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Political party
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A political party is an organised group of people, often with common views, who come together to contest elections and hold power in government. The party agrees on some proposed policies and programmes, with a view to promoting the collective good or furthering their supporters' interests.
While there is some international commonality in the way political parties are recognized and in how they operate, there are often many differences, and some are significant. Many political parties have an ideological core, but some do not, and many represent ideologies very different from their ideology at the time the party was founded. Many countries, such as Germany and India, have several significant political parties, and some nations have one-party systems, such as China and Cuba. The United States is in practice a two-party system but with many smaller parties also participating and a high degree of autonomy for individual candidates. Its two most important parties are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party.
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical dimensions
1.1 Political factions
1.2 Emergence
1.2.1 In United States
1.3 Spread
2 Structure
2.1 Parliamentary parties
3 Regulation
4 Partisan style
4.1 Nonpartisan systems
4.2 Uni-party systems
4.3 Bi-party systems
4.4 Multi-party systems
5 Funding
6 Colors and emblems
6.1 Emblems
6.2 Symbols
7 International organization
8 Types
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Historical dimensions[edit]
Political factions[edit]
Main article: Political faction
The first[citation needed] political factions, cohering around a basic, if fluid, set of principles, emerged from the Exclusion Crisis and Glorious Revolution in late 17th century England.[1] The Whigs supported Protestant constitutional monarchy against absolute rule; the Tories, originating in the Royalist (or "Cavalier") faction of the English Civil War, were conservative royalist supporters of a strong monarchy as a counterbalance to the republican tendencies of Whigs, who were the dominant political faction for most of the first half of the 18th century; the Whigs supported the Hanoverian succession of 1715 against the Jacobite supporters of the deposed Roman Catholic Stuart dynasty, and were able to purge Tory politicians from important government positions after the failed Jacobite rising of 1715. The leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government in the period 1721–1742; his protégé was Henry Pelham (1743–1754).
As the century wore on, the factions slowly began to adopt more coherent political tendencies as the interests of their power bases began to diverge. The Whig party's initial base of support from the great aristocratic families widened to include the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants. As well as championing constitutional monarchy with strict limits on the monarch's power, the Whigs adamantly opposed a Catholic king as a threat to liberty,[2] and believed in extending toleration to nonconformist Protestants, or dissenters. A major influence on the Whigs were the liberal political ideas of John Locke,[3] and the concepts of universal rights employed by Locke and Algernon Sidney.[4]
Although the Tories were out of office for half a century, for most of this period (at first under the leadership of Sir William Wyndham) the Tories retained party cohesion, with occasional hopes of regaining office, particularly at the accession of George II (1727) and the downfall of the ministry of Sir Robert Walpole in 1742. They acted as a united, though unavailing, opposition to Whig corruption and scandals. At times they cooperated with the "Opposition Whigs", Whigs who were in opposition to the Whig government; however, the ideological gap between the Tories and the Opposition Whigs prevented them from coalescing as a single party. They finally regained power with the accession of George III in 1760 under Lord Bute.
Emergence[edit]
When they lost power, the old Whig leadership dissolved into a decade of factional chaos with distinct "Grenvillite", "Bedfordite", "Rockinghamite", and "Chathamite" factions successively in power, and all referring to themselves as "Whigs". Out of this chaos, the first distinctive parties emerged. The first such party was the Rockingham Whigs[5] under the leadership of Charles Watson-Wentworth and the intellectual guidance of the political philosopher Edmund Burke. Burke laid out a philosophy that described the basic framework of the political party as "a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed". As opposed to the instability of the earlier factions, which were often tied to a particular leader and could disintegrate if removed from power, the party was centred around a set of core principles and remained out of power as a united opposition to government.[6]
In A Block for the Wigs (1783), James Gillray caricatured Fox's return to power in a coalition with North. George III is the blockhead in the centre.
A coalition including the Rockingham Whigs, led by the Earl of Shelburne, took power in 1782, only to collapse after Rockingham's death. The new government, led by the radical politician Charles James Fox in coalition with Lord North, was soon brought down and replaced by William Pitt the Younger in 1783. It was now that a genuine two-party system began to emerge, with Pitt leading the new Tories against a reconstituted "Whig" party led by Fox.[7][8]
By the time of this split the Whig party was increasingly influenced by the ideas of Adam Smith, founder of classical liberalism. As Wilson and Reill (2004) note, "Adam Smith's theory melded nicely with the liberal political stance of the Whig Party and its middle-class constituents."[9]
The modern Conservative Party was created out of the 'Pittite' Tories of the early 19th century. In the late 1820s disputes over political reform broke up this grouping. A government led by the Duke of Wellington collapsed amidst dire election results. Following this disaster Robert Peel set about assembling a new coalition of forces. Peel issued the Tamworth Manifesto in 1834 which set out the basic principles of Conservatism – the necessity in specific cases of reform in order to survive, but an opposition to unnecessary change, that could lead to "a perpetual vortex of agitation". Meanwhile, the Whigs, along with free trade Tory followers of Robert Peel, and independent Radicals, formed the Liberal Party under Lord Palmerston in 1859, and transformed into a party of the growing urban middle-class, under the long leadership of William Ewart Gladstone.
In United States[edit]
Main article: Political parties in the United States
Although the framers of the 1787 United States Constitution did not anticipate that American political discourse would become partisan, political controversies in the early 1790s over the extent of federal government powers saw the emergence of two proto-political parties: the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party, which were championed by Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, respectively.[10][11] However, a consensus reached on these issues ended party politics in 1816 for nearly a decade, a period commonly known as the Era of Good Feelings.[12]
The splintering of the Democratic-Republican Party in the aftermath of the contentious 1824 presidential election led to the re-emergence of political parties. Two major parties would dominate the political landscape for the next quarter-century: the Democratic Party, led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whig Party, established by Henry Clay from the National Republicans and from other Anti-Jackson groups. When the Whig Party fell apart in the mid-1850s, its position as a major U.S. political party was filled by the Republican Party.
