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1921 Tampa Bay hurricane
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Tampa Bay hurricane of 1921
Category 4 major hurricane (SSHWS/NWS)
The hurricane on October 24, several hours after peak intensity
Formed
October 20, 1921
Dissipated
October 30, 1921
Highest winds
1-minute sustained: 140 mph (220 km/h)
Lowest pressure
≤ 941 mbar (hPa); 27.79 inHg
Fatalities
8 total
Damage
$10 million (1921 USD)
Areas affected
Western Caribbean, Cuba, Florida Keys, Florida Peninsula
Part of the 1921 Atlantic hurricane season
The Tampa Bay hurricane of 1921 (also known as the 1921 Tarpon Springs hurricane) was a major hurricane that struck the Tampa Bay Area. The eleventh tropical cyclone, sixth tropical storm, and fifth hurricane of the season, the storm developed from a trough in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on October 20. Initially a tropical storm, the system moved northwestward and intensified into a hurricane on October 22 and a major hurricane by October 23. Later that day, the cyclone peaked as a Category 4 on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph (220 km/h). After entering the Gulf of Mexico, the hurricane gradually curved northeastward and weakened to a Category 3 before making landfall near Tarpon Springs, Florida, late on October 25, becoming the first major hurricane to hit the area since a hurricane in 1848. The storm quickly weakened to a Category 1 hurricane while crossing Central Florida, before reaching the Atlantic Ocean early on the following day. Thereafter, system moved east-southeastward and remained fairly steady in intensity before weakening to a tropical storm late on October 29. The storm was then absorbed by a larger extratropical cyclone early the next day, with the remnants of the hurricane soon becoming indistinguishable.
The storm brought strong winds to the Swan Islands, including hurricane-force winds on the main island. Heavy rains fell in Cuba, particularly in Pinar del Río Province, but only minor damage occurred. In Florida, storm surge and abnormally high tides caused damage along much of the state's west coast from Pasco County southward. Several neighborhoods and sections of Tampa were inundated, especially in Ballast Point, DeSoto Park, Edgewater Park, Hyde Park, Palmetto Beach, and other areas in the vicinity of Bayshore Boulevard. Strong winds also damaged hundreds of trees, signs, buildings, and homes. Four deaths occurred in Tampa, three from drownings and another after a man touched a live wire. The storm left two additional fatalities in St. Petersburg. A number of streets in Tarpon Springs were littered with masses of debris, with many structures and trees suffering extensive damage. Strong winds occurred as far east as the Atlantic coast of the state, though wind damage east of the Tampa Bay area was generally limited to downed trees and power lines, resulting in power outages, particularly in Orlando. Agriculture throughout the state experienced significant impact as well, including over $2 million (equivalent to $170 million in 2016) in damage and the loss of at least 800,000 boxes of citrus crops alone.[nb 1] Overall, the hurricane left at least eight deaths and about $10 million (equivalent to $840 million in 2016) in damage.
Contents
[hide]
1 Meteorological history
2 Preparations
3 Impact
4 Aftermath
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Meteorological history[edit]
Map plotting the track and intensity of the storm, according to the Saffir–Simpson scale
In mid-October, a significant drop in atmospheric pressures over the western Caribbean Sea coincided with the development of a trough on October 17. Observations suggested that a circulation formed on October 20,[1] with the Atlantic hurricane database listing a tropical storm beginning at 00:00 UTC, with the system was situated about 95 mi (155 km) southeast of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.[2] The cyclone initially moved slowly northwestward due to a high pressure system over Bermuda.[3] Early on October 22, the storm intensified into a Category 1 hurricane, based on sustained winds of 81 mph (130 km/h) on Great Swan Island.[1] The hurricane strengthened significantly over the northwestern Caribbean, becoming a Category 2 hurricane at 00:00 UTC on October 23 and a Category 3 hurricane six hours later. Around 18:00 UTC, the cyclone reached Category 4 intensity and peaked with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph (220 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 941 mbar (27.8 inHg).[2] The latter was observed by the schooner Virginia,[1] while the former was estimated using the southern wind-pressure relationship.[1]
Early on October 24, the hurricane moved northward across the Yucatán Channel and entered the Gulf of Mexico.[2] Thereafter, the system gradually curved to the northeast as the high pressure weakened and the storm became under the influence of a southwesterly air current.[1] At 12:00 UTC on October 25, the cyclone weakened to a Category 3 hurricane. About 10 hours later, the hurricane made landfall near Tarpon Springs, Florida, 115 mph (185 km/h). The storm further weakened to a Category 1 hurricane over Central Florida early on October 26, about six hours before emerging into the Atlantic Ocean near New Smyrna Beach. Reaching the Atlantic with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h), the hurricane briefly re-strengthened to reach winds of 90 mph (150 km/h) early on October 27.[2] It then moved east-southeastward after the high pressure weakened further.[1] Late on October 29, the system accelerated northeastward and weakened to a tropical storm,[2] before being absorbed by a large extratropical cyclone about 430 mi (690 km) southeast of Bermuda at 00:00 UTC on October 30.[1] About six hours later, the remnants of the hurricane became indistinguishable.[2]
Preparations[edit]
Forecasters at the United States Weather Bureau issued advisories for ships and oceangoing vessels, while posting hurricane warnings for areas in western Florida stretching from Key West to Apalachicola on October 24 and October 25. Additionally, storm warnings were issued eastward from mouth of the Mississippi River and along the east coast of Florida.[4]
Impact[edit]
Remains of Dr. Cyrus Teed's mausoleum on Estero Island
In Cuba, heavy rainfall in Pinar del Río Province caused rivers and creeks to rise. However, only minimal damage was reported.[4]
