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Pāṇini
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This article is about an ancient Sanskrit scholar from Indian subcontinent. For other uses, see Panini (disambiguation).
Pāṇini
(Sanskrit; IPA: [paːɳin̪i])
Born
fl. 6-5th century BCE[1][2]
Notable work
Aṣṭādhyāyī (Classical Sanskrit)
Region
Charsadda, Northwest Indian subcontinent[note 1] (modern day Pakistan)
Main interests
Grammar, Linguistics[4]
A 17th-century birch bark manuscript of Pāṇini's grammar treatise from Kashmir
Panini (IAST Pāṇini, fl. 6-5th century BCE[1][2]) is an ancient Sanskrit philologist, grammarian, and a revered scholar in Hinduism.[2][5][6] Considered the father of Indian linguistics,[7] Pāṇini likely lived in the northwest Indian subcontinent during the Mahajanapada era.[3]
Pāṇini is known for his text Ashtadhyayi, a sutra-style treatise on Sanskrit grammar,[6][1][2] 3,959 "verses" or rules on linguistics, syntax and semantics in "eight chapters" which is the foundational text of the Vyākaraṇa branch of the Vedanga, the auxiliary scholarly disciplines of the Vedic period.[8][9][10] His aphoristic text attracted numerous bhashya (commentaries), of which Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya is the most famous in Hindu traditions.[11][12] His ideas influenced and attracted commentaries from scholars of other Indian religions such as Buddhism.[13]
Pāṇini's analysis of noun compounds still forms the basis of modern linguistic theories of compounding in Indian languages. Pāṇini's comprehensive and scientific theory of grammar is conventionally taken to mark the start of Classical Sanskrit.[14] His systematic treatise inspired and made Sanskrit the preeminent Indian language of learning and literature for two millennia.[12]
Pāṇini's theory of morphological analysis was more advanced than any equivalent Western theory before the 20th century.[15] His treatise is generative and descriptive, and has been compared to the Turing machine wherein the logical structure of any computing device has been reduced to its essentials using an idealized mathematical model.[1]
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The name Pāṇini is a patronymic meaning descendant of Paṇina.[16] His full name was "Dakṣiputra Pāṇini" according to verses 1.75.13 and 3.251.12 of Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya, with the first part suggesting his mother's name was Dakṣi.[17]
Contents
[hide]
1 Date and context
1.1 Biography and location
1.2 Legends and later reception
2 Aṣṭādhyāyī
2.1 Rules
2.2 List of IT markers
2.3 Auxiliary texts
2.3.1 Shiva Sutras
2.3.2 Dhatupatha
2.3.3 Ganapatha
2.4 Commentary
2.5 Editions
3 Bhaṭṭikāvya
4 Modern linguistics
4.1 De Saussure
4.2 Leonard Bloomfield
4.3 Comparison with modern formal systems
5 Other works
6 In popular culture
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
9.1 Bibliography
10 External links
Date and context[edit]
Father of linguistics
The history of linguistics begins not with Plato or Aristotle, but with the Indian grammarian Panini.
— Rens Bod, University of Amsterdam[18]
Nothing definite is known about when Pāṇini lived, not even in which century he lived. Most scholarship suggests he lived in or before mid-fourth century BCE (floruit),[2][3] possibly in the sixth or fifth century BCE.[1][17] Pāṇini's grammar defines Classical Sanskrit, so Pāṇini is chronologically placed in the later part of the Vedic period. According to Rens Bod, a professor of Humanities specializing in comparative history, Pāṇini must have lived sometime between seventh and fifth centuries BCE.[18]
Some proposals have attempted to date Pāṇini from references within the text. The first proposal is based on sutra 2.1.70 of Pāṇini, which mentions kumāraśramaṇa, with the word śramaṇa interpreted to imply that he may have had "Buddhist nuns" in mind, and therefore he should be placed after Gautama Buddha. Other scholars question this theory because nuns in the Indian traditions existed outside of and before Buddhism, such as in Jainism.[19] The second proposal is based on the occurrence of the word yavanānī (in 4.1.49, either "Greek woman", or "Greek alphabet").[19] This occurrence of yavanānī, some suggest a terminus post quem as 519 BCE, i.e. the time of Darius I's Behistun Inscription that included the province of Gandhara (IAST: Gandhāra). However, in 1862 Max Müller objected to this interpretation with the statement that there is no reason to assume that yavana meant "Greek" before and in the century Pāṇini lived, and it could as well might have been a reference in a Semitic or a South Indian context.[20] More recently, Patrick Olivelle – a professor of Sanskrit and Indian religions, concurs and states that the term yona or yavana in Pāṇini is "merely linguistic and does not necessarily indicate that he knew or was in contact with Greek settlers", adding that while Pāṇini is generally estimated around the 5th century BCE, placing Pāṇini in a century "is an educated guess".[21]
It is not certain whether Pāṇini used writing for the composition of his work, though it is generally agreed that he knew of a form of writing, based on references to words such as lipi ("script") and lipikara ("scribe") in section 3.2 of the Aṣṭādhyāyī.[22][23][24][note 2] Pāṇini cites ten grammarians and linguists before him, none of whom can be chronologically placed with any certainty. The ten Vedic scholar names he quotes are of Apisali, Kashyapa, Gargya, Galava, Cakravarmana, Bharadvaja, Sakatayana, Sakalya, Senaka and Sphotayana.[31]
Both Brihatkatha and Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa mention Pāṇini to have been a contemporary with the Nanda king.[32]
While Pāṇini is considered a Hindu scholar of grammar and linguistics,[4][33][12] his text is also an important historical source of cultural and geographical information. His work is significant such as in including the word Vasudeva (4.3.98), which scholars disagree whether it refers to a deity or a person.[34] The concept of dharma is attested in his sutra 4.4.41 as, dharmam carati or "he observes dharma (duty, righteousness)" (cf. Taittiriya Upanishad 1.11).[35][36]
Biography and location[edit]
Also spelled without diacritics as Panini in scholarly literature,[1][11] nothing certain is known about Pāṇini's personal life. According to the Mahābhāṣya of Patanjali, his mother's name was Dākṣī.[37] Patañjali calls Pāṇini Dākṣīputra (meaning son of Dākṣī) at several places in the Mahābhāṣya.[37] Rambhadracharya gives the name of his father as Paṇina, from which the name Pāṇini derives.[37]
In an inscription of Siladitya VII of Valabhi, he is called Śalāturiya, which means "man from Salatura". This means Panini lived in Salatura of ancient Gandhara, which likely was near Lahur, a town at the junction of Indus and Kabul rivers.[38] According to the memoirs of 7th-century Chinese scholar Xuanzang, there was a town called Suoluoduluo on the Indus where Pāṇini was born, and he composed the Qingming-lun (Sanskrit: Vyākaraṇa).[38][39][37]
According to Hartmut Scharfe, Pāṇini lived in Gandhara close to the borders of the Achaemenid Empire, and Gandhara was then an Achaemenian satrap. He must therefore have been technically a Persian subject, but states Scharfe, his work shows no trace of Persian.[17] Inferences, however, vary between scholars. According to Patrick Olivelle, Pāṇini's text and references to him elsewhere suggest that "he was clearly a northerner, probably from the northwestern region".[40]
Legends and later reception[edit]
Panini is mentioned in Indian fables and ancient texts. The Panchatantra, for example, mentions that Pāṇini was killed by a lion.[41][42][43]
Pāṇini was depicted on a five-rupee Indian postage stamp in 2004.[44]
Aṣṭādhyāyī[edit]
The Aṣṭādhyāyī is the central part of Pāṇini's grammar, and by far the most complex. The Ashtadhyayi is the oldest surviving complete linguistic and grammar text of Sanskrit, and Pāṇini refers to previous texts and authors such as the Unadisutra, Dhatupatha, and Ganapatha some of which have not survived. It complements the Vedic ancillary sciences such as the Niruktas, Nighantus, and Shiksha.[45] Regarded as extremely compact without sacrificing completeness, it would become the model for later specialist technical texts or sutras.[46][47]
The text takes material from lexical lists (Dhatupatha, Ganapatha) as input and describes algorithms to be applied to them for the generation of well-formed words. It is highly systematised and technical. Inherent in its approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root. His rules have a reputation for perfection[48] – that is, they tersely describe Sanskrit morphology unambiguously and completely. A consequence of his grammar's focus on brevity is its highly unintuitive structure, reminiscent of modern notations such as the "Backus–Naur form". His sophisticated logical rules and technique have been widely influential in ancient and modern linguistics.
