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Western Roman Empire
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"Western Empire" redirects here. For the Frankish State, see Carolingian Empire.
Roman Empire
Senatus Populusque Romanus
Imperium Romanum
Western division of the Roman Empire
285–476
Tremissis depicting Flavius Julius Nepos (474-480),
the de jure last Emperor of the Western Court
The Western Roman Empire at its greatest extent ca. AD 395
Capital Mediolanum
(286–402)
Ravenna
(402–476)
Languages Latin (official)
Koine Greek, Aquitanian, Gaulish, Common Brittonic, Gothic, Neo-Punic, Berber
Religion Roman religion until 4th century
Christianity (state church) after 380
Government Autocracy,
Tetrarchy
(293–313)
Emperor
• 395–423 Honorius
• 457–461 Majorian
• 475–476 Romulus Augustulus
Consul
• 395 Flavius Anicius Hermogenianus Olybrius, Flavius Anicius Probinus
• 476 Basiliscus, Flavius Armatus
Legislature Roman Senate
Historical era Late Antiquity
• Division of Diocletianus 285
• Division after Constantine I 337
• Division by Valentinian I 364
• Division after Theodosius I 395
• Deposition of Romulus Augustus 4 September 476
Area
• 395[1] 2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi)
Currency Roman currency
Preceded by Succeeded by
Roman Empire
Kingdom of Italy (476-493)
Visigothic Kingdom
Domain of Soissons
Domain of Moor
Sub-Roman Britain
Kingdom of Burgundy
Francia
Vandal Kingdom
Alamannia
Suebic Kingdom of Galicia
Armorica
Today part of
Various countries[show]
Algeria
Andorra
Austria
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Croatia
France
Germany
Gibraltar
Guernsey
Hungary
Italy
Jersey
Liechtenstein
Libya
Luxembourg
Malta
Monaco
Morocco
Netherlands
Portugal
San Marino
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Switzerland
Tunisia
United Kingdom
Vatican City
In historiography, the Western Roman Empire consists of the western provinces of the Roman Empire at any one time during which they were administered by a separate independent Imperial court, coequal with (or only nominally subordinate to) that administering the eastern half. Both "Western Roman Empire" and "Eastern Roman Empire" (or "Byzantine Empire") are modern terms describing de facto independent entities; however, at no point did the Romans consider the Empire split into two, but rather considered it a single state governed by two separate Imperial courts out of administrative expediency. The view that the Empire was impossible to govern by one emperor was established by Diocletian following the disastrous civil wars and disintegration of the Crisis of the 3rd century, and was instituted in Roman law by his introduction of the Tetrarchy in AD 285, a form of government which was legally to endure in one form or another for centuries. The Western Court was periodically abolished and recreated for the next two centuries until final abolition by Zeno in 480, by which time there was little effective central control left in the area legally administered by the Western Court.
The Western Roman Empire existed intermittently in several periods between the 3rd and 5th centuries, after Diocletian's Tetrarchy and the reunifications associated with Constantine the Great and Julian the Apostate (331/2–363). Theodosius I divided the Empire upon his death (in 395) between his two sons. Finally, eighty-five years later, Zeno of the Eastern Empire recognized the reality of the Western Empire's reduced domain—Roman power ceased to exist even in the Italian Peninsula—after the deposition of Romulus Augustus and the subsequent death of Julius Nepos, and therefore proclaimed himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.
The rise of Odoacer of the Foederati to rule over Italy in 476 was popularized by eighteenth-century historian Edward Gibbon as a demarcating event for the end of the Western Empire and is sometimes used to mark the transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Imperial rule was reimposed in large parts of the West in the sixth century by the armies of the Eastern Roman Empire but political upheaval in the East Roman heartlands saw the Western provinces slip away once more, this time for good. Frankish king Charlemagne would be declared in AD 800 in an attempt to revive the Western Roman Empire; this new imperial line would evolve in time into the Holy Roman Empire, which revived the imperial title but was otherwise in no meaningful sense an extension of Roman traditions or institutions.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 Rebellions, uprisings, and political developments
1.2 Economic stagnation in the West
1.3 Crisis of the 3rd century
1.4 Tetrarchy
1.5 Constantine the Great
1.6 Second division
1.7 Final division
2 Economic factors
3 Sack of Rome and Fall of the Western Roman Empire
3.1 Last Emperor
4 Political change after the empire's fall
4.1 Theodoric
4.2 East Roman reconquest
5 Legacy
6 List of Western Roman Emperors
6.1 Gallic Emperors (259 to 273)
6.2 Tetrarchy (293 to 313)
6.3 Constantinian dynasty (313 to 363)
6.4 Non-dynastic (363 to 364)
6.5 Valentinian dynasty (364 to 392)
6.6 Non-dynastic (392 to 394)
6.7 Theodosian dynasty (394 to 455)
6.8 Non-dynastic (455 to 480)
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Background[edit]
As the Roman Republic expanded, it reached a point where the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disasters, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship or mounted postal service, often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome's orders to be realized in the province of origin. For this reason, provincial governors had de facto rule in the name of the Roman Republic.
Prior to the establishment of the Empire, the territories of the Roman Republic had been divided in 43 BC among the members of the Second Triumvirate: Mark Antony, Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony received the provinces in the East: Achaea, Macedonia and Epirus (roughly modern Greece, Albania and the coast of Croatia), Bithynia, Pontus and Asia (roughly modern Turkey), Syria, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica. These lands had previously been conquered by Alexander the Great; thus, much of the aristocracy was of Greek origin. The whole region, especially the major cities, had been largely assimilated into Greek culture, Greek often serving as the lingua franca.
The Roman Republic before the conquests of Octavian
Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West: Italia (modern Italy), Gaul (modern France), Gallia Belgica (parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg), and Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal). These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, though Celtic tribes such as Gauls and Celtiberians were culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province of Africa (roughly modern Tunisia). Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while adding Sicilia (modern Sicily) to his holdings.
