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Josh Radnor
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Josh Radnor
Radnor at the 2013 Comic-Con
Born
Joshua Radnor
(1974-07-29) July 29, 1974 (age 43)
Columbus, Ohio
Residence
Los Angeles, California
Alma mater
Kenyon College (BA)
Tisch School of the Arts (MFA)
Occupation
Actor
Years active
2000–present
Joshua Radnor (born July 29, 1974) is an American actor. He is best known for portraying Ted Mosby on the popular Emmy Award-winning CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother. He made his writing and directorial debut with the 2010 comedy drama film Happythankyoumoreplease, for which he won the Sundance Film Festival Audience Award and was nominated for the Grand Jury Prize.
In 2012, he wrote, directed and starred in his second film, Liberal Arts, which premiered at the 2012 Sundance Film Festival.[1] In 2014, Radnor portrayed Isaac in the Broadway play Disgraced, which earned a Tony Award for Best Play nomination. He then starred as Dr. Jedediah Foster on the PBS American Civil War drama series Mercy Street.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
4.1 Film
4.2 Television
4.3 Music videos
4.4 Stage
5 Awards and nominations
6 References
7 External links
Early life[edit]
Radnor was born in Columbus, Ohio, the son of Carol Radnor (née Hirsch), a high school guidance counselor, and Alan Radnor, a medical malpractice lawyer. Radnor has two sisters, Melanie Radnor and Joanna Radnor Vilensky. He grew up in Bexley, Ohio, a small city near Columbus. Radnor attended Orthodox Jewish day schools (including the Columbus Torah Academy) and was raised in Conservative Judaism.[2][3][4] Radnor went to Bexley High School, and later Kenyon College, where his school's theater department presented him with the Paul Newman Award and during which he spent a semester (Spring 1995) training at the National Theater Institute at the Eugene O'Neill Theater Center in Waterford, Connecticut. He graduated from Kenyon with a Bachelor of Arts in drama in 1996.[5] Radnor received his Master of Fine Arts degree in acting from New York University's Graduate Acting Program at the Tisch School of the Arts in 1999.[5][6] Radnor participated in an Israel experience program in Tzfat with Livnot U'Lehibanot in 1997.[2]
Career[edit]
Radnor and Ben Lee performing
Radnor was cast as the lead in The WB series Off Centre. However, the role was re-cast with Eddie Kaye Thomas before the first episode aired.[7] In 2002, he made his Broadway debut in the stage version of The Graduate, succeeding Jason Biggs, opposite Kathleen Turner and Alicia Silverstone. In 2004, Radnor starred in The Paris Letter alongside his future How I Met Your Mother co-star, Neil Patrick Harris.[8] From 2005 to 2014, Radnor starred in How I Met Your Mother, his biggest role to date.
In July 2008, he starred opposite Jennifer Westfeldt in the premiere of the play Finks,[9] written by Joe Gilford and directed by Charlie Stratton for New York Stage and Film. Radnor made his directorial debut with the film Happythankyoumoreplease, where he was both the writer and star of the 2010 comedy-drama.[10]
His second directorial effort, Liberal Arts, starring himself and Elizabeth Olsen, premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 22, 2012.[11] Radnor appeared in the Broadway production of Disgraced, which opened October 23, 2014 at the Lyceum Theatre.[12][13]
In October 2016, Radnor also confirmed he is in a band, Radnor and Lee, with Australian musician Ben Lee. Their debut album, Radnor & Lee will be released on 10th november 2017.[14]. He is set to direct the sci-fi thriller film The Leaves.[15]
Personal life[edit]
In 2008, Radnor told the Los Angeles Times, "I do Transcendental Meditation, and part of the reason I chose my house is that I thought it would be a great place to meditate."[16]
Radnor is an avid Cloud Cult fan. He collaborated with the band to make the film The Seeker in 2016. Radnor explained, "What's true for me about a lot of music, but especially true for Cloud Cult's music, is that it stirs up the thing that's already in you and calls it out. If this film is able to do that, I'll sleep well at night."[17]
Radnor is a registered Democrat.[18]
He is active on social media, and publishes a newsletter called Museletter from time to time in which he talks about his inspiration. Anybody can subscribe to receive his letter at http://joshradnor.instapage.com/
Filmography[edit]
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2001 Not Another Teen Movie Tour Guide
2008 The Negotiating Table WGA Negotiator Short film
2010 Happythankyoumoreplease Sam Wexler Also director and writer
2012 Liberal Arts Jesse Fisher Also director and writer
2013 Afternoon Delight Jeff Boyardee
2013 The Galapagos Affair: Satan Came to Eden John Garth (voice) Documentary
2016 The Seeker Father
2017 F*cking People In post-production
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2000 Welcome to New York Doug Episode: "The Crier"
2002 Law & Order Robert Kitson Episode: "Access Nation"
2002 The Court Dylan Hirsch 3 episodes
2003 ER Keith Episode: "The Advocate"
2003 Six Feet Under Will Jaffe Episode: "The Trap"
2003 Miss Match Andrew Gilbert Episode: "I Got You Babe"
2005 Judging Amy Justin Barr Episode: "Too Little, Too Late"
2005–2014 How I Met Your Mother Ted Mosby 208 episodes
2007–2009 Family Guy Ted Mosby (voice) 2 episodes
2016–2017 Mercy Street Dr. Jedediah Foster 12 episodes
2018 Rise Lou Mazzuchelli Upcoming series
Music videos[edit]
Year
Title
Artist
Notes
2016 "Let Me Be Your Girl" Rachael Yamagata Director[19]
Stage[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Location
2002 The Graduate Benjamin Braddock Plymouth Theatre[20]
2004 The Paris Letter Sam Arlen / Young Sandy Kirk Douglas Theater
2011 She Loves Me Georg Nowack Roundabout Theatre Company[20]
2014–2015 Disgraced Isaac Lyceum Theatre
2016 The Babylon Line Aaron Port Lincoln Center
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Work
Award
Result
2010 Happythankyoumoreplease Sundance Film Festival Audience Award Won
2010 Sundance Film Festival Grand Jury Award Nominated
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "2012 Sundance Film Festival".
^ Jump up to: a b Spence, Rebecca (March 12, 2008). "Radnor: Not Your Average TV Star". The Jewish Daily Forward. Retrieved March 13, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Josh Radnor on Talmud and 'Liberal Arts'". Forward.com. September 13, 2012. Retrieved November 14, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Josh Radnor: Heart versus head - 'its a big theme of my life'". The Jewish Chronicle. October 4, 2012. Retrieved November 14, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Josh Radnor: How I Met Your Mother on CBS". CBS.com.
Jump up ^ "NYU Graduate Acting Alumni". Retrieved December 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Josh Radnor Biography". TV.com. Retrieved September 19, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Theater Review: The Paris Letter". The New York Times. December 16, 2004.
Jump up ^ Cotter, James (July 26, 2008). "article". Times Herald. Archived from the original on February 2, 2009.
Jump up ^ Angelo, Megan (February 27, 2011). "How I Met Your City, the Real One". The New York Times'.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (March 23, 2011). "Josh Radnor, Elizabeth Olsen Teaming for Indie 'Liberal Arts' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ Sobel, Jon (June 10, 2014). "Josh Radnor to Appear in Pulitzer Winner 'Disgraced' on Broadway This Fall". Classicalite.com.