Spread[edit]
Charles Stewart Parnell, leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party
The second half of the 19th century saw the adoption of the party model of politics across Europe. In Germany, France, Austria and elsewhere, the 1848 Revolutions sparked a wave of liberal sentiment and the formation of representative bodies and political parties. The end of the century saw the formation of large socialist parties in Europe, some conforming to the teaching of Karl Marx, others adapting social democracy through the use of reformist and gradualist methods.[13]
At the same time, the political party reached its modern form, with a membership disciplined through the use of a party whip and the implementation of efficient structures of control. The Home Rule League Party, campaigning for Home Rule for Ireland in the British Parliament was fundamentally changed by the great Irish political leader Charles Stewart Parnell in the 1880s. In 1882, he changed his party's name to the Irish Parliamentary Party and created a well-organized grass roots structure, introducing membership to replace "ad hoc" informal groupings. He created a new selection procedure to ensure the professional selection of party candidates committed to taking their seats, and in 1884 he imposed a firm 'party pledge' which obliged MPs to vote as a bloc in parliament on all occasions. The creation of a strict party whip and a formal party structure was unique at the time. His party's efficient structure and control contrasted with the loose rules and flexible informality found in the main British parties; they soon came to model themselves on the Parnellite model.
Structure[edit]
A political party is typically led by a party leader (the most powerful member and spokesperson representing the party), a party secretary (who maintains the daily work and records of party meetings), party treasurer (who is responsible for membership dues) and party chair (who forms strategies for recruiting and retaining party members, and also chairs party meetings). Most of the above positions are also members of the party executive, the leading organization which sets policy for the entire party at the national level. The structure is far more decentralized in the United States because of the separation of powers, federalism and the multiplicity of economic interests and religious sects. Even state parties are decentralized as county and other local committees are largely independent of state central committees. The national party leader in the U.S. will be the president, if the party holds that office, or a prominent member of Congress in opposition (although a big-state governor may aspire to that role). Officially, each party has a chairman for its national committee who is a prominent spokesman, organizer and fund-raiser, but without the status of prominent elected office holders.
In parliamentary democracies, on a regular, periodic basis, party conferences are held to elect party officers, although snap leadership elections can be called if enough members opt for such. Party conferences are also held in order to affirm party values for members in the coming year. American parties also meet regularly and, again, are more subordinate to elected political leaders.
Depending on the demographic spread of the party membership, party members form local or regional party committees in order to help candidates run for local or regional offices in government. These local party branches reflect the officer positions at the national level.
It is also customary for political party members to form wings for current or prospective party members, most of which fall into the following two categories:
identity-based: including youth wings, women's wings, ethnic minority wings, LGBT wings, etc.
position-based: including wings for candidates, mayors, governors, professionals, students, etc. The formation of these wings may have become routine but their existence is more of an indication of differences of opinion, intra-party rivalry, the influence of interest groups, or attempts to wield influence for one's state or region.
These are useful for party outreach, training and employment. Many young aspiring politicians seek these roles and jobs as stepping stones to their political careers in legislative or executive offices.
The internal structure of political parties has to be democratic in some countries. In Germany Art. 21 Abs. 1 Satz 3 GG establishes a command of inner-party democracy.[14]
Parliamentary parties[edit]
When the party is represented by members in the lower house of parliament, the party leader simultaneously serves as the leader of the parliamentary group of that full party representation; depending on a minimum number of seats held, Westminster-based parties typically allow for leaders to form frontbench teams of senior fellow members of the parliamentary group to serve as critics of aspects of government policy. When a party becomes the largest party not part of the Government, the party's parliamentary group forms the Official Opposition, with Official Opposition frontbench team members often forming the Official Opposition Shadow cabinet. When a party achieves enough seats in an election to form a majority, the party's frontbench becomes the Cabinet of government ministers. They are all elected members.
Regulation[edit]
The freedom to form, declare membership in, or campaign for candidates from a political party is considered a measurement of a state's adherence to liberal democracy as a political value. Regulation of parties may run from a crackdown on or repression of all opposition parties, a norm for authoritarian governments, to the repression of certain parties which hold or promote ideals which run counter to the general ideology of the state's incumbents (or possess membership by-laws which are legally unenforceable).
Furthermore, in the case of far-right, far-left and regionalism parties in the national parliaments of much of the European Union, mainstream political parties may form an informal cordon sanitaire which applies a policy of non-cooperation towards those "Outsider Parties" present in the legislature which are viewed as 'anti-system' or otherwise unacceptable for government. Cordons sanitaire, however, have been increasingly abandoned over the past two decades in multi-party democracies as the pressure to construct broad coalitions in order to win elections – along with the increased willingness of outsider parties themselves to participate in government – has led to many such parties entering electoral and government coalitions.[15]
Starting in the second half of the 20th century, modern democracies have introduced rules for the flow of funds through party coffers, e.g. the Canada Election Act 1976, the PPRA in the U.K. or the FECA in the U.S. Such political finance regimes stipulate a variety of regulations for the transparency of fundraising and expenditure, limit or ban specific kinds of activity and provide public subsidies for party activity, including campaigning.
Partisan style[edit]
Partisan style varies according to each jurisdiction, depending on how many parties there are, and how much influence each individual party has.
Nonpartisan systems[edit]
In a nonpartisan system, no official political parties exist, sometimes reflecting legal restrictions on political parties. In nonpartisan elections, each candidate is eligible for office on his or her own merits. In nonpartisan legislatures, there are no typically formal party alignments within the legislature. The administration of George Washington and the first few sessions of the United States Congress were nonpartisan. Washington also warned against political parties during his Farewell Address.[16] In the United States, the unicameral legislature of Nebraska is nonpartisan but is elected and often votes on informal party lines. In Canada, the territorial legislatures of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut are nonpartisan. In New Zealand, Tokelau has a nonpartisan parliament. Many city and county governments in the United States and Canada are nonpartisan. Nonpartisan elections and modes of governance are common outside of state institutions.[17] Unless there are legal prohibitions against political parties, factions within nonpartisan systems often evolve into political parties.