Upon the defeat of Mark Antony, a victorious Octavian controlled a united Roman Empire. While the Roman Empire featured many distinct cultures, all were often said to experience gradual Romanization. While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines.
Rebellions, uprisings, and political developments[edit]
Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or cities would revolt, and the legions would be detached to crush the rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could be considerably more complicated in wartime, as for example in the Great Jewish Revolt.
In a full-blown military campaign, the legions, under generals such as Vespasian, were far more numerous. To ensure a commander's loyalty, a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general's family hostage. To this end, Nero effectively held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis, governor of Ostia, who were respectively the younger son and brother-in-law of Vespasian. The rule of Nero ended only with the revolt of the Praetorian Guard, who had been bribed in the name of Galba. The Praetorian Guard, a figurative "sword of Damocles", were often perceived as being of dubious loyalty. Following their example, the legions at the borders increased participation in the civil wars.
The main enemy in the West was arguably the Germanic tribes behind the rivers Rhine and Danube. Augustus had tried to conquer them but ultimately pulled back after the Teutoburg reversal.
The Parthian Empire, arch-rival of Rome, at its greatest extent, c. 60 BC
The Parthian Empire, in the East, on the other hand, was too remote and powerful to be conquered. Any Parthian invasion was confronted and usually defeated; similarly, Parthians repelled some attempts of Roman invasion, however, even after successful wars of conquest, such as those implemented by Trajan and Septimius Severus. Those distant territories were forsaken to prevent unrest and also to ensure a more healthy and lasting peace with the Persians. The Parthians were followed by the Sasanian Empire, which continued hostilities with the Roman Empire.
Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close and also because of the disunity between the Germanic foes, however, controlling both frontiers altogether during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors.
Economic stagnation in the West[edit]
Rome and the Italian peninsula began to experience an economic slowdown as industries and money began to move outward. By the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the economic stagnation of Italia was seen in the provincial-born Emperors, such as Trajan and Hadrian. Economic problems increased in strength and frequency.[citation needed]
The Roman Empire in 268
Crisis of the 3rd century[edit]
Starting on 18 March 235, with the assassination of the Emperor Alexander Severus, the Roman Empire sank into a 50-year civil war, now known as the Crisis of the Third Century. The rise of the bellicose Sassanid dynasty in Parthia posed a major threat to Rome in the east. Demonstrating the increased danger, Emperor Valerian was captured by Shapur I in 259. His eldest son and heir-apparent, Gallienus, succeeded and took up the fight on the eastern frontier. Gallienus' son, Saloninus, and the Praetorian Prefect Silvanus were residing in Colonia Agrippina (modern Cologne) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions. Nevertheless, Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus - the local governor of the German provinces — rebelled; his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed, an independent state known as the Gallic Empire emerged.
Its capital was Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces and over all of Hispania and Britannia. It had its own senate, and a partial list of its consuls still survives. It maintained Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting the Germanic tribes than other Romans. However, in the reign of Claudius Gothicus (268 to 270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, several eastern provinces seceded under the Palmyrene Empire, under the rule of Queen Zenobia.
In 272, Emperor Aurelian finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention was turned to the West, taking the Gallic Empire a year later. Because of a secret deal between Aurelian and Gallic Emperor Tetricus I and his son Tetricus II, the Gallic army was swiftly defeated. In exchange, Aurelian spared their lives and gave the two former rebels important positions in Italy.
The organization of the Empire under the Tetrarchy.
Tetrarchy[edit]
Main article: Tetrarchy
The external borders were mostly stable for the remainder of the Crisis of the Third Century, although, between the death of Aurelian in 275 and the accession of Diocletian ten years later, at least eight emperors or would-be emperors were killed, many assassinated by their own troops.
Under Diocletian, the political division of the Roman Empire began. In 285, he promoted Maximian to the rank of Augustus (Emperor) and gave him control of the Western regions of the Empire. In 293, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were appointed as their subordinates (Caesars), creating the First Tetrarchy. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions and created separate capitals besides Rome as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. In the West, the capitals were Maximian's Mediolanum (now Milan) and Constantius' Trier. In the East, the capitals were Sirmium and Nicomedia. On 1 May 305, the two senior Augusti stepped down, and their respective Caesars were promoted to Augusti and appointed two new Caesars, thus creating the Second Tetrarchy.
Constantine the Great[edit]
Main article: Constantine the Great
The system of the Tetrarchy quickly ran aground when the Western Roman Empire's Constantius died unexpectedly in 306, and his son Constantine the Great was proclaimed Augustus of the West by the legions in Britain. A crisis followed as several claimants attempted to rule the Western half. In 308, the Augustus of the East, Galerius, arranged a conference at Carnuntum which revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the West between Constantine and a newcomer named Licinius. Constantine was far more interested in conquering the whole empire. Through a series of battles in the East and the West, Licinius and Constantine stabilized their respective parts of the Roman Empire by 314, and began to compete for sole control of a reunified state. Constantine emerged victorious in 324 after the surrender and murder of Licinius following the Battle of Chrysopolis.
The Tetrarchy ended, but the idea of dividing the Roman Empire between two emperors had been validated. Very strong emperors would reunite it under their single rule, but with their death the Roman Empire would be divided again and again between the East and the West.
Second division[edit]
Division of the Roman Empire among the Caesars appointed by Constantine I: from west to east, the territories of Constantine II, Constans I, Dalmatius and Constantius II. After the death of Constantine I (May 337), this was the formal division of the Empire, until Dalmatius was killed and his territory divided between Constans and Constantius.
Constantius was born in 317 at Sirmium, Pannonia. He was the third son of Constantine the Great, and second by his second wife Fausta, the daughter of Maximian. Constantius was made Caesar by his father on 13 November 324.[2] The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single Emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, civil war erupted among his three sons, dividing the Empire into three parts. The West was unified in 340 under Constans, who was assassinated in 350 under the order of the usurper Magnentius; after Magnentius lost the Battle of Mursa Major and committed suicide, a complete reunification of the whole Empire occurred in 353, with Constantius II.
