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History of photography
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For the journal, see History of Photography (journal).
See also: Timeline of photography technology
Retouched version of the earliest surviving camera photograph, 1826 or 1827, known as View from the Window at Le Gras
The history of photography has roots in remote antiquity with the discovery of two critical principles, that of the camera obscura image projection and the fact that some substances are visibly altered by exposure to light, as discovered by observation. Apart from a very uncertain process used on the Turin Shroud there are no artifacts or descriptions that indicate that anyone even imagined capturing images with light sensitive materials before the 18th century. Around 1717 Johann Heinrich Schulze captured cut-out letters on a bottle of a light-sensitive slurry, but he apparently never thought of making the results durable. Around 1800 Thomas Wedgwood made the first reliably documented, although unsuccessful attempt at capturing camera images in permanent form. His experiments did produce detailed photograms, but Wedgwood and his associate Humphry Davy found no way to fix these images.
In the mid-1820s, Nicéphore Niépce first managed to fix an image that was captured with a camera, but at least eight hours or even several days of exposure in the camera were required and the earliest results were very crude. Niépce's associate Louis Daguerre went on to develop the daguerreotype process, the first publicly announced and commercially viable photographic process. The daguerreotype required only minutes of exposure in the camera, and produced clear, finely detailed results. The details were introduced as a gift to the world in 1839, a date generally accepted as the birth year of practical photography.[1][2] The metal-based daguerreotype process soon had some competition from the paper-based calotype negative and salt print processes invented by William Henry Fox Talbot. Subsequent innovations made photography easier and more versatile. New materials reduced the required camera exposure time from minutes to seconds, and eventually to a small fraction of a second; new photographic media were more economical, sensitive or convenient, including roll films for casual use by amateurs. In the mid-20th century, developments made it possible for amateurs to take pictures in natural color as well as in black-and-white.
The commercial introduction of computer-based electronic digital cameras in the 1990s soon revolutionized photography. During the first decade of the 21st century, traditional film-based photochemical methods were increasingly marginalized as the practical advantages of the new technology became widely appreciated and the image quality of moderately priced digital cameras was continually improved. Especially since cameras became a standard feature on smartphones, taking pictures (and instantly publishing them online) has become an ubiquitous everyday practice around the world.
Contents
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1 Etymology
2 Early history of the camera
3 Before 1700: Turin Shroud + light sensitive materials
4 1700 to 1802: Earliest concepts and fleeting photogram results
4.1 Schulze's Scotophorus: earliest fleeting letter photograms (circa 1717)
4.2 De la Roche's fictional image capturing process (1760)
4.3 Scheele's forgotten chemical fixer (1777)
4.4 Thomas Wedgwood & Humphry Davy: Fleeting detailed photograms (1790?-1802)
4.5 Jacques Charles: Fleeting silhouette photograms (circa 1801?)
5 1816 to 1833: Niépce's earliest fixed images
6 1830 to 1840: early monochrome processes
7 1850 to 1900
8 Popularization
9 Early Photography in India
10 Colour process
11 Development of digital photography
12 See also
13 Notes
14 References
15 Further reading
16 External links
Etymology[edit]
The coining of the word "photography" is usually attributed to Sir John Herschel in 1839. It is based on the Greek φῶς (phōs), (genitive: phōtós) meaning "light", and γραφή (graphê), meaning "drawing, writing", together meaning "drawing with light".[3]
Early history of the camera[edit]
Main article: Camera obscura
Principle of a box camera obscura with mirror
A natural phenomenon, known as camera obscura or pinhole image, can project a (reversed) image through a small opening onto an opposite surface. This principle may have been known and used in prehistoric times. The earliest known written record of the camera obscura is to be found in Chinese writings called Mozi, dated to the 4th century BCE. Until the 16th century the camera obscura was mainly used to study optics and astronomy, especially to safely watch solar eclipses without damaging the eyes. In the later half of the 16th century some technical improvements were developed: a (biconvex) lens in the opening (first described by Gerolamo Cardano in 1550) and a diaphragm restricting the aperture (Daniel Barbaro in 1568) gave a brighter and sharper image. In 1558 Giambattista della Porta advised using the camera obscura as a drawing aid in his popular and influential books. Della Porta's advice was widely adopted by artists and since the 17th century portable versions of the camera obscura were commonly used - first as a tent, later as boxes. The box type camera obscura was the basis for the earliest photographic cameras when photography was developed in the early 19th century.
Further information: History of the camera
Before 1700: Turin Shroud + light sensitive materials[edit]
The notion that light can affect various substances - for instance the suntanning of skin or fading of textile - must have been around since very early times. Ideas of fixing the image seen in mirrors or other ways of creating images automatically may also have been in people's mind long before anything like photography was developed.[4] However, there seem to be no historical records of any ideas even remotely resembling photography before 1725, despite early knowledge of light-sensitive materials and the camera obscura.[5]
The Shroud of Turin: modern photo of the face, positive left, digitally processed negative image right
It has been suggested that some lost type of photographic technology must have been applied before 1357: the Shroud of Turin contains an image that resembles a sepia photographic negative and is much clearer when it is converted to a positive image. The actual method that resulted in this image has not yet been conclusively identified. It first appeared in historical records in 1357 and radiocarbon dating tests indicate it was probably made between 1260 and 1390.[6] No other examples of detailed negative images from before the 19th century are known.[citation needed]
Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–80) discovered silver nitrate and noted that it could blacken skin.[7] Silver nitrate would later be used as a light sensitive material in the photographic emulsion on photographic glass plates and film.
Georg Fabricius (1516–71) discovered silver chloride, later used to make photographic paper.[8]
In 1614 Angelo Sala wrote in his paper Septem Planetarum terrestrium Spagirica recensio[9]: "When you expose powdered silver nitrate to sunlight, it turns black as ink". He also noted that paper wrapped around silver nitrate for a year had turned black.[10]
Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.[8]
1700 to 1802: Earliest concepts and fleeting photogram results[edit]
Schulze's Scotophorus: earliest fleeting letter photograms (circa 1717)[edit]
Around 1717[11] German polymath Johann Heinrich Schulze accidentally discovered that a slurry of chalk and nitric acid into which some silver particles had been dissolved was darkened by sunlight. After experiments with threads that had created lines on the bottled substance after he placed it in direct sunlight for a while, he applied stencils of words to the bottle. The stencils produced copies of the text in dark red, almost violet characters on the surface of the otherwise whitish contents. The impressions persisted until they were erased by shaking the bottle or until overall exposure to light obliterated them. Schulze named the substance "Scotophorus", when he published his findings in 1719. He thought the discovery could be applied to detect whether metals or minerals contained any silver and hoped that further experimentation by others would lead to some other useful results.[12][13] Schulze's process resembled later photogram techniques and is sometimes regarded as the very first form of photography.[14]
De la Roche's fictional image capturing process (1760)[edit]
The early science fiction novel Giphantie[15] (1760) by the French Tiphaigne de la Roche described something quite similar to (colour) photography, a process that fixes fleeting images formed by rays of light:"They coat a piece of canvas with this material, and place it in front of the object to capture. The first effect of this cloth is similar to that of a mirror, but by means of its viscous nature the prepared canvas, as is not the case with the mirror, retains a facsimile of the image. The mirror represents images faithfully, but retains none; our canvas reflects them no less faithfully, but retains them all. This impression of the image is instantaneous. The canvas is then removed and deposited in a dark place. An hour later the impression is dry, and you have a picture the more precious in that no art can imitate its truthfulness."[16] De la Roche thus imagined a process that made use of a special substance in combination with the qualities of a mirror, rather than the camera obscura. The hour of drying in a dark place suggests he possibly thought about the light sensitivity of the material, but he attributes the effect to its viscous nature.