The hurricane passed to the west of the Florida Keys as a Category 4 hurricane. Its large wind field caused tropical storm force winds to the islands, with the highest wind report being 48 mph (71 km/h) in Key West. Rainfall from the hurricane's outer bands was intermittent, and storm tides of 5 ft (1.5 m) were reported.[3] Further north, Captiva and Sanibel islands were completely inundated with water. In Punta Rassa, the majority of homes were either extensively damaged or washed away. Most highways leading out of Fort Myers were impassible due to high water. Damage to railroad tracks resulted in a suspension of service for three days. On Estero Island, a number of buildings were damaged, including the casinos, cottages, and Crescent Beach resort.[5] The storm also destroyed the mausoleum of Dr. Cyrus Teed, the founder of Koreshanity.[6] Damage in Lee County reached about $1.5 million.[5] Along the Myakka River near Boca Grande, the railroad bridge washed away, while the storm also destroyed two vehicular bridges over the Charlotte Harbor Bay.[7] The streets of Punta Gorda were inundated, where a tide of 7 ft (2.1 m) above normal was recorded.[1] One death occurred in the city due to drowning.[8] At Egmont Key, above normal tides forced 75 people to seek shelter in the lighthouse. The entire island was inundated by water.[9]
Flooding at the St. Petersburg Yacht Club
The hurricane brought a storm surge of 10–12 ft (3–3.5 m) to Tampa Bay.[10] The highest rainfall total in Tampa was at 8.53 in (23.5 mm).[3] However, the observer noted that winds probably blew water out of the gauge.[11] The barometric pressure fell to 968 mbar (28.6 inHg), breaking a previous record set in 1910. The hurricane also brought sustained winds of 75 mph (119 km/h) and a storm tide of 10.5 ft (3 m).[3] Damage from the wind was generally minor, while most of the impact wrought by the storm was due to abnormally high tides in Tampa and elsewhere in the area.[11] Much of the city was flooded,[10] with the worst along Bayshore Boulevard, where some of the most expensive properties were located.[11] At Hyde Park, dwellings were inundated about halfway up the first story, prompting several people to be rescued by boat. Electrical poles and wires were washed away near the intersection of Bayshore Boulevard and Howard Avenue. The latter was also left impassible by car.[12] In the Palmetto Beach neighborhood, much of the section was inundated. A group of about 40 volunteers rescued a number of women and children.[13] A total of 50 homes were destroyed by cedar logs used to construct cigar boxes at the Tampa Box Company on 22nd Street.[11]
At Ballast Point, the pavilion and bathhouse were destroyed by the storm.[14] Nearby, the Tampa Yacht and Country Club suffered severe damage.[10] Many cars along the waterfront were severely damaged and nearly all flat railroad cars were submerged. The Malloy Line dock was also left under several feet of water. A number of waterfront warehouses were also damaged by floodwaters. After the Tampa Electrical Company power house experienced water damage, the electricity was shutoff. Additionally, the company's cable station was flooded under several feet of water. Winds downed hundreds of trees and sign across roadways and tore-up awnings. At least 50 awnings were ripped from a bank building on Franklin Street alone. Falling trees also damaged the post office and the YMCA. Almost 500 dwellings in the neighborhood of Ybor City were demolished.[12] Five people were killed in the city, three from people coming into contact with a live wire and the other two from drowning. Only minor damage occurred in Plant City.[15] Throughout Hillsborough County, many county roads were impassible due to downed telegraph poles and other debris, especially between Tampa and Plant City.[12]
A road washed out in Pinellas County
Tides 5–6 ft (1.5–2 m) above normal and storm surge in St. Petersburg damaged or destroyed all four fishing piers. Many ships and boats of all sizes capsized or were beached, including the trawler Hypnotist, which ejected the crew of seven into the water, all of whom were rescued. The St. Petersburg Beach Hotel was destroyed, after employees swam through the lobby for safety.[16] At the office of the St. Petersburg Times, then located at Fifth Street and First Avenue South, the loss of electricity resulted in staff working overnight with lanterns. With no power to operate the typesetting machine, the employees connected their linotype machine to a two-cylinder motorcycle to publish the "Motorcycle Extra". Two deaths occurred in St. Petersburg, one from a heart attack during preparations for the storm and the other from a man being crushed by a falling roof.[15]
Initially, there were rumors and unconfirmed reports that Pass-a-Grille (today a neighborhood of St. Pete Beach) was wiped out and that up to 150 deaths occurred.[17] Though the town was hit particularly hard, there were no fatalities and damage was less severe than indicated, reaching about $50,000.[18] Storm surge was partially diverted to Boca Ciega Bay,[19] but Pass-a-Grille generally suffered severe impact due to 5 to 7 ft (1.5 to 2.1 m) of water covering some areas.[20] The hotel was extensively damaged, while its dancing pavilion was destroyed.[19] A number of cottages were badly damaged.[20] The storm destroyed a casino in Gulfport.[10] The casino in Indian Rocks Beach collapsed after the sand foundation was washed away.[21] In Largo, nearly all of the buildings at the Pinellas County Fairgrounds were rendered unusable.[21]
Damage to the pavilion in Safety Harbor
In Clearwater, a number of buildings were severely damaged,[22] including the ice and power plants, a theater, and a hotel.[23] Many residences were also damaged.[22] Electric and telephone wires were downed, leaving the city without power or telephone service.[24] Boats were tossed about in the bay.[23] The city of Oldsmar was devastated by storm surge, with portions of the town being inundated by 6 ft (1.8 m) of water. Many homes were practically demolished. Although no loss of human life occurred, many cattle drowned.[25] In Tarpon Springs, streets were littered with masses of debris. Sections of the city along the Anclote River were flooded.[26] Primarily, impact consisted of structures being unroofed, windows shattering, and tree being uprooted. Throughout the city, electrical and telephone lines were downed, but telephone was partially maintained and electricity was restored quickly. Two hotels suffered extensive damage due to flooding. Although the high school was also severely damaged, classrooms remained usable. The cupola was torn away and the roof was partially damaged, including over the auditorium. The Odd Fellows Hall was thrown off its foundation and virtually destroyed. In the business district, most of the buildings leaked, resulting in damage to merchandise. Crop damage in Pinellas County was extensive,[7] totaling about $1 million,[27] which included a loss of 50%-70% of fruit lost and considerable damage to citrus trees.[7]
Damage to a church under construction in New Port Richey