Constantius II focused most of his power in the East and is regarded as the first emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Under his rule, the city of Byzantium - only recently re-founded as Constantinople - was fully developed as a capital. In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandson Julian, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, assumed power. Julian was killed in 363 in the Battle of Samarra against the Persian Empire and was succeeded by Jovian, who ruled only until 364.
Final division[edit]
The division of the Empire after the death of Theodosius I, ca.395 AD superimposed on modern borders.
Western Roman Empire
Eastern Roman Empire
Stone-carved relief depicting the liberation of a besieged city by a relief force, with those defending the walls making a sortie (i.e. a sudden attack against a besieging enemy from within the besieged town); Western Roman Empire, early 5th century AD
Following the death of Jovian, Valentinian I emerged as Emperor in 364. He immediately divided the Empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brother Valens. Stability was not achieved for long in either half, as the conflicts with outside forces (tribes) intensified. In 376, the Visigoths, fleeing before the Ostrogoths, who in turn were fleeing before the Huns, were allowed to cross the river Danube and settle into the Balkans by the Eastern government. Mistreatment caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in the Battle of Adrianople, in which Valens also died. The campaigns to subdue them were only partly successful, and they officially became semi-independent foederati under their own leaders.
More than in the East, there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the Emperors in the western half of the Empire. In 379, Valentinian I's son and successor Gratian declined to wear the mantle of Pontifex Maximus, and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed the Altar of Victory from the Roman Curia, a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome. Theodosius I later decreed a ban on all religions except orthodox Christianity.
The political situation was unstable. In 383, a powerful and popular general named Magnus Maximus seized power in the West and forced Gratian's half-brother Valentinian II to flee to the East for aid; in a destructive civil war, the Eastern Emperor Theodosius I restored him to power. In 392, the Frankish and pagan magister militum Arbogast assassinated Valentinian II and proclaimed an obscure senator named Eugenius as Emperor. In 394 the forces of the two halves of the Empire again clashed with great loss of life. Again Theodosius I won, and he briefly ruled a united Empire until his death in 395. He was the last Emperor to rule both parts of the Roman Empire; his older son Arcadius inherited the eastern half while the younger Honorius got the western half. Both were still minors and neither was capable of ruling effectively. Honorius was placed under the tutelage of the half-Roman/half-barbarian magister militum Flavius Stilicho while Rufinus became the power behind the throne in the east. Rufinus and Stilicho were rivals, and their disagreements were exploited by the Gothic leader Alaric I who again rebelled following the death of Theodosius I. Neither half of the Empire could raise forces sufficient even to subdue Alaric's men, and both tried to use Alaric against the other half. Alaric himself tried to establish a long-term territorial and official base, but was never able to do so.
Stilicho tried to defend Italy and bring the invading Goths under control, but to do so he stripped the Rhine frontier of troops and the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi invaded Gaul in large numbers. Stilicho became a victim of court intrigues and was killed in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. Alaric's men sacked Rome in 410.
Economic factors[edit]
The West, less urbanized with a spread-out populace, may have experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces. Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities) to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas may have suffered. The East was not so destitute, especially as Emperors like Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy. As a result, the Eastern Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire could not afford this to the same extent. Even in major defeats, the East could, certainly not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom.
The political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources remained safe in Constantinople, which was well fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes. In contrast, the Western Empire was more fragmented. Its capital was transferred to Ravenna in 402 largely for defensive reasons, and it had easy access to the imperial fleet of the Eastern Empire but was isolated in other aspects as it was surrounded by swamps and marshes. The economic power remained focused on Rome and its hyper-rich senatorial aristocracy which dominated much of Italy and Africa in particular. After Gallienus banned senators from army commands in the mid-3rd century, the senatorial elite lost all experience of—and interest in—military life. In the early 5th century the wealthy landowning elite of the Roman Senate largely barred its tenants from military service, but it also refused to approve sufficient funding for maintaining a sufficiently powerful mercenary army to defend the entire Western Empire. The West's most important military area had been northern Gaul and the Rhine frontier in the 4th century, when Trier frequently served as the capital of the Empire and many leading Western generals were Barbarians. After the civil war in 394 between Theodosius I and Eugenius, the new Western government installed by Theodosius I increasingly had to divert military resources from Britain and the Rhine to protect Italy. This, in turn, led to further rebellions and civil wars because the Western imperial government was not providing the military protection the northern provinces expected and needed against the barbarians.
The Western Empire's resources were much limited, and the lack of available manpower forced the government to rely ever more on confederate barbarian troops operating under their own commanders, where the Western Empire would often have difficulties paying. In certain cases deals were struck with the leaders of barbaric mercenaries rewarding them with land, which led to the Empire's decline as less land meant there would be less tax revenue to support the military.
As the central power weakened, the State gradually lost control of its borders and provinces, as well as control over the Mediterranean Sea. Roman Emperors tried to maintain control of the sea, but, once the Vandals conquered North Africa, imperial authorities had to cover too much ground with too few resources. The loss of the African provinces might have been the worse reversal on the West's fortunes, since they were among its wealthiest territories and supplied the essential grain imports to Italy. In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, such as Gaul and Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption.
Sack of Rome and Fall of the Western Roman Empire[edit]
See also: Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Germanic and Hunnic invasions of the Roman Empire, 100–500 AD
The Roman Empire during the reigns of Majorian (west) and Leo I (east) in 460 AD. Roman rule in the west would last less than two more decades, whereas the territory of the east would remain static until the reconquests of Justinian I.
