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Matter wave
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This article is about wave-like phenomena exhibited by particles of matter. For the ordinary type of wave propagating through material media, see Mechanical wave.
Quantum mechanics
H ^ | ψ ( t ) ⟩ = i ℏ ∂ ∂ t | ψ ( t ) ⟩ {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}|\psi (t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}|\psi (t)\rangle }
Schrödinger equation
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Matter waves are a central part of the theory of quantum mechanics, being an example of wave–particle duality. All matter can exhibit wave-like behavior. For example, a beam of electrons can be diffracted just like a beam of light or a water wave. The concept that matter behaves like a wave, proposed by Louis de Broglie in 1924, is also referred to as the de Broglie hypothesis (/dəˈbrɔɪ/).[1] Matter waves are referred to as de Broglie waves.
The de Broglie wavelength is the wavelength, λ, associated with a massive particle and is related to its momentum, p, through the Planck constant, h:
λ = h p . {\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {h}{p}}.}
Wave-like behavior of matter was first experimentally demonstrated by George Paget Thomson's thin metal diffraction experiment,[2] and independently in the Davisson–Germer experiment both using electrons, and it has also been confirmed for other elementary particles, neutral atoms and even molecules. The wave-like behavior of matter is crucial to the modern theory of atomic structure and particle physics.
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical context
2 The de Broglie hypothesis
3 Experimental confirmation
3.1 Electrons
3.2 Neutral atoms
3.3 Molecules
4 de Broglie relations
4.1 Special relativity
4.1.1 Group velocity
4.1.2 Phase velocity
4.2 Four-vectors
5 Interpretations
6 De Broglie's phase wave and periodic phenomenon
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Historical context[edit]
At the end of the 19th century, light was thought to consist of waves of electromagnetic fields which propagated according to Maxwell's equations, while matter was thought to consist of localized particles (See history of wave and particle viewpoints). In 1900, this division was exposed to doubt, when, investigating the theory of black body thermal radiation, Max Planck proposed that light is emitted in discrete quanta of energy. It was thoroughly challenged in 1905. Extending Planck's investigation in several ways, including its connection with the photoelectric effect, Albert Einstein proposed that light is also propagated and absorbed in quanta. Light quanta are now called photons. These quanta would have an energy given by the Planck–Einstein relation:
E = h ν {\displaystyle E=h\nu }
and a momentum
p = E c = h λ {\displaystyle p={\frac {E}{c}}={\frac {h}{\lambda }}}
where ν (lowercase Greek letter nu) and λ (lowercase Greek letter lambda) denote the frequency and wavelength of the light, c the speed of light, and h the Planck constant.[3] In the modern convention, frequency is symbolized by f as is done in the rest of this article. Einstein’s postulate was confirmed experimentally by Robert Millikan and Arthur Compton over the next two decades.
The de Broglie hypothesis[edit]
Propagation of de Broglie waves in 1d – real part of the complex amplitude is blue, imaginary part is green. The probability (shown as the color opacity) of finding the particle at a given point x is spread out like a waveform; there is no definite position of the particle. As the amplitude increases above zero the curvature decreases, so the amplitude decreases again, and vice versa. The result is an alternating amplitude: a wave. Top: plane wave. Bottom: wave packet.
De Broglie, in his 1924 PhD thesis, proposed that just as light has both wave-like and particle-like properties, electrons also have wave-like properties. By rearranging the momentum equation stated in the above section, we find a relationship between the wavelength, λ associated with an electron and its momentum, p, through the Planck constant, h:[4]
λ = h p . {\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {h}{p}}.}
The relationship is now known to hold for all types of matter: all matter exhibits properties of both particles and waves.
When I conceived the first basic ideas of wave mechanics in 1923–24, I was guided by the aim to perform a real physical synthesis, valid for all particles, of the coexistence of the wave and of the corpuscular aspects that Einstein had introduced for photons in his theory of light quanta in 1905.
—  De Broglie[5]
In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger published an equation describing how a matter wave should evolve—the matter wave analogue of Maxwell’s equations—and used it to derive the energy spectrum of hydrogen.
Experimental confirmation[edit]
Demonstration of a matter wave in diffraction of electrons
Matter waves were first experimentally confirmed to occur in George Paget Thomson's cathode ray diffraction experiment[2] and the Davisson-Germer experiment for electrons, and the de Broglie hypothesis has been confirmed for other elementary particles. Furthermore, neutral atoms and even molecules have been shown to be wave-like.
Electrons[edit]
Further information: Davisson–Germer experiment and Electron diffraction
In 1927 at Bell Labs, Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer fired slow-moving electrons at a crystalline nickel target. The angular dependence of the diffracted electron intensity was measured, and was determined to have the same diffraction pattern as those predicted by Bragg for x-rays. At the same time George Paget Thomson at the University of Aberdeen was independently firing electrons at very thin metal foils to demonstrate the same effect.[2] Before the acceptance of the de Broglie hypothesis, diffraction was a property that was thought to be exhibited only by waves. Therefore, the presence of any diffraction effects by matter demonstrated the wave-like nature of matter. When the de Broglie wavelength was inserted into the Bragg condition, the observed diffraction pattern was predicted, thereby experimentally confirming the de Broglie hypothesis for electrons.[6]
This was a pivotal result in the development of quantum mechanics. Just as the photoelectric effect demonstrated the particle nature of light, the Davisson–Germer experiment showed the wave-nature of matter, and completed the theory of wave–particle duality. For physicists this idea was important because it meant that not only could any particle exhibit wave characteristics, but that one could use wave equations to describe phenomena in matter if one used the de Broglie wavelength.
Neutral atoms[edit]
Further information: Atom optics
Experiments with Fresnel diffraction[7] and an atomic mirror for specular reflection[8][9] of neutral atoms confirm the application of the de Broglie hypothesis to atoms, i.e. the existence of atomic waves which undergo diffraction, interference and allow quantum reflection by the tails of the attractive potential.[10] Advances in laser cooling have allowed cooling of neutral atoms down to nanokelvin temperatures. At these temperatures, the thermal de Broglie wavelengths come into the micrometre range. Using Bragg diffraction of atoms and a Ramsey interferometry technique, the de Broglie wavelength of cold sodium atoms was explicitly measured and found to be consistent with the temperature measured by a different method.[11]
This effect has been used to demonstrate atomic holography, and it may allow the construction of an atom probe imaging system with nanometer resolution.[12][13] The description of these phenomena is based on the wave properties of neutral atoms, confirming the de Broglie hypothesis.
The effect has also been used to explain the spatial version of the quantum Zeno effect, in which an otherwise unstable object may be stabilised by rapidly repeated observations.[9]
Molecules[edit]
Recent experiments even confirm the relations for molecules and even macromolecules that otherwise might be supposed too large to undergo quantum mechanical effects. In 1999, a research team in Vienna demonstrated diffraction for molecules as large as fullerenes.[14] The researchers calculated a De Broglie wavelength of the most probable C60 velocity as 2.5 pm. More recent experiments prove the quantum nature of molecules made of 810 atoms and with a mass of 10,123 amu.[15]
de Broglie relations[edit]
The de Broglie equations relate the wavelength λ to the momentum p, and frequency f to the total energy E of a particle:[16]
λ = h / p f = E / h {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\lambda =h/p\\&f=E/h\end{aligned}}}
where h is the Planck constant. The equations can also be written as
p = ℏ k E = ℏ ω {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\mathbf {p} =\hbar \mathbf {k} \\&E=\hbar \omega \\\end{aligned}}}
or [17]
p = ℏ β E = ℏ ω {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\mathbf {p} =\hbar \mathbf {\beta } \\&E=\hbar \omega \\\end{aligned}}}
where ħ = h/2π is the reduced Planck constant, k is the wave vector, β is the phase constant, and ω is the angular frequency.
