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Capital punishment in the United Kingdom
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Capital punishment in the United Kingdom was used from ancient times until the second half of the 20th century. The last executions in the United Kingdom were by hanging, and took place in 1964, prior to capital punishment being abolished for murder (in 1965 in Great Britain and in 1973 in Northern Ireland). Although unused, the death penalty remained a legally defined punishment for certain offences such as treason until it was completely abolished in 1998. In 2004 the 13th Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights became binding on the United Kingdom, prohibiting the restoration of the death penalty for as long as the UK is a party to the Convention.[1]
Contents
1 Background
2 Reform
3 Abolition
3.1 Last executions
3.2 Last death sentences
3.3 Final abolition
3.4 Crown dependencies
3.5 Overseas territories
4 Policy regarding foreign capital punishment
5 Public support for reintroduction of capital punishment
5.1 Parliamentary debates on reintroduction
6 Parties' stance on the issue
7 Notable executions in the United Kingdom
7.1 Before 1707
7.2 Kingdom of Great Britain, 1707–1801
7.3 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 1801–1922
7.4 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, 1922–1964
8 See also
9 References
9.1 Notes
9.2 Bibliography
10 Further reading
11 External links
Background[edit]
Sir Samuel Romilly, speaking to the House of Commons on capital punishment in 1810, declared that "[there is] no country on the face of the earth in which there [have] been so many different offences according to law to be punished with death as in England".[2] Known as the "Bloody Code", at its height the criminal law included some 220 crimes punishable by death, including "being in the company of Gypsies for one month", "strong evidence of malice in a child aged 7–14 years of age" and "blacking the face or using a disguise whilst committing a crime". Many of these offences had been introduced to protect the property of the wealthy classes that emerged during the first half of the 18th century, a notable example being the Black Act of 1723, which created 50 capital offences for various acts of theft and poaching.[citation needed] Crimes eligible for the death penalty included shoplifting and stealing sheep, cattle, and horses, and before abolition of the death penalty for theft in 1832, "English law was notorious for prescribing the death penalty for a vast range of offenses as slight as the theft of goods valued at twelve pence."[3]
Whilst executions for murder, burglary and robbery were common, the death sentences for minor offenders were often not carried out. A sentence of death could be commuted or respited (permanently postponed) for reasons such as benefit of clergy, official pardons, pregnancy of the offender or performance of military or naval duty.[4] Between 1770 and 1830, an estimated 35,000 death sentences were handed down in England and Wales, of which 7,000 executions were carried out.[5]
Reform[edit]
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In 1808 Romilly had the death penalty removed for pickpockets and lesser offenders, starting a process of reform that continued over the next 50 years. The death penalty was mandatory (although it was frequently commuted by the government) until the Judgement of Death Act 1823 gave judges the power to commute the death penalty except for treason and murder. The Punishment of Death, etc. Act 1832 reduced the number of capital crimes by two-thirds. In 1832, the death penalty was abolished for theft, counterfeiting, and forgery except for the forgery of wills and certain powers of attorney.[3][6] Gibbeting was abolished in 1832 and hanging in chains was abolished in 1834. In 1837, the death penalty for forging wills and powers of attorney was abolished. The death penalty for rape was abolished in 1841.[7] In 1861, several acts of Parliament (24 & 25 Vict; c. 94 to c. 100) further reduced the number of civilian capital crimes to five: murder, treason, espionage, arson in royal dockyards, and piracy with violence; there were other offences under military law. The death penalty remained mandatory for treason and murder unless commuted by the monarch.
The Royal Commission on Capital Punishment 1864–66[8] concluded (with dissenting Commissioners) that there was not a case for abolition but recommended an end to public executions. This proposal was included in the Capital Punishment Amendment Act 1868. From that date executions in Great Britain were carried out only in prisons. The punishment of beheading and quartering those executed for treason was abolished in 1870.[9] The last application of that punishment had been in 1820 and the last sentence to the punishment had been in 1839.[10][11]
In 1908, the Children Act 1908 banned the execution of juveniles under the age of 16. In 1922 a new offence of Infanticide was introduced to replace the charge of murder for mothers killing their children in the first year of life. In 1930 a parliamentary Select Committee recommended that capital punishment be suspended for a trial period of five years, but no action was taken. From 1931 pregnant women could no longer be hanged (following the birth of their child) although in practice since the 18th century their sentences had always been commuted.
In 1933 the minimum age for capital punishment was raised to 18 under the Children and Young Persons Act 1933. The last known execution by the civilian courts of a person under 18 was that of Charles Dobel, 17, hanged at Maidstone together with his accomplice William Gower, 18, in January 1889. Harold Wilkins, at 16 years old, was the last juvenile sentenced to the death penalty in the United Kingdom, in 1932 for a sexually related murder, but he was reprieved due to age.[12]
In 1938 the issue of the abolition of capital punishment was brought before parliament. A clause within the Criminal Justice Bill called for an experimental five-year suspension of the death penalty. When war broke out in 1939 the bill was postponed. It was revived after the war and to everyone's surprise was adopted by a majority in the House of Commons (245 to 222). In the House of Lords the abolition clause was defeated but the remainder of the bill was passed. Popular support for abolition was absent and the government decided that it would be inappropriate for it to assert its supremacy by invoking the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 over such an unpopular issue.
Instead, then Home Secretary, James Chuter Ede, set up a new Royal Commission (the Royal Commission on Capital Punishment, 1949–1953) with instructions to determine "whether the liability to suffer capital punishment should be limited or modified". The Commission's report discussed a number of alternatives to execution by hanging (including the electric chair, gas inhalation, lethal injection, shooting, and the guillotine), but rejected them. It had more difficulty with the principle of capital punishment. Popular opinion believed that the death penalty acted as a deterrent to criminals, but the statistics within the report were inconclusive. Whilst the report recommended abolition from an ethical standpoint, it made no mention of possible miscarriages of justice. The public had by then expressed great dissatisfaction with the verdict in the case of Timothy Evans, who was tried and hanged in 1950 for murdering his infant daughter. It later transpired in 1953 that John Christie had strangled at least six women in the same house; he also confessed to killing Timothy's wife. If the jury in Evans's trial had known this, Evans might have been acquitted. There were other cases in the same period where doubts arose over convictions and subsequent hangings, such as the notorious case of Derek Bentley.
The commission concluded that unless there was overwhelming public support in favour of abolition, the death penalty should be retained.
Between 1900 and 1949, 621 men and 11 women were executed in England and Wales. Ten German agents were executed during the First World War under the Defence of the Realm Act 1914,[13] and 16 spies were executed during the Second World War under the Treachery Act 1940.[14]
By 1957 a number of controversial cases highlighted the issue of capital punishment again. Campaigners for abolition were partially rewarded with the Homicide Act 1957. The Act brought in a distinction between capital and non-capital murder. Only six categories of murder were now punishable by execution:
in the course or furtherance of theft
by shooting or causing an explosion
while resisting arrest or during an escape
of a police officer
of a prison officer by a prisoner
the second of two murders committed on different occasions (if both done in Great Britain).
The police and the government were of the opinion that the death penalty deterred offenders from carrying firearms and it was for this reason that such offences remained punishable by death.
