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Civil Constitution of the Clergy
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A commemorative plate from 1790 shows a curate swearing the Constitution.
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy (French: "Constitution civile du clergé") was a law passed on 12 July 1790 during the French Revolution, that caused the immediate subordination of the Catholic Church in France to the French government.[1]
Earlier legislation had already arranged the confiscation of the Catholic Church's French land had been holdings and banned monastic vows. This new law completed the destruction of the monastic orders, outlawing "all regular and secular chapters for either sex, abbacies and priorships, both regular and in commendam, for either sex", etc. It also sought to settle the chaos caused by the earlier confiscation of Church lands and the abolition of the tithe.[2] Additionally, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy regulated the current dioceses so that they could become more uniform and aligned with the administrative districts that had recently been created.[3] It emphasised that officials of the church could not provide commitment to anything outside France, specifically the Pope (due to his power and the influence he had) which was outside France.[3] Lastly, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy made Bishops and Priests elected.[3] By having members of the Clergy elected the church lost much of the authority it had to govern itself and was now subject to the people, since they would vote on the Priest and Bishops as opposed to these individuals being appointed by the church and the hierarchy within.[3]
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy was passed and some of the support for this came from figures that were within the Church, such as the priest and parliamentarian Pierre Claude François Daunou, and, above all, the revolutionary priest Henri Grégoire, who was the first French Catholic priest to take the Obligatory Oath. The measure was opposed, but ultimately acquiesced to, by King Louis XVI.
Contents
1 Document outline
2 Status of the Church in France before the Civil Constitution
3 Motivation of the Civil Constitution
4 Debate over the Civil Constitution
5 Legal status of the Church in France under the Civil Constitution
6 Delay in implementation
7 Obligatory Oath
8 Jurors and non-jurors
9 Repeal of the Civil Constitution
10 References
10.1 Cited
11 External links
Document outline[edit]
See also: Civil Constitution of the Clergy Outline
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy has four titles with different articles.
The document begins with an introduction that introduced why the document was written.[4]
Title I focuses on the dioceses and how they were to be administered.[4]
Title II focuses on the administration of the dioceses and how elections were to take place.[4]
Title III focuses on payment because the Clergy was a salaried employee of the State.[4][5]
Title IV focuses on the living requirements for bishops, parish priests, and the curates.[4]
Status of the Church in France before the Civil Constitution[edit]
Even before the Revolution and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, the Catholic Church in France (the Gallican Church) had a status that tended to subordinate the Church to the State. Under the Declaration of the Clergy of France (1682) privileges of the French monarch included the right to assemble church councils in their dominions and to make laws and regulations touching ecclesiastical matters of the Gallican Church or to have recourse to the "appeal as from an abuse" ("appel comme d'abus") against acts of the ecclesiastical power.
In this caricature, after the decree of 16 February 1790, monks and nuns enjoy their new freedom.
Even prior to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy:[6]
On 11 August 1789 tithes were abolished.
On 2 November 1789, Catholic Church property that was held for purposes of church revenue was nationalized, and was used as the backing for the assignats.
On 13 February 1790, monastic vows were forbidden and all ecclesiastical orders and congregations were dissolved, excepting those devoted to teaching children and nursing the sick.
On 19 April 1790, administration of all remaining church property was transferred to the State.
Motivation of the Civil Constitution[edit]
The following interlinked factors appear to have been the causes of agitation for the confiscation of church lands and for the adoption of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy:[7]
The French government in 1790 was nearly bankrupt; this fiscal crisis had been the original reason for the king's calling the Estates-General in 1789.
The Church owned about six percent of the land in France.[8] In addition the Church collected tithes.
The Church used the six percent of the land they owned for a multitude of purposes which included churches, monasteries, convents, schools, hospitals, and other establishments which served the people of France.[9]
Owing, in part, to abuses of this system (especially for patronage), there was enormous resentment of the Church, taking the various forms of atheism, anticlericalism, and anti-Catholicism.
Many of the revolutionaries viewed the Catholic Church as a retrograde force.
At the same time, there was enough support for a basically Catholic form of Christianity that some means had to be found to fund the Church in France.
