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The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse
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Aesops Fables (1912), illustrated by Arthur Rackham.
The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse is one of Aesop's Fables. It is number 352 in the Perry Index and type 112 in Aarne–Thompson's folk tale index.[1] Like several other elements in Aesop's fables, 'town mouse and country mouse' has become an English idiom.
Contents
[hide]
1 Story
2 British variations
3 Eastern analogies
4 Later adaptations
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Story[edit]
In the original tale, a proud town mouse visits his cousin in the country. The country mouse offers the city mouse a meal of simple country cuisine, at which the visitor scoffs and invites the country mouse back to the city for a taste of the "fine life" and the two cousins dine like emperors. But their rich and delicious metropolitan feast is interrupted by a couple of dogs which force the rodent cousins to abandon their meal and scurry to safety. After this, the country mouse decides to return home, preferring security to opulence or, as the 13th-century preacher Odo of Cheriton phrased it, "I'd rather gnaw a bean than be gnawed by continual fear".[2]
The story was widespread in Classical times and there is an early Greek version by Babrius (Fable 108).[3] Horace included it as part of one of his satires (II.6), ending on this story in a poem comparing town living unfavorable to life in the country.[4] Marcus Aurelius alludes to it in his Meditations, Book 11.22; "Think of the country mouse and of the town mouse, and of the alarm and trepidation of the town mouse".[5]
However, it seems to have been the 12th century Anglo-Norman writer Walter of England who contributed most to the spread of the fable throughout medieval Europe. His Latin version[6] (or that of Odo of Cheriton) has been credited as the source of the fable that appeared in the Spanish Libro de Buen Amor of Juan Ruiz in the first half of the 14th century.[7] Walter was also the source for several manuscript collections of Aesop's fables in Italian[8] and equally of the popular Esopi fabulas by Accio Zucco da Sommacampagna (fr), the first printed collection of Aesop's fables in that language (Verona, 1479), in which the story of the town mouse and the country mouse appears as fable 12. This consists of two sonnets, the first of which tells the story and the second contains a moral reflection.
British variations[edit]
British poetical treatments of the story vary widely. The Scottish Henryson's The Taill of the Uponlandis Mous and the Burges Mous[9] makes the two mice sisters.[10] The one in the country envies her sister's rich living and pays her a visit, only to be chased by a cat and return home, contented with her own lot. Four final stanzas (lines 190–221) draw out the moral that it is better to limit one's ambition and one's appetites, warning those who make the belly their god that
The cat cummis and to the mous hes ee.
Henryson attributes the story to Esope, myne author where Sir Thomas Wyatt makes it a song sung by "My mothers maydes when they did sowe and spynne" in the second of his satires.[11] This is more in accord with Horace's description of it as "an old wives' tale" but Wyatt's retelling otherwise echoes Henryson's: an impoverished country mouse visits her sister in town but is caught by the cat. In the second half of the poem (lines 70–112) Wyatt addresses his interlocutor John Poynz on the vanity of human wishes. Horace, on the other hand, had discussed his own theme at great length before closing on the story.
By contrast, the adaptation in La Fontaine's Fables, Le rat de ville et le rat des champs (I.9), is simply told.[12] There it is the town rat that invites the country rat home, only to have the meal disturbed by dogs (as in Horace); the country rat then departs, reflecting, as in Aesop, that peace is preferable to fearful plenty.
Gustave Doré's illustration of La Fontaine's fable
Adaptations dating from Britain's "Augustan Age" concentrate upon the Horatian version of the fable. The reference is direct in The hind and the panther transvers'd to the story of the country-mouse and the city mouse, written by Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax and Matthew Prior in 1687.[13] This was a satire directed against a piece of pro-Stuart propaganda and portrays the poet John Dryden (under the name of Bayes) proposing to elevate Horace's 'dry naked History' into a religious allegory (page 4ff).