In each pair, the second equation is also referred to as the Planck–Einstein relation, since it was also proposed by Planck and Einstein.
Special relativity[edit]
Using two formulas from special relativity, one for the relativistic momentum and one for the relativistic mass energy
E = m c 2 = γ m 0 c 2 {\displaystyle E=mc^{2}=\gamma m_{0}c^{2}}
p → = m v → = γ m 0 v → {\displaystyle {\vec {p}}=m{\vec {v}}=\gamma m_{0}{\vec {v}}}
allows the equations to be written as
λ = h γ m 0 v = h m 0 v 1 − v 2 c 2 f = γ m 0 c 2 h = m 0 c 2 h / 1 − v 2 c 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\lambda =\,\,{\frac {h}{\gamma m_{0}v}}\,=\,{\frac {h}{m_{0}v}}\,\,\,\,{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}\\&f={\frac {\gamma \,m_{0}c^{2}}{h}}={\frac {m_{0}c^{2}}{h}}{\bigg /}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}\end{aligned}}}
where m 0 {\displaystyle m_{0}} denotes the particle's rest mass, v {\displaystyle v} its velocity, γ {\displaystyle \gamma } the Lorentz factor, and c {\displaystyle c} the speed of light in a vacuum.[18][19][20] See below for details of the derivation of the de Broglie relations. Group velocity (equal to the particle's speed) should not be confused with phase velocity (equal to the product of the particle's frequency and its wavelength). In the case of a non-dispersive medium, they happen to be equal, but otherwise they are not.
Group velocity[edit]
Albert Einstein first explained the wave–particle duality of light in 1905. Louis de Broglie hypothesized that any particle should also exhibit such a duality. The velocity of a particle, he concluded, should always equal the group velocity of the corresponding wave. The magnitude of the group velocity is equal to the particle's speed.
Both in relativistic and non-relativistic quantum physics, we can identify the group velocity of a particle's wave function with the particle velocity. Quantum mechanics has very accurately demonstrated this hypothesis, and the relation has been shown explicitly for particles as large as molecules.[14]
De Broglie deduced that if the duality equations already known for light were the same for any particle, then his hypothesis would hold. This means that
v g = ∂ ω ∂ k = ∂ ( E / ℏ ) ∂ ( p / ℏ ) = ∂ E ∂ p {\displaystyle v_{g}={\frac {\partial \omega }{\partial k}}={\frac {\partial (E/\hbar )}{\partial (p/\hbar )}}={\frac {\partial E}{\partial p}}}
where E is the total energy of the particle, p is its momentum, ħ is the reduced Planck constant. For a free non-relativistic particle it follows that
v g = ∂ E ∂ p = ∂ ∂ p ( 1 2 p 2 m ) = p m = v {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}v_{g}&={\frac {\partial E}{\partial p}}={\frac {\partial }{\partial p}}\left({\frac {1}{2}}{\frac {p^{2}}{m}}\right)\\&={\frac {p}{m}}\\&=v\end{aligned}}}
where m is the mass of the particle and v its velocity.
Also in special relativity we find that
v g = ∂ E ∂ p = ∂ ∂ p ( p 2 c 2 + m 0 2 c 4 ) = p c 2 p 2 c 2 + m 0 2 c 4 = p c 2 E {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}v_{g}&={\frac {\partial E}{\partial p}}={\frac {\partial }{\partial p}}\left({\sqrt {p^{2}c^{2}+m_{0}^{2}c^{4}}}\right)\\&={\frac {pc^{2}}{\sqrt {p^{2}c^{2}+m_{0}^{2}c^{4}}}}\\&={\frac {pc^{2}}{E}}\end{aligned}}}
where m0 is the rest mass of the particle and c is the speed of light in a vacuum. But (see below), using that the phase velocity is vp = E/p = c2/v, therefore
v g = p c 2 E = c 2 v p = v {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}v_{g}&={\frac {pc^{2}}{E}}\\&={\frac {c^{2}}{v_{p}}}\\&=v\end{aligned}}}
where v is the velocity of the particle regardless of wave behavior.
Phase velocity[edit]
In quantum mechanics, particles also behave as waves with complex phases. The phase velocity is equal to the product of the frequency multiplied by the wavelength.
By the de Broglie hypothesis, we see that
v p = ω k = E / ℏ p / ℏ = E p . {\displaystyle v_{\mathrm {p} }={\frac {\omega }{k}}={\frac {E/\hbar }{p/\hbar }}={\frac {E}{p}}.}
Using relativistic relations for energy and momentum, we have
v p = E p = m c 2 m v = γ m 0 c 2 γ m 0 v = c 2 v = c β {\displaystyle v_{\mathrm {p} }={\frac {E}{p}}={\frac {mc^{2}}{mv}}={\frac {\gamma m_{0}c^{2}}{\gamma m_{0}v}}={\frac {c^{2}}{v}}={\frac {c}{\beta }}}
where E is the total energy of the particle (i.e. rest energy plus kinetic energy in the kinematic sense), p the momentum, γ {\displaystyle \gamma } the Lorentz factor, c the speed of light, and β the speed as a fraction of c. The variable v can either be taken to be the speed of the particle or the group velocity of the corresponding matter wave. Since the particle speed v < c {\displaystyle v<c} for any particle that has mass (according to special relativity), the phase velocity of matter waves always exceeds c, i.e.
v p > c , {\displaystyle v_{\mathrm {p} }>c,\,}
and as we can see, it approaches c when the particle speed is in the relativistic range. The superluminal phase velocity does not violate special relativity, because phase propagation carries no energy. See the article on Dispersion (optics) for details.
Four-vectors[edit]
Main article: Four-vector
Using four-vectors, the De Broglie relations form a single equation:
P = ℏ K {\displaystyle \mathbf {P} =\hbar \mathbf {K} }
which is frame-independent.
Likewise, the relation between group/particle velocity and phase velocity is given in frame-independent form by:
K = ( ω o c 2 ) U {\displaystyle \mathbf {K} =\left({\frac {\omega _{o}}{c^{2}}}\right)\mathbf {U} }
where
Four-momentum P = ( E c , p → ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {P} =\left({\frac {E}{c}},{\vec {\mathbf {p} }}\right)}
Four-wavevector K = ( ω c , k → ) = ( ω c , ω v p n ^ ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {K} =\left({\frac {\omega }{c}},{\vec {\mathbf {k} }}\right)=\left({\frac {\omega }{c}},{\frac {\omega }{v_{p}}}\mathbf {\hat {n}} \right)}
Four-velocity U = γ ( c , u → ) = γ ( c , v g n ^ ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {U} =\gamma (c,{\vec {\mathbf {u} }})=\gamma (c,v_{g}{\hat {\mathbf {n} }})}
Interpretations[edit]
The physical reality underlying de Broglie waves is a subject of ongoing debate. Some theories treat either the particle or the wave aspect as its fundamental nature, seeking to explain the other as an emergent property. Some, such as the hidden variable theory, treat the wave and the particle as distinct entities. Yet others propose some intermediate entity that is neither quite wave nor quite particle but only appears as such when we measure one or the other property. The Copenhagen interpretation states that the nature of the underlying reality is unknowable and beyond the bounds of scientific inquiry.
Schrödinger's quantum mechanical waves are conceptually different from ordinary physical waves such as water or sound. Ordinary physical waves are characterized by undulating real-number 'displacements' of dimensioned physical variables at each point of ordinary physical space at each instant of time. Schrödinger's "waves" are characterized by the undulating value of a dimensionless complex number at each point of an abstract multi-dimensional space, for example of configuration space.