Debate over the Civil Constitution[edit]
On 6 February 1790, one week before banning monastic vows, the National Constituent Assembly asked its ecclesiastical committee to prepare the reorganization of the clergy. No doubt, those who hoped to reach a solution amenable to the papacy were discouraged by the consistorial address of March 22 in which Pius VI spoke out against measures already passed by the Assembly; also, the election of the Protestant Jean-Paul Rabaut Saint-Étienne to the presidency of the Assembly brought about "commotions" at Toulouse and Nîmes, suggesting that at least some Catholics would accept nothing less than a return to the ancien régime practice under which only Catholics could hold office.[10]
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy came before the Assembly on 29 May 1790. François de Bonal, Bishop of Clermont, and some members of the Right requested that the project should be submitted to a national council or to the Pope, but did not carry the day. Joining them in their opposition to the legislation was Abbé Sieyès, one of the chief political theorists of the French Revolution and author of the 1789 pamphlet "What is the Third Estate?"[10]
Conversely, the Jansenist theologian Armand-Gaston Camus argued that the plan was in perfect harmony with the New Testament and the councils of the fourth century.[citation needed]
The Assembly passed the Civil Constitution on 12 July 1790, two days before the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. On that anniversary, the Fête de la Fédération, Talleyrand and three hundred priests officiated at the "altar of the nation" erected on the Champ de Mars, wearing tricolor waistbands over their priestly vestments and calling down God's blessing upon the Revolution.
In 1793, the War in the Vendee was influenced by the Constitution passing due to the devout population toward the Church among other social factors.
Legal status of the Church in France under the Civil Constitution[edit]
As noted above, even prior to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, church property was nationalized and monastic vows were forbidden. Under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy:
There were 83 bishops, one per Department, rather than the previous 135 bishops.[11]
Bishops (known as constitutional bishops) and priests were elected locally; electors had to sign a loyalty oath to the constitution. There was no requirement that the electors be Catholics, creating the ironic situation that Protestants and even Jews could help elect the Catholic priests and bishops. Their proportion in the French population was however very small.
Authority of the Pope over the appointment of clergy was reduced to the right to be informed of election results.
The tone of the Civil Constitution can be gleaned from Title II, Article XXI:
Before the ceremony of consecration begins, the bishop elect shall take a solemn oath, in the presence of the municipal officers, of the people, and of the clergy, to guard with care the faithful of his diocese who are confided to him, to be loyal to the nation, the law, and the king, and to support with all his power the constitution decreed by the National Assembly and accepted by the king.[2]
In short, new bishops were required to swear loyalty to the State in far stronger terms than to any religious doctrine. Note also that, even in this revolutionary legislation, there are strong remnants of Gallican royalism.
The law also included some reforms supported even by many within the Church. For example, Title IV, Article I states, "The law requiring the residence of ecclesiastics in the districts under their charge shall be strictly observed. All vested with an ecclesiastical office or function shall be subject to this, without distinction or exception."[2] In effect, this banned the practice by which younger sons of noble families would be appointed to a bishopric or other high church position and live off its revenues without ever moving to the region in question and taking up the duties of the office. The abuse of bishoprics by the nobility was further reduced in Title II, Article XI: "Bishoprics and cures shall be looked upon as vacant until those elected to fill them shall have taken the oath above mentioned."[2] This unified state control over both the nobility and the Church through the use of elected bishops and the oath of loyalty.
Delay in implementation[edit]
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For some time, Louis XVI delayed signing the Civil Constitution, saying that he needed "official word from Rome" before doing so. Pope Pius VI broke the logjam on 9 July 1790, writing a letter to Louis rejecting the arrangement. On 28 July, 6 September, and 16 December 1790, Louis XVI wrote letters to Pius VI, complaining that the National Assembly was forcing him to publicly accept the Civil Constitution, and suggesting that Pius VI appease them by accepting a few selected articles too. On 10 July, Pius VI wrote to Louis XVI, indicating to the king that the Church could not accept any of the provisions of the Constitution. The Constitution attempted to change the internal government of the Church, and no political regime had the right to unilaterally change the internal structure of the Church. On 17 August, Pius VI wrote to Louis XVI of his intent to consult with the cardinals about this, but on 10 October Cardinal Rochefoucauld, the Archbishop of Aix, and 30 of France's 131 bishops sent their negative evaluation of the main points of the Civil Constitution to the Pope. Only four bishops actively dissented. On 30 October, the same 30 bishops restated their view to the public, signing a document known as the Exposition of Principles ("Exposition des principes sur la constitution civile du clergé"), written by Jean de Dieu-Raymond de Cucé de Boisgelin
On 27 November 1790, still lacking the king's signature on the law of the Civil Constitution, the National Assembly voted to require the clergy to sign an oath of loyalty to the Constitution. During the debate on that matter, on 25 November, Cardinal de Lomenie wrote a letter claiming that the clergy could be excused from taking the Oath if they lacked mental assent; that stance was to be rejected by the Pope on 23 February 1791. On 26 December 1790, Louis XVI finally granted his public assent to the Civil Constitution, allowing the process of administering the oaths to proceed in January and February 1791.