Jump up ^ "'Disgraced' Broadway". Playbill. Retrieved July 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ Murphy, Sam (August 19, 2017). "Josh Radnor From 'How I Met Your Mother' And Ben Lee Continue Bromance With New Song". Music Feeds.
Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (June 21, 2016). "'How I Met Your Mother' Star Josh Radnor Directing Sci-Fi Drama 'The Leaves'". Variety.
Jump up ^ Sachs, Mark. "Plenty of spots to meet". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved April 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ "» Cloud Cult Made a Gorgeous One-Hour Movie with Josh Radnor". Paste. April 2016. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.starpulse.com/interview-how-i-met-josh-radnor-1847878772.html
Jump up ^ Nicole Evatt (October 10, 2016). "Allison Janney clowns around in Rachael Yamagata's new video". The Salt Lake Tribune. Retrieved October 12, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Josh Radnor". Internet Broadway Database. Retrieved January 11, 2012.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Josh Radnor.
Josh Radnor on IMDb
Josh Radnor at the Internet Broadway Database
Josh Radnor Bio at CBS – How I Met Your Mother
Interview with Radnor at Starpulse.com
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VIAF: 163963201
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SUDOC: 126039135
MusicBrainz: 8af7fcc2-7984-4856-a711-110d9337c9b8
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Josh_Radnor&oldid=806315162"
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Metre (poetry)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In poetry, metre is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse. Many traditional verse forms prescribe a specific verse metre, or a certain set of metres alternating in a particular order. The study and the actual use of metres and forms of versification are both known as prosody. (Within linguistics, "prosody" is used in a more general sense that includes not only poetic metre but also the rhythmic aspects of prose, whether formal or informal, that vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic traditions.)
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics
1.1 Qualitative versus quantitative metre
1.2 Feet
1.2.1 Classification
1.3 Caesura
1.4 Enjambment
1.5 Metric variations
2 In various languages
2.1 Sanskrit
2.2 Greek and Latin
2.3 Classical Arabic
2.3.1 The Arabic metres
2.4 Classical Persian
2.5 Classical Chinese
2.6 Old English
2.7 Modern English
2.7.1 Metrical systems
2.7.2 Frequently-used metres
2.8 French
2.9 Spanish
2.10 Italian
2.11 Turkish
2.12 Ottoman Turkish
2.13 Portuguese
3 History
4 Dissent
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
Characteristics[edit]
An assortment of features can be identified when classifying poetry and its metre.
Qualitative versus quantitative metre[edit]
The metre of most poetry of the Western world and elsewhere is based on patterns of syllables of particular types. The familiar type of metre in English-language poetry is called qualitative metre, with stressed syllables coming at regular intervals (e.g. in iambic pentameters, usually every even-numbered syllable). Many Romance languages use a scheme that is somewhat similar but where the position of only one particular stressed syllable (e.g. the last) needs to be fixed. The metre of the old Germanic poetry of languages such as Old Norse and Old English was radically different, but was still based on stress patterns.
Some classical languages, in contrast, used a different scheme known as quantitative metre, where patterns were based on syllable weight rather than stress. In the dactylic hexameters of Classical Latin and Classical Greek, for example, each of the six feet making up the line was either a dactyl (long-short-short) or a spondee (long-long): a "long syllable" was literally one that took longer to pronounce than a short syllable: specifically, a syllable consisting of a long vowel or diphthong or followed by two consonants. The stress pattern of the words made no difference to the metre. A number of other ancient languages also used quantitative metre, such as Sanskrit and Classical Arabic (but not Biblical Hebrew).
Finally, non-stressed languages that have little or no differentiation of syllable length, such as French or Chinese, base their verses on the number of syllables only. The most common form in French is the Alexandrine, with twelve syllables a verse, and in classical Chinese five characters, and thus five syllables. But since each Chinese character is pronounced using one syllable in a certain tone, classical Chinese poetry also had more strictly defined rules, such as parallelism or antithesis between lines.
Feet[edit]
In many Western classical poetic traditions, the metre of a verse can be described as a sequence of feet,[1] each foot being a specific sequence of syllable types — such as relatively unstressed/stressed (the norm for English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical Latin and Greek poetry).
Iambic pentameter, a common metre in English poetry, is based on a sequence of five iambic feet or iambs, each consisting of a relatively unstressed syllable (here represented with "×" above the syllable) followed by a relatively stressed one (here represented with "/" above the syllable) — "da-DUM" = "× /" :
 ×  /   ×   /   ×    /      ×  /     ×   /
So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,
 ×  /    ×      /   ×     /   ×     /    ×   /
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

This approach to analyzing and classifying metres originates from Ancient Greek tragedians and poets such as Homer, Pindar, Hesiod, and Sappho.
However some metres have an overall rhythmic pattern to the line that cannot easily be described using feet. This occurs in Sanskrit poetry; see Vedic metre and Sanskrit metre. (Although this poetry is in fact specified using feet, each "foot" is more or less equivalent to an entire line.) It also occurs in some Western metres, such as the hendecasyllable favoured by Catullus and Martial, which can be described as:
x x — ∪ ∪ — ∪ — ∪ — —
(where "—" = long, "∪" = short, and "x x" can be realized as "— ∪" or "— —" or "∪ —")
Classification[edit]
Foot type
Style
Stress pattern
Syllable count
Iamb Iambic Unstressed + Stressed Two
Trochee Trochaic Stressed + Unstressed Two
Spondee Spondaic Stressed + Stressed Two
Anapest or anapaest Anapestic Unstressed + Unstressed + Stressed Three
Dactyl Dactylic Stressed + Unstressed + Unstressed Three
Amphibrach Amphibrachic Unstressed + Stressed + Unstressed Three
Pyrrhic Pyrrhic Unstressed + Unstressed Two
[1]
If the line has only one foot, it is called a monometer; two feet, dimeter; three is trimeter; four is tetrameter; five is pentameter; six is hexameter, seven is heptameter and eight is octameter. For example, if the feet are iambs, and if there are five feet to a line, then it is called a iambic pentameter.[1] If the feet are primarily dactyls and there are six to a line, then it is a dactylic hexameter.[1]
Caesura[edit]
Sometimes a natural pause occurs in the middle of a line rather than at a line-break. This is a caesura (cut). A good example is from The Winter's Tale by William Shakespeare; the caesurae are indicated by '/':
It is for you we speak, / not for ourselves:
You are abused / and by some putter-on
That will be damn'd for't; / would I knew the villain,
I would land-damn him. / Be she honour-flaw'd,
I have three daughters; / the eldest is eleven
In Latin and Greek poetry, a caesura is a break within a foot caused by the end of a word.
Each line of traditional Germanic alliterative verse is divided into two half-lines by a caesura. This can be seen in Piers Plowman:
A fair feeld ful of folk / fond I ther bitwene—
Of alle manere of men / the meene and the riche,
Werchynge and wandrynge / as the world asketh.
Somme putten hem to the plough / pleiden ful selde,
In settynge and sowynge / swonken ful harde,
And wonnen that thise wastours / with glotonye destruyeth.