The hurricane also brought extensive impact to portions of Pasco County. In New Port Richey, a few churches suffered severe damage or were destroyed. Nearly all walls collapsed and many windows were shattered at the school house. Only one shop remained standing at a plaza with several industrial stores. The vast majority of homes in the city received some degree of damage. Local crops experienced extensive impact, with a local farm losing about 800 boxes worth of fruit. Similar effects occurred in Port Richey. All stores received water damage, while two homes were destroyed and several others were inflicted with varying degrees of impact.[28] In Dade City, Mt. Zion Baptist Church was demolished, which was never rebuilt. Only the church cemetery remains.[29] Another church, which opened early in the year, was nearly demolished by falling trees. A turpentine plant was damaged, including the loss of about one-third of the lumber stored in the building. The Sunnybrook Tobacco Company suffered significant impact, with nine large barns destroyed and about 110 acres (45 ha) of trees toppled. A number of other companies sustained damage, including the Dade City Packing Company and the Dade City Ice, Light and Power Company. Damage to the business reached $100,000. Several homes were damaged. Electrical, telegraph, and telephone wires were downed throughout the city. During the storm, electricity was maintained in the downtown section, while residential areas were left without power for two days. In San Antonio and Trilby, a number of buildings were moved off their foundations. The old city hall in Zephyrhills was moved about 4 ft (1.2 m). At a hotel, the building lost a portion of its roof and several windows were broken.[30] In addition, the hurricane virtually destroyed much of Passage Key, part of which was later rebuilt.[31]
In Polk County, the storm left light property damage in Lakeland, reaching under $5,000,[7] which included the school building being deroofed. Damage to crops was mostly limited to grapefruit and oranges, with losses estimated to have been less than 10%.[7] In the rural communities outside Lakeland, several small building suffered damage. This was considered the worst tropical cyclone in the area since 1897.[32] Lake County experienced sustained winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) and 12 to 15 in (300 to 380 mm) of rain in some areas. Much of the impact was confined to large trees being uprooted and ornamental vines suffering damage. A number of trees fell on electrical wires, causing power outages and disruptions to telephone service. Additionally, it is possible that a tornado touched down, based on some pine trees being "splintered from top to bottom and curled up like molasses candy."[33] Damage to citrus crops was light, with losses conservatively estimated at less than 5%.[7] Strong winds in Orange County left the entire city of Orlando without electricity, disrupting commerce.[34] Citrus crops suffered no more than 5% in losses in the county.[7] In St. Augustine, wind downed wires, some of which caused small fires in the business district.[34] A steamship capsized between Jacksonville and Miami and there were reports of damage to several other small boats offshore. Agricultural damage from the hurricane was high, reaching over $2 million, with more than $1 million incurred to crops and the remainder to fertilizer and other materials. Citrus crops were especially hard hit, with 800,000 to 1,000,000 boxes of fruit lost. Salt water, caused by coastal flooding, prevented cultivation of soil in some areas, though rainfall eventually washed away the salt.[3] In all, the hurricane left at least eight people dead and about $10 million in damage.[8][35]
Aftermath[edit]
After receiving reports of mass casualties and destruction at Pass-a-Grille, the American Red Cross stocked a United States Navy subchaser with pine caskets and relief supplies, but found no bodies and only a fraction of the reported damage.[15] Because of fears that the hurricane might hinder the Florida land boom of the 1920s, rebuilding and cleanup of the area commenced quickly and the land boom in the Tampa Bay region and in southern Florida continued.[29] Local officials, businessmen, realtors, and later the press soon attempted to cover up or downplay the damage, which threatened to distort Tampa's advertised image as the "Year Round City". On October 28, a writer for The Tampa Tribune stated, "Everyone is accepting the storm as an incident and all are going to work to rebuild the devastated areas, with the firm conviction that there will not be another storm of such severity during the life of anyone now living."[36] One of the destroyed buildings at the Ballist Point Pavilion was soon rebuilt after the storm. However, the building was destroyed again by fire in 1922. In 1925, a new pavilion was built.[14] On Captiva Island, the Wayside Chapel suffered extensive damage, but was repaired and reopened as Captiva School and Chapel-by-the-Sea, which has been listed as a National Historic Place since 2013. Many farmers on the island sold their land for a significantly reduced price to Clarence B. Chadwick, who would transform more than 330 acres (130 ha) of property into the South Seas Island Resort.[37]
The hurricane was the first major hurricane to strike the Tampa Bay region since a hurricane in 1848 and the most recent to date. Additionally, since this storm, only a hurricane in 1946 has made landfall in the area.[35] In the past few decades especially, local officials have been concerned about a major hurricane impacting the area due to population increases, older building codes, storm surge projections, and complacency among some residents. The combined population of Citrus, Hernando, Hillsborough, Pasco, and Pinellas counties has increased from about 135,000 people in 1921 to approximately 2.7 million by 2011.[38] In Pasco County, more than half of the homes were constructed prior to the enactment of stronger building codes in the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew.[39] A Sea, Lake, and Overland Surge from Hurricanes (SLOSH) computer model from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) indicates that portions of Downtown Tampa would be flooded with over 20 ft (6.1 m) of water in the event of a Category 4 hurricane, while St. Petersburg would be surrounded by water.[35] CoreLogic, an international property information firm, estimated in 2016 that nearly 455,000 homes were at risk of being damaged by storm surge, with costs of property damage and repairs reaching approximately $80.6 billion (2016 USD). Another property firm, Karen Clark & Co., estimated in 2015 that storm surge could inflict as much as $175 billion (2015 USD) in damage in a worst-case scenario.[40]
See also[edit]
Tropical cyclones portal
List of Florida hurricanes (1900–49)
Hurricane Charley
Hurricane Wilma
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ All damage figures are in 1921 United States dollars, unless otherwise noted
References[edit]
General
Jay Barnes (2007). Florida's Hurricane History. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3068-0. Retrieved July 8, 2017.