Scheele's forgotten chemical fixer (1777)[edit]
In 1777, the chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele was studying the more intrinsically light-sensitive silver chloride and determined that light darkened it by disintegrating it into microscopic dark particles of metallic silver. Of greater potential usefulness, Scheele found that ammonia dissolved the silver chloride but not the dark particles. This discovery could have been used to stabilize or "fix" a camera image captured with silver chloride, but was not picked up by the earliest.photography experimenters.[citation needed]
Scheele also noted that red light did not have much effect on silver chloride (a feature that would later be applied to be able to see while printing black and white photographs in darkrooms).[17]
Although Thomas Wedgwood felt inspired by Scheele's writings in general, he must have missed or forgotten these experiments: he found no method to fix the photogram and shadow images he managed to capture around 1800 (see below).[17]
Thomas Wedgwood & Humphry Davy: Fleeting detailed photograms (1790?-1802)[edit]
Thomas Wedgwood (1771-1805) is believed to have been the first person to have thought of creating permanent pictures by capturing camera images on material coated with a light-sensitive chemical. He originally wanted to capture the images of a camera obscura, but found they were too faint to have an effect upon the silver nitrate solution that was advised to him as a light-sensitive substance. Wedgwood did manage to copy painted glass plates and captured shadows on white leather as well as on paper moistened with a silver nitrate solution. Attempts to preserve the results with their "distinct tints of brown or black, sensibly differing in intensity" failed. It is unclear when Wedgwood's experiments took place. He may have started before 1790; James Watt wrote a letter to Thomas Wedgwood's father Josiah Wedgwood to thank him "for your instructions as to the Silver Pictures, about which, when at home, I will make some experiments". This letter (now lost) is believed to have been written in 1790, 1791 or 1799. In 1802 an account by Humphry Davy detailing Wedgwood's experiments was published in an early journal of the Royal Institution with the title An Account of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass, and of Making Profiles, by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver. Davy added that the method could be used for objects that are partly opaque and partly transparent to create accurate representations of for instance "the woody fibres of leaves and the wings of insects". He also found that solar microscope images of small objects were easily captured on prepared paper. Davy, apparently unaware or forgetful about Scheele's discovery, concluded that substances should be found to get rid of (or deactivate) the unexposed particles in silver nitrate or silver chloride "to render the process as useful as it is elegant".[17] Wedgwood may have prematurely abandoned his experiments due to his frail and failing health. He died aged 34 in 1805.
Davy seems not to have continued the experiments. Although the journal of the small, infant Royal Institution probably reached its very small group of members, the article eventually must have been read by many more people. It was reviewed by David Brewster in the Edinburgh Magazine in December 1802, appeared in chemistry textbooks as early as 1803, was translated into French, and published in German in 1811. Readers of the article may have been discouraged to find a fixer, because the highly acclaimed scientist Davy had already tried and failed. Apparently the article wasn't noted by Niépce nor Daguerre, and by Talbot only after he had developed his own processes.[17][18]
Jacques Charles: Fleeting silhouette photograms (circa 1801?)[edit]
French balloonist/professor/inventor Jacques Charles is believed to have captured fleeting negative photograms of silhouettes on light sensitive paper at the start of the 19th century, prior to Westwood. Charles died in 1823 without documenting the process, but purportedly demonstrated it in his lectures at the Louvre. It was not publicized until François Arago mentioned it at his introduction of the details of the Daguerreotupe to the world in 1839. He later wrote that the first idea of fixing the images of the camera obscura or the solar microscope with chemical substances belonged to Charles. Later historians probably only built on Arago's information and much later the unsupported year 1780 was attached to it.[19] Since Arago indicated the first years of the 19th century and a date prior to Wedgwood's process published in 1802, this would mean that Charles' demonstrations took place in 1800 or 1801 - assuming Arago was this accurate almost 40 years later.
1816 to 1833: Niépce's earliest fixed images[edit]
The earliest known surviving heliographic engraving, made in 1825. It was printed from a metal plate made by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce with his "heliographic process".[20] The plate was exposed under an ordinary engraving and copied it by photographic means. This was a step towards the first permanent photograph from nature taken with a camera obscura.
"Boulevard du Temple", a daguerreotype made by Louis Daguerre in 1838, is generally accepted as the earliest photograph to include people. It is a view of a busy street, but because the exposure lasted for several minutes the moving traffic left no trace. Only the two men near the bottom left corner, one of them apparently having his boots polished by the other, remained in one place long enough to be visible.
In 1816 Nicéphore Niépce, using paper coated with silver chloride, succeeded in photographing the images formed in a small camera, but the photographs were negatives, darkest where the camera image was lightest and vice versa, and they were not permanent in the sense of being reasonably light-fast; like earlier experimenters, Niépce could find no way to prevent the coating from darkening all over when it was exposed to light for viewing. Disenchanted with silver salts, he turned his attention to light-sensitive organic substances.[21]
Robert Cornelius, self-portrait, October or November 1839, an approximately quarter plate size daguerreotype. On the back is written, "The first light picture ever taken".
One of the oldest photographic portraits known, 1839 or 1840,[22] made by John William Draper of his sister, Dorothy Catherine Draper
Not all early portraits are stiff and grim-faced records of a posing ordeal. This pleasant expression was captured by Mary Dillwyn in Wales in 1853.
The oldest surviving photograph of the image formed in a camera was created by Niépce in 1826 or 1827.[1] It was made on a polished sheet of pewter and the light-sensitive substance was a thin coating of bitumen, a naturally occurring petroleum tar, which was dissolved in lavender oil, applied to the surface of the pewter and allowed to dry before use.[23] After a very long exposure in the camera (traditionally said to be eight hours, but now believed to be several days),[24] the bitumen was sufficiently hardened in proportion to its exposure to light that the unhardened part could be removed with a solvent, leaving a positive image with the light areas represented by hardened bitumen and the dark areas by bare pewter.[23] To see the image plainly, the plate had to be lit and viewed in such a way that the bare metal appeared dark and the bitumen relatively light.[21]
In partnership, Niépce in Chalon-sur-Saône and Louis Daguerre in Paris refined the bitumen process,[25] substituting a more sensitive resin and a very different post-exposure treatment that yielded higher-quality and more easily viewed images. Exposure times in the camera, although substantially reduced, were still measured in hours.[21]
1830 to 1840: early monochrome processes[edit]
Niépce died suddenly in 1833, leaving his notes to Daguerre. More interested in silver-based processes than Niépce had been, Daguerre experimented with photographing camera images directly onto a mirror-like silver-surfaced plate that had been fumed with iodine vapor, which reacted with the silver to form a coating of silver iodide. As with the bitumen process, the result appeared as a positive when it was suitably lit and viewed. Exposure times were still impractically long until Daguerre made the pivotal discovery that an invisibly slight or "latent" image produced on such a plate by a much shorter exposure could be "developed" to full visibility by mercury fumes. This brought the required exposure time down to a few minutes under optimum conditions. A strong hot solution of common salt served to stabilize or fix the image by removing the remaining silver iodide. On 7 January 1839, this first complete practical photographic process was announced at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences,[26] and the news quickly spread.[27] At first, all details of the process were withheld and specimens were shown only at Daguerre's studio, under his close supervision, to Academy members and other distinguished guests.[28] Arrangements were made for the French government to buy the rights in exchange for pensions for Niépce's son and Daguerre and present the invention to the world (with the exception of Great Britain, where an agent for Daguerre patented it) as a free gift.[29] Complete instructions were made public on 19 August 1839.[30] Known as the Daguerreotype process, it was the most common commercial process until the late 1850s. It was superseded by the collodion process.
After reading early reports of Daguerre's invention, Henry Fox Talbot, who had succeeded in creating stabilized photographic negatives on paper in 1835, worked on perfecting his own process. In early 1839, he acquired a key improvement, an effective fixer, from his friend John Herschel, a polymath scientist who had previously shown that hyposulfite of soda (commonly called "hypo" and now known formally as sodium thiosulfate) would dissolve silver salts.[31] News of this solvent also benefited Daguerre, who soon adopted it as a more efficient alternative to his original hot salt water method.[32]
A calotype showing the American photographer Frederick Langenheim, circa 1849. Note that the caption on the photo calls the process "Talbotype".
Talbot's early silver chloride "sensitive paper" experiments required camera exposures of an hour or more. In 1841, Talbot invented the calotype process, which, like Daguerre's process, used the principle of chemical development of a faint or invisible "latent" image to reduce the exposure time to a few minutes. Paper with a coating of silver iodide was exposed in the camera and developed into a translucent negative image. Unlike a daguerreotype, which could only be copied by rephotographing it with a camera, a calotype negative could be used to make a large number of positive prints by simple contact printing. The calotype had yet another distinction compared to other early photographic processes, in that the finished product lacked fine clarity due to its translucent paper negative. This was seen as a positive attribute for portraits because it softened the appearance of the human face[citation needed]. Talbot patented this process,[33] which greatly limited its adoption, and spent many years pressing lawsuits against alleged infringers. He attempted to enforce a very broad interpretation of his patent, earning himself the ill will of photographers who were using the related glass-based processes later introduced by other inventors, but he was eventually defeated. Nonetheless, Talbot's developed-out silver halide negative process is the basic technology used by chemical film cameras today. Hippolyte Bayard had also developed a method of photography but delayed announcing it, and so was not recognized as its inventor.
