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Economies of scale
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As quantity of production increases from Q to Q2, the average cost of each unit decreases from C to C1. LRAC is the long run average cost
In microeconomics, economies of scale are the cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to their scale of operation (typically measured by amount of output produced), with cost per unit of output decreasing with increasing scale.
Economies of scale apply to a variety of organizational and business situations and at various levels, such as a business or manufacturing unit, plant or an entire enterprise. When average costs start falling as output increases, then economies of scale are occurring. Some economies of scale, such as capital cost of manufacturing facilities and friction loss of transportation and industrial equipment, have a physical or engineering basis.
Another source of scale economies is the possibility of purchasing inputs at a lower per-unit cost when they are purchased in large quantities.
The economic concept dates back to Adam Smith and the idea of obtaining larger production returns through the use of division of labor.[1] Diseconomies of scale are the opposite.
Economies of scale often have limits, such as passing the optimum design point where costs per additional unit begin to increase. Common limits include exceeding the nearby raw material supply, such as wood in the lumber, pulp and paper industry. A common limit for low cost per unit weight commodities is saturating the regional market, thus having to ship product uneconomical distances. Other limits include using energy less efficiently or having a higher defect rate.
Large producers are usually efficient at long runs of a product grade (a commodity) and find it costly to switch grades frequently. They will therefore avoid specialty grades even though they have higher margins. Often smaller (usually older) manufacturing facilities remain viable by changing from commodity grade production to specialty products.[2][3]
Contents
1 Overview
2 Physical and engineering basis
2.1 Capital and operating cost
2.2 Crew size and other operating costs for ships, trains and airplanes
2.3 Economical use of byproducts
3 Economies of scale and returns to scale
4 Distributional consequences
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Overview[edit]
The simple meaning of economies of scale is doing things more efficiently with increasing size or speed of operation.[4] Economies of scale often rely on fixed costs, which are constant and don't vary with output, and variable costs, which can be affected with the amount of output. In wholesale and retail distribution, increasing the speed of operations, such as order fulfillment, lowers the cost of both fixed and working capital. Other common sources of economies of scale are purchasing (bulk buying of materials through long-term contracts), managerial (increasing the specialization of managers), financial (obtaining lower-interest charges when borrowing from banks and having access to a greater range of financial instruments), marketing (spreading the cost of advertising over a greater range of output in media markets), and technological (taking advantage of returns to scale in the production function). Each of these factors reduces the long run average costs (LRAC) of production by shifting the short-run average total cost (SRATC) curve down and to the right.
Economies of scale is a practical concept that may explain real-world phenomena such as patterns of international trade or the number of firms in a market. The exploitation of economies of scale helps explain why companies grow large in some industries. It is also a justification for free trade policies, since some economies of scale may require a larger market than is possible within a particular country—for example, it would not be efficient for Liechtenstein to have its own carmaker if they only sold to their local market. A lone carmaker may be profitable, but even more so if they exported cars to global markets in addition to selling to the local market. Economies of scale also play a role in a "natural monopoly". There is a distinction between two types of economies of scale: internal and external. An industry that exhibits an internal economy of scale is one where the costs of production fall when the number of firms in the industry drops, but the remaining firms increase their production to match previous levels. Conversely, an industry exhibits an external economy of scale when costs drop due to the introduction of more firms, thus allowing for more efficient use of specialized services and machinery.
The management thinker and translator of the Toyota Production System for service, Professor John Seddon, argues that attempting to create economies by increasing scale is powered by myth in the service sector. Instead, he believes that economies will come from improving the flow of a service, from the first receipt of a customer’s demand to the eventual satisfaction of that demand. In trying to manage and reduce unit costs, firms often raise total costs by creating failure demand. Seddon claims that arguments for an economy of scale are a mix of (a) the plausibly obvious and (b) a little hard data, brought together to produce two broad assertions, for which there is little hard factual evidence.[5]
Physical and engineering basis[edit]
Some of the economies of scale recognized in engineering have a physical basis, such as the square-cube law, by which the surface of a vessel increases by the square of the dimensions while the volume increases by the cube. This law has a direct effect on the capital cost of such things as buildings, factories, pipelines, ships and airplanes.[6]
In structural engineering, the strength of beams increases with the cube of the thickness.
Drag loss of vehicles like aircraft or ships generally increases less than proportional with increasing cargo volume, although the physical details can be quite complicated. Therefore, making them larger usually results in less fuel consumption per ton of cargo at a given speed.
Heat losses from industrial processes vary per unit of volume for pipes, tanks and other vessels in a relationship somewhat similar to the square-cube law.[7]
Capital and operating cost[edit]
Overall costs of capital projects are known to be subject to economies of scale. A crude estimate is that if the capital cost for a given sized piece of equipment is known, changing the size will change the capital cost by the 0.6 power of the capacity ratio (the point six power rule).[8][9]
In estimating capital cost, it typically requires an insignificant amount of labor, and possibly not much more in materials, to install a larger capacity electrical wire or pipe having significantly greater capacity.[10]
The cost of a unit of capacity of many types of equipment, such as electric motors, centrifugal pumps, diesel and gasoline engines, decreases as size increases. Also, the efficiency increases with size.[11]
Crew size and other operating costs for ships, trains and airplanes[edit]
Operating crew size for ships, airplanes, trains, etc., does not increase in direct proportion to capacity.[12] (Operating crew consists of pilots, co-pilots, navigators, etc. and does not include passenger service personnel.) Many aircraft models were significantly lengthened or "stretched" to increase payload.[13]
Many manufacturing facilities, especially those making bulk materials like chemicals, refined petroleum products, cement and paper, have labor requirements that are not greatly influenced by changes in plant capacity. This is because labor requirements of automated processes tend to be based on the complexity of the operation rather than production rate, and many manufacturing facilities have nearly the same basic number of processing steps and pieces of equipment, regardless of production capacity.