At the Fifth Solvay Conference in 1927, Max Born and Werner Heisenberg reported as follows:
If one wishes to calculate the probabilities of excitation and ionization of atoms [M. Born, Zur Quantenmechanik der Stossvorgange, Z. f. Phys., 37 (1926), 863; [Quantenmechanik der Stossvorgange], ibid., 38 (1926), 803] then one must introduce the coordinates of the atomic electrons as variables on an equal footing with those of the colliding electron. The waves then propagate no longer in three-dimensional space but in multi-dimensional configuration space. From this one sees that the quantum mechanical waves are indeed something quite different from the light waves of the classical theory.[21]
At the same conference, Erwin Schrödinger reported likewise.
Under [the name 'wave mechanics',] at present two theories are being carried on, which are indeed closely related but not identical. The first, which follows on directly from the famous doctoral thesis by L. de Broglie, concerns waves in three-dimensional space. Because of the strictly relativistic treatment that is adopted in this version from the outset, we shall refer to it as the four-dimensional wave mechanics. The other theory is more remote from Mr de Broglie's original ideas, insofar as it is based on a wave-like process in the space of position coordinates (q-space) of an arbitrary mechanical system.[Long footnote about manuscript not copied here.] We shall therefore call it the multi-dimensional wave mechanics. Of course this use of the q-space is to be seen only as a mathematical tool, as it is often applied also in the old mechanics; ultimately, in this version also, the process to be described is one in space and time. In truth, however, a complete unification of the two conceptions has not yet been achieved. Anything over and above the motion of a single electron could be treated so far only in the multi-dimensional version; also, this is the one that provides the mathematical solution to the problems posed by the Heisenberg-Born matrix mechanics.[22]
In 1955, Heisenberg reiterated this:
An important step forward was made by the work of Born [Z. Phys., 37: 863, 1926 and 38: 803, 1926] in the summer of 1926. In this work, the wave in configuration space was interpreted as a probability wave, in order to explain collision processes on Schrödinger's theory. This hypothesis contained two important new features in comparison with that of Bohr, Kramers and Slater. The first of these was the assertion that, in considering "probability waves", we are concerned with processes not in ordinary three-dimensional space, but in an abstract configuration space (a fact which is, unfortunately, sometimes overlooked even today); the second was the recognition that the probability wave is related to an individual process.[23]
It is mentioned above that the "displaced quantity" of the Schrödinger wave has values that are dimensionless complex numbers. One may ask what is the physical meaning of those numbers. According to Heisenberg, rather than being of some ordinary physical quantity such as for example Maxwell's electric field intensity, or for example mass density, the Schrödinger-wave packet's "displaced quantity" is probability amplitude. He wrote that instead of using the term 'wave packet', it is preferable to speak of a probability packet.[24] The probability amplitude supports calculation of probability of location or momentum of discrete particles. Heisenberg recites Duane's account of particle diffraction by probabilistic quantal translation momentum transfer, which allows, for example in Young's two-slit experiment, each diffracted particle probabilistically to pass discretely through a particular slit.[25] Thus one does not need necessarily think of the matter wave, as it were, as 'composed of smeared matter'.
These ideas may be expressed in ordinary language as follows. In the account of ordinary physical waves, a 'point' refers to a position in ordinary physical space at an instant of time, at which there is specified a 'displacement' of some physical quantity. But in the account of quantum mechanics, a 'point' refers to a configuration of the system at an instant of time, every particle of the system being in a sense present in every 'point' of configuration space, each particle at such a 'point' being located possibly at a different position in ordinary physical space. There is no explicit definite indication that, at an instant, this particle is 'here' and that particle is 'there' in some separate 'location' in configuration space. This conceptual difference entails that, in contrast to de Broglie's pre-quantum mechanical wave description, the quantum mechanical probability packet description does not directly and explicitly express the Aristotelian idea, referred to by Newton, that causal efficacy propagates through ordinary space by contact, nor the Einsteinian idea that such propagation is no faster than light. In contrast, these ideas are so expressed in the classical wave account, through the Green's function, though it is inadequate for the observed quantal phenomena. The physical reasoning for this was first recognized by Einstein.[26][27]
De Broglie's phase wave and periodic phenomenon[edit]
De Broglie's thesis started from the hypothesis, "that to each portion of energy with a proper mass m0 one may associate a periodic phenomenon of the frequency ν0 , such that one finds: hν0 = m0c2. The frequency ν0 is to be measured, of course, in the rest frame of the energy packet. This hypothesis is the basis of our theory."[28][29][30][31][32][33]
De Broglie followed his initial hypothesis of a periodic phenomenon, with frequency ν0 , associated with the energy packet. He used the special theory of relativity to find, in the frame of the observer of the electron energy packet that is moving with velocity v {\displaystyle v} , that its frequency was apparently reduced to
f = ν 0 1 − v 2 c 2 . {\displaystyle f=\nu _{0}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}\,.}
Then
λ f = E / p = v p . {\displaystyle \lambda f=E/p=v_{\mathrm {p} }\,.}
using the same notation as above. The quantity v p {\displaystyle v_{\mathrm {p} }} is the velocity of what de Broglie called the "phase wave". Its wavelength is λ {\displaystyle \lambda } and frequency f {\displaystyle f} . De Broglie reasoned that his hypothetical intrinsic particle periodic phenomenon is in phase with that phase wave. This was his basic matter wave conception. He noted, as above, that v p > c {\displaystyle v_{\mathrm {p} }>c} , and the phase wave does not transfer energy.[30][34]
While the concept of waves being associated with matter is correct, de Broglie did not leap directly to the final understanding of quantum mechanics with no missteps. There are conceptual problems with the approach that de Broglie took in his thesis that he was not able to resolve, despite trying a number of different fundamental hypotheses in different papers published while working on, and shortly after publishing, his thesis.[31][35] These difficulties were resolved by Erwin Schrödinger, who developed the wave mechanics approach, starting from a somewhat different basic hypothesis.
See also[edit]
Bohr model
Faraday wave
Kapitsa–Dirac effect
Matter wave clock
Schrödinger equation
Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation
Thermal de Broglie wavelength
De Broglie–Bohm theory
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Jump up ^ Schrödinger, E. (1928). Wave mechanics, pp. 185–206 of Électrons et Photons: Rapports et Discussions du Cinquième Conseil de Physique, tenu à Bruxelles du 24 au 29 Octobre 1927, sous les Auspices de l'Institut International de Physique Solvay, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, pp. 185–186; this translation at p. 447 of Bacciagaluppi, G., Valentini, A. (2009), Quantum Theory at the Crossroads: Reconsidering the 1927 Solvay Conference, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, ISBN 978-0-521-81421-8.
Jump up ^ Heisenberg, W. (1955). The development of the interpretation of the quantum theory, pp. 12–29, in Niels Bohr and the Development of Physics: Essays dedicated to Niels Bohr on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, edited by W. Pauli, with the assistance of L. Rosenfeld and V. Weisskopf, Pergamon Press, London, p. 13.
Jump up ^ Heisenberg, W. (1927). Über den anschlaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik, Z. Phys. 43: 172–198, translated by eds. Wheeler, J.A., Zurek, W.H. (1983), at pp. 62–84 of Quantum Theory and Measurement, Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, p. 73. Also translated as 'The actual content of quantum theoretical kinematics and mechanics' here
Jump up ^ Heisenberg, W. (1930). The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory, translated by C. Eckart, F. C. Hoyt, University of Chicago Press, Chicago IL, pp. 77–78.