Enjambment[edit]
Main article: Enjambment
By contrast with caesura, enjambment is incomplete syntax at the end of a line; the meaning runs over from one poetic line to the next, without terminal punctuation. Also from Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale:
I am not prone to weeping, as our sex
Commonly are; the want of which vain dew
Perchance shall dry your pities; but I have
That honourable grief lodged here which burns
Worse than tears drown.
Metric variations[edit]
Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines that violate that pattern. A common variation is the inversion of a foot, which turns an iamb ("da-DUM") into a trochee ("DUM-da"). Another common variation is a headless verse, which lacks the first syllable of the first foot. Yet a third variation is catalexis, where the end of a line is shortened by a foot, or two or part thereof - an example of this is at the end of each verse in Keats' 'La Belle Dame sans Merci':
And on thy cheeks a fading rose (4 feet)
Fast withereth too (2 feet)
In various languages[edit]
Sanskrit[edit]
Main articles: Sanskrit prosody and Vedic metre
Versification in Classical Sanskrit poetry is of three kinds.
Syllabic verse (akṣaravṛtta): metres depend on the number of syllables in a verse, with relative freedom in the distribution of light and heavy syllables. This style is derived from older Vedic forms, and found in the great epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
Syllabo-quantitative verse (varṇavṛtta): metres depend on syllable count, but the light-heavy patterns are fixed.
Quantitative verse (mātrāvṛtta): metres depend on duration, where each verse-line has a fixed number of morae, usually grouped in sets of four.
Standard traditional works on metre are Pingala's Chandaḥśāstra and Kedāra's Vṛttaratnākara. The most exhaustive compilations, such as the modern ones by Patwardhan and Velankar contain over 600 metres. This is a substantially larger repertoire than in any other metrical tradition.
Greek and Latin[edit]
Main article: Prosody (Latin)
Further information: Prosody (Greek)
The metrical "feet" in the classical languages were based on the length of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized according to their weight as either "long" syllables or "short" syllables (indicated as dum and di below). These are also called "heavy" and "light" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long and short vowels. The foot is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes. In English poetry, feet are determined by emphasis rather than length, with stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and short syllables in classical metre.
The basic unit in Greek and Latin prosody is a mora, which is defined as a single short syllable. A long syllable is equivalent to two morae. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, a diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants. Various rules of elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable from making a full syllable, and certain other lengthening and shortening rules (such as correption) can create long or short syllables in contexts where one would expect the opposite.
The most important Classical metre is the dactylic hexameter, the metre of Homer and Virgil. This form uses verses of six feet. The word dactyl comes from the Greek word daktylos meaning finger, since there is one long part followed by two short stretches.[2] The first four feet are dactyls (daa-duh-duh), but can be spondees (daa-daa). The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl. The sixth foot is either a spondee or a trochee (daa-duh). The initial syllable of either foot is called the ictus, the basic "beat" of the verse. There is usually a caesura after the ictus of the third foot. The opening line of the Æneid is a typical line of dactylic hexameter:
Armă vĭ | rumquĕ că | nō, Troi | ae quī | prīmŭs ăb | ōrīs
("I sing of arms and the man, who first from the shores of Troy...")
In this example, the first and second feet are dactyls; their first syllables, "Ar" and "rum" respectively, contain short vowels, but count as long because the vowels are both followed by two consonants. The third and fourth feet are spondees, the first of which is divided by the main caesura of the verse. The fifth foot is a dactyl, as is nearly always the case. The final foot is a spondee.
The dactylic hexameter was imitated in English by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his poem Evangeline:
This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks,
Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight,
Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic,
Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms.
Notice how the first line:
This is the | for-est pri | me-val. The | mur-muring | pines and the | hem-locks
Follows this pattern:
dum diddy | dum diddy | dum diddy | dum diddy | dum diddy | dum dum
Also important in Greek and Latin poetry is the dactylic pentameter. This was a line of verse, made up of two equal parts, each of which contains two dactyls followed by a long syllable, which counts as a half foot. In this way, the number of feet amounts to five in total. Spondees can take the place of the dactyls in the first half, but never in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word, giving rise to a caesura.
Dactylic pentameter is never used in isolation. Rather, a line of dactylic pentameter follows a line of dactylic hexameter in the elegiac distich or elegiac couplet, a form of verse that was used for the composition of elegies and other tragic and solemn verse in the Greek and Latin world, as well as love poetry that was sometimes light and cheerful. An example from Ovid's Tristia:
Vergĭlĭ | um vī | dī tan | tum, nĕc ă | māră Tĭ | bullō
Tempŭs ă | mīcĭtĭ | ae || fātă dĕ | dērĕ mĕ | ae.
("Virgil I merely saw, and the harsh Fates gave Tibullus no time for my friendship.")
The Greeks and Romans also used a number of lyric metres, which were typically used for shorter poems than elegiacs or hexameter. In Aeolic verse, one important line was called the hendecasyllabic, a line of eleven syllables. This metre was used most often in the Sapphic stanza, named after the Greek poet Sappho, who wrote many of her poems in the form. A hendecasyllabic is a line with a never-varying structure: two trochees, followed by a dactyl, then two more trochees. In the Sapphic stanza, three hendecasyllabics are followed by an "Adonic" line, made up of a dactyl and a trochee. This is the form of Catullus 51 (itself an homage to Sappho 31):
Illĕ mī pār essĕ dĕō vĭdētur;
illĕ, sī fās est, sŭpĕrārĕ dīvōs,
quī sĕdēns adversŭs ĭdentĭdem tē
spectăt ĕt audit
("He seems to me to be like a god; if it is permitted, he seems above the gods, who sitting across from you gazes at you and hears you again and again.")
The Sapphic stanza was imitated in English by Algernon Charles Swinburne in a poem he simply called Sapphics:
Saw the white implacable Aphrodite,
Saw the hair unbound and the feet unsandalled
Shine as fire of sunset on western waters;
Saw the reluctant...
Classical Arabic[edit]
See also: Arabic prosody
The metrical system of Classical Arabic poetry, like those of classical Greek and Latin, is based on the weight of syllables classified as either "long" or "short". The basic principles of Arabic poetic metre Arūḍ or Arud (Arabic: العروض al-ʿarūḍ) Science of Poetry (Arabic: علم الشعر ʿilm aš-šiʿr), were put forward by Al-Farahidi (786 - 718 AD) who did so after noticing that poems consisted of repeated syllables in each verse. In his first book, Al-Ard (Arabic: العرض al-ʿarḍ), he described 15 types of verse. Al-Akhfash described one extra, the 16th.
A short syllable contains a short vowel with no following consonants. For example, the word kataba, which syllabifies as ka-ta-ba, contains three short vowels and is made up of three short syllables. A long syllable contains either a long vowel or a short vowel followed by a consonant as is the case in the word maktūbun which syllabifies as mak-tū-bun. These are the only syllable types possible in Classical Arabic phonology which, by and large, does not allow a syllable to end in more than one consonant or a consonant to occur in the same syllable after a long vowel. In other words, syllables of the type -āk- or -akr- are not found in classical Arabic.
Each verse consists of a certain number of metrical feet (tafāʿīl or ʾaǧzāʾ) and a certain combination of possible feet constitutes a metre (baḥr).