Pope Pius VI's 23 February rejection of Cardinal de Lomenie's position of withholding "mental assent" guaranteed that this would become a schism. The Pope's subsequent condemnation of the revolutionary regime and repudiation of all clergy who had complied with the oath completed the schism.
Obligatory Oath[edit]
Members of the Catholic Church taking the oath that was required by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
Within the Civil Constitution of the Clergy there was a clause that required the Clergy to take an oath stating the individual's allegiance to France.[12] The oath was basically an oath of fidelity and it required every single priest in France to make a public choice on whether or not they believed the nation of France had authority over all religious matters.[1] This oath was very controversial because many Clergy believed that they could not put their loyalty towards France before their loyalty towards God. If a clergyman were to refuse to take this oath of allegiance then they were challenging the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and challenging the validity of the assembly which had established the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.[1] On 16 January 1791 approximately 50% of the individuals required to take the oath went ahead and took it and the other half decided to wait for Pope Pius VI to provide instruction, since he was indecisive on what the Oath signified and how the Clergy should respond to it.[12] It is important to note that all but seven of the bishops in France decided to not take the oath and as a reprimand those governing France began to replace the individuals with those who had taken the oath.[12][13] In March 1791 Pope Pius VI finally decided that the oath was against the beliefs of the Church.[12] By deciding that it was against the beliefs two groups were formed "jurors" ("refractory priests") and "non-jurors" and that was based on whether or not they had decided to take the oath. The Pope condemned those who took the oath and went as far as saying that they were absolutely separated from the church.[14] Additionally, the Pope expressed disapproval and chastised King Louis XVI for signing the document that required the oath to be taken.[14] Since the Pope expressed disapproval those who did not take it stayed unwilling to take it and as a result were replaced by those who had taken it. In addition to not receiving support from approximately 50% of the Clergy the oath was also disliked by a part of France's population. The individuals in France who were opposed to it claimed that the Revolution was destroying their "true" faith and this was also seen in the two groups of individuals that were formed because of the oath.[1] Those who believed that the Revolution was causing their "true" faith to be destroyed sided with the "non-jurors" and those who believed that the French government should have a say in religion sided with the "jurors."[1]
American Scholar Timothy Tackett believes that the oath that was required determined which individuals would let the revolution cause change and allow revolutionary reform and those who did not would remain true to their beliefs for many years to come.[1] Apart from Tackett's beliefs, it can be said that the obligatory oath marked a key historical point in the French Revolution since it was the first piece of legislation in the revolution that received massive drawback and resistance.[1]
Jurors and non-jurors[edit]
The rate of swearing priests in 1791. The department division is the current one.
As noted above, the government required all clergy to swear an oath of loyalty to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Only seven bishops and about half of the clergy agreed while the rest refused; the latter became known as "non-jurors" or "refractory priests."[12][13] In areas where a majority had taken the oath, such as Paris, the refractory minority could be victimized by society at large: nuns from the Hôtel-Dieu de Paris, for example, were subjected to humiliating public spankings.[15]
While there was a higher rate of rejection in urban areas[citation needed], most of these refractory priests (like most of the population) lived in the countryside, and the Civil Constitution generated considerable resentment among religious peasants. Meanwhile, the Pope repudiated the "jurors" who had signed the oath, especially bishops who had ordained new, elected clergy, and above all Bishop Louis-Alexandre Expilly de la Poipe. In May 1791, France recalled its ambassador to the Vatican and the Papal Nuncio was recalled from Paris. On June 9, the Assembly forbade the publication of Papal Bulls or Decrees, unless they had been approved by the Assembly as well.
