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Chola Navy
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Chola Navy
Depiction of the siege of Kedah, the battle between Beemasenan's Chola naval infantry and the defenders of Kedah fort.
Founded
3rd century CE
Country
Chola Empire
Allegiance
Chola Dynasty
Branch
Naval
Type
Naval Force
Size
600-1000 Ships in the peak period.
Part of
Chola military
Engagements
War of Pandya Succession (1172)
War of Pandya succession (1167)
Kalinga Campaighn (1081-83)
The second expedition of Sri Vijaya (1025-1028)
The first expedition of Sri Vijaya (1022-1025)
Annexation of Kamboja (?-996)
The invasion of Ceylon/Sri Lanka.(977 - )
Skirmishes with Pallava Navy (903-908)
Commanders
Chakravarthy
(Supreme commander)
Notable
commanders
Amarabujangan (12th century)
Beemaseenan - The famous admiral of the Siege of the Keadh (late 11th century)
Karunaakaran - Admiral/general (late 12th century)
The Chola Navy (Tamil: சோழர் கடற்படை; Cōḻar kadatpadai) comprised the naval forces of the Chola Empire along with several other naval-arms of the country. The Chola navy played a vital role in the expansion of the Chola Empire, including the conquest of the Ceylon islands and naval raids on Sri Vijaya (present-day Indonesia).
The navy grew both in size and status during the Medieval Cholas reign. The Chola Admirals commanded much respect and prestige in the society. The navy commanders also acted as diplomats in some instances. From 900 to 1100, the navy had grown from a small backwater entity to that of a potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in all of Asia, but was gradually reduced in significance when the Cholas fought land battles for subjugating the Chalukyas of Andhra-Kannada area in South India.[1]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Early activity
1.2 Ancient navy
1.3 Medieval navy
1.3.1 Interregnum
1.4 Imperial navy with blue-water capabilities
2 Trade, commerce and diplomacy
2.1 Combating Piracy in Southeast Asia
2.2 Cooperation with the Chinese
3 Organization and administration
3.1 Administration
3.1.1 Notes
3.2 Rank structure
3.3 Other naval arms
3.3.1 Customs and excise
3.3.2 Coast guard
3.3.3 Privateers
4 Vessels and weapons
5 Campaigns
5.1 Recruitment and service
5.2 Ports and fleets
6 Political, cultural and economic impact
7 Popular culture
8 Timeline of events
9 Gallery
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
History[edit]
List of Chola kings and emperors
Early Cholas
Ellalan
Kulakkottan
Ilamchetchenni
Karikala
Nedunkilli
Nalankilli
Killivalavan
Kopperuncholan
Kochchenganan
Perunarkilli
Interregnum (c. 200 – c. 848)
Medieval Cholas
Vijayalaya 848–891(?)
Aditya I 891–907
Parantaka I 907–950
Gandaraditya 950–957
Arinjaya 956–957
Sundara (Parantaka II) 957–970
Aditya II (co-regent)
Uttama 970–985
Rajaraja I 985–1014
Rajendra I 1012–1044
Rajadhiraja 1044–1054
Rajendra II 1054–1063
Virarajendra 1063–1070
Athirajendra 1070–1070
Later Cholas
Kulothunga I 1070–1120
Vikrama 1118–1135
Kulothunga II 1133–1150
Rajaraja II 1146–1173
Rajadhiraja II 1166–1178
Kulothunga III 1178–1218
Rajaraja III 1216–1256
Rajendra III 1246–1279
Related dynasties
Telugu Cholas of Andhra
Chodagangas of Kalinga
Rajahnate of Cebu
Chola society
Chola government
Chola military
Chola Navy
Chola art
Chola literature
Flag of Chola
Great Living Chola Temples
Solesvara Temples
Poompuhar
Uraiyur
Melakadambur
Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Thanjavur
Tiruvarur
v
t
e
Historians divide the Chola Reign into three distinct phases.[citation needed] The first era is the period of Early Cholas .The second phase is of Vijalaya Cholas and the final phase in the empire was the Chalukya Chola period.
The Cholas were at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century through to the early 13th century.[2] Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia.[3][4] During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh.[5] Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives.[4] Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully raided kingdoms of Maritime Southeast Asia.[6][7]
Early activity[edit]
The earliest Chola kings of whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature. Scholars now generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries of the common era.[8] The Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these cannot be worked into connected history.[citation needed]
Ancient navy[edit]
The earliest record of Chola naval activity by an external source dates to around the 1st century, the Roman report of Kaveripoompattinam (presently known as Poombuhar) as Haverpoum and a description of how the Trade vessels were escorted by the King's fleet to the estuary as it was a natural harbor in the mouth of the river Kaveri.[9]
Little archeological evidence exists of the maritime activities of this era, except some excavated wooden plaques depicting naval engagements in the vicinity of the old city (See Poompuhar for more details).[citation needed] However, much insight into the naval activities of the Cholas has been gathered from Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. In this work, the unknown merchant describes the activity of escort-ships assigned to the merchant vessels with valuable cargo. These early naval ships had some sort of a rudimentary flame-thrower and or a catapult type weapon.[10]
Colandia, the great ships which was used by Early Cholas.[clarification needed] By this they sailed to pacific islands from Kaveripatnam(as center).[11] At that time, Pattinathu Pillai is the chief of the Chola's Navy.[12]
Medieval navy[edit]
The model of a Chola Era Ship's hull, built by the ASI, based on a wreck 19 miles off the coast of Poombuhar, displayed in a Museum in Tirunelveli
Interregnum[edit]
Main article: Chola dynasty
Little is known about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) up to the time when the Pandyas and Pallavas dominated the Tamil country (c. 600). An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries.[citation needed] They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the 6th century.[citation needed]
This period from the 3rd century until the 7th century is a blind spot in the maritime tradition of the Cholas.[citation needed] Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the 9th century.[citation needed] In the Interregnum, the Cholas were probably reduced to Vassals of Pallavas, though at times they switched sides and allied with Pandyas and tried to dispose their overlords. But, there is no concrete line of kings or court recordings.[citation needed]
However, even during this time the Cholas had maintained a small but potent Naval force based inland in the Kaveri river. During this time they dominated the inland trade in the Kaveri basin and Musuri is their major inland port. Dry-docks built during this period exist to this day.[13]
Imperial navy with blue-water capabilities[edit]
Chola's empire and influence at the height of its power (c. 1050) during the reign of Rajendra Chola I.
