text:
Longevity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Comparison of male and female life expectancy at birth for countries and territories as defined in the 2011 CIA Factbook, with selected bubbles labelled. The green dotted line corresponds to equal female and male life expectancy. The apparent 3D volumes of the bubbles are linearly proportional to their population.[1][2] (In the SVG file, hover over a bubble to highlight it and show its data.)
The word "longevity" is sometimes used as a synonym for "life expectancy" in demography - however, the term "longevity" is sometimes meant to refer only to especially long-lived members of a population, whereas "life expectancy" is always defined statistically as the average number of years remaining at a given age. For example, a population's life expectancy at birth is the same as the average age at death for all people born in the same year (in the case of cohorts). Longevity is best thought of as a term for general audiences meaning 'typical length of life' and specific statistical definitions should be clarified when necessary.
Reflections on longevity have usually gone beyond acknowledging the brevity of human life and have included thinking about methods to extend life. Longevity has been a topic not only for the scientific community but also for writers of travel, science fiction, and utopian novels.
There are many difficulties in authenticating the longest human life span ever by modern verification standards, owing to inaccurate or incomplete birth statistics. Fiction, legend, and folklore have proposed or claimed life spans in the past or future vastly longer than those verified by modern standards, and longevity narratives and unverified longevity claims frequently speak of their existence in the present.
A life annuity is a form of longevity insurance.
Contents
[hide]
1 Life expectancy, as of 2010
2 Long-lived individuals
3 Major factors
3.1 Genetics
3.2 Environmental factors
4 Change over time
5 Limited longevity
6 Longevity traditions
7 Future
8 Non-human biological longevity
9 Biological immortality
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links
Life expectancy, as of 2010[edit]
Main article: List of countries by life expectancy
Various factors contribute to an individual's longevity. Significant factors in life expectancy include gender, genetics, access to health care, hygiene, diet and nutrition, exercise, lifestyle, and crime rates. Below is a list of life expectancies in different types of countries:[3]
Developed countries: 77–90 years (e.g. Canada: 81.29 years, 2010 est.)
Developing countries: 32–80 years (e.g. Mozambique: 41.37 years, 2010 est.)
Population longevities are increasing as life expectancies around the world grow:[1][4]
Spain: 79.06 years in 2002, 81.07 years in 2010
Australia: 80 years in 2002, 81.72 years in 2010
Italy: 79.25 years in 2002, 80.33 years in 2010
France: 79.05 years in 2002, 81.09 years in 2010
Germany: 77.78 years in 2002, 79.41 years in 2010
UK: 80 years in 2002, 81.73 years in 2010
USA: 77.4 years in 2002, 78.24 years in 2010
Monaco: 79.12 years in 2002, 79.73 years in 2011
Long-lived individuals[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Gerontology Research Group validates current longevity records by modern standards, and maintains a list of supercentenarians; many other unvalidated longevity claims exist. Record-holding individuals include:[citation needed]
Eilif Philipsen (1682-1785, 102 years, 333 days): first person to reach the ages of 100, 101, and 102 (on July 21, 1782) and whose age could be validated.
Geert Adriaans Boomgaard (1788–1899, 110 years, 135 days): first person to reach the age of 110 (on September 21, 1898) and whose age could be validated
Margaret Ann Neve, (18 May 1792 - 4 April 1903, 110 years, 346 days) the first validated female supercentenarian (on 18 May 1902)
Jeanne Calment (1875–1997, 122 years, 164 days): the oldest person in history whose age has been verified by modern documentation. This defines the modern human life span, which is set by the oldest documented individual who ever lived.
Sarah Knauss (1880–1999, 119 years, 97 days): the second oldest documented person in modern times and the oldest American.
Jiroemon Kimura (1897–2013, 116 years, 54 days): the oldest man in history whose age has been verified by modern documentation.
Major factors[edit]
Old man at a nursing home in Norway.
Evidence-based studies indicate that longevity is based on two major factors, genetics and lifestyle choices.[5]
Genetics[edit]
