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Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution
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The Twenty-second Amendment (Amendment XXII) of the United States Constitution limits the number of times one can be elected to the office of President of the United States. Congress proposed the amendment by two-thirds of both the House and Senate on March 21, 1947. Ratification by the requisite 36 of the then-48 states was completed on February 27, 1951.
Contents
[hide]
1 Text
2 History
3 Proposal and ratification
4 Attempts at repeal
5 Interaction with the Twelfth Amendment
6 Affected individuals
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Text[edit]
Section 1. No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once. But this article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this article was proposed by the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term.
Section 2. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states within seven years from the date of its submission to the states by the Congress.
History[edit]
Ulysses S. Grant narrowly lost his party's nomination, and chance for a third term in 1880.
Woodrow Wilson, pictured in 1923, deadlocked the Democratic convention in 1920, but was not nominated. He wished to run again in 1924, but lacked support and died before the convention.
Although the Twenty-second Amendment was clearly a reaction to Franklin D. Roosevelt's service as President for an unprecedented four terms, the notion of presidential term limits has long-standing roots in American politics. The Constitutional Convention of 1787 considered the issue extensively, although it ultimately declined to restrict the amount of time a person could serve as president. But following George Washington's decision to retire after his second elected term, numerous public figures subsequently argued he had established a "two-term tradition" that served as a vital check against any one person, or the presidency as a whole, accumulating too much power.[1]
In his Farewell Address, written near the end of his second term, Washington both reveals he considered not standing for reelection in 1792,[Note 1] and that his decision not to seek a third term in 1796 was due to age, not intention to set precedent. Eleven years later, Thomas Jefferson further contributed to the convention of a voluntary two-term limit when he wrote in 1807, "if some termination to the services of the chief Magistrate be not fixed by the Constitution, or supplied by practice, his office, nominally four years, will in fact become for life."[2] Three of the next four presidents after Jefferson—James Madison, James Monroe, and Andrew Jackson—served two terms, and each one adhered to the two-term principle.
In spite of the strong two-term tradition, a few presidents prior to Franklin Roosevelt did attempt to secure a third term. Ulysses S. Grant, after having served as president from 1869 to 1877, sought nomination for another term at the 1880 Republican National Convention, but narrowly lost to James Garfield, who would go on to win the 1880 election. Given the Republican Party's dominance during that period, had Grant been nominated, he might well have won a third term.
Theodore Roosevelt succeeded to the presidency on September 14, 1901, following William McKinley's assassination (194 days into his second term), and was subsequently elected to a full term in 1904. While he declined to seek a third (second full) term in 1908, Roosevelt did seek one four years later, in the election of 1912, where he lost to Woodrow Wilson. Wilson himself sought nomination to a third term in 1920, at the Democratic National Convention;[3] he deliberately blocked the nomination of the former Secretary of the Treasury, his son-in-law William Gibbs McAdoo, the front-runner. Although seriously ill at the time, Wilson anticipated that the party would side with their sitting president were the convention deadlocked. Wilson was too unpopular even within his own party at the time, and James M. Cox was nominated. He would again contemplate running for a nonconsecutive third term in 1924, devising a strategy for his comeback, but again lacked any support and died at the beginning of the year.[4]
Franklin D. Roosevelt, pictured in August 1944, was elected to both a third and fourth term, the only president to serve more than eight years.
Franklin D. Roosevelt spent the months leading up to the 1940 Democratic National Convention refusing to state whether he would seek a third term. His Vice President, John Nance Garner, along with Postmaster General James Farley, announced their candidacies for the Democratic nomination. When the convention came, Roosevelt sent a message to the convention, saying he would run only if drafted, saying delegates were free to vote for whomever they pleased. The delegates issued 946 votes for Roosevelt, 72 for Farley, and 61 for Garner; they replaced Garner with Henry A. Wallace as the vice presidential nominee, and Farley resigned as postmaster general. In the 1940 general election, while Republican Wendell Willkie received six million more votes than the previous Republican candidate (Alfred Landon) had in 1936, Roosevelt still won decisively, taking 38 of 48 states. His supporters cited impending war as a reason for breaking with precedent, while Willkie had run against the principle of a third term. Roosevelt was the first president elected to a third term, and remains the only one to exceed eight years in office.
Four years later, in the election of 1944, Roosevelt defeated New York governor Thomas E. Dewey to win an unprecedented fourth term. While he effectively quelled rumors of his poor health during the campaign, Roosevelt's health was in reality deteriorating. On April 12, 1945, only 82 days after his fourth inauguration, he suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and died.