Abolition[edit]
The only known photograph of the death sentence being pronounced in England and Wales, for the poisoner Frederick Seddon in 1912[15]
In 1965 the Labour MP Sydney Silverman, who had committed himself to the cause of abolition for longer than 20 years, introduced a Private Member's Bill to suspend the death penalty for murder. It was passed on a free vote in the House of Commons by 200 votes to 98. The bill was subsequently passed by the House of Lords by 204 votes to 104.[16][17] Silverman was opposed in the General Election 1966 in the Nelson and Colne constituency by Patrick Downey, the uncle of Lesley Anne Downey, a victim in the Moors murders case, who stood on an explicitly pro-hanging platform. Downey polled over 5,000 votes, 13.7%, then the largest vote for a genuinely independent candidate since 1945.[18]
The Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965 suspended the death penalty in Great Britain (but not in Northern Ireland) for murder for a period of five years, and substituted a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment; it further provided that if, before the expiry of the five-year suspension, each House of Parliament passed a resolution to make the effect of the Act permanent, then it would become permanent. In 1969 the Home Secretary, James Callaghan, proposed a motion to make the Act permanent, which was carried in the Commons on 16 December 1969,[19] and a similar motion was carried in the Lords on 18 December.[20] The death penalty for murder was abolished in Northern Ireland on 25 July 1973 under the Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973.
Following the abolition of the death penalty for murder, the House of Commons held a vote during each subsequent parliament until 1997 to restore the death penalty. This motion was always defeated, but the death penalty remained for other crimes until the dates mentioned below:
causing a fire or explosion in a naval dockyard, ship, magazine or warehouse (until 1971);
espionage[21] (until 1981);
piracy with violence (until 1998);
treason (until 1998); and
certain purely military offences under the jurisdiction of the armed forces, such as mutiny[22] (until 1998). Prior to its complete abolition in 1998, it was available for six offences:
serious misconduct in action;
assisting the enemy;
obstructing operations;
giving false air signals;
mutiny or incitement to mutiny; and
failure to suppress a mutiny with intent to assist the enemy.
However, no executions were carried out in the United Kingdom for any of these offences after the abolition of the death penalty for murder.
Nevertheless, there remained a working gallows at HMP Wandsworth, London, until 1994, which was tested every six months until 1992. This gallows is now housed in the Galleries of Justice in Nottingham.[23]
Last executions[edit]
England and in the United Kingdom: on 13 August 1964, Peter Anthony Allen, at Walton Prison in Liverpool, and Gwynne Owen Evans, at Strangeways Prison in Manchester, were executed for the murder of John Alan West on 7 April that year.[24]
Scotland: Henry John Burnett, 21, on 15 August 1963 in Craiginches Prison, Aberdeen, for the murder of seaman Thomas Guyan.
Northern Ireland: Robert McGladdery, 26, on 20 December 1961 in Crumlin Road Gaol, Belfast, for the murder of Pearl Gamble.
Wales: Vivian Teed, 24, in Swansea on 6 May 1958, for the murder of William Williams, sub-postmaster of Fforestfach Post Office.[25]
Last death sentences[edit]
Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom: Liam Holden in 1973 in Northern Ireland, for the capital murder of a British soldier during the Troubles. Holden was removed from the death cell in May 1973.[26] In 2012 his conviction was quashed on appeal on the grounds that his confession was obtained by torture.[27]
England: David Chapman, who was sentenced to hang in November 1965 for the murder of a swimming pool nightwatchman in Scarborough. He was released from prison in 1979 and later died in a car accident.
Scotland: Patrick McCarron in 1964 for shooting his wife. He committed suicide in prison in 1970.
Wales: Edgar Black, who was reprieved on 6 November 1963. He had shot his wife's lover in Cardiff.
Final abolition[edit]
The Criminal Damage Act 1971 abolished the offence of arson in royal dockyards.
The Naval Discipline Act 1957 reduced the scope of capital espionage from "all spies for the enemy" to spies on naval ships or bases.[28] Later, the Armed Forces Act 1981 abolished the death penalty for espionage.[29] (The Official Secrets Act 1911 had created another offence of espionage which carried a maximum sentence of fourteen years.)
Beheading was abolished as a method of execution for treason in 1973.[30] Hanging, however, remained available until 1998 when, under a House of Lords amendment to the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, proposed by Lord Archer of Sandwell, the death penalty was abolished for treason and piracy with violence, replacing it with a discretionary maximum sentence of life imprisonment. These were the last civilian offences punishable by death.
On 20 May 1998 the House of Commons voted to ratify the 6th Protocol of the European Convention on Human Rights prohibiting capital punishment except "in time of war or imminent threat of war". The last remaining provisions for the death penalty under military jurisdiction (including in wartime) were removed when section 21(5) of the Human Rights Act 1998 came into force on 9 November 1998. On 10 October 2003, effective from 1 February 2004,[31] the UK acceded to the 13th Protocol, which prohibits the death penalty in all circumstances.[32]
As a legacy from colonial times, several states in the West Indies still had the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the court of final appeal; although the death penalty has been retained in these states, the Privy Council would sometimes delay or deny executions. Some of these states severed links with the British court system in 2001 by transferring the responsibilities of the Privy Council to the Caribbean Court of Justice, to speed up executions.[33]
Crown dependencies[edit]
Further information: Capital punishment in the Isle of Man and Capital punishment in Jersey
Although not part of the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey are British Crown dependencies.
In the Channel Islands, the last death sentence was passed in 1984; the last execution in the Channel Islands was in Jersey on 9 October 1959, when Francis Joseph Huchet was hanged for murder.[34] The Human Rights (Amendment) (Jersey) Order 2006[35] amends the Human Rights (Jersey) Law 2000[36] to give effect to the 13th Protocol of the European Convention on Human Rights providing for the total abolition of the death penalty. Both of these laws came into effect on 10 December 2006. Capital punishment was abolished in Guernsey in 2003, and the 13th Protocol was extended to Guernsey in April 2004. Sark (which is part of Guernsey but has its own laws) formally retained it until January 2004, when the Chief Pleas in a 14–9 vote removed it from the statutes.[37][38]
The last execution on the Isle of Man took place in 1872, when John Kewish was hanged for patricide. Capital punishment was not formally abolished by Tynwald (the island's parliament) until 1993.[39] Five persons were sentenced to death (for murder) on the Isle of Man between 1973 and 1992, although all sentences were commuted to life imprisonment. The last person to be sentenced to death in the UK or its dependencies was Anthony Teare, who was convicted at the Manx Court of General Gaol Delivery in Douglas for contract murder in 1992; he was subsequently retried and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1994.[40] In 2004 the 13th Protocol was adopted,[41] with an effective date of 1 November 2006.[42]
Overseas territories[edit]
Like the Crown dependencies, the British overseas territories are constitutionally not part of the United Kingdom. However, the British government's ultimate responsibility for good governance of the territories has led it over recent years to pursue a policy of revoking all statutory provision for the death penalty in those territories where it had up until recently been legal.