Twin studies have estimated that approximately 20-30% the variation in human lifespan can be related to genetics, with the rest due to individual behaviors and environmental factors which can be modified.[6] Although over 200 gene variants have been associated with longevity according to a US-Belgian-UK research database of human genetic variants,[7] these explain only a small fraction of the heritability.[8] A 2012 study found that even modest amounts of leisure time physical exercise can extend life expectancy by as much as 4.5 years.[9]
Lymphoblastoid cell lines established from blood samples of centenarians have significantly higher activity of the DNA repair protein PARP (Poly ADP ribose polymerase) than cell lines from younger (20 to 70 year old) individuals.[10] The lymphocytic cells of centenarians have characteristics typical of cells from young people, both in their capability of priming the mechanism of repair after H2O2 sublethal oxidative DNA damage and in their PARP gene expression.[11] These findings suggest that elevated PARP gene expression contributes to the longevity of centenarians, consistent with the DNA damage theory of aging.[12]
Environmental factors[edit]
A study of the regions of the world known as blue zones, where people commonly live active lives past 100 years of age, speculated that longevity is related to a healthy social and family life, not smoking, eating a plant-based diet, frequent consumption of legumes and nuts, and engaging in regular physical activity.[13] In a cohort study, the combination of a plant based diet, normal BMI, and not smoking accounted for differences up to 15 years in life expectancy.[14] Korean court records going back to 1392 indicate that the average lifespan of eunuchs was 70.0 ± 1.76 years, which was 14.4–19.1 years longer than the lifespan of non-castrated men of similar socio-economic status.[15] The Alameda County Study hypothesized three additional lifestyle characteristics that promote longevity: limiting alcohol consumption, sleeping 7 to 8 hours per night, and not snacking (eating between meals), although the study found the association between these characteristics and mortality is "weak at best".[16] There are however many other possible factors potentially affecting longevity, including the impact of high peer competition, which is typically experienced in large cities.[17]
Change over time[edit]
In preindustrial times, deaths at young and middle age were more common than they are today. This is not due to genetics, but because of environmental factors such as disease, accidents, and malnutrition, especially since the former were not generally treatable with pre-20th century medicine. Deaths from childbirth were common for women, and many children did not live past infancy. In addition, most people who did attain old age were likely to die quickly from the above-mentioned untreatable health problems. Despite this, we do find many examples of pre-20th century individuals attaining lifespans of 72 years or greater, including Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Cato the Elder, Thomas Hobbes, Eric of Pomerania, Christopher Polhem, and Michelangelo. This was also true for poorer people like peasants or laborers. Genealogists will almost certainly find ancestors living to their 70s, 80s and even 90s several hundred years ago.
For example, an 1871 census in the UK (the first of its kind, but personal data from other censuses dates back to 1841 and numerical data back to 1801) found the average male life expectancy as being 44, but if infant mortality is subtracted, males who lived to adulthood averaged 75 years. The present life expectancy in the UK is 77 years for males and 81 for females, while the United States averages 74 for males and 80 for females.
Studies have shown that black American males have the shortest lifespans of any group of people in the US, averaging only 69 years (Asian-American females average the longest).[18] This reflects overall poorer health and greater prevalence of heart disease, obesity, diabetes, and cancer among black American men.
Women normally outlive men, and this was as true in pre-industrial times as today. Theories for this include smaller bodies (and thus less stress on the heart), a stronger immune system (since testosterone acts as an immunosuppressant), and less tendency to engage in physically dangerous activities.
There is debate as to whether the pursuit of longevity is a worthwhile health care goal. Bioethicist Ezekiel Emanuel, who is also one of the architects of ObamaCare, has argued that the pursuit of longevity via the compression of morbidity explanation is a "fantasy" and that longevity past age 75 should not be considered an end in itself.[19] This has been challenged by neurosurgeon Miguel Faria, who states that life can be worthwhile in healthy old age, that the compression of morbidity is a real phenomenon, and that longevity should be pursued in association with quality of life.[20] Faria has discussed how longevity in association with leading healthy lifestyles can lead to the postponement of senescence as well as happiness and wisdom in old age.[21]