The Western and the Eastern Roman Empires by 476
Remaining as emperor after the death of Stilicho in 408, Honorius reigned until his own death in 423. His reign was filled with usurpations and invasions. In 410, Rome was sacked by Alaric's forces. This event made a great impression on contemporaries, as this was the first time since the Gallic invasions of the 4th century BC that the city had fallen to a foreign enemy. Under Alaric's successors, the Goths then settled in Gaul (412–418), from where they operated as Roman allies against the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi in Spain, and against the usurper Jovinus (413). Meanwhile, another usurper, Constantine (406–411), had stripped Roman Britain of its defenses when he crossed over to Gaul in 407, leaving the Romanized population subject to invasions, first by the Picts and then by the Saxons, Angli, and the Jutes who began to settle permanently from about 440 onwards.
Honorius' death in 423 was followed by turmoil until the Eastern Roman government with the force of arms installed Valentinian III as Western Emperor in Ravenna, with Galla Placidia acting as regent during her son's minority. After a violent struggle with several rivals, and against Placidia's wish, Aetius rose to the rank of magister militum. Aetius was able to stabilize the Western Empire's military situation somewhat, relying heavily on his Hunnic allies. With their help, he defeated the Burgundians, who had occupied part of southern Gaul after 407, and settled them in Savoy as Roman allies (433). Later that century, as Roman power faded away, the Burgundians extended their rule to the Rhone valley.
Meanwhile, pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion by Bonifacius, the governor of Africa, induced the Vandals under their king Gaiseric to cross over from Spain in 429. They temporarily halted in Numidia (435) before moving eastward and capturing Carthage, from where they established an independent state with a powerful navy (439). The Vandal fleet became a constant danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean.
In 444, the Huns, who had been employed as Roman allies by Aetius, were united under their ambitious king Attila. Turning against their former ally, the Huns became a formidable threat to the Empire. Attila then received a plea for help and the ring of Honoria, the Emperor's sister. Threatening war, he claimed half of the Western Empire's territory as his dowry.
Faced with refusal, he invaded Gaul and was only stopped in the battle of the Catalaunian Plains by a combined Roman-Germanic army led by Aetius. The next year, Attila invaded Italy and proceeded to march upon Rome, but an outbreak of disease in his army, Pope Leo's plea for peace, and reports of a campaign of Marcianus directed at his headquarters in Pannonia induced him to halt this campaign. Attila unexpectedly died a year later (453).
Aetius was slain in 454 by Valentinian, who was then himself murdered by the dead general's supporters a year later. With the end of the Theodosian dynasty, a new period of dynastic struggle ensued. The Vandals took advantage of the unrest and sailed up to Rome, which they plundered in 455.
The instability caused by usurpers throughout the Western Empire helped these tribes in their conquests, and by the 450s the Germanic tribes had become usurpers themselves. During the next twenty years, several Western Emperors were installed by Constantinople, but their authority relied upon barbarian commanders (Ricimer (456–472), Gundobad (473–475)). Majorian was the last emperor to campaign in Gaul and Spain in 458-460 before being deposed and murdered by Ricimer. From the 460s onwards, imperial control was effectively restricted to Italy and southern Gaul as the remaining Western provinces refused to accept Ricimer's appointment of Libius Severus in 461.
In 475, Orestes, a former secretary of Attila, drove Emperor Julius Nepos out of Ravenna and proclaimed his own son Romulus Augustus as emperor. In 476, Orestes refused to grant Odoacer and the Heruli federated status, prompting an invasion. Orestes was killed and Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus, installed himself as ruler over Italy and sent the Imperial insignia to Constantinople. Although isolated pockets of Roman rule continued even after 476, the city of Rome itself was under the rule of the barbarians, and the control of Rome over the West had effectively ended.
Three rump states continued under Roman rule in some form or another after 476: Julius Nepos controlled Dalmatia until his murder in 480. Syagrius ruled the Domain of Soissons until his murder in 487. Lastly, a Roman-Moor realm survived in north Africa, resisting Vandal incursions, and becoming a part of the Eastern Roman Empire c.533 when Belisarius defeated the Vandals.
Europe in 477 AD. Highlighted areas are Roman lands that survived the deposition of Romulus Augustulus.
Last Emperor[edit]
By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus, but the historical record calls this determination into question.
Julius Nepos still claimed to be Emperor of the West, and ruled a rump state in Dalmatia. He was recognized as such by Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno and by Syagrius, who had managed to preserve Roman sovereignty in an exclave in northern Gaul, known today as the Domain of Soissons.
Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with Zeno. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer patrician status as recognition of his authority and accepted him as his own viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer accepted this condition and issued coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. This, however, was mainly an empty political gesture, as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Julius Nepos. The murder of Julius Nepos in 480 prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy.
Barbarian kingdoms in 526
The Ostrogothic Kingdom, which rose from the ruins of the late Western Roman Empire
Political change after the empire's fall[edit]
Main article: Barbarian kingdoms
Theodoric[edit]
The last hope for a reunited Empire came in 493, as Odoacer was replaced by Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. Theodoric had been forced to appear subservient to Zeno in order to deal with a dangerous Odoacer. While in principle Theodoric was a subordinate, a viceroy of the Emperor of the East, in fact he was his equal.
Following Theodoric's death in 526, the Western half of the Empire was now fully controlled by Germanic tribes (though many of them continued to recognize Roman law and made claims to continuity), while the Eastern half had established itself under the Justinian dynasty. While the East would make some attempts to recapture the West, the Roman Empire was never reunited.
East Roman reconquest[edit]
The Eastern Roman Empire, by reoccupying some of the former Western Roman Empire's lands, enlarged its territory considerably during Justinian's reign from 527 (red) to 565 (orange).