Near the end of the 1944 campaign, Thomas Dewey announced support of an amendment that would limit future presidents to two terms. According to Dewey, "four terms, or sixteen years (which is what Roosevelt would have served had he lived until 1949), is the most dangerous threat to our freedom ever proposed."[5] The Republican-controlled 80th Congress approved a Joint resolution "proposing an amendment to the Constitution relating to the terms of office of the president". in March 1947;[6] it was signed by Speaker of the House Joseph W. Martin and acting President pro tempore of the Senate William F. Knowland.[7] The ratification process for the 22nd Amendment was completed on February 27, 1951, 7003143900000000000♠3 years, 343 days after it was sent to the states. The new amendment's 2-term limit did not apply (due to the grandfather clause in Section 1) to the incumbent president, Harry S. Truman. He remained eligible for election to more than two terms.[6]
On November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated while riding through Dealey Plaza in downtown Dallas, Texas. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, who was also in the motorcade, three cars back, was unhurt. Upon Kennedy's death, Johnson became the nation's 36th president, and served out the remaining 7002425000000000000♠1 year, 59 days of Kennedy's term. Under the terms of the 22nd Amendment, Johnson, who ran for and won a full four–year term in 1964 was eligible to run for another full term in 1968 (as he had served less than two years of Kennedy's term). He chose not to do so, announcing his intentions in a March 31, 1968, speech to the nation, saying, "I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your president."[8] Had he done so and won, and served the full term (through January 20, 1973), the total length of his presidency would have been 7003334700000000000♠9 years, 59 days.
Proposal and ratification[edit]
Congress proposed the Twenty-second Amendment on March 21, 1947.[9] The proposed amendment was adopted on February 27, 1951.
Amendment XXII in the National Archives
The following states ratified the amendment:
Maine (March 31, 1947)
Michigan (March 31, 1947)
Iowa (April 1, 1947)
Kansas (April 1, 1947)
New Hampshire (April 1, 1947)
Delaware (April 2, 1947)
Illinois (April 3, 1947)
Oregon (April 3, 1947)
Colorado (April 12, 1947)
California (April 15, 1947)
New Jersey (April 15, 1947)
Vermont (April 15, 1947)
Ohio (April 16, 1947)
Wisconsin (April 16, 1947)
Pennsylvania (April 29, 1947)
Connecticut (May 21, 1947)
Missouri (May 22, 1947)
Nebraska (May 23, 1947)
Virginia (January 28, 1948)
Mississippi (February 12, 1948)
New York (March 9, 1948)
South Dakota (January 21, 1949)
North Dakota (February 25, 1949)
Louisiana (May 17, 1950)
Montana (January 25, 1951)
Indiana (January 29, 1951)
Idaho (January 30, 1951)
New Mexico (February 12, 1951)
Wyoming (February 12, 1951)
Arkansas (February 15, 1951)
Georgia (February 17, 1951)
Tennessee (February 20, 1951)
Texas (February 22, 1951)
Nevada (February 26, 1951)
Utah (February 26, 1951)
Minnesota (February 27, 1951)
Ratification was completed on February 27, 1951. The amendment was subsequently ratified by the following states:
North Carolina (February 28, 1951)
South Carolina (March 13, 1951)
Maryland (March 14, 1951)
Florida (April 16, 1951)
Alabama (May 4, 1951)
In addition, the following states voted to reject the amendment:
Oklahoma (June 1947)
Massachusetts (June 9, 1949)
The following states took no action to consider the amendment:
Arizona
Kentucky
Rhode Island
Washington
West Virginia
(Neither Alaska nor Hawaii had yet been admitted as states at the time.)
Attempts at repeal[edit]
According to historian Glenn W. LaFantasie of Western Kentucky University (who was opposed to repealing the amendment), "ever since 1985, when Ronald Reagan was serving in his second term as president, there have been repeated attempts to repeal the Twenty-second Amendment to the Constitution, which limits each president to two terms."[10] In early 1989, during an exit interview with Tom Brokaw of NBC, President Reagan stated his intention to fight for the amendment's repeal.[11] However, after being diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 1994, his post-presidential ambitions had to be scrapped.
