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2010–11 Queensland floods
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2010–2011 Queensland and New South Wales floods
A woman trapped on the roof of her car awaits rescue during the Toowoomba flash flood
Date
November 2010 – January 2011
Location
Much of central and southern Queensland including Brisbane, Rockhampton, Emerald, Bundaberg, Dalby, Toowoomba, Roma, and Ipswich
Deaths
38 dead and 6 missing (presumed dead)
Property damage
A$2.38 ($2,389,225,876) billion; 200,000 people were affected.[1]
A series of floods hit Queensland, Australia, beginning in November 2010. The floods forced the evacuation of thousands of people from towns and cities.[2] At least 90 towns and over 200,000 people were affected.[2] Damage initially was estimated at around A$1 billion[3] before it was raised to $2.38 billion.[1] The estimated reduction in Australia's GDP is about A$30 billion.[4] As at March 2012, there were 33 deaths attributed to the 2010–11 Queensland floods with a further three people still missing.[5]
Three-quarters of the council areas within the state of Queensland were declared disaster zones.[6] Communities along the Fitzroy and Burnett Rivers were particularly hard hit, while the Condamine, Ballone and Mary Rivers recorded substantial flooding. An unexpected flash flood caused by a thunderstorm raced through Toowoomba's central business district. Water from the same storm devastated communities in the Lockyer Valley. A few days later thousands of houses in Ipswich and Brisbane were inundated as the Brisbane River rose and Wivenhoe Dam used a considerable proportion of its flood mitigation capacity. Volunteers were quick to offer assistance, and sympathy was expressed from afar. A large mobilisation of the Australian Defence Force was activated and a relief fund created. The head of the recovery taskforce was Major General Michael Slater. The Queensland Reconstruction Authority (CEO was Graeme Newton) was formed to coordinate the rebuilding program beyond the initial task force, and a Commission of Inquiry was established to investigate all matters related to the floods.
The state's coal industry was particularly hard hit. The Queensland floods were followed by the 2011 Victorian floods which saw more than fifty communities in western and central Victoria also grapple with significant flooding.
Contents
1 Background
2 Extent
2.1 Fitzroy River basin
2.2 Burnett River basin
2.3 Condamine/Balonne River basin
2.4 Mary River basin
2.5 Toowoomba and the Lockyer Valley
2.6 Brisbane River catchment
2.7 Elsewhere
3 Deaths
4 Response
4.1 Public response
4.2 Reaction
4.3 Recovery
4.4 Aid efforts
4.5 Criticism
4.6 Inquiry
4.7 Mandatory disaster insurance
4.8 Legal action
5 Impacts
5.1 Economic
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Background[edit]
Brisbane experienced major flooding in 1893 and 1974 as the Brisbane River broke its bank and inundated low-lying areas. Towns including St George and Theodore had dealt with major flooding earlier in 1996. The floods were a result of heavy rainfall caused by Tropical Cyclone Tasha that combined with a trough during the peak of a La Niña Modoki event.[7] The 2010 La Niña Modoki weather pattern, which brings wetter conditions to eastern Australia, was the strongest since 1973.[8][9] This La Niña event caused a prolonged event of heavy rainfall over Queensland river catchments. Record or near to record sea surface temperatures were recorded off the Queensland coast in late 2010.[10] December 2010 was Queensland's wettest on record, with record-high rainfall totals set in 107 locations for the month.[11] The state's average rainfall level of 209.45 millimetres (8.25 in) exceeded the previous record of 200.1 millimetres (7.88 in) set in 1975.[12] 2010 was also recorded as the state's wettest spring since 1900[13] and the Australian continent's third-wettest year.[14] Climate scientist Kevin Trenberth thought climate change was a contributing factor in the unusually high precipitation rates.[15] He attributed a half-degree Celsius rise in ocean temperatures around Australia to global warming which produces extra water vapour and intensifies the monsoon. Other scientists say that it is too early to draw such a conclusion.[15][16] Assertions were also made by Professor Hubert Chanson, an expert in dam and reservoir engineering with extensive firsthand knowledge of the Wivenhoe system, that mismanagement of the Wivenhoe Dam might be a contributor to the some flooding in the lower Brisbane valley.[17] While an expert engineer, Michael O'Brien—a senior manager of an ASX-listed resources company and an outside consultant evaluating cause—agrees that "massive releases of water from Wivenhoe Dam on Tuesday, January 11, did indeed produce most of the flooding in the Brisbane River the following afternoon, with a peak in the early hours of Thursday morning, January 13. The dam's releases into the Brisbane River also caused the Bremer River, which winds through the city of Ipswich, and the Lockyer Creek to back up and cause much of the flooding outside Brisbane." This was corroborated by a panel of engineers hired by Insurance Council of Australia. O'Brien also found that the Wivenhoe Dam and Somerset Dam did not hold the maximum capacity they were capable of holding during the crisis period, which would have significantly alleviated flooding. Only one source, Neal Ashkanasy, who specialises in social and organisational psychology (and 35 years ago was involved in the design of Wivenhoe Dam), found fault with these results and instead finds that the dam was operated correctly throughout the time of the storm and the flood that followed, saying the "dam was run with outstanding precision."[18]
Isolated flooding started across parts of the state in early December. On 23 December a monsoonal trough crossed the coast from the Coral Sea, bringing torrential rain that fell in a broad swath from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Gold Coast. The widest range of intense rainfall occurred on 27 December with very high daily totals recorded on 25 December near where Cyclone Tasha crossed the coast.[10] By 30 December vast areas of Southern and Central Queensland were affected by the flood.[19] The conditions led to a large influx of snakes in the Rockhampton area, as well as some crocodiles.[20]
Extent[edit]
NASA image showing swollen rivers and cloud cover.