This phase of the history is the most well documented one, partly due the survival of the edicts and inscriptions from the time along with reliable foreign narratives. This has enabled historians to interpolate various accounts and come up with a clear account of Chola Naval activities of the time.[citation needed]
The Imperial Chola navy took its shape in the aftermath of the resurgence of Chola power, with the rise of Vijalaya dynasty. During the Pallavas rule, the Cholas took control of not only the territories, but the cultural and socio-economic mantle. Thus, the Medieval Cholas inherited the will to dominate trade and control seas from the Pallavas.[citation needed]
The evolution of combat ships and naval-architecture elsewhere played an important part in the development of the Pallava Navy. There were serious efforts in the period of the Pallava king Simavishnu to control the piracy in South East Asia and to establish a Tamil friendly regime in the Malay peninsula. However, this effort was accomplished only three centuries later by the new Naval power of the Cholas.[citation needed]
The three decades of conflict with the Sinhala King Mahinda V came to a swift end, after Raja Raja Chola I's (985-1014) ascent to the throne and his decisive use of the naval flotilla to subdue the Sinhalese.[citation needed]
This period also marked the departure in thinking from the age-old traditions. Rajaraja commissioned various foreigners (Prominently, the Arabs and Chinese) in the naval building program.[14] These effort were continued and the benefits were reaped by his successor, Rajendra Chola I. Rajendra led a successful expedition against the Sri Vijaya kingdom (present day Indonesia) and subdued Sailendra. Though there were friendly exchanges between the Sri Vijaya empire and the Chola Empire in preceding times (including the construction of chudamani Pagoda in Nagapattinam), the raid seems to have been motivated by the commercial interests rather than any political motives.
Trade, commerce and diplomacy[edit]
A Chinese flame thrower of the 9th century, Designs like this were incorporated into the Chola Navy
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.[15] A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a merchant guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country.[16] The inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the Chola period.[17]
Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity, especially with the Chinese and Arabs.[16][18] The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures.[19][20][21] The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire in the Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners.[22]
The trade with the Chinese was a very lucrative enterprise, and Trade guilds needed the king's approval and the license from the customs force/department to embark on overseas voyages for trade.[23] The normal trade voyage of those day involved three legs of journey, starting with the Indian goods (mainly spices, cotton and gems) being shipped to China and in the return leg the Chinese goods (silk, incense,iron) were brought back to Chola ports. After some materials were utilized for local consumption, the remaining cargo along with Indian cargo was shipped to the Arabs. Traditionally, this involved transfer of material/cargo to many ships before the ultimate destination was reached.
Combating Piracy in Southeast Asia[edit]
The Strategic position of Sri Vijaya and Khamboj (modern-day Cambodia) as a midpoint in the trade route between Chinese and Arabian ports was crucial. Up to the 5th century, the Arabs traded with Chinese directly using Sri Vijaya as a port of call and replenishment hub. Realizing their potential, the Sri Vijaya empire began to encourage the sea piracy surrounding the area.[24] The benefits were twofold, the loot from piracy was a good bounty and it ensured their sovereignty and cooperation from all the trading parties.[24] Piracy also grew stronger due to a conflict of succession in Sri Vijaya, when two princes fought for the throne and in turn, relied on the loot from the sea-piracy for their civil war.[24]
The pirate menace grew to unprecedented levels. Sea trade with China was virtually impossible without the loss of 1/3 of the convoy for every voyage. Even escorted convoys came under attacks, which was a new factor. Repeated diplomatic missions urged the Sri Vijaya empire to curb the piracy, with little effect. With the rise in piracy, and in the absence of Chinese commodity, the Arabs, on whom the Cholas were dependent of horses for their cavalry corps, began to demand high prices for their trade. This led to a slew of reduction in the Chola army.[25] The Chinese were equally infuriated by the piracy menace, as they too were losing revenue.
The culmination of three century's combined naval traditions of Pallavas and Cholas led to the most known accomplishment of the Chola Navy (or any Indian power for that matter).,[26] Namely the 1st expedition of the Chola navy into the Malay peninsula.
In one particular note, the Cholas went as far as to conquer the Kamboja and gave it to the Sri Vijaya kings (as per their request) to ensure cooperation in the curbing piracy.[citation needed]
Cooperation with the Chinese[edit]
Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in the year 1077,[17][27][28] and that the king of the Chulien at the time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo.[29] It is possible that these syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with '81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes, including glass articles, and spices'.[30]
The close diplomatics tie between the Song dynasty of China and the Medieval Cholas facilitated many technological innovations to travel both ways. The more interesting ones to have reached Chinese shores are:
The famous Chola ship-designs employing independent water tight compartments in the hull of a ship.
The mariner's compass
The continuously shooting Flamethrowers for naval warfare.[31]
Organization and administration[edit]
Trade Routes of Southeast Asia around the Srivijaya Empire and Kediri around the 12th and early 13th century.
The Ancient Chola navy was based on trade vessel designs with little more than boarding implements, though this changed throughout the history. The later day navy was a specialized force with specially built ships for each type of combat.
The Imperial Navy of the Medieval Cholas was composed of a multitude of forces in its command. In addition to the regular navy (Kappal-Padai), there were many auxiliary forces that could be used in naval combat. The Chola Navy was an autonomous service unlike many of its contemporaries. The Army depended on the Naval-fleets for transportation and logistics. The navy also had a core of marines. Even saboteurs, who were trained pearl-fishermen ,were used to dive and disable enemy vessels by destroying or damaging the rudder.[31]
The Chola Navy could undertake any of the following combat and non-combat missions,
Peacetime patrol and interdiction of piracy.
Escort trade conveys.
Escort friendly vessels.
Naval battle close to home ports and at high-seas.
Establish a beachhead and or reinforce the army in times of need.
Denial of passage for allies of the state's enemies.
Sabotage of enemy vessels
This multi-dimensional force enabled the Cholas to achieve the Military, Political and cultural hegemony over their vast dominion.
Administration[edit]
The king/emperor was the supreme commander of all the military forces including the navy.
The navy is organized mostly on role based squadrons & divisions, containing various types of ships assigned for a specific role and home-ported in an associated base/port. This procedure became necessary, especially after the conquest of Ceylon. Normally, a Ganam (Fleet-Squadron) would (the largest individual unit)be commanded by a Ganathipathy (not to be confused with the elephant headed god Ganapathy).
