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Megalopolis
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"Supercity" redirects here. For other uses, see Super City.
For other uses, see Megalopolis (disambiguation).
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World megacities
World megalopolises
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A satellite view of the U.S. Northeast megalopolis, the most populous megalopolis in the Western Hemisphere, home to over 50 million people, displayed at night.
A megalopolis (sometimes called a megapolis; also megaregion, or supercity)[1] is typically defined as a chain of roughly adjacent metropolitan areas, which may be somewhat separated or may merge into a continuous urban region.
Emerging megalopolises in the developing world include the Pearl River Delta, which when formed will constitute the core part of a Southern China Coast megaregion; the Unified Jakarta-Bandung metro area forming the core of the Northern Java megaregion; and the Yangtze River Delta core, a part of a Central Chinese Coast megaregion.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of term megalopolis
2 Definitions
3 Africa
4 Americas
4.1 Transnational
4.2 Argentina
4.3 Brazil
4.4 Canada
4.5 Colombia
4.6 Mexico
4.7 Peru
4.8 United States
4.9 Venezuela
5 Asia
5.1 East Asia
5.1.1 China
5.1.2 Japan
5.1.3 South Korea
5.1.4 Taiwan
5.2 South Asia
5.2.1 Sri Lanka
5.2.2 India
5.2.3 Bangladesh
5.2.4 Pakistan
5.2.5 Nepal
5.3 Southeast Asia
5.3.1 Philippines
5.3.2 Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and Vietnam
5.4 Southwest Asia
5.4.1 Iran
5.4.2 Turkey
6 Europe
6.1 Transnational (Europe)
6.2 Scandinavia
6.3 France
6.4 Germany
6.5 Italy
6.6 Benelux
6.7 Poland and Czechia
6.8 Spain
6.9 United Kingdom
7 Oceania
7.1 Australia
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
History of term megalopolis[edit]
The term was used by Patrick Geddes in his 1915 book Cities in Evolution,[2][verification needed] by Oswald Spengler in his 1918 book The Decline of the West, and Lewis Mumford in his 1938 book The Culture of Cities, which described it as the first stage in urban overdevelopment and social decline. Later, it was used by Jean Gottmann in his landmark 1961 study, Megalopolis: The Urbanized Northeastern Seaboard of the United States, to describe the chain of metropolitan areas along the northeastern seaboard of the U.S. extending from Boston, Massachusetts, through New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and ending in Washington, D.C. and Northern Virginia.[3][4][5] The latter is sometimes called the "BosWash megalopolis".
Definitions[edit]
Northeast megalopolis (United States) and Taiheiyō Belt (Japan).
Megalopolis is a Western deformation of the Greek word that derived from Greek: μέγας (mégas) meaning 'great' and Greek: πόλις (pólis) meaning 'city', therefore literally a 'great city'. This term is closer in meaning to megacity. Because in Greek, πόλις is feminine, the correct term is megalopolis. The Ancient Greek city of Megalopolis was formed by the Arcadian League by bringing together smaller communities.
A megalopolis, also known as a megaregion, is a clustered network of cities. Gottmann defined its population as 25 million.[6] Doxiadis defined a small megalopolis a similar cluster with a population of about 10 million.[7][8][9] America 2050,[10] a program of the Regional Plan Association, lists 11 megaregions in the United States and Canada.[7] Literally, megalopolis in Greek means a city of exaggerated size where the prefix megalo- represents a quantity of exaggerated size.[11] Megapolitan areas were explored in a July 2005 report by Robert E. Lang and Dawn Dhavale of the Metropolitan Institute at Virginia Tech.[12] A later 2007 article by Lang and Nelson uses 20 megapolitan areas grouped into 10 megaregions.[13] The concept is based on the original Megalopolis model.[9]
Modern interlinked ground transportation corridors, such as rail and highway, often aid in the development of megalopolises. Using these commuter passageways to travel throughout the megalopolis is informally called megaloping. This term was coined by Davide Gadren and Stefan Berteau.[14]
In Brazil, the similar sounding terms to megaregion (megarregião when translated to English, are actually legally distinct and take on quite different meaning: Mesoregions of Brazil (mesorregião) and Microregions of Brazil (microrregião).
Africa[edit]
Cairo–Giza–Qalyubia–Helwan–6th of October City (Greater Cairo), Egypt (16 million) The area around the Nile is also very densely populated.
Nile River Delta Governorates (Alexandria, Beheira, Kafr el-Sheikh, Gharbia, Monufia, Qalyubia, Dakahlia, Damietta, Al Sharqia, and Port Said) have a combined population of 41,045,135. The total area of these Governorates is 18,199 square miles making the population density 2,255.4 per square mile.
The Gauteng City Region (PWV) in South Africa, which includes the urbanised portion of Gauteng Province (Pretoria, Centurion, Midrand, Johannesburg and the Vaal Triangle, with a population of over 10 million)[15][16][17]
The region in Morocco including El Jadida-Casablanca-Rabat-Salé-Kenitra, concentrating in the long coastal belt, on around 250 km with a depth of 40 to 50 km, more than 11 million inhabitants.[citation needed]
The Nairobi Metropolitan Region consisting of the counties of (Kajiado-Kiambu-Nairobi-Machakos-Murang'a) in Kenya, which have a combined population of 8 million people.[18]
Americas[edit]
Transnational[edit]
Megalopolis name
Population
in millions
2011
Population
in millions
2025 (projected)
Population
percent growth 2011 - 2025 (projected)
Major cities
Cascadia 8.4 8.8 5.0%
Canada: Abbotsford, Vancouver (BC), Victoria
United States: Boise, Eugene, Portland (OR), Salem, Seattle, Tacoma, Spokane, Tri-Cities, Vancouver (WA)
Great Lakes 55.5 60.7 9.4%
Canada: Hamilton, London, Montreal, Niagara Falls, Oshawa, Ottawa, Quebec City, Toronto, Vaughan, Windsor
United States: Akron, Ann Arbor, Buffalo, Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, Dayton, Des Moines, Detroit, Duluth, Erie, Flint, Fort Wayne, Green Bay, Grand Rapids, Indianapolis, Kalamazoo, Kansas City, Lansing, Louisville, Madison, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Omaha, Pittsburgh, Quad Cities, Rochester (NY), Rochester (MN), Rockford, Traverse City, Saginaw, St. Louis, Saint Paul, South Bend, Toledo
Southern California 24.4 29 18.9%
Mexico: Tijuana
United States: Anaheim, Bakersfield, Las Vegas, Long Beach, Los Angeles, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego
Argentina[edit]
Satellite image of Greater Buenos Aires at night. Urban sprawl created a vast conurbation of 12,801,365 inhabitants including the City of Buenos Aires, a third of the total population of Argentina.