Limited longevity[edit]
All of the biological organisms have a limited longevity, and different species of animals and plants have different potentials of longevity. Misrepair-accumulation aging theory [22][23] suggests that the potential of longevity of an organism is related to its structural complexity.[24] Limited longevity is due to the limited structural complexity of the organism. If a species of organisms has too high structural complexity, most of its individuals would die before the reproduction age, and the species could not survive. This theory suggests that limited structural complexity and limited longevity are essential for the survival of a species.
Longevity traditions[edit]
Main articles: Longevity traditions and Longevity claims
Longevity traditions are traditions about long-lived people (generally supercentenarians), and practices that have been believed to confer longevity.[25][26] A comparison and contrast of "longevity in antiquity" (such as the Sumerian King List, the genealogies of Genesis, and the Persian Shahnameh) with "longevity in historical times" (common-era cases through twentieth-century news reports) is elaborated in detail in Lucian Boia's 2004 book Forever Young: A Cultural History of Longevity from Antiquity to the Present and other sources.[27]
The Fountain of Youth reputedly restores the youth of anyone who drinks of its waters. The New Testament, following older Jewish tradition, attributes healing to the Pool of Bethesda when the waters are "stirred" by an angel.[28] After the death of Juan Ponce de León, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés wrote in Historia General y Natural de las Indias (1535) that Ponce de León was looking for the waters of Bimini to cure his aging.[29] Traditions that have been believed to confer greater human longevity also include alchemy,[30] such as that attributed to Nicolas Flamel. In the modern era, the Okinawa diet has some reputation of linkage to exceptionally high ages.[31]
More recent longevity claims are subcategorized by many editions of Guinness World Records into four groups: "In late life, very old people often tend to advance their ages at the rate of about 17 years per decade .... Several celebrated super-centenarians (over 110 years) are believed to have been double lives (father and son, relations with the same names or successive bearers of a title) .... A number of instances have been commercially sponsored, while a fourth category of recent claims are those made for political ends ...."[32] The estimate of 17 years per decade was corroborated by the 1901 and 1911 British censuses.[32] Mazess and Forman also discovered in 1978 that inhabitants of Vilcabamba, Ecuador, claimed excessive longevity by using their fathers' and grandfathers' baptismal entries.[32][33] Time magazine considered that, by the Soviet Union, longevity had been elevated to a state-supported "Methuselah cult".[34] Robert Ripley regularly reported supercentenarian claims in Ripley's Believe It or Not!, usually citing his own reputation as a fact-checker to claim reliability.[35]
Future[edit]
The U.S. Census Bureau view on the future of longevity is that life expectancy in the United States will be in the mid-80s by 2050 (up from 77.85 in 2006) and will top out eventually in the low 90s, barring major scientific advances that can change the rate of human aging itself, as opposed to merely treating the effects of aging as is done today. The Census Bureau also predicted that the United States would have 5.3 million people aged over 100 in 2100. The United Nations has also made projections far out into the future, up to 2300, at which point it projects that life expectancies in most developed countries will be between 100 and 106 years and still rising, though more and more slowly than before. These projections also suggest that life expectancies in poor countries will still be less than those in rich countries in 2300, in some cases by as much as 20 years. The UN itself mentioned that gaps in life expectancy so far in the future may well not exist, especially since the exchange of technology between rich and poor countries and the industrialization and development of poor countries may cause their life expectancies to converge fully with those of rich countries long before that point, similarly to the way life expectancies between rich and poor countries have already been converging over the last 60 years as better medicine, technology, and living conditions became accessible to many people in poor countries. The UN has warned that these projections are uncertain, and cautions that any change or advancement in medical technology could invalidate such projections.[36]