Uni-party systems[edit]
In one-party systems, one political party is legally allowed to hold effective power. Although minor parties may sometimes be allowed, they are legally required to accept the leadership of the dominant party. This party may not always be identical to the government, although sometimes positions within the party may in fact be more important than positions within the government. North Korea and China are examples; others can be found in Fascist states, such as Nazi Germany between 1934 and 1945. The one-party system is thus often equated with dictatorships and tyranny.
In dominant-party systems, opposition parties are allowed, and there may be even a deeply established democratic tradition, but other parties are widely considered to have no real chance of gaining power. Sometimes, political, social and economic circumstances, and public opinion are the reason for others parties' failure. Sometimes, typically in countries with less of an established democratic tradition, it is possible the dominant party will remain in power by using patronage and sometimes by voting fraud. In the latter case, the definition between dominant and one-party system becomes rather blurred. Examples of dominant party systems include the People's Action Party in Singapore, the African National Congress in South Africa, the Cambodian People's Party in Cambodia, the Liberal Democratic Party in Japan, and the National Liberation Front in Algeria. One-party dominant system also existed in Mexico with the Institutional Revolutionary Party until the 1990s, in the southern United States with the Democratic Party from the late 19th century until the 1970s, in Indonesia with the Golkar from the early 1970s until 1998.
Bi-party systems[edit]
Two-party systems are states such as Honduras, Jamaica, Malta, Ghana and the United States in which there are two political parties dominant to such an extent that electoral success under the banner of any other party is almost impossible. One right wing coalition party and one left wing coalition party is the most common ideological breakdown in such a system but in two-party states political parties are traditionally catch all parties which are ideologically broad and inclusive.
The United States has become essentially a two-party system, since a conservative (such as the Republican Party) and liberal (such as the Democratic Party) party has usually been the status quo within American politics. The first parties were called Federalist and Republican, followed by a brief period of Republican dominance before a split occurred between National Republicans and Democratic Republicans. The former became the Whig Party and the latter became the Democratic Party. The Whigs survived only for two decades before they split over the spread of slavery, those opposed becoming members of the new Republican Party, as did anti-slavery members of the Democratic Party. Third parties (such as the Libertarian Party) often receive little support and are very rarely the victors in elections. Despite this, there have been several examples of third parties siphoning votes from major parties that were expected to win (such as Theodore Roosevelt in the election of 1912 and George Wallace in the election of 1968). As third party movements have learned, the Electoral College's requirement of a nationally distributed majority makes it difficult for third parties to succeed. Thus, such parties rarely win many electoral votes, although their popular support within a state may tip it toward one party or the other. Wallace had weak support outside the South. More generally, parties with a broad base of support across regions or among economic and other interest groups, have a great chance of winning the necessary plurality in the U.S.'s largely single-member district, winner-take-all elections. The tremendous land area and large population of the country are formidable challenges to political parties with a narrow appeal.
The UK political system, while technically a multi-party system, has functioned generally as a two-party (sometimes called a "two-and-a-half party") system; since the 1920s the two largest political parties have been the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Before the Labour Party rose in British politics the Liberal Party was the other major political party along with the Conservatives. Though coalition and minority governments have been an occasional feature of parliamentary politics, the first-past-the-post electoral system used for general elections tends to maintain the dominance of these two parties, though each has in the past century relied upon a third party to deliver a working majority in Parliament.[18] (A plurality voting system usually leads to a two-party system, a relationship described by Maurice Duverger and known as Duverger's Law.[19]) There are also numerous other parties that hold or have held a number of seats in Parliament.
Multi-party systems[edit]
A poster for the European Parliament election 2004 in Italy, showing party lists
Multi-party systems are systems in which more than two parties are represented and elected to public office.
Australia, Canada, Nepal, Pakistan, India, Ireland, United Kingdom and Norway are examples of countries with two strong parties and additional smaller parties that have also obtained representation. The smaller or "third" parties may hold the balance of power in a parliamentary system, and thus may be invited to form a part of a coalition government together with one of the larger parties, or may provide a supply and confidence agreement to the government; or may instead act independently from the dominant parties.
More commonly, in cases where there are three or more parties, no one party is likely to gain power alone, and parties have to work with each other to form coalition governments. This is almost always the case in Germany on national and state level, and in most constituencies at the communal level. Furthermore, since the forming of the Republic of Iceland there has never been a government not led by a coalition, usually involving the Independence Party or the Progressive Party. A similar situation exists in the Republic of Ireland, where no one party has held power on its own since 1989. Since then, numerous coalition governments have been formed. These coalitions have been led exclusively by either Fianna Fáil or Fine Gael.
Political change is often easier with a coalition government than in one-party or two-party dominant systems.[dubious – discuss] If factions in a two-party system are in fundamental disagreement on policy goals, or even principles, they can be slow to make policy changes, which appears to be the case now in the U.S. with power split between Democrats and Republicans. Still coalition governments struggle, sometimes for years, to change policy and often fail altogether, post World War II France and Italy being prime examples. When one party in a two-party system controls all elective branches, however, policy changes can be both swift and significant. Democrats Woodrow Wilson, Franklin Roosevelt and Lyndon Johnson were beneficiaries of such fortuitous circumstances, as were Republicans as far removed in time as Abraham Lincoln and Ronald Reagan. Barack Obama briefly had such an advantage between 2009 and 2011. As of 2017, President Donald Trump currently enjoys Republican control of both the house and senate.