There were numerous sub-units of operational reasons and organizational reasons or otherwise. Some are presented below,
Unit Name
Commander
Modern-day equivalent
Composition
Functions/Duties
Notes
Kanni - Wartime/special purpose formation Senior Kalapathy, Normally Kalapathy is the rank of a commanding officer of a Ship (akin to Captain) Not more than five ships of any role. Kanni In Tamil means trap.‡1 A tactical formation, it was used to lure enemy combatants to a particular area. Where larger bodies (usually, a Thalam or 2) ships will ambush the enemy. During a strategic deployment, the formation would be used many times before engaging in the main combat to decimate the enemy fleet. Also had a very bad reputation for losses, since high numbers of ships were lost in this role if the friendlies arrival was delayed in unfavorable currents.[32]
Jalathalam or simply Thalam‡2 - A permanent formation. Jalathalathipathy - The lord of Thalam The smallest self-sustained unit in naval formation, consisted 5 main battle vessels, 3 Auxiliaries and 2 Logistics and 1 or 2 Privateers. A Thalam could be used for reconnaissance, patrol or interdiction. Normally, 2-3 Thalam operated in a vicinity on scouting or search & destroy missions. while can search a wide area, can reach to each other's aid in short duration. A fully equipped Chola Thalam is said to have been able to withstand an attack by more than twice its size. This is attributed to the superior range of missile weapons in Chola Inventory.
Mandalam - A semi-permanent formation. Mostly used in battle/Overseas deployment. Mandalathipathy - The lord of Mandalam Roughly equivalent to Task force or Battle groups Composed of 40-50 Ships of various roles. (Mandalam in Tamil and various Indian languages is the word of 48) They can used as an individual combat unit, especially during pincer or break-neck maneuvering in high-seas.
Ganam - A permanent formation Ganathipathy - Literally, Athipathy (lord) of the Ganam, equivalent to modern-day rear-admiral Fleet-Squadron Composed of 100-150 Ships of various roles. (Ganam in Tamil means volume and three). A ganam comprises three Mandalams. A self-reliant unit of the force, only smaller than the Fleet. Had combat, reconnaissance, logistics and resupply/repair units. Normally, this would be the minimum strength/size of the overseas deployment.
Ani Anipathy - lord of an Ani Taskforce or battle group Composed of 3 Ganams (Fleet-division) minimum. Normally consisting of 300-500 ships. Mainly an Expedition order than normal formation. But, during long deployments, they were deployed (only 2 instances of an Ani being deployed in a combat have been documented.)[33]
Pirivu Normally headed by a prince/confidante of the King, title depends on the sea where the fleet is based. For example, The eastern fleet would be named as Keelpirivu-athipathy or Nayagan or Thevan/r, depending on the person. Fleet They functioned much like modern Fleets. There were two to four fleets in the Chola navy during various times. The principal fleet was based in the east. Later on a second fleet was based on Ceylon/Sri Lanka. During and after the Rajendra I, three or four fleets existed. The rise of Chera naval power gave more than a little loss in revenue, prompting the Cholas to station a Fleet permanently in the Malabar and to engage Mercenary navies to support the Chola strategic design.
Notes[edit]
‡1. Kanni May mean any of the following in Tamil, the application on the meaning is in context of the usage.(கன்னி) Virgin/Unmarried Girl, First timer, the Eastern corner/direction. A trap is also called as 'kanni', that is 'ka NN i'(கண்ணி) which is a different word both pronounced and written differently.
2. Thalam being both the name of a tactical formation of the army and navy. Thalapathy meaning the lord of a Thalam, roughly a division, and the rank is comparable to a modern-day colonel.
Rank structure[edit]
The Chola navy used a hybrid rank structure. There were dedicated naval ranks as well as army-derived ranks.[34] The Chola Navy used both naval ranks and army-style ranks. While some of the modern-day convention of ranks did apply, for example, the army captain is equal to a lieutenant in the navy and a navy captain is equal to a colonel in the army; others were totally different. So a small comparison is provided for comparison.
The supreme commander :Chakravarthy - The emperor
The commander-in chief of navy :Jalathipathhi - roughly, the admiral of the navy.
The commander of the fleet : Pirivu+ Athipathy or Devar/n or Nayagan - The equivalent of an admiral
The commander of the fleet-squadron : Ganathipathy - roughly the equivalent of a rear-admiral
The commander of a group : Mandalathipathy#(refer below) - the equivalent of a vice-admiral
The commander of the ship : Kalapathy -The equivalent of a captain in modern navies.
The officer in-charge of arms in a ship : Kaapu - Roughly the executive officer and weapons officer rolled into one.
The officer in-charge of the oarsmen/masts : Seevai - roughly the equivalent of the master chief and engineering officer.
The officer in-charge of boarding party (marines) : Eeitimaar - major or captain in marines.
Other naval arms[edit]
The auxiliary forces of the Chola Navy In addition to the standing navy of the state, there were other services which had a naval arm of its own. Notable among them are the customs department, militia and the state monopoly of pearl fisheries. In addition to the state services, a small but formidable forces were maintained by various trade-guilds, these guilds are highly regulated and acted as mercenaries and reinforcements in times of need.[35]
Customs and excise[edit]
The Customs force, called Sungu (SUNGA ILLAKA) was highly organized and unlike anything in the ancient world. It was under the command of a Director-general like position called Thalai-Thirvai. Thalai - Head, Thirvai - duty (customs). It was highly evolved and had various departments[36] Some are
Department
Duties
Assets
Thirvai (Customs duty & Exercise) This unit employed some of the brilliant merchants of the time and most were professional economists. They deduced and fixed the percentage of the Customs duty of a commodity for a particular season. (trade-voyages were influenced by ocean currents and hence the price changed accordingly) They normally had boarding officers, boarding crafts and some sea vessels; as most of their duty was inland.
Aaivu (Inspection & enforcement) This unit was the Action arm of the trade law, they inspected ships for contraband, illegal goods, wrong declaring of tonnage, small crimes control and the protection of the Harbors under Chola dominion. These units employed some of the fast assault and boarding vessels of the time and in more than one reported occasion, the navy had sought its help in intercepting rogue vessels.†
Ottru (intelligence corps) They were the intelligence corps of the territorial waters of the Chola dominion. They normally tailed foreign vessels, performed path-finding for larger forces or conveys and gave periodic updates for the kings and the trade-guilds of the happenings in the sea. They operated highly capable vessels which are noted for stealth and speed, rather than brute force and weapons platforms. Most of the ships they operated were privateers and contained no national markings. We have some understandings of their crafts, which seemed to have been equipped with concealable catapults and napalm throwers (not trebuchets like the ones employed by the naval ships.)
Kallarani (pirate squad) Technically, they weren't employed by either the sovereign or the state. But rather, they are pirates themselves who have received the Royal Pardon on the pledge of their support of the Chola Empire. They had been used in more than a few instances to deal with the Arab piracy in the western water. They have also been used as Coast Guard. These mercenaries operated anything that they could capture and composed of multi-national-ethnic corps. Notable among them are the Arabian Amirs, who were highly respected upon their oath of allegiance and their fervor in combat.