Part of the fun there is that in reality the Horatian retelling is far more sophisticated than the 'plain simple thing' that Bayes pretends it is, especially in its depiction of Roman town-life at the height of its power. It is this aspect of Horace's writing that is underlined by the two adaptations of his satire made by other Augustan authors. The first was a joint work by the friends Thomas Sprat and Abraham Cowley written in 1666. Horace has the story told by a garrulous countryman, a guise that Cowley takes on with delicate self-irony. It allows him to adapt the comforts of the imperial city described by Horace to those of Restoration London, with references to contemporary high cuisine and luxury furnishings such as Mortlake Tapestries. Cowley's portion appeared separately under the title of The Country Mouse in his volume of essays.[14]
In the following century the friends Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope combined in a similar imitation of Horace's Satire in octosyllabic couplets, with Pope playing the part of the story-teller from line 133 onwards and attributing the tale to contemporary fabulist Matthew Prior.[15] The point of the piece is once again to make a witty transposition of the Classical scene into present-day circumstances as an extension of the poem's anachronistic fun. At a slightly later date Rowland Rugeley was to imitate their performance in much the same manner in "The City Mouse and Country Mouse: a fable to a friend in town".[16] The argument has been made that, for all the fable's championing of country life, the emphasis on the urban and urbane in these poems is fully in the spirit of the Horatian original.[17]
In all versions of the original fable, much is made of the poor fare upon which the country mouse subsists. Dried (grey) peas and bacon are frequently mentioned and it is these two that the early 19th century author Richard Scrafton Sharpe uses in a repetitive refrain to his lyrical treatment of "The Country Mouse and the City Mouse".[18] He was the author of Old friends in a new dress – or Familiar fables in verse, which went through different editions from 1807 onwards. The stories are told in song measures rather than narrative, and it was in a later edition that this retelling appeared.
Eastern analogies[edit]
A similar story appears among the fables of Bidpai as "The Lean Cat and the Fat Cat".[19] It is related that 'There was once a poor, lean old woman, who lived in a tiny, tumbled-down house, with a cat as poor and as lean as herself. This cat had never tasted a bit of bread, and had come no nearer a mouse than to find its tracks in the dust.' A sleek, plump cat boasts to her of how it feasts at the king's table and invites her to come and join in next day. The poor woman advises her pet to be content with its lot. Unheeding, the lean cat sets off for the palace. Owing to its infestation by cats, however, the king had ordered that any caught there were to be put to death. The lean cat dies, regretting that it had not listened to the old woman's wise advice.
Later adaptations[edit]
An illustration from Aunt Louisa's Oft Told Tales, New York c.1870
Beatrix Potter retold the story in The Tale of Johnny Town-Mouse (1918). In this she inverted the order of the visits, with the country mouse going to the city first, being frightened by a cat and disliking the food. Returning the visit later, the town mouse is frightened of the rain, the lawnmower and the danger of being stepped on by cows. The story concludes with the reflection that tastes differ. A segment from the tale was incorporated into the children's ballet film The Tales of Beatrix Potter, danced by the Royal Ballet with choreography by Frederick Ashton (1971). The ballet was subsequently performed onstage in 1992 and 2007.
In 1927 the story was made into a French silent film, with puppet animation by the director Wladyslaw Starewicz, under the title Le Rat de Ville et le Rat des Champs. In this updated version, the urban rat drives out of Paris in his car to visit his cousin on the farm. They return to the city and visit a nightclub but their revels end in pandemonium with the arrival of a cat. Recognizing that city life is too hectic for him, the country rat prefers to dream of his urban adventure from the safety of his home.[20] The American equivalent was the Silly Symphonies cartoon The Country Cousin (1936), in which the country mouse hikes along the railroad track to visit his cousin in the city. The main action takes place on the supper table and is governed by the unexplained need for silence. When the reason for this is revealed as the cat, the cousin escapes into the street, only to face the worse hazards of the traffic.[21]
In 1980, the fable was whimsically adapted by Evelyn Lambart for the National Film Board of Canada using paper figures and brightly coloured backgrounds.[22] Other cartoons much more loosely based on the fables have included Mouse in Manhattan (1945)[23] and The Country Mouse and the City Mouse: A Christmas Tale (HBO 1993), which eventually led to the TV series of The Country Mouse and the City Mouse Adventures.
In the UK, Vicky Ireland dramatised the fable for Merseyside Young People's Theatre in 1987. The 80-minute play has since been acted in the USA, South Africa and New Zealand.[24] It features William Boot, a country mouse bored with rural life at his grandmother's house, who is visited by his city cousin and learns that he has inherited Tallyhoe Lodge in London. They leave to run a gauntlet of adventures, from which William returns to settle gratefully in his peaceful country retreat.
Among musical interpretations, there have been the following:
Louis-Nicolas Clérambault set words based on La Fontaine's fable in the 1730s[25]
Jacques Offenbach included it in Six Fables de La Fontaine (1842) for soprano and small orchestra[26]
Benjamin Godard, the last of his Six Fables de La Fontaine (op. 17 1872/9)
Auguste Moutin (1821–1900) set it as a song in 1876.