In 1839, John Herschel made the first glass negative, but his process was difficult to reproduce. Slovene Janez Puhar invented a process for making photographs on glass in 1841; it was recognized on June 17, 1852 in Paris by the Académie Nationale Agricole, Manufacturière et Commerciale.[34] In 1847, Nicephore Niépce's cousin, the chemist Niépce St. Victor, published his invention of a process for making glass plates with an albumen emulsion; the Langenheim brothers of Philadelphia and John Whipple and William Breed Jones of Boston also invented workable negative-on-glass processes in the mid-1840s.[35]
1850 to 1900[edit]
In 1851 Frederick Scott Archer invented the collodion process.[36] Photographer and children's author Lewis Carroll used this process. (Carroll refers to the process as "Tablotype" [sic] in the story "A Photographer's Day Out")[37]
Roger Fenton's assistant seated on Fenton's photographic van, Crimea, 1855
Herbert Bowyer Berkeley experimented with his own version of collodion emulsions after Samman introduced the idea of adding dithionite to the pyrogallol developer.[citation needed] Berkeley discovered that with his own addition of sulfite, to absorb the sulfur dioxide given off by the chemical dithionite in the developer, that dithionite was not required in the developing process. In 1881 he published his discovery. Berkeley's formula contained pyrogallol, sulfite and citric acid. Ammonia was added just before use to make the formula alkaline. The new formula was sold by the Platinotype Company in London as Sulpho-Pyrogallol Developer.[38]
Nineteenth-century experimentation with photographic processes frequently became proprietary.The German-born, New Orleans photographer Theodore Lilienthal successfully sought legal redress in an 1881 infringement case involving his "Lambert Process" in the Eastern District of Louisiana.
Popularization[edit]
General view of The Crystal Palace at Sydenham by Philip Henry Delamotte, 1854
A mid-19th century "Brady stand" armrest table, used to help subjects keep still during long exposures. It was named for famous US photographer Mathew Brady.
An 1855 cartoon satirized problems with posing for Daguerreotypes: slight movement during exposure resulted in blurred features, red-blindness made rosy complexions look dark.
In this 1893 multiple-exposure trick photo, the photographer appears to be photographing himself. It satirizes studio equipment and procedures that were nearly obsolete by then. Note the clamp to hold the sitter's head still.
A comparison of common print sizes used in photographic studios during the 19th century
The daguerreotype proved popular in response to the demand for portraiture that emerged from the middle classes during the Industrial Revolution.[citation needed] This demand, which could not be met in volume and in cost by oil painting, added to the push for the development of photography.
Roger Fenton and Philip Henry Delamotte helped popularize the new way of recording events, the first by his Crimean war pictures, the second by his record of the disassembly and reconstruction of The Crystal Palace in London. Other mid-nineteenth-century photographers established the medium as a more precise means than engraving or lithography of making a record of landscapes and architecture: for example, Robert Macpherson's broad range of photographs of Rome, the interior of the Vatican, and the surrounding countryside became a sophisticated tourist's visual record of his own travels.
In America, by 1851 a broadside by daguerreotypist Augustus Washington was advertising prices ranging from 50 cents to $10.[39] However, daguerreotypes were fragile and difficult to copy. Photographers encouraged chemists to refine the process of making many copies cheaply, which eventually led them back to Talbot's process.
Ultimately, the photographic process came about from a series of refinements and improvements in the first 20 years. In 1884 George Eastman, of Rochester, New York, developed dry gel on paper, or film, to replace the photographic plate so that a photographer no longer needed to carry boxes of plates and toxic chemicals around. In July 1888 Eastman's Kodak camera went on the market with the slogan "You press the button, we do the rest". Now anyone could take a photograph and leave the complex parts of the process to others, and photography became available for the mass-market in 1901 with the introduction of the Kodak Brownie.
Early Photography in India[edit]
Daguerreotype cameras were advertised in Calcutta a year after their invention in France — but photographic societies in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras were beginning to pop up from the 1850s onward. [40] As the practice of photography evolved, a contrasting style developed alongside the predominantly European influence on the art form. This turn is most notable in the work of Raja Deen Dayal, India’s most celebrated 19th-century photographer, whose appointment as court photographer to the sixth Nizam of Hyderabad allowed him unique access to the inner circles of aristocratic life. [41]
Perhaps Mrs. E. Mayer holds the distinction of being the first professional woman photographer in India. She opened a studio in 7 Old Court House Street Corner to provide a rare treat to Indian women: to be photographed without fear or concern. [42]
Colour process[edit]
Main article: Color photography
The first durable color photograph, taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861
A practical means of color photography was sought from the very beginning. Results were demonstrated by Edmond Becquerel as early as 1848, but exposures lasting for hours or days were required and the captured colors were so light-sensitive they would only bear very brief inspection in dim light.
The first durable color photograph was a set of three black-and-white photographs taken through red, green, and blue color filters and shown superimposed by using three projectors with similar filters. It was taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861 for use in a lecture by the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who had proposed the method in 1855.[43] The photographic emulsions then in use were insensitive to most of the spectrum, so the result was very imperfect and the demonstration was soon forgotten. Maxwell's method is now most widely known through the early 20th century work of Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii. It was made practical by Hermann Wilhelm Vogel's 1873 discovery of a way to make emulsions sensitive to the rest of the spectrum, gradually introduced into commercial use beginning in the mid-1880s.
Two French inventors, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros, working unknown to each other during the 1860s, famously unveiled their nearly identical ideas on the same day in 1869. Included were methods for viewing a set of three color-filtered black-and-white photographs in color without having to project them, and for using them to make full-color prints on paper.[44]
The first widely used method of color photography was the Autochrome plate, a process inventors and brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière began working on in the 1890s and commercially introduced in 1907.[45] It was based on one of Louis Ducos du Hauron's ideas: instead of taking three separate photographs through color filters, take one through a mosaic of tiny color filters overlaid on the emulsion and view the results through an identical mosaic. If the individual filter elements were small enough, the three primary colors of red, blue, and green would blend together in the eye and produce the same additive color synthesis as the filtered projection of three separate photographs.
A color portrait of Mark Twain by Alvin Langdon Coburn, 1908, made by the recently introduced Autochrome process
Autochrome plates had an integral mosaic filter layer with roughly five million previously dyed potato grains per square inch added to the surface. Then through the use of a rolling press, five tons of pressure were used to flatten the grains, enabling every one of them to capture and absorb color and their microscopic size allowing the illusion that the colors are merged together. The final step was adding a coat of the light capturing substance silver bromide after which a color image could be imprinted and developed. In order to see it, reversal processing was used to develop each plate into a transparent positive that could be viewed directly or projected with an ordinary projector. One of the drawbacks of the technology is an exposure time of at least a second was required during the day in bright light and the worse the light is, the time required quickly goes up. An indoor portrait required a few minutes with the subject not being able to move or else the picture would come out blurry. This was because the grains absorbed the color fairly slowly and that a filter of a yellowish-orange color was added to the plate to keep the photograph from coming out excessively blue. Although necessary, the filter had the effect of reducing the amount of light that was absorbed. Another drawback was that the film could only be enlarged so much until the many dots that make up the image become apparent.[45][46]
Competing screen plate products soon appeared and film-based versions were eventually made. All were expensive and until the 1930s none was "fast" enough for hand-held snapshot-taking, so they mostly served a niche market of affluent advanced amateurs.
A new era in color photography began with the introduction of Kodachrome film, available for 16 mm home movies in 1935 and 35 mm slides in 1936. It captured the red, green, and blue color components in three layers of emulsion. A complex processing operation produced complementary cyan, magenta, and yellow dye images in those layers, resulting in a subtractive color image. Maxwell's method of taking three separate filtered black-and-white photographs continued to serve special purposes into the 1950s and beyond, and Polachrome, an "instant" slide film that used the Autochrome's additive principle, was available until 2003, but the few color print and slide films still being made in 2015 all use the multilayer emulsion approach pioneered by Kodachrome.