Jump up ^ Fine, A. (1986). The Shaky Game: Einstein Realism and the Quantum Theory, University of Chicago, Chicago, ISBN 0-226-24946-8
Jump up ^ Howard, D. (1990). "Nicht sein kann was nicht sein darf", or the prehistory of the EPR, 1909–1935; Einstein's early worries about the quantum mechanics of composite systems, pp. 61–112 in Sixty-two Years of Uncertainty: Historical Philosophical and Physical Inquiries into the Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, edited by A.I. Miller, Plenum Press, New York, ISBN 978-1-4684-8773-2.
Jump up ^ de Broglie, L. (1923). "Waves and quanta". Nature. 112: 540. Bibcode:1923Natur.112..540D. doi:10.1038/112540a0.
Jump up ^ de Broglie, L. (1924). Thesis, p. 8 of Kracklauer's translation.
^ Jump up to: a b Medicus, H.A. (1974). "Fifty years of matter waves". Physics Today. 27 (2): 38–45. Bibcode:1974PhT....27b..38M. doi:10.1063/1.3128444.
^ Jump up to: a b MacKinnon, E. (1976). De Broglie's thesis: a critical retrospective, Am. J. Phys. 44: 1047–1055.
Jump up ^ Espinosa, J.M. (1982). "Physical properties of de Broglie's phase waves". Am. J. Phys. 50: 357–362. Bibcode:1982AmJPh..50..357E. doi:10.1119/1.12844.
Jump up ^ Brown, H.R.; Martins (1984). "De Broglie's relativistic phase waves and wave groups". Am. J. Phys. 52: 1130–1140. Bibcode:1984AmJPh..52.1130B. doi:10.1119/1.13743.
Jump up ^ Bacciagaluppi, G., Valentini, A. (2009). Quantum Theory at the Crossroads: Reconsidering the 1927 Solvay Conference, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, ISBN 978-0-521-81421-8, pp. 30–88.
Jump up ^ Martins, Roberto de Andrade (2010). "Louis de Broglie's Struggle with the Wave-Particle Dualism, 1923-1925". Quantum History Project, Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society and the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science. Retrieved 2015-01-03.
Further reading[edit]
L. de Broglie, Recherches sur la théorie des quanta (Researches on the quantum theory), Thesis (Paris), 1924; L. de Broglie, Ann. Phys. (Paris) 3, 22 (1925). English translation by A.F. Kracklauer.
Broglie, Louis de, The wave nature of the electron Nobel Lecture, 12, 1929
Tipler, Paul A. and Ralph A. Llewellyn (2003). Modern Physics. 4th ed. New York; W. H. Freeman and Co. ISBN 0-7167-4345-0. pp. 203–4, 222–3, 236.
Zumdahl, Steven S. (2005). Chemical Principles (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-37206-7.
An extensive review article "Optics and interferometry with atoms and molecules" appeared in July 2009: http://www.atomwave.org/rmparticle/RMPLAO.pdf.
"Scientific Papers Presented to Max Born on his retirement from the Tait Chair of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh", 1953 (Oliver and Boyd)
External links[edit]
Bowley, Roger. "de Broglie Waves". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
de broglie wavelength calculator
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Caslon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the typeface. For the person, see William Caslon. For other uses, see Caslon (disambiguation).
Caslon
Category
Serif
Classification
Old-style
Designer(s)
William Caslon I
Foundry
Caslon Type Foundry
Variations
many
Shown here
Adobe Caslon by Carol Twombly
Caslon is the name given to serif typefaces designed by William Caslon I (c. 1692–1766) in London, or inspired by his work.
Caslon worked as an engraver of punches, the masters used to stamp the moulds or matrices used to cast metal type.[1][2][3] He worked in the tradition of what is now called old-style serif letter design, that produced letters with a relatively organic structure resembling handwriting with a pen. Caslon established a tradition of engraving type in London, which previously had not been common, and so he was influenced by the imported Dutch Baroque typefaces that were popular in England at the time.[4][5][6][7] His typefaces established a strong reputation for their quality and their attractive appearance, suitable for extended passages of text.[8][9]
The letterforms of Caslon's roman, or upright type include an 'A' with a concave hollow at top left and a 'G' without a downwards-pointing spur at bottom right. The sides of the 'M' are straight.[10] The 'W' has three terminals at the top and the 'b' has a small tapered stroke ending at bottom left.[10] Ascenders and descenders are relatively short and the level of stroke contrast is modest in body text sizes. However, Caslon created subtly different designs of letter at different sizes, with increasing levels of fine detail and sharp contrast in stroke weight at larger sizes. Caslon's larger-size roman fonts have two serifs on the 'C', while his smaller-size versions have one half-arrow serif only at top right. In italic, Caslon's h folds inwards and the A is sharply slanted.[10] The Q, T v, w, and z all have flourishes or swashes in the original design, something not all revivals follow.[10] The italic 'J' has a crossbar and a rotated version was used by Caslon in many sizes on his specimens to form the pound sign.[3]
Caslon's typefaces were popular in his lifetime and beyond, and after a brief period of eclipse in the early nineteenth century returned to popularity, particularly for setting printed body text and books. Many revivals exist, with varying faithfulness to Caslon's original design.[11] Modern Caslon revivals also often add features such as a matching boldface and 'lining' numbers at the height of capital letters, neither of which were used in Caslon's time.[12][a] William Berkson, designer of a revival of Caslon, describes Caslon in body text as "comfortable and inviting".[13]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Eclipse
3 Return to popularity
4 Metal type versions
4.1 Caslon Old Face
4.2 Caslon 471
4.3 Caslon 540
4.4 Caslon 3
4.5 Caslon Openface
4.6 The Monotype Corporation (UK)
4.7 Imprint
4.8 Ludlow Typograph Company, Chicago, Illinois, USA
4.9 Caslon 641
4.10 Caslon 223 and 224
5 Digital-only releases
5.1 Adobe Caslon (1990)
5.2 Big Caslon (1994)
5.3 LTC Caslon (2005)
5.4 Williams Caslon Text (2010)
6 Distressed revivals
6.1 ITC Founder's Caslon (1998)
6.1.1 H. W. Caslon version
6.2 NotCaslon (1995)
6.3 Franklin Caslon (2006)
6.4 Caslon Antique
7 References
7.1 Early sources
7.2 Further reading
8 External links
8.1 Specimen books available online
History[edit]
William Caslon in an engraved portrait by John Faber the younger
English roman, a Latin text face of the Caslon stable of typefaces. Restored extract from the specimen sheet below.