Throughout Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, laid claims on areas of the West which had been occupied by several tribes. In the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire managed to reconquer large areas of the former Western Roman Empire. The most successful were the campaigns of the generals Belisarius and Narses on behalf of the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I from 533 to 554. The Vandal-occupied former Roman territory in North Africa was regained, particularly the territory centered around the city of Carthage. Less than a year later, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Dalmatia, and the Balearic Islands were easily captured by the invading Roman legions. The campaign eventually moved into Italy and the Byzantines reconquered it completely. Minor territories were taken as far west as the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. Only three years after Justinian had died, the Lombards had invaded Italy, but the wealthiest parts of the province remained securely in Roman hands throughout the seventh century.[3]
Although some eastern emperors occasionally attempted to campaign in the West, none were as successful as Justinian. After 600, events conspired to drive the Western provinces out of Constantinople's control, with imperial attention focused on the pressing issues of war with Sasanian Iran and then the rise of Arab power. For a while, the West remained important, with the Emperor Constans II ruling from Sicily a Roman Empire that still stretched from North Africa to the Caucasus in the 660s, but thereafter imperial attention declined rapidly, with Constantinople itself being besieged in the 670s, renewed war with the Arabs in the 680s, and then a period of chaos between 695 and 717, during which time Africa was finally lost to the Romans once and for all. The Emperor Leo III restored order, but his doctrinal reforms, known as the Iconoclastic Controversy, proved extremely unpopular in the West, and led to the final breakdown in imperial rule over Rome itself.
Byzantine rule continued in Sicily throughout the eighth century, with the island slowly being overrun by the Arabs over the course of the ninth century. In Italy, a few strongholds in Calabria ultimately provided a base for modest imperial expansion, which reached its peak in the early eleventh century, with most of southern Italy under "Roman" rule of a sort. This, however, was undone by further Byzantine civil war, and the slow conquest of the region by the Byzantines' former mercenaries, the Normans, who finally put an end to imperial rule in Western Europe in 1071.
Legacy[edit]
Further information: Legacy of the Roman Empire, Romance languages, Corpus Juris Civilis, Civil law (legal system), Latin alphabet, Literature, Bust (sculpture), Concrete, and Cities
On the left: Emperor Honorius on the consular diptych of Anicius Petronius Probus (406)
On the right: Consular diptych of Constantius III (a co-emperor with Honorius in 421), produced for his consulate in 413 or 417
As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who conquered the provinces upheld many Roman laws and traditions. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized, although most were followers of Arianism. They quickly converted to official imperial Christianity, gaining more loyalty from the local Roman populations, as well as the recognition and support of the powerful Bishop of Rome. Although they initially continued to recognize indigenous tribal laws, they were more influenced by Roman Law and gradually incorporated it as well.
Roman Law, particularly the Corpus Juris Civilis collected by order of Justinian I, is the ancient basis on which the modern Civil law stands. In contrast, Common law is based on the Germanic Anglo-Saxon law.
Latin as a language never really disappeared. It combined with neighboring Germanic and Celtic languages, giving rise to many modern Romance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers worldwide.
Latin also influenced Germanic languages such as English, German, and Dutch; all surviving Celtic languages, Albanian, and such Slavic languages as Polish and Czech, and even the non-Indo-European Hungarian. It survives in its "purer" form as the language of the Catholic Church (the Mass was spoken exclusively in Latin until 1969), and was used as a lingua franca between many nations. It remained the language of medicine, law, diplomacy (most treaties were written in Latin), of intellectuals and scholarship.
The Latin alphabet was expanded due to the splits of I into I and J and of U into U, V, and in places (especially Germanic languages and Polish) W; it is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. Roman numerals continue to be used, but were mostly replaced by Arabic numerals.
The ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler continued to appeal to many powerful rulers. Under the principle of translatio imperii, the Holy Roman Empire explicitly proclaimed itself as the continuation of the Western Roman Empire. The title of the Western Roman Emperor was revived when Charlemagne, King of the Franks and Lombards, was crowned as Emperor of the Romans of the West by Pope Leo III in 800. The status of the Holy Roman Emperor as the rightful Western Roman Emperor in the medieval era was further legitimated by the recognition as "co-emperor" from the Eastern Roman Emperor, who was in direct succession to the ancient Roman Emperors. The Holy Roman Empire continued to regard itself as the successor state of the Western Roman Empire until its downfall in 1806. The French King Louis XIV, as well as French Emperor Napoleon I, and the Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, among others, also tried to resurrect the Empire, albeit unsuccessfully.
A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is the Roman Catholic Church. The Church slowly began to replace Roman institutions in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th century. In many cases the only source of law and civil administration was the local bishop, often himself a former governor like St. Ambrose of Milan and St. Germanus of Auxerre. As Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes, many assimilated, and by the middle of the medieval period (c. 9th and 10th centuries) the central, western, and northern parts of Europe had been largely converted to Roman Catholicism and acknowledged the Pope as the Vicar of Christ.