Karaipirivu (Coastal defense) They performed duties akin to the modern coast-guard, search & rescue and coastal patrols. But mainly they were land-based and scattered along the long coast-line to provide a seaward defense. they operated substantially smaller crafts and occasionally even catamarans . Nevertheless, they were feared by petty crooks and coastal thieves.
Coast guard[edit]
In the later years of the 1100[clarification needed], the navy was constantly battling in many fronts to protect Chola commercial, religious and political interests. So the home ports were literally, undefended. This led to a change in Chola naval strategy, the sturdier and larger vessels were repeatedly called to reinforce the high-sea flotilla, leading to the development of a specialized auxiliary force of fast and heavily armed light ships in large numbers. The erstwhile Karaipirivu was the natural choice for this expansion and in time they became an autonomous force vested with the duties of protecting the Chola territorial waters, home ports, patrol of newly captured ports and coastal cities.
Privateers[edit]
The state's dependence on overseas trade for much valued foreign exchange created the powerful Trade-guilds, some of which grew more powerful than the regional governors.[37] And in the increasingly competitive field of international trade, the state faced with difficulties to reinforce and or rescue stranded Merchant ships in high seas, in a timely manner. This led to the establishment of privateer navies. Like its European counterparts, they had no National markings and employed multi-national crews.
But, they were employed by the Trade-guilds rather than the Empire, giving the Traders an edge in the seas. Normally, they performed path-finding, escort and protection duties. but, in more than a few occasions, these forces had been summoned to serve the Empire's interests.
Notable Trade guilds which employed a privateer navy were,
Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar - literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"
Maalainattu Thiribuvana Vaanibar kzhulumam - The merchants from the high-country in three worlds (meaning the 3 domiciles of Chinese, Indian and Arabian empires)
Maadathu valaingair (or valainzhr)vaanibar Kzhu - The pearl exporters form the Kanchipuram
Vessels and weapons[edit]
A Song Dynasty junk ship, 13th century; Chinese ships of the Song period featured hulls with watertight compartments. Some of these vessels are believed to have been employed by the Chola Navy too.[38]
Even before the accounts of the 1st century BCE, there were written accounts of shipbuilding and war-craft at sea. Professor R. C. Majumdar says that there existed a comprehensive book of naval-architecture in India dating back to the 2nd century BCE, if not earlier.
During the reign of Raja Raja and his son, there were a complex classification of class of vessels and its utility. Some of the survived classes' name and utility are below.[39][volume needed]
Dharani - The equivalent of modern-day destroyers designed to take combat to high-seas.
Loola - The equivalent of modern-day corvettes; designed to perform light combat and escort duties.
Vajra - The equivalent of a frigate maybe, a fast attack craft lightly armored.
Thirisadai - Probably the battle cruisers or battleships of the day, they are reported to be armored heavily and could engage more than 2 targets in combat, and relied on its built rather than speed to survive and attack.[40]
Though all ships of the time employed a small Marine force (for boarding enemy vessels), this class of ship seems to have had a separate cabins and training area for them.[41] This ship also is said to be able to engage in asymmetrical warfare.
Dharani The primary weapons platform with extensive endurance (up to 3 months), they normally engaged in groups and avoided one on one encounters. Probably equivalent to modern-day Destroyers.
Lola They were lightly armored, fast attack vessels. Normally performed escort duties. They could not perform frontal assaults. Equivalent to modern-day Corvettes.
Vajara They were highly capable fast attack crafts, typically used to reinforce/rescue a stranded fleet. Probably equivalent to modern-day Frigates.
Thirisadai The heaviest class known, they had extensive war-fighting capabilities and endurance, with a dedicated marine force of around 400 Marines to board enemy vessels. They are reported to be able to engage three vessels of Dharani class, hence the name Thirisadai, which means, three braids. (Braid was also the time's name for oil-fire.) This class can be attributed/compared to modern Battle cruisers or Battleships.
This is the Anchor of an Unknown LOLA class Chola ship, excavated by the Indian Navy divers off the coast of Poombuhar.
Apart from class definitions, there are names of Royal Yachts and their architecture. Some of which are,
Akramandham - A royal Yacht with the Royal quarters in the stern.
Neelamandham - A royal Yacht with extensive facilities for conducting courts and accommodation for hi-officials/ministers.
Sarpammugam - these were smaller yachts used in the Rivers (with ornamental snake heads)
In addition to these, we find many names of Ship classes in Purananuru and its application in both inland waters and open oceans. Some of them are,
Yanthiram - Hybrid ship employing bot sails and oars or probably Paddle wheels of some type (as Yanthiram is literally translated to mechanical wheel)
Kalam - Large vessels with 3 masts which can travel in any direction irrespective of winds.
Punai - medium-sized vessels that can be used to coastal shipping as well as inland.
Patri - Large barge type vessel used to ferrying trade goods.
Oodam - Small boat with large oars.
Ambi - Medium-sized boat with a single mast and oars.
Toni - small boat used in rocky terrain.
Campaigns[edit]
In the tenure spanning the 700 years of its documented existence, the Chola Navy was involved in confrontations for probably 500 years.[42] There were frequent skirmishes and many pitched battles. Not to mention long campaigns and expeditions. The 5th centuries of conflict between the Pandyas and Cholas for the control of the peninsula gave rise to many legends and folktales. Not to mention the heroes in both sides. The notable campaigns are below[43][44][45]
War of Pandya Succession (1172)
War of Pandya succession (1167)
The destruction of the Bali fleet (1148)
Sea battle of the Kalinga Campaighn (1081-1083)
The second expedition of Sri Vijaya (1031-1034)
The first expedition of Sri Vijaya (1027-1029)
The Annexation of Kedah (1024-1025)
Annexation of the Kamboja (?-996)
The invasion of Ceylon/Sri Lanka.(977-?)
Skirmishes with Pallava Navy (903-8)
Recruitment and service[edit]
The chola emperors gave a free hand to the admirals in recruiting and training of sailors, engineers, oarsmen and marines. There were no complicated tests and evaluation process. Any citizen or even non citizen could sign up for the naval service. But, one did not end up in the work of his choice. Preference were given to ex-servicemen, their sons and noblemen. But, this attitude changed in later days. And many class of soldiers / sailors distinguished themselves, irrespective of rank and class.
Ports and fleets[edit]
The most ancient of ports used by Cholas was Poompuhar. Later on, they used many more ports and even built some new ones. Some of the famous ports are:
Arikamedu
Poombuhar.
Kancheepuram
Nagapattinam
Kulachal
Korkai
Kadalur.
Thoothukudi
In addition to these sea ports there were many inland ports and dry dock connected by Rivers Kaveri and Thamarabarani which served commercial fleets and in times of war, to facilitate mass production, ships were built inland and ferried through the rivers to the Ocean.