The Constituent Assembly went back and forth on the exact status of non-juring priests. On 5 February 1791, non-juring priests were banned from preaching in public.[16] By not allowing the clergy to preach the National Assembly was trying to silence the Clergy.[13] This punishment that was imposed by the assembly signified that all refractory priest could no longer practice marriages and baptisms which were public ceremonies.[13] By not allowing refractory clergy to practice these large public ceremonies they were silenced. However, non-juring clergy continued to celebrate the Mass and attract crowds because the Assembly feared that stripping them of all of their powers would create chaos and that would be ineffective towards silencing them.[13] Although the Assembly allowed them to continue working in ceremonies that were not public they stated that they could only do so until they had been replaced by a clergyman who had taken the oath (juring).[13] A large percentage of the refractionary priests were not replaced until 10 August 1792, which was more than a year after the original 50% had taken the oath; by the time they began to be replaced the Assembly had made some changes and it was not as significant that they were practicing Mass.[13][12]
At the beginning, when the Assembly was stripping the clergy of their titles they tried to ignore how the extreme anti-clerical elements were responding with violence against those who attended these Masses and against nuns who would not renounce their vocation.[13] Ultimately the Assembly had to recognize the schism that was occurring because it was extremely evident, even while the replacement was occurring juror priests often faced a hostile and violent reception in their old parishes.[17] On 7 May 1791, the Assembly reversed itself, deciding that the non-juring priests, referred to as prêtres habitués ("habitual priests") could say Mass and conduct services in other churches on condition that they would respect the laws and not stir up revolt against the Civil Constitution. The assembly had to allow this change to control the schism and in part because "Constitutional Clergy" (those who had taken the oath) were unable to properly conduct their service.[13] The constitutional clergy often required the assistance of the National Guard due to the mayhem that would occur.[13]
The division in France was at an all-time high when even families had different views on juring and non-juring priest.[13] The difference in families was primarily seen when the women would attend masses that where held by those who had defied the oath and men attended mass that was provided by clergymembers who had taken the oath.[13] It is important to note that even though priests who had not taken the Oath had the right to use the churches many were not allowed to use the buildings (this was done by priest who had sworn their allegiance) this furthermore demonstrated the division in the state.[13] On 29 November 1791, the Legislative Assembly, which had replaced the National Constituent Assembly, decreed that refractory priests could only exacerbate factionalism and aggravate extremists in the constituent assembly. The November 29th decree declared that no refractory priest could invoke the rights in the Constitution of the Clergy and that all such priests were suspect and so to be arrested. Louis XVI vetoed this decree (as he also did with another text concerning the creation of an army of 20,000 men on the orders of the Assembly, precipitating the monarchy's fall), which was toughened and re-issued a year later. Anti-Catholic persecution by the State would intensify into de-Christianization and propagation of the Cult of Reason and the Cult of the Supreme Being in 1793–1794. During this time countless non-juring priests were interned in chains on prison ships in French harbors where most died within a few months from the appalling conditions.
Repeal of the Civil Constitution[edit]
See also: Concordat of 1801
After the Thermidorian Reaction, the Convention repealed the Civil Constitution of the Clergy; however, the schism between the civilly constituted French Church and the Papacy was only resolved when the Concordat of 1801 was agreed on. The Concordat was reached on July 15, 1801 and it was made widely known the following year, on Easter.[18][19] It was an agreement executed by Napoleon Bonaparte and clerical and papal representatives from Rome and Paris,[19] and determined the role and status of the Roman Catholic Church in France; moreover, it concluded the confiscations and church reforms that had been implemented over the course of the revolution.[19] The agreement also gave the first consul (Napoleon) the authority and right to nominate bishops, redistribute the current parishes and bishoprics, and allowed for seminaries to be established.[19] In an effort to please Pius VII it was agreed upon that suitable salaries would be provided for bishops and curés and he would condone the acquisition of church lands.
References[edit]
Cited[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g D., Popkin, Jeremy (2010-01-01). A short history of the French Revolution. Pearson Education. ISBN 0205693571. OCLC 780111354.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Text of the Legislation From J.H. Robinson, ed., The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 12 July 1790, Readings in European History, 2 vols. Boston: Ginn, 1906. Vol 2: pp. 423–427.