The traditional Arabic practice for writing out a poem's metre is to use a concatenation of various derivations of the verbal root F-ʿ-L (فعل). Thus, the following hemistich
قفا نبك من ذكرى حبيبٍ ومنزلِ
Would be traditionally scanned as:
فعولن مفاعيلن فعولن مفاعلن
That is, Romanized and with traditional Western scansion:
Western: u – – u – – – u – – u – u – Verse: Qifā nabki min ḏikrā ḥabībin wa-manzili Mnemonic: fa`ūlun mafā`īlun fa`ūlun mafā`ilun

The Arabic metres[edit]
Main article: Arabic prosody
Classical Arabic has sixteen established metres. Though each of them allows for a certain amount of variation, their basic patterns are as follows, using:
"–" for 1 long syllable
"u" for 1 short syllable
"x" for a position that can contain 1 long or 1 short
"o" for a position that can contain 1 long or 2 shorts
"S" for a position that can contain 1 long, 2 shorts, or 1 long + 1 short
Circle
Name
(Romanized)
Name
(Arabic)
Scansion
Mnemonic
1 Ṭawīl الطويل u – x u – x – u – x u – u – فعولن مفاعيلن فعولن مفاعلن
1 Madīd المديد x u – – x u – x u – – فاعلاتن فاعلن فاعلاتن
1 Basīṭ البسيط x – u – x u – x – u – u u – مستفعلن فاعلن مستفعلن فعلن
2 Kāmil الكامل o – u – o – u – o – u – متفاعلن متفاعلن متفاعلن
2 Wāfir الوافر u – o – u – o – u – – مفاعلتن مفاعلتن فعولن
3 Hazaj الهزج u – – x u – – x مفاعيلن مفاعيلن
3 Rajaz الرجز x – u – x – u – x – u – مستفعلن مستفعلن مستفعلن
3 Ramal الرمل x u – – x u – – x u – فاعلاتن فاعلاتن فاعلن
4 Sarī` السريع x x u – x x u – – u – مستفعلن مستفعلن فاعلن
4 Munsariħ المنسرح x – u – – x – u – u u – مستفعلن فاعلاتُ مستفعلن
4 Khafīf الخفيف x u – x – – u – x u – x فاعلاتن مستفعلن فاعلاتن
4 Muḍāri` المضارع u – x x – u – – مفاعلن فاعلاتن
4 Muqtaḍab المقتضب x u – u – u u – فاعلاتُ مفتعلن
4 Mujtathth المجتث x – u – x u – – مستفعلن فاعلاتن
5 Mutadārik المتدارك S – S – S – فاعلن فاعلن فاعلن فاعلن
5 Mutaqārib المتقارب u – x u – x u – x u – فعولن فعولن فعولن فعول
Classical Persian[edit]
Further information: Persian metres
The terminology for metrical system used in classical and classical-style Persian poetry is the same as that of Classical Arabic, even though these are quite different in both origin and structure. This has led to serious confusion among prosodists, both ancient and modern, as to the true source and nature of the Persian meters, the most obvious error being the assumption that they were copied from Arabic.[3]
Persian poetry is quantitative, and the metrical patterns are made of long and short syllables, much as in Classical Greek, Latin and Arabic. Anceps positions in the line, however, that is places where either a long or short syllable can be used (marked "x" in the schemes below), are not found in Persian verse except in some metres at the beginning of a line.
Persian poetry is written in couplets, with each half-line (hemistich) being 10-14 syllables long. Except in the ruba'i (quatrain), where either of two very similar metres may be used, the same metre is used for every line in the poem. Rhyme is always used, sometimes with double rhyme or internal rhymes in addition. In some poems, known as masnavi, the two halves of each couplet rhyme, with a scheme aa, bb, cc and so on. In lyric poetry, the same rhyme is used throughout the poem at the end of each couplet, but except in the opening couplet, the two halves of each couplet do not rhyme; hence the scheme is aa, ba, ca, da. A ruba'i (quatrain) also usually has the rhyme aa, ba.
A particular feature of classical Persian prosody, not found in Latin, Greek or Arabic, is that instead of two lengths of syllables (long and short), there are three lengths (short, long, and overlong). Overlong syllables can be used anywhere in the line in place of a long + a short, or in the final position in a line or half line.[4][5] When a metre has a pair of short syllables (u u), it is common for a long syllable to be substituted, especially at the end of a line or half-line.
About 30 different metres are commonly used in Persian. 70% of lyric poems are written in one of the following seven metres:[6]
u – u – u u – – u – u – u u –
– – u – u – u u – – u – u –
– u – – – u – – – u – – – u –
x u – – u u – – u u – – u u –
x u – – u – u – u u –
u – – – u – – – u – – – u – – –
– – u u – – u u – – u u – –
Masnavi poems (that is, long poems in rhyming couplets) are always written in one of the shorter 11 or 10-syllable metres (traditionally seven in number) such as the following:
u – – u – – u – – u – (e.g. Ferdowsi's Shahnameh)
u – – – u – – – u – – (e.g. Gorgani's Vis o Ramin)
– u – – – u – – – u – (e.g. Rumi's Masnavi-e Ma'navi)
– – u u – u – u – – (e.g. Nezami's Leyli o Majnun)
The two metres used for ruba'iyat (quatrains), which are only used for this, are the following, of which the second is a variant of the first:
– – u u – – u u – – u u –
– – u u – u – u – – u u –
Classical Chinese[edit]
Main article: Classical Chinese poetry forms
Classical Chinese poetic metric may be divided into fixed and variable length line types, although the actual scansion of the metre is complicated by various factors, including linguistic changes and variations encountered in dealing with a tradition extending over a geographically extensive regional area for a continuous time period of over some two-and-a-half millennia. Beginning with the earlier recorded forms: the Classic of Poetry tends toward couplets of four-character lines, grouped in rhymed quatrains; and, the Chuci follows this to some extent, but moves toward variations in line length. Han Dynasty poetry tended towards the variable line-length forms of the folk ballads and the Music Bureau yuefu. Jian'an poetry, Six Dynasties poetry, and Tang Dynasty poetry tend towards a poetic metre based on fixed-length lines of five, seven, (or, more rarely six) characters/verbal units tended to predominate, generally in couplet/quatrain-based forms, of various total verse lengths. The Song poetry is specially known for its use of the ci, using variable line lengths which follow the specific pattern of a certain musical song's lyrics, thus ci are sometimes referred to as "fixed-rhythm" forms. Yuan poetry metres continued this practice with their qu forms, similarly fixed-rhythm forms based on now obscure or perhaps completely lost original examples (or, ur-types). Not that Classical Chinese poetry ever lost the use of the shi forms, with their metrical patterns found in the "old style poetry" (gushi) and the regulated verse forms of (lüshi or jintishi). The regulated verse forms also prescribed patterns based upon linguistic tonality. The use of caesura is important in regard to the metrical analysis of Classical Chinese poetry forms.
Old English[edit]
The metric system of Old English poetry was different from that of modern English, and related more to the verse forms of most of the older Germanic languages such as Old Norse. It used alliterative verse, a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number (usually four) of strong stresses in each line. The unstressed syllables were relatively unimportant, but the caesurae (breaks between the half-lines) played a major role in Old English poetry.[7]
In place of using feet, alliterative verse divided each line into two half-lines. Each half-line had to follow one of five or so patterns, each of which defined a sequence of stressed and unstressed syllables, typically with two stressed syllables per half line. Unlike typical Western poetry, however, the number of unstressed syllables could vary somewhat. For example, the common pattern "DUM-da-DUM-da" could allow between one and five unstressed syllables between the two stresses.