Ernest Reyer set La Fontaine's fable for his own performance[27]
Jean-René Quignard for 2 children's voices
Isabelle Aboulker's setting of La Fontaine's words is on her composite CD Les Fables Enchantées (1979)[28]
Ida Gotkovsky, the third fable in her Hommage à Jean de La Fontaine for choir and orchestra, commissioned for the tercentenary of La Fontaine's death (1995)
Claude Ballif, the fourth of his Chansonettes : 5 Fables de La Fontaine for small mixed choir (Op.72, Nº1 1995)
Debra Kaye set Richard Scrafton Sharpe's lyric version of the fable for mezzo-soprano and piano in 1998. She describes this as 'a mini-opera' that combines the simplicity of folk music and operatic styles.[29]
Dominique Rebaud choreagraphed the story in Annie Sellem's dance production of Les Fables à La Fontaine in 2004. It is set as a duo which contrasts the routines of contemporary dance and hip-hop. This segment also figures among the four included in the film of the same title made by Marie-Hélène Rebois in 2004.[30]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ D. L. Ashliman, Town Mouse and Country Mouse: fables of Aarne–Thompson type 112
Jump up ^ John C.Jacobs: The Fables of Odo of Cheriton, New York, 1985, p. 87
Jump up ^ Michael Gilleland (19 February 2005). "Laudator Temporis Acti: Country Mouse and City Mouse". Laudatortemporisacti.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
Jump up ^ An online translation. University of Chicago Press. 15 April 2002. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
Jump up ^ "The Internet Classics Archive | The Meditations by Marcus Aurelius". classics.mit.edu. Retrieved 2016-04-15.
Jump up ^ "Fable 12. De mure urbano et rustico. (Walter of England – Nevelet)". Mythfolklore.net. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
Jump up ^ Wanda Ostrowska Kaufmann, The Anthropology of Wisdom Literature, Westport CT 1996, pp.110–11; it appears at lines 1370–86 and there is a translation in Mediaeval Age, ed. Angel Flores New York 1963, pp.450–2
Jump up ^ Murray Peabody Brush, The Isopo Laurenziano, Columbus, OH, 1899, pp.1–42
Jump up ^ Mediaeval Scottish Poetry (Abbotsford Series), Glasgow, Scotland, 1892, pp. 130–8. The text can be found online at lib.rochester.edu
Jump up ^ The reason for this difference and others is discussed in David West's essay "Of Mice and Men" in Quality and Pleasure in Latin Poetry, London, 1974, pp. 78–80
Jump up ^ "Satire II:The Country Mouse and the Town Mouse by Sir Thomas Wyatt". Poemhunter.com. 1 January 2004. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
Jump up ^ "Town Mouse and Country Mouse". Pitt.edu. 10 April 2011. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
Jump up ^ An online version ia at. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
Jump up ^ Cowley's Essays, Kessinger Publishing, London 2004, pp.43–4; there is an online source at the first
Jump up ^ pp.16-22
Jump up ^ Miscellaneous poems and translations (1765), pp.1-9
Jump up ^ Witke, Charles: ''Latin Satire'', Leiden, Netherlands, 1970, pp. 61–78. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
Jump up ^ Text at Storynory
Jump up ^ "The Baldwin Project: The Tortoise and the Geese by Maude Barrows Dutton". Mainlesson.com. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
Jump up ^ "Available on YouTube". Youtube.com. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
Jump up ^ Available on YouTube Archived 10 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "View online". Nfb.ca. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
Jump up ^ Available on YouTube
Jump up ^ "The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse (Ireland)". Dramaticpublishing.com. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
Jump up ^ There is an excerpt online
Jump up ^ There is a performance on YouTube
Jump up ^ The composer's interpretation (under his real name of Étienne Rey) is reported in Louis Lacombe's Philosophie et Musique, Paris 1896, p.262
Jump up ^ "Performance on YouTube". Youtube.com. 14 April 2011. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
Jump up ^ "Debra Kaye, composer". Debra Kaye, composer. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
Jump up ^ Arte TV archive
Further reading[edit]
McKendry, John, ed. (1964). Aesop, Five Centuries of Illustrated Fables. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
External links[edit]
Media related to The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse at Wikimedia Commons
Greek versions and European illustrations
Book illustrations from the 15th to the 20th centuries online
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Monika (given name)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 1 March 2018.