William Caslon's 1734 Specimen sheet. Some of the types shown were not cut by Caslon, most notably the French Canon roman (probably cut by Joseph Moxon).[14][4][b]
Caslon began his career in London as an apprentice engraver of ornamental designs on firearms and other metalwork.[16][15] According to printer and historian John Nichols, the main source on Caslon's life, the accuracy of his work came to the attention of prominent London printers, who advanced him money to carve steel punches for printing, first for exotic languages and then as his reputation developed for the Latin alphabet.[17][18] Punchcutting was a difficult technique and many of the techniques used were kept secret by punchcutters or passed on from father to son. Caslon would later follow this practice himself, according to Nichols teaching his son his methods privately while locked in a room where nobody could watch them.[4][19] As British printers had little success or experience of making their own types, they were forced to use equipment bought from the Netherlands, or France, and Caslon's types are therefore clearly influenced by the popular Dutch typefaces of his period.[20][21] James Mosley summarises his early work: "Caslon's pica...was based very closely indeed on a pica roman and italic that appears on the specimen sheet of the widow of the Amsterdam printer Dirck Voskens, c.1695, and which Bowyer had used for some years. Caslon's pica replaces it in his printing from 1725…Caslon's Great Primer roman, first used in 1728, a type that was much admired in the twentieth century, is clearly related to the Text Romeyn of Voskens, a type of the early seventeenth century used by several London printers and now attributed to the punch-cutter Nicolas Briot of Gouda."[4] Mosley also describes several other Caslon faces as "intelligent adaptations" of the Voskens Pica.[4][22][23]
Caslon's type rapidly built up a reputation for workmanship, being described by Henry Newman in 1733 as "the work of that Artist who seems to aspire to outvying all the Workmen in his way in Europe, so that our Printers send no more to Holland for the Elzevir and other Letters which they formerly valued themselves much."[4][24][c] Mosley describes Caslon's Long Primer No. 1 type as "type with generous proportions and it was normally cast with letter-spacing that was not too tight, characteristics that are needed in types on a small body. And yet it is so soundly made that words that are set in it keep their shape and are comfortably readable...It is a type that works best in the narrow measure of a two-column page or in quite modest octavos."[26] Caslon sold a French Canon face he did not engrave that may to have been the work of Joseph Moxon with some modifications, and his larger-size faces follow this high-contrast model.[14] Compared to the more delicate, stylised and experimental designs that developed in Europe during Caslon's life, notably the romain du roi type and the work of Fleischmann in Amsterdam, and the Baskerville type of John Baskerville in Birmingham that appeared towards the end of Caslon's career, Caslon's type was quite conservative. Johnson notes that his 1764 specimen "might have been produced a hundred years earlier".[27] Stanley Morison described Caslon's type as "a happy archaicism".[28]
While not used extensively in Europe,[15] Caslon types were distributed throughout the British Empire, including British North America, where they were used on the printing the U.S. Declaration of Independence.[29] After William Caslon I’s death, the use of his types diminished, but had a revival between 1840–80 as a part of the British Arts and Crafts movement.
Besides regular text fonts, Caslon cut blackletter or 'Gothic' types (and sold some earlier ones from older foundries), which were also printed on his specimen. These could be used for purposes such as title pages, emphasis and drop caps.[30] Bold type did not exist in Caslon's time, although some of his larger-size fonts are quite bold.[12]
One criticism of some Caslon-style typefaces has been a concern that the capitals are too thick in design and stand out too much, making for an uneven colour on the page. Printer and typeface designer Frederic Goudy was a critic: "the strong contrast between the over-black stems of the capitals and the light weight stems in the lower-case...makes a 'spotty' page". He cited dissatisfaction with the style as an incentive for becoming more involved in type design around 1911, when he created Kennerley Old Style as an alternative.[31]
Eclipse[edit]
Caslon's types fell out of interest in the late eighteenth century, due to the arrival of "transitional"-style typefaces like Baskerville and then "Didone" or modern designs.[32][15] His type foundry remained in business at Chiswell Street, London, but began to sell alternative and additional designs, some cut by his son William Caslon II.[33][34] His grandson, William Caslon III, broke away from the family to establish a competitor foundry at Salisbury Square, by buying up the company of the late Joseph Jackson.[35] Justin Howes suggests that there may have been some attempt to update some of Caslon's types towards the newer style starting before 1816, noting that Caslon type cast by the 1840s included "a handful of sorts, Q, [an open-form italic] h, ſh, Q, T and Y, which would have been unfamiliar to Caslon, and which may have been cut at the end of the eighteenth century in a modest attempt to bring Old Face up to date. The h, ſh and T are to be seen [in a book from] 1816, large parts of which appear to have been printed from well-worn standing type."[3]
Even as Caslon's type itself largely fell out of use, his reputation remained strong within the printing community. The printer and social reformer Thomas Curson Hansard wrote in 1825:
At the commencement of the 18th century the native talent of the founders was so little prized by the printers of the metropolis, that they were in the habit of importing founts from Holland, ...and the printers of the present day might still have been driven to the inconvenience of importation had not a genius, in the person of William Caslon, arisen to rescue his country from the disgrace of typographical inferiority.[36]
Similarly, Edward Bull in 1842 called Caslon "the great chief and father of English type."[37]
Return to popularity[edit]
The History of Henry Esmond, a novel by Thackeray written as a fictional memoir. The first edition of 1852 was printed in Caslon type, then just coming back into fashion.[38] The goal was to achieve a period feel appropriate to its early eighteenth-century setting.
Interest in eighteenth-century printing returned in the nineteenth century with the rise of the arts and crafts movement, and Caslon's types returned to popularity in books and fine printing among companies such as the Chiswick Press, as well as display use in situations such as advertising.[38][39][40]
Caslon was often used for fine book printing in the nineteenth century in the United Kingdom, for example the famous edition of Byrne's Euclid, published by William Pickering in 1847 and printed by the Chiswick Press.[39][d]
Fine printing presses, notably the Chiswick Press, bought original Caslon type from the Caslon foundry; copies of these matrices were also made by electrotyping.[38] From the 1860s new types began to appear in a style similar to Caslon's, starting from Miller & Richard's Modernised Old Style of c. 1860. The Caslon foundry itself covertly cut new swash capitals and replaced some sizes with new, cleaner versions.
In the United States, Caslons became almost a genre, modified expanded with new styles such as bold, condensed, inline or with modifications such as shortened descenders to fit American common line, or lining figures. Many foundries cut (or, in many cases, pirated) their own versions.[41] By the 1920s, American Type Founders offered a large range of styles, some numbered rather than named.[42] (Bookman Old Style is a descendant of one of these American Caslon revivals. A series of modifications has given most modern Bookman digitisations a somewhat exaggerated appearance with extremely high x-height very unlike the original Caslon.) The hot metal typesetting companies Linotype, Monotype, Intertype and Ludlow, which sold machines that cast type under the control of a keyboard, brought out their own Caslon releases.
According to book designer Hugh Williamson, a second decline in Caslon's popularity in Britain did, however, set in during the twentieth century due to the arrival of revivals of other old-style and transitional designs from Monotype and Linotype. These included Bembo, Garamond and related faces such as Plantin, Baskerville and Times New Roman.[43]
Caslon type again entered a new technology with phototypesetting, mostly in the 1960s and 1970s, and then again with digital typesetting technology. There are many typefaces called "Caslon" as a result of that and the lack of an enforceable trademark on the name "Caslon" by itself, which reproduce the original designs in varying degrees of faithfulness.
Many of Caslon's original punches and matrices survived in the collection of the Caslon company (along with many replacement and additional characters), and are now part of the St Bride Library and Type Museum collections in Britain. Copies held by the Paris office of the Caslon company, the Fonderie Caslon, were transferred to the collection of the Musée de l'Imprimerie in Nantes.[44] Scholarly research on Caslon's type has been carried out by historians including Alfred F. Johnson, Harry Carter, James Mosley and Justin Howes.
Metal type versions[edit]
Caslon Old Face[edit]
Caslon Old Face in a sample advertisement by the H.W. Caslon company, 1915
Linotype's Caslon Old Face hot metal typesetting adaptation. It was based on types provided by the H.W. Caslon company, although some of these were re-engraved around the end of the nineteenth century rather than being Caslon's original work.