The Aṣṭādhyāyī was not the first description of Sanskrit grammar, but it is the earliest that has survived in full. The Aṣṭādhyāyī became the foundation of Vyākaraṇa, a Vedanga.[49]
In the Aṣṭādhyāyī, language is observed in a manner that has no parallel among Greek or Latin grammarians. Pāṇini's grammar, according to Renou and Filliozat, defines the linguistic expression and a classic that set the standard for Sanskrit language.[50] Pāṇini made use of a technical metalanguage consisting of a syntax, morphology and lexicon. This metalanguage is organised according to a series of meta-rules, some of which are explicitly stated while others can be deduced.[51]
The Aṣṭādhyāyī consists of 3,959 sutras or "aphoristic threads" in eight chapters, which are each subdivided into four sections or padas (pādāḥ). This text attracted a famous and one of the most ancient Bhasya (commentary) called the Mahabhasya.[52] The author of Mahabhasya is named Patanjali, who may or may not be the same person as the one who authored Yogasutras.[53] The Mahabhasya, literally "great commentary", is more than a commentary on Ashtadhyayi. It is the earliest known philosophical text of the Hindu Grammarians.[53][note 3] Non-Hindu texts and traditions on grammar emerged after Patanjali, some of which include the Sanskrit grammar text of Jainendra of Jainism and the Chandra school of Buddhism.[55]
Rules[edit]
The first two sutras are as follows:
1.1.1 vṛddhir ādaiC (वृद्धिरादैच् । १।१।१)
1.1.2 adeṄ guṇaḥ (अदेङ्गुणः । १।१।२)
In these sutras, the capital letters are special meta-linguistic symbols; they are called IT (इत्) markers or, in later writers such as Katyayana and Patanjali, anubandhas (see below). The C and Ṅ refer to Shiva Sutras 4 ("ai, au, C") and 3 ("e, o, Ṅ"), respectively, forming what are known as the pratyāhāras "comprehensive designations" aiC, eṄ. They denote the list of phonemes {ai, au} and {e, o} respectively. The त् (T) appearing (in its variant form /d/) in both sutras is also an IT marker: Sutra 1.1.70 defines it as indicating that the preceding phoneme does not represent a list, but a single phoneme, encompassing all supra-segmental features such as accent and nasality. For further example, आत् (āT) and अत् (aT) represent आ {ā} and अ {a} respectively.
When a sutra defines a technical term, the term defined comes at the end, so the first sutra should have properly been ādaiJ vṛddhir instead of vṛddhir ādaiC. However the order is reversed to have a good-luck word at the very beginning of the work; vṛddhir happens to mean 'prosperity' in its non-technical use.
Thus the two sūtras consist of a list of phonemes, followed by a technical term; the final interpretation of the two sūtras above is thus:
1.1.1: {ā, ai, au} are called vṛ́ddhi.
1.1.2: {a, e, o} are called guṇa.
At this point, one can see they are definitions of terminology: guṇa and vṛ́ddhi are the terms for the full and the lengthened Indo-European ablaut grades, respectively.
List of IT markers[edit]
its or anubandhas are defined in P. 1.3.2 through P. 1.3.8. These definitions refer only to items taught in the grammar or its ancillary texts such at the dhātupāţha; this fact is made clear in P. 1.3.2 by the word upadeśe, which is then continued in the following six rules by anuvṛtti, Ellipsis. As these anubandhas are metalinguistic markers and not pronounced in the final derived form, pada (word), they are elided by P. 1.3.9 tasya lopaḥ – 'There is elision of that (i.e. any of the preceding items which have been defined as an it).' Accordingly, Pāṇini defines the anubandhas as follows:
Nasalized vowels, e.g. bhañjO. Cf. P. 1.3.2.
A final consonant (haL). Cf. P. 1.3.3.
2. (a) except a dental, m and s in verbal or nominal endings. Cf. P. 1.3.4.
Initial ñi ṭu ḍu. Cf. P 1.3.5
Initial ṣ of a suffix (pratyaya). Cf. P. 1.3.6.
Initial palatals and cerebrals of a suffix. Cf. P. 1.3.7
Initial l, ś, and k but not in a taddhita 'secondary' suffix. Cf. P. 1.3.8.
A few examples of elements that contain its are as follows:
suP nominal suffix
Ś-IT
Śi strong case endings
Ślu elision
ŚaP active marker
P-IT
luP elision
āP ā-stems
CāP
ṬāP
ḌāP
LyaP (7.1.37)
L-IT
K-IT
Ktvā
luK elision
saN Desiderative
C-IT
M-IT
Ṅ-IT
Ṅí Causative
Ṅii ī-stems
ṄīP
ṄīN
Ṅī'Ṣ
tiṄ verbal suffix
lUṄ Aorist
lIṄ Precative
S-IT
GHU class of verbal stems (1.1.20)
GHI (1.4.7)
Auxiliary texts[edit]
Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi has three associated texts.
The Shiva Sutras are a brief but highly organised list of phonemes.
The Dhatupatha is a lexical list of verbal roots sorted by present class.
The Ganapatha is a lexical list of nominal stems grouped by common properties.
Shiva Sutras[edit]
Main article: Shiva Sutras
The Shiva Sutras describe a phonemic notational system in the fourteen initial lines preceding the Ashtadhyayi. The notational system introduces different clusters of phonemes that serve special roles in the morphology of Sanskrit, and are referred to throughout the text. Each cluster, called a pratyāhara ends with a dummy sound called an anubandha (the so-called IT index), which acts as a symbolic referent for the list. Within the main text, these clusters, referred through the anubandhas, are related to various grammatical functions.
Dhatupatha[edit]
The Dhatupatha is a lexicon of Sanskrit verbal roots subservient to the Ashtadhyayi. It is organised by the ten present classes of Sanskrit, i.e. the roots are grouped by the form of their stem in the present tense.