The last executions in an overseas territory, and indeed the last on British soil, took place in Bermuda in 1977, when two men, Larry Tacklyn and Erskine Burrows, were hanged for the 1973 murder of the territory's then Governor Sir Richard Sharples.[43]
In 1991, the British government extended an Order in Council to its Caribbean territories the effect of which was to abolish capital punishment for murder: Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat and the Turks and Caicos Islands.[44]
The British government was unable to extend the abolition via Order in Council to Bermuda, the UK's most autonomous overseas territory with powers of almost total self-governance—but warned that if voluntary abolition was not forthcoming it would be forced to consider the unprecedented step of "whether to impose abolition by means of an Act of Parliament".[45] As a result, the Bermudian government introduced its own domestic legislation in 1999 to rectify the problem.[46]
Further measures were subsequently adopted to revoke technicalities in British overseas territories' domestic legislation as regards use of the death penalty for crimes of treason and piracy. In October 2002 the British government abolished the death penalty for treason and piracy in the Turks and Caicos Islands. Since then, the death penalty has been outlawed under all circumstances in all the UK's overseas territories.[47]
Policy regarding foreign capital punishment[edit]
Under section 94 of the Extradition Act 2003, it is unlawful for an extradition of an individual to take place if the individual is accused of a capital crime, unless the Home Secretary has received assurances that the death penalty would not be applied in that case.[48][49] Regardless of this, in July 2018, the Government said it will not object to the United States seeking the death penalty for two suspected British members of ISIS captured by the Syrian Democratic Forces.[50][51] Although not strictly an extradition case, in response to an urgent question in Parliament on the matter, the Government stated that they still held the policy "to oppose the death penalty in all circumstances as a matter of principle".[52]
Public support for reintroduction of capital punishment[edit]
Since the death penalty's suspension in 1965, there have been continued public and media calls for its reintroduction, particularly prompted by high-profile murder cases.
At the same time, there have been a number of miscarriages of justice since 1965 where someone convicted of murder has later had their conviction quashed on appeal and been released from prison, strengthening the argument of those who oppose the death penalty's reintroduction. These include the Birmingham Six (cleared in 1991 of planting an IRA bomb which killed 21 people in 1974), the Guildford Four (cleared in 1989 of murdering five people in another 1974 IRA bombing), Stephen Downing (a Derbyshire man who was freed in 2001 after serving 27 years for the murder of a woman in a churchyard) and Barry George (who was freed in 2007 when his conviction for the 1999 murder of TV presenter Jill Dando was quashed on appeal).[53]
Perhaps the first high-profile murder case which sparked widespread calls for a return of the death penalty was the Moors murders trial in 1966, the year after the death penalty's suspension, in which Ian Brady and Myra Hindley were sentenced to life imprisonment for the murders of two children and a teenager in the Manchester area (they later confessed to a further two murders).[54] Later in 1966, the murder of three policemen in West London also attracted widespread public support for the death penalty's return.[55] Other subsequent high-profile cases to have sparked widespread media and public calls for the death penalty's return include "Yorkshire Ripper" Peter Sutcliffe, convicted in 1981 of murdering 13 women and attacking seven others in the north of England,[56] Roy Whiting, who murdered a seven-year-old girl in West Sussex in 2000,[57] and Ian Huntley, a Cambridgeshire school caretaker who killed two 10-year-old girls in 2002.[58]
A November 2009 television survey showed that 70% favoured reinstating the death penalty for at least one of the following crimes: armed robbery, rape, crimes related to paedophilia, terrorism, adult murder, child murder, child rape, treason, child abuse or kidnapping. However, respondents only favoured capital punishment for adult murder, the polling question asked by other organisations such as Gallup, by small majorities or pluralities: overall, 51% favoured the death penalty for adult murder, while 56% in Wales did, 55% in Scotland, and only 49% in England.[59]
In August 2011, the Internet blogger Paul Staines—who writes a political blog as Guido Fawkes and heads the Restore Justice Campaign—launched an e-petition on the Downing Street website calling for the restoration of the death penalty for those convicted of the murder of children and police officers.[60] The petition was one of several in support or opposition of capital punishment to be published by the government with the launch of its e-petitions website. Petitions attracting 100,000 signatures would prompt a parliamentary debate on a particular topic, but not necessarily lead to any Parliamentary Bills being put forward.[61] When the petition closed on 4 February 2012 it had received 26,351 signatures in support of restoring capital punishment,[62] but a counter-petition calling to retain the ban on capital punishment received 33,455 signatures during the same time period.[63]
Also in August 2011, a representative survey conducted by Angus Reid Public Opinion showed that 65% of Britons support reinstating the death penalty for murder in Great Britain, while 28% oppose this course of action. Men and respondents aged over 35 are more likely to endorse the change.[64]
In March 2015 a survey by the NatCen British Social Attitudes Report showed that public support for the death penalty had dropped to 48 per cent.[65]
Parliamentary debates on reintroduction[edit]
After Royal Assent for the Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965, supporters in Parliament have made several attempts to reintroduce capital punishment. On 23 November 1966, Duncan Sandys was refused leave to bring in a Bill to restore capital punishment for the murder of police or prison officers, by a vote of 170 to 292.[66] Motions to make the five-year suspension of capital punishment under the 1965 Act permanent were opposed, but agreed by 343 to 185 in the House of Commons;[67] in the House of Lords, an amendment to continue with a temporary suspension of capital punishment until 31 July 1973 was rejected by 174 to 220.[68] In April 1973, the House of Commons voted against reintroduction.[69]
The deaths of civilians in several IRA bombings in 1974 prompted a renewed debate. On 11 December 1974 Brian Walden moved a motion declaring that "the death penalty would neither deter terrorists nor increase the safety of the public"; Jill Knight moved an amendment calling instead for introduction of legislation providing for death to be the penalty for acts of terrorism causing death. Her amendment was rejected by 217 to 369.[70] A year later, Ivan Lawrence's motion "That this House demands capital punishment for terrorist offences causing death" was rejected by 232 to 361.[71]
After the Conservatives' victory in the 1979 general election, Eldon Griffiths (Parliamentary adviser to the Police Federation of England and Wales) moved a motion "that the sentence of capital punishment should again be available to the courts" on 19 July 1979.[72] While the motion was not expected to pass, the margin of its defeat (243 to 362) was much wider than expected.[73] Later in the same Parliament, the Criminal Justice Bill provided an opportunity on 11 May 1982 for several new clauses to be proposed which would have reinstated capital punishment. The first, which simply declared that "A person convicted of murder shall be liable to capital punishment", was tabled by Edward Gardner, and rejected by 195 to 357.[74] It was followed by an alternative under which capital punishment would be available "as the penalty for an act of terrorism involving the loss of human life"; this new clause was rejected by 176 to 332.[75] A further new clause proposing capital punishment "as the penalty for murder by means of firearms or explosives" was rejected by 176 to 343.[76] Then a new clause allowing for capital punishment "as the penalty for murder of a police or prison officer" was rejected by 208 to 332.[77] Finally a new clause allowing capital punishment "as the penalty for murder in the course of robbery and burglary which involves the use of offensive weapons" was rejected by 151 to 331.[78]
The new Parliament in 1983 again prompted supporters of capital punishment to put their case. Sir Edward Gardner's motion "That this House favours the restoration of the death penalty for murder" was debated on 13 July 1983, with several amendments moved to restrict capital punishment to certain categories of murder. The amendments were voted on first: capital punishment for murder "resulting from acts of terrorism" was rejected by 245 to 361, for murder "of a police officer during the course of his duties" by 263 to 344, for murder "of a prison officer during the course of his duties" by 252 to 348, for murder "by shooting or causing an explosion" by 204 to 374, and for murder "in the course or furtherance of theft" by 194 to 369. The main motion was then defeated by 223 to 368.[79] Towards the end of the Parliament, a new clause proposed to the Criminal Justice Bill proposed to return the death penalty for "A person convicted by the unanimous verdict of a jury of the premeditated killing of another person or of knowingly and intentionally killing another person in a manner, or for a reason, or in circumstances which a reasonable person would consider to be evil" was rejected by 230 to 342 on 1 April 1987.[80]
The Criminal Justice Bill in 1988 provided a further opportunity for a debate; the new clause proposed by Roger Gale allowed for the jury in a murder case to "have the power, upon reaching a verdict of guilt of murder, to recommend ... death in the manner authorised by law". It was rejected by 218 to 341.[81]
The aforementioned bills were rejected despite support from then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.[82]
On 17 December 1990 a new Criminal Justice Bill again saw amendments designed to reintroduce capital punishment. The first covered anyone over 18 "convicted of the murder of a police officer acting in the execution of his duty" and was rejected by 215 to 350;[83] a general reintroduction of death as the penalty for murder (with special provision for the Court of Appeal to decide whether to substitute a life sentence) was then rejected by 182 to 367.[84] Capital punishment for "murder committed by means of firearms, explosives or an offensive weapon, or for the murder of a police or prison officer" was rejected by 186 to 349.[85]
The most recent Parliamentary debate on a question proposing reintroduction of capital punishment came on 21 February 1994 when new clauses to the Criminal Justice and Public Order Bill were moved. The first, providing for death as the sentence for "the murder of a police officer acting in the execution of his duty", was rejected by 186 to 383;[86] A new clause providing for general reintroduction with power for the Court of Appeal to substitute life imprisonment was rejected by 159 to 403.[87] This would have been aimed at terrorists in the Northern Ireland conflict.[88]
In June 2013 a new bill for capital punishment in England and Wales was introduced. This Bill has been withdrawn and will not progress any further.[89]
Parties' stance on the issue[edit]
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The following parties support the reintroduction of capital punishment:
National Front (NF)
British National Party (BNP)
British Democratic Party
Britain First
Notable executions in the United Kingdom[edit]
Note: This list does not include the beheadings of nobility.