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Monika
Gender
Female
Origin
Word/name
Greek,[1] Babylonian,[1] Latin[1]
Meaning
Advisor, unique
Region of origin
German, Scandinavian, Czech, Slovak, Polish, Slovene, Croatian, Lithuanian, Latvian, Hungarian, Serbian
Other names
Related names
Monica, Monique, Mona, Nika
Monika is a female name in German, Scandinavian, Czech, Slovak, Polish, Slovene, Croatian, Lithuanian, Latvian and Hungarian (Mónika) which can also be seen in India. It is a variation of Monica, stemming from the word "advisor" in Latin[1] and "unique" in Greek.[2] Monika is also the patron saint of women and mothers.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Notable people
2 Fictional characters
3 See also
4 References
Notable people[edit]
Monika Bolly (born 1968), Polish actress
Monika Christodoulou (born 1985), Greek singer-songwriter, known mononymously as Monika
Monika Fagerholm, Finnish author
Monika Fikerle (born 1974), Australian musician
Monika Frimmer (born 1955), German soprano in opera and concert
Monika Harms (born 1946), German lawyer
Monika Kuszyńska (born 1980), Polish singer
Monika Linkytė (born 1992), Lithuanian singer
Monika Mann (1910–1992), German novelist
Monika Panayotova (born 1983), Bulgarian politician
Monika Pyrek (born 1980), Polish pole vaulter
Monika Rost (born 1943), German guitar and lute player
Monika Ryniak (born 1960), Polish politician
Monika Schnarre (born 1971), Canadian model and host
Monika Schultz (born 1967), American engineer and aquanaut
Monika Soćko (born 1978), Polish chess player
Monika Tsõganova (born 1969), Estonian chess player
Monika Wagner (born 1965), German curler
Monika Weber-Koszto (born 1966), Romanian and German fencer
Monika Wejnert (born 1992), Australian tennis player
Monika Zguro (born 1971), Miss Albania 1993
Fictional characters[edit]
Monika, protagonist in Ingmar Bergman's film Summer with Monika
Monika, club president and female lead in Doki Doki Literature Club!
See also[edit]
Monica (given name)
Monique
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Monika". Behind the Name. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Monika" (in German). Baby Vornamen. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
This page or section lists people that share the same given name. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change that link to point directly to the intended article.
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Niagara Movement
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Founders of the Niagara Movement, 1905 silver gelatin print
The Niagara Movement was a black civil rights organization founded in 1905 by a group led by W. E. B. Du Bois and William Monroe Trotter. It was named for the "mighty current" of change the group wanted to effect and Niagara Falls, near Fort Erie, Ontario, was where the first meeting took place in July 1905. The Niagara Movement was a call for opposition to racial segregation and disenfranchisement, and it was opposed to policies of accommodation and conciliation promoted by African-American leaders such as Booker T. Washington.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Founding
2.1 Declaration of Principles
2.2 Opposition
3 Activities
4 End of the Movement
5 Legacy
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Background[edit]
Main articles: Jim Crow laws, Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era, and Atlanta Compromise
During the Reconstruction Era that followed the American Civil War, African Americans had an unprecedented level of civil freedom and civic participation, especially in the Southern United States. With the end of Reconstruction in the 1870s this began to change. By the 1890s many of the Southern states introduced laws that significantly restricted the political and civil rights of African Americans.[1] All of them passed laws restricting voting rights, or making them significantly more difficult to exercise, and also passed laws requiring racially segregated facilities. These policies became entrenched when the United States Supreme Court in 1896 ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson that law requiring "separate but equal" facilities were constitutional.
William Monroe Trotter, 1915 photomechanical print
The most prominent African-American spokesman during the 1890s was Booker T. Washington, leader of Alabama's Tuskegee Institute. Washington outlined a response to these policies in an 1895 speech in Atlanta, Georgia that became known as the Atlanta Compromise. The basic thrust of his approach was that Southern African-Americans should not agitate for political rights (such as the right to vote and equal treatment under the law) as long as they were provided economic opportunities and basic rights of due process.[2] Washington also politically dominated the National Afro-American Council, the first nationwide African-American civil rights organization.[3]
By the turn of the 20th century activists within the African-American community began demanding a more active opposition to racist government policies than the type advocated by Washington. Early opponents of Washington's "accommodationist" policies included W. E. B. Du Bois, then a professor at Atlanta University, and William Monroe Trotter, a Boston activist who in 1901 founded the Boston Guardian newspaper as a platform for radical activism.[4][5] In 1902 and 1903 groups of activists sought to gain a larger voice in the debate at the conventions of the National Afro-American Council, but were procedurally marginalized because the conventions were dominated by Washington supporters (also known as Bookerites).[6] Trotter in July 1903 orchestrated a confrontation with Washington in Boston, a stronghold of activism, that resulted in a minor melee and the arrest of Trotter and others; the event garnered national headlines.[7]
In January 1904 Washington, with funding assistance from Andrew Carnegie, organized a meeting in New York to unite African American and civil rights spokesmen. Trotter was not invited, but Du Bois and a few other activists were. Du Bois was then sympathetic to the activist cause and suspicious of Washington's motives, and noted that the number of activists invited was small relative to the number of Bookerites. The meeting laid the foundation for a committee that included both Washington and Du Bois, but quickly fractured, and dissolved when Du Bois resigned in July 1905.[8] By this time both Du Bois and Trotter recognized the need for a well-organized anti-Washington activist group.