The ten present classes of Sanskrit are:
bhū-ādayaḥ (root-full grade thematic presents)
ad-ādayaḥ (root presents)
juhoti-ādayaḥ (reduplicated presents)
div-ādayaḥ (ya thematic presents)
su-ādayaḥ (nu presents)
tud-ādayaḥ (root-zero grade thematic presents)
rudh-ādayaḥ (n-infix presents)
tan-ādayaḥ (no presents)
krī-ādayaḥ (ni presents)
cur-ādayaḥ (aya presents, causatives)
The small number of class 8 verbs are a secondary group derived from class 5 roots, and class 10 is a special case, in that any verb can form class 10 presents, then assuming causative meaning. The roots specifically listed as belonging to class 10 are those for which any other form has fallen out of use (causative deponents, so to speak).
Ganapatha[edit]
The Ganapatha (gaṇapāṭha) is a list of groups of primitive nominal stems used by the Ashtadhyayi.
Commentary[edit]
After Pāṇini, the Mahābhāṣya ("great commentary") of Patañjali on the Ashtadhyayi is one of the three most famous works in Sanskrit grammar. It was with Patañjali that Indian linguistic science reached its definite form. The system thus established is extremely detailed as to shiksha (phonology, including accent) and vyakarana (morphology). Syntax is scarcely touched, but nirukta (etymology) is discussed, and these etymologies naturally lead to semantic explanations. People interpret his work to be a defence of Pāṇini, whose Sūtras are elaborated meaningfully. He also attacks Katyayana rather severely. But the main contributions of Patañjali lies in the treatment of the principles of grammar enunciated by him.
Editions[edit]
Rama Nath Sharma, The Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini (6 Vols.), 2001, ISBN 8121500516[56]
Otto Böhtlingk, Panini's Grammatik 1887, reprint 1998 ISBN 3-87548-198-4
Katre, Sumitra M., Astadhyayi of Panini, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987. Reprint Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1989. ISBN 0-292-70394-5
Misra, Vidya Niwas, The Descriptive Technique of Panini, Mouton and Co., 1966.
Vasu, Srisa Chandra, The Ashṭádhyáyí of Páṇini. Translated into English, Indian Press, Allahabad, 1898.[57]
Bhaṭṭikāvya[edit]
Main article: Bhaṭṭikāvya
The learning of Indian curriculum in late classical times had at its heart a system of grammatical study and linguistic analysis.[58] The core text for this study was the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini, the sine qua non of learning.[59] This grammar of Pāṇini had been the object of intense study for the ten centuries prior to the composition of the Bhaṭṭikāvya. It was plainly Bhaṭṭi's purpose to provide a study aid to Pāṇini's text by using the examples already provided in the existing grammatical commentaries in the context of the gripping and morally improving story of the Rāmāyaṇa. To the dry bones of this grammar Bhaṭṭi has given juicy flesh in his poem. The intention of the author was to teach this advanced science through a relatively easy and pleasant medium. In his own words:
This composition is like a lamp to those who perceive the meaning of words and like a hand mirror for a blind man to those without grammar. This poem, which is to be understood by means of a commentary, is a joy to those sufficiently learned: through my fondness for the scholar I have here slighted the dullard.
Bhaṭṭikāvya 22.33–34.
Modern linguistics[edit]
Pāṇini's work became known in 19th-century Europe, where it influenced modern linguistics initially through Franz Bopp, who mainly looked at Pāṇini. Subsequently, a wider body of work influenced Sanskrit scholars such as Ferdinand de Saussure, Leonard Bloomfield, and Roman Jakobson. Frits Staal (1930–2012) discussed the impact of Indian ideas on language in Europe. After outlining the various aspects of the contact, Staal notes that the idea of formal rules in language – proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure in 1894 and developed by Noam Chomsky in 1957 – has origins in the European exposure to the formal rules of Pāṇinian grammar.[citation needed] In particular, de Saussure, who lectured on Sanskrit for three decades, may have been influenced by Pāṇini and Bhartrihari; his idea of the unity of signifier-signified in the sign somewhat resembles the notion of Sphoṭa. More importantly, the very idea that formal rules can be applied to areas outside of logic or mathematics may itself have been catalysed by Europe's contact with the work of Sanskrit grammarians.[60]
De Saussure[edit]
Pāṇini, and the later Indian linguist Bhartrihari, had a significant influence on many of the foundational ideas proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure, professor of Sanskrit, who is widely considered the father of modern structural linguistics and with Charles S. Peirce on the other side, to semiotics, although the concept Saussure used was semiology. Saussure himself cited Indian grammar as an influence on some of his ideas. In his Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes (Memoir on the Original System of Vowels in the Indo-European Languages) published in 1879, he mentions Indian grammar as an influence on his idea that "reduplicated aorists represent imperfects of a verbal class." In his De l'emploi du génitif absolu en sanscrit (On the Use of the Genitive Absolute in Sanskrit) published in 1881, he specifically mentions Pāṇini as an influence on the work.[61]
Prem Singh, in his foreword to the reprint edition of the German translation of Pāṇini's Grammar in 1998, concluded that the "effect Panini's work had on Indo-European linguistics shows itself in various studies" and that a "number of seminal works come to mind," including Saussure's works and the analysis that "gave rise to the laryngeal theory," further stating: "This type of structural analysis suggests influence from Panini's analytical teaching." George Cardona, however, warns against overestimating the influence of Pāṇini on modern linguistics: "Although Saussure also refers to predecessors who had taken this Paninian rule into account, it is reasonable to conclude that he had a direct acquaintance with Panini's work. As far as I am able to discern upon rereading Saussure's Mémoire, however, it shows no direct influence of Paninian grammar. Indeed, on occasion, Saussure follows a path that is contrary to Paninian procedure."[61][62]
Leonard Bloomfield[edit]
The founding father of American structuralism, Leonard Bloomfield, wrote a 1927 paper titled "On some rules of Pāṇini".[63]
Comparison with modern formal systems[edit]
Pāṇini's grammar is the world's first formal system, developed well before the 19th century innovations of Gottlob Frege and the subsequent development of mathematical logic. In designing his grammar, Pāṇini used the method of "auxiliary symbols", in which new affixes are designated to mark syntactic categories and the control of grammatical derivations. This technique, rediscovered by the logician Emil Post, became a standard method in the design of computer programming languages.[64] Sanskritists now accept that Pāṇini's linguistic apparatus is well-described as an "applied" Post system. Considerable evidence shows ancient mastery of context-sensitive grammars, and a general ability to solve many complex problems. Frits Staal has written that "Panini is the Indian Euclid."
Other works[edit]
Two literary works are attributed to Pāṇini, though they are now lost.
Jāmbavati Vijaya is a lost work cited by one Rajashekhar in Jahlana's Sukti Muktāvalī. A fragment is to be found in Ramayukta's commentary on Namalinganushasana. From the title it may be inferred that the work dealt with Krishna's winning of Jambavati in the underworld as his bride. Rajashekhara in Jahlana's Sukti Muktāvalī:
नमः पाणिनये तस्मै यस्मादाविर भूदिह।
आदौ व्याकरणं काव्यमनु जाम्बवतीजयम्॥
namaḥ pāṇinaye tasmai yasmādāvirabhūdiha।
ādau vyākaraṇaṃ kāvyamanu jāmbavatījayam॥
Ascribed to Pāṇini, Pātāla Vijaya is a lost work cited by Namisadhu in his commentary on Kavyalankara of Rudrata.
