode Listings". The Futon Critic.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Famous in Love". Zap2it.
^ Jump up to: a b Mitch Metcalf (April 19, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 4.18.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved April 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (April 26, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 4.25.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved April 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (May 3, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 5.2.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved May 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (May 10, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 5.9.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved May 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (May 17, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 5.16.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved May 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (May 24, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 5.23.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved May 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (June 1, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 5.30.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (June 7, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 6.6.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mitch Metcalf (June 14, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 6.13.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved June 14, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mitch Metcalf (April 5, 2018). "Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals: 4.4.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved April 5, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (April 12, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 4.11.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved April 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (April 19, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 4.18.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved April 19, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (April 26, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 4.25.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved April 26, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (May 3, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 5.2.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved May 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (May 10, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 5.9.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved May 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (May 17, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 5.16.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved May 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (May 24, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 5.23.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved May 24, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Metcalf, Mitch (May 31, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Wednesday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 5.30.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved May 31, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Breaking News from Freeform's First-Ever Freeform Summit" (Press release). Freeform. January 18, 2018. Retrieved March 14, 2018 – via The Futon Critic.
Jump up ^ Famous In Love Returns to E!. E!. April 5, 2018. Retrieved April 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Famous in Love: Amazon Prime Video". Amazon. April 5, 2018. Retrieved April 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ ""Famous in Love" regresa a HBO España con su segunda temporada" (in Spanish). April 8, 2018. Retrieved May 11, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ceron, Ella (June 19, 2017). "Teen Choice Awards 2017: See the First Wave of Nominations". Teen Vogue. Retrieved November 13, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Vulpo, Mike (July 12, 2017). "Teen Choice Awards 2017 Reveal "Second Wave" of Nominations". E! Online. Retrieved November 13, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Weatherby, Taylor. "Taylor Swift, Drake, Cardi B & More Among Teen Choice Awards 2018 Nominees: See the Full List". Billboard. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
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Industrial Revolution in the United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Industrial Revolution involved a shift in the United States from manual labor-based industry to more technical and machine-based manufacturing which greatly increased the overall production and economic growth of the United States, signifying a shift from an agrarian to an industrial economy widely accepted to have been a result of Samuel Slater's introduction of British Industrial methods in textile manufacturing to the United States,[1] and necessitated by the War of 1812.[2]
Samuel Slater - "Father of the American Industrial Revolution"
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 The First Industrial Revolution
3 Effects of the First Industrial Revolution
4 See also
5 References
Origins[edit]
See also: Economic History of the United States and Samuel Slater
As Western Europe began industrializing in the late 1700s and early 1800s, the United States remained agrarian in nature and resource processing in its few semi-industrial pursuits,[3] however, as demand for U.S. resources increased, canals and railroads became extremely important to economic growth due to sparse population[4] particularly in areas where resources were rich such as in the Western frontier. This made it necessary for the U.S. to expand its technological capabilities, which led to an Industrial Revolution reaching American shores as entrepreneurs competed and learned from each other to develop better technology, fundamentally and permanently altering the U.S. economy, thrusting it into the new age of industrialization.
The "Father of the American Industrial Revolution",[5] Samuel Slater, was born in Belper, Derbyshire, England on June 9, 1768, and began working at a cotton mill from age 10. He learned that Americans were interested in the Industrial Revolution's new techniques, but since exporting such designs were illegal in England, he memorized as much as he could and departed for New York in 1789 illegally. Moses Brown, a leading Rhode Island industrialist, attempted to operate a mill with a 32-spindle frame in Pawtucket, but he couldn't. It was at that time that Slater offered his services, promising to replicate British designs for Brown and, after an initial investment by Brown to Slater to fulfill initial requirements, the mill successfully opened in 1793 being the first water-powered roller spinning textile mill in the Americas. By 1800, Slater's mill had been duplicated by many other entrepreneurs as Slater grew wealthier and his techniques more and more popular, which brought him the name "Father of the American Industrial Revolution" by Andrew Jackson in the U.S., but also the name "Slater the Traitor" by many in Great Britain who felt he betrayed them to the Americans.[6]
The First Industrial Revolution[edit]
Boston Manufacturing Company, Waltham, Massachusetts.