Flooding was widespread across Queensland and New South Wales from the end of December 2010 to January 2011 with several separate rain events causing rivers to rise over a lengthy period.[16] Many places, including Condamine and Chinchilla were inundated by flood waters on multiple occasions.[19] About 300 roads were closed, including nine major highways.[21]
During the flooding it was reported that more than three-quarters of Queensland was affected by flooding.[19][22]
Fitzroy River basin[edit]
Rockhampton seen from the air on 31 December; the Fitzroy River can be seen to have burst its banks
View of the swollen Fitzroy River, which surrounds the western half of Rockhampton
The flooding initially forced the evacuation of 1,000 people from Theodore and other towns, described as unprecedented by the acting chief officer of the Emergency Management Queensland.[23] The military transported residents by helicopter to an evacuation centre at Moura. The total evacuation of a Queensland town was a first for the state.[24] Major flooding at Theodore persisted for more than two weeks.[10]
Emerald was cut off by road on 29 December as the Nogoa River rose.[25] By the next day, the river surpassed the 2008 flood peak level of 15.36 metres (50.4 ft).[26] At the peak of the flooding, 80% of the town was flooded, the worst the town ever experienced.[27] Twelve hundred Emerald residents registered as evacuees.[28]
Rockhampton had nearly a week to prepare for an expected flood peak from the Fitzroy River, which courses through the centre of the city.[29] The airport was closed on 1 January.[30] A metal flood barrier was erected around the terminal to prevent flood-borne debris from causing damage to the structure. An evacuation centre was set up at the Central Queensland University.[28] The Bruce Highway leading south out of Rockhampton was closed to traffic. The river peaked at 9.2 metres (30 ft), just short of the predicted 9.4-metre (31 ft) maximum.[31]
The Port of Gladstone reduced its export capacity because the coal stockpiles at the port were saturated and further coal deliveries could not be made by rail.[32] The Goonyella railway line which serves a number of coal mines in the Bowen Basin was closed for one week and shipments of grain were also delayed.[33]
Burnett River basin[edit]
The swollen Burnett River at Gayndah, 350 kilometres (220 mi) north west of Brisbane
A flooded paddock in Warwick
The central Burnett towns of Gayndah and Mundubbera saw major flooding on 28–29 December. The Burnett River peaked at 18.25 metres (59.9 ft) at Mundubbera—the highest river height since 1942—inundating more than 20 houses. Downstream at Gayndah, the river peaked at 16.1 metres (53 ft) with floodwaters reaching two houses.[34] Both towns were isolated for several days and there was major disruption to the potable water supply and local agricultural production.[34][35]
Bundaberg experienced severe flooding, the worst in 40 years,[29] after the Burnett River flooded the city, although the Paradise Dam reservoir contributed to some flood mitigation.[16] This resulted in the evacuation of 300 homes.[29] The Bundaberg Port, a major sugar exporting facility, was closed late in December 2010 as flooding deposited silt in the port, forcing its closure. The port re-opened in early March 2011 after successful dredging operations allowed ships to berth.[36]
Condamine/Balonne River basin[edit]
Chinchilla and Jericho were also inundated.[25] At least 40 residents were evacuated from Chinchilla.[37]
Flooding in Dalby was the worst since 1981.[38] The town's water purification system was flooded, resulting in water restrictions that hampered clean-up efforts. 112,500 litres (24,700 imp gal; 29,700 US gal) of water were transported to the town of 14,000 residents.[39] Warwick was isolated when all roads into the town were cut off.[40]
The Condamine River reached 14.25 metres (46.8 ft) on 30 December, its highest level ever recorded.[41] Condamine was mandatorily evacuated on 30 December.[42]
A second rain event on 9–10 January saw floodwaters again threaten Chinchilla and Condamine with Chinchilla residents again asked to evacuate.[43]
The Macintyre River, which forms part of the border between the Australian states of New South Wales and Queensland, began to threaten the town of Goondiwindi on 13 January. While the town is protected by an 11-metre (36 ft) levee, the local hospital and aged care home were evacuated as a precaution and an evacuation centre was established.[44]
Mary River basin[edit]
Heavy rain in the Mary River catchment on 8–9 January 2011 led to flooding at Maryborough and Gympie. The Mary River at Maryborough was expected to initially peak at 8.5 metres (28 ft) at midday 9 January with some houses and businesses inundated by flood waters.