Founding[edit]
W.E.B. Du Bois, 1903 portrait
In addition to Du Bois and Trotter, Fredrick L. McGhee of St. Paul, Minnesota and Charles Edwin Bentley of Chicago had also come to recognize the need for a nationwide activist group.[9] These four men organized a conference to be held in the Buffalo, New York area in the summer of 1905, inviting 59 carefully selected anti-Bookerites to attend. In July 1905 28 people met at the Erie Beach Hotel[10] in Fort Erie, Ontario, opposite Buffalo. Differing explanations exist for why the group met in southern Ontario and not Buffalo. A commonly given reason, which has not been substantiated by primary sources, is that they had originally planned to meet in Buffalo, but were refused accommodation.[11][12] Du Bois' writings of the time, however, show that his original plan was to find a quiet, out of the way location for the event, and that the Erie Beach Hotel satisfied his requirements. Researcher Cynthia Van Ness has further located contemporary evidence of Buffalo hotels complying with a statewide anti-discrimination law passed in 1895.[13][14] Bookerites had been alerted to the planned conference, but one who traveled to Buffalo to investigate the conference found no activity there.[15]
The organization founded at this meeting had Du Bois as its general secretary, Cincinnati lawyer George Jackson as treasurer, and a number of committees to oversee progress on the organization's goals. State chapters would advance local agendas and disseminate information about the organization and its goals.[15] Its name was chosen to reflect the site of its first meeting and to be representative of a "mighty current" of change its leaders sought to bring about.[16]
Declaration of Principles[edit]
The attendees of the inaugural meeting drafted a "Declaration of Principles", which was primarily the work of Du Bois and Trotter.[17] The philosophies of the group were in direct contrast to more conciliatory philosophies of Booker T. Washington that proposed patience over militancy.[18] The declaration clearly outlined the group's philosophy and its demands; politically, socially and economically. It began by first describing the progress that the "Negro-Americans" had made "particularly the increase of intelligence, the buy-in of property, the checking of crime, the uplift in home life, the advance in literature and art, and the demonstration of constructive and executive ability in the conduct of great religious, economic and educational institutions".[17] It called for blacks to be granted manhood suffrage. It called for equal treatment for all American citizens alike. Very specifically, it demanded equal economic opportunities, in the rural districts of the South, which amounted for many blacks trapped in indentured servitude to whites and resulted in "virtual slavery", or in terms of all of south so that they had the ability to "earn a decent living".
Women at the 1906 Niagara Movement Conference at Harpers Ferry: Mrs. Gertrude Wright Morgan (seated) and (left to right) Mrs. O.M. Waller, Mrs. H.F.M. Murray, Mrs. Mollie Lewis Kelan, Mrs. Ida D. Bailey, Miss Sadie Shorter, and Mrs. Charlotte Hershaw.
On the subject of education the authors declared that not only should it be made free, it should be made compulsory. Higher education, they declared, should be governed independently of class or race, and they demanded action to be taken to improve "high school facilities". This they emphasized: "either the United States will destroy ignorance, or ignorance will destroy the United States".[19] The document also demanded that judges be selected independently of their race, and that the criminals, white or black, should be given equal punishments for their respective crimes. In his address to the nation, W. E. B. Du Bois stated, "We are not more lawless than the white race; we [are] more often arrested, convicted and mobbed. We want justice, even for criminals and outlaws." He called for the outright abolition of the convict lease system. In this system, during times when there wasn't enough space in the prisons, convicts were leased out to work as cheap laborers for "railway contractors, mining companies and those who farm large plantations".[20] Urging others to return to the faith of "our fathers", it appealed for everyone to be considered equal and free.
