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Prisoners of war in the American Revolutionary War
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Interior of the British prison ship Jersey
During the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) the management and treatment of prisoners of war (POWs) was very different from the standards of modern warfare. Modern standards, as outlined in the Geneva Conventions of later centuries, expect captives to be held and cared for by their captors. One primary difference in the 18th century was that care and supplies for captives were expected to be provided by their own [combatants] or private citizens.
Contents
1 American prisoners
1.1 Prison ships
1.2 Prison laborers and other prisoners of the British
2 British, Hessian, and Loyalist prisoners
2.1 American laws of war
2.2 Grievances
2.3 British and German prisoners
2.4 Loyalists
2.5 Prison towns
3 The Convention Army
3.1 Background
3.2 The marches
4 Freedom
5 Reaction and impact
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
American prisoners[edit]
The Jersey Prison Ship as moored at the Wallabout near Long Island, in the year 1782
The Middle Dutch Church is where the enlisted men captured at the Battle of Long Island were imprisoned. The Sugar House also became a prison as the Redcoats captured more of Washington's soldiers during the retreat from New York. The site today is the location of the Chase Manhattan Bank. (Image from about 1830.)[1][2]
King George III of Great Britain had declared American forces traitors in 1775, which denied them prisoner of war status. However, British strategy in the early conflict included pursuit of a negotiated settlement and therefore officials declined to try and/or hang them, the usual procedure for treason, to avoid unnecessarily risking any public sympathy the British might have enjoyed in the Americas.[3] Great Britain's neglect resulted in starvation and disease. Despite the lack of formal executions, neglect achieved the same results as hanging.[4][5]
Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument
Fort Greene Park
American prisoners of war tended to be accumulated at large sites that the British were able to occupy for long periods of time. New York City, Philadelphia in 1777, and Charleston, South Carolina, were all major cities used to detain American prisoners of war. Facilities at these places were limited. At times, the occupying army was actually larger than the total civilian population. The surgeon in charge of the New York hospitals housing American prisoners, Francis Mercier, was accused of killing them by poisoning and by assault, and he was ultimately executed for an unrelated murder.[6]
Prison ships[edit]
The British solution to this problem was to use obsolete, captured, or damaged ships as prisons.[7] Conditions were appalling, and many more Americans died of neglect while imprisoned than were killed in battle.[8] While the Continental Army named a commissary to supply them, the task was almost impossible. Elias Boudinot, as one of these commissaries, was competing with other agents seeking to gather supplies for George Washington's army at Valley Forge. Historian Edward G. Burrows writes that, "by the end of 1776, disease and starvation had killed at least half of those taken on Long Island and perhaps two-thirds of those captured at Fort Washington – somewhere between 2,000 and 2,500 men in the space of two months." [9]
During the war, at least 16 hulks, including the infamous HMS Jersey, were placed by British authorities in the waters of Wallabout Bay off the shores of Brooklyn, New York as a place of incarceration for many thousands of American soldiers and sailors during about 1776-1783. These prisoners of war were harassed and abused by guards who, with little success, offered release to those who agreed to serve in the British Navy.[10][11] Over 10,000 American prisoners of war died from neglect. Their corpses were often tossed overboard, though sometimes they were buried in shallow graves along the eroding shoreline.[12] Many of the remains became exposed or were washed up and recovered by local residents over the years and later interred nearby in the Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument at Fort Greene Park, once the scene of a portion of the Battle of Long Island.[13] Survivors of the British Prison Ships include the poet Philip Freneau, and Congressman Robert Brown.
The American Revolution was an expensive war and it was lack of money and resources that led to the horrible conditions of British prison ships. The climate of the American south worsened the difficult conditions. The primary cause of death in prison ships was diseases as opposed to starvation. The British lacked decent and plentiful medical supplies for their own soldiers, and had even less reserved for prisoners. Offshore of the Northern states, conditions on prison ships caused many prisoners to enlist in the British military to save their lives. Most American POWs that survived incarceration were held until late 1779, when they were exchanged for British POWs. Prisoners who were extremely ill were often moved to hospital ships, although poor supplies prevented any difference between prison and hospital ships.[14]
Prison laborers and other prisoners of the British[edit]
American prisoners were housed in other parts of the British Empire. Over 100 prisoners were employed as slave laborers in coal mines in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia - they later chose to join the British Navy to secure their freedom.[15] Other American prisoners were kept in England (Portsmouth, Plymouth, Liverpool, Deal, and Weymouth), Ireland, and Antigua. By late 1782 England and Ireland housed over 1,000 American prisoners, who in 1783 were moved to France prior to their eventual release.[16]
Continental Army prisoners of war from Cherry Valley were held by Loyalists at Fort Niagara near Niagara Falls, New York and at Fort Chambly near Montreal.[17][18]
British, Hessian, and Loyalist prisoners[edit]
See also: Convention Army
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2008)
American laws of war[edit]
During the time of the American Revolutionary War, George Washington and his Continental Army put the laws of war into practice regarding prisoners of war, unlike their opponents who did not. The Americans believed that all captives should be taken prisoner. On September 14, 1775, Washington, commander of the Northern Expeditionary Force, while at camp in Cambridge, Massachusetts, wrote to Colonel Benedict Arnold that: "Should any American soldier be so base and infamous as to injure any [prisoner]. . . I do most earnestly enjoin you to bring him to such severe and exemplary punishment as the enormity of the crime may require."[19][20] After winning the Battle of Trenton on the morning of December 26, 1776, Washington found himself left with hundreds of Hessian troops who had surrendered to the Americans. Washington ordered his troops to take the prisoners in and "treat them with humanity," which they did. "Let them have no reason to complain of our copying the brutal example of the British army in their treatment of our unfortunate brethren who have fallen into their hands," Washington said.[21] The official stance in the capturing of enemy troops was one of mercy.
Grievances[edit]
Edward G. Burrows remarks that, although British and Hessian captives did "fare better on the whole than their American counterparts", there were nevertheless "instances of outrageous cruelty" against them,[22] that "certain state governments had particularly bad records of prisoner abuse".[23] and that there were "numerous…complaints over the years from enemy prisoners about bad food, squalor and physical abuse." [24] The treatment of prisoners of war varied from state to state. Provisions among the prisoners also varied, but in general became ranged from mediocre to bad in the last years of the war.
British and German prisoners[edit]
The British and Germans shared similar and differing experiences as POWs. The Continental Congress' policies on the treatment of POWs remained the same for all enemy combatants, so the prisoner system was generally the same for the two nationalities. However, the British troops were valued more than the German mercenaries, so there are much more examples of British prisoner exchanges than German prisoner exchanges. Americans grew to hate the British prisoners more than the Germans. German prisoners were much less ill-behaved than the British. The British were more likely to cause disturbances, get into fights, and oppose the guards and the militia, and this was because they were more invested in the defeat of the Americans than the Germans were.[25]
Loyalists[edit]
Loyalists were the most hated POWs. The Continental Congress took the stance that prisoners of war were enemy combatants and not criminals, as such the treatment of POWs differed from criminals. However, depending on the state, Loyalists were often treated more like criminals than POWS. Debate waged throughout the colonies whether to treat Loyalists as enemy soldiers or treasonous citizens.[26]
Prison towns[edit]
There were very few federal prisons as the Thirteen Colonies and the Continental Congress were not in a position to create new ones to imprison British and German soldiers. Instead, Congress sent the majority of British and Hessian prisoners to local American towns and ordered local officials to hold them under strict parole.