Development of digital photography[edit]
Main article: Digital photography
Walden Kirsch as scanned into the SEAC computer in 1957
In 1957, a team led by Russell A. Kirsch at the National Institute of Standards and Technology developed a binary digital version of an existing technology, the wirephoto drum scanner, so that alphanumeric characters, diagrams, photographs and other graphics could be transferred into digital computer memory. One of the first photographs scanned was a picture of Kirsch's infant son Walden. The resolution was 176x176 pixels with only one bit per pixel, i.e., stark black and white with no intermediate gray tones, but by combining multiple scans of the photograph done with different black-white threshold settings, grayscale information could also be acquired.[47]
The charge-coupled device (CCD) is the image-capturing optoelectronic component in first-generation digital cameras. It was invented in 1969 by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith at AT&T Bell Labs as a memory device. The lab was working on the Picturephone and on the development of semiconductor bubble memory. Merging these two initiatives, Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed "Charge 'Bubble' Devices". The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a semiconductor. It was Dr. Michael Tompsett from Bell Labs however, who discovered that the CCD could be used as an imaging sensor. The CCD has increasingly been replaced by the active pixel sensor (APS), commonly used in cell phone cameras. These mobile phone cameras are used by billions of people worldwide, dramatically increasing photographic activity and material and also fueling citizen journalism.
1973 – Fairchild Semiconductor releases the first large image-capturing CCD chip: 100 rows and 100 columns.[48]
1975 – Bryce Bayer of Kodak develops the Bayer filter mosaic pattern for CCD color image sensors
1986 – Kodak scientists develop the world's first megapixel sensor.
The web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes). Today sites and apps such as Flickr, Picasa, Instagram, Imgur and PhotoBucket are used by many millions of people to share their pictures.
See also[edit]
History of the camera
History of Photography (academic journal)
Albumen print
History of photographic lens design
Timeline of photography technology
List of basic photography topics
Photography by indigenous peoples of the Americas
Women in photography
Movie camera
Notes[edit]

References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Seizing the Light: A History of Photography By Robert Hirsch
Jump up ^ The Michigan Technic 1882 The Genesis of Photography with Hints on Developing
Jump up ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
Jump up ^ Gernsheim, Helmut (1986). A concise history of photography. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-25128-4
Jump up ^ Batchen (1999). Burning with Desire: The Conception of Photography.
Jump up ^ Allen, Nicholas P. L. (11 November 1993). "Is the Shroud of Turin the first recorded photograph?" (PDF). The South African Journal of Art History: 23–32.
Jump up ^ Szabadváry, Ferenc (1992). History of analytical chemistry. Taylor & Francis. p. 17. ISBN 2-88124-569-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Sloane, Thomas O'Conor (1895). Facts Worth Knowing Selected Mainly from the Scientific American for Household, Workshop, and Farm Embracing Practical and Useful Information for Every Branch of Industry. S. S. Scranton and Company.
Jump up ^ https://books.google.nl/books?id=qBdpAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false
Jump up ^ Eder, Josef Maria (1932). Geschichte der Photographie [History of Photography]. p. 32.
Jump up ^ The title page dated 1719 of a section (of a 1721 book) containing the original publication can be seen here. In the text Schulze claims he did the experiment two years earlier
Jump up ^ Bibliotheca Novissima Oberservationum ac Recensionum (in Latin). 1721. pp. 234–240.
Jump up ^ Litchfield, Richard Buckley (1903). Tom Wedgwood, the First Photographer, etc., London, Duckworth and Co. Out of copyright and available free at archive.org. In Appendix A (pp. 217-227), Litchfield evaluates assertions that Schulze's experiments should be called photography and includes a complete English translation (from the original Latin) of Schulze's 1719 account of them as reprinted in 1727.
Jump up ^ Susan Watt (2003). Silver. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 21–. ISBN 978-0-7614-1464-3. Retrieved 28 July 2013. ... But the first person to use this property to produce a photographic image was German physicist Johann Heinrich Schulze.
Jump up ^ de la Roche, Tiphaigne (1760). Giphantie (in French).
Jump up ^ https://artinfiction.wordpress.com/2015/07/07/tiphaigne-de-la-roche-giphantie1760/
^ Jump up to: a b c d Litchfield, Richard Buckley (1903). Tom Wedgwood, the First Photographer. Duckworth and Co. pp. 185–205.
Jump up ^ Batchen, Geoffrey (1999). Burning with Desire: The Conception of Photography. MIT Press.
Jump up ^ Litchfield, Richard Buckley (1903). Tom Wedgwood, the First Photographer - Appendix B. Duckworth and Co. pp. 228–240.
Jump up ^ "The First Photograph — Heliography". Retrieved 29 September 2009. from Helmut Gernsheim's article, "The 150th Anniversary of Photography," in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ...In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate... The sunlight passing through... This first permanent example... was destroyed... some years later.
^ Jump up to: a b c Niépce Museum history pages
Jump up ^ Folpe, Emily Kies (2002). It Happened on Washington Square. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 94. ISBN 0-8018-7088-7.
^ Jump up to: a b [1] By Christine Sutton
Jump up ^ Niépce House Museum: Invention of Photography, Part 3. Retrieved 25 May 2013. The traditional estimate of eight or nine hours originated in the 1950s and is based mainly on the fact that sunlight strikes the buildings as if from an arc across the sky, an effect which several days of continuous exposure would also produce.
Jump up ^ "Daguerre (1787–1851) and the Invention of Photography". Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art. October 2004. Retrieved 2008-05-06.
Jump up ^ (Arago, François) (1839) "Fixation des images qui se forment au foyer d'une chambre obscure" (Fixing of images formed at the focus of a camera obscura), Comptes rendus, 8 : 4-7.
Jump up ^ By mid-February successful attempts to replicate "M. Daguerre's beautiful discovery", using chemicals on paper, had already taken place in Germany and England: The Times (London), 21 February 1839, p.6.
Jump up ^ e.g., a 9 May 1839 showing to John Herschel, documented by Herschel's letter to WHF Talbot. See the included footnote #1 (by Larry Schaaf?) for context. Accessed 11 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Daguerre (1839), pages 1-4.
Jump up ^ See:
(Arago, François) (1839) "Le Daguerreotype", Comptes rendus, 9 : 250-267.
Daguerre, Historique et description des procédés du Daguerréotype et du diorama [History and description of the processes of the daguerreotype and diorama] (Paris, France: Alphonse Giroux et Cie., 1839).
Jump up ^ John F. W. Herschel (1839) "Note on the art of photography, or the application of the chemical rays of light to the purposes of pictorial representation," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 4 : 131-133. On page 132 Herschel mentions the use of hyposulfites.
Jump up ^ Daguerre, Historique et description des procédés du Daguerréotype et du diorama [History and description of the processes of the daguerreotype and diorama] (Paris, France: Alphonse Giroux et Cie., 1839). On page 11, for example, Daguerre states: "Cette surabondance contribue à donner des tons roux, même en enlevant entièrement l'iode au moyen d'un lavage à l'hyposulfite de soude ou au sel marin." (This overabundance contributes towards giving red tones, even while completely removing the iodine by means of a rinse in sodium hyposulfite or in sea salt.)
Jump up ^ Improvement in photographic pictures, Henry Fox Talbot, United States Patent Office, patent no. 5171, June 26, 1847.
Jump up ^ "Life and work of Janez Puhar | (accessed December 13, 2009)".
Jump up ^ Michael R. Peres (2007). The Focal encyclopedia of photography: digital imaging, theory and applications, history, and science. Focal Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-240-80740-9.
Jump up ^ Richard G. Condon (1989). "The History and Development of Arctic Photography". Arctic Anthropology. 26: 52. JSTOR 40316177.
Jump up ^ The Complete Works of Lewis Carroll, from the Random House Modern Library
Jump up ^ Levenson, G. I. P (May 1993). "Berkeley, overlooked man of photo science". Photographic Journal. 133 (4): 169–71.
Jump up ^ Loke, Margarett (July 7, 2000). "Photography review; In a John Brown Portrait, The Essence of a Militant". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-03-16.
Jump up ^ https://lens.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/18/indias-earliest-photographers/
Jump up ^ http://www.bjp-online.com/2015/06/the-new-medium-exhibiting-the-first-photographs-ever-taken-in-india/#closeContactFormCust00
Jump up ^ https://quod.lib.umich.edu/t/tap/7977573.0004.202/--zenana-studio-early-women-photographers-of-bengal?rgn=main;view=fulltext#N2
Jump up ^ James Clerk Maxwell (2003). The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell. Courier Dover Publications. p. 449. ISBN 0-486-49560-4.
Jump up ^ Brian, Coe (1976). The Birth of Photography. Ash & Grant. ISBN 0-904069-07-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Douglas R. Nickel (1992). "Autochromes by Clarence H. White". Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University. 2. 51: 31–32.