The H.W. Caslon & Sons foundry reissued Caslon’s original types as Caslon Old Face from the original (or, at least, early) matrices. The last lineal descendent of Caslon, Henry William Caslon, brought in Thomas White Smith as a new manager shortly before Caslon's death in 1874. Smith took over the company and instructed his sons to change their surnames to Caslon in order to provide an appearance of continuity.[38] The foundry operated an ambitious promotional programme, issuing a periodical, "Caslon's Circular". It continued to issue specimens from top printers including George W. Jones until the 1920s.[3]
Some Caslon faces were augmented by adding new features, in particular swash capitals for historicist printing.[38][45] From around 1887 the type was sold with additional swash capitals. Howes describes these as "based rather closely on François Guyot's [popular 22pt] italic of around 1557...found in English printing until the early years of the eighteenth century."[3] From around 1893 the company started to additionally recut some letters to make the type more regular and create matrices which could be cast by machine.[3] Due to the cachet of the Caslon name, some of the recuttings and modifications of the original Caslon types were apparently not publicly admitted.[38] The H.W. Caslon company also licensed to other printers matrices made by electrotyping, although some companies may also have made unauthorized copies.[38]
In 1937, the H.W. Caslon & Sons foundry was also acquired by Stephenson Blake & Co, who thereafter added 'the Caslon Letter Foundry' to their name.[46]
The hot metal typesetting companies Monotype and Linotype offered "Caslon Old Face" releases that were based (or claimed to be based) on Caslon's original typefaces. Linotype's has been digitised and released by Bitstream.[47]
Caslon 471[edit]
Caslon 471 on a metal type specimen sheet. Caslon's larger-size fonts had two serifs on the 'C' rather than one.
Caslon #471 was the release of the "original" Caslon type sold by American Type Founders.[48] American Type Founders advertised it as "the Caslon Oldstyle Romans and Italics precisely as Mr. Caslon left them in 1766.[49] It was apparently cast from electrotypes held by American Type Founders' precursors.[48]
Caslon 540[edit]
Caslon 540 on an album cover. It was popular with American advertisers.
Caslon 540 from a metal type specimen sheet.
Swash capitals for Caslon 540. Note the difficulty of designing a swash 'I' that does not resemble a 'J'.
Caslon 540 was a second American Type Founders version with shortened descenders to allow tighter linespacing.[48] The italic was distributed by Letraset with a matching set of swashes. As a result, this often became sold or used without the regular or roman style of this revival.[50]
Caslon 3[edit]
A slighter bolder version of Caslon 540, released by American Type Founders in 1905.[51] BitStream sells Caslon 3 under the name of Caslon Bold with its Caslon 540 release.[52] Russian studio ParaType have released both with Cyrillic glyphs.[53]
Caslon Openface[edit]
An American type foundry's family of 'Caslon' types in the metal type period. Most, especially the condensed and bold designs, have no connection to William Caslon's own work.
A decorative openface serif typeface with very high ascenders, popular in the United States. Despite the name, it has no connection to Caslon: it was an import of the French typeface "Le Moreau-le-Jeune", created by Fonderie Peignot in Paris, by ATF branch Barnhart Brothers & Spindlers.[54][55]
The Monotype Corporation (UK)[edit]
The British Monotype company produced three Caslon revivals.[56]
1903, Series 20, Old Face Special
1906, Series 45, Old Face Standard
1915, Series 128 & 209, Caslon & Caslon Titling.
Imprint[edit]
Main article: Imprint MT
A more regular adaptation of Caslon by the British branch of Monotype was commissioned by the London publishers of The Imprint, a short-lived printing trade periodical that published during 1913.[57] It had a higher x-height and was intended to offer an italic more complementary to the roman. It has remained popular since and has been digitised by Monotype.[58]
Ludlow Typograph Company, Chicago, Illinois, USA[edit]
Ludlow had a wide variety of Caslon-types.
Caslon 641[edit]
A heavy version of Caslon 540, released by American Type Founders in 1966.
Caslon 223 and 224[edit]
Caslon 223 and 224 were phototypesetting families designed by Ed Benguiat of Lubalin, Smith, Carnase and then ITC. Like many ITC families, they have an aggressive, advertising-oriented bold structure, not closely related to Caslon's original work.[48] 223 was the first version (named for LSC's street number), a companion version with more body text-oriented proportions followed sequentially numbered 224.[48]
Digital-only releases[edit]
The ligatures of Adobe Caslon Pro. Th is not historic.
Adobe Caslon (1990)[edit]
Media related to Adobe Caslon Pro at Wikimedia Commons
Adobe Caslon is a very popular revival designed by Carol Twombly.[59][11] It is based on Caslon's own specimen pages printed between 1734 and 1770[60] and is a member of the Adobe Originals programme. It added many features now standard in high-quality digital fonts, such as small caps, old style figures, swash letters, ligatures, alternate letters, fractions, subscripts and superscripts, and matching ornaments.[61][62]
Adobe Caslon is used for body text in The New Yorker and is one of the two official typefaces of the University of Virginia.[63] A modification is used on U. VA's logo.[64] It is also available with Adobe's Typekit programme, in some weights for free.
Big Caslon (1994)[edit]
Two alternative revivals of Caslon, designed for large and small text sizes.
Big Caslon by Matthew Carter is inspired by the "funkiness" of the three largest sizes of type from the Caslon foundry. These have a unique design with dramatic stroke contrast, complementary but very different to Caslon's text faces; one was apparently originally created by Joseph Moxon rather than Caslon.[14][4] The typeface is intended for use at 18pt and above.[65][66] The standard weight is bundled with Apple's macOS operating system in a release including small caps and alternates such as the long s. Initially published by his company Carter & Cone, in 2014 Carter revisited the design adding bold and black designs with matching italics, and republished it through Font Bureau.[67][e] It is used by Boston magazine and the Harvard Crimson.[70]
LTC Caslon (2005)[edit]
LTC Caslon is a digitisation of the Lanston Type Company's 14 point size Caslon 337 of 1915 (itself a revival of the original Caslon types).[71][72] This family include fonts in regular and bold weights, with fractions, ligatures, small caps (regular and regular italic only), swashes (regular italic weight only), and Central European characters.[73] An notable feature is that like some hot metal releases of Caslon, two separate options for descenders are provided for all styles: long descenders (creating a more elegant designs) or short (allowing tighter linespacing).
To celebrate its release, LTC included in early sales a CD of music by The William Caslon Experience, a downtempo electronic act, along with a limited edition upright italic design, 'LTC Caslon Remix'.[74][75]
Williams Caslon Text (2010)[edit]
A modern attempt to capture the spirit of Caslon by William Berkson, intended for use in body text.[76][77] Although not aimed at being fully authentic in every respect, the typeface closely follows Caslon's original specimen sheet in many respects. The weight is heavier than many earlier revivals, to compensate for changes in printing processes, and the italic is less slanted (with variation in stroke angle) than on many other Caslon releases. Berkson described his design choices in an extensive article series.[78][13]
Released by Font Bureau, it includes bold and bold italic designs, and a complete feature set across all weights, including bold small caps and swash italic alternates as well as optional shorter descenders and a 'modernist' italic option to turn off swashes on lower-case letters and reduce the slant on the 'A' for a more spare appearance.[79][f] It is currently used in Boston magazine and by Foreign Affairs.
A notable feature of Caslon's structure is its widely splayed T, which can space awkwardly with an 'h' afterwards. Accordingly, an emerging tradition among digital releases is to offer a 'Th' ligature, inspired by a tradition in calligraphy, to achieve tighter letterspacing.[80] Adobe Caslon, LTC Caslon, Williams Caslon and Big Caslon (italics only, in the Font Bureau release) all offer a 'Th' ligature as default or as an alternate.
Distressed revivals[edit]
The Caslon family tomb at St Luke's church, London
Caslon Old Face marketed in a 1915 specimen brochure with mock-18th century title page
A number of Caslon revivals are 'distressed' in style, adding intentional irregularities to capture the worn, jagged feel of metal type.
ITC Founder's Caslon (1998)[edit]
ITC Founder's Caslon was digitized by Justin Howes.[81] He used the resources of the St Bride Library in London to thoroughly research William Caslon and his types.[82] Unlike previous digital revivals, this family closely follows the tradition of building separate typefaces intended for different sizes. Distressing varies by style, matching the effect of metal type, with large optical sizes offering the cleanest appearance.
This family was released by ITC in December 1998.[83] Following the original Caslon types, it does not include bold typefaces, but uses old style figures for all numbers.