Funding[edit]
Main articles: Political party funding and Political finance
Political parties are funded by contributions from
party members and other individuals,
organizations, which share their political ideas (e.g. trade union affiliation fees) or which could benefit from their activities (e.g. corporate donations) or
governmental or public funding.[20]
Political parties, still called factions by some, especially those in the governmental apparatus, are lobbied vigorously by organizations, businesses and special interest groups such as trade unions. Money and gifts-in-kind to a party, or its leading members, may be offered as incentives. Such donations are the traditional source of funding for all right-of-centre cadre parties. Starting in the late 19th century these parties were opposed by the newly founded left-of-centre workers' parties. They started a new party type, the mass membership party, and a new source of political fundraising, membership dues.
From the second half of the 20th century on parties which continued to rely on donations or membership subscriptions ran into mounting problems. Along with the increased scrutiny of donations there has been a long-term decline in party memberships in most western democracies which itself places more strains on funding. For example, in the United Kingdom and Australia membership of the two main parties in 2006 is less than an 1/8 of what it was in 1950, despite significant increases in population over that period.
In some parties, such as the post-communist parties of France and Italy or the Sinn Féin party and the Socialist Party, elected representatives (i.e. incumbents) take only the average industrial wage from their salary as a representative, while the rest goes into party coffers. Although these examples may be rare nowadays, "rent-seeking" continues to be a feature of many political parties around the world.[21]
In the United Kingdom, it has been alleged that peerages have been awarded to contributors to party funds, the benefactors becoming members of the House of Lords and thus being in a position to participate in legislating. Famously, Lloyd George was found to have been selling peerages. To prevent such corruption in the future, Parliament passed the Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act 1925 into law. Thus the outright sale of peerages and similar honours became a criminal act. However, some benefactors are alleged to have attempted to circumvent this by cloaking their contributions as loans, giving rise to the 'Cash for Peerages' scandal.
Such activities as well as assumed "influence peddling" have given rise to demands that the scale of donations should be capped. As the costs of electioneering escalate, so the demands made on party funds increase. In the UK some politicians are advocating that parties should be funded by the state; a proposition that promises to give rise to interesting debate in a country that was the first to regulate campaign expenses (in 1883).
In many other democracies such subsidies for party activity (in general or just for campaign purposes) have been introduced decades ago. Public financing for parties and/ or candidates (during election times and beyond) has several permutations and is increasingly common. Germany, Sweden, Israel, Canada, Australia, Austria and Spain are cases in point. More recently among others France, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands and Poland have followed suit.[22]
There are two broad categories of public funding, direct, which entails a monetary transfer to a party, and indirect, which includes broadcasting time on state media, use of the mail service or supplies. According to the Comparative Data from the ACE Electoral Knowledge Network, out of a sample of over 180 nations, 25% of nations provide no direct or indirect public funding, 58% provide direct public funding and 60% of nations provide indirect public funding.[23] Some countries provide both direct and indirect public funding to political parties. Funding may be equal for all parties or depend on the results of previous elections or the number of candidates participating in an election.[24] Frequently parties rely on a mix of private and public funding and are required to disclose their finances to the Election management body.[25]
In fledgling democracies funding can also be provided by foreign aid. International donors provide financing to political parties in developing countries as a means to promote democracy and good governance. Support can be purely financial or otherwise. Frequently it is provided as capacity development activities including the development of party manifestos, party constitutions and campaigning skills.[21] Developing links between ideologically linked parties is another common feature of international support for a party.[21] Sometimes this can be perceived as directly supporting the political aims of a political party, such as the support of the US government to the Georgian party behind the Rose Revolution. Other donors work on a more neutral basis, where multiple donors provide grants in countries accessible by all parties for various aims defined by the recipients.[21] There have been calls by leading development think-tanks, such as the Overseas Development Institute, to increase support to political parties as part of developing the capacity to deal with the demands of interest-driven donors to improve governance.[21]
Colors and emblems[edit]
Main articles: Political colour and List of political party symbols
Generally speaking, over the world, political parties associate themselves with colors, primarily for identification, especially for voter recognition during elections.
• Conservative parties generally use blue[26] or black.[citation needed]
• Pink sometimes signifies moderate socialist.
• Yellow is often used for libertarianism or classical liberalism.
• Red often signifies social democratic, socialist or communist parties.[citation needed]
• Green is the color for green parties, Islamist parties, Nordic agrarian parties and Irish republican parties.
• Orange is sometimes a color of nationalism, such as in the Netherlands, in Israel with the Orange Camp or with Ulster Loyalists in Northern Ireland; it is also a color of reform such as in Ukraine.
• In the past, Purple was considered the color of royalty (like white), but today it is sometimes used for feminist parties. White also is associated with nationalism. "Purple Party" is also used as an academic hypothetical of an undefined party, as a Centrist party in the United States (because purple is created from mixing the main parties' colors of red and blue) and as a highly idealistic "peace and love" party[27]—in a similar vein to a Green Party, perhaps.
• Black is generally associated with fascist parties, going back to Benito Mussolini's blackshirts, but also with Anarchism. Similarly, brown is sometimes associated with Nazism, going back to the Nazi Party's tan-uniformed storm troopers.
Color associations are useful for mnemonics when voter illiteracy is significant.[citation needed] Another case where they are used is when it is not desirable to make rigorous links to parties, particularly when coalitions and alliances are formed between political parties and other organizations, for example: Red Tory, "Purple" (Red-Blue) alliances, Red-green alliances, Blue-green alliances, Traffic light coalitions, Pan-green coalitions, and Pan-blue coalitions.
Political color schemes in the United States diverge from international norms. Since 2000, red has become associated with the right-wing Republican Party and blue with the left-wing Democratic Party. However, unlike political color schemes of other countries, the parties did not choose those colors; they were used in news coverage of 2000 election results and ensuing legal battle and caught on in popular usage. Prior to the 2000 election the media typically alternated which color represented which party each presidential election cycle. The color scheme happened to get inordinate attention that year, so the cycle was stopped lest it cause confusion the following election.[28]
Emblems[edit]
The emblem of socialist parties is often a red rose held in a fist. Communist parties often use a hammer to represent the worker, a sickle to represent the farmer, or both a hammer and a sickle to refer to both at the same time.