Before 1707[edit]
13 April 1546: Alice Glaston, the youngest known girl legally executed in England, at age 11 for an unknown offence.[90][91][92][93][94][95]
23 February 1629: John Dean, the youngest known person legally executed in England, at age 8 or 9 for arson.[92][96]
30 January 1649: King Charles I, the only English or Scottish King to be executed, was found guilty of high treason by 59 commissioners and was beheaded.[97]
Kingdom of Great Britain, 1707–1801[edit]
16 November 1724: Jack Sheppard, housebreaker, was hanged at Tyburn for burglary after four successful escape attempts from jail. His partner-in-crime, highwayman Joseph "Blueskin" Blake, was executed for the same burglary five days earlier.
24 May 1725: Jonathan Wild, criminal overlord and fraudulent "Thief Taker General", was hanged at Tyburn for receiving stolen goods and thus aiding criminals.
7 April 1739: Dick Turpin, infamous highwayman, was hanged.
30 July 1746: nine Catholic members of the Manchester Regiment, Jacobites, were hanged, drawn and quartered for treason at Kennington Common (now Kennington Park).
9 April 1747: Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat, Jacobite leader and Scottish Clan chief, at Tower Hill, the last man to be publicly beheaded in Britain.
3 October 1750: James MacLaine, 'The Gentleman Highwayman', was hanged at Tyburn, London
14 March 1757: John Byng became the only British admiral executed, by firing squad by the Royal Navy. His crime was having failed to "do his utmost" at the Battle of Minorca during the Seven Years' War.
5 May 1760: Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers was executed at Tyburn for the murder of a servant.[98] He was the last peer to be hanged (reputedly by a silken rope) and is the only peer to have been hanged for murder.
18 March 1789: Catherine Murphy, a counterfeiter, was the last woman in England to be burned at the stake (though she was in fact strangled before the fire was lit, and thus not literally burned to death). The penalty of burning at the stake, which at the time applied to women and not to men, was abolished the next year.[99]
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 1801–1922[edit]
13 November 1805: Richard Harding was hanged for knowingly uttering playing cards with forged ace of spades.
18 May 1812: John Bellingham was hanged for the murder of Prime Minister Spencer Perceval.
8 September 1820: Andrew Hardie and John Baird were hanged and beheaded at Stirling after being tried for their part in the Radical War in Scotland.
11 August 1828: William Corder was hanged at Bury St Edmunds for the murder of Maria Marten at the Red Barn a year before.
9 August 1856: Elizabeth Martha Brown was the last woman to be hanged in public in the English county of Dorset; her hanging is notable in part because it influenced Thomas Hardy, an eyewitness, in his portrayal of the execution of the fictional heroine of Tess of the D'Urbervilles.
27 August 1861: Martin Doyle was the last person to be hanged for attempted murder, at Chester.
29 April 1862: Mary Timney's hanging was the last public execution of a woman in Scotland.[100]
14 November 1864: Franz Muller was hanged for the murder of Thomas Briggs, the first murder committed on a British train.
2 April 1868: Frances Kidder was the last woman to be hanged in public in Britain.[101]
26 May 1868: Fenian Michael Barrett was executed at Newgate Prison for mass murder. He had participated in the Clerkenwell explosion, which had killed 12 people. His execution was the last public hanging in the UK.
19 July 1899: Mary Ansell was hanged at St Albans, for poisoning her sister. At 22, she was the youngest woman to be hanged in the post-1868 'modern era' (non-public, and by the 'long drop' method).
23 November 1910: Hawley Harvey Crippen was hanged in London's Pentonville Prison for poisoning his wife.
8 September 1914: Private Thomas Highgate was executed by firing squad, the first British soldier to be executed for desertion during World War I.
13 August 1915: George Joseph Smith was hanged in Maidstone Prison for the pattern of serial killings known as the "Brides in the Bath Murders".
3 August 1916: Roger Casement was hanged at Pentonville for treason, he was convicted of conspiring with Germany, then at war with the United Kingdom, to incite insurrection in Ireland and to incite Irish soldiers serving in the British Army to mutiny.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, 1922–1964[edit]
9 January 1923: Edith Thompson and Frederick Bywaters, in London's Holloway and Pentonville Prisons respectively, for the murder of Thompson's husband. The case was controversial because, although in letters Thompson had fantasised about the possible elimination of her husband, there was no firm evidence that she was in any way connected with the murder for which she was hanged.
3 January 1931: Victor Betts for murder committed during the course of a robbery. The case had established that a person need not be present when a crime is committed to be regarded as an accessory after the fact.[102]
31 July 1940: Udham Singh, an Indian independence activist, at Pentonville Prison. He had assassinated the Indian administrator Sir Michael O'Dwyer.
15 August 1941: Josef Jakobs, a German spy, was executed by firing squad, the last execution in the Tower of London.
19 December 1945; John Amery, a British fascist and Nazi collaborator, pleaded guilty of eight charges of treason. Hanged at Wandsworth Prison in London.
3 January 1946: William Joyce, better known as "Lord Haw-Haw", for treason in London's Wandsworth Prison. He was an American citizen, but was convicted of treason because, as the holder of a British passport (albeit fraudulently obtained), he was held to have owed allegiance to the British sovereign. Theodore Schurch, hanged for treachery the next day, was the last person to be executed for an offence other than murder; he was executed at Pentonville. As a member of the armed forces he had been tried by court-martial.