Economical use of byproducts[edit]
Karl Marx noted that large scale manufacturing allowed economical use of products that would otherwise be waste.[14] Marx cited the chemical industry as an example, which today along with petrochemicals, remains highly dependent on turning various residual reactant streams into salable products. In the pulp and paper industry it is economical to burn bark and fine wood particles to produce process steam and to recover the spent pulping chemicals for conversion back to a usable form.
Economies of scale and returns to scale[edit]
Economies of scale is related to and can easily be confused with the theoretical economic notion of returns to scale. Where economies of scale refer to a firm's costs, returns to scale describe the relationship between inputs and outputs in a long-run (all inputs variable) production function. A production function has constant returns to scale if increasing all inputs by some proportion results in output increasing by that same proportion. Returns are decreasing if, say, doubling inputs results in less than double the output, and increasing if more than double the output. If a mathematical function is used to represent the production function, and if that production function is homogeneous, returns to scale are represented by the degree of homogeneity of the function. Homogeneous production functions with constant returns to scale are first degree homogeneous, increasing returns to scale are represented by degrees of homogeneity greater than one, and decreasing returns to scale by degrees of homogeneity less than one.
If the firm is a perfect competitor in all input markets, and thus the per-unit prices of all its inputs are unaffected by how much of the inputs the firm purchases, then it can be shown that at a particular level of output, the firm has economies of scale if and only if it has increasing returns to scale, has diseconomies of scale if and only if it has decreasing returns to scale, and has neither economies nor diseconomies of scale if it has constant returns to scale.[15][16][17] In this case, with perfect competition in the output market the long-run equilibrium will involve all firms operating at the minimum point of their long-run average cost curves (i.e., at the borderline between economies and diseconomies of scale).
If, however, the firm is not a perfect competitor in the input markets, then the above conclusions are modified. For example, if there are increasing returns to scale in some range of output levels, but the firm is so big in one or more input markets that increasing its purchases of an input drives up the input's per-unit cost, then the firm could have diseconomies of scale in that range of output levels. Conversely, if the firm is able to get bulk discounts of an input, then it could have economies of scale in some range of output levels even if it has decreasing returns in production in that output range.
The literature assumed that due to the competitive nature of reverse auctions, and in order to compensate for lower prices and lower margins, suppliers seek higher volumes to maintain or increase the total revenue. Buyers, in turn, benefit from the lower transaction costs and economies of scale that result from larger volumes. In part as a result, numerous studies have indicated that the procurement volume must be sufficiently high to provide sufficient profits to attract enough suppliers, and provide buyers with enough savings to cover their additional costs.[18]
However, surprisingly enough, Shalev and Asbjornse found, in their research based on 139 reverse auctions conducted in the public sector by public sector buyers, that the higher auction volume, or economies of scale, did not lead to better success of the auction. They found that auction volume did not correlate with competition, nor with the number of bidders, suggesting that auction volume does not promote additional competition. They noted, however, that their data included a wide range of products, and the degree of competition in each market varied significantly, and offer that further research on this issue should be conducted to determine whether these findings remain the same when purchasing the same product for both small and high volumes. Keeping competitive factors constant, increasing auction volume may further increase competition.[18]
Distributional consequences[edit]
In his 1844 Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts, Karl Marx observes that economies of scale have historically been associated with an increasing concentration of private wealth and have been used to justify such concentration. Marx points out that concentrated private ownership of large-scale economic enterprises is a historically contingent fact, and not essential to the nature of such enterprises. In the case of agriculture, for example, Marx calls attention to the sophistical nature of the arguments used to justify the system of concentrated ownership of land:
As for large landed property, its defenders have always sophistically identified the economic advantages offered by large-scale agriculture with large-scale landed property, as if it were not precisely as a result of the abolition of property that this advantage, for one thing, received its greatest possible extension, and, for another, only then would be of social benefit.[19]
Instead of concentrated private ownership of land, Marx recommends that economies of scale should instead be realized by associations:
Association, applied to land, shares the economic advantage of large-scale landed property, and first brings to realization the original tendency inherent in land-division, namely, equality. In the same way association re-establishes, now on a rational basis, no longer mediated by serfdom, overlordship and the silly mysticism of property, the intimate ties of man with the earth, for the earth ceases to be an object of huckstering, and through free labor and free enjoyment becomes once more a true personal property of man.[19]
See also[edit]
Economics portal
Economies of scope
Ideal firm size
Long tail
Mass production
Network effect
Economies of density
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ O'Sullivan, Arthur; Sheffrin, Steven M. (2003). Economics: Principles in Action. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 157. ISBN 0-13-063085-3.
Jump up ^ Manufacture of specialty grades by small scale producers is a common practice in steel, paper and many commodity industries today. See various industry trade publications.
Jump up ^ Landes, David. S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 470. ISBN 0-521-09418-6<Landes describes the problem of new steel mills in late 19th century Britain being too large for the market and unable to economically produce short production runs of specialty grades. The old mills had another advantage in that they were fully amortized.>
Jump up ^ Chandler Jr., Alfred D. (1993). The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 236. ISBN 978-0674940529<Chandler uses the example of high turn over in distribution>
Jump up ^ "Why do we believe in economy of scale? : Professor John Seddon, managing director Vanguard" (PDF). S3.amazonaws.com. July 2010. Retrieved 23 December 2017.