The following is a famous example, taken from The Battle of Maldon, a poem written shortly after the date of that battle (AD 991):
Hige sceal þe heardra, || heorte þe cēnre,
mōd sceal þe māre, || swā ūre mægen lȳtlað

("Will must be the harder, courage the bolder,
spirit must be the more, as our might lessens.")
In the quoted section, the stressed syllables have been underlined. (Normally, the stressed syllable must be long if followed by another syllable in a word. However, by a rule known as syllable resolution, two short syllables in a single word are considered equal to a single long syllable. Hence, sometimes two syllables have been underlined, as in hige and mægen.) The German philologist Eduard Sievers (died 1932) identified five different patterns of half-line in Anglo-Saxon alliterative poetry. The first three half-lines have the type A pattern "DUM-da-(da-)DUM-da", while the last one has the type C pattern "da-(da-da-)DUM-DUM-da", with parentheses indicating optional unstressed syllables that have been inserted. Note also the pervasive pattern of alliteration, where the first and/or second stressed syllables alliterate with the third, but not with the fourth.
Modern English[edit]
Most English metre is classified according to the same system as Classical metre with an important difference. English is an accentual language, and therefore beats and offbeats (stressed and unstressed syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical systems. In most English verse, the metre can be considered as a sort of back beat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively. The most common characteristic feet of English verse are the iamb in two syllables and the anapest in three. (See Foot (prosody) for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names.)
Metrical systems[edit]
The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon.[8] The four major types[9] are: accentual verse, accentual-syllabic verse, syllabic verse and quantitative verse.[10] The alliterative verse of Old English could also be added to this list, or included as a special type of accentual verse. Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables; accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse is often considered alien to English).[11] It is to be noted, however, that the use of foreign metres in English is all but exceptional.[12]
Frequently-used metres[edit]
The most frequently encountered metre of English verse is the iambic pentameter, in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic variations practically inexhaustible. John Milton's Paradise Lost, most sonnets, and much else besides in English are written in iambic pentameter. Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly known as blank verse.[13] Blank verse in the English language is most famously represented in the plays of William Shakespeare and the great works of Milton, though Tennyson (Ulysses, The Princess) and Wordsworth (The Prelude) also make notable use of it.
A rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter make a heroic couplet,[14] a verse form which was used so often in the 18th century that it is now used mostly for humorous effect (although see Pale Fire for a non-trivial case). The most famous writers of heroic couplets are Dryden and Pope.
Another important metre in English is the ballad metre, also called the "common metre", which is a four-line stanza, with two pairs of a line of iambic tetrameter followed by a line of iambic trimeter; the rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter, although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes. This is the metre of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads. In hymnody it is called the "common metre", as it is the most common of the named hymn metres used to pair many hymn lyrics with melodies, such as Amazing Grace:[15]
Amazing Grace! how sweet the sound
That saved a wretch like me;
I once was lost, but now am found;
Was blind, but now I see.
Emily Dickinson is famous for her frequent use of ballad metre:
Great streets of silence led away
To neighborhoods of pause —
Here was no notice — no dissent —
No universe — no laws.
French[edit]
In French poetry, metre is determined solely by the number of syllables in a line. A silent 'e' counts as a syllable before a consonant, but is elided before a vowel (where h aspiré counts as a consonant). At the end of a line, the "e" remains unelided but is hypermetrical (outside the count of syllables, like a feminine ending in English verse), in that case, the rhyme is also called "feminine", whereas it is called "masculine" in the other cases.
The most frequently encountered metre in Classical French poetry is the alexandrine, composed of two hemistiches of six syllables each. Two famous alexandrines are
La fille de Minos et de Pasiphaë
(Jean Racine)
(the daughter of Minos and Pasiphae), and
Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Morne plaine!
(Victor Hugo)
(Waterloo! Waterloo! Waterloo! Gloomy plain!)
Classical French poetry also had a complex set of rules for rhymes that goes beyond how words merely sound. These are usually taken into account when describing the metre of a poem.
Spanish[edit]
In Spanish poetry the metre is determined by the number of syllables the verse has. Still it is the phonetic accent in the last word of the verse that decides the final count of the line. If the accent of the final word is at the last syllable, then the poetic rule states that one syllable shall be added to the actual count of syllables in the said line, thus having a higher number of poetic syllables than the number of grammatical syllables. If the accent lies on the second to last syllable of the last word in the verse, then the final count of poetic syllables will be the same as the grammatical number of syllables. Furthermore, if the accent lies on the third to last syllable, then one syllable is subtracted from the actual count, having then less poetic syllables than grammatical syllables.
Spanish poetry uses poetic licenses, unique to Romance languages, to change the number of syllables by manipulating mainly the vowels in the line.
Regarding these poetic licenses one must consider three kinds of phenomena: (1) syneresis, (2) dieresis and (3) hiatus
Syneresis. A diphthong is made from two consecutive vowels in a word which do not normally form one: poe-ta, leal-tad instead of the standard po-e-ta ('poet'), le-al-tad ('loyalty').
Dieresis. The opposite of syneresis. A syllable break is inserted between two vowels which usually make a diphthong, thus eliminating it: ru-i-do, ci-e-lo for the standard rui-do ('noise'), cie-lo ('sky' or 'heaven'). This is sometimes marked by placing a dieresis sign over the vowel which would otherwise be the weak one in the diphthong: rüido, cïelo.
Synalepha (Spanish sinalefa). The final vowel of a word and the initial one of the next are pronounced in one syllable. For example:
Cuando salí de Collores,
fue en una jaquita baya,
por un sendero entre mayas,
arropás de cundiamores...
This stanza from Valle de Collores by Luis Lloréns Torres, uses eight poetic syllables. Given that all words at the end of each line have their phonetic accent on the second to last syllables, no syllables in the final count are added or subtracted. Still, in the second and third verse the grammatical count of syllables is nine. Poetic licenses permit the union of two vowels that are next to each other but in different syllables and count them as one. "Fue en..." has actually two syllables, but applying this license both vowels unite and form only one, giving the final count of eight syllables. "Sendero entre..." has five grammatical syllables, but uniting the "o" from "sendero" and the first "e" from "entre", gives only four syllables, permitting it to have eight syllables in the verse as well.
Hiatus. It is the opposite phenomenon to synalepha. Two neighboring vowels in different words are kept in separate syllables: ca-be-llo - de - án-gel, with six poetic syllables, instead of the more common ca-be-llo - de ͜ án-gel, with five.
There are many types of licenses, used either to add or subtract syllables, that may be applied when needed after taking in consideration the poetic rules of the last word. Yet all have in common that they only manipulate vowels that are close to each other and not interrupted by consonants.
Some common metres in Spanish verse are:
Septenary: A line with seven poetic syllables
Octosyllable: A line with eight poetic syllables. This metre is commonly used in romances, narrative poems similar to English ballads, and in most proverbs.
Hendecasyllable: A line with eleven poetic syllables. This metre plays a similar role to pentameter in English verse. It is commonly used in sonnets, among other things.