H. W. Caslon version[edit]
Following the release of ITC Founder's Caslon, Justin Howes revived the H.W. Caslon & Company name, and released an expanded version of the ITC typefaces under the Founders Caslon name.[84][85]
Caslon Old Face is a typeface with multiple optical sizes, including 8, 10, 12, 14, 18, 22, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 60, 72, 96 points. Each font has small capitals, long esses and swash characters. The 96 point font came in roman only and without small capitals. Caslon Old Face was released in July 2001.
Caslon Ornaments is a typeface containing ornament glyphs.
These typefaces are packaged in the following formats:
Founders Caslon Text: Caslon Old Face (8, 10, 12, 14, 18), Caslon Ornaments.[86]
Founders Caslon Display: Caslon Old Face (22, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 60, 72), Caslon Ornaments.[87]
Founders Caslon 1776: Caslon Old Face (14), Caslon Ornaments.[88] A selection of the types used on the United States Declaration of Independence.
However, following the death of Justin Howes, the revived H.W. Caslon & Company went out of business.
NotCaslon (1995)[edit]
An exuberant parody of Caslon italics created by Mark Andresen, this 1995 Emigre font was created by blending together samples of Caslon from "bits and pieces of dry transfer lettering: flakes, nicks, and all".[89][90][91]
Franklin Caslon (2006)[edit]
Caslon 540 in a digital version of the Letraset revival, showing some swashes and alternate characters.
This 2006 creation by P22 is based on the pages produced by Benjamin Franklin circa 1750. It has a distressed appearance.[92]
Caslon Antique[edit]
Main article: Caslon Antique
This decorative serif typeface was originally called Fifteenth Century, but later renamed Caslon Antique. It is not generally considered to be a member of the Caslon family of typefaces, because its design appears unrelated, and the Caslon name was only applied retroactively.
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Carter, Harry. "Caslon Punches: An Interim Note". Journal of the Printing Historical Society. 3: 68–70.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Howes, Justin (2000). "Caslon's punches and matrices". Matrix. 20: 1–7.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Mosley, James (2008). "William Caslon the elder". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Macmillan, Neil (2006). An A-Z of Type Designers. Yale University Press. pp. 63–4. ISBN 0-300-11151-7.
Jump up ^ Loxley, Simon (12 June 2006). Type: The Secret History of Letters. I.B.Tauris. pp. 28–37. ISBN 978-1-84511-028-4.
Jump up ^ Alexander S. Lawson (January 1990). Anatomy of a Typeface. David R. Godine Publisher. pp. 169–183. ISBN 978-0-87923-333-4.
Jump up ^ Dodson, Alan. "A Type for All Seasons". Matrix. 12: 1–10.
Jump up ^ Dodson, Alan. "Caslon- a Lively Survival". Matrix: 62–71.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tracy, Walter (January 2003). Letters of Credit: A View of Type Design. D.R. Godine. pp. 56–59. ISBN 978-1-56792-240-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Paul Shaw (April 2017). Revival Type: Digital Typefaces Inspired by the Past. Yale University Press. pp. 79–84. ISBN 978-0-300-21929-6.
^ Jump up to: a b Haley, Allan. "Bold type in text". Monotype. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Berkson, William. "Reviving Caslon, Part 2". I Love Typography. Retrieved 21 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mosley, James (2003). "Reviving the Classics: Matthew Carter and the Interpretation of Historical Models". In Mosley, James; Re, Margaret; Drucker, Johanna; Carter, Matthew. Typographically Speaking: The Art of Matthew Carter. Princeton Architectural Press. p. 35. ISBN 9781568984278. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mosley, James (1981). "A specimen of printing types cut by William Caslon, London 1766; A facsimile with introduction and notes". Journal of the Printing Historical Society. 16: 1–113.
Jump up ^ Haley, Allan (1992). Typographic milestones ([Nachdr.]. ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. p. 31. ISBN 9780471288947.
Jump up ^ Nichols, John (1782). Biographical and Literary Anecdotes of William Bowyer, Printer, F.S.A. and of Many of His Learned Friends,: Containing an Incidental View of the Progress and Advancement of Literature in this Kingdom, from the Beginning of the Present Century to the End of the Year 1777. Author. pp. 316–9, 537, 585–6.
Jump up ^ John Nichols (1812). Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century: Comprizing Biographical Memoirs of William Bowyer, Printer, F.S.A., and Many of His Learned Friends; an Incidental View of the Progress and Advancement of Literature in this Kingdom During the Last Century; and Biographical Anecdotes of a Considerable Number of Eminent Writers and Ingenious Artists; with a Very Copious Index. author. pp. 355 etc.
Jump up ^ Musson, A.E. (2013). Trade Union and Social History. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 138. ISBN 9781136614712.
Jump up ^ Downer, John. "The Art of Founding Type". Emigre. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Johnson, A. F. (1939). "The 'Goût Hollandois'". The Library. s4-XX (2): 180–196. doi:10.1093/library/s4-XX.2.180. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Johnson, Alfred (1936). "A Note on William Caslon" (PDF). Monotype Recorder. 35 (4): 3–7. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Jan Middendorp (2004). Dutch Type. 010 Publishers. pp. 21–2. ISBN 978-90-6450-460-0.
Jump up ^ Ball, Johnson (1973). William Caslon, Master of Letters. The Roundwood Press. p. 346.
Jump up ^ Mosley, James. "Elzevir Letter". Typefoundry (blog). Retrieved 7 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Mosley, James. "A lost Caslon type: Long Primer No 1". Type Foundry (blog). Retrieved 2 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Johnson, A.F. Type Designs. pp. 52–3.
Jump up ^ Morison, Stanley (1937). "Type Designs of the Past and Present, Part 3". PM: 17–81. Retrieved 4 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Sherman, Nick; Mosley, James. "The Dunlap Broadside". Fonts in Use. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Old English Text MT". MyFonts. Monotype. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Goudy, Frederic (1946). A half-century of type design and typography. New York: The Typophiles. pp. 67, 77. Retrieved 26 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Eliason, Craig (October 2015). ""Transitional" Typefaces: The History of a Typefounding Classification". Design Issues. 31 (4): 30–43. doi:10.1162/DESI_a_00349. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Mosley, James. "The Caslon Foundry in 1902: Selections from an Album". Matrix. 13: 34–42.
Jump up ^ A specimen of printing types. Wm. Caslon. 1798. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Mosley, James. "Jackson, Joseph (1733–1792)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/14539.
Jump up ^ Hansard, Thomas Curson (1825). Typographia, an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art of Printing. p. 348. Retrieved 12 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Hints and Directions for Authors in Writing, Printing and Publishing Their Works. Edward Bull. 1842. pp. 33–5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Mosley, James. "Recasting Caslon Old Face". Type Foundry. Retrieved 1 August 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Johnson, Alfred F. (1931). "Old-Face Types in the Victorian Age" (PDF). Monotype Recorder. 30 (242): 5–14. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica - Caslon. Cambridge University Press. 1911. Retrieved 1 August 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Pichotta, Jill. "Caslon FB". Font Bureau. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Specimen Book & Catalogue. American Type Founders. 1923. pp. 130–191, 780. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Williamson, Hugh (1956). Methods of Book Design. Oxford University Press. pp. 85–98 etc.
Jump up ^ Mosley, James. "The materials of typefounding". Type Foundry. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Specimens of Type. London: H.W. Caslon & Co. 1915. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Millington, Roy (2002). Stephenson Blake: the last of the Old English typefounders (1st ed.). New Castle, Del. [u.a.]: Oak Knoll Press [u.a.] pp. 167 etc. ISBN 9780712347952.