The Continental Congress had the sole authority to decide where the prisoners went, and the local towns had little forewarning and no say in the matter. Prison towns found themselves with the burden of providing for hundreds or thousands of prisoners at a time. In towns that could not afford to feed prisoners, the prisoners were put to work in order to feed themselves. British and German prisoners cultivated gardens and worked for farms, craftsmen, and other forms of unskilled labor. Local communities attempted to make prison towns as profitable as possible and often helped prisoners find jobs or sent them to other towns and states for work. How useful the prisoners of war were, the less of an economic burden they were on the town. Towns that were unable to erect barracks for the prisoners were forced to house them in community churches and even citizens' homes. The Continental Congress forcing Americans to quarter prisoners was a major source of contention among the people.[27]
Even when British and Hessian prisoners of war were not being held in individual houses, they were still in public view, and this caused general fear, resentment, and anger among the townspeople. Prisoners were generally not confined to their quarters, and were able to remain in public for the duration of the day. Security proved to be a problem for prison towns. With no official police force, and the military being preoccupied with war, local militias and volunteers generally guarded of the prisoners of war. Protests in prison towns were common, and people that denied prisoners entry were punished for disobeying the Continental Congress in the form of fines, jail time, and even property expropriation.[28]
The reception prisoners received varied from place to place. Overall, the prisoners stay in Boston was one of relative peace. The prisoners remarked that the general population of Boston was civil and tolerant of the prisoners. In the state of Virginia and other southern states, Wealthy planters and plantation owners were happy to have prisoners in Ablemare County because they could count on an even greater abundance of free or cheap labor. In contrast to that, the general southern lower-class were much less tolerant to sharing residence with abundant prisoner populations. In Maryland, the state militia directly and aggressively challenged the US Continental Army when they attempted to escort the prisoners of war into their state. The south had a collective fear of insurrection that emerged because of the slave population.
The Convention Army[edit]
On October 17, 1777, nearly 6,000 British and Hessian soldiers, called the Convention Army, surrendered to the Americans.[29] This put the Continental Congress in the position of holding a massive number of prisoners of war on American soil, something that hadn't happened on a grand scale up to that point. The Continental Congress were already having trouble providing for the Continental Army, and after Saratoga they also had to provide for enemy combatants.
Surrender of General Burgoyne by John Trumbull, 1822; This painting hangs in the United States Capitol Rotunda
A 1789 etching depicting the encampment of the Convention Army at Charlottesville, Virginia
Background[edit]
After British, German, and Canadian troops were defeated, General Burgoyne and General Gates were unable to come to a treaty in regard to the 5,900 prisoners. In the Convention of Saratoga, terms were made that the troops were going to be sent back to Europe and they would never wage war with North America again. Congress saw this condition as an abysmal treaty for one of their greatest victories in the American Revolution and delayed the ratification of this treaty multiple times. General Burgyone grew frustrated with Congress' conduct and openly condemned them for their actions with the convention. Congress used Burgoyne's words as evidence that he was planning to renounce the convention and suspended the convention until Great Britain recognized American independence.[30] The United States ended up holding the Convention Army until the duration of the war.
The marches[edit]
"After spending the next year in camps near Cambridge and Rutland, Massachusetts, they were sent by Congress on an overland odyssey that, by the end of the war, took them down to Virginia, then up to Maryland, into Pennsylvania again, and finally back to Rutland. Almost every step of the way they contended with meagre rations, shortages of fuel, inadequate accommodations, and physical violence." [31]
Over the course of the American Revolution, the Convention Army was marched across the colonies. First they were marched to Massachusetts and remained there for a year, then in 1778 they were moved to Virginia where they remained for two years, and then in 1780 they were moved north and gradually dispersed to different states, cities, and towns until the remainder of the war. The marches themselves were brutal on the soldiers, but their lives generally improved once they got to their destinations. The main reasons why Congress forced the Convention Army to march across America was for security and for financial reasons. Once resources became scarce in the state of Massachusetts, Congress ordered them to be moved into the southern states. The war effort was very different in the north than it was in the south. In 1780, it had become difficult to provide the British and German prisoners of war and their guards with food in the south and their presence there had become a security risk. British had started their official campaigns in the south and this brought about the risk of insurrection among the POWS, and so the Convention army was ordered to be marched back among the northern states and dispersed.[32]
Freedom[edit]
There were three ways for a prisoner of war to achieve freedom after being captured. Desertion, exchange, or parole. A majority of the time, a small militia-hired guard was tasked to supervise the imprisonment of captured British and German soldiers. The United States ability to efficiently watch over their prisoners was constantly tested. The Convention Army initially took their POW status gracefully, but this was because they were under the assumption that they would be sent home within a year. When it became clear that the Americans had no intention of allowing the British to return to Great Britain until the war ended, tensions between the soldiers and the guard escalated and desertions rose rapidly. Propaganda was used by Americans and by high-ranking captured British officials to dissuade troops from deserting, but it largely failed.[33] Many of the prisoners who escaped captivity took American women with them and reared families. A large number of Hessians remained in the US after the war was over because they married American women.[34] Between the time of the Battle of Yorktown (1781) and the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), many of the convention troops, by then mostly Germans, escaped and took up permanent residence in the United States. The American government did not have the means to prevent this.[35]
The two other official forms of reaching freedom, parole and exchange, was common among high-ranking officers. Parole specifically dealt with individual prisoners of war and so the process of being removed from imprisonment or house arrest, and instead placed on parole, was a very simple and speedy process. This was what most British and German prisoners of war sought after. The degree of liberty when on parole varied and the breaking of parole was common, as many used it just to make desertion easier. Some British and Hessian prisoners of war were paroled to American farmers. Their labor made up for shortages caused by the number of men serving in the Continental Army. Exchange, however, was a very complex and slow process because it involved negotiation and diplomacy between a new and inexperienced nation and a state that absolutely refused to recognize American independence. A major hindrance to exchange was the reluctance of the British to concede non-rebel status to her adversaries. The British's perception of the Americans being rebels prevented exchange. A degree of mutual acceptance between Congress and the States, of the principle of exchange and procedure in its implementing must have been attained by the end of March, 1777. Exchange was handled primarily by Congress instead of state powers.[36] While state and local government had considerable power over parole, the federal government had power of negotiating exchanges.
Reaction and impact[edit]
The capture of thousands of British prisoners of war in the hands of the Americans had the effect of further dissuading British officials from hanging Colonial prisoners, despite the abandoned hopes of a settlement by this stage, as they feared reprisals on prisoners being held by the Americans.[37] After the Convention Army was captured, the rate of prisoner exchanges increased dramatically as a result.