Jump up ^ See various estimating guides, such as Means. Also see various engineering economics texts related to plant design and construction, etc.
Jump up ^ The relationship is rather complex. See engineering texts on heat transfer.
Jump up ^ [[In microeconomics, economies of scale are the cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to size, output, or scale of operation, with cost per unit of output generally decreasing with increasing scale as fixed costs are spread out over more units of output. Often operational efficiency is also greater with increasing scale, leading to lower variable cost as well. Economies of scale apply to a variety of organizational and business situations and at various levels, such as a business or manufacturing unit, plant or an entire enterprise. For example, a large manufacturing facility would be expected to have a lower cost per unit of output than a smaller facility, all other factors being equal, while a company with many facilities should have a cost advantage over a competitor with fewer. Some economies|Moore, Fredrick T.]] (May 1959). "Economies of Scale: Some Statistical Evidence" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Economics. 73 (2): 232–245. doi:10.2307/1883722.
Jump up ^ In practice, capital cost estimates are prepared from specifications, budget grade vendor pricing for equipment, general arrangement drawings and materials take-offs from the drawings. This information is then used in cost formulas to arrive at a final detailed estimate.
Jump up ^ See various estimating guides that publish tables of tasks commonly encountered in building trades with estimates of labor hours and costs per hour for the trade, often with regional pricing.
Jump up ^ See various engineering handbooks and manufacturers data.
Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Nathan (1982). Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 63. ISBN 0-521-27367-6<Specifically mentions ships.>
Jump up ^ Rosenberg 1982, pp. 127–128
Jump up ^ Rosenberg 1982
Jump up ^ Gelles, Gregory M.; Mitchell, Douglas W. (1996). "Returns to Scale and Economies of Scale: Further Observations". Journal of Economic Education. 27 (3): 259–261. doi:10.1080/00220485.1996.10844915. JSTOR 1183297.
Jump up ^ Frisch, R. (1965). Theory of Production. Dordrecht: D. Reidel.
Jump up ^ Ferguson, C. E. (1969). The Neoclassical Theory of Production & Distribution. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07453-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Shalev, Moshe Eitan; Asbjornsen, Stee (2010). "Electronic Reverse Auctions and the Public Sector – Factors of Success". Journal of Public Procurement. 10 (3): 428–452. SSRN 1727409  .
^ Jump up to: a b Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, M. Milligan, trans. (1988), p. 65-66
References[edit]
Färe, R., S. Grosskopf and C.A.K. Lovell (1986), “Scale economies and duality” Zeitschrift für Nationalökonomie 46:2, pp. 175–182.
Hanoch, G. (1975) “The elasticity of scale and the shape of average costs,” American Economic Review 65, pp. 492–497.]
Panzar, J.C. and R.D. Willig (1977) “Economies of scale in multi-output production, Quarterly Journal of Economics 91, 481-493.
Silvestre, Joaquim (1987). "Economies and Diseconomies of Scale". The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics. 2. London: Macmillan. pp. 80–84. ISBN 0-333-37235-2.
Zelenyuk, V. (2013) “A scale elasticity measure for directional distance function and its dual: Theory and DEA estimation.” European Journal of Operational Research 228:3, pp 592–600
Zelenyuk V. (2014) “Scale efficiency and homotheticity: equivalence of primal and dual measures” Journal of Productivity Analysis 42:1, pp 15-24.
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2026 FIFA World Cup
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
2026 FIFA World Cup
FIFA World Cup United 2026
Copa Mundial de la FIFA Unidos 2026
Coupe du Monde de la FIFA - Unis 2026
Bid logo
Tournament details
Host countries
United States
Canada
Mexico
Dates
June–July
Teams
48 (from 6 confederations)
Venue(s)
16 (in 16 host cities)
← 2022
2030 →
The 2026 FIFA World Cup (Spanish: Copa mundial de la FIFA de 2026; French: Coupe du monde de la FIFA de 2026) will be the 23rd FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international men's football championship contested by the national teams of the member associations of FIFA. The tournament will be jointly hosted by 16 cities in three North American countries; 60 matches, including the quarterfinals, semi-finals, and the final, will be hosted by the United States while neighboring Canada and Mexico will each host 10 matches. The tournament will be the first hosted by three nations.[1][2]
The United 2026 bid beat a rival bid by Morocco during a final vote at the 68th FIFA Congress in Moscow. It will be the first World Cup since South Korea/Japan in 2002 that will be hosted by more than one nation. With its past hosting of the 1970 and 1986 tournaments, Mexico will also become the first country to host all or part of three men's World Cups.