The declaration also targeted the treatment blacks received from labor unions, often oppressed and not fully protected by their employers nor granted a permanent employment. It validated the already announced affirmation that such protest against outright injustice would not cease until such discrimination did. Secondly, Du Bois and Trotter stated the irrationality of discriminating based on one's "physical peculiarities" whether it be place of birth or color of skin. Perhaps one's ignorance, or immorality, poverty or even diseases are legitimate excuses, but not the matters that we have no control over. Near its end, the document goes on to condemn the Jim Crow laws, the rejection of blacks by the Navy and by the military academies, the non-enforcement of the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments protecting the rights of blacks, and the "unchristian" behaviors of churches that segregate and show prejudice to their black brothers. The Declaration of Principles of 1905 ended by thanking those who "stand for equality" and the advancement of this cause.[17][21]
Opposition[edit]
Booker T. Washington, 1903 portrait
Booker T. Washington and his supporters moved to oppose the growth of the organization. Washington, Thomas Fortune, and Charles Anderson met after learning of the Movement's formation, and agreed to suppress news of it in the black press.[22] They acquired supporters in Archibald Grimké and Kelly Miller, two moderates who had been friendly with Trotter, but had not been invited by Du Bois to the convention (Grimké was hired by Fortune's New York Age). The Age editorialized that the Movement was little more than an attempt to tear down the house that Washington had labored to set up.[23] A Boston supporter of Washington convinced the printer of Trotter's Guardian to withdraw his services, but Trotter managed to continue printing anyway.[24] Prominent white activists, including Francis Jackson Garrison and Oswald Garrison Villard (sons of Trotter idol William Lloyd Garrison), refused to attend Trotter-organized commemorations of their father's birth centennial,[25] preferring instead a celebration organized by Bookerites.[26]
Despite Washington's attempts to suppress the organization's message, Du Bois reported at the end of 1905 that a number of black publications had published accounts of its activities, and it received further publicity as a consequence of Bookerite press attacks against it.[27] Washington's attacks extended to the Constitution League, a multi-racial civil rights group also opposed to Washington's policies, with whom the Movement made common cause.[28]
Activities[edit]
After the initial meeting, delegates returned to their home territories to establish local chapters. By mid-September 1905, they had established chapters in 21 states and the organization had 170 members by year's end.[29] Du Bois founded a magazine, the Moon, in an attempt to establish an official mouthpiece for the organization. It failed due to a lack of funding after only a few months of publication.[30] A second publication, The Horizon, was started in 1907 and survived until 1910.[31][32]
Niagara Movement leaders W. E. B. Du Bois (seated), and (left to right) J. R. Clifford, L. M. Hershaw, and F. H. M. Murray at Harpers Ferry.
The movement's second meeting, the first to be held on U.S. soil, took place at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, the site of abolitionist John Brown's 1859 raid. The three-day gathering, from August 15 to 18, 1906, took place at the campus of Storer College (now part of Harpers Ferry National Historical Park). Convention attendees discussed how to secure civil rights for African Americans, and the meeting was later described by Du Bois as "one of the greatest meetings that American Negroes ever held." Attendees walked from Storer College to the nearby Murphy Family farm, relocation site of the historic fort where John Brown's quest to end slavery reached its bloody climax. Once there they removed their shoes and socks to honor the hallowed ground and participated in a ceremony of remembrance.[12]
Several of the organization's chapters made substantive contributions to the advance of civil rights in 1906. The Massachusetts chapter successfully lobbied against state legislation for the segregation of railroad cars, but was unable to stop the state from helping to fund the Jamestown Exposition, a commemoration of the founding of racially motivated Jamestown, Virginia, in which Virginia sought to limit black admission. The Illinois chapter convinced Chicago theater critics to ignore a production of The Clansman.[33]
During the early months of 1906 friction began to develop between Du Bois and Trotter over the admission of women to the organization. Du Bois supported the idea, and Trotter opposed it, but eventually relented, and the matter was smoothed over during the 1906 meeting.[34] Their division became more significant when Trotter split with longtime supporter and Movement member Clement Morgan over Massachusetts politics and control of the local Movement chapter, with Du Bois siding with the latter.[35] When the Movement met in Boston in 1907 Du Bois not only admitted Grimké and Miller to the organization, he reappointed Morgan to a leading position in the organization.[36] Further attempts to heal the rift failed, and Trotter then resigned from the Movement.[37]