In popular culture[edit]
India released a stamp in honour of Pāṇini in 2004.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Sanskrit grammarians
Bhaṭṭikāvya
Pingala
seṭ and aniṭ roots
List of Indian mathematicians
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ According to George Cardonna, the tradition believes that Pāṇini came from Salatura in northwest part of the Indian subcontinent.[3] This is likely to be ancient Gandhara.[2]
Jump up ^ Pāṇini's use of the term lipi has been a source of scholarly disagreements. Harry Falk in his 1993 overview states that ancient Indians neither knew nor used writing script, and Pāṇini's mention is likely a reference to Semitic and Greek scripts.[25] In his 1995 review, Salomon questions Falk's arguments and writes it is "speculative at best and hardly constitutes firm grounds for a late date for Kharoṣṭhī. The stronger argument for this position is that we have no specimen of the script before the time of Ashoka, nor any direct evidence of intermediate stages in its development; but of course this does not mean that such earlier forms did not exist, only that, if they did exist, they have not survived, presumably because they were not employed for monumental purposes before Ashoka".[26] According to Hartmut Scharfe, Lipi of Pāṇini may be borrowed from the Old Persian Dipi, in turn derived from Sumerian Dup. Scharfe adds that the best evidence, at the time of his review, is that no script was used in India, aside from the Northwest Indian subcontinent, before around 300 BCE because Indian tradition "at every occasion stresses the orality of the cultural and literary heritage."[27] Kenneth Norman states writing scripts in ancient India evolved over the long period of time like other cultures, that it is unlikely that ancient Indians developed a single complete writing system at one and the same time in the Maurya era. It is even less likely, states Norman, that a writing script was invented during Ashoka's rule, starting from nothing, for the specific purpose of writing his inscriptions and then it was understood all over South Asia where the Ashoka pillars are found.[28] Jack Goody states that ancient India likely had a "very old culture of writing" along with its oral tradition of composing and transmitting knowledge, because the Vedic literature is too vast, consistent and complex to have been entirely created, memorized, accurately preserved and spread without a written system.[29] Falk disagrees with Goody, and suggests that it is a Western presumption and inability to imagine that remarkably early scientific achievements such as Pāṇini's grammar (5th to 4th century BCE), and the creation, preservation and wide distribution of the large corpus of the Brahmanic Vedic literature and the Buddhist canonical literature, without any writing scripts. Johannes Bronkhorst disagrees with Falk, and states, "Falk goes too far. It is fair to expect that we believe that Vedic memorisation — though without parallel in any other human society — has been able to preserve very long texts for many centuries without losing a syllable. (...) However, the oral composition of a work as complex as Pāṇini’s grammar is not only without parallel in other human cultures, it is without parallel in India itself. (...) It just will not do to state that our difficulty in conceiving any such thing is our problem".[30]
Jump up ^ The earliest secondary literature on the primary text of Pāṇini are by Katyayana (~3rd century BCE) and Patanjali (~2nd century BCE).[54]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2013). Ashtadhyayi, Work by Panini. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 23 October 2017. , Quote: "Ashtadhyayi, Sanskrit Aṣṭādhyāyī (“Eight Chapters”), Sanskrit treatise on grammar written in the 6th to 5th century BCE by the Indian grammarian Panini."
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Frits Staal (1965), Euclid and Pāṇini, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Apr., 1965), pp. 99-116
^ Jump up to: a b c Cardona, George (1998), Pāṇini: A Survey of Research, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 268, ISBN 978-81-208-1494-3
^ Jump up to: a b Steven Weisler; Slavoljub P. Milekic (2000). Theory of Language. MIT Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-262-73125-6. , Quote: "The linguistic investigations of Panini, the notable Hindu grammarian, can be ..."
Jump up ^ Natalia Lidova (1994). Drama and Ritual of Early Hinduism. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 108–112. ISBN 978-81-208-1234-5.
^ Jump up to: a b James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 64–65, 140, 402. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8.
Jump up ^ A Bala (2013). B Lightman, G McOuat and L Stewart, ed. The Circulation of Knowledge Between Britain, India and China: The Early-Modern World to the Twentieth Century. BRILL Academic. p. 104. ISBN 978-90-04-25141-0.
Jump up ^ W. J. Johnson (2009), A Dictionary of Hinduism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198610250, article on Vyakarana
Jump up ^ Harold G. Coward 1990, p. 105.
Jump up ^ Lisa Mitchell (2009). Language, Emotion, and Politics in South India. Indiana University Press. p. 108. ISBN 0-253-35301-7.
^ Jump up to: a b James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 497. ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c John Bowman (2005). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. pp. 728 (Panini, Hindu grammarian, 328). ISBN 978-0-231-50004-3.
Jump up ^ Hartmut Scharfe (1977). Grammatical Literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 152–154. ISBN 978-3-447-01706-0.
Jump up ^ Yuji Kawaguchi; Makoto Minegishi; Wolfgang Viereck (2011). Corpus-based Analysis and Diachronic Linguistics. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 223–224. ISBN 978-90-272-7215-7.
Jump up ^ Staal, Frits (1988). Universals: studies in Indian logic and linguistics. University of Chicago Press. p. 47. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Pāṇini; Sumitra Mangesh Katre (1989). Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini. Motilal Banarsidass. p. xx. ISBN 978-81-208-0521-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hartmut Scharfe (1977). Grammatical Literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-3-447-01706-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Rens Bod (2013). A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present. Oxford University Press. pp. 14–18. ISBN 978-0-19-164294-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Cardona, George (1998), Pāṇini: A Survey of Research, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 261–262, ISBN 978-81-208-1494-3
Jump up ^ Max Müller (1862). On Ancient Hindu Astronomy and Chronology. Oxford. pp. footnotes of 69–71.
Jump up ^ Patrick Olivelle (1999). Dharmasutras. Oxford University Press. p. xxxii with footnote 13. ISBN 978-0-19-283882-7.
Jump up ^ Richard Salomon (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3.
Jump up ^ Juhyung Rhi (2009). "On the Peripheries of Civilizations: The Evolution of a Visual Tradition in Gandhāra". Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. 1: 5, 1–13.
Jump up ^ Rita Sherma; Arvind Sharma (2008). Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons. Springer. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-4020-8192-7.
Jump up ^ Falk, Harry (1993). Schrift im alten Indien: ein Forschungsbericht mit Anmerkungen (in German). Gunter Narr Verlag. pp. 109–167.
Jump up ^ Salomon, Richard (1995). "Review: On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 115 (2): 271–278. doi:10.2307/604670.
Jump up ^ Scharfe, Hartmut (2002), Education in Ancient India, Handbook of Oriental Studies, Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, pp. 10–12
Jump up ^ Oskar von Hinüber (1989). Der Beginn der Schrift und frühe Schriftlichkeit in Indien. Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur. pp. 241–245. OCLC 22195130.
Jump up ^ Jack Goody (1987). The Interface Between the Written and the Oral. Cambridge University Press. pp. 110–124. ISBN 978-0-521-33794-6.
Jump up ^ Johannes Bronkhorst (2002), Literacy and Rationality in Ancient India, Asiatische Studien / Études Asiatiques, 56(4), pages 803-804, 797-831
Jump up ^ Pāṇini; Sumitra Mangesh Katre (1989). Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xix–xxi. ISBN 978-81-208-0521-7.