In addition, several congressmen, including Democrats Rep. Barney Frank, Rep. José E. Serrano,[12] Rep. Howard Berman, and Sen. Harry Reid,[13] and Republicans Rep. Guy Vander Jagt,[14] Rep. David Dreier[15] and Sen. Mitch McConnell[16] have introduced legislation to repeal the Twenty-second Amendment, but each resolution died before making it out of its respective committee. Other alterations have been proposed, including replacing the absolute two term limit with a limit of no more than two consecutive terms and giving Congress the power to grant an exemption to a current or former president by way of a supermajority vote in both houses.[citation needed]
On January 4, 2013, Rep. José E. Serrano again introduced a resolution proposing an Amendment to repeal the Twenty-second Amendment, as he had done every two years since 1997; he did not do so during the 114th Congress.[17][18]
Interaction with the Twelfth Amendment[edit]
There is a point of contention regarding the interpretation of the Twenty-second Amendment as it relates to the Twelfth Amendment, ratified in 1804, which provides that "no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United States".
While it is clear that under the Twelfth Amendment the original constitutional qualifications of age, citizenship, and residency apply to both the President and Vice President, it is unclear whether a two-term president could later serve as Vice President. Some argue that the Twenty-second Amendment and Twelfth Amendment bar any two-term president from later serving as Vice President as well as from succeeding to the presidency from any point in the United States presidential line of succession.[19] Others contend that the Twelfth Amendment concerns qualification for service, while the Twenty-second Amendment concerns qualifications for election, and thus a former two-term president is still eligible to serve as vice president.[20][21] The practical applicability of this distinction has not been tested, as no former president has ever sought the vice presidency, although in 1980, former president Gerald Ford was mentioned as a possible running mate for Republican presidential nominee Ronald Reagan and there were some negotiations between the two camps. Nothing ever became of the idea,[22] and had Ford been selected, he would have still been eligible for election as President, as he had only served less than one full term in finishing out Richard Nixon's second term. During Hillary Clinton's 2016 candidacy, she jokingly said that she had considered naming Bill Clinton as her Vice President, but had been advised it would be unconstitutional.[23] Others contend that a "termed out" President would be eligible to ascend to the Presidency via Presidential succession rules given the text's explicit reference to election.[24]

The Constitution does not restrict the number of terms a person can serve as Vice President.[25]
Affected individuals[edit]
The amendment explicitly did not apply to the sitting president (Harry S. Truman) at the time it was proposed by Congress. Truman, who had served nearly all of Franklin D. Roosevelt's unexpired fourth term and who had been elected to a full term in 1948, was thus eligible to seek re-election in 1952. However, after poor performance in the 1952 New Hampshire primary, Truman chose not to seek his party's nomination. He theoretically also would have been eligible in later elections.
Since the amendment's ratification, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Richard M. Nixon, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama have been elected president twice. The same party has won the presidency in three consecutive elections only once since World War II, when Republican George H. W. Bush won in 1988 after two terms as Vice President with Republican Ronald Reagan. In all other cases, the opposing party's candidate has won after two terms with a single party: Dwight D. Eisenhower (R) in 1952, John F. Kennedy (D) in 1960, Richard Nixon (R) in 1968, Jimmy Carter (D) in 1976, Bill Clinton (D) in 1992, George W. Bush (R) in 2000, Barack Obama (D) in 2008, and Donald Trump (R) in 2016. The only president who took office after the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment and who could have served more than eight years was Lyndon B. Johnson.[26][27] He became President in 1963 when John F. Kennedy was assassinated, served the final 14 months (less than two years) of Kennedy's term, was elected president in 1964, and ran briefly for re-election in 1968 but chose to withdraw from the race. Gerald Ford became president on August 9, 1974, and served the final 29 months (more than two years) of Richard Nixon's unexpired term. Ford, who lost to Jimmy Carter in 1976, would have been eligible to be elected in his own right only once. Since Ford's death in 2006, the only former presidents who remain technically eligible to seek another term are Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush, who each served a single term decades ago; both are now nonagenarians and neither have announced any plans to ever run again.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ See George Washington's Farewell Address, ¶ 3. Washington considered not seeking re-election, but chose to run again on the basis of international crises and the advice of his counsel.
References[edit]
Constitution of the United States.
Peabody, Bruce G.; Gant, Scott E. (February 1999). "The Twice and Future President: Constitutional Interstices and the Twenty-Second Amendment". Minnesota Law Review. 83 (3): 565–635. Archived from the original on January 15, 2013. Retrieved June 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Peabody, Bruce. "Presidential Term Limit". The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Thomas Jefferson: Reply to the Legislature of Vermont, 1807. ME 16:293
Jump up ^ Pietrusza, David (2007). The Year of the Six Presidents. New York: Carroll and Graf.
Jump up ^ Saunders, Robert M. (1998). In Search of Woodrow Wilson: Beliefs and Behavior. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313305207.