In 1906 there were several proposals floated in the black press that the Movement be merged with other organizations. None of these proposals got off the ground, with the only substance being a meeting between the Movement's Washington, DC chapter and members of the Bookerite National Afro-American Council.[38]
Delegates to the Niagara Movement meeting in Boston, Massachusetts in 1907
The Movement, in conjunction with the Constitution League (which took Du Bois on as a director), began organizing legal challenges to segregationist laws in early 1907. For an organization with a limited budget, this was an expensive proposition: the single case they mounted challenging Virginia's railroad segregation law put the organization into debt.[31]
Du Bois had sought to return to Harpers Ferry for the 1907 annual meeting, but Storer College refused to grant them permission, claiming the group's presence in 1906 had been followed by financial and political pressure from its supporters to distance itself from them. The 1907 meeting was held in Boston, with conflicting attendance reports. Du Bois claimed 800 attendees, while the Bookerite Washington Bee claimed only about 100 had attended.[39] The convention published an "Address to the World" in which it called on African-Americans not to vote for Republican Party candidates in the 1908 presidential election, citing President Theodore Roosevelt's support for Jim Crow laws.[40]
End of the Movement[edit]
William Monroe Trotter's departure after the 1907 meeting had a serious negative impact on the organization, as did disagreements about which party to support in the 1908 election. Du Bois, with some reluctance, endorsed Democratic Party candidate William Jennings Bryan, but many African-Americans could not bring themselves to break from the Republicans, and William Howard Taft won the election, receiving significant African-American support.[41] The 1908 annual meeting, held in Oberlin, Ohio, was a much smaller affair, and exposed disunity and apathy within the group at both local and national levels.[42] Du Bois invited Mary White Ovington, a settlement worker and socialist he had met in 1904, to address the organization. She was the only white woman to be so honored.[43] By 1908 Washington and his supporters successfully made serious inroads with the press (both white and black), and the Oberlin meeting received almost no coverage.[44] Believing the Movement to be "practically dead", Washington also prepared an obituary of the organization for the New York Age to publish.[32]
In 1909 chapter activities continued to dwindle, membership dropped, and the annual meeting (held at Sea Isle City, New Jersey) was a small affair that again received no significant press. It was to be the organization's last meeting.[45]
Legacy[edit]
In the wake of a major race riot in Springfield, Illinois in August 1908, a number of prominent white civil rights activists called for a major conference on race relations. Held in New York in early 1909, the conference laid the foundation for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which was formally established in 1910. In 1911, Du Bois (who was appointed the NAACP's director of publications) recommended that the remaining membership of the Niagara Movement support the NAACP's activities.[32] William Monroe Trotter attended the 1909 conference, but did not join the NAACP; he instead led other small activist civil rights organizations and continued to publish the Guardian until his death in 1934.[46][47]
The Niagara Movement did not appear to be very popular with the majority of the African-American population, especially in the South. Booker T. Washington, at the height of the Movement's activities in 1905 and 1906, spoke to large and approving crowds across much of the country.[48] The 1906 Atlanta Race Riot hurt Washington's popularity, giving the Niagarans fuel for their attacks on him.[49] However, given that Washington and the Niagarans agreed on strategy (opposition to Jim Crow laws and support of equal protection and civil rights) but disagreed on tactics, a reconciliation between the factions began after Washington died in 1915.[50] The NAACP went on to become the leading African-American civil rights organization of the 20th century.
See also[edit]
Nadir of American race relations
References[edit]
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Jump up ^ Klarman, Michael (2004). From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780195351675. OCLC 159922058.
Jump up ^ Brown, Nikki; Stentiford, Barry, eds. (2008). The Jim Crow Encyclopedia. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 55–56. ISBN 9780313341823. OCLC 369409006.
Jump up ^ Fox, pp. 46–48.
Jump up ^ Fox, pp. 29–30.
Jump up ^ Lewis, pp. 179–182.
Jump up ^ Fox, pp. 38–40.
Jump up ^ Fox, pp. 49–58.
Jump up ^ Lewis, pp. 208–211.
Jump up ^ Fox, p. 89.
Jump up ^ "Niagara Movement First Annual Meeting" (PDF). Retrieved November 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ Wormser, Richard. "Niagara Movement 1905-10". The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow. PBS. Retrieved October 9, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Gilbert, David T. (August 11, 2006). "The Niagara Movement at Harpers Ferry". National Park Service. Retrieved October 9, 2007.