Donald H. Thompson and Carol Thompson (August 14, 2012). Egmont Key: A History. Arcadia Publishing. Retrieved April 7, 2017.
Specific
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Christopher W. Landsea; et al. (May 2015). Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 7, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)". Hurricane Research Division (Database). Miami, FL: National Hurricane Center. April 11, 2017. Retrieved November 10, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Edward H. Bowie (October 1921). "The Hurricane of October 25, 1921, at Tampa, Fla" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. Washington, D.C.: United States Weather Bureau. 49 (10): 567, 568, and 570. Bibcode:1921MWRv...49..567B. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1921)49<567:THOOAT>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved July 9, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Tropical Storm Moves Into Gulf of Mexico". Havana, Cuba: The Palm Beach Post. October 25, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved September 1, 2016 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "Fort Myers Hit Hard". The Vicksburg Herald. Fort Myers, Florida. October 27, 1921. p. 3. Retrieved April 5, 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ "The Koreshans Island". Estero Island Historic Society. Retrieved April 7, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Five Millions Damage by Storm". The Palm Beach Post. Lakeland, Florida. October 28, 1921. p. 6. Retrieved February 23, 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Jump up to: a b Barnes p. 108
Jump up ^ Thompson and Thompson p. 80
^ Jump up to: a b c d David Ballingurd (August 24, 2002). "It Could Happen Here". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved July 9, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Barnes p. 104
^ Jump up to: a b c "Tampa is Hard Hit by Storm; Three Die During Heavy Gale". St. Petersburg Times. Tampa, Florida. October 27, 1921. p. 2. Retrieved November 26, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Florida Hurricane Hit Tampa Hard". The New York Times. Lakeland, Florida. October 26, 1921. Retrieved March 16, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Pavillions". Pavillion Management Company. Archived from the original on March 13, 2016. Retrieved July 9, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Barnes p. 107
Jump up ^ Barnes p. 105
Jump up ^ "Rumor Pass-a-Grille Wiped Out". St. Petersburg Times. October 26, 1921. Retrieved April 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Pass-a-Grille Loss in Gales is $50,000". St. Petersburg Times. October 27, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved April 4, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Pass-a-Grille Historic District (Boundary Increase) (PDF) (Report). National Park Service. 2003. p. 40. Retrieved March 21, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Lizotte Hotel Water Soaked". St. Petersburg Times. October 27, 1921. p. 2. Retrieved March 21, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Jack E. Dadswell (October 27, 1921). "Largo Gives Figures Showing Loss From Hurricane $50,000". St. Petersburg Times. Largo, Florida. p. 1. Retrieved September 28, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Clearwater Swept By Fury of Storm". St. Petersburg Times. Clearwater, Florida. October 27, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved April 4, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Damage to West Coast Cities Mounts Into Millions of Dollars". The Palm Beach Post. Lakeland, Florida. Associated Press. October 27, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved March 20, 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ "Clearwater Swept". St. Petersburg Times. Clearwater, Florida. October 27, 1921. p. 2. Retrieved April 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Oldsmar Hit Hard". Tarpon Springs Leader. October 28, 1921. Retrieved April 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sponge City Is Hit Hard". St. Petersburg Times. October 28, 1921. p. 2. Retrieved March 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Business Life Nears Normal; Streets Clear of Storms Mess". St. Petersburg Times. October 27, 1921. Retrieved April 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Storm Loss in New Port Richey Heavy". Dade City Banner. New Port Richey, Florida. October 28, 1921. Retrieved July 7, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "History of the Mount Zion Cemetery and the Fort Dade Methodist Church". Archived from the original on October 20, 2009. Retrieved October 2, 2006.
Jump up ^ "Sunny Brook Tobacco Company Loss $100,000. Fifty Percent Fruit Lost". Dade City Banner. October 28, 1921. Retrieved March 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Passage Key and the American Wildlife Conservation Movement (PDF) (Report). United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved July 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Tampa Under Water". Sierra Vista Herald. Jacksonville, Florida. October 26, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved March 1, 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ "Hits Lake County". Tallahassee Democrat. Tavares, Florida. October 27, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved March 1, 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sea, Piled Up by Gale, Floods Tampa; Damage $1,000,000". New-York Tribune. Jacksonville, Florida. October 26, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved March 1, 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jeff Masters (July 26, 2016). "Extreme 'Grey Swan' Hurricanes in Tampa Bay: a Potential Future Catastrophe". Weather Underground. Retrieved July 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ Nicole Cox (2008). "Damage Control and the 1921 Tampa hurricane: Boosters, Businessmen, and Bad Press". University of South Florida. p. 1. Retrieved July 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ Timothy B. Jacobs (August 12, 2014). "Before Charley Part II: Hurricanes roared in the Twenties". Santiva Chronicle. Retrieved July 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ Emily Nipps (May 16, 2011). "90 years after 1921 hurricane, bay area officials fear direct hit". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved July 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ Zachary T. Sampson (May 31, 2015). "Ten years since its last hurricane, Florida more vulnerable to catastrophe than ever, experts say". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved July 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ Susan Taylor Martin and Richard Danielson (June 2, 2016). "Storm surge imperils 455,000 Tampa Bay homes, report says". The Tampa Tribune. Retrieved July 7, 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hurricane Six (1921).
Tampa Bay Hurricane of 1921 best track data
Hurricane Effects in Pasco County and Tarpon Springs
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Indirect rule
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A 20th century Yoruba (Nigerian) depiction of a British District Officer on tour of indirect rulers.