The 2026 World Cup will also see the tournament expanded from 32 to 48 teams.[3]
Contents
1 Format
1.1 Slot allocation
1.1.1 Playoff tournament
1.2 Host selection
1.2.1 Voting
2 Qualification
3 Candidate cities and venues
3.1 Canada
3.2 Mexico
3.3 United States
4 Controversies
5 Broadcasting rights
6 References
Format[edit]
Michel Platini, who was then the UEFA president, had suggested in October 2013 an expansion of the tournament to 40 teams,[4][5] an idea that FIFA president Gianni Infantino also suggested in March 2016.[6] A desire to increase the number of participants in the tournament from the previous 32 team format was announced on October 4, 2016. Four expansion options were considered:[7][8][9][10]
Expand to 40 teams (8 groups of 5 teams) – 88 matches
Expand to 40 teams (10 groups of 4 teams) – 76 matches
Expand to 48 teams (opening 32-team playoff round) – 80 matches
Expand to 48 teams (16 groups of 3 teams) – 80 matches
On January 10, 2017, the FIFA Council voted unanimously to expand to a 48-team tournament.[3]
The tournament will open with a group stage consisting of 16 groups of three teams, with the top two teams progressing from each group to a knockout tournament starting with a round of 32 teams.[11] The number of games played overall will increase from 64 to 80, but the number of games played by finalists remains at seven, the same as with 32 teams, but one group match will be replaced by a knockout match. The tournament will also be completed within 32 days, the same as previous 32-team tournaments.[12]
The European Club Association and its member clubs opposed the proposal for expansion, saying that the number of games was already at an "unacceptable" level and they urged the governing body to reconsider its idea of increasing the number of teams that qualify.[13] They contended that it was a decision taken for political reasons because Infantino would thus satisfy his electorate, rather than for sporting reasons.[14] Liga de Fútbol Profesional president Javier Tebas agreed, affirming the unacceptability of the new format. He told Marca that the football industry is maintained thanks to clubs and leagues, not FIFA, and that Infantino did politics because to be elected he promised more countries in the World Cup; he wanted to keep the electoral promises.[15] German national team coach Joachim Löw warned that expansion, as had occurred for Euro 2016, would dilute the value of the world tournament because players have already reached their physical and mental limit.[16] Another criticism of the new format is that with three-team groups, the risk of collusion between the two teams playing in the last round of the group stage will increase compared with four-team groups (where simultaneous kick-offs have been employed). One suggestion by president Infantino is that group matches that end in draws will be decided by penalty shootouts.[17]
Slot allocation[edit]
On March 30, 2017, the Bureau of the FIFA Council (composed of the FIFA president and the presidents of each of the six confederations) proposed a slot allocation for the 2026 FIFA World Cup. The recommendation was submitted for the ratification by the FIFA Council.[18][19]
On May 9, 2017, two days before the 67th FIFA Congress, the FIFA Council approved the slot allocation in a meeting in Manama, Bahrain. It includes an intercontinental playoff tournament involving six teams to decide the last two FIFA World Cup berths.[20]
Confederation
FIFA eligible members
Places in finals
(including hosts)
Percentage of members
with places in finals
Places before 2026
(excluding hosts,
including half-places)
AFC 46 8 17% 4.5
CAF 54 9 17% 5
CONCACAF 35 6 17% 3.5
CONMEBOL 10 6 60% 4.5
OFC 11 1 9% 0.5
UEFA 55 16 29% 13
Playoff – 2 33% –
Total
211
48
23%
31 (+ hosts)
The issue of how to allocate automatic host country qualification given that there are multiple host countries has not yet been resolved and will be decided by the FIFA council.[18][20][21] The United bid anticipated all three host countries being awarded automatic places.[22]
The ratification of slot allocation gives OFC a guaranteed berth in the final tournament for the first time in FIFA World Cup history. The 2026 FIFA World Cup will be the first tournament in which all six confederations have guaranteed berths.
Playoff tournament[edit]
A playoff tournament involving six teams will be held to decide the last two FIFA World Cup berths,[18] consisting of one team per confederation (except for UEFA) and one additional team from the confederation of the host country (i.e. CONCACAF).
Two of the teams will be seeded based on the FIFA World Rankings, and the seeded teams will play for a FIFA World Cup berth against the winners of the first two knockout games involving the four unseeded teams.
The tournament is to be played in the host country(ies) and to be used as a test event for the FIFA World Cup. The existing playoff window of November 2025 has been suggested as a tentative date for the 2026 edition.
Host selection[edit]
Main articles: Morocco 2026 FIFA World Cup bid and United 2026 FIFA World Cup bid
Map of the World with the six confederations
The FIFA Council went back and forth between 2013 and 2017 on limitations within hosting rotation based on the continental confederations. Originally, it was set that bids to be host would not be allowed from countries belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments. It was temporarily changed to only prohibit countries belonging to the confederation that hosted the previous World Cup from bidding to host the following tournament,[23] before the rule was changed back to its prior state of two World Cups. However, the FIFA Council did make an exception to potentially grant eligibility to member associations of the confederation of the second-to-last host of the FIFA World Cup in the event that none of the received bids fulfill the strict technical and financial requirements.[24][25] In March 2017, FIFA president Gianni Infantino confirmed that "Europe (UEFA) and Asia (AFC) are excluded from the bidding following the selection of Russia and Qatar in 2018 and 2022 respectively."[26] Therefore, the 2026 World Cup could be hosted by one of the remaining four confederations: CONCACAF (North America; last hosted in 1994), CAF (Africa; last hosted in 2010), CONMEBOL (South America; last hosted in 2014), or OFC (Oceania, never hosted before), or potentially by UEFA in case no bid from those four met the requirements.
After the selection, the map of world cup hosts stayed like this. Remember that some city locations may be wrong
Co-hosting the FIFA World Cup—which had been banned by FIFA after the 2002 World Cup—was approved for the 2026 World Cup, though not limited to a specific number but instead evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Also by 2026, the FIFA general secretariat, after consultation with the Competitions Committee, will have the power to exclude bidders who do not meet the minimum technical requirements to host the competition.[24]
Canada, Mexico and the United States had all publicly considered bidding for the tournament separately, but the United joint bid was announced on April 10, 2017. The United bid contacted 48 venues in 43 cities (3 venues in 3 cities in Mexico, 8 venues in 6 cities in Canada and 37 venues in 34 cities in the United States). This bid was ultimately cut down to 23 venues in 23 cities (3 in Canada, 3 in Mexico and 17 in the United States; the American venues will be cut down to 10 for a total of 16 venues for the tournament). Morocco announced its bid in August 2017, and had 14 proposed venues in 12 cities.