Megalopolis Name
Population
in
2013
Major cities
Other cities
Greater Buenos Aires 13,641,973 Buenos Aires; Merlo, Buenos Aires; Quilmes; Banfield, Buenos Aires Lanús; Hurlingham, Buenos Aires; and Avellaneda
Brazil[edit]
Expanded Metropolitan Complex of São Paulo, Brazil
Megalopolis Name
Population
in
2015[19]
Major cities
Other cities
São Paulo Macrometropolis +32,200,000 São Paulo and Campinas Sorocaba, Jundiaí, São José dos Campos, Piracicaba and Santos
Greater Rio de Janeiro +12,000,000 Rio de Janeiro and São Gonçalo Nova Iguaçu, Duque de Caxias, Niterói, Belford Roxo and São João de Meriti
Greater Belo Horizonte +5,800,000 Belo Horizonte and Contagem Betim, Nova Lima and Sete Lagoas
Greater Porto Alegre +4,200,000 Porto Alegre and Canoas São Leopoldo, Novo Hamburgo and Gravataí
Recife metropolitan area +3,900,000 Recife and Jaboatão dos Guararapes Olinda, Paulista, Cabo de Santo Agostinho, Camaragibe, Igarassu, São Lourenço da Mata, Abreu e Lima, Ipojuca, Moreno, Itapissuma, Ilha de Itamaracá and Araçoiaba
Greater Curitiba + 3,500,000 Curitiba and São José dos Pinhais Araucária, Colombo, Fazenda Rio Grande, Lapa and Pinhais
Canada[edit]
Quebec City in Quebec City–Windsor Corridor
Calgary in Calgary–Edmonton Corridor
Megalopolis name
Population
in millions
2011
Population
in millions
2025 (projected)
Population
percent growth 2011 - 2025 (projected)
Major cities
Related articles
Quebec City–Windsor Corridor 18.4 21 14.1% Hamilton, Kingston, Kitchener, London, Mississauga, Montreal, Oshawa, Ottawa, Peterborough, Quebec City, Toronto, Trois-Rivières, Vaughan, Windsor Southern Ontario
Calgary–Edmonton Corridor 2.7 4 48.1% Calgary, Edmonton, Red Deer, St. Albert, Airdrie Calgary Region, Edmonton Capital Region, Central Alberta
Colombia[edit]
The following megaregions in Colombia are expected to have nearly 93% (55 Million people) of its population by 2030, up from the current 72%. There are currently 4 major megaregions in Colombia.
Megalopolis name
Population in 2015
Population in 2030 (projected)
Major cities
Bogota National Capital Metropolis 17,000,000 26,500,000 Bogotá, Soacha, Facatativá, Chía, Tunja, Fusagasugá, Zipaquirá, Madrid, Funza, Cajicá, Ubaté, Sibaté, Guaduas, Villa de Leyva and Tocancipá
Pacific Belt 9,000,000 14,000,000 Medellín, Cali, Bello, Pereira, Manizales, Armenia, Itagüí, Yumbo, and Palmira
Northeast Atlantic Region 6,000,000 10,500,000 Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta, Ciénaga, Malambo, Baranoa and Turbaco
Santander Belt 3,000,000 5,200,000 Bucaramanga, Cúcuta, Ocaña, and Pamplona
Other sources[20] show that another megaregion may be considered:
Megalopolis name
Population in 2015
Population in 2030 (projected)
Major cities
Golden Triangle 29,500,000 41,000,000 Bogotá, Soacha, Medellín, Cali, Bello, Manizales, Armenia
Mexico[edit]
Mexico City megalopolis
Megalopolis name
Population
in millions
2015
Population
in millions
2025 (projected)
Population
percent growth 2000 - 2025 (projected)
Major cities
Related articles
Bajío 11 ? ?% León, Querétaro, Aguascalientes, Celaya, Irapuato, San Juan del Río, Salamanca Bajío
Mexico City megalopolis 28 ? ?% Mexico City, Puebla, Cuernavaca, Toluca, Pachuca, Tula, Tlaxcala, Cuautla, Tulancingo
Peru[edit]
Megalopolis name
Population
in
2013
Major cities
Other cities
Lima-Callao Megalopolis 10,523,796 Lima and Callao Cono Norte, Cono Sur, and Cono Este
United States[edit]
Further information: Megaregions of the United States
Phoenix in the Arizona Sun Corridor
Tampa in Florida
San Bernardino in Southern California
Atlanta, Georgia in Piedmont Atlantic
Austin in the Texas Triangle
Constituent urban areas of each megalopolis are based on reckoning by a single American organization, the Regional Plan Association (RPA). The RPA definition of the Great Lakes Megalopolis includes some Canadian metropolitan areas with the United States, including some but not all major urban centres in the Windsor-Quebec City Corridor. Note that one city, Houston, is listed in two different Megalopolis regions as defined by the RPA, (the Gulf Coast and Texas Triangle).[7][21]
Megalopolis name
Population
in millions
2010
Percent of U.S. Population (2010)
Population
in millions
2025 (projected)
Population
percent growth 2010 - 2025 (projected)
Major cities
Arizona Sun Corridor[22][23] 5.6 2% 7.8 39.3% Mesa, Phoenix, Tucson, Prescott, Scottsdale
Florida 17.3 6% 21.5 24.3% Fort Lauderdale, Jacksonville, Miami, Orlando, St. Petersburg, Tampa, Sarasota, Fort Myers, Gainesville, Palm Bay, Pensacola
Front Range 5.5 2% 6.9 26% Albuquerque, Cheyenne, Colorado Springs, Denver, Pueblo, Rio Rancho, Santa Fe, Taos
Gulf Coast 13.4 4% 16.3 21.6% Baton Rouge, Corpus Christi, Houston, Mobile, Gulfport, Biloxi, New Orleans, Pensacola
Northeast 52.3 17% 58.4 11.7% Allentown-Bethlehem, Atlantic City, Baltimore, Boston, Harrisburg, Hazleton, Nashua, Newark, New York, Norfolk, Ocean City, Philadelphia, Portland (ME), Pottsville, Providence, Richmond, Scranton/Wilkes-Barre, Knowledge Corridor (Springfield and Hartford), Trenton, Virginia Beach, Washington, Wilmington, Worcester
Northern California 14 5% 16.4 17.1% Fresno, Modesto, Oakland, San Francisco, San Jose, Stockton, Berkeley, Cupertino, Fremont, Reno, Sacramento
Southern California 24.4 8% 29 18.9% Los Angeles, San Diego, Santa Barbara, San Bernardino, Riverside, Bakersfield, Las Vegas, Long Beach, Tijuana
Piedmont Atlantic 17.6 6% 21.7 23.3% Atlanta, Birmingham, Charlotte, Durham, Chapel Hill, Greensboro, Greenville, Huntsville, Chattanooga, Knoxville, Memphis, Montgomery, Nashville, Raleigh, Winston-Salem
Texas Triangle 19.7 6% 24.8 25.9% Austin, Dallas, Fort Worth, Houston, San Antonio