Alexandrine: A line consisting of fourteen syllables, commonly separated by two hemistiches of seven syllables each (In Anglo-Saxon or French contexts this term refers to twelve syllable lines, but not in the Spanish context).
Italian[edit]
In Italian poetry, metre is determined solely by the position of the last accent in a line, the position of the other accents being however important for verse equilibrium. Syllables are enumerated with respect to a verse which ends with a paroxytone, so that a Septenary (having seven syllables) is defined as a verse whose last accent falls on the sixth syllable: it may so contain eight syllables (Ei fu. Siccome immobile) or just six (la terra al nunzio sta). Moreover, when a word ends with a vowel and the next one starts with a vowel, they are considered to be in the same syllable (synalepha): so Gli anni e i giorni consists of only four syllables ("Gli an" "ni e i" "gior" "ni"). Even-syllabic verses have a fixed stress pattern. Because of the mostly trochaic nature of the Italian language, verses with an even number of syllables are far easier to compose, and the Novenary is usually regarded as the most difficult verse.
Some common metres in Italian verse are:
Sexenary: A line whose last stressed syllable is on the fifth, with a fixed stress on the second one as well (Al Re Travicello / Piovuto ai ranocchi, Giusti)
Septenary: A line whose last stressed syllable is the sixth one.
Octosyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the seventh syllable. More often than not, the secondary accents fall on the first, third and fifth syllable, especially in nursery rhymes for which this metre is particularly well-suited.
Hendecasyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the tenth syllable. It therefore usually consists of eleven syllables; there are various kinds of possible accentuations. It is used in sonnets, in ottava rima, and in many other types of poetry. The Divine Comedy, in particular, is composed entirely of hendecasyllables, whose main stress pattern is on the 4th and 10th syllable.[citation needed]
Turkish[edit]
Apart from Ottoman poetry, which was heavily influenced by Persian traditions[16] and created a unique Ottoman style, traditional Turkish poetry features a system in which the number of syllables in each verse must be the same, most frequently 7, 8, 11, 14 syllables. These verses are then divided into syllable groups depending on the number of total syllables in a verse: 4+3 for 7 syllables, 4+4 or 5+3 for 8, 4+4+3 or 6+5 for 11 syllables. The end of each group in a verse is called a "durak" (stop), and must coincide with the last syllable of a word.
The following example is by Faruk Nafiz Çamlıbel (died 1973), one of the most devoted users of traditional Turkish metre:
Derinden derine ırmaklar ağlar,
Uzaktan uzağa çoban çeşmesi.
Ey suyun sesinden anlayan bağlar,
Ne söyler şu dağa çoban çeşmesi?
In this poem the 6+5 metre is used, so that there is a word-break (durak = "stop" or caesura) after the sixth syllable of every line, as well as at the end of each line.
Ottoman Turkish[edit]
In the Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot (تفعل tef'ile) and of poetic metre (وزن vezin) were imitated from Persian poetry. About twelve of the commonest Persian metres were used for writing Turkish poetry. As was the case with Persian, no use at all was made of the commonest metres of Arabic poetry (the tawīl, basīt, kāmil, and wāfir).[17] However, the terminology used to described the metres was indirectly borrowed from the Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of the Persian language.
As a result, Ottoman poetry, also known as Dîvân poetry, was generally written in quantitative, mora-timed metre. The moras, or syllables, are divided into three basic types:
Open, or light, syllables (açık hece) consist of either a short vowel alone, or a consonant followed by a short vowel
Examples: a-dam ("man"); zir-ve ("summit, peak")
Closed, or heavy, syllables (kapalı hece) consist of either a long vowel alone, a consonant followed by a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by a consonant
Examples: Â-dem ("Adam"); kâ-fir ("non-Muslim"); at ("horse")
Lengthened, or superheavy, syllables (meddli hece) count as one closed plus one open syllable and consist of a vowel followed by a consonant cluster, or a long vowel followed by a consonant
Examples: kürk ("fur"); âb ("water")
In writing out a poem's poetic metre, open syllables are symbolized by "." and closed syllables are symbolized by "–". From the different syllable types, a total of sixteen different types of poetic foot—the majority of which are either three or four syllables in length—are constructed, which are named and scanned as follows:
fa‘ (–) fe ul (. –) fa‘ lün (– –) fe i lün (. . –)
fâ i lün (– . –) fe û lün (. – –) mef’ û lü (– – .) fe i lâ tün (. . – –)
fâ i lâ tün (– . – –) fâ i lâ tü (– . – .) me fâ i lün (. – . –) me fâ’ î lün (. – – –)
me fâ î lü (. – – .) müf te i lün (– . . –) müs tef i lün (– – . –) mü te fâ i lün (. . – . –)
These individual poetic feet are then combined in a number of different ways, most often with four feet per line, so as to give the poetic metre for a line of verse. Some of the most commonly used metres are the following:
me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün
. – – – / . – – – / . – – – / . – – –
Ezelden şāh-ı ‘aşḳuñ bende-i fermānıyüz cānā
Maḥabbet mülkinüñ sulţān-ı ‘ālī-şānıyüz cānā Oh beloved, since the origin we have been the slaves of the shah of love
Oh beloved, we are the famed sultan of the heart's domain[18]
—Bâkî (1526–1600)
me fâ i lün / fe i lâ tün / me fâ i lün / fe i lün
. – . – / . . – – / . – . – / . . –
Ḥaţā’ o nerkis-i şehlādadır sözümde degil
Egerçi her süḥanim bī-bedel beġendiremem Though I may fail to please with my matchless verse
The fault lies in those languid eyes and not my words
—Şeyh Gâlib (1757–1799)
fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lün
– . – – / – . – – / – . – – / – . –
Bir şeker ḥand ile bezm-i şevķa cām ettiñ beni
Nīm ṣun peymāneyi sāḳī tamām ettiñ beni At the gathering of desire you made me a wine-cup with your sugar smile
Oh saki, give me only half a cup of wine, you've made me drunk enough[19]
—Nedîm (1681?–1730)
fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lün
. . – – / . . – – / . . – – / . . –
Men ne ḥācet ki ḳılam derd-i dilüm yāra ‘ayān
Ḳamu derd-i dilümi yār bilübdür bilübem What use in revealing my sickness of heart to my love
I know my love knows the whole of my sickness of heart
—Fuzûlî (1483?–1556)
mef’ û lü / me fâ î lü / me fâ î lü / fâ û lün
– – . / . – – . / . – – . / – – .
Şevḳuz ki dem-i bülbül-i şeydāda nihānuz
Ḥūnuz ki dil-i ġonçe-i ḥamrāda nihānuz We are desire hidden in the love-crazed call of the nightingale
We are blood hidden in the crimson heart of the unbloomed rose[20]
—Neşâtî (?–1674)
Portuguese[edit]
Portuguese poetry uses a syllabic metre in which the verse is classified according to the last stressed syllable. The Portuguese system is quite similar to those of Spanish and Italian, as they are closely related languages. The most commonly used verses are:
Redondilha menor: composed of 5 syllables.
Redondilha maior: composed of 7 syllables.
Decasyllable (decassílabo): composed of 10 syllables. Mostly used in Parnassian sonnets. It is equivalent to the Italian hendecasyllable.
Heroic (heróico): stresses on the sixth and tenth syllables.
Sapphic (sáfico): stresses on the fourth, eighth and tenth syllables.