List of Western Roman Emperors[edit]
Gallic Emperors (259 to 273)[edit]
Postumus: 259 to 268
Laelianus: 268 Usurper
Marcus Aurelius Marius: 268
Victorinus: 268 to 271
Domitianus: 271 Usurper
Tetricus I: 271 to 273
Tetricus II: 271 to 273 Son and co-emperor of Tetricus I
Tetrarchy (293 to 313)[edit]
Augusti are shown with their Caesares and regents further indented
Maximian: 293 to 305
Constantius Chlorus: 293 to 305
Constantius Chlorus: 305 to 306
Flavius Valerius Severus: 305 to 306
Flavius Valerius Severus: 306 to 307
Constantine I: 306 to 313
Maxentius/Maximian: 307 to 308
Licinius: 308 to 313
Maxentius: 308 to 312 Usurper
Domitius Alexander: 308 to 309 African usurper
Constantinian dynasty (313 to 363)[edit]
Constantine the Great: 306 to 337 Sole emperor of the empire from 324 to 337
Constantine II: 337 to 340 Emperor of Gaul, Britannia, and Hispania
Constantius II: 337 to 361 Emperor of the east from 337 to 353, Sole emperor of the empire from 353 to 360
Constans I: 337 to 350 Emperor of Italy and Africa 337-340, emperor of the west from 340 to 350
Magnentius: 350 to 353 Usurper
Julian: 355 to 363 Emperor of the west from 355 to 361, Sole emperor of the empire from 361 to 363
Non-dynastic (363 to 364)[edit]
Jovian: 363 to 364
Valentinian dynasty (364 to 392)[edit]
Valentinian I: 364 to 375
Gratian: 367 to 375
Gratian: 375 to 383
Valentinian II: 375 to 383
Magnus Maximus: 383 to 388 Usurper
Valentinian II: 383 to 392
Non-dynastic (392 to 394)[edit]
Eugenius: 392 to 394
Theodosian dynasty (394 to 455)[edit]
Theodosius I: 394 to 395 Sole emperor
Honorius: 395 to 423
Flavius Stilicho: 395 to 408 Power behind the throne
Constantius III: 421
Constantine III: 407 to 411 Usurper
Priscus Attalus: 409 to 410/414 to 415 Usurper
Jovinus: 411 to 412 Usurper
Valentinian III: 423 to 455
Galla Placidia: 423 to 433 Regent
Aëtius: 433 to 454 Regent
Joannes: 423 to 425 Usurper
Non-dynastic (455 to 480)[edit]
Petronius Maximus: 455 not recognized in Constantinople
Avitus: 455 to 456 not recognized in Constantinople
Ricimer: 456 to 472 Power behind the throne
Majorian: 457 to 461
Libius Severus: 461 to 465 not recognized in Constantinople
Anthemius: 467 to 472
Olybrius: 472 not recognized in Constantinople
Glycerius: 473 to 474 not recognized in Constantinople
Julius Nepos: 474 to 480 In exile 475 to 480
Romulus Augustus: 475 to 476 not recognized in Constantinople
Flavius Orestes: 475 to 476 Power behind the throne
Flavius Orestes was killed by revolting Germanic mercenaries. Their chieftain, Odoacer, assumed control of Italy as a de jure representative of Julius Nepos and Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno.
See also[edit]
Byzantine Empire
Holy Roman Empire
Legacy of the Roman Empire
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D". Social Science History. Duke University Press. 3 (3/4): 24. JSTOR 1170959. doi:10.2307/1170959.
Jump up ^ DiMaio Jr., M. & Frakes, R. 'DIR-Constantius II' from De Imperatoribus Romanis [1]
Jump up ^ The Making of Orthodox Byzantium
References[edit]
Henning Börm: Das weströmische Kaisertum nach 476. In: Josef Wiesehöfer et al. (eds.), Monumentum et instrumentum inscriptum. Stuttgart 2008, pp. 47–69.
Henning Börm: Westrom. Von Honorius bis Justinian. Stuttgart 2013, ISBN 978-3-17-023276-1 (Review in English).
Neil Christie: The Fall of the Western Roman Empire. London 2011, ISBN 978-0-340-75966-0.
Kaj Sandberg: The So-Called Division of the Roman Empire. Notes On A Persistent Theme in Western Historiography. In: Arctos 42 (2008), 199-213.
El Housin Helal Ouriachen: La ciudad bética durante la Antigüedad Tardía. Persistencias y mutaciones locales en relación con la realidad urbana del Mediterraneo y del Atlántico, PhD thesis, Universidad de Granada. Granada 2009.
External links[edit]
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Fruit of the Holy Spirit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.
Stained glass window at Christ Church Cathedral in Dublin, depicting the Fruit of the Holy Spirit along with role models representing them, i.e. the Good Shepherd representing love, an angel holding a scroll of Gloria in excelsis Deo representing joy and Jesus Christ, Job representing longsuffering, Jonathan faith, Ruth gentleness and goodness, Moses meekness, and John the Baptist temperance. Executed by Hardman & Co. in the 1870s.[1]
The Fruit of the Holy Spirit is a biblical term that sums up nine attributes of a person or community living in accord with the Holy Spirit according to the Epistle to the Galatians: "But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control."[2] The fruits is contrasted with the works of the flesh which immediately precede it in the chapter.
Catholic tradition follows the Vulgate version of Galatians in listing 12 fruits: charity, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, generosity, gentleness, faithfulness, modesty, self-control, and chastity.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early Commentary
2 Love (Greek: agape, Latin: caritas)
3 Joy (Greek: chara, Latin: gaudium)
4 Peace (Greek: eirene, Latin: pax)
5 Patience (Greek: makrothumia, Latin: longanimitas)
6 Kindness (Greek: chrestotes, Latin: benignitas)
7 Goodness (Greek: agathosune, Latin: bonitas)
8 Faithfulness (Greek: pistis, Latin: fides)
9 Gentleness (Greek: prautes, Latin: modestia)
10 Self-control (Greek: egkrateia, Latin: continentia)
11 See also
12 Bibliography
12.1 Citations
12.2 Sources
Early Commentary[edit]
Aquinas pointed out that numbered among the fruits of the Holy Spirit are certain virtues, such as charity, meekness, faith, and chastity.[3] Augustine defined virtue as "a good habit consonant with our nature." [4]
Though traditionally discussed as nine attributes of the Fruit of the Spirit, the original Greek term translated as "fruit" is singular. Aquinas explained, "Consequently fruit is mentioned there in the singular, on account of its being generically one, though divided into many species which are spoken of as so many fruits."[3] Augustine's commentary on Galatians 5:25-26, says, "the Apostle had no intention of teaching us how many [either works of the flesh, or fruits of the Spirit] there are; but to show how the former should be avoided, and the latter sought after."[3]
Love (Greek: agape, Latin: caritas)[edit]
Main article: Agape
Agape (love) denotes an undefeatable benevolence and unconquerable goodwill that always seeks the highest in others, no matter their behavior. It is a love that gives freely without asking anything in return, and does not consider the worth of its object. Agape is more a love by choice than philos, which is love by chance; and it refers to the will rather than the emotion. Agape describes the unconditional love God has for the world. Paul describes love in 1 Corinthians 13:4–8:[5]
Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. 5 It does not dishonor others, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will cease; where there are tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge, it will pass away.