Great Lakes 59.1 18% 65.7 10% Buffalo, Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, Detroit, Indianapolis, Kansas City, Louisville, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Montreal, Ottawa, Pittsburgh, St. Louis, Toronto
Venezuela[edit]
Megalopolis name
Population
in
2013
Major cities
Other cities
Caracas-Valencia Megalopolis +9,000,000 Caracas, Valencia, and Maracay Cagua, Maiquetía, and Guatire
Asia[edit]
East Asia[edit]
China[edit]
Further information: Metropolitan regions of China
Pearl River Delta Megalopolis (珠江三角洲): (Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Dongguan, Guangzhou, Foshan, Jiangmen, Zhongshan, Zhuhai, Macau, Huizhou) (55,000,000),[24][25] if Shantou/Quanzhou added (Guangdong Megalopolis) 70,000,000. If other areas added, 120,000,000.[26]
Yangtze River Delta Megalopolis (長江三角洲): (Shanghai, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Ningbo, Suzhou, Jingjiang, Wuxi, Changzhou, Zhenjiang, Yangzhou, Taizhou, Nantong, Huzhou, Jiaxing, Shaoxing, Jiangyin, Haimen, Zhangjiagang, Zhoushan, Ma'anshan) (88,000,000)[26]
Bohai Economic Rim (环渤海经济圈): Beijing, Shenyang, Tianjin, Dalian, Anshan, Fushun, Dandong, Sinuiju, Tangshan, Yantai, Jinan, Qinhuangdao, Qingdao, Weihai (66,400,000)[27]
South China Coast : Xiamen, Fuzhou, Wenzhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Chaozhou (25,000,000)
Central Plain (中原): Kaifeng, Xinxiang, Zhengzhou, Luoyang (14,170,000)
The central Liaoning city cluster in China. Within 150 km from its center Shenyang (7.2 million), it has Fushun (3 million), Anshan City (3.6 million), Benxi (1.5 million), Liaoyang (1.8 million), Yingkou (2.2 million), Panjin (1.2 million), and Tieling (3.4 million), with a total population of 23 million. And it can be further extended to Dalian (6.2 million), Fuxin (2 million) and Dandong (2.4 million). This area used to be the most industrialized region in China. It declined during 1980s-1990s, but in recent years, it has rapidly revived.
Northeastern Cities or the Harbin–Changchun Area (哈尔滨长春地区): Harbin, Qiqihar, Daqing, Changchun, Jilin City, Siping including Rason in North Korea and Vladivostok in Russia (21,832,000)
Sichuan basin (四川盆地) or the Chengyu Megalopolis (成渝都市圈): Chengdu, Chongqing, Zigong, Luzhou (20,878,000)
Greater Wuhan Megalopolis (大武汉都市圈): Wuhan, Huangshi, Xinyang, Jiujiang, Yueyang (20,000,000)
Guanzhong (关中): Xi'an, Xianyang, Baoji, Weinan (16,722,000)
Chang-Zhu-Tan (长株潭) a.k.a. Greater Changsha Metropolitan Region (长株潭城市群): Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan (12,994,400 in 2000)
In July 2012, the Economist Intelligence Unit brought out a report entitled; Supersized cities: China’s 13 megalopolises, which pinpoints the 13 emerging megalopolises in China, and highlights the demographic and income trends that are shaping their development.
Japan[edit]
Taiheiyō Belt – Ibaraki, Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, Kanagawa, Shizuoka, Aichi, Gifu, Mie, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyōgo, Wakayama, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Fukuoka, and Ōita in Japan. (81,859,345)[28][29][citation needed]
South Korea[edit]
Seoul National Capital Area - Seoul, Incheon, Suwon, Goyang, Yongin, Seongnam, and the rest of Gyeonggi-do: (25,000,000)[30]
Satellite image of Seoul and greater area
Taiwan[edit]
West Coast of Taiwan - Taipei, New Taipei, Keelung, Taoyuan, Hsinchu, Taichung, Chiayi, Tainan, and Kaohsiung: (18,000,000)
South Asia[edit]
Dhaka, Bangladesh; part of the emerging chain of cities in the Bengal region
Sri Lanka[edit]
Western Region Supercity of Colombo (Megapolis) with 3,687 km2 land area and currently over 7 million population comprising several municipal, urban, and town councils politically. This is planned to be spacious and modern megacity with dedicated core zones for financial, trade, industrial, educational, logistic, transport, health, sports, recreational activities and services in par with the international level. Once completed it would be one of the most livable and favored cities in the world.
India[edit]
Maharashtra - 1.Mumbai (also includes Thane, Navi Mumbai (including Panvel), Kalyan-Dombivali, Ulhasnagar, Vasai-Virar, Ambernath and Badlapur, 2.Pune (also includes Pimpri-Chinchwad), Aurangabad, Solapur, Nashik , (also includes Nashik Road) Ahmednagar, Alibag (39,500,000)
Tamil Nadu - Chennai , Kanchipuram, Thiruvallur, Coimbatore, Tiruppur, Puducherry, Erode, Salem, Tiruchirapalli, Madurai and Hosur
Chennai , Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Kochi, Mysuru, Coimbatore, Visakhapatnam, Tiruchirapalli, Madurai and Thiruvananthapuram (38,000,000) (Although widely separated geographically)
A view of the NH 47 Expressway between Coimbatore and Salem in Tamil Nadu
Chennai International Airport, one of India's major international airports
Delhi National Capital Region and Jaipur (35,000,000)
Kolkata Belt
The Maidan is the largest urban park in this megalopolis (Kolkata)
- Kolkata (Also includes the suburban areas of Kolkata Barrackpore, Dum Dum, Bidhannagar, Naihati, Kanchrapara, Kankinara, kalyani, Rajarhat, Ichapore, Halisahar and Howrah), Dankuni
Gujarat - Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar, Surat, Vadodara, Rajkot, Anand, Nadiad, Bharuch, Ankleshwar (19,200,000)
Bangladesh[edit]
Dhaka (Greater Dhaka Megalopolis consists four city Corporations: Dhaka South, Dhaka North, Gazipur, and Narayanganj and five municipals: Savar Upazila (A class), Dohar Upazila (A class), Dhamrai Upazila (A class), Tongi (Special Class), Sonargaon (B class) (17,000,000)
Chittagong (4,009,423)
Pakistan[edit]
Karachi comprises six district municipal corporations. The total population is 24 million according to the 2011 census.