^ Jump up to: a b c d 1950-, Carnes, Mark C. (Mark Christopher),; 1952-, Kates, Gary,. Rousseau, Burke, and revolution in France, 1791. ISBN 9780393938883. OCLC 908192433.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Civil Constitution of the Clergy Outline". Wikipedia. 2017-03-13.
Jump up ^ R., Hanson, Paul (2007-01-01). The A to Z of the French Revolution. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 1461716063. OCLC 856869661.
Jump up ^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: French Revolution". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 2016-09-02.
Jump up ^ 1948-, McPhee, Peter, (2009-01-01). Living the French Revolution, 1789-1799. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0333997395. OCLC 465524553.
Jump up ^ 1945-, Tackett, Timothy,. Priest & parish in eighteenth-century France: a social and political study of the curés in a diocese of Dauphiné, 1750-1791. ISBN 1400857147. OCLC 889250730.
Jump up ^ "The French Revolution and the Catholic Church | History Today". www.historytoday.com. Retrieved 2017-02-06.
^ Jump up to: a b Catholic Encyclopedia
Jump up ^ Kagan et al. (2001), p. 643.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "CLERGY'S OATH TO THE CONSTITUTION". www.historyworld.net. Retrieved 2017-02-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m "The Subjugation of the Catholic Church: A Failed Attempt". www.ucumberlands.edu. Retrieved 2017-03-06.
^ Jump up to: a b 1950-, Carnes, Mark C. (Mark Christopher),; 1952-, Kates, Gary,. Rousseau, Burke, and revolution in France, 1791. ISBN 9780393938883. OCLC 908192433.
Jump up ^ Colin Jones, The Great Nation, 2002 (Penguin 2003 p. 444, ISBN 9780140130935)
Jump up ^ 1950-, Carnes, Mark C. (Mark Christopher),; 1952-, Kates, Gary,. Rousseau, Burke, and revolution in France, 1791. ISBN 9780393938883. OCLC 908192433.
Jump up ^ de Patris, B. Combes. Proces-verbaux des seances de la Societe Populaire de Rodez. Rodez, Carrere, 1912. p. 128
Jump up ^ "Civil Constitution of the Clergy | France". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-03-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Concordat of 1801 | French religious history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-03-06.
External links[edit]
Civil Constitution of the Clergy, complete text in English
Response of Pope Pius VI to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 13 April 1791.
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144 (number)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article may contain indiscriminate, excessive, or irrelevant examples. Please improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (May 2012)
← 143 144 145 →
← 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 →
List of numbers — Integers
← 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 →
Cardinal
one hundred forty-four
Ordinal
144th
(one hundred forty-fourth)
Factorization
24× 32
Divisors
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 16, 18, 24, 36, 48, 72, 144
Greek numeral
ΡΜΔ´
Roman numeral
CXLIV
Binary
100100002
Ternary
121003
Quaternary
21004
Quinary
10345
Senary
4006
Octal
2208
Duodecimal
10012
Hexadecimal
9016
Vigesimal
7420
Base 36
4036
144 (one hundred [and] forty-four) is the natural number following 143 and preceding 145. 144 is a dozen dozens, or one gross.
Contents
[hide]
1 In mathematics
2 In the military
3 In sports
4 In transportation
5 In other fields
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
In mathematics[edit]
144 is the twelfth Fibonacci number, and the largest one to also be a square,[1] as the square of 12 (which is also its index in the Fibonacci sequence), following 89 and preceding 233.
144 is the smallest number with exactly 15 divisors, but it is not highly composite since a smaller number 120 has 16 divisors.
144 is divisible by the value of its φ function, which returns 48 in this case. Also, there are 21 solutions to the equation φ(x) = 144, more than any integer below 144, making it a highly totient number.[2]
1445 = 275 + 845 + 1105 + 1335, the smallest number whose fifth power is a sum of four (smaller) fifth powers. This solution was found in 1966 by L. J. Lander and T. R. Parkin, and disproved Euler's sum of powers conjecture.
The maximum determinant in a 9 by 9 matrix of zeroes and ones is 144.