Voting results:
Allowed to vote
Banned from voting
Voted for United bid
Canada/Mexico/United States
Voted for Moroccan bid
Morocco
Voted for neither
Sanctioned by FIFA
Abstained from voting
Not a FIFA member
Voting[edit]
Main article: 2026 FIFA World Cup bids
The voting took place on June 13, 2018, during FIFA's annual congress in Moscow, and it was reopened to all eligible members.[27] The United bid won receiving 134 valid ballots, while the Morocco bid received 65 valid ballots. Upon the selection, Canada becomes the fifth country to host both men's and women's World Cup—the latter was in 2015, Mexico becomes the first country to host three men's World Cups—previously in 1970 and 1986, and the United States becomes the first country to host both men's and women's World Cup twice each—having hosted the 1994 men's and the 1999 and 2003 women's World Cups.
Qualification[edit]
The 2026 World Cup's qualification process has yet to be decided. The FIFA Council is expected to decide which hosts, if any, will receive automatic qualifications to the tournament.[18][20][21] The United Bid personnel anticipated that all three host countries would be awarded automatic places.[22]
CAF (Africa): 9 slots
AFC (Asia): 8 slots
UEFA (Europe): 16 slots
CONCACAF (North and Central America and Caribbean): 3 slots
OFC (Oceania): 1 slot
CONMEBOL (South America): 6 slots
Playoff: 2 slots
Candidate cities and venues[edit]
During the bidding process, there were 49 venues in 43 cities contacted to be part of the bid. 41 cities with 45 venues responded and submitted to be part of the bid (3 venues in 3 cities in Mexico, 8 venues in 6 cities in Canada and 38 venues in 34 cities in the United States). A first round elimination cut 9 venues and 9 cities, then a second round elimination cut 9 venues in 6 cities, reducing the total number to 23 venues, each in their own city or metropolitan area. The 23 candidate cities and venues will be narrowed down to 16 in 2020 or 2021 (3 in Canada, 3 in Mexico, and 10 in the United States):
A denotes a stadium used for previous men's World Cup tournaments (United States and Mexico only)
A denotes an indoor stadium with a fixed or retractable roof.
Canada[edit]
Montreal[28]
Edmonton[28]
Toronto[28]
Olympic Stadium Commonwealth Stadium BMO Field
Capacity: 61,004
(Bid book capacity: 55,822)
(Expandable to 73,000) Capacity: 56,302
(Bid book capacity: 56,418) Capacity: 30,000
(Expanding to 45,500 for tournament)
Edmonton
Montreal
Toronto
Canadian candidate cities
Mexico[edit]
Mexico City[28]
Monterrey[28]
Guadalajara[28]
Estadio Azteca Estadio BBVA Bancomer Estadio Akron
Capacity: 87,523 Capacity: 53,500
(Bid book capacity: 53,460) Capacity: 46,232
(Bid book capacity: 48,071)
Mexico City
Monterrey
Guadalajara
Mexican candidate cities
United States[edit]
Los Angeles[28]
New York City[28]
Washington, D.C.[28]
Dallas[28]
Rose Bowl
(Pasadena, California) MetLife Stadium
(East Rutherford, New Jersey) FedExField
(Landover, Maryland) AT&T Stadium
(Arlington, Texas)
Capacity: 92,000
(Bid book capacity: 88,432) Capacity: 82,500
(Bid book capacity: 87,157) Capacity: 82,000
(Bid book capacity: 70,249) Capacity: 80,000
(Bid book capacity: 92,967)
(expandable to 100,000)
Kansas City[28]
Denver[28]
Houston[28]
Baltimore[28]
Arrowhead Stadium Broncos Stadium at Mile High NRG Stadium M&T Bank Stadium
Capacity: 76,416
(Bid book capacity: 76,640) Capacity: 76,125
(Bid book capacity: 77,595) Capacity: 71,795
(Bid book capacity: 72,220) Capacity: 71,006
(Bid book capacity: 70,976)
Atlanta[28]
Atlanta
Baltimore
Boston
Cincinnati
Dallas
Denver
Houston
Kansas City
Los Angeles
Miami
Nashville
New York City
Orlando
Philadelphia
San Francisco Bay Area
Seattle
Washington, D.C.