Jump up ^ "NIAGARA MOVEMENT - A Mystery Solved!". University at Buffalo. 2005. Archived from the original on August 29, 2008. Retrieved October 9, 2007.
Jump up ^ Van Ness, Cynthia (Winter 2011). "Buffalo Hotels and the Niagara Movement: New Evidence Refutes an Old Legend" (PDF). Western New York Heritage Magazine. 13 (4): 18–23. Retrieved January 23, 2011. Van Ness argues that the passage of the "Malby Law" in 1895, prohibiting discrimination in hotels on the basis of color, and the successful test of that state law in Buffalo as reported by The New York Times, renders the hotel discrimination legend unlikely.
^ Jump up to: a b Fox, p. 90.
Jump up ^ Ali, Omar (2009). In the Balance of Power: Independent Black Politics and Third-Party Movements in the United States. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press. p. 110. ISBN 9780821418062. OCLC 756717945.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Niagara Movement's "Declaration of Principals"". Black History Bulletin. 68 (1): 21–23. March 2005. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Brinkley, Alan (2010). "Chapter 20 - The Progressives". The Unfinished Nation. McGrawHill. ISBN 978-0-07-338552-5.
Jump up ^ Du Bois, W. E. B. (August 16, 1900). "Address to the Nation". Harper's Ferry, West Virginia: Second annual meeting of the Niagara Movement. Retrieved December 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ Wells, Ida B; Frederick Douglass; Irvine Garland Penn; Ferdinand L. Barnett (1999). "Chapter 3: The Convict Lease System". The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not in the World's Columbian Exposition: The Afro-American's Contribution to Columbian Literature. Illinois: University of Illinois Press. p. 23.
Jump up ^ Williams, Scott. "The Niagara Movement". Department of Mathematics, University at Buffalo. Retrieved December 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ Fox, p. 92.
Jump up ^ Fox, p. 95.
Jump up ^ Fox, p. 97.
Jump up ^ Fox, p. 99.
Jump up ^ Fox, p. 100.
Jump up ^ Rudwick, pp. 180–181.
Jump up ^ Rudwick, pp. 183–185.
Jump up ^ "Du Bois Central: Resources on the life and legacy of W.E.B. Du Bois. Niagara Movement". Special Collections and University Archives, W.E.B. Du Bois Library, University of Massachusetts Amherst. Archived from the original on February 13, 2010. Retrieved September 2, 2009.
Jump up ^ Fox, p. 101
^ Jump up to: a b Rudwick, p. 190.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rudwick, p. 198.
Jump up ^ Rudwick, p. 187.
Jump up ^ Fox, p. 103.
Jump up ^ Fox, pp. 104–106.
Jump up ^ Fox, p. 108.
Jump up ^ Fox, pp. 109–110.
Jump up ^ Rudwick, pp. 187–189.
Jump up ^ Rudwick, p. 191.
Jump up ^ Rudwick, p. 192.
Jump up ^ Rudwick, pp. 194–195.
Jump up ^ Rudwick, pp. 195–198.
Jump up ^ Wolters, Raymond (2003). Du Bois and His Rivals. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-8262-1519-2.
Jump up ^ Rudwick, p. 196.
Jump up ^ Rudwick, p. 197.
Jump up ^ Fox, pp. 128–130, 260–270.
Jump up ^ Schneider, Mark (1997). Boston Confronts Jim Crow, 1890–1920. Boston: Northeastern University Press. pp. 116–117. ISBN 9781555532963. OCLC 35223026.
Jump up ^ Norrell, pp. 331–336.
Jump up ^ Norrell, pp. 338–347.
Jump up ^ Norrell, p. 422.
Fox, Stephen (1970). The Guardian of Boston: William Monroe Trotter. New York: Atheneum Press. OCLC 21539323.
Lewis, David (2009). W.E.B. Du Bois: A Biography. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 9780805087697. OCLC 176972569.
Nahal, Anita; Lopez, D. Matthews Jr. (July 2008). "African American Women and the Niagara Movement, 1905-1909". Afro-Americans in New York Life and History. 32 (2).
Norrell, Robert (2009). Up from History: The Life of Booker T. Washington. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press. ISBN 9780674032118. OCLC 225874300.
Rudwick, Elliott (July 1957). "The Niagara Movement". The Journal of Negro History. 42 (3). JSTOR 2715936.
External links[edit]
Niagara's Declaration of Principles
Details from the 1908 Niagara Conference at Oberlin
Du Bois Central. Special Collections and University Archives, W.E.B. Du Bois Library, University of Massachusetts Amherst
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