Jump up ^ "Caslon Old Face". MyFonts. Bitstream. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Haley, Allan (15 September 1992). Typographic Milestones. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 31–39. ISBN 978-0-471-28894-7.
Jump up ^ 1923 American Type Founders Specimen Book & Catalogue. Elizabeth, New Jersey: American Type Founders. 1923.
Jump up ^ "Caslon 540 Italic with swashes". MyFonts. Letraset. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Caslon 3 LT". MyFonts. Linotype. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Caslon Bold". MyFonts. Bitstream. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "ParaType Caslon 540 Bold". MyFonts. ParaType. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Devroye, Luc. "Le Moreau-le-Jeune: A Typographical Specimen with an Introduction by Douglas C. Murtrie". Type Design Information. Retrieved 26 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Kupferschmid, Indra. "Caslon Openface". Alphabettes. Retrieved 26 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Stanley Morison (7 June 1973). A Tally of Types. CUP Archive. pp. 24–7. ISBN 978-0-521-09786-4.
Jump up ^ McKitterick, David (2004). A history of Cambridge University Press (1. publ. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521308038.
Jump up ^ "Imprint MT". MyFonts. Monotype. Retrieved 12 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Silverman, Randy (December 1994). "Carol Twombly on Type". Graphic Arts. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Adobe - Fonts : Adobe Caslon". Store1.adobe.com. Retrieved 2012-10-22.
Jump up ^ Hill, Will (2005). The Complete Typographer: A Manual for Designing with Type (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Person Prentice Hall. p. 53. ISBN 9780131344457.
Jump up ^ Haley, Allan (1997). "Adobe Caslon: A New Interpretation". Step-by-Step Graphics: 108–113.
Jump up ^ Gopnik, Adam (February 9, 2009). "Postscript". The New Yorker: 35.
Jump up ^ "University of Virginia Usage Guidelines". Retrieved 2012-12-06.
Jump up ^ "Big Caslon promotional page". Font Bureau. Retrieved 27 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Big Caslon - Desktop font « MyFonts". New.myfonts.com. 2000-01-01. Archived from the original on 2009-01-18. Retrieved 2012-10-22.
Jump up ^ "Big Caslon FB". Font Bureau. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Buchanan, Matthew. "Quarto Review". Typographica. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Quarto". Hoefler & Frere-Jones. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Big Caslon". Fonts in Use. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "LTC Caslon MyFonts". MyFonts. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "LANSTON FONT | CASLON OLDSTYLE, 337 | WILLIAM CASLON". P22.com. Retrieved 2012-10-22.
Jump up ^ "LTC Caslon Family". P22.com. Archived from the original on 2012-10-19. Retrieved 2012-10-22.
Jump up ^ "Microsoft Typography - News archive". Microsoft.com. Retrieved 2012-10-22.
Jump up ^ "Audio". P22. Archived from the original on 2012-10-19. Retrieved 2012-10-22.
Jump up ^ Berkson, William. "Announcement on Typophile thread". Typophile. Archived from the original on July 24, 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Boston Pops: A Conversation with Patrick Mitchell".
Jump up ^ Berkson, William. "Reviving Caslon, Part 1". Retrieved 23 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "WCT Features" (PDF). Font Bureau. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Shaw, Paul. "Flawed Typefaces". Print magazine. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Howes, Justin; Mosley, James; Chartres, Richard. "A to Z of Founder's London: A showing and synopsis of ITC Founder's Caslon" (PDF). Friends of the St. Bride's Printing Library. St Bride Library. Retrieved 28 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Download ITC Founder's Caslon™ font family". Linotype.com. Retrieved 2012-10-22.
Jump up ^ "New Releases - Fonts.com". Itcfonts.com. 2012-10-16. Retrieved 2012-10-22.
Jump up ^ Howes, Justin. "Welcome to H. W. Caslon and Company Limited". H. W. Caslon and Company Limited (Archive image from 2004). Retrieved 2 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Howes, Justin. "The Compleat Caslon". Matrix: 35–40.
Jump up ^ Howes, Justin. "Founders Caslon Text". H. W. Caslon and Company Limited (Archive image from 2004). Retrieved 2 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Howes, Justin. "Founders Caslon Display". H. W. Caslon and Company Limited (Archive image from 2004). Retrieved 2 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Howes, Justin. "Founders Caslon 1776". H. W. Caslon and Company Limited (Archive image from 2004). Retrieved 2 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "NotCaslon". Emigre. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Buy NotCaslon". Emigre. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "NotCaslon". MyFonts. Emigre. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "P22 Franklin Caslon". MyFonts. P22. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Arabic numerals in Caslon's time were written as what are now called text figures, styled with variable height like lower-case letters.
Jump up ^ Mosley identifies other non-Caslon types as the Samaritan and Syriac, and "it is difficult to believe that the lower case of the Small Pica no. 1...can be Caslon's work unless it is an early attempt. It was replaced in 1742, the only one of the roman types to be abandoned in this way."[15]
Jump up ^ "Elzevir" is a somewhat meaningless term meaning small types used by the Elzevir or Elsevier family of printers. Mosley concludes that in practice the term meant more "crisp, competent presswork" than the work of any specific engraver, since the Elseviers often used types cut centuries before in Paris.[25]
Jump up ^ Note, however, some replacement sorts, including a Baskerville-style Q and open italic 'h', both in the style of the late eighteenth century. Justin Howes suggests that these were attempts to modernise Caslon's type towards newer styles.[3]
Jump up ^ The modern family Quarto by Hoefler & Frere-Jones is a well-received revival of the Dutch display types that inspired Caslon’s larger sizes, and is therefore quite similar.[68][69]
Jump up ^ It is not to be confused with a totally different 'Caslon FB' by Jill Pichotta, inspired by bold condensed Caslon-inspired typefaces used in American newspaper headlines.[41]
Early sources[edit]
Rowe More, Dissertation 1778
John Nicols, Biographical and Literary Anecdotes of William Bowyer 1782
John Nicols, Literary Anecdotes, 1812–1815
The following two authors based their writings entirely on these three publications.
Talbot Baines Reed, A History of Old English Letter Foundries, 1897
Daniel Berkeley Updike, Printing types, their History, forms and use, 1937
Further reading[edit]
Conseguera, David, Classic Typefaces: American Type and Type Designers, Skyhorse: 2011 ISBN 9781621535829.
Lawson, Alexander S., Anatomy of a Typeface. Godine: 1990. ISBN 978-0-87923-333-4.
Meggs, Phillip B, McKelvey, Roy. Revival of the Fittest: Digital Versions of Classic Typefaces. RC Publications, Inc.2000. ISBN 1-883915-08-2
Updike, Daniel Berkeley. Printing Types: Their History, Forms, and Use. Dover Publications, Inc.: 1980. ISBN 0-486-23929-2
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Caslon.
Fonts in Use (see sub-pages for use of specific versions)
Specimen books available online[edit]
By the original Caslon Company, run by William Caslon II: Specimen of 1785
By a breakaway company run by William Caslon III: Specimen of 1798 (completely different typeface designs, in the transitional and modern style)
H.W. Caslon & Co. Ltd, specimen book, 1915. The 20th century Caslon company at its height, including many sample settings.
Late specimen sheet of the Caslon foundry from 1924: outside, inside. Included with Commercial Art magazine. George W. Jones's Caslon specimen of 1924 is similar.
American Type Founders, 1912 Specimen Book. Includes Caslon samples on pages 116-123 & 314-353.
American Type Founders, 1923 Specimen Book: complete digitisation, separate volumes (incomplete). Includes many examples of American releases of Caslon and sample settings in full-colour printing.
1953 article by Eugene Pattenburg in Print magazine on the popularity of Caslon in contemporary advertising. Many sample showings.
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