During the first years of the revolution prisoners of war, the Continental Congress tried to give prisoners of war the same amount of provisions as the soldiers guarding them. However, after the capture of the Convention Army resources turned scarce and the federal government had to rely on state governments to provide for POWs. From 1777-1778, General Clinton was providing food and subsidence on the Convention Army, but he eventually decided to end his assistance. Clinton placed the full economic burden of providing for the prisoners on the American government. In order to compensate for the lack of resources Congress could give to the British and German prisoners they moved them from state to state. The marches were largely a result of diminishing provisions.[38]
Aside from the official marching of the Convention Army, captured prisoners were paraded through cities after military victories as a form of celebration for the Americans and humiliation for their enemies. These parades were done to boost morale among Americans. The Revolutionary War had devastating effects on communities, and to see clear examples of US progress and victory helped gain support for the war effort.[39]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hanford, William H. (January 15, 1852). "Incidents of the Revolution: Recollections of the Old Sugar House Prison" (PDF). The New York Times. Retrieved February 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Charles H. (2009). Cut Off: Colonel Jedediah Huntington's 17th Continental (Conn.) Regiment at the Battle of Long Island August 27, 1776. Westminster, MD: Heritage Books. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-7884-4924-6.
Jump up ^ West, Charles E.. "Horrors of the prison ships: Dr. West's description of the wallabout floating dungeons, how captive patriots fared." Eagle Book Printing Department, 1895.
Jump up ^ Andros, Thomas. "The old Jersey captive: Or, A narrative of the captivity of Thomas Andros...on board the old Jersey prison ship at New York, 1781. In a series of letters to a friend." W. Peirce. 1833.
Jump up ^ Lang, Patrick J.. "The horrors of the English prison ships, 1776 to 1783, and the barbarous treatment of the American patriots imprisoned on them." Society of the Friendly Sons of Saint Patrick, 1939.
Jump up ^ Leffler CT, et al. (2017). "Ophthalmology in North America: Early Stories (1491-1801)". Ophthalmology and Eye Diseases. 9: 1–51. doi:10.1177/1179172117721902. PMC 5533269  . PMID 28804247.
Jump up ^ Dring, Thomas and Greene, Albert. "Recollections of the Jersey Prison Ship" (American Experience Series, No 8). Applewood Books. November 1, 1986. ISBN 978-0-918222-92-3
Jump up ^ Banks, James Lenox. "Prison ships in the Revolution: New facts in regard to their management." 1903.
Jump up ^ Burrows, Edward G. (2008). Forgotten Patriots: The Untold Story of American Prisoners During the Revolutionary War. Basic Books, New York. ISBN 978-0-465-00835-3. p. 64.
Jump up ^ Taylor, George. "Martyrs To The Revolution In The British Prison-Ships In The Wallabout Bay." (originally printed 1855) Kessinger Publishing, LLC. October 2, 2007. ISBN 978-0-548-59217-5.
Jump up ^ Hawkins, Christopher. "The life and adventures of Christopher Hawkins, a prisoner on board the 'Old Jersey' prison ship during the War of the Revolution." Holland Club. 1858.
Jump up ^ Stiles, Henry Reed (1865). Letters from the Prisons and Prison-ships of the Revolution. Thomson Gale (reprint). ISBN 978-1-4328-1222-5.
Jump up ^ Onderdonk. Henry. "Revolutionary Incidents of Suffolk and Kings Counties; With an Account of the Battle of Long Island and the British Prisons and Prison-Ships at New York." Associated Faculty Press, Inc. June, 1970. ISBN 978-0-8046-8075-2.
Jump up ^ Ranlet, Philip. Ranlet, Philip (2000). "In the Hands of the British: The Treatment of American POWs during the War of Independence". JSTOR 24451269.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Evan. John Paul Jones: Sailor, Hero, Father of the American Navy. Simon and Schuster, pages 67,74
Jump up ^ Lindsay, William R. Treatment of American Prisoners During the Revolution. Emporia State Research Studies Kansas State Teachers College, Volume 23, Number 1
Jump up ^ Campbell, William W.: Annals of Tyron County; or, the Border Warfare of New-York during the Revolution, J. & J. Harper, New York (1831) pp. 110–11, 182, regarding prisoners (i.e., Lt. Col. William Stacy) held at Fort Niagara.
Jump up ^ McHenry, Chris: Rebel Prisoners at Quebec 1778-1783, Being a List of American Colonists were Held by the British during the Revolutionary War, Lawrenceburg, Indiana (1981).
Jump up ^ The torture report represents a heartbreaking decline in America's values
Jump up ^ George Washington and Jared Sparks (1847). The writings of George Washington: Being his correspondence, addresses, messages, and other papers, official and private. Benchmark Books. p. 90. ISBN 978-1286400098.
Jump up ^ Ron Fridell (September 2007). Prisoners of War. Harper & Bros. p. 19. ISBN 9780870139406.
Jump up ^ Burrows, Edward G. (2008). Forgotten Patriots, p. 190.
Jump up ^ Burrows, Edward G. (2008). Forgotten Patriots, p. 188.
Jump up ^ Burrows, Edward G. (2008). Forgotten Patriots, p. 187.
Jump up ^ Dabney, William M. (1954). After Saratoga: The Story of the Convention Army. The University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. OCLC 3486843 p. 39-46.
Jump up ^ Metzger, Charles H. (1962). The Prisoner in the American Revolution. Loyola University Press, Chicago. ISBN 0-8294-0175-X. p. 31-63.
Jump up ^ Becker, Laura L (1982). "Prisoners of War in the American Revolution: A Community Perspective". Military Affairs 46, no. 4. JSTOR 1987609.
Jump up ^ Marsteller, P (1894). "Extracts from the Records of the Moravian Congregation at Hebron, Pennsylvania, 1775-1781". The Pennsylvanian Magazine of History and Biography 18, no. 4. JSTOR 20083617.
Jump up ^ Craig, Scott. "Prisoners of War". Prisoners of War. Mount Vernon's Ladies' Association. Retrieved November 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ Dabney, William M. (1954). After Saratoga, p. 7-26.
Jump up ^ Burrows, Edward G. (2008). Forgotten Patriots, p. 188.
Jump up ^ Dabney, William M. (1954). After Saratoga, p. 27-78.
Jump up ^ Dabney, William M. (1954). After Saratoga, p. 39-40.
Jump up ^ Daniel Krebs (1974). A Generous and Merciful Enemy: Life for German Prisoners of War during the American Revolution. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman . ISBN 9780806143569.
Jump up ^ Dabney, William M. (1954). After Saratoga, p.77.
Jump up ^ Metzger, Charles H. (1962). The Prisoner in the American Revolution, p. 191-232.
Jump up ^ West, Charles E. Horrors of the Prison Ships.
Jump up ^ Dabney, William M. (1954). After Saratoga, p. 27-78.
Jump up ^ Dabney, William M. (1954). After Saratoga, p. 29-30.
Further reading[edit]
Armbruster. Eugene L. The Wallabout Prison Ships: 1776-1783. New York, 1920.