The emblem of Nazism, the swastika or "hakenkreuz", has been adopted as a near-universal symbol for almost any organized white supremacist group, even though it dates from more ancient times.
Symbols[edit]
Symbols can be very important when the overall electorate is illiterate. In the Kenyan constitutional referendum, 2005, supporters of the constitution used the banana as their symbol, while the "no" used an orange.[citation needed]
International organization[edit]
During the 19th and 20th century, many national political parties organized themselves into international organizations along similar policy lines. Notable examples are The Universal Party, International Workingmen's Association (also called the First International), the Socialist International (also called the Second International), the Communist International (also called the Third International), and the Fourth International, as organizations of working class parties, or the Liberal International (yellow), Hizb ut-Tahrir, Christian Democratic International and the International Democrat Union (blue). Organized in Italy in 1945, the International Communist Party, since 1974 headquartered in Florence has sections in six countries.[citation needed] Worldwide green parties have recently established the Global Greens. The Universal Party, The Socialist International, the Liberal International, and the International Democrat Union are all based in London. Some administrations (e.g. Hong Kong) outlaw formal linkages between local and foreign political organizations, effectively outlawing international political parties.
Types[edit]
French political scientist Maurice Duverger drew a distinction between cadre parties and mass parties. Cadre parties were political elites that were concerned with contesting elections and restricted the influence of outsiders, who were only required to assist in election campaigns. Mass parties tried to recruit new members who were a source of party income and were often expected to spread party ideology as well as assist in elections. Socialist parties are examples of mass parties, while the British Conservative Party and the German Christian Democratic Union are examples of hybrid parties. In the United States, where both major parties were cadre parties, the introduction of primaries and other reforms has transformed them so that power is held by activists who compete over influence and nomination of candidates.[29]
Klaus von Beyme categorized European parties into nine families, which described most parties. He was able to arrange seven of them from left to right: communist, socialist, green, liberal, Christian democratic, conservative and libertarian. The position of two other types, agrarian and regional/ethnic parties varied.[30]
See also[edit]
Politics portal
Elite party
Index of politics articles
List of political parties
List of ruling political parties by country
Particracy (a political regime dominated by one or more parties)
Party class
Party line (politics)
UCLA School of Political Parties
References[edit]
Jump up ^ J. R. Jones, The First Whigs. The Politics of the Exclusion Crisis. 1678–1683 (Oxford University Press, 1961), p. 4.
Jump up ^ Hamowy, Ronald (2008). "Whiggism". The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 542–43. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n328. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
Jump up ^ Richard Ashcraft and M. M. Goldsmith, "Locke, Revolution Principles, and the Formation of Whig Ideology", Historical Journal, Dec 1983, Vol. 26 Issue 4, pp. 773–800
Jump up ^ Melinda S. Zook, "The Restoration Remembered: The First Whigs and the Making of their History", Seventeenth Century, Autumn 2002, Vol. 17 Issue 2, pp. 213–34
Jump up ^ Robert Lloyd Kelley (1990). The Transatlantic Persuasion: The Liberal-Democratic Mind in the Age of Gladstone. Transaction Publishers. p. 83.
Jump up ^ "ConHome op-ed: the USA, Radical Conservatism and Edmund Burke".
Jump up ^ "The History of Political Parties in England (1678–1914)".
Jump up ^ Parliamentary History, xxiv, 213, 222, cited in Foord, His Majesty's Opposition, 1714–1830, p. 441
Jump up ^ Ellen Wilson and Peter Reill, Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment (2004), p. 298
Jump up ^ Richard Hofstadter, The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States, 1780–1840 (1970)
Jump up ^ William Nisbet Chambers, ed. The First Party System (1972)
Jump up ^ Stephen Minicucci, Internal Improvements and the Union, 1790–1860, Studies in American Political Development (2004), 18: pp. 160–85, (2004), Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/S0898588X04000094
Jump up ^ Busky, Donald F. (2000), Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey, Westport, Connecticut, USA: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., p. 8, The Frankfurt Declaration of the Socialist International, which almost all social democratic parties are members of, declares the goal of the development of democratic socialism
Jump up ^ Cf. Brettschneider, Nutzen der ökonomischen Theorie der Politik für eine Konkretisierung des Gebotes innerparteilicher Demokratie
Jump up ^ McDonnell, Duncan and Newell, James (2011) 'Outsider Parties'.
Jump up ^ Redding 2004
Jump up ^ Abizadeh 2005.
Jump up ^ "General Election results through time, 1945–2001". BBC News. Retrieved 19 May 2006.
Jump up ^ Duverger 1954
Jump up ^ See Heard, Alexander, 'Political financing'. In: Sills, David I. (ed.) International Emcyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 12. New York: Free Press – Macmillan, 1968, pp. 235–41; Paltiel, Khayyam Z., 'Campaign finance – contrasting practices and reforms'. In: Butler, David et al. (eds.), Democracy at the polls – a comparative study of competitive national elections. Washington, D.C.: AEI, 1981, pp. 138–72; Paltiel, Khayyam Z., 'Political finance'. In: Bogdanor, Vernon (ed.), The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Institutions. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1987, pp. 454–56; 'Party finance', in: Kurian, George T. et al. (eds.) The encyclopedia of political science. vol 4, Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2011, pp. 1187–89.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Foresti and Wild 2010. Support to political parties: a missing piece of the governance puzzle. London: Overseas Development Institute
Jump up ^ For details you may want to consult specific articles on Campaign finance in the United States, Federal political financing in Canada, Party finance in Germany, Political donations in Australia, Political finance, Political funding in Japan, Political funding in the United Kingdom.