27 February 1947: Walter Rowland in Manchester for the murder of Olive Balchin despite maintaining his innocence. While he had been awaiting execution, another man confessed to the crime. A Home Office report dismissed the latter's confession as a fake, but in 1951 he attacked another woman and was found guilty but insane.[103]
12 January 1949: Margaret Allen, aged 43, for killing a 70-year-old woman in the course of a robbery, the first woman to be hanged in Britain for 12 years.
10 August 1949: John George Haigh, the "acid-bath murderer", at Wandsworth.
9 March 1950: Timothy Evans at Pentonville for the murder of his baby daughter Geraldine at 10 Rillington Place, North West London. He initially claimed to have killed his wife, but later withdrew the claim. A fellow inhabitant at the same address, John Christie, later found to be a sexual serial killer, gave key evidence against Evans. Christie was executed in 1953 for the murder of his own wife. Evans received a posthumous pardon in 1966. In 2004 the Court of Appeal refused to consider overturning the conviction due to the costs and resources that would be involved. See John Christie (murderer).
28 March 1950: George Kelly at Liverpool for murder, but had his conviction quashed posthumously by the Court of Appeal in June 2003.
25 April 1952: Edward Devlin and Alfred Burns, for killing a woman during a robbery in Liverpool. They claimed that they had been doing a different burglary in Manchester, and others involved in the crime supported this. A Home Office report rejected this evidence. Huge crowds gathered outside Liverpool's Walton Prison as they were executed.
3 September 1952: Mahmood Hussein Mattan, a Somali seaman, in Cardiff for murder. The Court of Appeal quashed his conviction posthumously in 1998[104] after hearing that crucial evidence implicating another Somali was withheld at his trial.
28 January 1953: Derek Bentley at Wandsworth Prison as an accomplice to the murder of a police officer by his 16-year-old friend Christopher Craig. Craig, a minor, was not executed and instead served 10 years. Bentley was granted a partial posthumous pardon on 29 July 1993, and the Court of Appeal fully overturned his conviction on 30 July 1998.
15 July 1953: John Christie at Pentonville for the murder of his wife Ethel. Christie was a serial killer and had murdered at least six other women (see also entry on Timothy Evans above).
13 December 1954: Styllou Christofi, aged 53, penultimate woman executed in Britain.
13 July 1955: Ruth Ellis, aged 28, the last woman to be hanged in Britain. She was the 15th and youngest woman hanged in the 20th century.
6 May 1958: Vivian Teed, 24, in Swansea, the last person to be executed in Wales.
11 July 1958: Peter Manuel, aged 31, second to last person to be hanged in HM Prison Barlinnie and the third to last to be hanged in Scotland.
5 November 1959: Guenther Podola, the last person to be hanged for the murder of a policeman.
10 November 1960: Francis Forsyth, the last 18-year-old to be executed in Britain.
22 December 1960: Anthony Miller, 19, in Glasgow's Barlinnie Prison, the last teenager to be executed in Britain.
20 December 1961: Robert McGladdery, 25, in Crumlin Road Gaol in Belfast, the last person to be executed in Northern Ireland, for the murder of Pearl Gamble in Newry.
4 April 1962: James Hanratty at Bedford after a controversial rape-murder trial. In 2002 Hanratty's body was exhumed and the Court of Appeal upheld his conviction after Hanratty's DNA was linked to crime scene samples.
15 August 1963: Henry Burnett, aged 21, at Craiginches Prison in Aberdeen for the murder of seaman Thomas Guyan, the last hanging in Scotland.
13 August 1964: Peter Anthony Allen, at Walton Prison in Liverpool, and Gwynne Owen Evans, at Strangeways Prison in Manchester for the murder of John Alan West, the last people executed in Britain.[24][105]
See also[edit]
English criminal law
Black cap
Christopher Simcox
Courts of the United Kingdom
Execution by firing squad in the United Kingdom
List of executioners
Shot at Dawn Memorial
Use of capital punishment by country
Wrongful execution
Capital punishment in Hong Kong
Capital punishment in Singapore
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Hoffman & Rowe 2010, p. 148
Jump up ^ Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). House of Commons. 9 February 1810. col. 366–374.
^ Jump up to: a b Manta, Irina D. (2011). "The Puzzle of Criminal Sanctions for Intellectual Property Infringement" (PDF). Harvard Journal of Law & Technology. 24 (2): 474.
Jump up ^ "Punishments at the Old Bailey—Late 17th Century to Early 19th Century". The Old Bailey Proceedings Online. 2003. Archived from the original on 10 March 2007. Retrieved 13 March 2007.
Jump up ^ Gatrell, V. A. C., The Hanging Tree, OUP, Oxford, 1994
Jump up ^ Coinage Offences Act 1832 and Forgery, Abolition of Punishment of Death Act 1832
Jump up ^ "Hanging in the Balance: A History of the Abolition of Capital Punishment in Britain – by Brian P Block and John Hostettler". watersidepress.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Great Britain. Royal Commission on Capital Punishment (1864—66)
Royal Commission on Capital Punishment together with the minutes of evidence and appendix. London, 1866. (Parliamentary Papers. Session 1866. vol. 21)
Jump up ^ Forfeiture Act 1870 (repealing part of section 1 of Treason Act 1814).
Jump up ^ Chase, Malcolm (2007), Chartism: A New History, Manchester: Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-6087-7, pp. 137-140
Jump up ^ Abbott, Geoffrey (2005) [1994], Execution, a Guide to the Ultimate Penalty, Chichester, West Sussex: Summersdale Publishers, ISBN 1-84024-433-X, pp. 161-162
Jump up ^ Lorraine Radford (5 April 2012). Rethinking Children, Violence and Safeguarding. A&C Black. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-1-84706-558-2.
Jump up ^ "TREACHERY BILL". millbanksystems.com.
Jump up ^ "Executions". millbanksystems.com.
Jump up ^ Photography in and near law courts was criminalised by the Criminal Justice Act 1925
Jump up ^ "Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965". UK Statute Law Database. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "1969: MPs vote to abolish hanging". "On This Day". BBC. 2005. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Twitchell, Neville (2012). The Politics of the Rope. Bury Saint Edmunds: Arena Books. p. 287. ISBN 978-1-906791-98-8.
Jump up ^ "MURDER (ABOLITION OF DEATH PENALTY)". Hansard, 16 December 1969.
Jump up ^ "MURDER (ABOLITION OF DEATH PENALTY) ACT 1965". Hansard, 18 December 1969.
Jump up ^ The Naval Discipline Act 1957, section 93; previously the Naval Discipline Act (1866), section 6.
Jump up ^ "Statutelaw.gov.uk". Statutelaw.gov.uk. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Last executions in the UK". Stephen-stratford.com. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
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Jump up ^ Ian Cobain (21 June 2012). "Army 'waterboarding victim' who spent 17 years in jail is cleared of murder". The Guardian. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Naval Discipline Act 1957, section 93". statutelaw.gov.uk. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Armed Forces Act 1981 (c. 55), section 17 – Statute Law Database". legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Treason Act 1814 section 2, repealed in England by Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1973 (c. 39), Sch. 1 Pt. V.