Jump up ^ "Potatoes to Pictures". The American Museum of Photography. The American Photography Museum.
Jump up ^ SEAC and the Start of Image Processing at the National Bureau of Standards – Earliest Image Processing
Jump up ^ Janesick, James R (2001). Scientific Charge Coupled Devices. SPIE Press. ISBN 0-8194-3698-4.
Further reading[edit]
Hannavy, John. Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography, 5 volumes
Clerc, L.P. Photography Theory and Practice, being an English edition of "La Technique Photographique"
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of photography.
The Silver Canvas: Daguerreotype Masterpieces from the J. Paul Getty Museum Bates Lowry, Isabel Barrett Lowry 1998
A History of Photography from its Beginnings Till the 1920s by Dr. Robert Leggat, now hosted by Dr Michael Prichard
The First Photograph at The University of Texas at Austin
Photo Histories, the photographers' history of photography
The Photo History Timeline Collection
Niepce Museum
Video (09:03) – notable historical still images – now colorized.
cww2.colorado

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I Dream of Jeannie
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with I Dream of Jeanie (film).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
I Dream of Jeannie
Created by
Sidney Sheldon
Directed by
Gene Nelson
Hal Cooper
Claudio Guzmán
Starring
Barbara Eden
Larry Hagman
Bill Daily
Hayden Rorke
Theme music composer
Richard Wess (season 1)
Hugo Montenegro (seasons 2-5)
Buddy Kaye (seasons 2-5)
Opening theme
"Jeannie"
Composer(s)
Hugo Montenegro
Richard Wess
Nelson Riddle
Van Alexander
Sonny Burke
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
5
No. of episodes
139 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Sidney Sheldon (1967–70)
Producer(s)
Sidney Sheldon (1965–67)
Claudio Guzmán (1967–70)
Cinematography
Lothrop Worth
Editor(s)
William Martin
Camera setup
Single-camera
Running time
25 minutes
Production company(s)
Sidney Sheldon Productions
Screen Gems
Distributor
Screen Gems
Release
Original network
NBC
Picture format
35 mm film
Black-and-White (1965–66) (30 episodes)
Color (1966–70) (109 episodes)
Audio format
Monaural
Original release
September 18, 1965 (1965-09-18) – May 26, 1970 (1970-05-26)
Chronology
Followed by
I Dream of Jeannie... Fifteen Years Later
I Still Dream of Jeannie
Related shows
Jeannie
I Dream of Jeannie is an American fantasy and comedy sitcom starring Barbara Eden as a 2,000-year-old genie and Larry Hagman as an astronaut who becomes her master, with whom she falls in love and eventually marries. Produced by Screen Gems, the show originally aired from September 18, 1965 to May 26, 1970 with new episodes, and through September 1970 with season repeats, on NBC. The show ran for five seasons and produced 139 episodes.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast and characters
2.1 Main
2.2 Recurring
3 Production
3.1 Background
3.2 Opening sequence
3.3 Setting
3.4 Jeannie's origin
3.5 Theme music
3.6 The bottle
4 Broadcast
4.1 Multi-part story arcs
5 Reception
5.1 Nielsen ratings
5.2 Syndication
6 Reunion movies
7 Animated series
8 Factual and geographic errors
9 In popular culture
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Plot[edit]
Main article: List of I Dream of Jeannie episodes
Jeannie, free from her bottle, is excited to meet Tony.
In the pilot episode, "The Lady in the Bottle", astronaut Captain Tony Nelson, United States Air Force, is on a space flight when his one-man capsule Stardust One comes down far from the planned recovery area, near a deserted island in the South Pacific. On the beach, Tony notices a strange bottle that rolls by itself. When he rubs it after removing the stopper, smoke starts shooting out and a Persian-speaking female genie materializes and kisses Tony on the lips, shocking him.
They cannot understand each other until Tony expresses his wish that Jeannie (a homophone of genie) could speak English, which she then does. Then, per his instructions, she "blinks" and causes a recovery helicopter to show up to rescue Tony, who is so grateful, he tells her she is free, but Jeannie, who has fallen in love with Tony at first sight after being trapped for 2,000 years, re-enters her bottle and rolls it into Tony's duffel bag so she can accompany him back home. One of the first things Jeannie does, in a subsequent episode, is break up Tony's engagement to his commanding general's daughter, who, along with that particular general, is never seen again. This event reflects producer Sidney Sheldon's decision that the engagement depicted in the pilot episode would not be part of the series continuity; he realized the romantic triangle he created between Jeannie, "Master", and Melissa Stone would not pan out in the long run.
Tony at first keeps Jeannie in her bottle most of the time, but he finally relents and allows her to enjoy a life of her own. However, her life is devoted mostly to his, and most of their problems stem from her love and affection towards Tony, and her desire to please him and fulfill her ancient heritage as a genie, especially when he does not want her to do so. His efforts to cover up Jeannie's antics, because of his fear that he would be dismissed from the space program if her existence were known, brings him to the attention of NASA's resident psychiatrist, U.S. Air Force Colonel Dr. Alfred Bellows. In a running gag, Dr. Bellows tries over and over to prove to his superiors that Tony is either crazy or hiding something, but he is always foiled ("He's done it to me, again!") and Tony's job remains secure. A frequently used plot device is that Jeannie loses her powers when she is confined in a closed space. She is unable to leave her bottle when it is corked, and under certain circumstances, the person who removed the cork would become her new master. A multiple-episode story arc involves Jeannie (in miniature) becoming trapped in a safe when it is accidentally locked.
Eden with husband Michael Ansara as The Blue Djinn (1966)
Tony's best friend and fellow astronaut, United States Army Corps of Engineers Captain Roger Healey, does not know about Jeannie for several episodes; when he finds out (in the episode "The Richest Astronaut in the Whole Wide World" [January 15, 1966]), he steals her so he can live in luxury, but not for long before Tony reclaims his status as Jeannie's master. Roger is often shown trying to make a quick buck or girl-crazy, and hopes to claim Jeannie so he can use her to live a princely life or gain beautiful girlfriends, but overall he is respectful that Tony is Jeannie's master, and later her husband. Both Tony and Roger are promoted to the rank of major late in the first season. In later seasons, Roger's role is retconned to portray him knowing about Jeannie from the beginning (i.e., to him having been with Tony on the space flight that touched down, and thus having seen Jeannie introduce herself to Tony).
Jeannie's evil fraternal twin sister, mentioned in a second-season episode (also named Jeannie and also portrayed by Barbara Eden in a brunette wig), proves to have a mean streak starting in the third season (demonstrated in her initial appearance in "Jeannie or the Tiger?" [September 19, 1967]), repeatedly trying to steal Tony for herself, with her as the real "master". Her final attempt in the series comes right after Tony and Jeannie get married, with a ploy involving a man played by Barbara Eden's real-life husband at the time, Michael Ansara (in a kind of in-joke, while Jeannie's sister pretends to be attracted to him, she privately scoffs at him). The evil sister, whose name is never revealed, wears a green costume, with a skirt rather than pantaloons.
Early in the fifth season (September 30, 1969), Jeannie is called upon by her Uncle Sully (Jackie Coogan) to become queen of their family's native country, Basenji. Tony inadvertently gives grave offense to Basenji national pride in their feud with neighboring Kasja. To regain favor, Tony is required by Sully to marry Jeannie and avenge Basenji's honor, by killing the ambassador from Kasja when he visits NASA. After Sully puts Tony through an ordeal of nearly killing the ambassador, Tony responds in a fit of anger that he is fed up with Sully and his cohorts and he would not marry Jeannie if she were "the last genie on earth". Hearing this, Jeannie bitterly leaves Tony and returns to Basenji. With Jeannie gone, Tony realizes how deeply he loves her. That outweighs all concerns he has had about Jeannie's threat to his career. He flies to Basenji to win Jeannie back. Upon their return to NASA, Tony introduces Jeannie as his fiancée, in which she attires herself as a modern American woman in public and it is easily accepted Tony found a girlfriend. This changed the show's premise in that instead of the avoidance of Jeannie's exposure, it was to hide her magical abilities. This is contrary to the mythology created by Sidney Sheldon's own season-two script for "The Birds and Bees Bit", in which it was claimed that, upon marriage, a genie loses all of her magical powers.