144 is in base 10 a sum-product number, as well as a Harshad number.[3] 144 is a repdigit in bases 15, 17, 23, 35, 47, 71, and 143. 144 is the sum of a twin prime pair (71 + 73)
In the military[edit]
USS Arch (AM-144) was a United States Navy Admirable-class minesweeper ship during World War II
USS Clinton (APA-144) was a United States Navy Haskell-class attack transport ship during World War II
USS Frost (DE-144) was a United States Navy Edsall-class destroyer escort during World War II
USS General H. F. Hodges (AP-144) was a United States Navy General G. O. Squier–class transport ship during World War II
USS Mississinewa (AO-144) was a United States Navy Neosho-class fleet oiler commissioned in 1955
USS Upshur (DD-144) was a United States Navy Wickes-class destroyer during World War I
USS Worcester (CL-144) was a United States Navy light cruiser following World War II
In sports[edit]
College Hoops Net (CHN)[4] annual ranking of the Top 144 NCAA college basketball teams in 144 days
Milt Stegall, a receiver of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers holds the CFL record with 144 touchdowns
Warren Moon had 144 career touchdown passes in the CFL
As of 2009 there are 144 teams in Major professional sports leagues of the United States and Canada
In transportation[edit]
144 Auto Class ferries are proposed additions to the Washington State Ferries fleet
London Buses route 144 is a Transport for London contracted bus route in London
Sydney bus route 144 was the first government-operated bus route in Sydney, Australia
STS-144 was a proposed, now cancelled, Space Shuttle Columbia mission for November 2009 to retrieve the Hubble Space Telescope
British Rail Class 144 "Pacer" diesel multiple diesels built in 1986
Tupolev Tu-144 was the first supersonic transport aircraft (SST), constructed under the direction of the Soviet Tupolev
In other fields[edit]
144 is also:
The number of months in 12 years
The year AD 144 or 144 BC
144 AH is a year in the Islamic calendar that corresponds to 761–762 AD.
144 Vibilia is a dark, large Main belt asteroid
The measurement, in cubits, of the wall of New Jerusalem shown by the seventh angel (Bible, Revelation 21:17)
The number of thousands (144000) of the chosen ones "from every tribe of the sons of Israel" who must be sealed before four angels release the winds (Bible, Revelation 7:3–4)
The Intel 8086 instruction for no operation (NOP)
The emergency phone number for animals in danger in the Netherlands.
The telephone number for directory assistance in Israel
The emergency telephone number for medical emergencies in Austria[5] and Switzerland.[6]
Psalm 144
Sonnet 144 by William Shakespeare
Rule 144A, of the U.S. Securities Act of 1933 deals with private resales of restricted securities
Form 144 (December 6, 2007), amends Rule 144 under the United States Securities Act of 1933 which regulates the resale of restricted securities and securities held by affiliates
Section 144 of Bangladesh Code of Criminal Procedure prohibits assembly of five or more persons, public meetings, and carrying firearms
The atomic number of unquadquadium, a temporary chemical element
1:144 scale is a scale used for some scale models
The number of square inches in a square foot
Mahjong is usually played with a set of 144 tiles.
144 (film), 2015 Indian Tamil film
See also[edit]
List of highways numbered 144
United Nations Security Council Resolution 144
United States Supreme Court cases, Volume 144
P.S. 144 Col. Jeromus Remsen School, Forest Hills, Queens, New York
144th Delaware General Assembly
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bryan Bunch, The Kingdom of Infinite Number. New York: W. H. Freeman & Company (2000): 165
Jump up ^ "Sloane's A097942 : Highly totient numbers". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
Jump up ^ "Sloane's A005349 : Niven (or Harshad) numbers". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
Jump up ^ College Hoops Net
Jump up ^ Porter, Darwin; Danforth Prince (2009). Frommer's Austria. Hoboken, New Jersey: Frommer's. p. 482. ISBN 978-0-470-39897-5.
Jump up ^ Erste Hilfe - Notfall Nummern
Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers. London: Penguin Group. (1987): 139–140.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 144 (number).
The Natural Number 144\
One Hundred Forty-Four Thousand: Who Are They? by Robert L. Thomas
Hand-me-down christening gown that's 144 years old
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