Musuri
Worayur or Urayur
The fleets were normally named after the dead monarchs and god's name. The most distinguished ones were granted Royal prefixes like Theiva-sovereign's name-fleet name. During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, there were 5 fleets, each catering to particular needs. The main fleet was home ported in Nagapatinam. The other fleets were home ported in Kadalur and a small fleet was also based in Kanchipuram.
In addition to the main fleets of war ships, there were two fleets of logistics and transport ships to serve the needs of the army; involved in a bloody war in Ceylon and later in southeast Asia.
In the later years these numbers increased drastically and a several fleets were created anew. During the late 11th century, there were a total of nine battle fleets, based in various dominians across the vast expanses of the Chola empire ranging from the present day Aceh, Ankorwat to the southern reaches of Ceylon/Sri Lanka.
Political, cultural and economic impact[edit]
The Grand vision and imperial energy of the Father and son duo Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I is undoubtedly the underlying reason for expansion and prosperity. But, this was accomplished by the tireless efforts and pains of the navy. In essence, Raja Raja was the first person in the sub-continent to realize the power projection capabilities of a powerful navy. He and his successors initiated a massive naval buildup and continued supporting it, and they used it more than just wars.
The Chola navy was a potent diplomatic symbol, the carrier of Chola might and prestige. It spread Dravidian culture, its literary and architectural grandeur. For the sake of comparison, it was the equivalent of the " Gunboat diplomacy " of the modern-day Great powers and super powers.
There is evidence to show that the king of Kambujadesa (modern Cambodia) sent an ornamental chariot to the Chola Emperor, probably to appease him to limit his strategic attention to the Malay peninsula.
Popular culture[edit]
From the Sangam age poems to commemorate the victory of the sovereign of the day to the immortalized Kalinga Campaign of the Kulothunga Chola I in the Kalingattuparani. Parani is a special type of literary work, which; according to the traditions and rules of linguistics of Tamizh can only be composed on a king/general whose forces have killed a thousand elephants in combat.
In modern times, more than a few Romance has been inspired by the Chola Navy, and mostly in Tamil Language and literature.
Yavana rani : A historical novel by Sandilyian surrounding the events of the Karikala's Ascendence to throne.
Ponniyin selvan : The crowning glory of the Rajaraja is idolized in this Novel surrounding the assassination of his brother and crown prince Aditha Karikalan. More than a passing note is given of the navy and its organization in this Magnum opus by Kalki. Krishnamoorthy.
Kadal pura : Another historical novel by sandilyan surrounding the foundation of the Chalukya Chola dynasty in India and the Song Dynasty in china. Sandilyan gives more than a passing evidence to prove that the song-emperor and Kulothunga chola were friends. By far, this work gives the most intricate details of the navies of the day and naval warfare. In this work he describes the various weapons and tactics employed by the Cholas and Chinese navies and their combined efforts to overthrow the Sri Vijaya dynasty.
Kanni Maadam : A historical novel by Sandilyan in the time of Rajathiraja Chola. The work describes the Pandyas' civil war .It elaborates the war by proxy, between the sinhalese and cholas. The pallavas are all but gone, they are in the service of both Cholas and pandyas. It features some of the most detailed tactical maneuvering in battlefield. It also highlights the importance of the Naval power and logistics in an overseas campaign.
Aayirathil Oruvan (2010 film) : A movie about the search for an exiled Chola prince directed by Selvaraghavan.
Timeline of events[edit]
The major events which had direct and some of them deep impact in the development of the Chola Naval capability are listed here, which is in no case comprehensive.
Archeological evidence: The dated excavations,
3000 BCE - Dugout canoes were found in Arikamedu, what is now in Puducherry.[citation needed]
2400 BCE - Highly functional port is in operation in Lothal of what is now Gujarat.[citation needed]
700 BCE - The first mention of the word Yavana in pottery around korkai.(meaning Greeks or Romans)
300 BCE - A load-stone compass with Chinese inscriptions is found off the coast of Kaaveripoompatnam.[citation needed]
100 BCE - A settlement of Tamil/Pakrit speaking merchants founded in Rome.[citation needed]
Late 1st century BCE - Roman glass was found in southern coastal regions of Tamil Nadu,[46] see: Indo-Roman trade relations
Literary references and recordings
356-321 BCE: The Periplus of Niarchus, an officer of Alexander the Great, describes the Persian coast. Niarchus commissioned thirty oared galleys to transport the troops of Alexander the Great from northwest India back to Mesopotamia, via the Persian Gulf and the Tigris, an established commercial route.[47]
334-323 BCE: Eratosthenes, the librarian at Alexandria, drew a map which includes Sri Lanka and the mouth of the Ganges. Which states the exchange of traffic and commodity in the regions.[48]
1st century BCE : When Vennikkuyithiar mentions about Karikala, he mentions several class of inland vessels by Name some are Kalam, Punai & Patri.
Gallery[edit]
An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the Tiger emblem of the Cholas[49][50]
See also[edit]
Chola dynasty
Chola Military
Dravidian Architecture
References[edit]
Jump up ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 175
Jump up ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 5
Jump up ^ Kulke and Rothermund, p 115
^ Jump up to: a b Keay, p 215
Jump up ^ Majumdar, p 407
Jump up ^ The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year. The name of the Srivijaya king was Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 211–220
Jump up ^ Meyer, p 73
Jump up ^ "History of India by Literary Sources", Prof. E.S. Narayana Pillai, Cochin University
Jump up ^ "South India Handbook", Robert Bradnock, pp 142.
Jump up ^ "The Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean", William Vincent, Page 517-521
Jump up ^ "periplus mentions 3 ports in Tamil country of which Kaveripatnam as center, as the places from which great ships which calls colondia sailed to pacific islands" - K.M.Panikkar in "geographical factors in indian history", page-81.
Jump up ^ 'Mayillai.Seeni. VenkataSwamy', சங்ககால தமிழக வரலாற்றில் சில செய்திகள் (TAMIL BOOK), page-149
Jump up ^ The Archaeological Survey of India's report on Ancient ports, 1996, Pages 76-79
Jump up ^ "India and China- Oceanic, Educational and technological cooperation", Journal of Indian Ocean Studies 10:2 (August 2002), Pages 165-171
Jump up ^ Kulke and Rothermund, pp 116–117
^ Jump up to: a b Kulke and Rothermund, p 118
^ Jump up to: a b Kulke and Rothermund, p 117
Jump up ^ Kulke and Rothermund, p 12
Jump up ^ Kulke and Rothermund, p 124
Jump up ^ Tripathi, p 465
Jump up ^ Tripathi, p 477
Jump up ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 604
Jump up ^ "Antiquities of India: An Account of the History and Culture of Ancient Hindustan", Lionel D. Barnett, Page 216.