Indirect rule is a system of government used by the British and French to control parts of their colonial empires, particularly in Africa and Asia, through pre-existing local power structures. These dependencies were often called "protectorates" or "trucial states". By this system, the day-to-day government and administration of areas both small and large was left in the hands of traditional rulers, who gained prestige and the stability and protection afforded by the Pax Britannica, at the cost of losing control of their external affairs, and often of taxation, communications, and other matters, usually with a small number of European "advisors" effectively overseeing the government of large numbers of people spread over extensive areas.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 British Empire
1.1 In Africa
1.2 In India
2 Practical implementation of indirect rule
3 Interpretations
4 See also
5 References
6 Sources and references
6.1 Period writings
British Empire[edit]
1895 cartoon of Frederick Lugard, considered the pioneer of indirect rule in colonial Africa
Some British colonies were ruled directly by the Colonial Office in London, while others were ruled indirectly through local rulers who are supervised behind the scenes by British advisors. In 1890 Zanzibar became a protectorate (not a colony) of Britain. Prime minister Salisbury explained his position:
The condition of a protected dependency is more acceptable to the half civilized races, and more suitable for them than direct dominion. It is cheaper, simpler, less wounding to their self-esteem, gives them more career as public officials, and spares of unnecessary contact with white men.[2]
The Princely States of India were ruled indirectly.[3] So too was much of the West African holdings.[4]
In Africa[edit]
The ideological underpinnings, as well as the practical application, of indirect rule in Kenya and Nigeria is usually traced to the work of Frederick Lugard, the High Commissioner of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria from 1899 to 1906. In the lands of the Sokoto Caliphate, conquered by the British Empire at the turn of the century, Lugard instituted a system whereby external, military, and tax control was operated by the British, while most every other aspect of life was left to local pre-British aristocracies who may have sided with the British during or after their conquest. The theory behind this solution to a very practical problem of domination by a tiny group of foreigners of huge populations is laid out in Lugard's influential work, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa.
In India[edit]
The largest application of Indirect rule was in British Asia, in hundreds of pre-colonial states, first seen at work under the East India Company's system of subsidiary alliances in the Indian subcontinent. The areas thus brought into the British sphere of influence became known as the Indian Princely States. Subsequently, the same principle was applied in strategic regions on the sea routes to India, especially in the Persian Gulf protected states.
In the British colonies, the laws were typically made by a British Governor and legislative council, but in the protectorates and princely states local rulers retained their traditional administrative authority and ability to legislate, subject to British control of certain areas. Indirect rule was particularly effective in enabling the British to exploit natural resources and raw materials of vast subordinate nations. The establishment of naval and military bases in strategic points around the globe maintained the necessary power to underpin such control.
Practical implementation of indirect rule[edit]
Indirect rule was cheaper and easier for the European powers, and in particular it required fewer administrators, but it did have a number of problems. In many cases, European authorities empowered local traditional leaders, as in the case of the monarchy of Uganda, but if no suitable leader could be found (in the traditional Western sense of the term), the Europeans would simply choose local rulers to suit them.[5] This was the case in Kenya and Southern Nigeria, and the new leaders, often called "warrant chiefs", were not always supported by the local population. The European ruling classes also often chose local leaders with similar traits to their own, despite these traits not being suited to native leadership. Many were conservative elders, and thus indirect rule fostered a conservative outlook among the indigenous population and marginalised the young intelligentsia. Written laws, which replaced oral laws, were less flexible to the changing social nature, old customs of retribution and justice were removed or banned, and the removal of more violent punishments in some areas led to an increase in crime.[citation needed] Furthermore, leaders empowered by the governments of European powers were often not familiar with their new tasks, such as recruitment and tax.[6]
Interpretations[edit]
From the early 20th century, French and British writers helped establish a dichotomy between British Indirect rule, exemplified by the Indian princely states and by Lord Lugard's writings on the administration of northern Nigeria, and French colonial direct rule. As with British theorists, French colonial officials like Félix Eboué or Robert Delavignette[7] wrote and argued throughout the first half of the 20th century for a distinct French style of rule that was centralized, uniform, and aimed at assimilating colonial subjects into the French polity.[8][9][10] French rule, sometimes labeled Jacobin, was said in these writings to be based on the twin ideologies of the centralized unitary French government of the Metropole, with the French colonial ideology of Assimilation. Colonial Assimilation argued that French law and citizenship was based on universal values that came from the French Revolution. Mirroring French domestic citizenship law, French colonial law allowed for anyone who could prove themselves culturally French (the "Évolués") to become equal French citizens.[11][12][13][14][15] In French West Africa, only parts of the Senegalese "Four Communes" ever extended French citizenship outside a few educated African elite.[16][17] This was contrasted with British Indirect Rule, which never foresaw subject Protectorates becoming legally assimilated into "the home nations".
While making more subtle distinctions, this model of direct versus indirect rule was dominant in academia from the 1930s[18] until the 1970s.[19][20][21]
Academics since the 1970s have problematised the Direct versus Indirect Rule dichotomy,[22] arguing the systems were in practice intermingled in both British and French colonial governance, and that the perception of indirect rule was sometimes promoted to justify quite direct rule structures.[23][24]
Mahmood Mamdani and other academics[25][26] have discussed extensively how both Direct and Indirect rule were attempts to implement identical goals of foreign rule, but how the "Indirect" strategy helped to create ethnic and racial cleavages within ruled societies which persist in hostile communal relations and dysfunctional strategies of government.[27][28] Mamdani himself famously described indirect rule as "decentralised despotism".[29]
Some political scientists have even expanded the debate on how direct versus indirect rule experiences continue to effect contemporary governance into how governments which have never experienced colonialism rule.[30]
See also[edit]
British Empire portal
Politics portal
Bussa revolt - a 1915 uprising against indirect rule in Northern Nigeria
Direct colonial rule
Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The American Historical Association. "ENGLAND'S INDIRECT RULE IN ITS AFRICAN COLONIES" in THROUGH THE LENS OF HISTORY: BIAFRA, NIGERIA, THE WEST AND THE WORLD. AHA teaching guide, historians.org, n.d. Accessed 2012-09-20 http://www.historians.org/tl/lessonplans/nc/trask/indirect.htm
Jump up ^ Andrew Roberts, Salisbury: Victorian Titan (1999) p 529
Jump up ^ Lakshmi Iyer, "Direct versus indirect colonial rule in India: Long-term consequences." The Review of Economics and Statistics (2010) 92#4 pp: 693-713 online Archived 2014-09-03 at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ Adiele Eberechukwu Afigbo, The Warrant Chiefs: indirect rule in southeastern Nigeria, 1891-1929 (London: Longman, 1972)
Jump up ^ Eric J. Hobsbawm, Terence O. Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition' (1983)
Jump up ^ Collins and Burns, pp. 297-308
Jump up ^ Robert Louis Delavignette. Freedom and Authority in French West Africa. originally published as Les vrais chefs de l'empire: 1939. Oxford University: 1946.