Toowoomba and the Lockyer Valley [edit]
Long and Mackenzie Streets in suburban Toowoomba flooded.
External video
Flooding at Helidon on 10 January
East Creek Toowoomba in flood
The city of Toowoomba, in the Darling Downs, was hit by flash flooding after more than 160 millimetres (6.3 in) of rain fell in 36 hours to 10 January 2011; this event caused four deaths in a matter of hours.[43][45][46] Cars were washed away (see video). Toowoomba sits on the watershed of the Great Dividing Range, some 700 metres (2,300 ft) above sea level. A three-week period where it had rained on all but three days had left the soil around Toowoomba super saturated and when a line of storms hit the city on 10 January, the resulting torrential rain rapidly ran off down gullies and streets. The central business district of the city sits in a small valley where two small water courses—East Creek and West Creek—meet to form Gowrie Creek. Unable to cope with the volume of water heading toward them, the creeks burst their banks, pushing a devastating wall of water through the city centre.[47] This water then headed west—not towards the Lockyer Valley which was also experiencing extreme rainfall that fell on eastern facing slopes.[48]
The surge associated with rainfall which fell on the eastern side of the range passed through the Lockyer Valley town of Withcott, where the force of the water pushed cars into shops and forced the evacuation of hundreds of people. The scene was described by an onlooker as "like Cyclone Tracy has gone through it ... If you dropped an atom bomb on it, you couldn't tell the difference."[49] Nearby Helidon had several homes and farms flooded but did not break the main creek bank and enter the town. It was cut off from all sides by destroyed roads. Grantham was also devastated by the surge of water. Houses were left crumpled by what Premier of Queensland Anna Bligh described as an "inland tsunami". According to local media, the flood waters had reached a height of 7 or 8 metres (23 or 26 ft) by the time it struck Grantham.[50] The peak discharge rate around Withcott and Grantham where Lockyer Creek is joined by Gatton Creek, was estimated to be 3,500 m³ second.[51] At least 100 people were evacuated to the Helidon Community Hall.[52] Nine people were confirmed dead, and many more feared dead among 66 reported missing.[53] The body of one victim washed away at Grantham was recovered 80 kilometres (50 mi) downstream and Queensland Police Commissioner Bob Atkinson warned that some bodies may never be found.[54] Nearby Gatton saw voluntary evacuations as the Lockyer Creek rose to a record height of 18.92 metres (62.1 ft), exceeding the previous record set in the 1893 Queensland floods.[43]
Three people from Grantham listed as missing were officially declared dead by the Coroner on 5 June 2012.[55]
Brisbane River catchment[edit]
Wheel of Brisbane during the floods.
This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates flooding in suburbs of the Brisbane metropolitan region.