Jump up ^ [A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Upinder Singh, Pearson Education India, 2008 p. 258]
Jump up ^ Morris Halle (1971). The Sound Pattern of Russian: A Linguistic and Acoustical Investigation. Walter de Gruyter. p. 88. ISBN 978-3-11-086945-3. , Quote: "The problem was, however, faced by the Hindu grammarian Panini, who apparently was conscious of the grammatical implications of his phonetic classificatory scheme."
Jump up ^ R. G. Bhandarkar (1910), Vasudeva of Panini IV, iii, 98, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, (Jan., 1910), pp. 168-170
Jump up ^ Rama Nath Sharma (1999). The Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini: english translation of adhyāyas four and five. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 377. ISBN 978-81-215-0747-9. ;
Sanskrit: ४.४.४१ धर्मं चरति ।, अष्टाध्यायी ४, Wikisource
Jump up ^ Peter Scharf (2014). Ramopakhyana - The Story of Rama in the Mahabharata. Routledge. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-136-84655-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mishra, Giridhar (1981). "प्रस्तावना" [Introduction]. अध्यात्मरामायणेऽपाणिनीयप्रयोगाणां विमर्शः [Deliberation on non-Paninian usages in the Adhyatma Ramayana] (in Sanskrit). Varanasi, India: Sampurnanand Sanskrit University. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Hartmut Scharfe (1977). Grammatical Literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 88 with footnotes. ISBN 978-3-447-01706-0.
Jump up ^ Singh, Nagendra Kr., ed. (1997), Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, New Delhi: Centre for International Religious Studies : Anmol Publications, pp. 1983–2007, ISBN 978-81-7488-168-7
Jump up ^ Patrick Olivelle (1999). Dharmasutras. Oxford University Press. pp. xxvi–xxvii. ISBN 978-0-19-283882-7.
Jump up ^ George Cardona (1997). Pāṇini: a survey of research. The verse reads siṃho vyākaraṇasya kartur aharat prāṇān priyān pāṇineḥ "a lion took the dear life of Panini, author of the grammatical treatise". The context is a list of scholars killed by animals, siṃho vyākaraṇasya kartur aharat prāṇān priyān pāṇineḥ / mīmāṃsākṛtam unmamātha sahasā hastī muniṃ jaiminim // chandojnānanidhim jaghāna makaro velātaṭe piṅgalam / ajñānāvṛtacetasām atiruṣāṃ ko'rthas tiraścām guṇaiḥ // Translation: "A lion killed Pāṇini; an elephant madly crushed the sage Jaimini, Mimamsa's author; Pingala, treasury of knowledge of poetic meter, was killed by a crocodile at the water's edge. What do senseless beasts, overcome with fury, care for intellectual virtues?" (Pañcatantra II.28, sometimes ascribed to Vallabhadeva)
Jump up ^ Bhattacharyya, D. C. (1928). "Date of the Subhasitavali". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1): 135–137. doi:10.2307/25221320.
Jump up ^ Winternitz, Moriz (1963). History of Indian Literature. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 462. ISBN 978-81-208-0056-4. ; Nakamura, Hajime (1983). A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 400. ISBN 978-81-208-0651-1.
Jump up ^ "Stamps 2004". Indian Department of Posts, Ministry of Communications & Information Technology. 23 April 2015. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
Jump up ^ James Lochtefeld (2002), "Vyakarana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pages 476, 744-745, 769
Jump up ^ Jonardon Ganeri, Sanskrit Philosophical Commentary (PDF) "Udayana states that a technical treatise or śāstra, in any discipline, should aspire to clarity (vaiśadya), compactness (laghutā), and completeness (kṛtsnatā). A compilation of sūtras maximises compactness and completeness, at the expense of clarity. A bhāṣya is complete and clear, but not compact. A group of sūtras, a 'section' or prakaraṇa of the whole compilation, is clear and compact, but not complete. The sūtras achieve compactness i) by making sequence significant, ii) letting one item stand for or range over many, and iii) using grammar and lexicon artificially. The background model is always Pāṇini's grammar for the Sanskrit language, the Aṣṭādhyāyī, which exploits a range of brevity-enabling devices to compose what has often been described as the tersest and yet most complete grammar of any language." The monumental multi-volume grammars published in the 20th century (for Sanskrit, the Altindische Grammatik 1896–1957) of course set new standards in completeness, but the Ashtadhyayi remains unrivalled in terms of terseness.
Jump up ^ In the 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India, it was still possible to describe it as "at once the shortest and the fullest grammar in the world". Sanskrit Literature, The Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. 2 (1909), p. 263.
Jump up ^ Bloomfield, L., 1929, "Review of Liebich, Konkordanz Pāṇini-Candra," Language 5, 267–276.
Jump up ^ Harold G. Coward 1990, pp. 13-14, 111.
Jump up ^ Louis Renou & Jean Filliozat. L'Inde Classique, manuel des etudes indiennes, vol.II pp.86–90, École française d'Extrême-Orient, 1953, reprinted 2000. ISBN 2-85539-903-3.
Jump up ^ Angot, Michel. L'Inde Classique, pp.213–215. Les Belles Lettres, Paris, 2001. ISBN 2-251-41015-5
Jump up ^ George Cardona 1997, pp. 243-259.
^ Jump up to: a b Harold G. Coward 1990, p. 16.
Jump up ^ Tibor Kiss 2015, pp. 71-72.
Jump up ^ Harold G. Coward 1990, pp. 16-17.
Jump up ^ "The Astadhyayi of Panini (6 Vols.) by Rama Nath Sharma at Vedic Books". www.vedicbooks.net. Retrieved 2016-09-22.
Jump up ^ Books I, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII.
Jump up ^ Filliozat. 2002 The Sanskrit Language: An Overview – History and Structure, Linguistic and Philosophical Representations, Uses and Users. Indica Books.
Jump up ^ Fallon, Oliver. 2009. Bhatti's Poem: The Death of Rávana (Bhaṭṭikāvya). New York: Clay Sanskrit Library[1]. ISBN 978-0-8147-2778-2 | ISBN 0-8147-2778-6 |
Jump up ^ The science of language, Chapter 16, in Gavin D. Flood, ed. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism Blackwell Publishing, 2003, 599 pages ISBN 0-631-21535-2, ISBN 978-0-631-21535-6. p. 357-358
^ Jump up to: a b George Cardona (2000), "Book review: Pâṇinis Grammatik", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 120 (3): 464–5, JSTOR 606023
Jump up ^ D'Ottavi, Giuseppe (2013). "Paṇini et le Mémoire". Arena Romanistica. 12: 164–193.
Jump up ^ Leonard Bloomfield (1927). "On some rules of Pāṇini". Journal of the American Oriental Society. American Oriental Society. 47: 61–70. doi:10.2307/593241. JSTOR 593241.
Jump up ^ Kadvany, John (2007), "Positional Value and Linguistic Recursion", Journal of Indian Philosophy, 35: 487–520, doi:10.1007/s10781-007-9025-5.
Bibliography[edit]
George Cardona (1997). Pāṇini: A Survey of Research. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1494-3.
Harold G. Coward (1990). The Philosophy of the Grammarians, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Volume 5 (Editor: Karl Potter). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-81-208-0426-5.