Boyle, Joseph Lee, ed. Their Distress is Almost Intolerable: The Elias Boudinot Letterbook, 1777-1778; 2002, Heritage Books (paperback), ISBN 0-7884-2210-3.
Burrows, Edwin G. Forgotten Patriots: The Untold Story of American Prisoners During the Revolutionary War (NY: Basic Books, 2008)
Cray, Robert E., Jr. "Commemorating the Prison Ship Dead: Revolutionary Memory and the Politics of Sepulture in the Early Republic, 1776-1808," William and Mary Quarterly (1999) 56#3 pp. 565–590 in JSTOR
Dabney, William M. After Saratoga: The Story of the Convention Army. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1954.
Dandridge, Danske. American Prisoners of the Revolution. The Michie Company, Printers, Charlottsville, Va. 1911.
Dandridge, Danske. American Prisoners of the Revolution. Baltimore. Genealogical Publishing Company. 1911.
Krebs, Daniel. A Generous and Merciful Enemy: Life for German Prisoners of War during the American Revolution. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013.
Lowenthal, Larry. Hell on the East River: British Prison Ships in the American Revolution. Fleischmanns, New York. Purple Mountain Press. 2009.
Metzger, Charles H. The Prisoner in the American Revolution. Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1971.
Pope, Johnathan. "Law, Tradition, and Treason: Captured Americans During the American Revolution, 1775--1783" (M.A. Thesis, University of New Brunswick 2003). online
Ranlet, Philip. In the Hands of the British: The Treatment of American POWs during the War of Independence. The Historian 62, no. 4 (2000): pp. 731–57 in JSTOR.
External links[edit]
Saratoga Articles of Convention, 1777
Britain's Prison Ships, 1776-1783
Prisoner Exchange and Parole in the American Revolution
The Exchange of Prisoners
The William and Mary Quarterly
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Stakeholder (corporate)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For other uses, see Stakeholder (disambiguation).
In a corporation, as defined in its first usage in a 1963 internal memorandum at the Stanford Research Institute, a stakeholder is a member of the "groups without whose support the organization would cease to exist".[1] The theory was later developed and championed by R. Edward Freeman in the 1980s. Since then it has gained wide acceptance in business practice and in theorizing relating to strategic management, corporate governance, business purpose and corporate social responsibility (CSR). A corporate stakeholder can affect or be affected by the actions of a business as a whole. Whereas shareholders are often the party with the most direct and obvious interest at stake in business decisions, they are one of various subsets of stakeholders, as customers and employees also have stakes in the outcome. In the most developed sense of stakeholders in terms of real corporate responsibility, the bearers of externalities are included in stakeholdership.
Contents
1 Applications of the term
1.1 Examples of a company's stakeholders
2 Types of stakeholders
2.1 Company stakeholder mapping
2.2 In management
2.3 In corporate responsibility
3 Stakeholder theory
4 See also
5 Citations
6 References
Applications of the term[edit]
Examples of a company's stakeholders[edit]
Stakeholders:
Stakeholder's concerns:[2]
Government taxation, VAT, legislation, employment, truthful reporting, legalities, externalities...
Employees rates of pay, job security, compensation, respect, truthful communication, appreciation, acknowledgement, recognition.
Customers value, quality, customer care, ethical products.
Suppliers providers of products and services used in the end product for the customer, equitable business opportunities.
Creditors credit score, new contracts, liquidity.
Community jobs, involvement, environmental protection, shares, truthful communication.
Trade unions quality, worker protection, jobs.
Owner(s) profitability, longevity, market share, market standing, succession planning, raising capital, growth, social goals.
Investors return on investment, income.
Types of stakeholders[edit]
Any action taken by any organization or any group might affect those people who are linked with them in the private sector. For examples these are parents, children, customers, owners, employees, associates, partners, contractors, and suppliers, people that are related or located nearby.
Primary Stakeholders – usually internal stakeholders, are those that engage in economic transactions with the business (for example stockholders, customers, suppliers, creditors, and employees).
Secondary Stakeholders – usually external stakeholders, are those who – although they do not engage in direct economic exchange with the business – are affected by or can affect its actions (for example the general public, communities, activist groups, business support groups, and the media).
Excluded Stakeholders – those such as children or the disinterested public, originally as they had no economic impact on business. Now as the concept takes an anthropocentric perspective, while some groups like the general public may be recognized as stakeholders others remain excluded. Such a perspective does not give plants, animals or even geology a voice as stakeholders, but only an instrumental value in relation to human groups or individuals.
The definition of corporate responsibilities through a classification of stakeholders to consider has been criticised as creating a false dichotomy between the "shareholder model" and the "stakeholders model"[3] or a false analogy of the obligations towards shareholders and other interested parties.[4]
Company stakeholder mapping[edit]
A narrow mapping of a company's stakeholders might identify the following stakeholders:[5]
Employees
Communities
Shareholders
Creditors
Investors
Government
Customers
Owners
Financiers
Managers
A broader mapping of a company's stakeholders may also include:[citation needed]
Suppliers
Distributors
Labor unions
Government regulatory agencies
Government legislative bodies
Government tax-collecting agencies
Industry trade groups
Professional associations
NGOs and other advocacy groups
Prospective employees
Prospective customers
Local communities
National communities
Public at Large (Global Community)
Competitors
Schools
Future generations
Analysts and Media
Research centers
In management[edit]
In the last decades of the 20th century, the word "stakeholder" became more commonly used to mean a person or organization that has a legitimate interest in a project or entity. In discussing the decision-making process for institutions—including large business corporations, government agencies, and non-profit organizations—the concept has been broadened to include everyone with an interest (or "stake") in what the entity does. This includes not only vendors, employees, and customers, but even members of a community where its offices or factory may affect the local economy or environment. In this context, a "stakeholder" includes not only the directors or trustees on its governing board (who are stakeholders in the traditional sense of the word) but also all persons who paid into the figurative stake and the persons to whom it may be "paid out" (in the sense of a "payoff" in game theory, meaning the outcome of the transaction). Therefore, in order to effectively engage with a community of stakeholders, the organisation's management needs to be aware of the stakeholders, understand their wants and expectations, understand their attitude (supportive, neutral or opposed), and be able to prioritize the members of the overall community to focus the organisation's scarce resources on the most significant stakeholders.[6]
Example
For example, in the case of a professional landlord undertaking the refurbishment of some rented housing that is occupied while the work is being carried out, key stakeholders would be the residents, neighbors (for whom the work is a nuisance), and the tenancy-management team and housing-maintenance team employed by the landlord. Other stakeholders would be funders and the design-and-construction team.
The holders of each separate kind of interest in the entity's affairs are called a constituency, so there may be a constituency of stockholders, a constituency of adjoining property owners, a constituency of banks the entity owes money to, and so on. In that usage, "constituent" is a synonym for "stakeholder".[7]
In corporate responsibility[edit]
In the field of corporate governance and corporate responsibility, a debate[8][9] is ongoing about whether the firm or company should be managed for stakeholders, stockholders (shareholders), or customers. Proponents in favour of stakeholders may base their arguments on the following four key assertions:
1) Value can best be created by trying to maximize joint outcomes. For example, according to this thinking, programs that satisfy both employees' needs and stockholders' wants are doubly valuable because they address two legitimate sets of stakeholders at the same time. There is evidence that the combined effects of such a policy are not only additive but even multiplicative. For instance, by simultaneously addressing customer wishes in addition to employee and stockholder interests, both of the latter two groups also benefit from increased sales.