Flooding began to affect low-lying areas of Brisbane on the morning of 11 January 2011. By around 2:30 p.m. AEST, the Brisbane River broke its banks leading to evacuations in the Brisbane CBD and the suburbs of Fortitude Valley and West End.[56][57] An evacuation centre was established for flood-affected residents at the RNA Showgrounds in Bowen Hills.[58] Residents of 2,100 Brisbane streets were advised to evacuate prior to the arrival of floods, which struck the city on 12 January. Lord Mayor Campbell Newman stated than an estimated 20,000 homes would be affected when the river peaked on 14 January.[59] He subsequently advised that the Brisbane River transport infrastructure had been "substantially destroyed".[60]
The Brisbane River peaked on 13 January at a lower level than predicted,[19][61] but still 20,000 houses in Brisbane were inundated. Some of the Brisbane suburbs worst affected by the floods were St Lucia, West End, Rocklea and Graceville.[62] The floods damaged some of Brisbane's icons. The Brisbane Riverwalk, a floating walkway over the Brisbane River linking the inner city neighbourhoods of Fortitude Valley and New Farm, broke up, with a section forming a 300-metre (980 ft) "floating missile" that threatened the Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges. The largest part of the floating boardwalk was safely guided under the bridge by a tugboat and past other infrastructure before being safely secured.[63] Brisbane's major Rugby league and Soccer (Association Football) venue, Suncorp Stadium, filled with water up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) deep, reaching the third or fourth row of seats.[64]
With the flood peaking at 4.46 metres (14.6 ft) in Brisbane City, the flood level was about the tenth-highest in the city's history, several metres below the 1890 flood and the two major floods in 1893.[61][65] Some unique field measurements about the peak of the floods showed very substantial sediment fluxes in the Brisbane River flood plains consistent with the murky appearance of floodwaters.[66][67] The field deployment showed also some unusual features of flood flow in an urban environment linked with some local topographic effects. Parts of the western suburbs of Brisbane were cut off for three days. Resident of suburbs including Bellbowrie, Karana Downs, Moggill and Pullenvale were running low on food and other items when Moggill Road was cut, until the Australian Army was able to reach the area on 15 January with supplies.[68]
The Bremer River at Ipswich, 30 kilometres (19 mi) west of Brisbane, reached a height of 19.4 metres (64 ft) on 12 January, inundating the central business district and at least 3,000 houses.[69] One third of the city was reported to be underwater and over 1,100 people took shelter at evacuation centres.[70] At Minden, on the border of Ipswich City, a four-year-old boy was swept away by floodwaters when he fell from a rescue boat.[71] A man in his fifties died when he accidentally drove into floodwaters in the Ipswich suburb of Wulkuraka.[72] The worst affected areas of Ipswich were the suburbs of Goodna and Gailes.[73] The flooding allowed bull sharks to reach the center of Goodna; one was spotted swimming in Williams Street, and a second in Queen Street.[74]
Further upstream, Hubners Bridge and Richards Bridge near Kilcoy were washed away.[75] Both bridges have been rebuilt and reopened in 2012.
Elsewhere[edit]
In South East Queensland, the Wivenhoe Dam filled to a level equivalent to 191% of its supply capacity on 11 January 2011.[16][76] Although the dam can hold the equivalent of 225% of its supply capacity, storage exceeding 100% is required to be progressively released through the floodgates to restore capacity to mitigate future flood events.[19][77][78] Brisbane experienced its wettest December since 1859.[32] Wyaralong Dam, near Beaudesert, had recently been completed and was praised[79] for mitigating flooding in downstream Logan, having exceeded 80% of its capacity.[80]
In North Queensland, the town of Ingham became isolated as the Herbert River peaked. Homes at Babinda and Gordonvale were flooded.[81]
Deaths[edit]
Flooding of a caravan park and motorway at Ipswich suburb of Gailes.
As of March 2012, 33 deaths have been attributed to the floods with a further 3 people still missing.[5]
The first death occurred on 30 November 2010, when a woman drowned in her vehicle near Dysart.[5][82] In the following weeks, five others died from similar circumstances.[83][84][85][86][87] Nine people drowned after being caught directly by the flowing waters.[45][88][89][90][91][92] and thirteen people died in other circumstances.[45][72][92][93][94][95][96][97]
Thirteen-year-old Jordan Lucas Rice died 10 January 2011 after insisting that his 10-year-old brother Blake be saved from the flood waters before him. He drowned along with his mother, 43-year-old Donna Maree Rice, both being residents of Toowoomba.[98] He has been called an Australian hero by the media[99][100][101] and in 2015 was post-humously awarded the Australian Bravery Medal for his sacrifice.[102]
Response[edit]
Public response[edit]
More than 55,000 volunteers registered to help clean up the streets of Brisbane,[103] with thousands more unregistered volunteers wandering the muddy streets with gumboots and mops.[104] Prime Minister Julia Gillard said the volunteering effort showed tremendous 'Aussie spirit' and that, "... right across Queensland today people have got up, they've marched out of their homes and they've gone to find people to help. It's a tremendous spirit of volunteering right across Queensland ...".[105]
Reaction[edit]
The impact on our friends in Queensland is something that New Zealanders feel very deeply, and we just want to make sure that we're in a position to offer them support across the range of services that we have here in New Zealand.