Recent increases in the rates of lifestyle diseases, such as obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease, may eventually slow or reverse this trend toward increasing life expectancy in the developed world, but have not yet done so. The average age of the US population is getting higher[37] and these diseases show up in older people.[38]
Jennifer Couzin-Frankel examined how much mortality from various causes would have to drop in order to boost life expectancy and concluded that most of the past increases in life expectancy occurred because of improved survival rates for young people. She states that it seems unlikely that life expectancy at birth will ever exceed 85 years.[39] Michio Kaku argues that genetic engineering, nanotechnology and future breakthroughs will accelerate the rate of life expectancy increase indefinitely.[40] Already genetic engineering has allowed the life expectancy of certain primates to be doubled, and for human skin cells in labs to divide and live indefinitely without becoming cancerous.[41]
However, since 1840, record life expectancy has risen linearly for men and women, albeit more slowly for men. For women the increase has been almost three months per year, for men almost 2.7 months per year. In light of steady increase, without any sign of limitation, the suggestion that life expectancy will top out must be treated with caution. Scientists Oeppen and Vaupel observe that experts who assert that "life expectancy is approaching a ceiling ... have repeatedly been proven wrong." It is thought that life expectancy for women has increased more dramatically owing to the considerable advances in medicine related to childbirth.[42]
Non-human biological longevity[edit]
Main article: List of long-living organisms
Currently living:
A 7003506700000000000♠5,067-year-old member of the species Pinus longaeva: Oldest known currently living tree.[43]
Methuselah: 4,800-year-old bristlecone pine in the White Mountains of California, the second oldest currently living organism known.[43]
Non-living:
Possibly 250-million year-old bacteria, Bacillus permians, were revived from stasis after being found in sodium chloride crystals in a cavern in New Mexico. Russell Vreeland, and colleagues from West Chester University in Pennsylvania, reported on October 18, 2000 that they had revived the halobacteria after bathing them with a nutrient solution. If they had survived for 250 million years, they would be the oldest living organisms ever recorded.[44] However, their findings date the crystal surrounding the bacteria, and DNA analysis suggests the bacteria themselves are likely to be less ancient.[45]
A bristlecone pine nicknamed "Prometheus", felled by a climate dynamics researcher in the Great Basin National Park in Nevada in 1964, found to be about 4,900 years old, is the longest-lived single organism known.[46]
The quahog clam (Arctica islandica) is exceptionally long-lived, with a maximum recorded age of 507 years, the longest of any animal.[47] Other clams of the species have been recorded as living up to 374 years.[48]
Lamellibrachia luymesi, a deep-sea cold-seep tubeworm, is estimated to reach ages of over 250 years based on a model of its growth rates.[49]
Hanako was the longest-lived vertebrate ever recorded at 226 years.
A bowhead whale killed in a hunt was found to be approximately 211 years old (possibly up to 245 years old), the longest-lived mammal known.[50]
Tu'i Malila, a radiated tortoise presented to the Tongan royal family by Captain Cook, lived for over 185 years. It is the oldest documented reptile. Adwaitya, an Aldabra Giant Tortoise, may have lived for up to 250 years.
Biological immortality[edit]
Main article: Biological immortality
Certain exotic organisms do not seem to be subject to aging and can live indefinitely. Examples include Tardigrades and Hydras. That is not to say that these organisms cannot die, merely that they only die as a result of disease or injury rather than age-related deterioration (and that they are not subject to the Hayflick limit).
See also[edit]
Actuarial science
Aging
Aging brain
Alliance for Aging Research
Anti-aging movement
Biodemography
Biodemography of human longevity
Calico (company)
Centenarian
DNA damage theory of aging
Genetics of aging
Gerontology Research Group
Hayflick limit
Indefinite lifespan
Life extension
List of aging processes
List of last survivors of historical events
Longevity claims