United States candidate cities
Mercedes-Benz Stadium
Capacity: 71,000
(Bid book capacity: 75,000)
(expandable to 83,000)
Philadelphia[28]
Nashville[28]
Seattle[28]
San Francisco Bay Area[28]
Lincoln Financial Field Nissan Stadium CenturyLink Field Levi's Stadium
(Santa Clara, California)
Capacity: 69,176
(Bid book capacity: 69,328) Capacity: 69,143
(Bid book capacity: 69,722)
(expandable to 75,000) Capacity: 69,000
(expandable to 72,000) Capacity: 68,500
(Bid book capacity: 70,909)
(expandable to 75,000)
Boston[28]
Cincinnati[28]
Miami[28]
Orlando[28]
Gillette Stadium
(Foxborough, Massachusetts) Paul Brown Stadium Hard Rock Stadium
(Miami Gardens, Florida) Camping World Stadium
Capacity: 65,878
(Bid book capacity: 70,000) Capacity: 65,515
(Bid book capacity: 67,402) Capacity: 64,767
(Bid book capacity: 67,518) Capacity: 60,219
(Bid book capacity: 65,000)
Controversies[edit]
FIFA president Gianni Infantino criticized the U.S. travel ban on several Muslim-majority nations. Infantino said, "When it comes to FIFA competitions, any team, including the supporters and officials of that team, who qualify for a World Cup need to have access to the country, otherwise there is no World Cup. That is obvious."[29]
However, assurances were later given by the government that there would be no such discrimination.[30][31]
U.S. President Donald Trump threatened the countries that intended to support the Morocco bid to host the 2026 World Cup, tweeting: "The US has put together a STRONG bid w/ Canada & Mexico for the 2026 World Cup. It would be a shame if countries that we always support were to lobby against the U.S. bid. Why should we be supporting these countries when they don’t support us (including at the United Nations)?"[32]
Broadcasting rights[edit]
Canada – CTV, TSN, RDS[33]
United States – Fox, Telemundo[34]
On February 12, 2015, Fox, Telemundo, and Bell Media's rights to the tournament were renewed by FIFA to cover 2026, without accepting any other bids. The New York Times believed that this extension was intended as compensation for the rescheduling of the 2022 World Cup to November-December rather than its traditional June-July scheduling, which falls during the heart of the regular season for several major North American sports leagues (including the National Football League; Fox is a main U.S. rightsholder).[35][36][37]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "World Cup 2026: Canada, US & Mexico joint bid wins right to host tournament". BBC. June 13, 2018. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ Carlise, Jeff (April 10, 2017). "U.S., neighbors launch 2026 World Cup bid". ESPN. Archived from the original on April 11, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Unanimous decision expands FIFA World Cup™ to 48 teams from 2026". FIFA. January 10, 2017. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Michel Platini calls for 40-team World Cup starting with Russia 2018". The Guardian. October 28, 2013. Retrieved January 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ "BBC Sport — Michel Platini's World Cup expansion plan unlikely — Fifa". BBC Sport. October 29, 2013. Archived from the original on April 21, 2014. Retrieved January 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Infantino suggests 40-team World Cup finals". Independent Online. South Africa: IOL. Reuters. March 30, 2016. Archived from the original on December 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ "New Fifa chief backs 48-team World Cup". HeraldLIVE. October 7, 2016. Archived from the original on October 10, 2016. It's an idea, just as the World Cup with 40 teams is already on the table with groups of four or five teams.
Jump up ^ "Fifa's 5 options for a 2026 World Cup of 48, 40 or 32 teams". Yahoo! Sports. Associated Press. December 23, 2016. Archived from the original on January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "FIFA World Cup format proposals" (PDF). FIFA. December 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Federations 'overwhelmingly in favour' of 48-team World Cup – Infantino". ESPN. December 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Fifa approves Infantino's plan to expand World Cup to 48 teams from 2026". The Guardian. Archived from the original on January 10, 2017. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "World Cup: Gianni Infantino defends tournament expansion to 48 teams". BBC Sport. January 10, 2017. Archived from the original on March 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ "World Cup: Europe's top clubs oppose FIFA's expansion plans". CNN. December 15, 2016. Archived from the original on December 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Críticas a decisión de la FIFA de jugar el Mundial 2026 con 48 selecciones". El Universo (in Spanish). Agence France-Presse. January 10, 2017. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mundial de 48 equipos: durísimas críticas en Europa". Clarín (in Spanish). January 10, 2017. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Low confirms opposition to 40-team World Cup". sbs.com.au. Australian Associated Press. October 2, 2016. Archived from the original on October 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ George Flood (January 10, 2017). "How 48-team World Cup in 2026 will work and what is left to be decided". International Business Times. Archived from the original on January 11, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Bureau of the Council recommends slot allocation for the 2026 FIFA World Cup". FIFA. March 30, 2017. Archived from the original on April 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "World Cup 2026: Fifa reveals allocation for 48-team tournament". BBC. March 30, 2017. Archived from the original on March 30, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "FIFA Council prepares Congress, takes key decisions for the future of the FIFA World Cup™". FIFA. May 9, 2017. Archived from the original on June 18, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "World Cup 2026: Canada, US & Mexico joint bid wins right to host tournament". BBC Sport. June 13, 2018. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "United 2026 bid book" (PDF). Retrieved June 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Current allocation of FIFA World Cup™ confederation slots maintained". FIFA. May 30, 2015. Archived from the original on May 30, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "FIFA Council discusses vision for the future of football". FIFA. October 14, 2016. Archived from the original on October 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ "FIFA blocks Europe from hosting 2026 World Cup, lifting Canada's chances". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Associated Press. October 14, 2016. Archived from the original on October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Trump travel ban could prevent United States hosting World Cup". The Guardian. March 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/football/live/2018/jun/13/world-cup-2026-vote-fifa-nations-choose-between-north-america-and-morocco-live
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w "United 2026 bid book" (PDF). united2026.com. Retrieved April 30, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Donald Trump travel ban could prevent USA from hosting 2026 World Cup". The Independent. March 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ Davis, Scott. "Anti-Trump sentiments around the world could reportedly cost the US a chance to host the 2026 World Cup". Business Insider.