Jump up ^ David M. Jordan, FDR, Dewey, and the Election of 1944 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011, p. 290) ISBN 978-0-253-35683-3
^ Jump up to: a b "FDR's third-term decision and the 22nd amendment". National Constitution Center. Retrieved June 29, 2014.
Jump up ^ "22nd Amendment". Stanley L. Klos. Retrieved June 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ "The 1968 Exhibit: LBJ's "I shall not seek, and I will not accept" televised speech, March 31, 1968". 1968 Blog. Minnesota Historical Society. Retrieved January 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mount, Steve (January 2007). "Ratification of Constitutional Amendments". Retrieved May 9, 2012.
Jump up ^ LaFantasie, Glenn (March 20, 2011) The erosion of the Civil War consensus, Salon
Jump up ^ "President Reagan Says He Will Fight to Repeal 22nd Amendment". archives.nbclearn.com. Retrieved June 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ H.J.Res. 5.Introduced January 6, 2009.
Jump up ^ S.J.Res. 36. Sponsored by Harry Reid. January 31, 1989.
Jump up ^ H.J.Res. 61
Jump up ^ H.J.Res. 51
Jump up ^ S.J.Res. 23
Jump up ^ "Proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to repeal the twenty-second article of amendment, thereby removing the limitation on the number of terms an individual may serve as President. (2013; 113th Congress H.J.Res. 15) - GovTrack.us". GovTrack.us.
Jump up ^ "Jose E. Serrano | Congress.gov | Library of Congress". www.congress.gov. Retrieved June 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ Matthew J. Franck (July 31, 2007). "Constitutional Sleight of Hand". National Review. Archived from the original on June 13, 2008. Retrieved June 12, 2008.
Jump up ^ Michael C. Dorf (August 2, 2000). "Why the Constitution permits a Gore-Clinton ticket". CNN Interactive. Archived from the original on October 1, 2005.
Jump up ^ Scott E. Gant; Bruce G. Peabody (June 13, 2006). "How to bring back Bill". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved June 12, 2008.
Jump up ^ Burr, Richard (April 7, 2017). "1980 convention launched 'Reagan Revolution'". The Detroit News. Retrieved May 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ 1339 GMT (2039 HKT) September 15, 2015 (September 15, 2015). "Hillary Clinton: Bill as VP has 'crossed her mind' - CNNPolitics.com". Edition.cnn.com. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The 22nd Amendment Doesn't Say What You Think It Says". Cornerstone Law Firm, LLC. Retrieved November 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Who were FDR's Vice Presidents?". Docs.fdrlibrary.marist.edu. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Johnson Can Seek Two Full Terms". The Washington Post. November 24, 1963. p. A2.
Jump up ^ Moore, William (November 24, 1963). "Law Permits 2 Full Terms for Johnson". The Chicago Tribune. p. 7.
External links[edit]
H.J.RES.5—2009 bill introduced in Congress proposing to repeal the Twenty-second Amendment. There have been many similar proposals introduced in previous Congresses, none of which has been acted on.
CRS Annotated Constitution: Twenty-second Amendment
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Padma Shri
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Padma Shri
Awarded by

Government of India
Country
India
Type
National Civilian
Ribbon
Statistics
Established
1954
First awarded
1954
Last awarded
2018
Total awarded
2840
Precedence
Next (higher)
Padma Bhushan & Kirti Chakra[1]
Next (lower)
Sarvottam Jeevan Raksha Padak[1]
Padmasree award certificate
Padma Shri (also Padma Shree) is the fourth highest civilian award in the Republic of India, after the Bharat Ratna, the Padma Vibhushan and the Padma Bhushan. Awarded by the Government of India, it is announced every year on India's Republic Day.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Refusals and controversies
3 Awards by decade
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Padma Awards were instituted in 1954 to be awarded to citizens of India in recognition of their distinguished contribution in various spheres of activity including the Arts, Education, Industry, Literature, Science, Sports, Medicine, Social Service and Public Affairs. It has also been awarded to some distinguished individuals who were not citizens of India but did contribute in various ways to India.
The selection criteria have been criticized in some quarters with the claim that many highly deserving artists have been left out in order to favor certain individuals.[3][4]India has now created an online nomination platform for the common citizens to recommend the nomination for the annually given civilian "Padma" awards.[5]
On its obverse, the words "Padma", meaning lotus in Sanskrit, and "Shri", a Sanskrit-derived honorific equivalent to 'Mr.' or 'Ms.' (ie., "Noble One in Blossom"), appear in Devanagari above and below a lotus flower. The geometrical pattern on either side is in burnished bronze. All embossing is in white gold.