Jump up ^ "Human Rights Act 1998 (Amendment) Order 2004". opsi.gov.uk. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "13th Protocol". conventions.coe.int. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Bowcott, Owen (15 February 2001). "Caribbean severs link to privy council". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 13 March 2007.
Jump up ^ http://www.richard.clark32.btinternet.co.uk/islands.html Archived 8 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Human Rights (Amendment) (Jersey) Order 2006" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2008. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Human Rights (Jersey) Law 2000" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2008. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Report by the Bailiwick of Guernsey Archived 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine. (page 5)
Jump up ^ "Sark abolishes death penalty". BBC News. 21 January 2004.
Jump up ^ UN Human Rights report para. 46
Jump up ^ "firedrake.org/drpete/manx2.htm". Firedrake.org. Archived from the original on 2 March 2008. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Human Rights Act 2001 (13th Protocol) Order 2004" (PDF). Retrieved 3 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 2001 (APPOINTED DAY) (No. 2) ORDER 2006" (PDF). Retrieved 3 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Taking Liberties: Universal Declaration of Human Rights". British Library. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Caribbean Territories (Abolition of Death Penalty for Murder) Order 1991". Office of Public Sector Information. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Partnership for Progress and Prosperity: Britain and the Overseas Territories, (1999) page 21" (PDF). Retrieved 2 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Amnesty International: Bermuda shows the way forward". Amnesty International. 7 January 2000. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Death penalty abolished on all British territory – Times Online, 23 October 2002. (Retrieved 5 June 2016.)
Jump up ^ "Amber Rudd 'perplexed' by decision to give US option to potentially execute British-born jihadists". The Independent. Retrieved 2018-08-23.
Jump up ^ Section 94 at legislation.gov.uk
Jump up ^ http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-07-23/britain-will-not-block-death-penalty-for-is-suspects:-reports/10027240
Jump up ^ https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/07/22/uk-drops-death-penalty-guantanamo-opposition-opens-door-execution/
Jump up ^ "Foreign Fighters and the Death Penalty - Hansard". hansard.parliament.uk. Retrieved 2018-08-23.
Jump up ^ "Death penalty 'proper punishment' for some crimes – MP". BBC News. 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Welch, Francis (5 April 2011). "Our dedication to the death penalty". The Guardian. London.
Jump up ^ "Police Killer Could Be Freed". nnet-server.com.
Jump up ^ Faith Eckersall. "Faith Eckersall looks at the capital punishment debate". Bournemouth Echo.
Jump up ^ "Police ovation for mother of Sarah". thefreelibrary.com.
Jump up ^ "BBC – Will & Testament: Who cares about Ian Huntley?". BBC.
Jump up ^ "Survey for Channel 4 on attitudes towards the death penalty". Ipsos MORI. 28 October 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Cafe, Rebecca (4 August 2011). "Does the public want the death penalty brought back?". BBC News. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "E-petitions urge MPs to debate return of death penalty". BBC News. 4 August 2011. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Restore Capital Punishment, epetitions.direct.gov.uk
Jump up ^ Petition to retain the ban on Capital Punishment, epetitions.direct.gov.uk
Jump up ^ Canseco, Mario (23 August 2011). "Most Britons Support Reinstating the Death Penalty for Murder" (PDF). ARPO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2012. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Support for death penalty below 50%, Metro, 27 March 2015, p. 6.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 5ser vol 736 cols 1409–18.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 5ser vol 793 cols 1148–1297.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HL 5ser vol 306 cols 1264–1321.
Jump up ^ "Restoration of Capital Punishment Bill". Hansard 1803–2005. 11 April 1973. Retrieved 16 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 5ser vol 883 cols 518–640.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 5ser vol 902 cols 663–728.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 5ser vol 970 cols 2019–2125.
Jump up ^ Hoggart, Simon (20 July 1979). "Death penalty rejected by 119 in Commons". The Guardian. p. 1.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 6ser vol 23 cols 608–686.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 6ser vol 23 cols 686–690.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 6ser vol 23 cols 691–694.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 6ser vol 23 cols 694–698.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 6ser vol 23 cols 698–701.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 6ser vol 45 cols 882–986.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 6ser vol 113 cols 1115–1191.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 6ser vol 134 cols 743–807, 807–818.
Jump up ^ "TV Interview for Channel 4 A plus 4 (Brighton Bomb)". margaretthatcher.org.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 6ser vol 183 cols 22–116.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 6ser vol 183 cols 116–120.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 6ser vol 183 cols 124–128.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 6ser vol 238 cols 24–70.
Jump up ^ Hansard, HC 6ser vol 238 cols 70–74.
Jump up ^ Katie Engelhart (30 December 2014). "Margaret Thatcher Wanted to Reinstate Death Penalty for Northern Irish 'Terrorists,' Show Newly Released Files". Vice News. Retrieved 15 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Page not found". Parliament of the United Kingdom.
Jump up ^ Butler, Sir Thomas (1861). The Cambrian Journal, 49. London. p. 89.
Jump up ^ "Alice Glaston". wordpress.com. 19 March 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Children & juvenile executions". www.capitalpunishmentuk.org.
Jump up ^ Samantha Lyon (2013). A Grim Almanac of Shropshire. The History Press.
Jump up ^ deVire, David (2016). Tail of the Tigress: Views on the Road to Gender Equality. Backdaw Publishing. p. 211. ISBN 9780995457614. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
Jump up ^ BUTLER, Sir Thomas (1861). Extracts from the Register of Sir Thomas Butler, Vicar of Much Wenlock, in Shropshire [1538-1562] ... By the Rev. Charles Henry Hartshorne. Reprinted from the “Cambrian Journal,” etc. R. Mason. p. 11. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Hale, Matthew (1800). Historia Placitorum Coronæ: The History of the Pleas of the Crown, by Sir Matthew Hale. 1. London: Printed by E. Rider, for T. Payne, H. L. Gardner, W. Otridge, E. and R. Brooke and J. Rider [and seven others in London]. p. 24. OCLC 645127647.
Jump up ^ Cust, Richard (2005), Charles I: A Political Life, Harlow: Pearson Education, ISBN 0-582-07034-1
Jump up ^ Timothy Vance Kaufman-Osborn (2002). From noose to needle: capital punishment and the late liberal state. Law, meaning, and violence. University of Michigan Press. p. 77. ISBN 0-472-08890-4.
Jump up ^ James Holbert Wilson (1853). Temple bar, the city Golgotha, by a member of the Inner Temple. p. 4.
Jump up ^ Rinaldi, Giancarlo (27 April 2012). "Mary Timney: the last woman publicly hanged in Scotland". BBC News. Retrieved 25 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Patrick Wilson (1971). Murderess: a study of the women executed in Britain since 1843. Joseph. pp. 151–154.
Jump up ^ Slapper, Gary (23 June 2008). "The cases that changed Britain: 1917–1954". The Times. London. Retrieved 9 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Henry Cecil, "Trial of Walter Graham Rowland", David & Charles, 1975, passim but in particular p. 19.
Jump up ^ Moles, Dr Robert N.; Bibi Sangha. "R v Mahmoud Hussein Mattan (Hanged) Court of Appeal 24 February 1998". Networked Knowledge. Retrieved 30 March 2008.