Carter, George F.; et al. (1979). "On Mundkur on Diffusion". Current Anthropology. 20 (2): 425–428. doi:10.1086/202297. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Kadvany, John (8 February 2008). "Positional Value and Linguistic Recursion". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 35 (5–6): 487–520. doi:10.1007/s10781-007-9025-5.
Tibor Kiss (2015). Syntax - Theory and Analysis. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-037740-8.
Pāṇini. Ashtādhyāyī. Book 4. Translated by Chandra Vasu. Benares, 1896. (in Sanskrit)(in English)
Pāṇini. Ashtādhyāyī. Book 6–8. Translated by Chandra Vasu. Benares, 1897. (in Sanskrit)(in English)
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Pāṇini", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews . 2000.
Prince, Alan; Smolensky, Paul (15 April 2008). Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-75939-4.
T. R. N. Rao. Pāṇini-backus form of languages. 1998.
Tiwary, Kapil Muni 1968 Pāṇini's description of nominal compounds, University of Pennsylvania doctoral dissertation, unpublished.
Ingerman, Peter Zilahy (March 1967). ""Pāṇini-Backus Form" Suggested". Communications of the ACM. Association for Computing Machinery. 10 (3): 137. doi:10.1145/363162.363165. Retrieved 24 September 2014. Ingerman suggests that the then-called Backus normal form be renamed to the Pāṇini–Backus form, to give due credit to Pāṇini as the earliest independent inventor.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Pāṇini
Sanskrit Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Aṣṭādhyāyī (Sanskrit Text)
Ashtadhyayi - A comprehensive reference All the rules of Ashtadhyayi along with important commentaries.
PaSSim – Paninian Sanskrit Simulator simulates the Pāṇinian Process of word formation
The system of Panini
Ganakastadhyayi, a software on Sanskrit grammar, based on Pāṇini's Sutras
Forizs, L. Pāṇini, Nāgārjuna and Whitehead – The Relevance of Whitehead for Contemporary Buddhist Philosophy
The Astadhyayi of Panini, with the Mahabhashya and Kashika commentaries, along with the Nyasa and Padamanjara commentaries on the Kashika. (PDF) Sanskrit.
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Irrigation in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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An irrigation canal in Gujarat. Irrigation contributes significantly to the agriculture in India.
Irrigation in India includes a network of major and minor canals from Indian rivers, groundwater well based systems, tanks, and other rainwater harvesting projects for agricultural activities. Of these groundwater system is the largest.[1] In 2010, only about 35% of total agricultural land in India was reliably irrigated.[2] About 2/3rd cultivated land in India is dependent on monsoons.[3] Irrigation in India helps improve food security, reduce dependence on monsoons, improve agricultural productivity and create rural job opportunities. Dams used for irrigation projects help produce electricity and transport facilities, as well as provide drinking water supplies to a growing population, control floods and prevent droughts.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Ancient India
1.2 Islamic era
1.3 Colonial era
2 Irrigation trends since 1947
3 Statewise irrigation types, capacity and actual
4 Project classification
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Ancient India[edit]
The earliest mentions of irrigation are found in Rigveda chapters 1.55, 1.85, 1.105, 7.9, 8.69 and 10.101.[5] The Veda mentions only well-style irrigation,[6] where kupa and avata wells once dug are stated to be always full of water, from which varatra (rope strap) and cakra (wheel) pull kosa (pails) of water. This water was, state the Vedas, led into surmi susira (broad channels) and from there into khanitrima (diverting channels) into fields.[5]
Later, the 4th-century BCE Indian scholar Pāṇini, mentions tapping several rivers for irrigation.[5][7] The mentioned rivers include Sindhu, Suvastu, Varnu, Sarayu, Vipas and Chandrabhaga.[5] Buddhist texts from the 3rd century BCE also mention irrigation of crops.[6] Texts from the Maurya Empire era (3rd century BCE) mention that the state raised revenue from charging farmers for irrigation services from rivers.[5][8]
Patanjali, in Yogasutra of about the 4th century CE, explains a technique of yoga by comparing it to "the way a farmer diverts a stream from an irrigation canal for irrigation".[9][10] In Tamil Nadu, the Grand Anicut (canal) across the Kaveri river was implemented in the 3rd century CE, and the basic design is still used today.[8]
Islamic era[edit]
Waterworks were undertaken during the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire era from the 12th to 18th centuries. However, these were primarily to supply water to the palaces and parks of the sultans and other officials.[11]
Colonial era[edit]
Ganges irrigation canal built during the colonial era, and inaugurated in 1854.
In 1800, some 800,000 hectares was irrigated in India.[8] The British Raj by 1940 built significant number of canals and irrigation systems in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,[12] Punjab, Assam and Orissa.[13][14][15] The Ganges Canal reached 350 miles from Haridwar to Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh. In Assam, a jungle in 1840, by 1900 had 4,000,000 acres under cultivation, especially in tea plantations. In all, the amount of irrigated land multiplied by a factor of eight. Historian David Gilmour states British colonial government had built irrigation network with Ganges canal and that, "by the end of the century the new network of canals in the Punjab" were in place.[16]
Much of the increase in irrigation during British colonial era was targeted at dedicated poppy and opium farms in India, for exports to China.[17][18][19] Poppy cultivation by the British Raj required reliable, dedicated irrigation system.[20] Large portions of the eastern and northern regions of India, namely United Provinces, Northwestern Provinces, Oudh, Behar, Bengal and Rewa were irrigated to ensure reliable supply of poppy and opium for China.[21] By 1850, the Asian opium trade created nearly 1,000 square kilometers of poppy farms in India in its fertile Ganges plains, which increased to over 500,000 acres by 1900.[21] This diversion of food crop land to cash crop use, state scholars, led to massive famines over the 1850 to 1905 period.[22][23]
Major irrigation canals were built after millions of people died each in a series of major famines in the 19th century in British India.[8][23] In 1900, British India (including Bangladesh and Pakistan) had about 13 million ha under irrigation. In 1901 the Viceroy, Lord Curzon, appointed a Commission chaired by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff to draw up a comprehensive irrigation plan for India. In 1903 the Commission's report recommended irrigation of an additional 2.6 million hectares.[24][25] By 1947, the irrigated area had increased to about 22 million ha.[8] In Northwestern British India region alone, with the colonial government's effort, 2.2 million hectares of previously barren land was irrigated by 1940s, most of which is now part of Pakistan.[26] Arthur Cotton led some irrigation canal projects in the Deccan peninsula, and landmarks are named after him in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. However, much of the added irrigation capacity during the colonial era was provided by groundwater wells and tanks, operated manually.[27]
Irrigation trends since 1947[edit]
One of the sections of Bhakra Canal system in north India. This canal network irrigates over 4 million hectares of land.[28]
India's irrigation covered crop area was about 22.6 million hectares in 1951, and it increased to a potential of 90 mha at the end of 1995, inclusive of canals and groundwater wells.[29] However, the potential irrigation relies of reliable supply of electricity for water pumps and maintenance, and the net irrigated land has been considerably short. According to 2001/2002 Agriculture census, only 58.1 million hectares of land was actually irrigated in India.[30] The total arable land in India is 160 million hectares (395 million acres). According to the World Bank, only about 35% of total agricultural land in India was reliably irrigated in 2010.[2]