2) Supporters also take issue with the preeminent role given to stockholders by many business thinkers, especially in the past. The argument is that debt holders, employees, and suppliers also make contributions and thus also take risks in creating a successful firm.
3) These normative arguments would matter little if stockholders (shareholders) had complete control in guiding the firm. However, many believe that due to certain kinds of board of directors structures, top managers like CEOs are mostly in control of the firm.
4) The greatest value of a company is its image and brand. By attempting to fulfill the needs and wants of many different people ranging from the local population and customers to their own employees and owners, companies can prevent damage to their image and brand, prevent losing large amounts of sales and disgruntled customers, and prevent costly legal expenses. While the stakeholder view has an increased cost, many firms have decided that the concept improves their image, increases sales, reduces the risks of liability for corporate negligence, and makes them less likely to be targeted by pressure groups, campaigning groups and NGOs.
Stakeholder theory[edit]
Main article: Stakeholder theory
Post, Preston, Sachs (2002), use the following definition of the term "stakeholder": "A person, group or organization that has interest or concern in an organization. Stakeholders can affect or be affected by the organization's actions, objectives and policies. Some examples of key stakeholders are creditors, directors, employees, government (and its agencies), owners (shareholders), suppliers, unions, and the community from which the business draws its resources. Not all stakeholders are equal. A company's customers are entitled to fair trading practices but they are not entitled to the same consideration as the company's employees. The stakeholders in a corporation are the individuals and constituencies that contribute, either voluntarily or involuntarily, to its wealth-creating capacity and activities, and that are therefore its potential beneficiaries and/or risk bearers." This definition differs from the older definition of the term stakeholder in Stakeholder theory (Freeman, 1983) that also includes competitors as stakeholders of a corporation. Robert Allen Phillips provides a moral foundation for stakeholder theory in Stakeholder Theory and Organizational Ethics. There he defends a "principle of stakeholder fairness" based on the work of John Rawls, as well as a distinction between normatively and derivatively legitimate stakeholders. Real stakeholders, labelled stakeowners: genuine stakeholders with a legitimate stake, the loyal partners who strive for mutual benefits. Stakeowners own and deserve a stake in the firm. Stakeholder reciprocity could be an innovative criterion in the corporate governance debate as to who should be accorded representation on the board. Corporate social responsibility should imply a corporate stakeholder responsibility.
See also[edit]
Look up stakeholder in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Stakeholder engagement
Stakeholder (law)
UK company law
Strategy Markup Language, whose core elements include <Stakeholder>
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Freeman, R. Edward; Reed, David L. (1983). "Stockholders and Stakeholders: A new perspective on Corporate Governance" (PDF). California Management Review. 25 (3): 88–106. Retrieved 21 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Certo & Certo (2005). Modern Management (10th ed.). Pearson. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Frémond, Olivier (October 2000). "The Role of Stakeholders" (PDF). OECD.
Jump up ^ Heath, Joseph (2006). "Business ethics without stakeholders". Business Ethics Quarterly. 16 (3): 533–557. One of the central advantages of the market failures approach to business ethics is that, far from being antithetical to the spirit of capitalism, it can plausibly claim to be providing a more rigorous articulation of the central principles that structure the capitalist economy. If firms were to behave more ethically, according to this conception, the result would be an enhancement of the benefits that the market provides to society, and the elimination of many of its persistent weaknesses. It would help to perfect the private enterprise system, rather than destroy it.
Jump up ^ Carroll, Archie B. (July–August 1991). "The Pyramid of corporate social responsibilities" (PDF). Business Horizons. CS1 maint: Date format (link)
Jump up ^ Stakeholder Relationship Management: A Maturity Model for Organisational Implementation, Dr. Lynda Bourne, 2007
Jump up ^ Shiller, R (2003). "From Efficient Markets Theory to Behavioral Finance". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 17 (1). doi:10.1257/089533003321164967.
Jump up ^ "Shareholder vs. Stakeholder: Two Approaches to Corporate Governance". IESE Business School. June 2008. Retrieved 2017-04-29.
Jump up ^ "Shareholders v Stakeholders: A new idolatry". The Economist. 2010-04-22. Retrieved 2017-04-29.
References[edit]
Freeman, R. Edward; Moutchnik, Alexander (2013). "Stakeholder management and CSR: questions and answers". UmweltWirtschaftsForum. 21 (1): 5–9. doi:10.1007/s00550-013-0266-3.
Freeman, R.E. and Reed, D.L., 1983. Stockholders and stakeholders: A new perspective on corporate governance. California management review, 25(3), pp.88-106.
Redefining the Corporation: An International Colloquy
Post, James (2002). "Redefining the Corporation: Stakeholder Management and Organizational Wealth". Stanford University Press. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Figge, F.; Schaltegger, S.: What is Stakeholder Value? Developing a Catchphrase into a Benchmarking Tool. Lüneburg/Geneva/Paris: University of Lüneburg/Pictet/ in association with United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), 2000 CSM Lüneburg (799 kBytes)
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List of oldest trees
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Pando, an 80,000-year-old colony of quaking aspen, is the oldest known clonal tree, located in Utah, United States
This is a list of the oldest known trees, as reported in reliable sources. Definitions of what constitutes an individual tree vary. In addition, tree ages are derived from a variety of sources, including documented "tree-ring" count core samples, and from estimates. For these reasons, this article presents three lists of "oldest trees," each using varying criteria.
There are three tables of trees, which are listed by age and species. The first table includes trees for which a minimum age has been directly determined, either through counting or cross-referencing tree rings or through radiocarbon dating. Many of these trees may be even older than their listed ages, but the oldest wood in the tree has rotted away. For some old trees, so much of the centre is missing that their age cannot be directly determined. Instead, estimates are made based on the tree's size and presumed growth rate. The second table includes trees with these estimated ages. The last table lists clonal colonies in which no individual tree trunks may be remarkably old but in which the organism as a whole is thought to be very old.
The current record-holders for individual, non-clonal trees are the Great Basin bristlecone pine trees from California and Nevada, in the United States. Through tree-ring cross-referencing, they have been shown to be more than five millennia old.