^ Jump up to: a b c Prakash Nanda,. Rediscovering Asia: Evolution of India's Look-East Policy. pp. 56–57. ISBN 81-7062-297-2.
Jump up ^ The Military History of south Asia, By Col. Peter Stanford, 1932.
Jump up ^ Military Leadership in India: Vedic Period to Indo-Pak Wars By Rajendra Nath, ISBN 81-7095-018-X, Pages: 112-119
Jump up ^ Keay, p 223
Jump up ^ See Thapar, p xv
Jump up ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 316
Jump up ^ The Tamil merchants took glassware, camphor, sandalwood, rhinoceros horns, ivory, rose water, asafoetida, spices such as pepper, cloves, etc. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 173
^ Jump up to: a b Historical Military Heritage of the Tamils By Ca. Vē. Cuppiramaṇiyan̲, Ka.Ta. Tirunāvukkaracu, International Institute of Tamil Studies
Jump up ^ "Indian Ocean Strategies Through the Ages, with Rare and Antique Maps", Moti Lal Bhargava, Reliance publication house, ISBN 81-85047-57-X
Jump up ^ "The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present", Page 1470-73 by Richard Ernest Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt Dupuy -1986,
Jump up ^ The history of the navies of India, BY William Shaf 1996, Pages-45-47
Jump up ^ The Corporate Life in ancient India, By Prof RC Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. 1920, Madras University Press, Available online at http://deas.repec.org/b/hay/hetboo/majumdar1920.html[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, Kenneth Hallp.34, citing Pattinapalai, a Sangam poem of the 1st century, quoted in K.V. Subrahmanya Aiyer, 'Largest provincial organisations in ancient India', Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society 65, 1 (1954-55): 38.,
Jump up ^ The Corporate Life in ancient India, By Prof RC Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. 1920, Madras University Press,
Jump up ^ Southeast Asia, Past and Present By D. R. Sardesai, Page 47
Jump up ^ The History and Culture of the Indian People, By Prof R.C. Majumdar Pages, 642-646
Jump up ^ The History shipbuilding in the sub-continent , By Prof R C Majumdar, Pages, 521-523, 604-616
Jump up ^ A History of South-east Asia - Page 55 by Daniel George Edward Hall - Asia, Southeastern Publishers, 1955, Pages 465-472, 701-706
Jump up ^ The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon,George W. Spencer,The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 35, No. 3 (May, 1976), pp. 405-419, Summary at JSTOR 2053272
Jump up ^ "An atlas and survey of south Asian History" , By M E Sharpe, 1995, Published by Lynne Rienner, Pages 22-28
Jump up ^ The geo-Politics of Asia, By Michael D. Swaine & Ashley J. Tellis, Published by Konark publishers for the center for policy research, New Delhi, Page 217-219
Jump up ^ D The Chola Maritime Activities in Early Historical Setting, By: Dr. K.V. Hariharan
Jump up ^ Casson, Lionel (2012). The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation, and Commentary. Princeton University Press. p. 229. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2003-06-04. Retrieved 2008-12-25.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-08-14. Retrieved 2008-12-25.
Jump up ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 18.
Jump up ^ Chopra et al., p 31
External links[edit]
http://www.tifr.res.in/~akr/crab_webtifr.html (Indian subcontinent section)
https://web.archive.org/web/20080514170634/http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/early2.htm
https://web.archive.org/web/20091203133836/http://www.tsr8283.com/general/history.htm
http://nandhivarman.indiainteracts.com/2007/11/01/chola-maritime-conquests-and-technological-grandeur/
http://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Archeaology/arch_tambaramhistory.htm
http://www.sangam.org/articles/view2/print.php?uid=1012
https://web.archive.org/web/20081105144141/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1600s/Prakash.html
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California Community Colleges System
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
California Community Colleges System
Motto
Empowering community colleges through leadership, advocacy, and support
Type
Public community college system
Established
1967
Endowment
US$25 million (planned permanent endowment)
Chancellor
Eloy Ortiz Oakley
Academic staff
57,711
Students
~ 2,100,000
Location
Sacramento, California
Colleges
114
Affiliations
California Community Colleges
Website
www.cccco.edu
The entrance to California Community Colleges headquarters in Sacramento
The California Community Colleges is "a postsecondary education system" in the U.S. state of California.[1] The system includes the Board of Governors of the California Community Colleges and 72 community college districts. The districts have established 114 community colleges.[2] The California Community Colleges is the largest system of higher education in the United States, serving more than 2.1 million students.[3] The California Community Colleges is often referred to as the "California Community Colleges System" (CCCS).
Under the California Master Plan for Higher Education, the California Community Colleges System is a part of the state's three-tier public higher education system, which also includes the University of California system and the California State University system. Like the two other systems, the CCCS is headed by an executive officer and a governing board. The 17-member Board of Governors (BOG) sets direction for the system and is in turn appointed by the California Governor. The board appoints the Chancellor, who is the chief executive officer of the system. Locally elected Boards of Trustees work on the district level with Presidents who run the individual college campuses.[4]
The CCCS is a founding and charter member of CENIC, the Corporation for Education Network Initiatives in California, the nonprofit organization which provides extremely high-performance Internet-based networking to California's K-12 research and education community.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Governance
2.1 Student government
3 Students
4 Enrollment
5 Public transportation
6 Faculty and staff
7 Accreditation
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
In 1907, the California State Legislature, seeing a benefit to society in education beyond high school but realizing the load could not be carried by existing colleges, authorized the state's high schools to create "junior colleges" to offer what were termed "postgraduate courses of study" similar to the courses offered in just the first two years of university studies.[5] A collegiate "department" of Fresno High School was set up in the fall of 1910 that later developed into becoming Fresno City College, which is the oldest existing public community college in California and the second oldest existing public community college in the United States.
Thanks to the efforts of people such as Professor Alexis F. Lange, Dean of the School of Education at the University of California, Berkeley, the Junior College Act was passed in 1917, expanding the mission by adding trade studies such as mechanical and industrial arts, household economy, agriculture, and commerce. In the early 1920s, the Legislature authorized the creation of separate colleges, in addition to the programs offered in high schools.[5] In 1921, California passed legislation which allowed for the creation of community college districts. In September 1921, Modesto Junior College (the 16th oldest community college) became the first ever community college district. That launched the current model of community colleges that continued to offer trade studies such as mechanical and industrial arts but now included general education. The first ever transfer student was from Modesto Junior College and transferred to Stanford in 1922. By 1932 there were 38 junior colleges in the state. The 1944 GI Bill dramatically increased college enrollments, and by 1950 there were 50 junior colleges. By 1960 there were 56 districts in California offering junior college courses, and 28 of those districts were not high school districts but were "junior college districts" formed expressly for the governance of those schools.