Nepal[edit]
Kathmandu valley, which consists of 5 municipalities namely Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur and Madhyapur Thimi, along with the peripheral cities of Banepa, Panauti and Dhulikhel.
Southeast Asia[edit]
Rank
Megalopolis Name
Country
Population
in millions
Major cities
1 Java Indonesia 145[31] Jakarta, Bandung, Surabaya, Yogyakarta, Bekasi, Bogor, Depok, Malang, Semarang, Tasikmalaya, Tangerang, Cirebon
2 Mega Manila Philippines 40+ Manila, Calamba, Angeles, Baguio, Batangas, Dagupan, Olongapo, Bacoor
3 Central Thailand Thailand 25+ Bangkok, Ayuthaya, Pattaya
4 Southeast Economic Zone Vietnam 16+ Đồng Nai, Bình Dương, Ho Chi Minh City, Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu Province, Long An, Tiền Giang
Philippines[edit]
Mega Manila
Mega Manila is made up of 4 Regions:
Central Luzon (11,218,117)
Metro Manila (12,877,253)
Calabarzon (14,414,774)
Mimaropa excluding Palawan (2,113,891)
(Regional Centers) San Fernando-Manila-Calamba-Calapan
Total Population of Mega Manila as of 2015: (40,624,035)[32]
Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and Vietnam[edit]
Bay of Bangkok Economic Rim: Bangkok–Ayutthaya–Pattaya (16,000,000)
KUL-Bagan Multinational Area: Kuala Lumpur–Selangor (8,000,000)
Sijori: Kulai-Johor Bahru–Singapore–Batam–Bintan (9,000,000)
Red River Delta in Vietnam (Hanoi, Hai Phong, Nam Định, & Hải Dương) (10,000,000)[33][34]
Southwest Asia[edit]
Iran[edit]
Greater Tehran: A region located in Iranian Tehran and Alborz Province in central Northern Iran with its influence expanding in Qom Province, Qazvin Province and Mazandaran Province, home for at least 15 million people, it is one of the most populous urban areas in the Greater Middle East and the surrounding regions. Tehran was a small village 200 years ago when it was first chosen as the Capital city and it has been growing at a very fast rate.
Turkey[edit]
(all figures extrapolated from end of 2014 and end of 2015 figures of,[35] to middle of year 2016)
Greater Istanbul: Includes Istanbul city proper, with continuous urbanization spilling over to neighboring provinces, as well as nearby dense population and highly industrialized areas. Istanbul, eastern counties of Tekirdağ province, entire coast of Izmit bay, and Adapazarı add up to 17.5 million population.
Other major cities: Ankara (5 million), Izmir (includes satellites Torbalı-Aliağa-Urla-Manisa to add up to 4 million), Adana-Tarsus-Mersin (3 million), Bursa (2.1 million)
Europe[edit]
The Blue Banana
The Golden Banana
The Green Banana
Transnational (Europe)[edit]
Rank
Megalopolis Name
Population in millions
Countries & Respective Cities
1 Blue Banana 110–130[36] United Kingdom: Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield, Birmingham, London
Belgium: Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Bruges, Liege
Netherlands: Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht
Luxembourg: Luxembourg
Germany: Rhine-Ruhr, Frankfurt am Main, Munich, Stuttgart, Nuremberg
France: Strasbourg, Lille
Switzerland: Zürich, Basel
Italy: Turin, Milan, Genoa
2 Golden Banana 40–45[37] Italy: Turin, Genoa
France: Lyon, Nice, Toulon, Marseille, Nîmes, Montpellier, Narbonne, Perpignan, Toulouse
Monaco: Monaco
Andorra: Andorra
Spain: Manresa, Girona, Vic, Barcelona, Tarragona, Castellón de la Plana, Sagunt, Valencia, Alicante, Murcia, Cartagena
3 Green Banana 40[citation needed] Poland: Gdańsk, Warsaw, Kraków, Katowice
Czech Republic: Ostrava, Prague, Olomouc, Brno
Austria: Vienna
Slovakia: Bratislava, Žilina
Hungary: Budapest, Győr
Slovenia: Ljubljana, Koper
Croatia: Zagreb
Italy: Trieste
4 STRING 11.5[38] Germany: Hamburg
Denmark: Copenhagen
Sweden: Malmö, Gothenburg
Norway: Oslo
5 Gulf of Finland 9[citation needed] Russia: Gatchina, Saint Petersburg, Vyborg
Finland: Lappeenranta, Kotka, Kouvola, Lahti, Vantaa, Helsinki, Espoo, Hämeenlinna, Tampere, Turku
Estonia: Tallinn
6 Atlantic Axis 4[39][better source needed] Portugal: Setúbal, Lisbon, Santarém, Leiria, Coimbra, Viseu, Aveiro, Porto, Braga, Viana do Castelo
Spain: Vigo, Ourense, Pontevedra, Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña
Scandinavia[edit]
Rank
Megalopolis Name
Population
in millions
Major cities
1 Greater Copenhagen 4[40][41] Copenhagen, Malmö, Helsingborg, Lund, and Roskilde
France[edit]
Rank
Megalopolis Name
Population
in millions
Major cities
1 Paris metropolitan area 12.3[42] Paris & Île-de-France
2 Lyon economic region 5.5[37] Lyon & Rhône-Alpes river area
3 Marseille metropolitan region 1.8[37] Marseille, Aix-en-Provence
4 Toulouse economic region 1.5[37] Toulouse, Andorra (independent state, not a part of France)
5 Nice economic region 1.1[37] Nice, Monaco (independent city-state, not a part of France)
Germany[edit]
[37][43]
Rank
Megalopolis name
Population
in millions
Major cities
1 Rhine-Ruhr 13.5 Cologne, Düsseldorf, Dortmund, Essen
2 Berlin-Brandenburg 5.95 Berlin, Potsdam
3 Frankfurt Rhine-Main 5.52 Frankfurt, Wiesbaden, Mainz
4 Stuttgart Metropolitan Region 5.29[37] Stuttgart
5 Munich Metropolitan Region 5.2[37] Munich
6 Hamburg Metropolitan Region 5.0 Hamburg
7 Central German Metropolitan Region (Saxon triangle) 4.36[37] Leipzig, Halle, Dresden