Jump up ^ Georges Hardy, Histoire sociale de la colonisation française. (Paris, 1953)
Jump up ^ Raymond F. Betts, Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890-1914 (New York, 1961)
Jump up ^ Martin D. Lewis, “One Hundred Million Frenchmen: The Assimilationist Theory in French Colonial Policy,” Comparative Studies in Society and History IV (January 1962), 129-153.
Jump up ^ Erik Bleich, 'The legacies of history? Colonization and immigrant integration in Britain and France. Theory and Society, Volume 34, Number 2, April 2005.
Jump up ^ Michael Crowder' in Senegal: A Study in French Assimilation Policy (London: Oxford University Press, 1962)
Jump up ^ Mamadou Diouf, 'The French Colonial Policy of Assimilation and the Civility of the Originaires of the Four Communes (Senegal): A Nineteenth Century Globalization Project' in Development and Change, Volume 29, Number 4, October 1998, pp. 671–696(26)
Jump up ^ M. M. Knight, 'French Colonial Policy—the Decline of "Association"' in The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Jun., 1933), pp. 208–224
Jump up ^ Michael Lambert, 'From Citizenship to Negritude: Making a difference in elite ideologies of colonized Francophone West Africa' in Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 35, No. 2. (Apr., 1993), pp. 239–262
Jump up ^ G. Wesley Johnson, Jr., The Emergence of Black Politics in Senegal: The Struggle for Power in the Four Communes, 1900–1920 (1972)
Jump up ^ James F. Searing, 'Senegal: Colonial Period: Four Communes: Dakar, Saint-Louis, Gorée, and Rufisque', in Kevin Shillington (editor), Encyclopedia of African History (New York, 2005): 3 Volumes, 3, 1334–35
Jump up ^ Ralph J. Bunche, 'French and British Imperialism in West Africa' in The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 21, No. 1. (Jan., 1936), pp. 31–46
Jump up ^ Michael Crowder, 'Indirect Rule: French and British Style' in Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 34, No. 3. (Jul., 1964), pp. 197–205
Jump up ^ Alec G. Hargreaves, ed. Memory, Empire, and Postcolonialism: Legacies of French Colonialism (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2005; ISBN 9780739108215)
Jump up ^ Ann Laura Stoler (1989), 'Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule' in Comparative Studies in Society and History, 31, pp 134-161 doi:10.1017/S0010417500015693
Jump up ^ Jonathan Derrick, 'The 'Native Clerk' in Colonial West Africa' in African Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 326. (Jan., 1983), pp. 61–74.
Jump up ^ Emily Lynn Osborn (2003). ‘CIRCLE OF IRON’: AFRICAN COLONIAL EMPLOYEES AND THE INTERPRETATION OF COLONIAL RULE IN FRENCH WEST AFRICA. The Journal of African History, 44, pp 29-50 doi:10.1017/S0021853702008307
Jump up ^ Anthony I. Nwabughuogu. The Role of Propaganda in the Development of Indirect Rule in Nigeria, 1890-1929. The International Journal of African Historical Studies Vol. 14, No. 1 (1981), pp. 65-92
Jump up ^ Paul Rich. The Origins of Apartheid Ideology: The Case of Ernest Stubbs and Transvaal Native Administration, c.1902-1932. African Affairs, Vol. 79, No. 315. (Apr., 1980), pp. 171–194.
Jump up ^ Lakshmi Iyer (2010). Direct versus Indirect Colonial Rule in India: Long-Term Consequences. The Review of Economics and Statistics. November 2010, Vol. 92, No. 4, Pages 693-713
Jump up ^ Mahmood Mamdani. Indirect Rule, Civil Society, and Ethnicity: The African Dilemma. Social Justice Vol. 23, No. 1/2 (63-64), The World Today (Spring-Summer 1996), pp. 145-150
Jump up ^ Mahmood Mamdani. Historicizing power and responses to power: indirect rule and its reform. Social Research Vol. 66, No. 3, PROSPECTS FOR DEMOCRACY (FALL 1999), pp. 859-886
Jump up ^ Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (1996), p. 37.
Jump up ^ John Gerring, Daniel Ziblatt, Johan Van Gorp and Julián Arévalo (2011). An Institutional Theory of Direct and Indirect Rule. World Politics, 63, pp 377-433 doi:10.1017/S0043887111000104
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Sources and references[edit]
Michael Crowder. Indirect Rule: French and British Style. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 34, No. 3. (Jul., 1964), pp. 197–205.
Paul Rich . The Origins of Apartheid Ideology: The Case of Ernest Stubbs and Transvaal Native Administration, c.1902-1932. African Affairs, Vol. 79, No. 315. (Apr., 1980), pp. 171–194.
Omipidan Teslim
Indirect Rule in Nigeria OldNaija
H. F. Morris . A History of the Adoption of Codes of Criminal Law and Procedure in British Colonial Africa, 1876-1935. Journal of African Law, Vol. 18, No. 1, Criminal Law and Criminology. (Spring, 1974), pp. 6–23.
Jonathan Derrick. The 'Native Clerk' in Colonial West Africa. African Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 326. (Jan., 1983), pp. 61–74.