A clonal colony can survive for much longer than an individual tree. A colony of 47,000 quaking aspen trees (nicknamed "Pando"), covering 106 acres (43 ha) in the Fishlake National Forest of Utah, is considered one of the oldest and largest organisms in the world. The colony has been estimated to be 80,000 years old, although tree ring samples date individual, above-ground, trees at only an average of about 130 years.[1][2][3][4] A colony of Huon pine trees covering 2.5 acres (1.0 ha) on Mount Read, Tasmania is estimated to be around 10,000 years old, as determined by DNA samples taken from pollen collected from the sediment of a nearby lake. Individual trees in this group date to no more than 4,000 years old, as determined by tree ring samples.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Individual trees with verified ages
2 Old trees with estimated ages
3 Clonal trees
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
Individual trees with verified ages[edit]
Name
Age
(years)
Species
Location
Country
Notes
?[nb 1] 7003506700000000000♠5,067 Great Basin bristlecone pine
Pinus longaeva Inyo County, California United States Oldest known currently living tree. Tree cored by Edmund Schulman, age determined by Tom Harlan.[6]
Methuselah 7003484900000000000♠4,849[nb 2] Great Basin bristlecone pine
Pinus longaeva Inyo County, California United States Until 2012, it was the oldest known living tree in the world.[8]
Prometheus
(WPN-114) 4844 !4,844 Great Basin bristlecone pine
Pinus longaeva Wheeler Peak, Nevada United States Cut down in 1964.[6]
Gran Abuelo 7003364600000000000♠3,646 Patagonian cypress
Fitzroya cupressoides Cordillera Pelada, Los Ríos Chile Alive.[6][9] Located within Alerce Costero National Park.[10]
CBR26 3266 !3,266 Giant sequoia
Sequoiadendron giganteum Sierra Nevada, California United States Dead.[6]
D-21 3220 !3,220 Giant sequoia
Sequoiadendron giganteum Sierra Nevada, California United States Dead.[6]
D-23 3075 !3,075 Giant sequoia
Sequoiadendron giganteum Sierra Nevada, California United States Dead.[6]
CMC 3 3033 !3,033 Giant sequoia
Sequoiadendron giganteum Sierra Nevada, California United States Dead.[6]
Scofield Juniper 2675 !2,675 Western Juniper
Juniperus occidentalis Sierra Nevada, California United States Dead.[6]
CB-90-11 7003246000000000000♠2,460 Rocky Mountain Bristlecone Pine
Pinus aristata central Colorado United States [6][11]
Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi 2302 !2,302 Sacred fig
Ficus religiosa Anuradhapura, North Central Province Sri Lanka A sapling from the historical Bodhi tree under which the Buddha became enlightened. It was planted in 288 BC and is the oldest living human-planted tree in the world with a known planting date.[6]
? 2200 !2,200 Coast Redwood
Sequoia sempervirens northern California United States Dead.[6]
Bennett Juniper 2200 !2,200 Western Juniper
Juniperus occidentalis Sierra Nevada, California United States [6]
SHP 7 2110 !2,110 Foxtail Pine
Pinus balfouriana Sierra Nevada California United States [6]
? 7003194400000000000♠1,944 Subalpine Larch
Larix lyallii Kananaskis, Alberta Canada [6][12]
CRE 175 1889 !1,889 Rocky Mountain Juniper
Juniperus scopulorum northern New Mexico United States [6]
Miles Juniper 7003182900000000000♠1,829 Western Juniper
Juniperus occidentalis Sierra Nevada, California United States [6][13]
? 7003180600000000000♠1,806 Sugi
Cryptomeria japonica Yakushima Island Japan [14]
KET 3996 7003172000000000000♠1,720 Limber Pine
Pinus flexilis Ketchum, Idaho United States [6][15]
BFR-46 1697 !1,697 Limber Pine
Pinus flexilis Wasatch Mountains, Utah United States [6]
FL117 7003167900000000000♠1,679 Northern Whitecedar
Thuja occidentalis Ontario Canada [6][16]
ERE 1670 !1,670 Limber Pine
Pinus flexilis northern New Mexico United States [6]
RCR 1 1666 !1,666 Foxtail Pine
Pinus balfouriana Sierra Nevada, California United States [6]
? 1661 !1,661 Limber Pine
Pinus flexilis South Park, Colorado United States [6]
BBL 2 1649 !1,649 Foxtail Pine
Pinus balfouriana Sierra Nevada, California United States [6]
BCK 69 7003165100000000000♠1,651 Baldcypress
Taxodium distichum Bladen County, North Carolina United States [6][17]
? 1636 !1,636 Nootka Cypress
Callitropsis nootkatensis Vancouver Island Canada [6]
FL101 1567 !1,567 Northern Whitecedar
Thuja occidentalis Ontario Canada [6]
? 1542 !1,542 Limber Pine
Pinus flexilis central Colorado United States [6]
Old trees with estimated ages[edit]
Note: The ages of the trees in this list are speculative and probably unreliable.
Name
Age
(years)
Species
Location
Country
Notes
? 4,112 Yew
Taxus baccata Zonguldak Turkey Alive, found in 2016.[18]
Llangernyw Yew 4,000–5,000 Common Yew
Taxus baccata Llangernyw, Conwy North Wales Girth of 10.75 m. Situated in the churchyard of St Dygain's Church in Llangernyw village. One of the 50 Great British Trees.
Sarv-e Abarkuh 4,500 Mediterranean cypress
Cupressus sempervirens Abarkuh, Yazd Iran Also called "Zoroastrian Sarv",[19][20]
The Senator 3,500 Pond cypress
Taxodium ascendens Longwood, Florida United States Destroyed by fire on January 16, 2012[21][22]
Oliveira do Mouchão (KNJ1/601) 3,350 European olive tree
Olea europea L. var. europaea
Mouriscas, Abrantes Portugal Alive.[23][24]
The President 3200 !3,200 Giant sequoia
Sequoiadendron giganteum Sierra Nevada, California United States Alive.
Alishan Sacred Tree 3,000 Formosan cypress
Chamaecyparis formosensis Alishan National Scenic Area, Chiayi Taiwan Collapsed on July 1, 1997, following heavy rainstorms.[25]
S’Ozzastru 3,000–4,000 Olive
Olea europaea Luras, Sardinia Italy [26]
Patriarca da Floresta 3,020 Jequitibá-rosa
Cariniana legalis
Santa Rita do Passa Quatro, São Paulo Brazil Alive. Probably the oldest non-conifer in Brazil. Its name translates as "Patriarch of the Forest". Located at the Vassununga State Park. [27]
Raintree 3,000 Great Basin bristlecone pine Spring Mountains, Nevada United States Great Basin Bristlecone Pine located near Kyle Canyon in the Spring Mountain range in Southern Nevada, USA. Estimated 3000 years old but never cored.
Oliveira de Santa Iria de Azóia 2,850 Olive
Olea europaea Santa Iria de Azóia (pt), Loures, Lisbon Portugal Magnificent Olive tree, probably the last one from a large olive grove. Studied by UTAD University and now classified "Public interest tree" by the Portuguese National Forest Authority ; Tree ID [28]
Mother of the Forest 2520 !2,520 Giant sequoia
Sequoiadendron giganteum Calaveras Big Trees State Park, California United States Dead.
Kayano Ōsugi 2,300 Japanese cedar
Cryptomeria japonica Yamanaka Onsen, Ishikawa Japan Girth of 9.6 m. One of the four trees believed to be sacred in the precincts in a Shinto shrine. Its name translates as "Great Sugi of Kayano".