The ultimate sustainable irrigation potential of India has been estimated in a 1991 United Nations' FAO report to be 139.5 million hectares, comprising 58.5 mha from major and medium river-fed irrigation canal schemes, 15 mha from minor irrigation canal schemes, and 66 mha from groundwater well fed irrigation.[29]
India's irrigation is mostly groundwater well based. At 39 million hectares (67% of its total irrigation), India has the world's largest groundwater well equipped irrigation system (China with 19 mha is second, USA with 17 mha is third).[1]
India has spent ₹ 16,590 crore on irrigation development between 1950 and 1985. Between 2000-2005 and 2005-2010, India proposed to invest a sum of ₹ 1,03,315 crore and 2,10,326 crore on irrigation and flood control in India.[31]
Statewise irrigation types, capacity and actual[edit]
State
Total crop area
(million hectares)
Groundwater irrigation
crop area
(million hectares)
Canal irrigation
crop area
(million hectares)
Total crop area
actually irrigated
(million hectares)
Andhra Pradesh 14.3 2.5 2.7 4.9
Arunachal Pradesh 0.4 0.07 0.05
Assam 3.0 0.13 0.1 0.22
Bihar 6.4 2.2 1.3 3.5
Chhattisgarh 5.1 0.17 0.74 0.85
Goa 0.1 0.1 0.1
Gujarat 9.9 3.1 0.5 3.2
Haryana 3.6 1.99 1.32 3.26
Himachal Pradesh 1.0 0.02 0.09 0.11
Jammu & Kashmir 0.9 0.02 0.38 0.37
Jharkhand 3.2 0.11 0.13 0.24
Karnataka 12.2 1.43 1.33 2.38
Kerala 1.5 0.18 0.21 0.39
Madhya Pradesh 15.8 2.74 1.70 4.19
Maharashtra 19.8 3.12 1.03 3.36
Manipur 0.2 0.05 0.05
Meghalaya 0.3 0.06 0.06
Mizoram 0.1 0.01 0.01
Nagaland 1.1 0.1 0.07
Odisha 4.9 0.17 1.07 1.24
Punjab 4.0 3.06 0.94 3.96
Rajasthan 21.1 3.98 1.52 5.12
Sikkim 0.1 0.01 0.01
Tamil Nadu 6.5 1.61 1.43 2.66
Tripura 0.3 0.02 0.05 0.07
Uttar Pradesh 17.6 10.64 4.21 14.49
Uttarakhand 0.8 0.22 0.14 0.35
West Bengal 5.5 2.09 1.22 2.98
All India 159.6 39.43 22.48 58.13
Note: The all India total includes land area for Union Territories of India that is not shown in the above table.
Project classification[edit]
An irrigation canal in western Rajasthan.
Irrigation Projects in India are classified on three major aspects into:[citation needed]
1. Minor Irrigation Projects
2. Medium Irrigation Projects
3. Major Irrigation Projects Since 1950, irrigation works were classified on the basis of cost incurred for the projects' implementation, governing and dissemination., However, the Planning Commission of India adopted the classification of projects on the basis of culturable command area(CCA).
See also[edit]
Agriculture and Agronomy portal
Agriculture in India
Animal husbandry in India
Electricity sector in India
Farmers' suicides in India
Forestry in India
Indian Rivers Inter-link
Rural roads and infrastructure in India
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b S. Siebert et al (2010), Groundwater use for irrigation – a global inventory, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 14, pp. 1863–1880
^ Jump up to: a b Agricultural irrigated land (% of total agricultural land) The World Bank (2013)
Jump up ^ Economic Times: How to solve the problems of India's rain-dependent on agricultural land
Jump up ^ National Water Development Agency Ministry of Water Resources, Govt of India (2014)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e BN Puri, IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY IN ANCIENT INDIA, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 48/49 (1968), pp. 383-390
^ Jump up to: a b Hoiberg, Dale (2000). Students' Britannica India. Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 260. ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5.
Jump up ^ Gopal, Lallanji (2008). History of agriculture in India, up to c. 1200 A.D. p. 762. ISBN 978-81-8069-521-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e India - History of Irrigation FAO - United Nations (2014)
Jump up ^ White, David (2014). The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: a biography. Princeton University Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-691-14377-4.
Jump up ^ Patañjali (Transl: Chip Hartranft) (2003). The Yoga-Sūtra of Patañjali: a new translation with commentary. Boston: Shambhala Publications. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-59030-023-7.
Jump up ^ Edward Balfour, The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, p. PA377, at Google Books
Jump up ^ Praveen Singh (2003), Colonising the Rivers: Colonial Technology, Irrigation and Flood Control in North Bihar, 1850–1950, Ph.D. thesis (Jawaharlal Nehru University), pp. 198–261
Jump up ^ Neil Charlesworth, British Rule and the Indian Economy, 1800-1914 (1981) pp 23-37
Jump up ^ Ian Stone, Canal Irrigation in British India: Perspectives on Technological Change in a Peasant Economy (2002) pp 278-80
Jump up ^ for the historiography, see Rohan D’Souza, "Water in British India: the making of a ‘colonial hydrology’." History Compass (2006) 4#4 pp: 621-628. online
Jump up ^ David Gilmour (2007). The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 9.
Jump up ^ Thorner (1962), ‘Deindustrialization’ in India, 1881–1931, In: D. Thorner, and A. Thorner (Editors), Land and Labour in India, ISBN 978-8180280214
Jump up ^ T. Roy, London School of Economics, Globalization, Factor Prices and Poverty in Colonial India, Australian Economic History Review, Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 73-94 (March 2007)
Jump up ^ Sarkar (1983), The colonial economy, In: S. Sarkar (Editor) Modern India: 1885–1947, Macmillan, ISBN 978-0333904251
Jump up ^ National and English Review, Volume 6, p. PA480, at Google Books, WH Allen & Co, London
^ Jump up to: a b The Parliamentary Debates, Volume 348, p. 1058, at Google Books, Hansard's, HM Government, Great Britain (14 August 1890), pp. 1054-1061
Jump up ^ Maddison, A. (1970), The historical origins of Indian poverty, PSL Quarterly Review, 23(92), pp. 31-81
^ Jump up to: a b Richard Hunt (1997), To End Poverty - The Starvation of the Periphery by the Core, Oxford, UK, ISBN 978-0952887201, pp. 145-148
Jump up ^ "Scott-Moncrieff Commission". www.britanica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Scott-Moncrieff, Sir Colin Campbell (1903). Report of the Indian Irrigation Commission, 1901-1903. London: H. M. Stationery Office.
Jump up ^ Jin-Bee Ooi (1983). Natural resources in tropical countries. Singapore: Singapore University Press. p. 350. ISBN 978-9971-69-063-2.
Jump up ^ Edward Balfour, The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia at Google Books, pp. 377-380
Jump up ^ Himachal Pradesh & Punjab - Bhakra and Gobindsagar FAO - United Nations
^ Jump up to: a b Irrigation in India FAO, United Nations
Jump up ^ Net Irrigated Area FAO, United Nations
Jump up ^ PDF on 10th 5-Year Plan of India(2002-2007)
External links[edit]
Global Map of Irrigation Areas INDIA Irrigated land data by state and districts of India, FAO-United Nations and University of Bonn, Germany (2013)
Central Board of Irrigation and Power
Ministry of Water Resources Government of India
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID)
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text:
Gun laws in Georgia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Gun laws in the state of Georgia regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the state of Georgia in the United States. It does not however affect the laws of other states. The Georgia Constitution, like many other state constitutions, guarantees to its citizen the right to keep and bear arms. Article one, section one, paragraph VII of the Georgia Constitution states: "The right of the People to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed, but the General Assembly shall have the power to prescribe the manner in which arms may be borne."