Diana Wylie. Confrontation over Kenya: The Colonial Office and Its Critics 1918-1940. The Journal of African History, Vol. 18, No. 3. (1977), pp. 427–447.
P. A. Brunt . Empires: Reflections on British and Roman Imperialism. Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 7, No. 3. (Apr., 1965), pp. 267–288.
R. O. Collins and J. M. Burns. A History of Sub-Saharan Africa, Cambridge, 2007.
Harrington, Jack (2010), Sir John Malcolm and the Creation of British India, Chs. 4 & 5., New York: Palgrave Macmillan., ISBN 978-0-230-10885-1
Period writings[edit]
Harold Nicolson. The Colonial Problem. International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1931-1939), Vol. 17, No. 1. (Jan. - Feb., 1938), pp. 32–50.
W. E. Rappard . The Practical Working of the Mandates System. Journal of the British Institute of International Affairs, Vol. 4, No. 5. (Sep., 1925), pp. 205–226.
Jan Smuts. Native Policy in Africa. Journal of the Royal African Society, Vol. 29, No. 115. (Apr., 1930), pp. 248–268.
Ralph J. Bunche . French and British Imperialism in West Africa. The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 21, No. 1. (Jan., 1936), pp. 31–46.
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ref>Raymond F. Betts, Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890-1914 (New York, 1961)
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text:
Interneuron
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Interneuron
A spinal interneuron (relay neuron) forms part of a reflex arc
Details
Location
Nervous system
Identifiers
MeSH
D007395
NeuroLex ID
birnlex_2534
TH
H2.00.06.1.00058
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
An interneuron (also called internuncial neuron, relay neuron, association neuron, connector neuron, intermediate neuron or local circuit neuron) is a broad class of neurons found in the human body.[citation needed] Interneurons create neural circuits, enabling communication between sensory or motor neurons and the central nervous system (CNS).[citation needed] They have been found to function in reflexes, neuronal oscillations,[1] and neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain.
Interneurons can be further broken down into two groups: local interneurons and relay interneurons.[2][need quotation to verify] Local interneurons have short axons and form circuits with nearby neurons to analyze small pieces of information.[3] Relay interneurons have long axons and connect circuits of neurons in one region of the brain with those in other regions.[3] The interaction between interneurons allow the brain to perform complex functions such as learning, and decision-making.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Spinal cord
1.2 Cortex
1.3 Cerebellum
1.4 Striatum
2 Function
3 References
Structure[edit]
Unlike the peripheral nervous system (PNS), the central nervous system, including the brain, contains many interneurons. In the neocortex (making up about 80% of the human brain), approximately 20-30% of neurons are interneurons.[4] Investigations into the molecular diversity of neurons is impeded by the inability to isolate cell populations born at different times for gene expression analysis. An effective means of identifying coetaneous interneurons is neuronal birthdating [5]. This can be achieved using nucleoside analogs such as EdU [6][5].
In 2008, a nomenclature for the features of GABAergic cortical interneurons was proposed, called Petilla terminology.[7]
Spinal cord[edit]
1a Inhibitory Neuron: Found in Lamina VII. Responsible for inhibiting antagonist motor neuron. 1a spindle afferents activate 1a inhibitory neuron.
1b Inhibitory Neuron: Found in Lamina V, VI, VII. afferent or Golgi tendon organ activates it.
Cortex[edit]
Parvalbumin-expressing interneurons
CCK-expressing interneurons
VIP-expressing interneurons
SOM-expressing interneurons[8]
Cerebellum[edit]
Molecular layer (basket cells, stellate cells)
Golgi cells
Granule cells
Lugaro cells
Unipolar brush cells
Striatum[edit]
Parvalbumin-expressing interneurons[9]
Cholinergic interneurons[10][11]
Tyrosine hydroxylase-expressing interneurons[12]
Calretinin-expressing interneurons[13]
Nitric oxide synthase-expressing interneurons[13]
Function[edit]
Interneurons in the CNS are primarily inhibitory, and use the neurotransmitter GABA or glycine. However, excitatory interneurons using glutamate in the CNS also exist, as do interneurons releasing neuromodulators like acetylcholine.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Whittington, M.A; Traub, R.D; Kopell, N; Ermentrout, B; Buhl, E.H (2000). "Inhibition-based rhythms: Experimental and mathematical observations on network dynamics". International Journal of Psychophysiology. 38 (3): 315–36. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(00)00173-2. PMID 11102670.
Jump up ^ Carlson, Neil R. (2013). Physiology of Behavior (11th ed.). Pearson Higher Education. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-205-23939-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Kandel, Eric; Schwartz, James; Jessell, Thomas, eds. (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed.). New York City, New York: McGraw Hill Companies. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-8385-7701-1.
Jump up ^ Markram, Henry; et al. (2004). "Interneurons of the neocortical inhibitory system". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 5 (10): 793–807. doi:10.1038/nrn1519. PMID 15378039. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Ng, Hui Xuan; Lee, Ean Phing; Cavanagh, Brenton L.; Britto, Joanne M.; Tan, Seong-Seng. "A method for isolating cortical interneurons sharing the same birthdays for gene expression studies". Experimental Neurology. 295: 36–45. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2017.05.006.
Jump up ^ Endaya, Berwini; Cavanagh, Brenton; Alowaidi, Faisal; Walker, Tom; Pennington, Nicholas de; Ng, Jin-Ming A.; Lam, Paula Y.P.; Mackay-Sim, Alan; Neuzil, Jiri. "Isolating dividing neural and brain tumour cells for gene expression profiling". Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 257: 121–133. doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2015.09.020.