As of 2017[update], 2840 people have received the award.[6]
Refusals and controversies[edit]
See also: List of people who have declined or renounced Indian honours and decorations
Several intended recipients, including sitar player Vilayat Khan,[7] academic and author Mamoni Raisom Goswami[8], journalist Kanak Sen Deka[9] and noted Bollywood screenwriter Salim Khan, have declined the Padma Shri for various reasons.[10] Some intended recipients, such as environmental activist Sunderlal Bahuguna[11] and English billiards champion Michael Ferreira,[9] have refused the honour but have subsequently accepted a more prestigious one such as the Padma Bhushan or Padma Vibhushan. Other individuals, such as author Phanishwar Nath 'Renu',[12] Punjabi author Dalip Kaur Tiwana[13] and noted poet Jayanta Mahapatra,[14] have returned the honour after initially accepting it.
Awards by decade[edit]
List of Padma Shri award recipients (1954–1959)
List of Padma Shri award recipients (1960–1969)
List of Padma Shri award recipients (1970–1979)
List of Padma Shri award recipients (1980–1989)
List of Padma Shri award recipients (1990–1999)
List of Padma Shri award recipients (2000–2009)
List of Padma Shri award recipients (2010–2019)
See also[edit]
List of recipients of the Padma Shri in sports
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Precedence Of Medals". Website. Indian Army. Retrieved 9 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Padma award's schema" (PDF). Ministry of Home Affairs. Retrieved 2014-08-13.
Jump up ^ "Padma's Easy Slim Zone | Vrinda Gopinath". Outlookindia.com. Retrieved 2013-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Advani backs Merchant on Padma awards selection criticism". The Times of India. 3 February 2010. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Padma Awards Online Nomination". https://www.padmaawards.gov.in/. External link in |website= (help)
Jump up ^ "Previous awardees". Ministry of Home Affairs. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Kaminsky, Arnold P.; Long, Roger D. (2011). India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic. ABC-CLIO. p. 411. ISBN 978-0-313-37462-3. Archived from the original on 21 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Artistes' angst". The Hindu. 19 January 2003. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Refusal question mark on awards". The Telegraph - India. 28 January 2005. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Salim Khan declines to receive Padma Shri". The Indian Express. 27 January 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Noted activist Sunderlal Bahuguna turns 90". The Pioneer. 10 January 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Punjabi writer Tiwana to return Padma Shri". The Tribune. 14 October 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Jayanta Mahapatra returns Padma Shri protesting 'intolerance'". The Hindustan Times. 23 November 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Padma Shri.
India portal
Official website
"Awards & Medals". Ministry of Home Affairs (India). 14 September 2015. Archived from the original on 7 October 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
"MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS (Public Section) Padma Awards Directory (1954-2017)" (PDF). Ministry of Home Affairs. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-06-16.
show
v
t
e
Padma Shri awards
1954–1959
1960–1969
1970–1979
1980–1989
1990–1999
2000–2009
2010–2019
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t
e
Indian honours and decorations
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Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize
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Mention in Dispatches
Commendation Card
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Padma_Shri&oldid=849459894"
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text:
Team Role Inventories
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The Belbin Team Inventory is a behavioural test, also called the Belbin Self-Perception Inventory, Belbin Team Role Inventory, BSPI or BTRI. It was devised by Meredith Belbin to measure preference for nine Team Roles; he had identified eight of those whilst studying numerous teams at Henley Management College.
The Inventory assesses how an individual behaves in a team environment. The assessment includes 360-degree feedback from observers as well as the individual's own evaluation of their behaviour, and contrasts how they see their behaviour with how their colleagues do.
Belbin himself asserts that the Team Roles are not equivalent to personality types, and that unlike the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which is a psychometric instrument used to sort people into one of 16 personality types, the Belbin Inventory scores people on how strongly they express behavioural traits from nine different Team Roles. A person may and often does exhibit strong tendencies towards multiple roles.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Application and use
3 Belbin Team Roles
3.1 Plant
3.2 Resource Investigator
3.3 Co-ordinator
3.4 Shaper
3.5 Monitor Evaluator
3.6 Teamworker
3.7 Implementer
3.8 Completer Finisher
3.9 Specialist
4 Validity and reliability
5 Educational applications
6 Other team role inventories
6.1 Team Management Systems (TMS)
6.2 Star Roles Model
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
Belbin first began studying teams at Henley Management College in the 1970s. Over a period of ten years, he carried out extended observational research to determine which factors influenced team failure or success. A management game was designed to reproduce work life. It contained all the principal variables that typify the problems of decision-making in a business environment. The experiment was designed along scientific lines with careful measurement at each stage.