Jump up ^ "U.S. offers assurances over 2026 World Cup". ESPN. Associated Press. Retrieved May 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Donald Trump issues warning to other countries over voting against US 2026 World Cup bid". The Independent. April 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ Sandomir, Richard (February 12, 2015). "Fox and Telemundo to Show World Cup Through 2026 as FIFA Extends Contracts"". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Parker, Ryan. "2026 World Cup TV rights awarded without bids; ESPN 'surprised'" Archived March 3, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.. Los Angeles Times. February 13, 2015.
Jump up ^ "FIFA grants Fox, Telemundo U.S. TV rights for World Cup through 2026". SI.com. February 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Why FIFA Made Deal With Fox for 2026 Cup". The New York Times. February 26, 2015.
Jump up ^ "FIFA extending TV deals through 2026 World Cup with CTV, TSN and RDS". The Globe and Mail. 12 February 2015. Archived from the original on 10 April 2016.
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Museum of the History of Lithuanian Medicine and Pharmacy
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Museum interior
The Museum of the History of Lithuanian Medicine and Pharmacy (Lithuanian: Lietuvos medicinos ir farmacijos istorijos muziejus) is located in a restored 16th-century building at the Town Hall Square in the Old Town of Kaunas, Lithuania. It moved to its current location in 1987, although its history dates to 1936.[1] Alfonsas Kaikaris (1922–1997), a professor of pharmacy, is credited as the founder of the museum; his personal collection formed the basis of its holdings.[2] The Lithuanian Pharmacists' Union worked to collect materials as well.[1] It is sponsored by Kaunas University of Medicine.[1]
The museum's permanent collection consists of the belongings of Lithuanian doctors, pharmacists and hospitals, along with medical and pharmaceutical implements and documents. Temporary exhibitions commemorate prominent doctors' and pharmacists' anniversaries.[1] The exhibits include dental equipment along with displays of archaic medications such as “Erektosan” (an herbal version of Viagra), love potions, “Venus Hair Potion,” and “Caput Mortuum” (a medieval male vitality booster and epilepsy treatment composed of dead heads).[3][4]
There one could enjoy the scenes of pre-history of medicine and pharmacy – watching exhibition stands arranged with great inventiveness and authenticity: presenting a shaman curing a baby as well as a Lithuanian sorceress.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "MUSEUM OF THE HISTORY OF LITHUANIA MEDICINE AND PHARMACY". Lithuanian Museum's Association. Retrieved 2009-01-07.
Jump up ^ "Prof. Alfonsas Kaikaris -- the founder of the Lithuanian Pharmacy Museum: his personality and scientific activities". Medicina (Kaunas). 38 (10): 1033–7. 2002. PMID 12532714.
Jump up ^ Neil Taylor (30 December 2008). Baltic Cities. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 225. ISBN 978-1-84162-247-7. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Inés Pacheco; Let's Go; Inc. (27 November 2007). Let's go: Europe 2008. Macmillan. p. 687. ISBN 978-0-312-37448-8. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
See also[edit]
History of pharmacy
History of medicine
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Ossicles
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This article may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help us clarify the article. There might be a discussion about this on the talk page. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This article is about the bones in the human ear. For elements embedded in the body wall of echinoderms, see Ossicle (echinoderm).
Ossicles
Auditory ossicles: Malleus, incus and stapes
Details
Part of
Middle ear
Identifiers
Latin
Ossicula auditus,
ossicula auditoria
MeSH
D004429
TA
A02.1.17.001
FMA
52750
Anatomical terms of bone
[edit on Wikidata]
This article is one of a series documenting the anatomy of the
Human ear
Outer ear[show]
Pinna
Tragus
Middle ear[hide]
Tympanic membrane
Ossicles
Malleus
Incus
Stapes
Inner ear[show]
Vestibules
Utricle
Saccule
Cochlea
Semicircular canals
v
t
e
The ossicles (also called auditory ossicles) are three bones in either middle ear that are among the smallest bones in the human body. They serve to transmit sounds from the air to the fluid-filled labyrinth (cochlea). The absence of the auditory ossicles would constitute a moderate-to-severe hearing loss. The term "ossicle" literally means "tiny bone". Though the term may refer to any small bone throughout the body, it typically refers to the malleus, incus, and stapes (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) of the middle ear. The middle ear is one of the smallest bones in the human body.
Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Development
1.2 Evolution
2 Function
3 Clinical relevance
4 History
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Structure[edit]
See also: Malleus, Incus, and Stapes
Anatomy of the three ossicles.
The ossicles are, in order from the eardrum to the inner ear (from superficial to deep): the malleus, incus, and stapes, terms that in Latin are translated as "the hammer, anvil, and stirrup".
The malleus (Latin: "hammer") articulates with the incus through the incudomalleolar joint and is attached to the tympanic membrane (eardrum), from which vibrational sound pressure motion is passed.
The incus (Latin: "anvil") is connected to both the other bones.
The stapes (Latin: "stirrup") articulates with the incus through the incudostapedial joint and is attached to the membrane of the fenestra ovalis, the elliptical or oval window or opening between the middle ear and the vestibule of the inner ear. It is the smallest bone in the body.[1]
Development[edit]
Studies have shown that ear bones in mammal embryos are attached to the dentary, which is part of the jaw. These are ossified portions of cartilage—called Meckel's cartilage—that are attached to the jaw. As the embryo develops, the cartilage hardens to form bone. Later in development, the bone structure breaks loose from the jaw and migrates to the inner ear area. The structure is known as the middle ear, and is made up of the stapes, incus, malleus, and tympanic membrane. These correspond to the columella, quadrate, articular, and angular structures in the amphibian, bird or reptile jaw. For this reason, researchers believe that mammals and reptiles share a common ancestry.[2]
Evolution[edit]
Main article: Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles
Function[edit]
As sound waves vibrate the tympanic membrane (eardrum), it in turn moves the nearest ossicle, the malleus, to which it is attached. The malleus then transmits the vibrations, via the incus, to the stapes, and so ultimately to the membrane of the fenestra ovalis (oval window), the opening to the vestibule of the inner ear.