8 Hannover–Braunschweig–Göttingen–Wolfsburg Metropolitan Region 3.91[37] Hanover, Braunschweig, Göttingen, Wolfsburg
9 Nuremberg Metropolitan Region 3.5[37] Nuremberg
10 Bremen/Oldenburg Metropolitan Region 2.37[37] Bremen, Oldenburg
Italy[edit]
[37][44]
Rank
Megalopolis name
Population
in millions
Major cities
1 Grande Milano 8.2 Milan
2 Naples metropolitan area 4.46 Naples
3 Rome metropolitan area 4.3 Rome
4 Turin economic region 4.1 Turin & Piedmont centre and south area
5 Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area 2.6 Venice & Padua & Treviso central-eastern Veneto region
6 Genoa metropolitan region 1.5 Genoa
7 Conca d'Oro 1.1 Palermo and neighboring cities
Benelux[edit]
Netherlands, Belgium & Luxembourg:[37]
Rank
Megalopolis Name
Population
in millions
Major cities
1 Randstad 7.5 Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht
2 Flemish Diamond 5.5 Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Leuven
3 Brabantse Stedenrij 2.0 Eindhoven, Tilburg, Breda, 's-Hertogenbosch, Helmond
Poland and Czechia[edit]
Rank
Megalopolis Name
Population
in millions
Major cities
1 Silesian Metropolis 5.3 Katowice, Ostrava
Spain[edit]
[37]
Rank
Megalopolis Name
Population
in millions
Major cities
1 Madrid region 6.3 Madrid, Alcalá de Henares, Fuenlabrada, Getafe, Alcobendas, Alcorcón, Leganés, Móstoles
2 Barcelona 5 Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Badalona, Terrassa, Sabadell, Mataró, Santa Coloma
3 Valencia 3 Valencia, Alicante, Elche, Benidorm, Sagunto, Gandia, Castellón, Vinaròs, Burriana, Alcoy, Dénia
4 Sevilla 1.3 Sevilla, Dos Hermanas, Utrera
5 Bilbao 0.9 Greater Bilbao, Getxo, Portugalete
United Kingdom[edit]
Rank
Megalopolis Name
Population
in millions
Major cities
1 London commuter belt 14.0[45] London, Medway, Southend-on-Sea, Chelmsford, Basildon, Luton, Reading
2 Northern England 9.4[37][46] Manchester, Leeds, Liverpool, Sheffield, Warrington, Bradford, Birkenhead, Preston, Blackburn, Blackpool
3 English midlands 6.3[37][46] Birmingham, Nottingham, Coventry, Leicester, Wolverhampton, Derby, Stoke-on-Trent
4 Central Belt 3.6[46] Glasgow, Edinburgh
5 South Hampshire-Brighton 2.8[37][46] Southampton, Portsmouth, Brighton, Worthing, Littlehampton, Bournemouth
6 Tyne & Wear Region 2.2[37][46] Newcastle, Sunderland, Middlesbrough
7 Cardiff-Bristol-Swansea 2.2[37][46] Cardiff, Bristol, Swansea, Newport
Oceania[edit]
Australia[edit]
Megalopolis Name
Population
in millions
Major cities
Sydney Region[citation needed] 5.77[47] Greater Sydney (including Central Coast and Blue Mountains) (4.97 million), Newcastle and Lake Macquarie (501,000), Illawarra (300,000)
Port Phillip Bay Area[citation needed] 4.98[47] Greater Melbourne (including Mornington Peninsula (4.7 million), Greater Geelong (233,429), Melton, Victoria (54,455)
South East Queensland 3.45[47] Greater Brisbane (2.3 million), Gold Coast-Tweed Heads (662,000), Sunshine Coast (341,000), Toowoomba (152,000)
See also[edit]
Arcology
Conurbation
Ecumenopolis
Ekistics
Settlement types:
Hamlet
Village
Town
City
Metropolis
Types of inhabited localities in Russia
Global city
Merger (politics)
Metroplex
Transborder agglomeration
Urban area
Developed environments:
Exurban
Rural
Suburban
Urban
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Briggs, James (25 August 2015). "Capitals, Wizards owner Ted Leonsis says Baltimore will become part of a D.C. supercity". Baltimore Business Journal. Retrieved 2015-08-26.
Jump up ^ Geddes, Patrick (1915). Cities in Evolution. London: Williams & Norgate – via Internet Archive.
Jump up ^ Gottmann, Jean (1954). L'Amerique. Paris: Hachette.
Jump up ^ Gottmann, Jean (1957). "Megalopolis, or the urbanization of the Northeastern Seaboard". Economic Geography. 33 (3): 189–200. doi:10.2307/142307.
Jump up ^ Gottmann, Jean (1961). Megalopolis. The Urbanized Northeastern seaboard of the United States. New York: The Twentieth Century Fund.
Jump up ^ Gottmann, Jean (1989). Since Megalopolis. The Urban Writings of Jean Gottmann. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 163.
^ Jump up to: a b c Taylor, Matt. "Megaregions". America 2050. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
Jump up ^ "Who's Your City?: What Is a Megaregion?". 19 March 2008. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Cities: Capital for the New Megalopolis.Time magazine, November 4, 1966. Retrieved on July 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ "About Us - America 2050". Retrieved 5 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Definition of the prefix megalo-. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
Jump up ^ "Beyond Megalopolis: Exploring America's New "Megapolitan" Geography" (PDF). July 2005. Archived from the original on 2009-03-27. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ "America 2040: The Rise of the Megapolitans" (PDF). January 2007.
Jump up ^ Tremble, Sam (May 30, 2007). "Fumbling Toward Portland". Philadelphia City Paper. Archived from the original on July 7, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2006-10-07. Retrieved 2007-01-01.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2006-09-24. Retrieved 2007-01-01.