Maximum life span
Mitohormesis
Oldest viable seed
Reliability theory of aging and longevity
Research into centenarians
Senescence
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Life expectancy at birth, Country Comparison to the World". CIA World Factbook. US Central Intelligence Agency. n.d. Retrieved 12 Jan 2011.
Jump up ^ "Field Listing: Population, Country Comparison to the World". CIA World Factbook. US Central Intelligence Agency. n.d. Retrieved 12 Jan 2011.
Jump up ^ The US Central Intelligence Agency, 2010, CIA World Factbook, retrieved 12 Jan. 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html
Jump up ^ The US Central Intelligence Agency, 2002, CIA World Factbook, retrieved 12 Jan. 2011, http://www.theodora.com/wfb/2002/index.html
Jump up ^ Marziali, Carl (7 December 2010). "Reaching Toward the Fountain of Youth". USC Trojan Family Magazine. Retrieved 7 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Hjelmborg, J.; Iachine, Ivan; Skytthe, Axel; Vaupel, James W.; McGue, Matt; Koskenvuo, Markku; Kaprio, Jaakko; Pedersen, Nancy L.; Christensen, Kaare; et al. (2006). "Genetic influence on human lifespan and longevity". Human Genetics. 119 (3): 312–321. doi:10.1007/s00439-006-0144-y.
Jump up ^ "LongevityMap". Human Ageing Genomic Resources. senescence.info by João Pedro de Magalhães. n.d. Retrieved 2013-09-23.
Jump up ^ Budovsky, A.; Craig, Thomas; Wang, Jingwei; Tacutu, Robi; Csordas, Attila; Lourenço, Joana; Fraifeld, Vadim E.; De Magalhães, João Pedro; et al. (2013). "LongevityMap: A database of human genetic variants associated with longevity". Trends in Genetics. 29 (10): 559–560. PMID 23998809. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2013.08.003.
Jump up ^ Moore, S.C.; et al. (2012). "Leisure time physical activity of moderate to vigorous intensity and mortality: A large pooled cohort analysis". PLoS Medicine. 9 (11): e1001335. PMC 3491006  . PMID 23139642. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001335.
Jump up ^ Muiras ML, Müller M, Schächter F, Bürkle A (1998). "Increased poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase activity in lymphoblastoid cell lines from centenarians". J. Mol. Med. 76 (5): 346–54. PMID 9587069. doi:10.1007/s001090050226.
Jump up ^ Chevanne M, Calia C, Zampieri M, Cecchinelli B, Caldini R, Monti D, Bucci L, Franceschi C, Caiafa P (2007). "Oxidative DNA damage repair and parp 1 and parp 2 expression in Epstein-Barr virus-immortalized B lymphocyte cells from young subjects, old subjects, and centenarians". Rejuvenation Res. 10 (2): 191–204. PMID 17518695. doi:10.1089/rej.2006.0514.
Jump up ^ Bernstein H, Payne CM, Bernstein C, Garewal H, Dvorak K (2008). Cancer and aging as consequences of un-repaired DNA damage. In: New Research on DNA Damages (Editors: Honoka Kimura and Aoi Suzuki) Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York, Chapter 1, pp. 1-47. open access, but read only https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=43247 ISBN 1604565810 ISBN 978-1604565812
Jump up ^ Buettner, D. (2008). The Blue Zones. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society.
Jump up ^ Fraser, Gary E.; Shavlik, David J. (2001). "Ten Years of Life: Is It a Matter of Choice?". Archives of Internal Medicine. 161 (13): 1645–1652. PMID 11434797. doi:10.1001/archinte.161.13.1645.
Jump up ^ Joe Palca (September 25, 2012). "Korean Eunuchs Lived Long and Prospered".
Jump up ^ Kaplan, George A.; Seeman, Teresa E.; Cohen, Richard D.; Guralnik, J; et al. (1987). "Mortality Among the Elderly in the Alameda County Study: Behavioral and Demographic Risk Factors". American Journal of Public Health. 77 (3): 307–312. doi:10.2105/AJPH.77.3.307. |first4= missing |last4= in Authors list (help)
Jump up ^ Borowiecki, Karol J. and Georgios Kavetsos (2015). In fatal pursuit of immortal fame: Peer competition and early mortality of music composers Social Science & Medicine 134:30-42
Jump up ^ Keaten, John (17 October 2012). "Health in America Today" (PDF). Measure of America. Retrieved 17 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Emanuel EJ. "Why I hope to die at 75: An argument that society and families - and you - will be better off if nature takes its course swiftly and promptly". The Atlantic. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Faria MA. "Bioethics and why I hope to live beyond age 75 attaining wisdom!: A rebuttal to Dr. Ezekiel Emanuel′s 75 age limit.". Surg Neurol Int 2015;6:35. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Faria MA. "Longevity and compression of morbidity from a neuroscience perspective: Do we have a duty to die by a certain age?". Surg Neurol Int 2015;6:49. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Wang, Jicun; Michelitsch, Thomas; Wunderlin, Arne; Mahadeva, Ravi (2009). "Aging as a consequence of Misrepair –a novel theory of aging". arXiv:0904.0575  .