New Zealand Prime Minister John Key on the floods.[106]
Prime Minister of Australia Julia Gillard toured flood-affected areas on 31 December,[28] the day before The Queen (Elizabeth II), sent her expressions of concern and sympathy for the victims of the floods to her representative in Queensland, Governor Penelope Wensley.[107][108] The Queen later made a donation to her Queensland premier's flood relief appeal,[109] as did her son, The Prince of Wales.[110] In March 2011, The Prince's eldest son, Prince William, toured the affected areas in Queensland, as well as those damaged by the floods in Victoria.[111]
US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stated, "On behalf of President Obama and the people of the United States, I offer my condolences for the loss of life and damage in Queensland caused by the recent flooding."[112] US President Barack Obama said he was ready to help.[112]
John Key, the Prime Minister of New Zealand, held a telephone call with Gillard, during which she thanked New Zealand for its help. Len Brown, the Mayor of Auckland, a sister city of Brisbane, offered assistance to Brisbane Lord Mayor Campbell Newman.[113]
David Cameron, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom offered his sympathies. Downing Street stated: "The Prime Minister offered his deep sympathy on behalf of the British people for those who have died, those who have lost their homes and all those who have been affected by the floods in Queensland."[114]
Recovery[edit]
As we weep for what we have lost, and as we grieve for family and friends and we confront the challenge that is before us, I want us to remember who we are. We are Queenslanders. We're the people that they breed tough, north of the [New South Wales] border. We're the ones that they knock down, and we get up again. Together we can pull through this and that's what I'm determined to do, with your help, we can achieve it.
Premier of Queensland Anna Bligh.[115]
Major General Michael Slater was appointed head of a civilian recovery task force.[31] Slater was at the time also the Commander of the 1st Division based at the Gallipoli Barracks in Enoggera, Brisbane. The taskforce was later replaced by the Queensland Reconstruction Authority, a new body created to co-ordinate the rebuilding program.[116]
The Australian Defence Force's contribution to flood relief efforts was designated Operation Queensland Flood Assist. The ADF established Joint Task Force 637, based at Enoggera Barracks in Brisbane, for operational command on 1 January 2011.[117] According to the Australian Prime Minister the deployment was the largest for a natural disaster since Cyclone Tracy.[118]
About 35 State Emergency Service personnel from New South Wales and 20 personnel from Victoria were deployed to provide relief to exhausted staff and volunteers.[119] A national appeal was established on 29 December, with the state and federal governments giving A$1 million each.[41]
Small businesses and primary producers in 13 local government areas became eligible for grants of up to A$25,000 to pay for costs from damage incurred as a result of the floods.[120] National Disaster Relief and Recovery Arrangements were made available to a total of 31 local government areas across Queensland.[121]
New Zealand announced that the country would send two fifteen-member civil defence teams to assist in flood rescue efforts.[122] In addition to this, New Zealand sent a number of New Zealand Defence Force soldiers, mainly engineers, as well as New Zealand Police and New Zealand Fire Service firefighters.[106] A New Zealand Red Cross team was also dispatched.[123]
Aid efforts[edit]
On 9 January, the Flood Relief Appeal: Australia Unites telethon broadcast by the Nine Network from the Suncorp Piazza at South Bank Parklands, Brisbane raised more than A$10 million in pledged aid.[124] The South Bank area which includes the Wheel of Brisbane pictured above was itself inundated by flood waters only two days later.
At the first Twenty20 cricket match between Australia and England in Adelaide on 12 January, both teams donated part of their match fees to help the victims and A$28,450 was collected from people in attendance.[125]
On 16 January, the day before the 2011 Australian Tennis Open commenced, a number of players took part in the Rally for Relief which was held at Rod Laver Arena and attended by 15,000 people, which raised A$750,000.[126] The Seven Network televised the event. Players who took part included Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, Lleyton Hewitt, Novak Djokovic and Andy Roddick.[126]
On 27 January, the 2011 Legends of Origin charity match was contested between former New South Wales and Queensland Rugby League State of Origin players. Organised by Mark Geyer, the match raised $380,587 to go towards the recovery effort.[127]
On 13 January, Queensland Writers Centre, in partnership with Brisbane author Rebecca Sparrow, launched Writers on Rafts to raise funds for flood-affected writing communities.[128] Authors, bloggers, publishers, organisations, festivals, and industry professionals across Australia donated their books, professional skills, and expertise, to drive and promote a fundraiser, and local celebrities donated their time to attend the Ultimate Girly High Tea. Over the course of four months, they raised over $31,000. All funds raised went to the Queensland Premier's Disaster Relief Appeal.[129]
Criticism[edit]
On 11 January 2011, former deputy director of the New South Wales State Emergency Service Chas Keys stated that he was "appalled by the situation in Queensland at the moment. The large number of new houses that have been flooded proves that land management by the Queensland government is extremely poor and building is still going on in inappropriate areas." He contrasted the approach in Queensland with the practices developed in NSW after the 1955 Hunter Valley floods, that aimed to move homes out of dangerous areas and establish warning systems. Keys also stated the NSW practices were being undone by reduced funding and unsafe housing developments, giving the example of Maitland where "the council now wants to build hundreds of dwellings on the flood plain in and round the CBD". Keys also expressed concern over deforestation, stating that, "What we need is re-forestation."[130]
Inquiry[edit]
Ferries return to the Brisbane River on 14 February 2011.