Cast and characters[edit]
Main[edit]
Barbara Eden as Jeannie
Larry Hagman as Captain/Major Anthony "Tony" Nelson
Bill Daily as Captain/Major Roger Healey
Hayden Rorke as Dr. Alfred Bellows
Recurring[edit]
Philip Ober as Brig. Gen. Wingard Stone (season 1, episodes 1 and 4)
Karen Sharpe as Melissa (season 1, episodes 1 and 4)
Florence Sundstrom as Jeannie's mother (season 1, episode 2)
Lurene Tuttle as Jeannie's mother (season 1, episode 14)
Barton MacLane as Maj. Gen. Martin Peterson (seasons 1–4)
Emmaline Henry as Amanda Bellows (seasons 2–5)
Abraham Sofaer as Haji, the "master of all the genies" (seasons 2–3)
Barbara Eden as Jeannie's evil fraternal twin sister, Jeannie II (seasons 3–5)
Vinton Hayworth as Maj. Gen. Winfield Schaeffer (seasons 4–5)
Barbara Eden as Jeannie's mother (season 4, episode 18)
Production[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Tony and Jeannie.
Background[edit]
The series was created and produced by Sidney Sheldon in response to the great success of rival network ABC's Bewitched series, which had debuted in 1964 as the second-most watched program in the United States. Sheldon, inspired by the movie The Brass Bottle, which had starred Tony Randall, Barbara Eden, and Burl Ives as the jinn Fakrash, conceived of the idea for a beautiful female genie. Both I Dream of Jeannie and Bewitched were Screen Gems productions. The show debuted at 8 pm, Saturday, September 18, 1965, on NBC.
When casting was opened for the role of Jeannie, producer Sidney Sheldon could not find an actress who could play the role the way that he had written it. He did have one specific rule: He did not want a blonde genie, because the similarity with the blonde witch on Bewitched would be too much. However, after many unsuccessful auditions, he called Barbara Eden's agent. When NBC began telecasting most of its prime-time television programs in color in fall 1965, Jeannie was one of two regular programs on NBC that remained in black and white, in this case because of the special photographic effects employed to achieve Jeannie's magic. By the second season, however, further work had been done on techniques to create the visual effects in color, necessary because by 1966 all prime-time series in the United States were being made in color.
According to Dreaming of Jeannie, a book by Stephen Cox and Howard Frank, Sheldon originally wanted to film season one in color, but NBC did not want to pay for the extra expenses, as the network (and Screen Gems) believed the series would not make it to a second season. According to Sheldon in his autobiography The Other Side of Me, he offered to pay the extra US$400 an episode needed for color filming at the beginning of the series, but Screen Gems executive Jerry Hyams advised him: "Sidney, don't throw your money away."[1]
Opening sequence[edit]
The first few episodes after the pilot (episodes two through eight) used a nonanimated, expository opening narrated by Paul Frees; the narration mentions that Nelson lived in "a mythical town" named Cocoa Beach in "a mythical state called Florida". The remaining episodes of that first season featured an animated sequence that was redone and expanded in season two, when the show switched from black and white to color. This new sequence, used from season 2–5, featured Captain Nelson's space capsule splashing down on the beach, and Jeannie dancing out of her bottle (modified to reflect its new decoration) and then kissing Nelson. Both original versions of the show's animated opening sequence were done by famed animator Friz Freleng.
Setting[edit]
Although the series was set in and around Cape Kennedy, Florida, and Nelson lived at 1020 Palm Drive[2][3] in nearby Cocoa Beach, locales in California were used in place of those in Florida. The exterior of the building where Healey and he had offices was actually the main building at the Dryden Flight Research Center at Edwards Air Force Base, north of Los Angeles.[4] "If you look at some of those old [episodes], it's supposed to be shot in Cocoa Beach, but in the background you have mountains — the Hollywood Hills," Bill Daily said.[5] In actuality, the home of Major Nelson was filmed at the Warner Ranch, in Burbank (on Blondie Street). Many exteriors were filmed at this facility. Interior filming was done at the Sunset Gower Studios in Hollywood.
The cast and crew only made two visits to Florida's Space Coast, both in 1969. On June 27, a parade in Cocoa Beach escorted Eden and the rest of the cast to Cocoa Beach City Hall, where she was greeted by fans and city officials. They were then taken to LC-43 at Cape Canaveral where she pressed a button to launch a Loki-Dart weather rocket. They had dinner at Bernard's Surf, where Eden was given the state of Florida's Commodore Award for outstanding acting. Later, the entourage went to Lee Caron's Carnival Club, where Eden was showered with gifts and kissed astronaut Buzz Aldrin on the cheek, just two weeks before the Apollo 11 launch.[6]
I Dream of Jeannie Lane sign in Cocoa Beach, Florida
The cast and crew returned on November 25, 1969, for three days for a mock wedding of Eden and Hagman staged for television writers from around the nation (timed to the airing of the nuptials episode on December 2) at the Patrick Air Force Base Officers Club.[5] Then-Florida Governor Claude R. Kirk, Jr., attended and cut the cake for the couple.[6]
Eden returned 27 years later, in July 1996, as a featured speaker for Space Days at the Kennedy Space Center. Cocoa Beach Mayor Joe Morgan presented her an "I Dream of Jeannie Lane" street sign, later installed on a short street off Florida State Road A1A near Lori Wilson Park.[6]
On September 15, 2005, the area held a "We Dream of Jeannie" festival, including a Jeannie lookalike contest. Plans for one in 2004 were interrupted by Hurricane Frances and Hurricane Jeanne. However, a Jeannie lookalike contest was held in 2004, with Bill Daily attending.
On August 24, 2012, Cocoa Beach City leaders honored the show with a roadside plaque outside Lori Wilson Park.[7]
Jeannie's origin[edit]
In the first season, Jeannie clearly was originally a human who was turned into a genie by (as later revealed (Season 1, Episode 2: My Hero?) the Blue Djinn when she refused to marry him (the term "djinn" is synonymous with "genie"). Several members of Jeannie's family, including her parents, are rather eccentric, but none is a genie. Her mother describes the family as "just peasants from the old country" (Season 1, Episode 14, What House Across the Street?). The Blue Djinn was played by Barbara Eden's first husband, Michael Ansara. In later seasons, he also played King Kamehameha (Season 3, Episode 15 The Battle of Waikiki), and Biff Jellico (Season 5, Episode 12 My Sister, the Homewrecker).
The topic of Jeannie originally being human is restated in season two during the episode, "How to be a Genie in 10 Easy Lessons". Jeannie mentions that she has a sister who is a genie, but the phrasing – "she was a genie when I left Baghdad" – does bring up the question of whether she, too, was born a genie. One small subplot that lasted over multiple episodes was WHEN Jeanie was born. In Season 2, Episode 10, "The Girl Who Never Had a Birthday" it was revealed that Jeanie was born in 46 BC and in Season 2, Episode 13 "My Master, the Great Caruso" it was revealed that she was born on April 1.
In the third season, this continuity was changed retroactively and Jeannie was assumed to have always been a genie. All her relatives are then also genies, including, by the fourth season, her mother (also played by Barbara Eden beginning in Season 4, Episode 2 Jeannie and the Wild Pipchicks). This may have been done to increase the similarity with Bewitched, or simply to increase the number of possible plotlines. Whatever the reason, this new concept was retained for the rest of the series.
The TV movie I Dream of Jeannie... Fifteen Years Later (1985) reiterates most of Jeannie's first-season origin when she tells her son, Tony Jr., that she was trapped in her bottle by an evil djinn after she refused to marry him. (No specific statement is given, however, about whether he turned her into a genie at that time or if she had been born one.)
In a 1966 paperback novel I Dream of Jeannie, by Dennis Brewster, published by Pocket Books, very loosely based on the series, Jeannie (in the book, her real name is revealed as "Fawzia") and her immediate family were established in the story as genies living in Tehran hundreds of years before Tony found her bottle on an island in the Persian Gulf (instead of the South Pacific, as depicted on TV).
Theme music[edit]
The first-season theme music was an instrumental jazz waltz written by Richard Wess. Eventually, Sidney Sheldon became dissatisfied with Wess's theme and musical score.[citation needed] From the second season on, it was replaced by a new theme entitled "Jeannie", composed by Hugo Montenegro with lyrics by Buddy Kaye. Episodes 20 and 25 used a rerecorded ending of "Jeannie" for the closing credits with new, longer drum breaks and a different closing riff. The lyrics were never used in the show.