Jump up ^ ACEproject.org ACE Electoral Knowledge Network: Comparative Data: Political Parties and Candidates
Jump up ^ ACEproject.org ACE Electoral Knowledge Network: Comparative Data: Political Parties and Candidates
Jump up ^ ACEproject.org ACE Encyclopaedia: Public funding of political parties
Jump up ^ Why is the Conservative Party Blue, BBC, 20 April 2006
Jump up ^ http://www.purpleparty.com
Jump up ^ Farhi, Paul (2 November 2004), "Elephants Are Red, Donkeys Are Blue", Washington Post
Jump up ^ Ware, Political parties, pp. 65–67
Jump up ^ Ware, Political parties, p. 22
External links[edit]
U.S. Party Platforms from 1840 to 2004 at The American Presidency Project: UC Santa Barbara
Political resources on the net
Political Party Paradox by Elmer G. Wiens
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The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky
Cover art
Developer(s)
Nihon Falcom
Publisher(s)
JP: Nihon Falcom
WW: Xseed Games
EU: Ghostlight (PSP)
Director(s)
Toshihiro Kondo
Producer(s)
Masayuki Kato
Artist(s)
Haccan
Yuu Shiina
Composer(s)
Hayato Sonoda
Wataru Ishibashi
Takahide Murayama
Series
Trails in the Sky
Platform(s)
Microsoft Windows, PlayStation Portable, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita
Release
Microsoft Windows
JP: June 24, 2004
WW: July 29, 2014
PlayStation Portable
JP: October 28, 2006
NA: March 29, 2011
EU: November 4, 2011
PlayStation 3
JP: December 13, 2012
PlayStation Vita
JP: June 11, 2015[1]
Genre(s)
Role-playing
Mode(s)
Single-player
The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky[a] is a role-playing video game developed by Nihon Falcom. Also known as Trails in the Sky First Chapter, the game is the first in a trilogy, which also includes Trails in the Sky SC and Trails in the Sky the 3rd.
Trails in the Sky was first released in Japan for Microsoft Windows in 2004, and later ported to the PlayStation Portable in 2006. North American video game publisher Xseed Games acquired the rights from Falcom, but did not release it until 2011 due to the game's large amount of text necessary to translate and localize. An high-definition port to the PlayStation 3 was released in Japan in 2012 as part of Sony's PSP Remaster line of games, while a remaster for the PlayStation Vita was released in 2015; both Japanese-only releases.
Contents
[hide]
1 Gameplay
2 Plot
3 Release
3.1 Localization
4 Related media
5 Reception
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Gameplay[edit]
In-game screenshots showing the field map (top) and combat (bottom)
In Trails in the Sky, the player controls a cast of characters, embarking on a number of quests to progress the story. There are two different type of maps when navigating in the overworld of the game: field maps and town maps. In field maps, enemies roam around and a battle ensues if the player comes in contact with one. In town maps, the player can visit various shops to purchase items, replenish health at an inn and, for the major cities, take on and report quests to the local guild. In addition, the player can interact with numerous non-playable characters (NPCs) in the game; a unique aspect in Trails in the Sky is that each NPC's dialogue changes as the game advances, allowing the player to follow along sidestories that accompany the NPCs throughout the game.[2]
Combat in Trails in the Sky takes place on a grid and is turn-based. The character's turn order is determined by a tracker called the AT Bar. During the character's turn, the player can move or make an attack. In addition to the normal attack, each character also have three other methods available for action: Arts, Crafts, and S-Crafts. Arts are magic spells that characters can use to attack opponents or support teammates but must take an additional turn to cast. Crafts are character-specific abilities that are similar to Arts but can be used in the same turn; however, they utilize a special gauge called "Craft Points" (CP) for the cost to perform. S-Crafts are powered-up Crafts that can be performed once a character has over 100CP but completely depletes the CP gauge upon using it. Further extending S-Crafts are S-Breaks which allows characters to immediately perform an S-Craft regardless of when their turn order is.[3][4]
An additional component in combat is AT Bonuses which grant bonus effects at certain turns throughout the battle, visible on the AT Bar.[3][4]
If the player loses a battle, the game is over. The player is then allowed to continuously retry the battle and subsequently lower the difficulty of the battle for each retry; should the player not want the difficulty to be lowered, they can turn it off in the settings menu.[3][4]
Plot[edit]
This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The game takes place in Liberl Kingdom, 10 years after being invaded by the Erebonian Empire from the north. It is governed by Queen Alicia. Currently, the kingdom thrives off of high technology which is eyed closely by the surrounding nations. The story begins with the main protagonist, Estelle Bright, waiting for her father, Cassius, to return home for the night. When he does, he brings back a young boy by the name of Joshua. Cassius adopts the boy as his son, raising the two kids. Years later, now-16-year old Estelle and Joshua decide to follow in their father's footsteps by becoming bracers, members of a guild that handles odd jobs (specializing in investigations and combat) to maintain the general peace. Soon after, Cassius receives a letter, causing him to leave his hometown of Rolent on business. During Cassius's absence, Estelle and Joshua meet a man named Alba, an archeologist looking into ruins for the Aureole. Afterwards, the mayor of Rolent's crystal is stolen by sky bandits. Estelle and Joshua team up with Scherazard, a bracer and childhood friend of Estelle's. They retrieve the crystal, but are unable to capture the sky bandits. They return to Rolent, where they are informed the airship Cassius was in never landed and has disappeared. Estelle, Joshua, and Scherazard then set out to Bose, where Cassius's ship was originally headed.
Upon entering Bose, they meet Olivier Lenheim and learn that the sky bandits were behind the hijacking of the airship. Olivier joins the three to raid the sky bandit's hideout. While there, they fight unidentified men in black who are better equipped than the sky bandits. After defeating and arresting the sky bandits, the party meets Colonel Alan Richard, the head of Liberl's Intelligence Division. They learn Cassius hadn't been taken hostage; he is, instead, nowhere to be found. Upon returning to the bracer's guild, the party is delivered a package containing a mysterious black orbment Cassius was originally supposed to deliver to one "Professor R". Estelle and Joshua part ways with Scherazard and Olivier, heading to Ruan.