On 17 January 2011, Queensland premier Anna Bligh announced a Commission of Inquiry into the 2010–11 Queensland floods.[131] The Commission's Terms of reference cover a wide array of related aspects and stipulate a final report would be due in one year.[132] On 1 August 2011 the Commission handed an interim report to Ms Bligh, and the final report containing 177 recommendations on 16 February 2012.[133]
Mandatory disaster insurance[edit]
In return for Senator Nick Xenophon's support of the Queensland Flood Levy, the Government will modify the Natural Disaster Relief and Recovery Arrangements and force the states to take up disaster insurance.[134]
Legal action[edit]
On 8 July 2014 legal firm Maurice Blackburn lodged a class action with the NSW Supreme Court on behalf of 4,000 flood victims. The legal action alleges negligence and nuisance against the operators of the dams: Seqwater, SunWater and the State of Queensland.[135]
Impacts[edit]
The severe rainfall across Queensland resulted in a drop in world sea level by as much as 7 mm.[136] The drop lasted for around 18 months and has been attributed to Australia's arheic and endorheic basins which soaked up the water previously evaporated from the oceans.
Economic[edit]
Queensland's raw coal production declined by more one third in late 2010 and was slow to recover
Queensland Treasurer Andrew Fraser said it was not possible to put a figure on the damage; "other than to say the damage bill is going to start with a b and not an m".[137][138] The floods will cost the Australian economy at least A$10 billion.[139] In figures released at the end of January 2011, the Insurance Council of Australia calculated that 38,460 individual claims were lodged with insurers which were worth A$1.51 billion.[140] Nearly half of those claims were for damage to homes and more than half were made by those living in Brisbane.
The price of food across Australia will go up.[141] The floods will cost supermarket chains tens of millions of dollars.[141] Some communities isolated by floodwaters experienced food shortages, and a rise in the cost of fruits and vegetables was reported shortly after.[42] Food supplies to northern Queensland were disrupted requiring groceries to be transported to Townsville by ship.[142]
Coal railway lines were closed and numerous mine sites flooded. According to an analysist at Macquarie Group almost all the available stockpiles of coking coal in Queensland were exhausted in late January 2011 due to reduced rail capacity.[143] About 15% of the state's annual output of coal production was lost and by late March 2011 recovery was progressing slowly.[144] Four months after the floods the Dalrymple Bay coal terminal was operating at half its capacity as the open-cut mines in the region continued to deal with de-watering issues.[145]
Swimming pool salt was in short supply as salt mines near Rockhampton were flooded.[146] Thousands of litres of milk had to be dumped because it couldn't be transported for processing.[147] The persistent wet conditions also caused health problems for livestock. There was severe damage to roadways in forestry plantations across wide areas of the south of the state.[148]
Prime Minister Julia Gillard announced that the government would impose a flood levy on people across Australia, to fund reconstruction works.[149]
See also[edit]
Queensland portal
1893 Brisbane flood
1974 Brisbane flood
Floods in Australia
List of disasters in Australia by death toll
March 2010 Queensland floods
2013 Queensland floods
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^ Jump up to: a b Fickling, David; Brindal, Ray (30 December 2010). "Rains Hit Australian Coal Mines". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 25 January 2011. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Worst over for Gayndah, Mundubbera". NineMSN. 29 December 2010. Archived from the original on 6 January 2011. Retrieved 4 January 2011.
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Jump up ^ "Devastated Toowoomba resembles 'ghost town'". 11 January 2010. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 11 January 2010.
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Jump up ^ "It's an Honour". www.dpmc.gov.au. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Salvation comes with brooms and gumboots". The Sydney Morning Herald. 16 January 2011. Archived from the original on 4 February 2011. Retrieved 18 January 2011.
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Jump up ^ Transcript of press conference, Grafton 15 Jan 2011 – Prime Minister of Australia Press Office Archived 29 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. – retrieved 13 December 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b TVNZ wire staff (13 January 2011). "Key: Economic impact of floods enormous". TVNZ. Television New Zealand. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Queen offers sympathies to flood-hit Qld". Sky News. Australian News Pty Ltd. 1 January 2011. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Message following the flooding in Queensland, Australia, 31 December 2010". The official website of The British Monarchy. The Royal Household. 31 December 2010. Archived from the original on 8 January 2011. Retrieved 4 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Queen makes private donation to aid Australian flood relief". Toronto Star. Associated Press. 12 January 2011. Retrieved 14 January 2011.