Jump up ^ Wang-Michelitsch, Jicun; Michelitsch, Thomas (2015). "Aging as a process of accumulation of Misrepairs". arXiv:1503.07163  .
Jump up ^ Wang-Michelitsch, Jicun; Michelitsch, Thomas (2015). "Potential of longevity: hidden in structural complexity". arXiv:1505.03902  .
Jump up ^ Ni, Maoshing (2006). Secrets of Longevity. Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-8118-4949-4. Chuan xiong ... has long been a key herb in the longevity tradition of China, prized for its powers to boost the immune system, activate blood circulation, and relieve pain.
Jump up ^ Fulder, Stephen (1983). An End to Ageing: Remedies for Life. Destiny Books. ISBN 978-0-89281-044-4. Taoist devotion to immortality is important to us for two reasons. The techniques may be of considerable value to our goal of a healthy old age, if we can understand and adapt them. Secondly, the Taoist longevity tradition has brought us many interesting remedies.
Jump up ^ Vallin, Jacques; Meslé, France (February 2001). "Living Beyond the Age of 100" (PDF). Bulletin Mensuel d'Information de l'Institut National d'Etudes Demographiques: Population & Sociétés. Institut National d'Etudes Demographiques (365). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 September 2012.
Jump up ^ John 5:4.
Jump up ^ Fernández de Oviedo, Gonzalo. Historia General y Natural de las Indias, book 16, chapter XI.
Jump up ^ Kohn, Livia (2001). Daoism and Chinese Culture. Three Pines Press. pp. 4, 84. ISBN 978-1-931483-00-1.
Jump up ^ Willcox, Willcox, and Suzuki. The Okinawa program: Learn the secrets to healthy longevity. p. 3. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Guinness Book of World Records. 1983. pp. 16–19.
Jump up ^ Leaf, Alexander (January 1973). "Search for the Oldest People". National Geographic. pp. 93–118.
Jump up ^ "No Methuselahs". Time Magazine. 1974-08-12. Retrieved 2009-05-13.
Jump up ^ Ripley Enterprises, Inc. (September 1969). Ripley's Believe It or Not! 15th Series. New York City: Pocket Books. pp. 112, 84, 56. The Old Man of the Sea / Yaupa / a native of Futuna, one of the New Hebrides Islands / regularly worked his own farm at the age of 130 / He died in 1899 of measles — a children's disease ... Horoz Ali, the last Turkish gatekeeper of Nicosia, Cyprus, lived to the age of 120 ... Francisco Huppazoli (1587–1702) of Casale, Italy, lived 114 years without a day's illness and had 4 children by his 5th wife — whom he married at the age of 98
Jump up ^ World Population to 2300, United Nations
Jump up ^ http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/2010_census/cb11-cn192.html
Jump up ^ http://www.aihw.gov.au/chronic-diseases/key-indicators/determinants/
Jump up ^ Jennifer Couzin-Frankel (29 July 2011). "A Pitched Battle Over Life Span". Science. 333 (6042): 549–50. PMID 21798928. doi:10.1126/science.333.6042.549.
Jump up ^ Physics of the Future, Michio Kaku
Jump up ^ Michio Kaku interview
Jump up ^ Oeppen, Jim; James W. Vaupel (2002-05-10). "Broken Limits to Life Expectancy". Science. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science. 296 (5570): 1029–1031. PMID 12004104. doi:10.1126/science.1069675. Retrieved 2009-05-17.
^ Jump up to: a b "Rocky Mountain Tree-Ring Research, OLDLIST". Retrieved January 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ 250-Million-Year-Old Bacillus permians Halobacteria Revived. October 22, 2000. Bioinformatics Organization. J.W. Bizzaro. [1]
Jump up ^ "The Permian Bacterium that Isn't". Oxford Journals. 2001-02-15. Retrieved 2010-11-16.
Jump up ^ Hall, Carl. "Staying Alive". San Francisco Chronicle, 23 August 1998.
Jump up ^ Munro D.; Blier P.U. (2012). "The extreme longevity of Arctica islandica is associated with increased peroxidation resistance in mitochondrial membranes.". Aging Cell. 11 (5): 845–55. doi:10.1111/j.1474-9726.2012.00847.x.
Jump up ^ Bangor University: 400 year old Clam Found(retrieved 29 October 2007) BBC News: Ming the clam is 'oldest animal' (retrieved 29 October 2007)
Jump up ^ Bergquist DC, Williams FM, Fisher CR (2000). "Longevity record for deep-sea invertebrate". Nature. 403 (6769): 499–500. PMID 10676948. doi:10.1038/35000647.
Jump up ^ Rozell (2001) "Bowhead Whales May Be the World's Oldest Mammals", Alaska Science Forum, Article 1529 (retrieved 29 October 2007)
References[edit]
Lucian Boia (2005) Forever Young: A Cultural History of Longevity from Antiquity to the Present Door Reaktion Books. ISBN 1-86189-154-7
James R. Carey & Debra S. Judge (2000) Longevity records: Life Spans of Mammals, Birds, Amphibians, reptiles, and Fish. Odense Monographs on Population Aging 8, ISBN 87-7838-539-3