On their way, they run into a girl named Kloe Rinz, who spends her time helping a nearby orphanage. She decides to follow Estelle and Joshua as she also has business in Ruan. They meet the mayor of Ruan and Duke Dunan. After their meeting, they hear the orphanage is burnt down. Estelle, Joshua, and Kloe investigate, and determine it to be arson. The culprit is eventually revealed to be the mayor himself, assisted by the men in black. But when confronted, the mayor pulls out a mysterious artifact called the Chronos Rod, that can freeze time in a small place; unexpectedly, the black orbment activates, easily negating the rod's effect. The mayor tries to escape, but is captured by the royal guard. Colonel Richard appears again and commends Estelle and Joshua for their efforts. The two then part ways with Kloe and began their journey to Zeiss in hopes of learning more about the black orbment.
Upon arriving, they meet Tita Russell, the 12-year old granddaughter of Albert Russell. "Professor R" is this same Albert Russell, who begins to experiment with the black orbment. Joshua, Estelle, and Tita head to a nearby town to relax and kill time. However, Zeiss is attacked; Professor Russell is kidnapped. Tita joins Estelle and Joshua, along with Agate Crosner, another bracer who happened to be nearby. They learn the professor is being held in a nearby military fortress and that Colonel Richard leads the men in black. Professor Russell is rescued and goes into hiding with Agate and Tita, giving Estelle a letter addressed to the queen. Estelle and Joshua then head to Grancel, the capital of Liberl. At the same time, Kloe is kidnapped by the men in black.
On their way to Grancel, they run into a blockade set up by Colonel Richard. However, Alba had been preparing to cross it and manages to get Estelle and Joshua through it. Upon entering the capital they learn that Duke Dunan has been ruling as the queen's proxy (while himself being manipulated by Colonel Richard). It transpires that a fighting tournament is about to start; a senior bracer named Zin Vathek participates. The winner will dine with the Duke inside the castle; the party sees in this the perfect opportunity to meet with the queen. Estelle and Joshua team up with Zin, followed by Olivier (who happened to be visiting the Erebonian embassy). The four of them win the tournament and thus infiltrate the castle. Upon meeting the queen they learn Kloe is actually Klaudia von Auslese (true heir to the throne), and she is being held in a nearby villa. They also learn of a strange anomaly underneath the castle. The rescue mission succeeds thanks to the surprise arrival of Scherazard, Agate, and Tita. With everyone together, they head underground to confront Richard, who is defeated thanks to Cassius's return.
A week later, the conspirators are arrested. Festivities begin to take place; however, are cut short when Alba approaches Joshua alone. Joshua realizes that Alba has the abilities to manipulate the minds of others such as Colonel Richard. Alba informs Joshua he had been unknowingly feeding information to Alba on everything the bracers had been planning, and reveals that his real name is Georg Weissmann, a member of an organization known as Ouroboros. He tells Joshua he is welcome to come back at any time. Weissmann leaves Joshua before Estelle can return. Later that night, Joshua calls Estelle to the castle's courtyard, revealing that he had been an assassin. One of his targets had been Cassius, who easily defeated him. Since Joshua had failed, Ouroboros attempted to dispose of him but was thwarted by Cassius. Estelle confesses her love for Joshua. But Joshua, unable to bring himself to stay with Estelle, sedates her. As her consciousness fades, Joshua thanks her and confesses his own love for her, before parting ways.
Release[edit]
Trails in the Sky was initially released for Microsoft Windows on June 29, 2004 in Japan. The game was later ported to the Playstation Portable console and released in Japan on October 28, 2006. The Playstation Portable version of the game was released in North America on March 29, 2011 and in Europe on November 4, 2011.[5] The PC version of the game was released worldwide on July 29, 2014 and included a number of features that were available from the Playstation Portable version.[6] A high-definition version of the game, The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky FC Kai HD Edition, was released for the PlayStation 3 in Japan on December 13, 2012.[7]
A redesigned version of the game titled The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky FC Evolution was released in Japan for the PlayStation Vita on June 11, 2015. Evolution renovated the old designs and user interface and incorporated several new features such as voice acting and animation in scenes, additional illustrations, and enhanced battle tactics.[8][9]
Localization[edit]
The North American version of the game was localized by XSEED Games, whom in May 2010 announced that they had acquired the rights to bring the Trails in the Sky trilogy to North America.[10] The length of the script for Trails in the Sky FC, which contained approximately 1.5 million Japanese characters, presented a challenge for XSEED's editor Jessica Chavez.[11] Chavez spent nine months working on the script, with the fourth chapter of the game ultimately requiring assistance from XSEED's localization specialist Thomas Lipschultz at the last month.[11][12]
Despite the series's popularity in Japan,[13] Trails in the Sky FC sold poorly in the West upon its initial release for the PSP.[14]
In September 2013, XSEED announced a PC version of Trails in the Sky was planned to be released for the early 2014 winter season.[15] However, coding issues forced the release date to be pushed back to July 2014 instead. According to XSEED's localization programmer Sara Leen, much of the code needed to be rewritten from scratch because of technical differences between the Playstation Portable version and the PC version; these changes frequently introduced new software bugs, further complicating matters.[6] When the game was officially released, not all of the issues were corrected; patches since then have fixed a majority of them.[16]
Related media[edit]
The soundtrack was released as Eiyū Densetsu VI Sora no Kiseki Original Sound Track in July 2004 in Japan, published and produced by Falcom Sound Team JDK. It was composed by Hayato Sonoda, Wataru Ishibashi, Takahide Murayama and arranged by Kohei Wada. The album has two discs with 33 and 26 tracks, respectively. Tracks 24 to 31 comprise "The White Flower Madrigal" Suite. The song "Whereabouts of the Stars" was written by Hideaki Hamada, with vocals from u-mi. The soundtrack to the first chapter is also distributed with the Windows release in the form of Ogg Vorbis music files.