Jump up ^ "Welcome to the official South African government online site! | South African Government". Info.gov.za. Archived from the original on 2012-05-14. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
Jump up ^ "Cabinet Secretary names team to modernize Nairobi city transport :: Kenya - The Standard". Standardmedia.co.ke. 2015-02-23. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
Jump up ^ 46 - Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, Brazil, 2015, Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, 28 August 2015
Jump up ^ Ordóñez Burbano, Luis A. (2007). Universidad del Valle 60 años 1945-2005: Atando cabos en clave de memoria. Cali, Valle del Cauca, Colombia: Universidad del Valle. p. 58. OCLC 645219600
Jump up ^ Regional Plan Association (2008). America 2050: An Infrastructure Vision for 21st Century America. New York: Regional Plan Association.
Jump up ^ "Megapolitan: Arizona's Sun Corridor". Morrison Institute for Public Policy. May 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-03.
Jump up ^ Catherine Reagor (2006-04-09). "When Phoenix, Tucson Merge". The Arizona Republic. Retrieved 2016-05-31.
Jump up ^ John Vidal. "UN report: World's biggest cities merging into 'mega-regions' | World news". The Guardian. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
Jump up ^ "关于长江三角洲构建世界第六大城市群的思考". Retrieved 5 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Vidal, John (2010-03-22). "UN report: World's biggest cities merging into 'mega-regions'". The Guardian. London.
Jump up ^ "Foreign investment shows trend of "moving northward"". china-embassy.org. 2004-05-14. Retrieved 2010-01-09.
Jump up ^ "地域活性化戦略（案）資料" (PDF) (in Japanese). Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. p. 4. Retrieved August 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ "2015 Population Census". Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. Retrieved August 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ A government publication states that on 1 November 2010, the population of "Seoul Metropolitan Area" stood at 23,616 thousand, which is the sum of the figures given for Gyeonggi-do (11,270 thousand), Seoul (9,708 thousand) and Incheon (2,638 thousand), apparently including the periphery.
Source: "Preliminary Results of the 2010 Population and Housing Census" (PDF). Statistics Korea. 21 January 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Java - Google Arts & Culture". Google Cultural Institute. Retrieved 2018-02-07.
Jump up ^ "Google". Google. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
Jump up ^ "广西北部湾经济区概况". Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Chinese Cities on Beibu Gulf Increase Cooperation". Retrieved 5 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Turkish Statistical Institute - Address Based Population Record System
Jump up ^ Ina Schmidt. "The European Blue Banana". Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t From Territorial Cohesion to the New Regionalized Europe. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "What is STRING?". STRING. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
Jump up ^ Lois-González, Rubén C. (7 October 2004). "A Model of Spanish-portuguese Urban Growth: the Atlantic Axis". Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. p. 7(287).
Jump up ^ "Danmarks Statistik". Danmarks Statistik. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Statistics Sweden". Statistics Sweden. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "INSEE - Paris". Retrieved 5 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Regionales Monitoring 2008" (PDF). Deutsche-metropolregionen.org. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
Jump up ^ "Brookings". The Brookings Institution. 30 November 2012. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Population on 1 January by broad age group, sex and metropolitan regions" (PDF). Appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "3.29.2 British urban pattern: population data" (PDF). Espon.eu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c 3218.0 - Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2014-15, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 30 March 2016, retrieved 3 October 2016
External links[edit]
Look up megalopolis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
"World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 revision" (PDF).
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Megacity
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† Aggregate urban areas are entire continuous built-up areas, grouping together contiguous cities (known as conurbations), whereas urban agglomerations are the built-up areas of individual cities.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Megalopolis&oldid=842822638"
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text:
Seawater
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Seawater in the Strait of Malacca
Part of a series on
Water salinity
Salinity levels
Fresh water (< 0.05%)
Brackish water (0.05–3%)
Saline water (3–5%)
Brine (> 5%)
Bodies of water
Seawater • Salt lake • Hypersaline lake • Salt pan • Brine pool • Bodies by salinity
v
t
e
Temperature-salinity diagram of changes in density of water
Ocean salinity at different latitudes in the Atlantic and Pacific
Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 599 mM) This means that every kilogram (roughly one litre by volume) of seawater has approximately 35 grams (1.2 oz) of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium (Na+
) and chloride (Cl−
) ions). Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/L. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0 kg/L at 4 °C (39 °F)) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about −2 °C (28 °F).[1] The coldest seawater ever recorded (in a liquid state) was in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier, and measured −2.6 °C (27.3 °F).[2] Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4.[3] However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Geochemistry
1.1 Salinity
1.2 Thermophysical properties of Seawater
2 Compositional differences from freshwater
3 Microbial components
4 Origin
5 Human impacts
6 Human consumption
7 Standard
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Geochemistry[edit]
Salinity[edit]
Further information: Salinity § Seawater
Annual mean sea surface salinity expressed in the Practical Salinity Scale for the World Ocean. Data from the World Ocean Atlas[5]
Although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 g/kg and 38 g/kg, that is 3.1-3.8%, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with fresh water runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts of precipitation (e.g. Monsoon), seawater can be substantially less saline. The most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still - about ten times higher in the case of the Dead Sea. Historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the "Practical Salinity Scale" where salinity was measured in "practical salinity units (psu)". The current standard for salinity is the "Reference Salinity" scale [6] with the salinity expressed in units of "g/kg".
Thermophysical properties of Seawater[edit]
The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m3, depending on the temperature and salinity. At a temperature of 25 °C, salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/m3.[7][8] Deep in the ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m3 or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity. Brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g/kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g/kg salinity at 25 °C and atmospheric pressure is 1088 kg/m3.[7][8] Seawater pH is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s (whereas speed of sound is usually around 330 m/s in air at roughly 1000hPa pressure, 1 atmosphere), and varies with water temperature, salinity, and pressure. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C and a salinity of 35 g/kg.[9] The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature.[10]
Compositional differences from freshwater[edit]
Seawater composition (by mass) (salinity = 3.5%)
Element
Percent
Element
Percent
Oxygen 85.84 Sulphur 0.091
Hydrogen 10.82 Calcium 0.04
Chloride 1.94 Potassium 0.04
Sodium 1.08 Bromide 0.0067
Magnesium 0.1292 Carbon 0.0028
Vanadium 1.5 × 10−11 – 3.3 × 10−11
Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater.[11] However, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. For instance, although seawater contains about 2.8 times more bicarbonate than river water based on molarity, the percentage of bicarbonate in seawater as a ratio of all dissolved ions is far lower than in river water. Bicarbonate ions also constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0.14% of all seawater ions.[11][12] Differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes; sodium and chloride have very long residence times, while calcium (vital for carbonate formation) tends to precipitate much more quickly.[12] The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and calcium.[13] Its osmolarity is about 1000 mOsm/l.[14]
Small amounts of other substances are found, including amino acids at concentrations of up to 2 micrograms of nitrogen atoms per liter,[15] which are thought to have played a key role in the origin of life.