See also: Results of the War of 1812, Industrialisation, and Lowell System
Famed Merchant Francis Cabot Lowell memorized the designs of British textile machines in 1810 and realized that, during the War of 1812, demand for domestic finished cloth increased as imports were drastically cut through embargoes. When he returned to the United States, he set up the Boston Manufacturing Company, which employed the famed Lowell system as a response to poor working conditions in England, initially employing many women. His company was massively successful and extremely productive, especially because his competitors continued to use labor-intensive methods while he employed the mechanized spinning jenny and the water frame. The systems developed by the Boston Manufacturing Company and Lowell himself, such as vertical integration and mass production, found replicas across the country as the United States began to recognize the need for economic independence and industrial development in the wake of the Embargo Act of 1807, which highlighted the country's long-term reliance on the British Empire for trade in important refined resources.[2] Since it became clear the U.S. had relied too heavily on foreign refinement of resources,[3] entrepreneurs such as Oliver Evans, Robert Fulton, and Matthias W. Baldwin capitalized on this mostly new industry and mechanized refinement and transportation, thereby drastically increasing the economic independence of the United States for resource refinement and fueling the war effort against Britain.
The Financial Sector also saw increased support during the war, once the charter of the First Bank of the United States' charter expired in 1811, it became clear that the U.S. Government would have trouble financing the war without it,[7] which lead to the ultimate renewal of the bank by President James Madison in 1816. There were 3 separate incidents of financial downturn in the early 19th century: the Embargo Act of 1807, the Depression of 1818-21 and the Panic of 1837, each requiring the financial sector to employ new strategies to deal with large-scale financial downturn never before seen in the United States in the fashion presented during that period.
Effects of the First Industrial Revolution[edit]
See also: Second Industrial Revolution and Technological and industrial history of the United States
The Industrial Revolution permanently altered the U.S. economy and set the stage for the United States to dominate technological change and growth in the Second Industrial Revolution[8] in its Gilded Age. The American System (economic plan) gave way to new economic thought such as the classical school of economics which assisted in the growth of trade and commerce, but this time with the U.S. as a much larger exporter than importer, which would continue until the late Cold War era with the drastic increase in imports from China. The Industrial Revolution also saw a decrease in the rampancy of labor shortages which characterized the U.S. economy in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.[9] This was because there was a "transportation revolution" that happened in the same period, which was massively important due to the sheer size and low population density of the U.S. at the time, connecting population centers such as through the Wilderness Road and the Erie Canal, coupled with the development of Steamboats and Rail transport, allowing for the phenomenon of urbanization to begin which increased the labor force available around larger cities such as New York City and Chicago, ameliorating the classic American labor shortages of the time. This also allowed for the quicker movement of resources and goods around the country, drastically increasing trade efficiency and output, while allowing for an extensive transport base for the U.S. to grow from in the Second Industrial Revolution.[10]
See also[edit]
List of mill towns in Massachusetts
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Industrial Revolution in the United States - Primary Source Set | Teacher Resources - Library of Congress". www.loc.gov. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
^ Jump up to: a b "Significant Events of the American Industrial Revolution". About.com Education. Archived from the original on 2012-07-23. Retrieved 2016-05-22.
^ Jump up to: a b Taylor, George Rogers (1969). The Transportation Revolution, 1815-1860. ISBN 978-0873321013.
Jump up ^ Chandler Jr., Alfred D. (1993). The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674940529
Jump up ^ "The First American Factories [ushistory.org]". www.ushistory.org. Retrieved 2016-05-22.
Jump up ^ Heath, Neil. "Samuel Slater: American hero or British traitor?". BBC News. Retrieved 2016-05-20.
Jump up ^ Perkins, Edwin J (1994). "American public finance and financial services, 1700-1815". Ohio State University Press Publications.
Jump up ^ Vatter, Harold G.; Walker, John F.; Alperovitz, Gar (June 1995). "The onset and persistence of secular stagnation in the U.S. economy: 1910–1990, Journal of Economic Issues".
Jump up ^ Habakkuk, H. J. (1962). American and British Technology in the Nineteenth Century. London, U.K., New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521094474
Jump up ^ Eugene S. Ferguson, Oliver Evans, Inventive Genius of the American Industrial Revolution (Hagley Museum & Library, 1980).
[show]
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Joseph Marie Jacquard, John Kay (flying shuttle)
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This page was last edited on 1 February 2018, at 17:12.
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