Jōmon Sugi 2,170–7,200 Japanese cedar
Cryptomeria japonica Yakushima Japan Girth of 16.4 m. Exact dating is made difficult by the rotten core of the trunk. Its name is a reference to the Jōmon period of Japanese prehistory.[29][30][31]
Koca Katran 2022 !2,022 Lebanon Cedar
Cedrus libani Antalya Turkey Alive.[32]
Ballyconnell Yew 2,000–5,000 Yew
Taxus baccata Ballyconnell, Annagh Ireland Oldest tree in Ireland and possibly in Europe.[citation needed]
Fortingall Yew 2,000–3,000 Yew
Taxus baccata Fortingall, Perthshire Scotland Possibly the oldest tree in Britain[33]
Elia Vouvon 2,000–5,000 Olive
Olea europaea Kolymvari, Crete Greece Its name translates as "Olive Tree of Vouves".[34]
Castagnu dê Centu Cavaddi 2,000–4,000 Sweet chestnut
Castanea sativa Sicily Italy Its name translates as the "Hundred Horse Chestnut".
Ulleungdo Hyangnamu 2,000–3,000 Chinese Juniper
Juniperus chinensis Ulleung-gun, Gyeongbuk South Korea Girth of 4.5 m. One of the main branch was broken in 1985 by typhoon "Brenda".
Lady Liberty 2,000 Bald cypress
Taxodium distichum Longwood, Florida United States Sometimes called the "Companion Tree" to 'Senator".
Tnjri 2,000 Oriental plane
Platanus orientalis Martuni Region Artsakh Oldest tree in Artsakh. Its trunk is hollow. Also known as "Sose's Tree".
Stara Maslina 2,000 Olive
Olea europaea Stari Bar, Bar Montenegro
The Pechanga Great Oak Tree 2,000 Coast live oak
Quercus agrifolia Temecula, California United States Oldest oak tree in the United States, possibly in the world.
? 2,000 Olive
Olea europaea Tavira, Algarve Portugal Possibly oldest olive tree in Portugal.[35]
? 2,000 Olive
Olea europaea Exo Hora, Zakynthos Greece [36]
? 2,000 Yew
Taxus Sochi, Krasnodar Krai Russia A grove known to possess several 2,000-year-old specimens.[37]
Houkisugi at Nakagawa 2,000 Japanese cedar
Cryptomeria japonica Nakagawa Settlement, Yamakita town, Ashigarakami District, Kanagawa Prefecture Japan
Methuselah 1,800 Coast redwood
Sequoia sempervirens Woodside, California United States [38]
Araucaria Madre 1,800 Araucaria Araucana Araucanía Chile Located in Parque Nacional Conguillío. 1.800 rings account for at least 1.800 years.[39]
Granit oak 1,700 Pedunculate oak
Quercus robur Granit Bulgaria
Kongeegen 1,500–2,000 Pedunculate oak
Quercus robur Jægerspris Nordskov, Zealand Denmark [40]
Stelmužė Oak 1,500-2,000 Pedunculate oak
Quercus robur Stelmužė, Zarasai Lithuania Oldest tree in the Baltic states. Supposedly oldest oak in Europe.
Aubépines 1,500 Common hawthorn
Crataegus monogyna Saint-Mars-sur-la-Futaie, Mayenne France Oldest tree in France.[citation needed]
Angel Oak 1,500 Southern live oak
Quercus virginiana Charleston, South Carolina United States Highly speculative, live oaks are extremely difficult to age, and rarely live more than 500 years.[41]
Seven Sisters Oak 1,500 Southern live oak
Quercus virginiana Mandeville, Louisiana United States Highly speculative, live oaks are extremely difficult to age, and rarely live more than 500 years.[41]
Jardine Juniper 1,500 Rocky Mountain juniper
Juniperus scopulorum Logan Canyon, Utah United States [42]
Árbol del Tule 1,433–1,600 Montezuma cypress
Taxodium mucronatum Santa María del Tule, Oaxaca Mexico Stoutest tree trunk in the world. Its name translates as the "Tule Tree".
Cedars of God 1000+ Cedrus libani
Cedars of Lebanon Mount Lebanon Lebanon Oldest forest of cedars in Lebanon[43]
Te Matua Ngahere 1,200–4,000 Kauri
Agathis australis Waipoua Forest, Northland New Zealand Oldest tree in New Zealand. Its name translates as "Father of the Forest".
Algarrobo Abuelo + 1,200 Algarrobo blanco
Prosopis chilensis Merlo Forest, Merlo, San Luis Argentina Oldest tree in Central Argentina.
Clonal trees[edit]
As with all long-lived plant and fungal species, no individual part of a clonal colony is alive (in the sense of active metabolism) for more than a very small fraction of the life of the entire clone. Some clonal colonies may be fully connected via their root systems, while most are not actually interconnected, but are genetically identical clones which populated an area through vegetative reproduction. Ages for clonal colonies, often based on current growth rates, are estimates.[citation needed]
Name
Age
(years)
Species
Location
Country
Notes
Pando 80,000[44]–1,000,000[45] Quaking aspen
Populus tremuloides Fishlake National Forest, Utah United States Covers 107 acres (0.43 km2) and has around 47,000 stems (average age 130 years), which continually die and are renewed by its roots. Is also the heaviest known organism, weighing 6,000 tonnes.
Jurupa Oak[46] 13,000[47] Palmer oak
Quercus palmeri Jurupa Mountains, California United States Quercus palmeri Engelm. = Quercus dunnii Kellogg.[47]
Old Tjikko 9,550 Norway spruce
Picea abies Fulufjället National Park, Dalarna Sweden The tree's stems live no more than 600 years, but its root system's age[48][49] was established using carbon dating and genetic matching.[50] Elsewhere in the Fulu mountains, 20 spruces have been found older than 8,000 years.[51]
Old Rasmus 9,500 Norway spruce
Picea abies Sonfjället, Härjedalen Sweden [52]
unknown 3,000[53]–10,000[54] Huon Pine
Lagarostrobos franklinii Mount Read, Tasmania Australia Several genetically identical males that have reproduced vegetatively. Although single trees in this stand may be around 3 to 4 thousand years old, the stand itself as a single organism has existed for 10,000 years.[5]
See also[edit]
Ecology portal
Trees portal
King Clone
List of largest giant sequoias
List of longest-living organisms
List of old-growth forests
List of notable trees
List of superlative trees
Oldest viable seed
Veteran tree
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Not named yet
Jump up ^ It is uncertain when Methuselah's age was determined, but "it seems likely the tree had 4,789 rings (crossdated) in the summer of 1957".[7] The age given here is based on this reference point.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Grant, Michael C. (1 October 1993). "The Trembling Giant". Discover Magazine. Retrieved 8 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Botanical Record-Breakers". W.P Armstrong. Archived from the original on 19 December 2010. Retrieved 7 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Quaking Aspen". National Park Service - Bryce Canyon. Retrieved 7 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "SPECIES: Populus tremuloides". USDA - United States Forest Service. Retrieved 8 May 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "Native Conifers of Tasmania". Paks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania. Retrieved 6 May 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa "Rocky Mountain Tree-Ring Research, OLDLIST". Retrieved January 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Pinus longaeva". Gymnosperm Database. March 15, 2007. Retrieved 2008-06-20.