An OVA adaptation of The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky was announced in 2011.[17] The first OVA was released on November 25, 2011 on DVD and Blu-ray. The second and final OVA was released on January 22, 2012.[18] In 2012, the OVAs have been licensed by Sentai Filmworks in North America.[19]
Reception[edit]
Reception
Review scores
Publication
Score
PC
PSP
Famitsu 32/40
Game Informer 8.25/10[23]
GamePro [22]
GamesMaster 82%[24]
GameSpot 8/10[26]
GamesRadar [25]
IGN 8/10[27]
Hardcore Gamer 4.5/5[2]
Pocket Gamer 9/10[28]
RPGFan 90%[29] 88%[30]
Aggregate score
Metacritic 85/100[20] 79/100[21]
Awards
Publication
Award
RPGFan Best RPG (Editors' Pick)[31][32]
RPGFan Best Traditional RPG[33]
Wired 16th Best Videogame of 2011[34]
Trails in the Sky was well received by critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic.[20][21] Neilie Johnson of IGN gave it a positive review, stating that, though "First Chapter is not the most original ever made, like any good JRPG it offers amusing writing, dynamic combat, interesting tasks, an absorbing narrative, and hours upon hours of gameplay" and concluded that "while the game's 50/50 balance between combat and story may not be to everyone's taste, its charm and overall entertainment value make it well worth the investment."[27] Hardcore Gamer praised the "rock-solid character writing", noting every character has "their own history, ambitions, and social connections", every non-player character (NPC) "has their own name and motivations and interpersonal relationships with other NPCs", and the influence of Hayao Miyazaki's classic anime film Castle in the Sky on the cast and steampunk setting. They also praised the open-ended story, quest design, and combat system, and for having "one of the most complete and enthralling worlds ever rendered", concluding it to be "one of the finest JRPGs in the history of the genre".[2]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky (英雄伝説VI (シックス) 空の軌跡, Eiyū Densetsu Shikkusu Sora no Kiseki)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "英雄伝説 空の軌跡 FC Evolution".
^ Jump up to: a b c "Review: Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky (PC) ‹ Hardcore Gamer". August 6, 2014. Archived from the original on August 6, 2014. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Nihon Falcom Corporation (2011). The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky Manual. Xseed Games.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky official website". Retrieved 2016-08-09.
Jump up ^ "XSEED Games Announces Wide-Ranging Partnership with Nihon Falcom". xseedgames.com. May 14, 2010. Retrieved October 25, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "XSEED Blog - The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky". XSEED Games. 2014-07-24. Retrieved 2016-08-09.
Jump up ^ "'The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky' PS3 HD version announced". Polygon. 2012-09-26. Retrieved 2016-08-09.
Jump up ^ "英雄伝説 空の軌跡 FC Evolution New Features". Retrieved 2016-08-09.
Jump up ^ Sato (2015-05-22). "The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky FC Evolution Recaps Its New Features". Siliconera. Retrieved 2013-08-09.
Jump up ^ Spencer (2010-12-06). "The Legend Of The Heroes: Trails In The Sky Takes Flight In March". Siliconera. Retrieved 2013-09-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Ishaan (2011-02-12). "The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky Has 1.5 Million Japanese Characters". Siliconera. Retrieved 2013-09-13.
Jump up ^ "XSEED Games blog: Reports of My Death Have Been Greatly Exaggerated". XSEED Games. 2011-02-08. Retrieved 2016-08-09.
Jump up ^ Spencer. "Falcom’s Trails In The Sky Series Soars Past One Million Units Sold". Siliconera. Retrieved 2016-08-09.
Jump up ^ Spencer (2011-10-14). "What's Going On With The Legend Of Heroes: Trails In The Sky Second Chapter?". Siliconera. Retrieved 2013-09-13.
Jump up ^ Chris Dahlberg (2013-09-06). "XSEED Games to Publish The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky SC digitally on Steam and PlayStation Store; First Chapter to get PC release". Cosmos Gaming. Retrieved 2016-08-09.
Jump up ^ "The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky Second Chapter - Localization Blog #5". XSEED Games. 2015-10-30. Retrieved 2016-08-09.
Jump up ^ "Eiyu Densetsu: Sora no Kiseki RPG Gets Anime". Anime News Network. Retrieved June 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky Anime #2 Teaser Posted". Anime News Network. December 12, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Sentai Filmworks Licenses Legend of Heroes ~ Trails in the Sky". Anime News Network. Retrieved June 29, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky for PC reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved October 25, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky for PSP reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved October 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kemps, Heidi (April 4, 2011). "Review: The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky". GamePro. Archived from the original on December 1, 2011. Retrieved April 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Legend Of Heroes Review: An RPG That’s Paced More Like A Novel".
Jump up ^ GamesMaster, January 2012, page 85
Jump up ^ "The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky review".
Jump up ^ "The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky Review".
^ Jump up to: a b Johnson, Neilie (April 4, 2011). "The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky Review". IGN. Ziff Davis. Retrieved April 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky Review".
Jump up ^ "RPGFan Review - The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky".
Jump up ^ Rubinshteyn, Dennis (March 29, 2011). "The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky". RPGFan. Retrieved April 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ Heembergen, Derek (2011). "Games of the Year 2011: Derek Heemsbergen's Awards". RPGFan. Retrieved January 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ Rubinstheyn, Dennis (2011). "Games of the Year 2011: Dennis Rubinshteyn's Awards". RPGFan. Retrieved January 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ McCarrol, John; Meyerink, Stephen (2011). "Games of the Year 2011: Best Traditional RPG". RPGFan. Retrieved January 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ Kohler, Chris (December 20, 2011). "The 20 Best Videogames of 2011". Wired. Condé Nast.
External links[edit]
Official website
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values: The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky – French

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