Mystic Evelyn Underhill considered love to the "budding point" from which all the other fruits come, referencing 1 John 4:16, "God is love, and whoever remains in love remains in God and God in him."[6]
Joy (Greek: chara, Latin: gaudium)[edit]
The joy referred to here is deeper than mere happiness, is rooted in God and comes from Him. Since it comes from God, it is more serene and stable than worldly happiness, which is merely emotional and lasts only for a time. The fruit of joy is the awareness that God is one's Strength and Protector.
Paul wrote in Philippians 4:4, "Rejoice in the Lord always. I shall say it again: rejoice!"
Joy proceeds from the theological virtue of charity. George Campbell Morgan wrote that "Joy is love's consciousness."[7] In Augustine's Discourse on the Psalms he says, "We are an Easter people and our song is 'Alleluia'"[8] Noted preacher Charles Haddon Spurgeon in his sermon, The Fruit of the Holy Spirit: Joy cited Psalm 144:15, "[H]appy the people whose God is the Lord."[9]
This does not mean that a person may not experience sadness on occasion through the death of a loved one, financial trouble, the actions of others, or depression; but underlying the sadness is the sure knowledge that one is still loved by God.
Peace (Greek: eirene, Latin: pax)[edit]
Peace is the result of resting in a relationship with God.[10] Peace is more than an absence of conflict. It is the tranquil state of a soul fearing nothing from God and content with its earthly lot, of what so ever sort that is. It is a kind of equilibrium that comes from trusting that everything is in the hands of God.[11]
The word "peace" comes from the Greek word eirene, the Greek equivalent for the Hebrew word shalom, which expresses the idea of wholeness, completeness, or tranquility in the soul that is unaffected by the outward circumstances or pressures. The word eirene strongly suggests the rule of order in place of chaos. When a person is dominated by peace, he has a calm, inner stability that results in the ability to conduct himself peacefully, even in the midst of circumstances that would normally be very nervewracking, traumatic, or upsetting...Rather than allowing the difficulties and pressures of life to break him, a person who is possessed by peace is whole, complete, orderly, stable, and poised for blessing.[12]
Jesus is described as the Prince of Peace, who brings peace to the hearts of those who desire it. He says in John 14:27:[13] "Peace I leave with you, My peace I give to you; not as the world gives do I give to you. Let not your heart be troubled, neither let it be afraid".
When having peace with God through the sacrifice of Jesus, we are then able to make peace between men, and also between men and God, also called "evangelism". It is understood that those who have peace with God, and are therefore sons of God, will act like their Father in heaven and become those who are able to make peace, or be peace makers, as Jesus says, "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God"[14] and "If God were your Father, you would love Me, for I proceeded forth and have come from God, for I have not even come on My own initiative, but He sent Me".[15] So by saying this, Jesus is stating that only those who have received peace with God through Himself, the "Sons of God", are able to make peace, no one else. These sons of God are specified by John when he says, "None of those who are children of God continue to sin, for God’s very nature is in them; and because God is their Father, they cannot continue to sin".[16] Paul also says, "Never pay back evil for evil. Take thought for what is right in the sight of all men".[17] Peace, in the Bible, is much more than just a lack of yelling or lack of war, it is the presence of YHWH allowed into a place and a person.
Patience (Greek: makrothumia, Latin: longanimitas)[edit]
Generally the Greek world applied this word to a man who could avenge himself but did not. This word is often used in the Greek Scriptures in reference to God and his attitude to man.[11] Exodus 34:6 describes the Lord as "slow to anger and rich in kindness and fidelity."
Patience includes the concepts of forbearance, long-suffering, and the willingness to bear wrongs patiently.[18]
Patience, which in some translations is "longsuffering" or "endurance", is defined in Strong's by two Greek words, makrothumia and hupomone.
The first, pronounced (mak-roth-oo-mee-ah) comes from makros, "long", and thumos, "temper". The word denotes lenience, forbearance, fortitude, patient endurance, longsuffering. Also included in makrothumia is the ability to endure persecution and ill-treatment. It describes a person who has the power to exercise revenge but instead exercises restraint. (Strong's #3115)
The latter, hupomone, (hoop-om-on-ay) is translated "endurance": Constancy, perseverance, continuance, bearing up, steadfastness, holding out, patient endurance. The word combines hupo, "under", and mone, "to remain". It describes the capacity to continue to bear up under difficult circumstances, not with a passive complacency, but with a hopeful fortitude that actively resists weariness and defeat, (Strong's #5281) with hupomone (Greek ὑπομονή) being further understood as that which would be "as opposed to cowardice or despondency"[19]
"With lowliness and meekness, with longsuffering, forbearing one another in love".[20]
Kindness (Greek: chrestotes, Latin: benignitas)[edit]
In Greek, old wine was called "chrestos" which meant that it was mellow or smooth.[11] Christ used this word in Matthew 11:30, "For my yoke is easy, and my burden light."
In contrast, kindness is acting for the good of people regardless of what they do, properly, "useable, i.e. well-fit for use (for what is really needed); kindness that is also serviceable".[21]
Strong's #5544: Kindness is goodness in action, sweetness of disposition, gentleness in dealing with others, benevolence, kindness, affability. The word describes the ability to act for the welfare of those taxing your patience. The Holy Spirit removes abrasive qualities from the character of one under His control. (emphasis added)
The word kindness comes from the Greek word chrestotes (khray-stot-ace), which meant to show kindness or to be friendly to others and often depicted rulers, governors, or people who were kind, mild, and benevolent to their subjects. Anyone who demonstrated this quality of chrestotes was considered to be compassionate, considerate, sympathetic, humane, kind, or gentle. The apostle Paul uses this word to depict God's incomprehensible kindness for people who are unsaved (see Romans 11:22;[22] Ephesians 2:7;[23] Titus 3:4[24]).