Jump up ^ Ascoli, Giorgio A.; Alonso-Nanclares, Lidia; Anderson, Stewart A.; Barrionuevo, German; Benavides-Piccione, Ruth; Burkhalter, Andreas; Buzsáki, György; Cauli, Bruno; Defelipe, Javier; Fairén, Alfonso; Feldmeyer, Dirk; Fishell, Gord; Fregnac, Yves; Freund, Tamas F.; Gardner, Daniel; Gardner, Esther P.; Goldberg, Jesse H.; Helmstaedter, Moritz; Hestrin, Shaul; Karube, Fuyuki; Kisvárday, Zoltán F.; Lambolez, Bertrand; Lewis, David A.; Marin, Oscar; Markram, Henry; Muñoz, Alberto; Packer, Adam; Petersen, Carl C. H.; Rockland, Kathleen S.; et al. (2008). "Petilla terminology: Nomenclature of features of GABAergic interneurons of the cerebral cortex". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 9 (7): 557–68. doi:10.1038/nrn2402. PMC 2868386  . PMID 18568015.
Jump up ^ Muñoz, W; Tremblay, R; Levenstein, D; Rudy, B (3 March 2017). "Layer-specific modulation of neocortical dendritic inhibition during active wakefulness". Science. 355 (6328): 954–959. doi:10.1126/science.aag2599. PMID 28254942.
Jump up ^ Tepper, James M.; Koós, Tibor (1999). "Inhibitory control of neostriatal projection neurons by GABAergic interneurons". Nature Neuroscience. 2 (5): 467–72. doi:10.1038/8138. PMID 10321252.
Jump up ^ Zhou, Fu-Ming; Wilson, Charles J.; Dani, John A. (2002). "Cholinergic interneuron characteristics and nicotinic properties in the striatum". Journal of Neurobiology. 53 (4): 590–605. doi:10.1002/neu.10150. PMID 12436423.
Jump up ^ English, Daniel F; Ibanez-Sandoval, Osvaldo; Stark, Eran; Tecuapetla, Fatuel; Buzsáki, György; Deisseroth, Karl; Tepper, James M; Koos, Tibor (2011). "GABAergic circuits mediate the reinforcement-related signals of striatal cholinergic interneurons". Nature Neuroscience. 15 (1): 123–30. doi:10.1038/nn.2984. PMC 3245803  . PMID 22158514.
Jump up ^ Ibanez-Sandoval, O.; Tecuapetla, F.; Unal, B.; Shah, F.; Koos, T.; Tepper, J. M. (2010). "Electrophysiological and Morphological Characteristics and Synaptic Connectivity of Tyrosine Hydroxylase-Expressing Neurons in Adult Mouse Striatum". Journal of Neuroscience. 30 (20): 6999–7016. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5996-09.2010. PMC 4447206  . PMID 20484642.
^ Jump up to: a b Ibáñez-Sandoval, Osvaldo; Koós, Tibor; Tecuapetla, Fatuel; Tepper, James M. (2010). "Heterogeneity and Diversity of Striatal GABAergic Interneurons". Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. 4: 150. doi:10.3389/fnana.2010.00150. PMC 3016690  . PMID 21228905.
[show]
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The spinal cord
General features
Cervical enlargement
Lumbar enlargement
Conus medullaris
Filum terminale
Cauda equina
Meninges
Grey matter
Posterior grey column
Marginal nucleus
Substantia gelatinosa of Rolando
Nucleus proprius
Spinal lamina V
Spinal lamina VI
Lateral grey column
Intermediolateral nucleus
Posterior thoracic nucleus
Anterior grey column
Interneuron
Alpha motor neuron
Onuf's nucleus
Gamma motor neuron
Other
Rexed laminae
Central gelatinous substance
Gray commissure
Central canal
Terminal ventricle
White matter
Sensory
Posterior
Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway:
Gracile
Cuneate
Lateral:
Spinocerebellar
dorsal
ventral
Spinothalamic
lateral
anterior
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Anterior
Extrapyramidal
Vestibulospinal
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Anterior white commissure
External features
Ventral
Anterior median fissure
Anterolateral sulcus
Dorsal
Posterior median sulcus
Posterolateral sulcus
[show]
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Grey matter
White matter
Projection fibers
Association fiber
Commissural fiber
Lemniscus
Funiculus
Fasciculus
Nerve tract
Decussation
Commissure
Neuropil
Meninges
Cell Types
Neuronal
Pyramidal
Purkinje
Granule
Glial
insulating:
Myelination: Oligodendrocyte
other
Astrocyte
Radial glial cell
Ependymal cells
Tanycyte
Microglia
PNS
General
Dorsal
Root
Ganglion
Ramus
Ventral
Root
Ramus
Ramus communicans
Gray
White
Autonomic ganglion (Preganglionic nerve fibers
Postganglionic nerve fibers)
Connective tissues
Epineurium
Perineurium
Endoneurium
Nerve fascicle
Neuroglia
Myelination: Schwann cell
Neurilemma
Myelin incisure
Node of Ranvier
Internodal segment
Satellite glial cell
Neurons/
nerve fibers
Parts
Soma
Axon hillock
Axon
Telodendron
Axon terminals
Axoplasm
Axolemma
Neurofibril/neurofilament
Dendrite
Nissl body
Dendritic spine
Apical dendrite/Basal dendrite
Types
Bipolar
Unipolar
Pseudounipolar
Multipolar
Interneuron
Renshaw
Afferent nerve fiber/
Sensory neuron
GSA
GVA
SSA
SVA
fibers
Ia or Aα
Ib or Golgi or Aα
II or Aβ and Aγ
III or Aδ or fast pain
IV or C or slow pain
Efferent nerve fiber/
Motor neuron
GSE
GVE
SVE
Upper motor neuron
Lower motor neuron
α motorneuron
β motorneuron
γ motorneuron
Termination
Synapse
Electrical synapse/Gap junction
Chemical synapse
Synaptic vesicle
Active zone
Postsynaptic density
Autapse
Ribbon synapse
Neuromuscular junction
Sensory receptors
Meissner's corpuscle
Merkel nerve ending
Pacinian corpuscle
Ruffini ending
Muscle spindle
Free nerve ending
Nociceptor
Olfactory receptor neuron
Photoreceptor cell
Hair cell
Taste bud
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