The 1960 Master Plan for Higher Education and the resulting Donahoe Act was a turning point in higher education in California. The UC and CSU systems were to limit their enrollments, yet an overall goal was to "provide an appropriate place in California public higher education for every student who is willing and able to benefit from attendance", meaning the junior colleges were to fulfill this role. In 1967, the Governor and Legislature created the Board of Governors for the Community Colleges to oversee the community colleges and formally established the community college district system, requiring all areas of the state to be included within a community college district.[6] The degree of local control in this system, a side effect of the origins of many colleges within high school districts, can be seen in that 52 of the 72 districts (72%) govern only a single college; only a few districts in major metropolitan areas control more than four colleges.
The Master Plan for Higher Education also banned tuition, as it was based on the ideal that public higher education should be free to students (just like K-12 primary and secondary education). As officially enacted, it states that public higher education "shall be tuition free to all residents." Thus, California residents legally do not pay tuition. However, the state has suffered severe budget deficits ever since the enacting of Proposition 13 in 1978, which led to the imposition of per-unit enrollment fees for California residents (equivalent in all but name to tuition) at all community colleges and all CSU and UC campuses to get around the legal ban on tuition. Non-resident and international students, however, do pay tuition, which at community colleges is usually an additional $100 per unit (or credit) on top of the standard enrollment fee. Since no other American state bans tuition in public higher education, this issue is unique to California. In summer 2010, the state's public higher education systems began investigating the possibility of dropping the semantic confusion and switching to the more accurate term, tuition.[7]
In the past decade, tuition and fees have fluctuated with the state's budget. For much of the 1990s and early 2000s, enrollment fees ranged between $11 and $13 per credit. However, with the state's budget deficits in the early-to-mid 2000s, fees rose to $18 per unit in 2003, and, by 2004, reached $26 per unit. Since then, fees dropped to $20 per unit, down $6 from January 2007. It was the lowest enrollment fee of any college or university in the United States. On July 28, 2009, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed AB2X (the education trailer bill to the 2009-10 state budget), setting the community college enrollment fee back at $26 per unit, effective for the Fall 2009 term. As of July, 2011, per-unit fees at California's community colleges stand at $36 per unit. Effective Summer 2012, tuition will be raised to $46 per unit.
The newest additions to the California Community Colleges system are Moreno Valley College and Norco College, which became the 111th and 112th colleges of the CCC system in 2010. Clovis Community College became the 113th college in 2015. Compton College became the 114th college in 2017.
Governance[edit]
The CCCS is governed by the Board of Governors which, within the bounds of state law, sets systemwide policy. The 17 Board members, who represent the public, faculty, students, and classified employees, are appointed by the Governor of California as directed by Section 71000 of the California Education Code.[8] The Board is also directed by the Education Code to allow local authority and control of the community college districts to the "maximum degree permissible" and AB 1725 in 1974 added a formal consultation process which has resulted in the formation of a Consultation Council[9] to assure the Board of Governors and Chancellor's Office remain responsive in this respect.
The system is administered by the Chancellor's Office located in Sacramento, which is responsible for allocating state funding and provides leadership and technical assistance to the colleges. The Chancellor brings policy recommendations to the Board of Governors, and possesses the authority to implement the policies of the Board through his leadership of the Chancellor's Office. The Chancellor plays a key role in the consultation process.
Student government[edit]
Further information: Student governments in the United States
California Education Code § 76060 allows the governing board of a community college district to authorize the students of a college to organize a student body association.[10] The student body association may conduct any activities, including fundraising activities, that is approved by the appropriate college officials.[10] The governing board of the community college district may also authorize the students of a college to organize more than one student body association when the governing board finds that day students and evening students each need an association or geographic circumstances make the organization of only one student body association impractical or inconvenient.[10]
Students have a right to participate. The BOG has established minimum standards governing procedures established by governing boards of community college districts to ensure faculty, staff, and students the right to participate effectively in district and college governance, and the opportunity to express their opinions at the campus level and to ensure that these opinions are given every reasonable consideration.[11][12] The BOG standards state that the governing board of a community college district shall adopt policies and procedures that provide students the opportunity to participate effectively in district and college governance, including:[13]
providing an opportunity to participate in formulation and development of district and college policies and procedures that have or will have a significant effect on students, including the opportunity to participate in processes for jointly developing recommendations to the governing board;
not taking action on a matter having a significant effect on students until it has provided students with an opportunity to participate in the formulation of the policy or procedure or the joint development of recommendations;
ensuring that recommendations and positions developed by students are given every reasonable consideration at the district and college levels; and
recognizing each associated student organization or its equivalent within the district as provided by Education Code § 76060 as the representative body of the students to offer opinions and to make recommendations to the administration of a college and to the governing board of a district with regard to district and college policies and procedures that have or will have a significant effect on students; and
ensuring that the selection of student representatives to serve on college or district committees, task forces, or other governance groups shall be made, after consultation with designated parties, by the appropriate officially recognized associated student organization(s) within the district.
District and college policies and procedures that have or will have a "significant effect on students" includes:[13]
grading policies;
codes of student conduct;
academic disciplinary policies;
curriculum development;
courses or programs which should be initiated or discontinued;
processes for institutional planning and budget development;
standards and policies regarding student preparation and success;
student services planning and development;
student fees within the authority of the district to adopt; and
any other district and college policy, procedure, or related matter that the district governing board determines will have a significant effect on students.
The governing body of the association may order that an election be held for the purpose of establishing a student representation fee of $1 per semester, and a student may, for religious, political, financial, or moral reasons, refuse to pay the student representation fee in writing at the time the student pays other fees.[14] Regulations in the California Code of Regulations (CCR) require district governing boards to include information pertaining to the representation fee in the materials given to each student at registration, including its purpose, amount, and their right to refuse to pay the fee for religious, political, moral or financial reasons.[15]
The students of this largest system of education in the world are represented through a statewide students' union known as the Student Senate for California Community Colleges (SSCCC). The SSCCC has a General Assembly composed of Delegates. Meetings of the General Assembly are held twice in each academic year. The Delegates are selected by community college-associated student organizations. The SSCCC also has a Student Senate Council composed of 30 Senators. The SSCCC has 10 regional subdivisions and each subdivision or "Region" annually elects three Senators. Meetings of the Student Senate Council are held about 10 times during each academic year. The Student Senate Council may nominate students for appointment to seats on the Board of Governors and it may appoint two representatives to the Chancellor's Consultation Council.