Martelo: stresses on the third, sixth and tenth syllables.
Gaita galega or moinheira: stresses on the fourth, seventh and tenth syllables.
Dodecasyllable (dodecassílabo): composed of 12 syllables.
Alexandrine (alexandrino): divided into two hemistiches, the sixth and the twelfth syllables are stressed.
Barbarian (bárbaro): composed of 13 or more syllables.
Lucasian (lucasiano): composed of 16 syllables, divided into two hemistiches of 8 syllables each.
History[edit]
Further information: History of poetry
Metrical texts are first attested in early Indo-European languages. The earliest known unambiguously metrical texts, and at the same time the only metrical texts with a claim of dating to the Late Bronze Age, are the hymns of the Rigveda. That the texts of the Ancient Near East (Sumerian, Egyptian or Semitic) should not exhibit metre is surprising, and may be partly due to the nature of Bronze Age writing.[citation needed] There were, in fact, attempts to reconstruct metrical qualities of the poetic portions of the Hebrew Bible, e.g. by Gustav Bickell[21] or Julius Ley,[22] but they remained inconclusive[23] (see Biblical poetry). Early Iron Age metrical poetry is found in the Iranian Avesta and in the Greek works attributed to Homer and Hesiod. Latin verse survives from the Old Latin period (c. 2nd century BC), in the Saturnian metre. Persian poetry[24] arises in the Sassanid era. Tamil poetry of the early centuries AD may be the earliest known non-Indo-European
Medieval poetry was metrical without exception, spanning traditions as diverse as European Minnesang, Trouvère or Bardic poetry, Classical Persian and Sanskrit poetry, Tang dynasty Chinese poetry or the Japanese Nara period Man'yōshū. Renaissance and Early Modern poetry in Europe is characterized by a return to templates of Classical Antiquity, a tradition begun by Petrarca's generation and continued into the time of Shakespeare and Milton.
Dissent[edit]
Not all poets accept the idea that metre is a fundamental part of poetry. 20th-century American poets Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams and Robinson Jeffers were poets who believed that metre was imposed upon poetry by man and not a fundamental part of its nature. In an essay titled "Robinson Jeffers, & The Metric Fallacy" Dan Schneider echoes Jeffers' sentiments: "What if someone actually said to you that all music was composed of just 2 notes? Or if someone claimed that there were just 2 colors in creation? Now, ponder if such a thing were true. Imagine the clunkiness & mechanicality of such music. Think of the visual arts devoid of not just color, but sepia tones, & even shades of gray." Jeffers called his technique "rolling stresses".
Moore went further than Jeffers, openly declaring her poetry was written in syllabic form, and wholly denying metre. These syllabic lines from her famous poem "Poetry" illustrate her contempt for metre and other poetic tools. Even the syllabic pattern of this poem does not remain perfectly consistent:
nor is it valid
to discriminate against "business documents and
school-books": all these phenomena are important. One must make a distinction
however: when dragged into prominence by half poets, the result is not poetry
Williams tried to form poetry whose subject matter was centered on the lives of common people. He came up with the concept of the variable foot. Williams spurned traditional metre in most of his poems, preferring what he called "colloquial idioms." Another poet that turned his back on traditional concepts of metre was Britain's Gerard Manley Hopkins. Hopkins' major innovation was what he called sprung rhythm. He claimed most poetry was written in this older rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of the English literary heritage,[citation needed] based on repeating groups of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition.[citation needed] Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot.
See also[edit]
Foot (prosody)
Generative metrics
Line (poetry)
List of classical metres
Metre (hymn)
Metre (music)
Scansion
Anisometric verse
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Michael J. Cummings (2006). "metre in Poetry and Verse: A Study Guide". Cummings Study Guides. Retrieved 2010-12-07. metre is determined by the type of foot and the number of feet in a line. Thus, a line with three iambic feet is known as iambic trimeter. A line with six dactylic feet is known as dactylic hexameter.
Jump up ^ Boyd, Barbara Weiden (2008). "Vergil's Aeneid". Bolchazy-Carducci. Retrieved 2010-12-07. Dactyl is one long two short syllables from dactyl, meaning "finger" (Greek: daktylos).
Jump up ^ Elwell-Sutton, L. P. "ʿARŪŻ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Elwell-Sutton, L.P. The Persian Metres (1976).
Jump up ^ Hayes, Bruce (1979) "The rhythmic sructure of Persian verse" Edebiyat 4:193-242, p.
Jump up ^ Elwell-Sutton (1976) The Persian Metres, p. 162.
Jump up ^ Hollander 1981, p. 22.
Jump up ^ Wallace, Robert (1993), Meter in English (essay) asserts that there is only one metre in English: Accentual-Syllabic. The essay is reprinted in Baker, David, ed. (1996), Meter in English, A Critical Engagement, University of Arkansas Press, ISBN 1-55728-444-X .
Jump up ^ Fussell, Paul (1979) [1965], Poetic metre and Poetic Form, McGraw Hill, ISBN 0-07-553606-4 .
Jump up ^ Hollander 1981, p. 5.
Jump up ^ Hartman, Charles O, Free Verse: An Essay on Prosody, Northwestern University Press, 1980, p. 34, ISBN 0-8101-1316-3, [quantitative metres] continue to resist importation in English .
Jump up ^ Malcovati, Leonardo (2006), Prosody in England and Elsewhere: A Comparative Approach, Gival Press, ISBN 1-928589-26-X, [very] little of it is native .
Jump up ^ Hollander 1981, p. 12.
Jump up ^ Hollander 1981, p. 15.
Jump up ^ The ballad metre commonality among a wide range of song lyrics allow words and music to be interchanged seamlessly between various songs, such as Amazing Grace, the Ballad of Gilligan's Isle, House of the Rising Sun, theme from the Mickey Mouse Club, and others.
Jump up ^ http://global.britannica.com/art/Turkish-literature
Jump up ^ Deo, Ashwini; Kiparsky, Paul (2011). "Poetries in Contact: Arabic, Persian, and Urdu". In Maria-Kristina Lotman and Mihhail Lotman ed. Proceedings of International Conference on Frontiers in Comparative Metrics, Estonia, pp. 147–173. (See p. 156 of the pdf).
Jump up ^ Andrews, p. 93.
Jump up ^ Andrews, p. 134.
Jump up ^ Andrews, p. 131.
Jump up ^ "Metrices biblicae regulae exemplis illustratae", 1879, "Carmina Vet. Test. metrice", 1882
Jump up ^ "Leitfaden der Metrik der hebräischen Poesie", 1887
Jump up ^ The Catholic Encyclopedia s.v. Hebrew Poetry of the Old Testament calls them 'Procrustean'.
Jump up ^ Fereydoon Motamed La Metrique Diatemporelle: Quantitative poetic metric analysis and pursuit of reasoning on aesthetics of linguistics and poetry in Indo-European languages.
References[edit]
Andrews, Walter G, Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology, ISBN 0-292-70472-0 .
Ciardi, John (1959), How Does a Poem Mean?, Houghton Mifflin, ASIN B002CCGG8O .
Deutsch, Babette (1957), Poetry Handbook, ISBN 978-0-06-463548-6 .
Hollander, John (1981), Rhyme’s Reason: A Guide to English Verse, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-02740-0 .