James R. Carey (2003) Longevity. The biology and Demography of Life Span. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08848-9
Gavrilova N.S., Gavrilov L.A. (2010) Search for Mechanisms of Exceptional Human Longevity. Rejuvenation Research, 13(2-3): 262-264.
Gavrilova N.S., Gavrilov L.A. (2008), Can exceptional longevity be predicted? Contingencies [Journal of the American Academy of Actuaries], July/August issue, pp. 82–88.
Gavrilova N.S., Gavrilov L.A. (2007) Search for Predictors of Exceptional Human Longevity: Using Computerized Genealogies and Internet Resources for Human Longevity Studies. North American Actuarial Journal, 11(1): 49-67
Gavrilov LA, Gavrilova NS. (2006) Reliability Theory of Aging and Longevity. In: Masoro E.J. & Austad S.N.. (eds.): Handbook of the Biology of Aging, Sixth Edition. Academic Press. San Diego, CA, p 3-42.
Gavrilova, N.S., Gavrilov, L.A. (2005) Human longevity and reproduction: An evolutionary perspective. In: Voland, E., Chasiotis, A. & Schiefenhoevel, W. (eds.): Grandmotherhood - The Evolutionary Significance of the Second Half of Female Life. Rutgers University Press. New Brunswick, NJ, p 59-80.
Leonid A. Gavrilov, Natalia S. Gavrilova (1991), The Biology of Life Span: A Quantitative Approach. New York: Harwood Academic Publisher
John Robbins (2007) Healthy at 100 Ballantine Books, ISBN 0345490118 garners evidence from many scientific sources to account for the extraordinary longevity of Abkhasians in the Caucasus, Vilcambansns in the Andes, Burusho people in Hunza, Pakistan, and Okinawans.
Roy Walford (2000), Beyond The 120-Year Diet. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows. ISBN 1-56858-157-2
External links[edit]
American Federation for Aging Research
The Okinawa Centenarian Study
List of Longevity Genes
Global Agewatch's country report cards have the most up-to-date, internationally comparable statistics on population ageing and life expectancy from 195 countries.
Buettner, Dan (May 2015). Want Great Longevity and Health? It Takes a Village. "The secrets of the world’s longest-lived people include community, family, exercise and plenty of beans." The Wall Street Journal
[hide]
v
t
e
Longevity
Terminology
Centenarian
Super
Cognitive epidemiology
Elderly
Life expectancy
Life extension
Maximum life span
Old age
Immortality
Ageless
Biological immortality
Digital immortality
Eternal youth
Issues
Anti-aging movement
Longevity claims
Longevity escape velocity
Longevity insurance
Longevity myths
Longevity risk
Living and
Notable centenarians
(over age 100)
By career
Activists, non-profit leaders, and philanthropists
Actors, filmmakers, and entertainers
Artists
Authors, poets, and journalists
Businesspeople
Educators, school administrators, social scientists, and linguists
Explorers
Jurists and practitioners of law
Medical professionals
Military commanders
Musicians, composers, and music patrons
Philosophers and theologians
Politicians and civil servants
Religious figures
Royalty and nobility
Scientists and mathematicians
Sportspeople
Miscellaneous
Supercentenarians
(over age 110)
By continent
Africa
Asia
Europe
North America
Oceania
South America
By country
Australia
Belgium
Canada
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
United States
Oldest people
List of oldest living people
List of the verified oldest people
men
women
Miscellaneous
Last surviving veterans of military insurgencies and wars
European
American
Canadian
Last surviving World War I veterans by country
Surviving veterans of the Spanish Civil War
List of surviving veterans of World War II
Last survivors of historic events
Oldest twins
Longest marriages
List of longest-reigning monarchs
See also
Ageing
Biodemography of human longevity
Earliest known life forms
FOXO3 longevity gene
Gerontology
Immortality in fiction
Life extension-related topics
Senescence
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Longevity&oldid=795089008"
Categories:
Population
Senescence
Longevity
Hidden categories:
CS1 errors: missing author or editor
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
Articles needing additional references from November 2016
All articles needing additional references
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from October 2015
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Bosanski
Čeština
Español
فارسی
Français
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
Íslenska
עברית
日本語
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
Polski
Русский
Simple English
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 11 August 2017, at 22:58.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/CIA_Factbook
mw-redirect
CIA Factbook