Microbial components[edit]
Research in 1957 by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography sampled water in both pelagic and neritic locations in the Pacific Ocean. Direct microscopic counts and cultures were used, the direct counts in some cases showing up to 10 000 times that obtained from cultures. These differences were attributed to the occurrence of bacteria in aggregates, selective effects of the culture media, and the presence of inactive cells. A marked reduction in bacterial culture numbers was noted below the thermocline, but not by direct microscopic observation. Large numbers of spirilli-like forms were seen by microscope but not under cultivation. The disparity in numbers obtained by the two methods is well known in this and other fields.[16] In the 1990s, improved techniques of detection and identification of microbes by probing just small snippets of DNA, enabled researchers taking part in the Census of Marine Life to identify thousands of previously unknown microbes usually present only in small numbers. This revealed a far greater diversity than previously suspected, so that a litre of seawater may hold more than 20,000 species. Dr. Mitchell Sogin from the Marine Biological Laboratory feels that "the number of different kinds of bacteria in the oceans could eclipse five to 10 million."[17]
Bacteria are found at all depths in the water column, as well as in the sediments, some being aerobic, others anaerobic. Most are free-swimming, but some exist as symbionts within other organisms – examples of these being bioluminescent bacteria. Cyanobacteria played an important role in the evolution of ocean processes, enabling the development of stromatolites and oxygen in the atmosphere.
Some bacteria interact with diatoms, and form a critical link in the cycling of silicon in the ocean. One anaerobic species, Thiomargarita namibiensis, plays an important part in the breakdown of hydrogen sulphide eruptions from diatomaceous sediments off the Namibian coast, and generated by high rates of phytoplankton growth in the Benguela Current upwelling zone, eventually falling to the seafloor.
Bacteria-like Archaea surprised marine microbiologists by their survival and thriving in extreme environments, such as the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. Alkalotolerant marine bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Vibrio spp. survive in a pH range of 7.3 to 10.6, while some species will grow only at pH 10 to 10.6.[18] Archaea also exist in pelagic waters and may constitute as much as half the ocean's biomass, clearly playing an important part in oceanic processes.[19] In 2000 sediments from the ocean floor revealed a species of Archaea that breaks down methane, an important greenhouse gas and a major contributor to atmospheric warming.[20] Some bacteria break down the rocks of the sea floor, influencing seawater chemistry. Oil spills, and runoff containing human sewage and chemical pollutants have a marked effect on microbial life in the vicinity, as well as harbouring pathogens and toxins affecting all forms of marine life. The protist dinoflagellates may at certain times undergo population explosions called blooms or red tides, often after human-caused pollution. The process may produce metabolites known as biotoxins, which move along the ocean food chain, tainting higher-order animal consumers.
Pandoravirus salinus, a species of very large virus, with a genome much larger than that of any other virus species, was discovered in 2013. Like the other very large viruses Mimivirus and Megavirus, Pandoravirus infects amoebas, but its genome, containing 1.9 to 2.5 megabases of DNA, is twice as large as that of Megavirus, and it differs greatly from the other large viruses in appearance and in genome structure.
In 2013 researchers from Aberdeen University announced that they were starting a hunt for undiscovered chemicals in organisms that have evolved in deep sea trenches, hoping to find "the next generation" of antibiotics, anticipating an "antibiotic apocalypse" with a dearth of new infection-fighting drugs. The EU-funded research will start in the Atacama Trench and then move on to search trenches off New Zealand and Antarctica.[21]
The ocean has a long history of human waste disposal on the assumption that its vast size makes it capable of absorbing and diluting all noxious material.[22] While this may be true on a small scale, the large amounts of sewage routinely dumped has damaged many coastal ecosystems, and rendered them life-threatening. Pathogenic viruses and bacteria occur in such waters, such as Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae the cause of cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis E and polio, along with protozoans causing giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. These pathogens are routinely present in the ballast water of large vessels, and are widely spread when the ballast is discharged.[23]
Origin[edit]
Diagram showing concentrations of various salt ions in seawater. The composition of the total salt component is: Cl−
55%, Na+
30.6%, SO2−
4 7.7%, Mg2+
3.7%, Ca2+
1.2%, K+
1.1%, Other 0.7%. Note that the diagram is only correct when in units of wt/wt, not wt/vol or vol/vol.
Total Molar Composition of Seawater (Salinity = 35)[24]
Component
Concentration (mol/kg)
H
2O 53.6
Cl−
0.546
Na+
0.469
Mg2+
0.0528
SO2−
4 0.0282
Ca2+
0.0103
K+
0.0102
CT 0.00206
Br−
0.000844
BT 0.000416
Sr2+
0.000091
F−
0.000068
Scientific theories behind the origins of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 1715, who proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into the sea by rivers after rainfall washed it out of the ground. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived over time (see Hydrologic cycle). Halley noted that most lakes that don't have ocean outlets (such as the Dead Sea and the Caspian Sea, see endorheic basin), have high salt content. Halley termed this process "continental weathering".
Halley's theory was partly correct. In addition, sodium leached out of the ocean floor when the ocean formed. The presence of salt's other dominant ion, chloride, results from outgassing of chloride (as hydrochloric acid) with other gases from Earth's interior via volcanos and hydrothermal vents. The sodium and chloride ions subsequently became the most abundant constituents of sea salt.
Ocean salinity has been stable for billions of years, most likely as a consequence of a chemical/tectonic system which removes as much salt as is deposited; for instance, sodium and chloride sinks include evaporite deposits, pore-water burial, and reactions with seafloor basalts.[12]:133
Human impacts[edit]
Climate change, rising atmospheric carbon dioxide, excess nutrients, and pollution in many forms are altering global oceanic geochemistry. Rates of change for some aspects greatly exceed those in the historical and recent geological record. Major trends include an increasing acidity, reduced subsurface oxygen in both near-shore and pelagic waters, rising coastal nitrogen levels, and widespread increases in mercury and persistent organic pollutants. Most of these perturbations are tied either directly or indirectly to human fossil fuel combustion, fertilizer, and industrial activity. Concentrations are projected to grow in coming decades, with negative impacts on ocean biota and other marine resources.[25]
One of the most striking features of this is ocean acidification, resulting from increased CO2 uptake of the oceans related to higher atmospheric concentration of CO2 and higher temperatures,[26] because it severely affects coral reefs and crustaceans (see coral bleaching).