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Jump up ^ "Prince William to visit Australia". ABC. 8 March 2011. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Townsend, Samantha; Rehn, Alison; Jones, Gemma (5 January 2011). "Obama ready to step in as Queensland flood crisis deepens". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 5 January 2011.
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Jump up ^ "Boy, 13, sacrifices his life to save brother in raging Australian floods". Daily Mail. London. 12 January 2011. Archived from the original on 22 January 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Flood death toll rises as major search gets under way for the missing". Adelaide Advertiser. 13 January 2011. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
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Jump up ^ "Almost $30m raised in Qld flood appeal". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 10 January 2011. Archived from the original on 19 January 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Summerford, Matt (13 January 2011). "Match fees donation will help victims of Queensland floods". The Independent. London. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Quayle, Emma (17 January 2011). "Open hearts: rivals rally around to help raise funds for flood relief". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Legends Of Origin Match Home | NRL | Triple M Archived 14 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
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Jump up ^ "Australia: Flood management expert speaks to the World Socialist Web Site". World Socialist Web Site. International Committee of the Fourth International. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
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Jump up ^ "Queensland's flood inquiry: the terms of reference". Brisbane Times. 17 January 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Jodie van de Wetering (1 August 2011). "175 recommendations in interim flood report". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2 August 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Lauren (23 March 2011). "Gillard's flood and cyclone levy wins vote". The Australian.
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Jump up ^ Tim Radford (23 August 2013). "Australian floods of 2010 and 2011 caused global sea level to drop". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Rogow, Geoffrey (11 January 2011). "Australian Dollar Down Late As Flood Impact Increases". The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones Newswires. Archived from the original on 21 January 2011. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Lee, Jane; AAP (12 January 2011). "Queensland floods 'could wipe $13 billion off economic growth'". news.com.au. Retrieved 14 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Flood costs tipped to top $30b". ABC News Online. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 18 January 2011. Archived from the original on 19 January 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
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^ Jump up to: a b Michael Evans (25 January 2011). "Woolies slims a bullish forecast down to 5–8%". The Age. Melbourne. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Trenwith, Courtney (4 January 2011). "Hercules to the rescue". Brisbane Times. Archived from the original on 4 February 2011. Retrieved 4 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Matt Chambers (24 January 2011). "Coking coal prices to skyrocket as stockpiles dry up". The Australian. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Floods cut Australia's Queensland coal output 30 mln/t-council". Reuters Africa. 1 April 2011. Retrieved 1 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Queensland's Dalrymple Bay coal terminal runs at only 50% of capacity". Platts. 3 May 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Jessica Johnston (4 January 2011). "Coast salt supplies dry up after floods". goldcoast.com.au. News Limited. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Brad Markham (28 January 2011). "Floods hit farmers in the pocket". ABC Wide Bay. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Jo Skinner (24 January 2011). "Drivers warned to avoid flood-hit plantation roads". ABC News Online. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Levy, Megan (27 January 2011). "Levy to pay for $5.6b flood bill". Brisbane Times. Retrieved 27 January 2011.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 2010–2011 Queensland floods.
"Queensland Floods Commission of Inquiry Final Report" (PDF). March 2012.
Flooding in Australia and Flooding in Rockhampton, Queensland at NASA Earth Observatory
Flash flood death toll rises to 9
Brisbane City Council COP Situational Awareness Application, interactive map showing extent of flooding in Brisbane
Interactive map of pre and post flood aerial images along the Brisbane River
Dam operator blames inaccurate weather forecast for 2011 Brisbane flood
Interim report of Queensland Floods Commission of Enquiry, handed to Premier Bligh on 1 August 2011
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Floods in Australia
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1893 Brisbane
1900 Western Australia
1909 Western Victoria
1929 Tasmania
1947 Tasmania
1950 Australian rainfall records
1955 Hunter Valley
1956 Murray River
1971 Canberra
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1998 Katherine
1998 Townsville
Post-2000
2007 Hunter Region and Central Coast
2010 Queensland
2010 Victorian storms
2010 Victorian floods
2010 Gascoyne River
2010–11 Queensland
2011 Victoria
2011 Wollongong
2013 Eastern Australia
2018 Western Australia
Coordinates: 27°35′S 152°12′E / 27.583°S 152.200°E / -27.583; 152.200 (Grantham, Queensland)
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Carbon–carbon bond
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A carbon–carbon bond is a covalent bond between two carbon atoms.[1] The most common form is the single bond: a bond composed of two electrons, one from each of the two atoms. The carbon–carbon single bond is a sigma bond and is formed between one hybridized orbital from each of the carbon atoms. In ethane, the orbitals are sp3-hybridized orbitals, but single bonds formed between carbon atoms with other hybridisations do occur (e.g. sp2 to sp2). In fact, the carbon atoms in the single bond need not be of the same hybridisation. Carbon atoms can also form double bonds in compounds called alkenes or triple bonds in compounds called alkynes. A double bond is formed with an sp2-hybridized orbital and a p-orbital that isn't involved in the hybridization. A triple bond is formed with an sp-hybridized orbital and two p-orbitals from each atom. The use of the p-orbitals forms a pi bond.