Songwriters Gerry Goffin and Carole King wrote a theme, called "Jeannie", for Sidney Sheldon before the series started, but it was not used.[8]
In the third and fourth seasons of the show, another instrumental theme by Hugo Montenegro was introduced that was played during the show's campy scenes. Simply titled "Mischief", the theme was heard mainly on outdoor locations, showing the characters attempting to do something such as Jeannie learning to drive, Major Nelson arriving up the driveway, a monkey walking around, or reactions to Doctor Bellows. This theme featured the accompaniment of a sideshow organ, a trombone, and electric bass. It was introduced in the first episode of season 3, "Fly Me to the Moon".[citation needed]
The I Dream of Jeannie theme music was sampled by Dutch dance music DJ Ben Liebrand for the 1990 re-release of American hip-hop artist Dimples D.'s single, "Sucker DJ".
The bottle[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Jeannie's famous bottle was not created for the show. The actual bottle was a special Christmas 1964 Jim Beam liquor decanter containing "Beam's Choice" bourbon whiskey. It was designed by Roy Kramer for the Wheaton Bottle Company. For years, Sidney Sheldon was said to have received one as a gift and thought it would be a perfect design for the series. Several people in the Screen Gems art department also take credit for finding the bottle. Strong evidence, however, indicates first season director Gene Nelson saw one in a liquor store and bought it, bringing it to Sheldon.[citation needed]
Jeannie's bottle was left in its original dark, smoke-green color, with a painted gold-leaf pattern (to make it look like an antique), during the first season. The plot description of the pilot episode in TV Guide in September 1965 referred to it as a "green bottle". In that first episode, it also looked quite rough and weathered. Since the show was originally filmed in black and white, a lot of colors and patterns were not necessary. When the show switched to color, the show's art director came up with a brightly colored purple bottle to replace the original. The colorized version of the show's first season tried to make out that the smoked glass look of the original gold-leaf design is in fact purple, to match the consistent look of the bottle used in the second through fifth seasons.
The first season bottle had a clear glass stopper that Tony took from a 1956 Old Grand-Dad Bourbon bottle in his home, as the original stopper was left behind on the beach where Tony found Jeannie. In the first color episode, Jeannie returns to the beach, and her bottle is seen to have its original stopper (painted to match the bottle), presumably retrieved by her upon her return there. The rest of the TV series (and the movies) used the original bottle stopper. (During some close-ups, one can still see the plastic rings that hold the cork part of the stopper in place.)
During the first season, in black and white, the smoke effect was usually a screen overlay of billowing smoke, sometimes combined with animation. Early color episodes used a purely animated smoke effect. Sometime later, a live smoke pack, lifted out of the bottle on a wire, was used.
Jeannie's color-episodes bottle was painted mainly in pinks and purples, while the bottle for the Blue Djinn was a first-season design with a heavy green wash, and Jeannie's sister's bottle was simply a plain, unpainted Jim Beam bottle.
No one knows exactly how many bottles were used during the show, but members of the production have estimated that 12 bottles were painted and used during the run of the series. The stunt bottle used mostly for the smoke effect was broken frequently by the heat and chemicals used to produce Jeannie's smoke. In the pilot episode, several bottles were used for the opening scene on the beach; one was drilled through the bottom for smoke, and another was used to walk across the sand and slip into Tony's pack. Two bottles were used from promotional tours to kick off the first season, and one bottle was used for the first-season production.
Barbara Eden got to keep the color stunt bottle used on the last day of filming the final episode of the television series. It was given to her by her make-up woman after the show was canceled while the show was on hiatus. According to the DVD release of the first season, Bill Daily owns an original bottle, and according to the Donny & Marie talk show, Larry Hagman also owned an original bottle.
In the penultimate episode, "Hurricane Jeannie", Nelson dreams that Dr. Bellows discovers Jeannie's secret, and that Jeannie's bottle is broken when dropped. A broken bottle is shown on camera. This was intended to be the series' final episode and is often shown that way in syndication.
Broadcast[edit]
Main article: List of I Dream of Jeannie episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 30 September 18, 1965 (1965-09-18) May 7, 1966 (1966-05-07)
2 31 September 12, 1966 (1966-09-12) April 24, 1967 (1967-04-24)
3 26 September 12, 1967 (1967-09-12) March 26, 1968 (1968-03-26)
4 26 September 16, 1968 (1968-09-16) May 12, 1969 (1969-05-12)
5 26 September 16, 1969 (1969-09-16) May 26, 1970 (1970-05-26)
TV movies 2 October 20, 1985 (1985-10-20) October 20, 1991 (1991-10-20)
Multi-part story arcs[edit]
On several occasions, multipart story arcs were created to serve as backgrounds for national contests. During the second season, in a story that is the focus of a two-part episode and a peripheral plot of two further episodes (the "Guess Jeannie's Birthday" contest began with the opening two-part episode on November 14, 1966, concluding with the name of the winner revealed after the end of the fourth episode, "My Master, the Great Caruso", on December 5), it was established that Jeannie did not know her birthday, and her family members could not agree when it was, either. Tony and Roger use NASA's powerful new computer and horoscopic guidance based on Jeannie's traits to calculate it. The year is quickly established as 64 BC, but only Roger is privy to the exact date and he decides to make a game out of revealing it. This date became the basis of the contest. Jeannie finally forces it out of him at the end of the fourth episode: April 1. This date conflicts with the birthday given to her in the season 1 episode "G.I. Jeannie": July 1.
In a third-season four-part episode ("Genie, Genie, Who's Got the Genie?" January 16 – February 6, 1968), Jeannie is locked in a safe bound for the moon. Any attempt to force the safe or use the wrong combination will destroy it with an explosive. Jeannie is in there so long that whoever opens the safe will become her master. The episodes spread out over four weeks, during which a contest was held to guess the safe's combination. This explains why Larry Hagman is never seen saying the combination out loud: His mouth is hidden behind the safe or the shot is on Jeannie when he says it. The combination was not decided until just before the episode aired, with Hagman's voice dubbed in. Over the closing credits, Barbara Eden announced and congratulated the contest winner, with 4–9–7 as the winning combination.
In the fourth season, a two-part episode, "The Case Of My Vanishing Master" (January 6–13, 1969), concerned Tony being taken to a secret location somewhere in the world, while a perfect double took his place at home. A contest was held to guess the location where Tony had been taken. Unlike earlier contests, the answer was not revealed within the story. At the end of "Invisible House For Sale" (February 3, 1969), a special "contest epilogue" had Jeannie and Tony reveal to the audience the "secret location", Puerto Rico, followed by the name of the "Grand Prize Winner".
Reception[edit]
Nielsen ratings[edit]
Season
Time
Rank
Rating
1965–66 Saturday at 8:00-8:30 PM #27 21.8 (tie)[9]
1966–67 Monday at 8:00-8:30 PM Not in the Top 30[10][11]
1967–68 Tuesday at 7:30-8:00 PM
1968–69 Monday at 7:30-8:00 PM #26 20.7[12]
1969–70 Tuesday at 7:30-8:00 PM Not in the Top 30[13]
Syndication[edit]
When reruns debuted on New York's WPIX, Jeannie won its time period with a 13 rating and a 23 share of the audience.[14] The series averaged a 14 share and 32 share of the audience when WTTG in Washington, DC began airing the series.[15] It was the first off-network series to best network competition in the ratings: "The big switch no doubt representing the first time in rating history that indies (local stations) have knocked over the network stations in a primetime slot was promoted by WPIX's premiere of the off-web Jeannie reruns back to back from 7 to 8 pm."[16]
Reunion movies[edit]
Two made-for-television reunion movies were made that followed the further exploits of Jeannie and Tony in the successive years. For various reasons, Larry Hagman did not reprise his role as Anthony Nelson in either of these reunion movies. In 1985, Wayne Rogers played the role of retiring Colonel Nelson in I Dream of Jeannie... Fifteen Years Later. In 1991, I Still Dream of Jeannie was released with Hagman's Dallas co-star Ken Kercheval essentially playing the role of Jeannie's "master". A third film was planned, but never finalized.
Animated series[edit]
Hanna-Barbera Productions produced an animated series Jeannie. This animated series is completely separate from the Eden live-action series. Jeannie the animated series was originally broadcast from September 1973 to 1975, which featured Jeannie (voiced by Julie McWhirter) and genie-in-training Babu (voiced by former Three Stooges star Joe Besser) as the servants of Corey Anders, a high-school student and surfer (voiced by Mark Hamill).