Those participating were invited to take a battery of psychometric tests and teams were assembled on the basis of test scores. At first, Belbin hypothesised that high-intellect teams would succeed where lower-intellect teams would not. However, the outcome of this research was that certain teams, predicted to be excellent based on intellect, failed to fulfil their potential. In fact, it became apparent by looking at the various combinations that it was not intellect, but balance, which enabled a team to succeed. The most successful companies tended to be those with a mix of different people, i.e. those with a range of different behaviours. In fact, nine separate clusters of behaviour turned out to be distinctive and useful, with the balance required dependent on the purpose and objectives of the team.
Application and use[edit]
The Belbin Team Inventory first appeared in Belbin's book Management Teams: Why They Succeed or Fail (1981).[1] The inventory is protected by Belbin's copyright and cannot be reproduced in any form. Additionally, it is not normed, lacks the Specialist role and the benefit of feedback from colleagues, and does not offer Team Role feedback. Much early research is based upon this now obsolete version of the inventory.
In the initial research, eight team-role behavioural styles were identified -- Chairman, Shaper, Plant, Monitor-Evaluator, Company Worker, Resource Investigator, Team Worker, and Completer-Finisher. The current schema has been refined to include a ninth style -- Specialist -- and in addition has renamed the Chairman behavioural style Co-ordinator and the Company Worker style Implementer (probably more for reasons of 'political correctness' rather than any identified changes in behaviour of people in these classifications).
Belbin now administers the refined Belbin Team Inventory via e-interplace, a computerised system which scores and norms the data to produce feedback reports for individuals, teams, groups and jobs. Meredith Belbin argues that the optimum size for a team is 4 people.[2] Beyond this number, individuals do not work closely enough together to constitute a team and are defined as a group.[2]
Data from the Belbin Team Inventory can also be amalgamated and interpreted to assess how effectively a team is likely to work together, including selecting the best candidate to fulfil each role, and identifying gaps and overlaps in the Team Role distribution which might affect a team's success. The Belbin Team Inventory can also be used in conjunction with the Belbin Job Requirements Inventory to assess a candidate's behavioural performance in a particular job.
Belbin Team Roles[edit]
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Plant[edit]
Plants are creative, unorthodox and generators of ideas. If an innovative solution to a problem is needed, a Plant is a good person to ask. A good Plant will be bright and free-thinking. Plants can tend to ignore incidentals. The Plant might be caricatured as the absent-minded professor/inventor, and often has a hard time communicating ideas to others. Multiple Plants in a team can lead to misunderstandings, as many ideas are generated without sufficient discernment or the impetus to follow the ideas through to action. Plants can also create problems with the timing of their ideas. The fact that the team has decided on a valid way forward and is now in the implementation stage will not stop the Plant from coming up with new solutions and disrupting the implementation process.[3]
Resource Investigator[edit]
The Resource Investigator gives a team a rush of enthusiasm at the start of the project by vigorously pursuing contacts and opportunities. He or she is focused outside the team, and has a finger firmly on the pulse of the outside world. Where a Plant creates new ideas, a Resource Investigator will quite happily appropriate them from other companies or people. A good Resource Investigator is a maker of possibilities and an excellent networker, but has a tendency to lose momentum towards the end of a project and to forget to follow things up.[3]
Co-ordinator[edit]
A Co-ordinator is a likely candidate for the chairperson of a team, since they have a talent for stepping back to see the big picture. Co-ordinators are confident, stable and mature and because they recognise abilities in others, they are very good at delegating tasks to the right person for the job. The Co-ordinator clarifies decisions, helping everyone else focus on their tasks. Co-ordinators are sometimes perceived to be manipulative and will tend to delegate all work, leaving nothing but the delegating for them to do.[3]
Shaper[edit]
The Shaper is a task-focused individual who pursues objectives with vigour and who is driven by tremendous energy and the need to achieve. For the Shaper, winning is the name of the game. The Shaper provides the necessary drive to ensure that the team is kept moving and does not lose focus or momentum. Shapers are people who challenge the team to improve. They are dynamic and usually extraverted people who enjoy stimulating others, questioning norms, and finding the best approaches for solving problems. The Shaper is the one who shakes things up to make sure that all possibilities are considered and that the team does not become complacent. Shapers could risk becoming aggressive and bad-humoured in their attempts to get things done. Shapers often see obstacles as exciting challenges and they tend to have the courage to push on when others feel like quitting.[3]
Monitor Evaluator[edit]
Monitor Evaluators are fair and logical observers and judges of what is going on in the team. Since they are good at detaching themselves from bias, they are often the ones to see all available options with the greatest clarity and impartiality. They take a broad view when problem-solving, and by moving slowly and analytically, will almost always come to the right decision. However, they can become very critical, damping enthusiasm for anything without logical grounds, and they have a hard time inspiring themselves or others to be passionate about their work.[3]