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metre_(poetry)&oldid=828939565"
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text:
Break key
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
"Pause button" redirects here. For the media control, see Media controls. For other uses, see Pause.
Break/Pause key on PC keyboard
The Break key of a computer keyboard refers to breaking a telegraph circuit and originated with 19th century practice. In modern usage, the key has no well-defined purpose, but while this is the case, it can be used by software for miscellaneous tasks, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection.
Because the break function is usually combined with the pause function on one key since the introduction of the IBM Model M 101-key keyboard in 1985, the Break key is also called the Pause key. It can be used to pause some computer games.
Contents
1 History
2 Sinclair
3 BBC Micro
4 Modern keyboards
5 Keyboards without Break key
6 Usage for breaking the program's execution
7 References
8 See also
History[edit]
A standard telegraph circuit connects all the keys, sounders and batteries in a single series loop. Thus the sounders actuate only when both keys are down (closed, also known as "marking" — after the ink marks made on paper tape by early printing telegraphs). So the receiving operator has to hold their key down or close a built-in shorting switch in order to let the other operator send. As a consequence, the receiving operator could interrupt the sending operator by opening their key, breaking the circuit and forcing it into a "spacing" condition. Both sounders stop responding to the sender's keying, alerting the sender. (A physical break in the telegraph line would have the same effect.)
The teleprinter operated in a very similar fashion except that the sending station kept the loop closed (logic 1, or "marking") even during short pauses between characters. Holding down a special "break" key opened the loop, forcing it into a continuous logic 0, or "spacing", condition. When this occurred, the teleprinter mechanisms continually actuated without printing anything, as the all-0s character is the non-printing NUL in both Baudot and ASCII. The resulting noise got the sending operator's attention.
This practice carried over to teleprinter use on time-sharing computers. A continuous spacing (logical 0) condition violates the rule that every valid character has to end with one or more logic 1 (marking) "stop" bits. The computer (specifically the UART) recognized this as a special "break" condition and generated an interrupt that typically stopped a running program or forced the operating system to prompt for a login. Although asynchronous serial telegraphy is now rare, the Break key once used with terminal emulators can still be used by software for similar purposes.
Sinclair[edit]
On the Sinclair ZX80 and ZX81 computers, the Break is accessed by pressing Space. On the Sinclair ZX Spectrum it is accessed by Caps Shift+Space. The Spectrum+ and later computers have a dedicated Break key. It does not trigger an interrupt but will halt any running BASIC program, or terminate the loading or saving of data to cassette tape. An interrupted BASIC program can usually be resumed with the CONTINUE command. The Sinclair QL computer, without a Break key, maps the function to Ctrl+Space.
BBC Micro[edit]
On a BBC Micro computer, the Break key generates a hardware reset which would normally cause a warm restart of the computer. A cold restart is triggered by pressing Ctrl+Break. If a filing system is installed, ⇧ Shift+Break will cause the computer to search for and load or run a file called !Boot on the filing system's default device (e.g. floppy disk 0, network user BOOT). The latter two behaviours were inherited by the successor to Acorn MOS, RISC OS. These behaviours could be changed or exchanged in software, and were often used in rudimentary anti-piracy techniques.
Modern keyboards[edit]
On many modern PCs, Pause interrupts screen output by BIOS until another key is pressed. This is effective during boot in text mode and in a DOS box in Windows safe mode with 50 lines. On early keyboards without a Pause key (before the introduction of 101/102-key keyboards) the Pause function was assigned to Ctrl+NumLock, and the Break function to Ctrl+ScrLock; these key-combinations still work with most programs, even on modern PCs with modern keyboards. Pressing the dedicated Pause key on 101/102-key keyboards sends the same scancodes as pressing Ctrl, then NumLock, then releasing them in the reverse order would do; additionally, an E1hex prefix is sent, which enables 101/102-key-aware software to discern the two situations, while older software usually just ignores the prefix. The Pause key is different from all other keys in that it sends no scancodes at all on release; therefore it is not possible for any software to determine whether this key is being held down.[1]
On modern keyboards, the Break key is usually labeled Pause with Break below, sometimes separated by a line, or Pause on the top of the keycap and Break on the front. In most Windows environments, the key combination ⊞ Win+Pause brings up the system properties.
Keyboards without Break key[edit]
Compact and notebook keyboards often do not have a dedicated Pause/Break key.
These may use the following substitutes for Break:
Ctrl+Fn+F11 or Fn+B or Fn+Ctrl+B on certain Lenovo laptops.[2][3][4]
Ctrl+Fn+B or Fn+B on certain Dell laptops.[5]
Fn+Esc on Samsung.
Ctrl+Fn+⇧ Shift on certain HP laptops.
Substitutes for Pause:
Fn+P or Fn+Ctrl+P or Fn+Alt+P on certain Lenovo laptops.[4]
Fn+B on certain Dell laptops.[4]
Fn+⇧ Shift on certain HP laptops.
Apple keyboards do not have the Pause/Break key,[6] as Mac OS X does not use it[original research?]. The key may be substituted by Fn+Esc.[7]
For some Dell laptops without a Break key press the ALT+Space bar and select "Interrupt". [8]
Usage for breaking the program's execution[edit]
While both Ctrl+Break and Ctrl+C combination are commonly implemented as a way of breaking the execution of a console application, they are also used for similar effect in integrated development environments.[9][10] Although these two are often considered interchangeable,[11] compilers and execution environments usually assign different signals to these.[12] Additionally, in some kernels (e.g. miscellaneous DOS variants) Ctrl+C is detected only at the time OS tries reading from a keyboard buffer and only if it's the only key sequence in the buffer,[13][14] while Ctrl+Break is often translated instantly (e.g. by INT 1Bh under DOS). Because of this, Ctrl+Break is usually a more effective choice under these operating systems; sensitivity for these two combinations can be enhanced by the BREAK=ON CONFIG.SYS statement.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Keyboard 101- and 102-Key". PS/2 Hardware Interface Technical Reference (PDF). IBM. October 1990. p. 19. Except for the Pause key, all keys are make/break.
Jump up ^ https://support.lenovo.com/us/en/documents/ht074004
Jump up ^ http://forum.thinkpads.com/viewtopic.php?f=60&t=98708
^ Jump up to: a b c http://forum.thinkpads.com/viewtopic.php?t=105807
Jump up ^ "Dell Inspiron 17 specification" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Computer Hope, Pause key http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/p/pausekey.htm
Jump up ^ Use your Apple Keyboard in Windows Bootcamp https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT202676
Jump up ^ DELL. "Commonly-Used Keystroke Shortcuts". Dell.com. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "CTRL+C (Break)". Msdn.microsoft.com. 2010-03-30. Retrieved 2010-10-22.
Jump up ^ "Debug Break". Msdn.microsoft.com. 2010-03-30. Retrieved 2010-10-22.
Jump up ^ "Ctrl-Break definition of Ctrl-Break in the Free Online Encyclopedia". Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 2010-10-22.
Jump up ^ https://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/windows/ntemacs/discuss/subproc-ctrl-c Archived October 22, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Vim documentation: vim online". Vim.org. Retrieved 2010-10-22.
Jump up ^ "ClipX — DOS 5.0 Ref. - int 23h ctrl-c handler". Ousob.com. Retrieved 2010-10-22.
See also[edit]
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