Contents
[hide]
1 Chains and branching
2 Synthesis
3 Bond strengths
4 See also
5 References
Chains and branching[edit]
Carbon is one of the few elements that can form long chains of its own atoms, a property called catenation. This coupled with the strength of the carbon–carbon bond gives rise to an enormous number of molecular forms, many of which are important structural elements of life, so carbon compounds have their own field of study: organic chemistry.
2,2,3-trimethylpentane
Branching is also common in C−C skeletons. Different carbon atoms can be described by the number of carbon neighbors they each have:
Primary carbon: one carbon neighbor
Secondary carbon: two carbon neighbors
Tertiary carbon: three carbon neighbors
Quaternary carbon: four carbon neighbors
In "structurally complex organic molecules", it is the three-dimensional orientation of the carbon–carbon bonds at quaternary loci which dictates the shape of the molecule.[2] Further, quaternary loci are found in many biologically active small molecules, such as cortisone and morphine.[2]
Synthesis[edit]
Carbon–carbon bond-forming reactions are organic reactions in which a new carbon–carbon bond is formed. They are important in the production of many man-made chemicals such as pharmaceuticals and plastics.
Some examples of reactions which form carbon–carbon bonds are aldol reactions, Diels–Alder reaction, the addition of a Grignard reagent to a carbonyl group, a Heck reaction, a Michael reaction and a Wittig reaction.
The directed synthesis of desired three-dimensional structures for tertiary carbons was largely solved during the late 20th century, but the same ability to direct quaternary carbon synthesis did not start to emerge until the first decade of the 21st century.[2]
Bond strengths[edit]
Relative to most bonds, a carbon–carbon bond is very strong.[3]
C–C bond
Molecule
Bond dissociation energy (kcal/mol)
CH3−CH3 ethane 90
C6H5−CH3 toluene 102
C6H5−C6H5 biphenyl 114
CH3C(O)−CH3 acetone 84
CH3−CN acetonitrile 136
CH3−CH2OH ethanol 88
See also[edit]
An extensive list is presented here: list of carbon–carbon bond-forming reactions
The chemistry of carbon bonded to other elements in the periodic table:
[show]Compounds of carbon with other elements in the periodic table
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CH He
CLi CBe CB CC CN CO CF Ne
CNa CMg CAl CSi CP CS CCl CAr
CK CCa CSc CTi CV CCr CMn CFe CCo CNi CCu CZn CGa CGe CAs CSe CBr CKr
CRb CSr CY CZr CNb CMo CTc CRu CRh CPd CAg CCd CIn CSn CSb CTe CI CXe
CCs CBa CHf CTa CW CRe COs CIr CPt CAu CHg CTl CPb CBi CPo CAt Rn
Fr CRa Rf Db CSg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
↓
CLa CCe CPr CNd CPm CSm CEu CGd CTb CDy CHo CEr CTm CYb CLu
Ac CTh CPa CU CNp CPu CAm CCm CBk CCf CEs Fm Md No Lr
Chemical bonds to carbon
Core organic chemistry Many uses in chemistry
Academic research, but no widespread use Bond unknown
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Dembicki, Harry (2016-10-06). Practical Petroleum Geochemistry for Exploration and Production. Elsevier. p. 7. ISBN 9780128033517.
^ Jump up to: a b c Quasdorf, Kyle W.; Overman, Larry E. "Review: Catalytic enantioselective synthesis of quaternary carbon stereocentres". Nature (paper): 181–191. Bibcode:2014Natur.516..181Q. doi:10.1038/nature14007.
Jump up ^ Yu-Ran Luo and Jin-Pei Cheng "Bond Dissociation Energies" in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 96th Edition.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon–carbon_bond&oldid=808883508"
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Chemical bonding
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