Teamworker[edit]
A Teamworker is the oil between the cogs that keeps the machine that is the team running smoothly. They are good listeners and diplomats, talented at smoothing over conflicts and helping parties understand one another without becoming confrontational. Since the role can be a low-profile one, the beneficial effect of a Teamworker can go unnoticed and unappreciated until they are absent, when the team begins to argue, and small but important things cease to happen. Because of an unwillingness to take sides, a Teamworker may not be able to take decisive action when it's needed.[3]
Implementer[edit]
The Implementer takes their colleagues' suggestions and ideas and turns them into positive action. They are efficient and self-disciplined, and can always be relied on to deliver on time. They are motivated by their loyalty to the team or company, which means that they will often take on jobs everyone else avoids or dislikes. However, they may be seen as closed-minded and inflexible since they will often have difficulty deviating from their own well-thought-out plans, especially if such a deviation compromises efficiency or threatens well-established practices.[3]
Completer Finisher[edit]
The Completer Finisher is a perfectionist and will often go the extra mile to make sure everything is "just right," and the things he or she delivers can be trusted to have been double-checked and then checked again. The Completer Finisher has a strong inward sense of the need for accuracy, and sets his or her own high standards rather than working on the encouragement of others. They may frustrate their teammates by worrying excessively about minor details and by refusing to delegate tasks that they do not trust anyone else to perform.[3]
Specialist[edit]
Specialists are passionate about learning in their own particular field. As a result, they are likely to be a fountain of knowledge and will enjoy imparting this knowledge to others. They also strive to improve and build upon their expertise. If there is anything they do not know the answer to, they will happily go and find out. Specialists bring a high level of concentration, ability, and skill in their discipline to the team, but can only contribute on that specialism and will tend to be uninterested in anything which lies outside its narrow confines.[3]
The Belbin Team Inventory was revised to include the Specialist role, since the role was not revealed in the original research because no specialized knowledge was required for the simulation exercise.[4]
Validity and reliability[edit]
Following the introduction of Belbin's approach to Team Role analysis in 1981,[1] an independent study of the psychometric properties of the instruments was published in 1993 in the Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology.[5] Belbin took to task the authors, Furnham, Steele & Pendleton[6] and the Journal provided Furnham space to reply.[7] Belbin argued that the instruments were not intended for scholarly inquiry, but to inform management consulting practices. Additionally, Belbin maintains that the Belbin Team Inventory is not a psychometric instrument and hence applying tests for psychometric properties are irrelevant.
There have been several other scholarly studies of the validity and reliability of Belbin's approach over the nearly 15 years since the Furnham-Belbin exchange, most of which have used the inventory in its original form. Fisher, Hunter & MacRosson (2001, June) [8] argue that Furnham's approach (also discussed in Fisher, Macrosson & Sharp (1996)[9]) has fundamental problems in the definitions of several of the 8 roles (see also Broucek & Randall (1996)[10] for a more detailed treatment of this problem). Both the Fisher, et al. (2001) and the earlier Broucek & Randall (1996) find that observational and factor analytical approaches yield 5 rather than 8 role constructs. Fisher, et al. go on to argue that this coherence of the 5 traits of teams is backed up by earlier research by Barrick & Mount (1991).[11]
The original research into the Belbin Team Roles was conducted with the old, copyright, 8-role version that was intended for an individual's own interest rather than for use as a tool. More recent studies using normed data from Belbin's e-interplace system, such as that by Aritzeta, Swailes and Senior (2004)[12] have found higher correlations and reliability, as well as distinct analytical constructs using the online, normed, 9-role tool with observers added to give 360-degree feedback (enhancing construct validity by providing "real-world" data).[13] Swailes and McIntyre-Bhatty also argued (2001 & 2002) that traditional attempts to measure reliability have been misapplied when it comes to the Belbin Team Role Inventory because it is neither ipsative nor non-ipsative, and an equation that took this anomaly into account gave higher estimates of reliability and validity.[14][15][16]
Educational applications[edit]
The Belbin Team Inventory is used in educational settings, including higher education. Smith, Polglase & Parry (2012)[17] applied the Belbin team role self and observer perceptions to a large cohort (145) of undergraduate students in a module assessed through two separate group projects. Students self-selected groups for the first project; for the second, groups were more ‘balanced.’ Results showed a slight improvement in group performance compared with that of previous cohorts, with a significant increase in first-class grades. No evidence was found linking group balance to performance; however, students recognized the value of their Belbin report when entering the job market. Belbin usefully contextualizes regularly occurring group work issues and provides students with ways of managing these issues.