Jump up ^ Block & Hostettler (1997) pp.11–17
Bibliography[edit]
Hoffman, David; Rowe, John (2010), Human Rights in the UK: An Introduction to the Human Rights Act of 1998 (3 ed.), Pearson Longman, ISBN 978-1-4058-7403-8
Brian P. Block; John Hostettler (1997), Hanging in the balance: a history of the abolition of capital punishment in Britain, Waterside Press, ISBN 1-872870-47-3
Harry Potter (1993), Hanging in Judgment: Religion and the Death Penalty in England from the Bloody Code to Abolition, London, SCM Press ISBN 0-334-02533-8
Further reading[edit]
Bailey, Victor (Summer 2000). "The Shadow of the Gallows: The Death Penalty and the British Labour Government, 1945-51" (PDF). Law and History Review. p. 305-349.
McGowen, Randall (Summer 2003). "History, Culture and the Death Penalty: The British Debates, 1840-70". Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques. Berghahn Books. pp. 229–249.
Ransone, Carol Ann (August 1982). "Capital punishment : public opinion and abolition in Great Britain during the twentieth century (master's degree thesis)". - University of Richmond, Paper 882
External links[edit]
A comprehensive site about capital punishment in the UK
'Hanging With Frank' (video showing UK execution protocol at the old gallows in Barlinnie Prison)
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Money creation
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Money creation (also known as credit creation) is the process by which the money supply of a country or a monetary region (such as the Eurozone) is added to. A central bank may introduce new money into the economy (termed "expansionary monetary policy") by purchasing financial assets or lending money to financial institutions. However, in most countries today, most of the money supply is in the form of bank deposits, which is created by private banks in a fractional reserve banking system. Bank lending increases the amount of broad money beyond the amount of base money originally created by the central bank. Reserve requirements, capital adequacy ratios, and other policies are used by the central bank to limit this process.
Central banks monitor the amount of money in the economy by measuring monetary aggregates such as M2. The effect of monetary policy on the money supply is indicated by comparing these measurements on various dates. For example, in the United States, money supply measured as M2 grew from $6.407 trillion in January 2005, to $8.319 trillion in January 2009.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Money creation by the central bank
1.1 Physical currency
1.2 Quantitative easing
1.3 Monetary financing
2 Money creation by commercial banks
2.1 Re-lending
2.2 Money multiplier
3 Alternative theories
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Money creation by the central bank[edit]
Main article: Monetary policy
Monetary policy regulates a country's money supply, the amount of broad currency in circulation. Almost all modern nations have central banks such as the United States Federal Reserve System, the European Central Bank (ECB), and the People's Bank of China for conducting monetary policy. Charged with the smooth functioning of the money supply and financial markets, these institutions are generally independent of the government executive.
The primary tool of monetary policy is open market operations: the central bank buys and sells financial assets such as treasury bills, government bonds, or foreign currencies from private parties. Purchases of these assets result in currency entering market circulation, while sales of these assets remove currency. Usually, open market operations are designed to target a specific short-term interest rate. For example, the U.S. Federal Reserve may target the federal funds rate, the rate at which member banks lend to one another overnight. In other instances, they might instead target a specific exchange rate relative to some foreign currency, the price of gold, or indices such as the consumer price index.
Other monetary policy tools to expand the money supply include decreasing interest rates by fiat; increasing the monetary base; and decreasing reserve requirements. Some other means are: discount window lending (as lender of last resort); moral suasion (cajoling the behavior of certain market players); and "open mouth operations" (publicly asserting future monetary policy). The conduct and effects of monetary policy and the regulation of the banking system are of central concern to monetary economics.
Physical currency[edit]
In modern economies, relatively little of the supply of broad money is in physical currency. For example, in December 2010 in the United States, of the $8.853 trillion in broad money supply (M2), only about 10% (or $915.7 billion) consisted of physical coins and paper money.[2] The manufacturing of new physical money is usually the responsibility of the central bank, or sometimes, the government's treasury.
Contrary to popular belief, money creation in a modern economy does not directly involve the manufacturing of new physical money, such as paper currency or metal coins. Instead, when the central bank expands the money supply through open market operations (e.g., by purchasing government bonds or commercial bank assets), it credits the accounts that the government or commercial banks hold at the central bank (termed high-powered money). Governments or commercial banks may draw on these accounts to withdraw physical money from the central bank. Commercial banks may also return soiled or spoiled currency to the central bank in exchange for new currency.[3]
Quantitative easing[edit]
Main article: Quantitative easing
Quantitative easing (QE) involves the creation of a significant amount of new base money by a central bank through buying assets that it usually does not buy. Usually, a central bank will conduct open market operations by purchasing short-term government bonds or foreign currency. However, during a financial crisis, the central bank may acquire additional types of financial assets. The central bank may buy long-term government bonds, company bonds, asset-backed securities, stocks, or even extend commercial loans. The intent is to stimulate the economy by increasing liquidity and promoting bank lending in cases when interest rates cannot be pushed any lower.
Quantitative easing increases reserves in the banking system (i.e., deposits of commercial banks at the central bank), giving depository institutions the ability to make new loans. Quantitative easing is typically used when lowering the discount rate is no longer effective because interest rates are already close to, or at, zero. In such a case, normal monetary policy cannot further lower interest rates, and the economy is in a liquidity trap.
Monetary financing[edit]
Main article: Debt monetization
In principle, central banks can create money de novo in order to finance government spending, a process known as debt monetization.
Monetary financing used to be standard monetary policy in many countries including Canada[4] and France. Under the influence of monetarism, monetary financing has been gradually prohibited by law in many countries, under the rationale that monetary financing is can be dangerously inflationary.
In the Eurozone for example, Article 123 of the Lisbon Treaty explicitly prohibits the European Central Bank from financing public institutions.[5]
Money creation by commercial banks[edit]
Main article: Fractional reserve banking
In contemporary monetary systems, most money in circulation exists not as cash or coins created by the central bank, but as bank deposits. Commercial bank lending expands the amount of bank deposits.[6] Through fractional reserve banking, the modern banking system expands the money supply of a country beyond the amount initially created by the central bank, creating most of the broad money in the system.[7]
There are two types of money in a fractional-reserve banking system: currency originally issued by the central bank, and bank deposits at commercial banks:[8][9]
Central bank money (all money created by the central bank regardless of its form, e.g., banknotes, coins, electronic money)
Commercial bank money (money created in the banking system through borrowing and lending) – sometimes referred to as checkbook money[10]
When a commercial bank loan is extended, new commercial bank money is created if the loan proceeds are issued in the form of an increase in a customer's demand deposit account (that is, an increase in the bank's demand deposit liability owed to the customer). As a loan is paid back through reductions in the demand deposit liabilities the bank owes to a customer, that commercial bank money disappears from existence. Because loans are continually being issued in a normally functioning economy, the amount of broad money in the economy remains relatively stable. Because of this money creation process by the commercial banks, the money supply of a country is usually a multiple larger than the money issued by the central bank; that multiple was traditionally determined by the reserve requirements and now essentially by other financial ratios (primarily the capital adequacy ratio that limits the overall credit creation of a bank) set by the relevant banking regulators in the jurisdiction.
Re-lending[edit]
An early table, featuring reinvestment from one period to the next and a geometric series, is found in the tableau économique of the Physiocrats, which is credited as the "first precise formulation" of such interdependent systems and the origin of multiplier theory.[11]
Money multiplier[edit]
Main article: Money multiplier
The expansion of $100 through fractional-reserve lending under the re-lending model of money creation, at varying rates. Each curve approaches a limit. This limit is the value that the money multiplier calculates. Note that the top amount resulting in $1000 is not 20% but 10% as 100/0.1=1000.