Sound traveling through the air is mostly reflected when it comes into contact with a liquid medium; only about 1/30 of the sound energy moving through the air would be transferred into the liquid.[3] This is observed from the abrupt cessation of sound that occurs when the head is submerged underwater. This is because the relative incompressibility of a liquid presents resistance to the force of the sound waves traveling through the air. The ossicles give the eardrum a mechanical advantage via lever action and a reduction in the area of force distribution; the resulting vibrations would be much weaker if the sound waves were transmitted directly from the outer ear to the oval window. This reduction in the area of force application allows a large enough increase in pressure to transfer most of the sound energy into the liquid. The increased pressure will compress the fluid found in the cochlea and transmit the stimulus. Thus, the presence of the ossicles to concentrate the force of the vibrations improves the sensitivity to sound and is a form of impedance matching.
However, the extent of the movements of the ossicles is controlled (and constricted) by two muscles attached to them (the tensor tympani and the stapedius). It is believed that these muscles can contract to dampen the vibration of the ossicles, in order to protect the inner ear from excessively loud noise (theory 1) and that they give better frequency resolution at higher frequencies by reducing the transmission of low frequencies (theory 2) (see acoustic reflex). These muscles are more highly developed in bats and serve to block outgoing cries of the bats during echolocation (SONAR).
Clinical relevance[edit]
Occasionally the joints between the ossicles become rigid. One condition, otosclerosis, results in the fusing of the stapes to the oval window. This reduces hearing and may be treated surgically[further explanation needed].
History[edit]
There is some doubt as to the discoverers of the auditory ossicles and several anatomists from the early 16th century have the discovery attributed to them with the two earliest being Alessandro Achillini and Jacopo Berengario da Carpi.[4] Several sources, including Eustachi and Casseri,[5] attribute the discovery of the malleus and incus to the anatomist and philosopher Achillini.[6] The first written description of the malleus and incus was by Berengario da Carpi in his Commentaria super anatomia Mundini (1521),[7] although he only briefly described two bones and noted their theoretical association with the transmission of sound.[8] Niccolo Massa's Liber introductorius anatomiae[9] described the same bones in slightly more detail and likened them both to little hammers.[8] A much more detailed description of the first two ossicles followed in Andreas Vesalius' De humani corporis fabrica[10] in which he devoted a chapter to them. Vesalius was the first to compare the second element of the ossicles to an anvil although he offered the molar as an alternative comparison for its shape.[11] The first published description of the stapes came in Pedro Jimeno's Dialogus de re medica (1549)[12] although it had been previously described in public lectures by Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia at the University of Naples as early as 1546.[13]
The term ossicle derives from ossiculum, a diminutive of "bone" (Latin: os; genitive ossis).[14] The malleus gets its name from Latin malleus, meaning "hammer",[15] the incus gets its name from Latin incus meaning "anvil" from incudere meaning "to forge with a hammer",[16] and the stapes gets its name from Modern Latin "stirrup," probably an alteration of Late Latin stapia related to stare "to stand" and pedem, an accusative of pes "foot", so called because the bone is shaped like a stirrup – this was an invented Modern Latin word for "stirrup," for which there was no classical Latin word, as the ancients did not use stirrups.[17]
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Hearing
Ear
Incudomalleolar joint
Incudostapedial joint
Middle ear
Otolith
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Your Bones". kidshealth.org.
Jump up ^ Meng, Jin. "The Journey From Jaw to Ear." Biologist. vol. 50. (2003) p. 154-158.
Jump up ^ Hill, R.W., Wyse, G.A. & Anderson, M. (2008). Animal Physiology, 2nd ed..
Jump up ^ O'Malley, C. D.; Clarke, E (1961). "The discovery of the auditory ossicles". Bulletin of the history of medicine. 35: 419–41. PMID 14480894.
Jump up ^ Alidosi, GNP. I dottori Bolognesi di teologia, filosofia, medicina e d'arti liberali dall'anno 1000 per tutto marzo del 1623, Tebaldini, N., Bologna, 1623. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k51029z/f35.image#
Jump up ^ Lind, L. R. Studies in pre-Vesalian anatomy. Biography, translations, documents, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1975. p.40
Jump up ^ Jacopo Berengario da Carpi,Commentaria super anatomia Mundini, Bologna, 1521. https://archive.org/details/ita-bnc-mag-00001056-001
^ Jump up to: a b O'Malley, C.D. Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964. p. 120
Jump up ^ Niccolo Massa, Liber introductorius anatomiae, Venice, 1536. p.166. http://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/en/fs1/object/display/bsb10151904_00001.html
Jump up ^ Andreas Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica. Johannes Oporinus, Basle, 1543.
Jump up ^ O'Malley, C.D. Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964. p. 121
Jump up ^ Pedro Jimeno, Dialogus de re medica, Johannes Mey, Valencia, 1549. https://archive.org/details/dialogusderemed00jimegoog
Jump up ^ A Mudry, Disputes surrounding the discovery of the stapes in the mid 16th century., Otology and Neurotology, 2013 Apr;34(3):588-92.
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". etymonline.com.
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". etymonline.com.
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". etymonline.com.
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". etymonline.com.
External links[edit]
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