Students[edit]
The 2.4 million students within the California Community Colleges system serve as the basis for the economic revitalization of California's workforce. Through its vocational endeavors, the CCC system has played a pivotal role in preparing nurses, firefighters, police, welders, auto mechanics, airplane mechanics, and construction workers to help mold the society of California.
Enrollment[edit]
Racial and/or ethnic background (2013)
Students[16]
California[17]
United States[18]
Asian 11% 10% 5%
Black 7% 7% 13%
Filipino 3% 3.9% 1.1%
Hispanic
(of any race) 41% 38% 17%
Non-Hispanic White 29% 39% 63%
Native American 0.4% 2% 1%
Multi-ethnic 4% N/A N/A
Other races 5% N/A N/A
[19]
Public transportation[edit]
All 114 CCCs are empowered to establish their own college transit programs as state legislation allows for the collection of transportation fees. A transportation fee and program can be created if a majority of students vote in favor of such a program in a publicly held campus election. There are now a handful of these transit programs at several colleges.[20]
Faculty and staff[edit]
The California Community College system had a total employee headcount of 89,497 in fall 2006. While tenured and tenure tracked faculty were relatively well-compensated, they comprise a very small fraction of overall faculty compared to California's other two tertiary education systems. While 86% of CSU faculty members were tenured or tenure-tracked, only 30% of CCCS faculty were tenured or tenure-tracked. Temporary faculty, those who are not tenure tracked, earned an average of $62.86 per hour for those teaching for-credit courses, $47.46 for non-credit instruction, $54.93 for instructional support and $63.86 for "overload" instruction.[21]
Staff and faculty compensation varied greatly by district. The overall average salary for tenured and tenure tracked faculty was $78,498 as of Fall 2006, with 48.7% earning more than $80,001. Salaries ranged from $64,883 in Siskiyous to $90,704 in Santa Barbara. The average for educational administrators was $116,855, while classified administrators earned an average of $87,886, classified professional earned $62,161 and classified support staff earned an average of $43,773.[22]
Data[22]
Headcount
Percent of total
Less than $25,000
$25,000 to $40,000
$40,000 to $50,000
$50,000 to $60,000
$60,000 to $70,000
$70,000 to $80,000
More than $80,000
Mean
Educational administrators 1,965 2.2% 1.93% 0.51% 0.92% 0.97% 1.42% 2.85% 90.08% $116,855
Tenured and tenure tracked faculty 18,196 20.3% 0.21% 0.92% 2.21% 7.85% 16.24% 23.10% 48.70% $78,498
Classified administrators 1,470 2.0% 1.6% 1.22% 4.29% 8.71% 11.29% 15.24% 57.69% $87,816
Classified professionals 1,817 2.0% 7.82% 7.93% 10.24% 18.66% 17.56% 14.14% 21.79% $62,161
Classified support staff 24,425 27.3% 10.51% 25.85% 30.62% 16.68% 7.42% 2.80% 1.85% $43,773
Academic temporary instructors 41,624 46.5% N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Accreditation[edit]
In 2006, Compton College in Compton, California lost its accreditation. Arrangements were made to have the college's governance transferred to El Camino College, a neighboring college.[23] Its new name, as a division of El Camino College, is "El Camino College Compton Center." Under El Camino College the "Center" is fully accredited. Plans are being made to re-establish Compton College as a separate college several years in the future.
In July 2013, City College of San Francisco was notified by its accreditor, the Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges (ACCJC), that its accreditation would be revoked in 2014 if the college failed an appeals process. Brice Harris, the systemwide chancellor of the California Community Colleges system, then appointed a "special trustee with extraordinary powers," an individual granted unilateral powers, to attempt to bring the college back into compliance with the ACCJC's accreditation standards.[24] In January 2017, CCSF was reaffirmed of its accreditation for the full seven year term by the ACCJC. [25]
See also[edit]
California portal
University portal
List of California Community Colleges by enrollment
References[edit]
Jump up ^ California Education Code Section 70900 (added to the Education Code by Chapter 973 of the California Statutes of 1988; Assembly Bill No. 1725, section 8, page 17).
Jump up ^ List of community colleges in California.
Jump up ^ California Community Colleges Chancellor's Office.
Jump up ^ Board of Governors Archived 2007-04-15 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b LHC 2012, p. 5.
Jump up ^ LHC 2012, p. 6.
Jump up ^ Larry Gordon, "California universities consider adopting the T-word: tuition", Los Angeles Times, 14 June 2010.
Jump up ^ California Education Code Section 71000.
Jump up ^ Chancellor's Consultation Council Archived 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c California Education Code § 76060
Jump up ^ Chapter 973 of the California Statutes of 1988
Jump up ^ California Education Code § 70901(b)(1)(E)
^ Jump up to: a b 5 CCR § 51023.7
Jump up ^ California Education Code § 76060.5
Jump up ^ 5 CCR § 54805
Jump up ^ "California Community Colleges Chancellor's Office - Data Mart". Datamart.cccco.edu. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
Jump up ^ "California QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau". Quickfacts.census.gov. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
Jump up ^ "USA QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau". Quickfacts.census.gov. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
Jump up ^ | Chancellor's Office | Data Mart Archived 2012-02-25 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ http://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20170525160206/http://www.jorgeflores.efolioworld.com/ab774. Archived from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved September 21, 2011. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "California Community Colleges Chancellor's Office. (April 26, 2007). Report on Staffing for Fall 2006: Statewide Summary" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-11-26.
^ Jump up to: a b "California Community Colleges Chancelor's Office. (Fall, 2006). Employee Category Salary Distribution by District" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-11-26.
Jump up ^ CSU | Public Affairs | Daily Clips. Calstate.edu. Retrieved on 2013-08-09.
Jump up ^ City College of S.F. trustees lose power. SFGate (2013-07-09). Retrieved on 2013-08-09.
Jump up ^ Xia, Rosanna. "City College of San Francisco wins back accreditation after years of uncertainty". LA Times. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
Little Hoover Commission (February 2012). Serving Students, Serving California: Updating the California Community Colleges to Meet Evolving Demands. Little Hoover Commission. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
External links[edit]
California Community Colleges - Chancellor's Office
Map of California Community Colleges & Districts from the California Community Colleges Chancellor's Office
Alphabetic Listing of public California Community Colleges (15 colleges are listed twice, per alternate names)
Academic Senate for California Community Colleges
Student Senate for California Community Colleges
Community College League of California (CCLC)
Commission on Athletics
1960 Master Plan for Higher Education
Foundation for California Community Colleges The official foundation to the California Community Colleges System Office, Chancellor, and Board of Governors
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