The most common mechanism used to measure this increase in the money supply is typically called the money multiplier. It calculates the maximum amount of money that an initial deposit can be expanded to with a given reserve ratio – such a factor is called a multiplier. It is the maximum amount of money commercial banks can legally create for a given quantity of reserves.
It is calculated as
M = 1 R {\displaystyle M={\frac {1}{R}}}
where
M {\displaystyle M} = deposit multiple
R {\displaystyle R} = required reserve ratio.
In the re-lending model, this is alternatively calculated as a geometric series under repeated lending of a geometrically decreasing quantity of money: reserves lead loans. In endogenous money models, loans lead reserves, and it is not interpreted as a geometric series. In practice, because banks often have access to lines of credit, and the money market, and can use day time loans from central banks, there is often no requirement for a pre-existing deposit for the bank to create a loan and have it paid to another bank.[12][13]
If banks accumulate excess reserves, as occurred in such financial crises as the Great Depression and the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 – in the United States since October 2008, the relationship between base money and broad money breaks down, and central bank money creation may not result in commercial bank money creation, instead remaining as unlent (excess) reserves.[14] However, the central bank may shrink commercial bank money by shrinking central bank money, since reserves are required – thus fractional-reserve money creation is likened to a string, since the central bank can always pull money out by restricting central bank money, hence reserves, but cannot always push money out by expanding central bank money, since this may result in excess reserves, a situation referred to as "pushing on a string".
Alternative theories[edit]
There are also heterodox theories of how money is created. These include:
Chartalism sees the state as creating money when it spends, and destroying it when it taxes. More importantly, the private banking system is not, in empirical terms, reserve-limited, so its creation of money is an endogenous process, driven by credit demand and lending willingness. This accounts for the power of the state's interest rate policy in governing most of the money supply in normal times.[15][16]
Credit theory of money. This approach was initiated by Joseph Schumpeter. Credit theory asserts the central role of banks as creators and allocators of money supply, and distinguishes between "productive credit creation" (allowing non-inflationary economic growth even at full employment, in the presence of technological progress) and "unproductive credit creation" (resulting in inflation of either the consumer- or asset-price variety).[17][18]
See also[edit]
A Program for Monetary Reform
American Monetary Institute
Seigniorage - physical money creation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ US Federal Reserve historical statistics June 11, 2009 Archived June 5, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Statistic February 17, 2011
Jump up ^ Mankiw, N. Gregory (2002). Macroeconomics (5th ed.). Worth. pp. 81–107.
Jump up ^ "Is Monetary Financing Inflationary? A Case Study of the Canadian Economy, 1935–75 | Levy Economics Institute". www.levyinstitute.org. Retrieved 2017-02-11.
Jump up ^ https://www.ecb.europa.eu/mopo/eaec/fiscal/html/index.en.html
Jump up ^ "In the modern economy, most money takes the form of bank deposits. But how those bank deposits are created is often misunderstood: the principal way is through commercial banks making loans. Whenever a bank makes a loan, it simultaneously creates a matching deposit in the borrower’s bank account, thereby creating new money." Michael McLeay et al, Quarterly Bulletin 2013 Q1, http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/publications/Documents/quarterlybulletin/2014/qb14q102.pdf
Jump up ^ Modern Money Mechanics
Jump up ^ Bank for International Settlements – The Role of Central Bank Money in Payment Systems. See page 9, titled, "The coexistence of central and commercial bank monies: multiple issuers, one currency": http://www.bis.org/publ/cpss55.pdf A quick quote in reference to the 2 different types of money is listed on page 3. It is the first sentence of the document: "Contemporary monetary systems are based on the mutually reinforcing roles of central bank money and commercial bank monies."
Jump up ^ European Central Bank – Domestic payments in Euroland: commercial and central bank money: http://www.ecb.int/press/key/date/2000/html/sp001109_2.en.html One quote from the article referencing the two types of money: "At the beginning of the 20th almost the totality of retail payments were made in central bank money. Over time, this monopoly came to be shared with commercial banks, when deposits and their transfer via checks and giros became widely accepted. Banknotes and commercial bank money became fully interchangeable payment media that customers could use according to their needs. While transaction costs in commercial bank money were shrinking, cashless payment instruments became increasingly used, at the expense of banknotes"
Jump up ^ Chicago Fed – Our Central Bank: http://www.chicagofed.org/consumer_information/the_fed_our_central_bank.cfm
the reference is found in the "Money Manager" section:
"the Fed works to control money at its source by affecting the ability of financial institutions to "create" checkbook money through loans or investments. The control lever that the Fed uses in this process is the "reserves" that banks and thrifts must hold."
Jump up ^ The multiplier theory, by Hugo Hegeland, 1954, p. 1
Jump up ^ "Disyatat, P. 2010 The bank lending channel revisited." (PDF). Bank for International Settlements. Page 2. the concept of the money multiplier is flawed and uninformative in terms of analyzing the dynamics of bank lending. Page 7 When a loan is granted, banks in the first instance create a new liability that is issued to the borrower. This can be in the form of deposits or a cheque drawn on the bank, which when redeemed, becomes deposits at another bank. A well functioning interbank market overcomes the asynchronous nature of loan and deposit creation across banks. Thus loans drive deposits rather than the other way around.
Jump up ^ "Paul Tucker, Money and credit: Banking and the Macroeconomy" (PDF). Bank of England. banks....in the short run.....lever up their balance sheets and expand credit at will....Subject only but crucially to confidence in their soundness, banks extend credit by simply increasing the borrowing customer's current account.....This 'money creation' process is constrained by their need to manage the liquidity risk from the withdrawal of deposits and the drawdown of backup lines to which it exposes them.
Jump up ^ (Samuelson 1948, pp. 353–354): By increasing the volume of their government securities and loans and by lowering Member Bank legal reserve requirements, the Reserve Banks can encourage an increase in the supply of money and bank deposits. They can encourage but, without taking drastic action, they cannot compel. For in the middle of a deep depression just when we want Reserve policy to be most effective, the Member Banks are likely to be timid about buying new investments or making loans. If the Reserve authorities buy government bonds in the open market and thereby swell bank reserves, the banks will not put these funds to work but will simply hold reserves. Result: no 5 for 1, “no nothing,” simply a substitution on the bank’s balance sheet of idle cash for old government bonds.
Jump up ^ Bell, Stephanie. "The Hierarchy of Money". Retrieved 22 February 2012.
Jump up ^ New Economic Perspectives. "MMT primer". Retrieved 12 December 2012.
Jump up ^ See: Werner, Richard A. (2005). New Paradigm in Macroeconomics: Solving the Riddle of Japanese Macroeconomic Performance. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 423. ISBN 978-1403920744. OCLC 56413058.
Jump up ^ See also: Greenham, Tony; Ryan-Collins, Josh; Werner, Richard; Jackson, Andrew (2012). Where Does Money Come From?: A Guide to the UK Monetary & Banking System (2nd ed.). London: New Economics Foundation. p. 178. ISBN 978-1908506238. OCLC 816167522.
Samuelson, Paul (1948). "Economics"
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