value: sup

attrs: class href

attrs: class style

value: b

values:
/wiki/Longevity_narratives
mw-redirect
Longevity narratives

values: Edit section: Life expectancy, as of 2010

values:
/wiki/Crime_rates
mw-redirect
Crime rates

values:
/wiki/Life_tables
mw-redirect
Life tables

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced

values:
/wiki/List_of_supercentenarians
mw-redirect
List of supercentenarians

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2015)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Nursing_home
mw-redirect
Nursing home

values:
/wiki/Poly_ADP_ribose_polymerase
mw-redirect
Poly ADP ribose polymerase

values: Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act

values:
/wiki/Miguel_Faria
mw-redirect
Miguel Faria

values:
/wiki/Longevity_traditions
mw-redirect
Longevity traditions

values:
/wiki/Lifestyle_diseases
mw-redirect
Lifestyle diseases

values:
/wiki/Heart_disease
mw-redirect
Heart disease

values: Edit section: Non-human biological longevity

values:
/wiki/List_of_long-living_organisms
mw-redirect
List of long-living organisms

values:
/wiki/Captain_Cook
mw-redirect
Captain Cook

values:
/wiki/Aldabra_Giant_Tortoise
mw-redirect
Aldabra Giant Tortoise

values: List of last survivors of historical events

values: Reliability theory of aging and longevity

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-3

values: -moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3;

values:
/wiki/CIA_World_Factbook
mw-redirect
CIA World Factbook

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00439-006-0144-y

values:
/wiki/Trends_in_Genetics
mw-redirect
Trends in Genetics

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23998809

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tig.2013.08.003

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23139642

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9587069

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs001090050226

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17518695

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1089%2Frej.2006.0514

values: International Standard Book Number (identifier)

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11434797

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.77.3.307

values:
nofollow
external text
//arxiv.org/abs/0904.0575

values:
nofollow
external text
//arxiv.org/abs/1503.07163

values:
nofollow
external text
//arxiv.org/abs/1505.03902

values: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

values:
/wiki/Guinness_Book_of_World_Records
mw-redirect
Guinness Book of World Records

values:
/wiki/Time_Magazine
mw-redirect
Time Magazine

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21798928

values: American Association for the Advancement of Science

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12004104

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1069675

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.rmtrr.org/oldlist.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10676948

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F35000647

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Leonid_A._Gavrilov
mw-redirect
Leonid A. Gavrilov

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.healthyat100.org

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.afar.org

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.okicent.org

values: List of centenarians (activists, non-profit leaders and philanthropists)

values: List of centenarians (actors, filmmakers and entertainers)

values:
/wiki/List_of_centenarians_(artists)
mw-redirect
List of centenarians (artists)

values: List of centenarians (authors, poets and journalists)

values: List of centenarians (educators, school administrators, social scientists and linguists)

values: List of centenarians (jurists and practitioners of law)

values: List of centenarians (medical professionals)

values: List of centenarians (military commanders)

values: List of centenarians (musicians, composers and music patrons)

values: List of centenarians (philosophers and theologians)

values: List of centenarians (politicians and civil servants)

values: List of centenarians (religious figures)

values: List of centenarians (royalty and nobility)

values: List of centenarians (scientists and mathematicians)

values: List of North American supercentenarians

values: List of South American supercentenarians

values: List of supercentenarians from the United States

values: List of last surviving veterans of military insurgencies and wars

values: Last surviving United States war veterans

values: List of last surviving Canadian war veterans

values: List of last World War I veterans by country

values: List of surviving veterans of the Spanish Civil War

values: List of surviving veterans of World War II

values: List of people with the longest marriages

values: Index of topics related to life extension

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:CS1 errors: missing author or editor

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from November 2016

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2015

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Longevity
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: طول العمر – Arabic

values: طول عمر – Persian

values: Երկարակեցություն – Armenian

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yosh
Yosh – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values: Долголетие – Russian

values: ช่วงชีวิต – Thai

values: Довголіття – Ukrainian

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Longevity rootpage-Longevity skin-vector action-view