Location of Georgia in the United States
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Summary table
3 See also
4 References
Overview[edit]
On June 8, 2010, Senate Bill 308 was signed by Governor Sonny Perdue reforming and clarifying many of Georgia's Gun Laws, while leaving certain restrictions in place.[1][2]
Georgia is a "shall issue" state, with the Georgia Weapons Carry License application to be submitted through the probate court of the county of residence.[3]
Georgia reciprocates in recognizing firearms licenses with the following states: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, New Hampshire, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia,[4] West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.[5]
South Carolina H3799 was signed by Gov Haley on June 3, 2016, allowing reciprocity with Georgia CCW permits.
There are a number of ways a firearm can be carried without a permit.[1] No permit is needed:
To carry a firearm in a person's home, place of business, or vehicle
To carry a long gun in a fully open and exposed manner
To carry an unloaded firearm in a case
To carry a firearm in someone else's vehicle, provided you would qualify for a permit
To carry a firearm while fishing or hunting, if you have a valid fishing or hunting license
State preemption laws prohibit localities from regulating the ownership, transportation, and possession of firearms. Georgia also has a law preventing localities from enacting ordinances or lawsuits to classify gun ranges as nuisances. This means that local parks, offices, etc. of non-Federal government agencies may not prohibit those with a valid Georgia Weapons License from carrying. Federal regulations continue to prohibit carrying weapons on Corps of Engineers and US Postal Service property.
Beyond a few exceptions, a person may not carry a handgun openly in Georgia without having a valid GWCL
Firearm regulations are uniform throughout the state, and a firearms permit is valid throughout the state, in all areas other than in a few specially-defined areas. These specially-defined prohibited areas include:
In a government building, where ingress into such building is restricted or screened by security personnel and overseen by a POST certified swore peace officer
In a courthouse
In a jail or prison
In a place of worship, unless the governing body or authority of the place of worship permits the carrying of weapons or long guns by license holders
In a state mental health facility
On the premises of a nuclear power facility
Within 150 feet (46 m) of any polling place, only during an election. [6]
On school grounds (incl. building and grounds), unless carrying or picking up a student, or permitted in writing by an official of the school[7], however weapons may be securely stored in vehicles parked on school grounds.
As exceptions to the above list, a person may keep their firearm in a locked compartment of their vehicle at any of the above places except nuclear power facilities. Also, a person may approach security or management of any of the above places (except schools and nuclear power facilities) and ask them for directions on removing, securing, storing, or temporarily surrendering the weapon.[2]
As of July 1, 2006, Georgia became a "Stand Your Ground" state, and requires no duty to retreat before using deadly force in self-defense, or defense of others.[8]
Georgia law allows private firearm sales between residents without requiring any processing through an FFL.
A Kennesaw, GA city ordinance requires that all homeowners own a firearm and ammunition (Sec 34-1a). No one has ever been charged with violating this ordinance. An amendment exempts those who conscientiously object to owning a firearm, convicted felons, those who cannot afford a firearm, and those with a mental or physical disability that would prevent them from owning a firearm.
As of the 23rd of April, 2014, Georgia's gun laws were drastically revised when Governor Nathan Deal signed House Bill 60, or the Safe Carry Protection Act,[9] into action.[10] The Safe Carry Protection Act changed many of the currently enacted gun laws in place beforehand.
In 2017, the Georgia legislature passed HB 280, which allows for concealed carry permit holders to carry concealed handguns on public college campuses. Governor Nathan Deal signed it into law on May 4, 2017.[11] The law took effect July 1, 2017 on all University System of Georgia Campuses, including universities, colleges, and trade schools under the University System. Under HB280 any Georgia Weapons Licensee may carry on University System of Georgia property if they are carrying concealed. They may not carry in any dormitory or Greek house owned by the University System, in any athletic venue used for intercollegiate sports, in any daycare facility on campus with limited entry (gated), in any classroom with a currently enrolled high school student, in any private office space, or in any room currently in use for disciplinary proceedings. [12] HB280 does not remove the prohibition against carry on private university and college property under Georgia Law.
Summary table[edit]
Subject/Law
Long guns
Handguns
Relevant Statutes
Notes
State Permit to Purchase? No No None
Firearm registration? No No None
Assault weapon law? No No None
Magazine Capacity Restriction? No No None
Owner license required? No No None
Carry permits required? No Yes O.C.G.A § 16-11-129 Concealed or open carry allowed with permit. See also O.C.G.A § 43–38–10 which is a special permit for armed security guards.
Open Carry? Yes Yes O.C.G.A § 16-11-126 Open carry of handguns allowed with a license issued under O.C.G.A § 16-11-129.
State Preemption of local restrictions? Yes Yes O.C.G.A § 16-11-173 Despite state preemption, several localities continue to have local gun restrictions. Recent court rulings have resulted in many of these ordinances being withdrawn.
NFA weapons restricted? No No None
Peaceable Journey laws? No No None Federal rules observed.
Background checks required for private sales? No No None
See also[edit]
Georgia (U.S. state) portal
Law of Georgia (U.S. state)
Safe Carry Protection Act
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b See O.C.G.A. § 16-11-129
^ Jump up to: a b "A Bill To Be Entitled An Act". Legis.state.ga.us. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ "See O.C.G.A. § 16-11-129". web.lexisnexis.com. Retrieved 2015-08-24.
Jump up ^ NRA-ILA. "NRA-ILA | Georgia: Pro-Gun Reciprocity Legislation Signed Into Law". NRA-ILA. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
Jump up ^ "Georgia's Firearm Permit Reciprocity | Georgia Department of Public Safety". dps.georgia.gov. Retrieved 2015-08-24.
Jump up ^ House Bill 492 (AS PASSED HOUSE AND SENATE)
Jump up ^ "See O.C.G.A. § 16-11-130.1". web.lexisnexis.com. Retrieved 2015-08-24.
Jump up ^ "Senate Bill 396, Georgia General Assembly". Legis.state.ga.us. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ http://www.legis.ga.gov/Legislation/20132014/144825.pdf | Line 45 states name directly.
Jump up ^ http://college.usatoday.com/2014/07/14/georgias-guns-everywhere-law-stirs-controversy-among-students-teachers/
Jump up ^ NRA-ILA. "NRA-ILA | Georgia: Governor Deal Signs Campus Carry Legislation into Law". NRA-ILA. Retrieved 2017-05-05.
Jump up ^ https://www.usg.edu/assets/usg/docs/USG_HB_280_Guidance_%28003%29.pdf
[hide]
v
t
e
Gun laws in the United States by state
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
District of Columbia
American Samoa
Guam
Northern Mariana Islands
Puerto Rico
U.S. Virgin Islands
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gun_laws_in_Georgia&oldid=801284260"
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Georgia (U.S. state) law
United States gun laws by state
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