Jump up ^ "RMTRR OLDLIST". www.rmtrr.org. Retrieved 2017-09-14.
Jump up ^ Lara, Antonio; Villalba, Ricardo (21 May 1993). "A 3620-Year Temperature Record from Fitzroya cupressoides Tree Rings in Southern South America". Science. 260 (5111): 1104–1106. doi:10.1126/science.260.5111.1104. PMID 17806339.
Jump up ^ "Parque Nacional Alerce Costero". Conaf.cl (in Spanish). National Forest Corporation. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Brunstein, F. Craig; Yamaguchi, David K. (Aug 1992). "The Oldest Known Rocky Mountain Bristlecone Pines (Pinus aristata Engelm.)". Arctic and Alpine Research. 24 (3): 253–256. doi:10.2307/1551666. JSTOR 1551666.
Jump up ^ Worrall, John (1990). "Subalpine Larch: Oldest Trees in Canada?". The Forestry Chronicle. 66: 478–479. doi:10.5558/tfc66478-5.
Jump up ^ Miles, D.H.; Worthington, M.J. (17–21 June 1998). "Sonora Pass junipers from California USA: construction of a 3,500-year chronology". In Stravinskiene, V.; Juknys, R. Dendrochronology and Environmental Trends - Proceedings of the International Conference. Kaunas, Lithuania: Vytautas Magnas University Department of Environmental Sciences.
Jump up ^ Suzuki, Eizi; Tsukahara, Jun (1987). "Age structure and regeneration of old growth Cryptomeria japonica forests on Yakushima Island". Journal of Plant Research. 100 (3): 223–241. doi:10.1007/BF02492832.
Jump up ^ Schulman, E. (1956). Dendroclimatic Changes in Semiarid America. Tucson: Univ. of Ariz. Press.
Jump up ^ Larson, D. W.; Kelly, P. E. (1991). "The extent of old-growth Thuja occidentalis on cliffs of the Niagara Escarpment". Canadian Journal of Botany. 69 (7): 1628–1636. doi:10.1139/b91-206.
Jump up ^ Stahle, D. W.; Cleaveland, M. K.; Hehr, J. G. (10 June 1988). "North Carolina Climate Changes Reconstructed from Tree Rings: A.D. 372 to 1985". Science. 240 (4858): 1517–1519. Bibcode:1988Sci...240.1517S. doi:10.1126/science.240.4858.1517. PMID 17798982.
Jump up ^ "Oldest yew tree found in Turkey's north,". Retrieved July 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Iranica, s.v. [1]
Jump up ^ "Trees in ancient Iran". Earthwatchers. Archived from the original on 2013-01-11. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
Jump up ^ Pavuk, Amy. "'The Senator' Catches Fire". Orlando Sentinel. Times Newspaper. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Scheper, J. "Florida's Big Tree". Floridata.com. Archived from the original on 20 July 2008. Retrieved 7 May 2008.
Jump up ^ http://www.icnf.pt/portal/florestas/aip/resource/docs/certificados/KNJ1-478-Declaracao.pdf
Jump up ^ "FLORESTAS — ICNF" (in Portuguese). Retrieved 2016-11-03.
Jump up ^ "Alishan Forest Recreation area has new "tree king"". Taipei Times. 2006-07-02. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
Jump up ^ "A Luras il patriarca degli olivastri millenari d'Europa" (PDF) (in Italian). COMUNE DI LURAS. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-01-11.
Jump up ^ Botosso, Paulo Cesar (November 2002). "Conhecer a Idade das Árvores: Importância e Aplicação" (PDF). Embrapa Florestas. Documentos 75: 25.
Jump up ^ "UTAD classificou oliveira com 2.850 anos!" (in Portuguese). CienciaPT. 2011-07-08. Archived from the original on 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
Jump up ^ Hobson, Jake (2007). Niwaki: Pruning, Training and Shaping Trees the Japanese Way. Timber Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-88192-835-8. Retrieved 25 August 2008.
Jump up ^ Flora and Fauna Fact Sheet (Web Japan)
Jump up ^ Miyazaki, Makoto. "The old men of the mountains". The Yomiuri Shimbun. Retrieved 15 June 2008.
Jump up ^ "Locals want quarries out of Çığlıkara Forest,". Retrieved July 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ Bevan-Jones, Robert (2004). The ancient yew: a history of Taxus baccata. Bollington: Windgather Press. pp. 38–39. ISBN 0-9545575-3-0.
Jump up ^ "The Olive Tree and Olive Oil". Sfakia-crete.com. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
Jump up ^ "The oldest olive tree in Europe". Waymarking.com. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
Jump up ^ "the-oldest-olive-tree pictures, videos and albums". Webshots.com. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
Jump up ^ "О Кавказе". Wwf.ru. 2008-07-24. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
Jump up ^ ""Methuselah" Redwood - Woodside, California". Waymarking.com. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
Jump up ^ ""Parque de Araucarias Araucanas" - Chile: La edad milenaria e indefinida de las Araucarias Araucanas". parquedearaucarias.blogspot.cl. Retrieved 2015-12-30.
Jump up ^ "Kong Frederik den Syvendes Stiftelse Paa Jægerspris". Kongfrederik.dk. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
^ Jump up to: a b Koder, K Live Oak, Pillars of a Nation. http://www.urbanforestrysouth.org/resources/library/citations/live-oak-pillars-of-a-nation/fss_get/file
Jump up ^ "Jardine Juniper Trail". Utahmountainbiking.com. 2001-08-31. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
Jump up ^ The Gymnosperm Database - Cedrus libani (December, 2011) http://www.conifers.org/pi/Cedrus_libani.php
Jump up ^ Quaking Aspen by the Bryce Canyon National Park Service
Jump up ^ Genetic Variation and the Natural History of Quaking Aspen, Mitton, J. B. & Grant, M. C. (1996). BioScience 46 (1): 25-31.
Jump up ^ Connor, Steve (Science Editor), "At 13,000 years, tree is world's oldest organism", The Independent (newspaper), United Kingdom, December 23, 2009, online article December 22, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b May, Michael R.; Provance, Mitchell C.; Sanders, Andrew C.; Ellstrand, Norman C.; and Ross-Ibarra, Jeffrey, "A Pleistocene Clone of Palmer's Oak Persisting in Southern California", PLoS ONE, Vol. 4, Issue 12, December, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Swedes find 'world's oldest tree'". BBC News. 17 April 2008.
Jump up ^ Owen, James (14 April 2008). "Oldest Living Tree Found in Sweden". National Geographic.
Jump up ^ "World's oldest living tree discovered in Sweden". Swedish Research Council. 16 April 2008.
Jump up ^ Roger Highfield (17 April 2008). "World's oldest tree discovered in Sweden". London: The Daily Telegraph.
Jump up ^ Swedish dn.se
Jump up ^ "The Oldest Living Tasmanian: The Huon Pine". Australian Broadcasting Company. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
Jump up ^ "Oldest Living Tree Found in Sweden". National Geographic News. 2008-04-08. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
[hide]
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