Factual and geographic errors[edit]
NASA astronauts did not live in Florida at the time of the series. Since 1962, they lived and trained at the Manned Spacecraft Center (now Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center) in Houston.
Many of the exterior shots of Tony's home or other areas show mountains or hills in the background. The actual respective terrains of Florida and southeast Texas – where the real-life astronauts of that time lived and trained – are flat (especially the areas around Cape Canaveral and Cocoa Beach where the Nelsons were shown to have lived in the sitcom).
In popular culture[edit]
Philadelphia punk rock band The Dead Milkmen has a song called "I Dream of Jesus", in which the singer's mother finds Jesus who is trapped inside a bottle. The song appears on the 1993 album Not Richard, but Dick.[17] "I Dream of Jesus" is also the title of a Family Guy episode.
In The Monkees episode "The Spy Who Came in from the Cool", Davy Jones rubs a small table lamp when a beautiful harem-costumed genie (not Barbara Eden) emerges from a puff of smoke and assures her “master” that she will help him. A bemused Jones remarks, “Imagine that—wrong show!” [18]
On Tom's Album, a compilation of versions of the song "Tom's Diner", a parody by Mark Jonathan Davis is called "Jeannie's Diner", which references and samples I Dream of Jeannie.
In Ferris Bueller's Day Off, star Matthew Broderick dances to the I Dream Of Jeannie theme song.
The Big Time Rush episode "Big Time Songwriters" contains a scene where Erin Sanders is dressed like Barbara Eden while reading a script for a movie or television show called "Teen Genie".[19]
Episode 15 of season 6 of the supernatural TV series Charmed was called "I Dream of Phoebe". In it, Phoebe Halliwell (Alyssa Milano) is turned into a genie, and wears a pale blue version of "Jeanie's" costume.[20]
Indian serial Jeannie Aur Juju is based on this series.
In The Bob Newhart Show 19th Anniversary special, Bob Hartley talks with his friends about the strange dream he had of being an innkeeper in Vermont. At one point, his neighbor Howard Borden recalls his own strange dream about being an astronaut in Florida, which leads to several I Dream of Jeannie clips with Roger Healey. (Actor Bill Daily had played both roles.)
During the song in "Stan of Arabia: Part 1", Stan Smith (the "American Dad!") sings that he wants his wife to serve him in the same manner that Master Tony was served by Jeannie.
The show's title came from a 1854 parlor ballad, "Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair" by Stephen Foster, whose opening line says, "I Dream of Jeanie with the light brown hair".
I Dream of Jenna and This Ain’t I Dream of Jeannie XXX (from the This Ain't... film series) are porn parody film titles referring to I Dream of Jeannie, the former also being a play on porn actress Jenna Jameson's name.
In the X-Men episode "Mojovision", the alien Mojo kidnaps most of the X-Men and casts them as his latest all-galaxy television hit. One of his TV shows featuring the X-Men is named I Dream of Jean (starring Wolverine and Jean Grey), a play on both I Dream of Jeannie and Jean Grey.
During the closing scene of A Very Brady Sequel, Barbara Eden cameos as Jeannie, crashing Mike and Carol Brady's second wedding and introducing herself as Mike Brady's wife.
The theme music has been a source of inspiration for two animated series on the [Qubo], a children's broadcasting network. The shows Pecola and Ned's Newt have theme songs that bear a loose similarity to I Dream of Genie's theme music.
In Tom and Jerry media to parody "I Dream of Jeannie". The first one is the Tom & Jerry Kids episode "I Dream of Cheezy" and the second in Tom and Jerry Tales episode "I Dream of Meanie"
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Sheldon, Sidney (Aug 1, 2006). The Other Side of Me. Hachette Digital, Inc.
Jump up ^ James Henerson (writer) & Claudio Guzman (director) (January 27, 1969). "Ride 'Em Astronaut". I Dream of Jeannie. Season 4. Episode 15. NBC.
Jump up ^ James Henerson (writer) & Hal Cooper (director) (February 3, 1969). "Invisible House For Sale". I Dream of Jeannie. Season 4. Episode 16. NBC.
Jump up ^ Creech, Gray (November 3, 2005). "NASA on Classic TV". nasa.gov.
^ Jump up to: a b "Cocoa Beach celebrates 40 years of I Dream of Jeannie". The Associated Press. 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b c Osborne, Ray I Dream of Jeannie Days
Jump up ^ "'I Dream of Jeannie' gets historical marker in Cocoa Beach". Central Florida News 13. Retrieved 2012-08-25.
Jump up ^ Cox, Stephen; Howard Frank (2000-03-18). Dreaming of Jeannie: TV's Prime Time in a Bottle. St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-312-20417-5.
Jump up ^ ClassicTVHits.com: TV Ratings > 1965–1966
Jump up ^ ClassicTCHits.com: TV Ratings > 1966–1967
Jump up ^ ClassicTVHits.com: TV Ratings > 1967–1968
Jump up ^ ClassicTVHits.com: TV Ratings > 1968–1969
Jump up ^ ClassicTVHits.com: TV Ratings > 1969–1970
Jump up ^ Variety, October 6, 1971.
Jump up ^ Variety, September 22, 1971.
Jump up ^ Variety, October 6, 1971.
Jump up ^ "I Dream Of Jesus", by The Dead Milkmen (Lyrics Time)
Jump up ^ http://mentalfloss.com/article/70923/11-magical-facts-about-i-dream-jeannie
Jump up ^ Erin Sanders: Big Time Rush episode "Big Time Songwriters" (Childstarlets.com)
Jump up ^ "Charmed, I Dream of Phoebe, Season 6". Tntdrama.com. Retrieved 2013-09-05.
Further reading[edit]
Cox, Stephen; Howard Frank (2000). Dreaming of Jeannie: TV's Prime Time in a Bottle. St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-312-20417-5.
Sheldon, Sidney (2005). The Other Side Of Me. Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-53267-3.
Brewster, Dennis (1966). I Dream Of Jeannie (novel). Pocket Books.
Kluger, Jeffery (1994). Apollo 13: Lost Moon. Pocket Books. ISBN 978-0-618-61958-0.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: I Dream of Jeannie
Wikimedia Commons has media related to I Dream of Jeannie.
Television in the United States portal
1960s portal
Barbara "Jeannie" Eden's Official Website
TV Land buys back the rights to I Dream of Jeannie
I Dream of Jeannie on IMDb
I Dream of Jeannie at TV.com
Anthony (Tony) Nelson, fictitious astronaut – Encyclopedia Astronautica
Roger Healey, fictitious astronaut – Encyclopedia Astronautica
[show]
v
t
e
I Dream of Jeannie
Cast
Main characters
Jeannie
Major Anthony "Tony" Nelson
Major Roger Healey
Dr. Alfred Bellows
Amanda Bellows
Jeannie II
General Martin Peterson
General Winfield Schaeffer
Episodes
Pilot: "The Lady in the Bottle"
Seasons: 1
2
3
4
5
TV movies
I Dream of Jeannie... Fifteen Years Later (1985)
I Still Dream of Jeannie (1991)
Animated series
Jeannie (1973–75)
Cast
Barbara Eden
Larry Hagman
Bill Daily
Hayden Rorke
Emmaline Henry
Barton MacLane
Vinton Hayworth
Crew
Sidney Sheldon
Claudio Guzman
Hal Cooper
Gene Nelson
Hugo Montenegro
[show]
v
t
e
Works by Sidney Sheldon
Novels
The Naked Face
The Other Side of Midnight
A Stranger in the Mirror
Bloodline
Rage of Angels
Master of the Game
If Tomorrow Comes
Windmills of the Gods
The Sands of Time
Memories of Midnight
The Doomsday Conspiracy
The Stars Shine Down
Nothing Lasts Forever
Morning, Noon and Night
The Best Laid Plans
Tell Me Your Dreams
The Sky is Falling
Are You Afraid of the Dark?
Non-fiction
The Other Side of Me
Television
The Patty Duke Show
I Dream of Jeannie
Nancy
Hart to Hart
Adaptations
The Other Side of Midnight (1977)
Bloodline (1979)
Rage of Angels (1983)
Master of the Game (1984)
If Tomorrow Comes (1986)
Windmills of the Gods (1988)
Memories of Midnight (1991)
Kshana Kshana (2007)
Tilly Bagshawe novels
Sidney Sheldon's Mistress of the Game (2009)
Sidney Sheldon's After the Darkness (2010)
Sidney Sheldon's The Tides of Memory (2013)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I_Dream_of_Jeannie&oldid=800338272"
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