Other team role inventories[edit]
Team Management Systems (TMS)[edit]
A competitor to the Belbin system, developed independently in Australia by Charles Margerison and Dick McCann, is the Margerison–McCann Team Management Systems.[18] This can be shown as a similar wheel with rather similar roles, whose titles however are different.[19] The company states: "Independent British Psychological Society reviews available on each Profile"[20]
Star Roles Model[edit]
The Star Roles Model is used by organisations to describe the positions managers and mentors adopt when guiding direct-reports and mentees. The concept builds on the Group Roles model developed by Benne & Sheats in 1948,[21] taking a short-cut route to describing preferences when guiding others. Similarly, the Roles Model follows the Mintzberg 10 management positions[22] – drawing in the most relevant elements when considering the mentoring relationship in detail.
See also[edit]
Collaboration
Group behavior
Meredith Belbin
Theory of multiple intelligences
Organization Science
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Belbin, M. (1981). Management Teams. London; Heinemann. ISBN 0-470-27172-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Tieman, Ross (March 15, 2012). "From teamwork to collaboration". Financial Times. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i "Belbin Team Roles". BELBIN Associates. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Belbin Team Roles". BELBIN Associates. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Furnham, A.; Steele, H.; Pendleton, D. (1993). "A psychometric assessment of the Belbin Team-Role Self-Perception Inventory". Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. 66 (3): 245–257.
Jump up ^ Belbin, R. (1993, September). A reply to the Belbin Team-Role Self-Perception Inventory by Furnham, Steele and Pendleton. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 66(3), 259-260.
Jump up ^ Furnham, A., Steele, H. & Pendelton, D. (1993). A response to Dr. Belbin's reply. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 66(3), 261-261. Retrieved November 22, 2007.
Jump up ^ Fisher, S., Hunter, T. & MacRosson, W. (2001, June). A validation study of Belbin's team roles. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 10(2), 121-144.
Jump up ^ Fisher, S.G., Macrosson, W.D.K. & Sharp, G. (1996). Further evidence concerning the Belbin team-role self-perception inventory. Personnel Review, 25, 61–67.
Jump up ^ Broucek, W. & Randall, G. (1996, December). An assessment of the construct validity of the Belbin Self-Perception Inventory and Observer's Assessment from the perspective of the five-factor model. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 69(4), 389-405.
Jump up ^ Barrick, M.R. & Mount, M.K. (1991). The Big Five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1–26.
Jump up ^ Aritzeta, A., Senior, B. & Swailes, S. (2005, August). Belbin Team-Role Preference and Cognitive Styles: A convergent validity study. Small Group Research 36(4), 404-436.
Jump up ^ Aritzeta, A., Swailes, S. & Senior, B. (2007, January). Belbin's team role model: Development, validity and applications for team building. Journal of Management Studies, 44(1), 96-118.
Jump up ^ Swailes, S. & McIntyre-Bhatty, T. (2001). Uses and Abuses of Reliability Estimates: The Case of the 'Belbin' TRSPI. Working Paper presented to the British Academy of Management Conference, Cardiff Business School.
Jump up ^ Swailes, S.; McIntyre-Bhatty, T. (2002). "The Belbin team role inventory Reinterpreting reliability estimates". Journal of Managerial Psychology. 17 (6): 529–536.
Jump up ^ "Belbin Team Roles" (PDF). BELBIN Associates. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Smith, S., Polglase, G., & Parry, C., (1 November 2012). "Construction of Student Groups Using Belbin: Supporting Group Work in Environmental Management". Journal of Geography in Higher Education. 36: 585–601. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Margerison-McCann Team Management Profile - Talent, Teams, Leadership". Tmsdi.com. Retrieved 2017-06-25.
Jump up ^ Rosemary K. Rushmer, (1996) "Is Belbin’s shaper really TMS’s thruster-organizer? An empirical investigation into the correspondence between the Belbin and TMS team role models", Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 17 Iss: 1, pp.20 - 26
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-09-19. Retrieved 2011-11-29.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-04-26. Retrieved 2011-11-29.
Jump up ^ "Mintzberg's Ten Management Roles - London Management Centre". Lmcuk.com. 2014-03-10. Retrieved 2017-06-25.
External links[edit]
Belbin website
Using Belbin's leadership role to improve team effectiveness: An empirical investigation
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