Human consumption[edit]
Main article: Sea water poisoning
See also: Desalination
Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself.[27]
The renal system actively regulates sodium chloride in the blood within a very narrow range around 9 g/L (0.9% by weight).
In most open waters concentrations vary somewhat around typical values of about 3.5%, far higher than the body can tolerate and most beyond what the kidney can process. A point frequently overlooked in claims that the kidney can excrete NaCl in Baltic concentrations of 2% (in arguments to the contrary) is that the gut cannot absorb water at such concentrations, so that there is no benefit in drinking such water. Drinking seawater temporarily increases blood's NaCl concentration. This signals the kidney to excrete sodium, but seawater's sodium concentration is above the kidney's maximum concentrating ability. Eventually the blood's sodium concentration rises to toxic levels, removing water from cells and interfering with nerve conduction, ultimately producing fatal seizure and cardiac arrhythmia.[citation needed]
Survival manuals consistently advise against drinking seawater.[28] A summary of 163 life raft voyages estimated the risk of death at 39% for those who drank seawater, compared to 3% for those who did not. The effect of seawater intake on rats confirmed the negative effects of drinking seawater when dehydrated.[29]
The temptation to drink seawater was greatest for sailors who had expended their supply of fresh water, and were unable to capture enough rainwater for drinking. This frustration was described famously by a line from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner:
"Water, water, everywhere,
And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water, everywhere,
Nor any drop to drink."
Although humans cannot survive on seawater, some people claim that up to two cups a day, mixed with fresh water in a 2:3 ratio, produces no ill effect. The French physician Alain Bombard survived an ocean crossing in a small Zodiak rubber boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40 percent water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation was not given. In his 1948 book, Kon-Tiki, Thor Heyerdahl reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in a 2:3 ratio during the 1947 expedition.[30] A few years later, another adventurer, William Willis, claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply.[31]
During the 18th century, Richard Russell advocated the practice's medical use in the UK, and René Quinton expanded the advocation of the practice other countries, notably France, in the 20th century. Currently, the practice is widely used in Nicaragua and other countries, supposedly taking advantage of the latest medical discoveries.
Most ocean-going vessels desalinate potable water from seawater using processes such as vacuum distillation or multi-stage flash distillation in an evaporator, or, more recently, reverse osmosis. These energy-intensive processes were not usually available during the Age of Sail. Larger sailing warships with large crews, such as Nelson's HMS Victory, were fitted with distilling apparatuses in their galleys.[32] Animals such as fish, whales, sea turtles, and seabirds, such as penguins and albatrosses have adapted to living in a high saline habitat. For example, sea turtles and saltwater crocodiles remove excess salt from their bodies through their tear ducts.[33]
Standard[edit]
ASTM International has an international standard for artificial seawater: ASTM D1141-98 (Original Standard ASTM D1141-52). It is used in many research testing labs as a reproducible solution for seawater such as tests on corrosion, oil contamination, and detergency evaluation.[34]
See also[edit]
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Brine
Brine mining
Brackish water
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References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Sylte, Gudrun Urd (24 May 2010). "Den aller kaldaste havstraumen". forskning.no (in Norwegian). Retrieved 24 May 2010.
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Jump up ^ Millero, Frank J.; Feistel, Rainer; Wright, Daniel G.; McDougall, Trevor J. (January 2008). "The composition of Standard Seawater and the definition of the Reference-Composition Salinity Scale". Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 55 (1): 50–72. doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2007.10.001.
^ Jump up to: a b Nayar, Kishor G.; Sharqawy, Mostafa H.; Banchik, Leonardo D.; Lienhard V, John H. (July 2016). "Thermophysical properties of seawater: A review and new correlations that include pressure dependence". Desalination. 390: 1–24. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2016.02.024.
^ Jump up to: a b "Thermophysical properties of seawater". Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved February 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Desalination and Water Treatment" (PDF). Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. April 2010. Retrieved 17 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "Thermal conductivity of seawater and its concentrates". Retrieved 17 October 2010.
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^ Jump up to: a b c Pinet, Paul R. (1996). Invitation to Oceanography. St. Paul: West Publishing Company. pp. 126, 134–135. ISBN 978-0-314-06339-7.
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Jump up ^ Cheung, Louisa (31 July 2006). "Thousands of microbes in one gulp". BBC News. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Leslie, Mitchell (5 October 2000). "The Case of the Missing Methane". ScienceNOW. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Antibiotics search to focus on sea bed". BBC News. 14 February 2013. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Radioactivity in the marine environment". National Academies, 1971 page 36.
Jump up ^ Hoyle, Brian D.; Robinson, Richard. "Microbes in the Ocean". Water Encyclopedia.
Jump up ^ DOE (1994). "5". In A.G. Dickson & C. Goyet. Handbook of methods for the analysis of the various parameters of the carbon dioxide system in sea water (PDF). 2. ORNL/CDIAC-74. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Doney, Scott C. (18 June 2010). "The Growing Human Footprint on Coastal and Open-Ocean Biogeochemistry". Science. 328 (5985): 1512–1516. doi:10.1126/science.1185198. PMID 20558706. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Ocean Acidification: The Other CO2 Problem". Annual Review of Marine Science. 1 (1): 169–192. 2009-01-01. doi:10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163834. PMID 21141034.
Jump up ^ "Can humans drink seawater?". National Ocean Service (NOAA).
Jump up ^ "29". Shipboard Medicine (PDF). Retrieved 17 October 2010.
Jump up ^ Etzion, Z.; Yagil, R. (1987). "Metabolic effects in rats drinking increasing concentrations of seawater". Comp Biochem Physiol A. 86 (1): 49–55. doi:10.1016/0300-9629(87)90275-1. PMID 2881655.
Jump up ^ Heyerdahl, Thor; Lyon, F.H. (translator) (1950). Kon-Tiki: Across the Pacific by Raft. Rand McNally & Company, Chicago, Ill.
Jump up ^ King, Dean (2004). Skeletons on the Zahara: a true story of survival. New York: Back Bay Books. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-316-15935-7.
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Jump up ^ "ASTM D1141-98(2013)". ASTM. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
External links[edit]
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Tables and software for thermophysical properties of seawater, MIT
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Composition
Vanadium concentration in seawater and estuary environments is around 1.5–3.3 ug/kg [1].
Vanadium speciation and cycling in coastal waters [2]
Ocean anoxia and the concentrations of Molybdenum and Vanadium in seawater [3]
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