One scholar has noted that when the word chrestotes is applied to interpersonal relationships, it conveys the idea of being adaptable to others. Rather than harshly require everyone else to adapt to his own needs and desires, when chrestotes is working in a believer, he seeks to become adaptable to the needs of those who are around him. (Sparkling Gems from the Greek, Rick Renner)
Kindness is doing something and not expecting anything in return. Kindness is respect and helping others without waiting for someone to help one back. It implies kindness no matter what. We should live "in purity, understanding, patience and kindness; in the Holy Spirit and in sincere love; in truthful speech and in the power of God; with weapons of righteousness in the right hand and in the left".[25]
Goodness (Greek: agathosune, Latin: bonitas)[edit]
The state or quality of being good
Moral excellence; virtue;
Kindly feeling, kindness, generosity,joy in being good
The best part of anything; Essence; Strength;
General character recognized in quality or conduct.
Popular English Bibles (e.g. NIV, NASB, NLT) translate the single Greek word chrestotes into two English words: kindness and goodness. "Wherefore also we pray always for you, that our God would count you worthy of this calling, and fulfill all the good pleasure of his goodness, and the work of faith with power".[26] "For the fruit of the Spirit is in all goodness and righteousness and truth",[27] with agathosune being "found only in Biblical and ecclesiastical writings, uprightness of heart and life"[28]
Faithfulness (Greek: pistis, Latin: fides)[edit]
Faithfulness is committing oneself to something or someone, for instance, to one's spouse, to a cause, or to a religion. Being faithful requires personal resolve not to wander away from commitments or promises. It's not always easy to be faithful. True faith requires trust in God. "O Lord, thou art my God; I will exalt thee, I will praise thy name; for thou hast done wonderful things; thy counsels of old are faithfulness and truth".[29] "I pray that out of his glorious riches he may strengthen you with power through his Spirit in your inner being, so that Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith".[Eph 3:16-17]
The writer of the Letter to the Hebrews describes it this way: "Let us fix our eyes on Jesus, the author and perfecter of our faith, who for the joy set before him endured the cross, scorning its shame, and sat down at the right hand of the throne of God".[30]
The root of pistis[31] ("faith") is peithô[32] that is to persuade or be persuaded which supplies the core-meaning of faith as being "divine persuasion", received from God, and never generated by man.
Gentleness (Greek: prautes, Latin: modestia)[edit]
Gentleness, in the Greek, prautes, commonly known as meekness, which is "a divinely-balanced virtue that can only operate through faith (cf. [1 Tim 6:11]; [2 Tim 2:22-25]).[33]
. The New Spirit Filled Life Bible defines gentleness as
"a disposition that is even-tempered, tranquil, balanced in spirit, unpretentious, and that has the passions under control. The word is best translated 'meekness,' not as an indication of weakness, but of power and strength under control. The person who possesses this quality pardons injuries, corrects faults, and rules his own spirit well".
"Brothers and sisters, if someone is caught in a sin, you who live by the Spirit should restore that person gently. But watch yourselves, or you also may be tempted".[Gal 6:1]
"Be completely humble and gentle; be patient, bearing with one another in love".[Eph 4:2]
Self-control (Greek: egkrateia, Latin: continentia)[edit]
The Greek word used in Galatians 5:23 is "egkrateia", meaning "strong, having mastery, able to control one's thoughts and actions."[34]
"...make every effort to add to your faith goodness; and to goodness, knowledge; and to knowledge, self-control; and to self-control, perseverance; and to perseverance, godliness; and to godliness, mutual affection; and to mutual affection, love".[2 Pet 1:5-7]
See also[edit]
Gifts of the Holy Spirit
seven virtues
Related Bible parts: Galatians 5, Philippians 4
Bibliography[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ "CO. DUBLIN, DUBLIN, CHRISTCHURCH PLACE, CHRIST CHURCH CATHEDRAL (CI)". Dictionary of Irish Architects 1720–1940. Irish Architectural Archive. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Galatians 5:22-23
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologica, Second and Revised Edition, Fathers of the English Dominican Province, 1920
Jump up ^ Waldron, Martin Augustine. "Virtue." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 5 May 2015
Jump up ^ Quoted from the New International Version: 1 Corinthians 13:4–8
Jump up ^ Underhill, Evelyn. Fruits of the Spirit, Church Publishing, Inc., 1989 ISBN 9780819213143
Jump up ^ Morgan, George Campbell. "The Fruit of the Spirit", Classic Sermons on the Fruit of the Spirit, (Warren Wiersbe ed.), Kregel Academic, 2002 ISBN 9780825496387
Jump up ^ Augustine of Hippo. Ps. 148, 1-2: CCL 40, 2165-2166
Jump up ^ Wiersbe p.63.
Jump up ^ Morgan, Elisa. Naked Fruit: Getting Honest about the Fruit of the Spirit. Revell, 2004. ISBN 978-0-8007-1873-2
^ Jump up to: a b c Pope, Charles. "A Brief Treatise on the Fruits of the Holy Spirit", Archdiocese of Washington, January 27, 2013
Jump up ^ Renner, Rick. Sparkling Gems from the Greek., Teach All Nations, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9725454-7-1
Jump up ^ John 14:27
Jump up ^ Matthew 5:7
Jump up ^ John 8:42
Jump up ^ 1John 3:15
Jump up ^ Romans 12:17
Jump up ^ Michael, Chester P., An Introduction to Spiritual Direction, Paulist Press, 2003 ISBN 9780809141746
Jump up ^ [1] Thayer's Greek Lexicon - STRONGS NT 3115: μακροθυμία
Jump up ^ Eph4:2
Jump up ^ [2] Strong's Greek Concordance 5544. chréstotés
Jump up ^ Romans 11:22
Jump up ^ Ephesians 2:7
Jump up ^ Titus 3:4
Jump up ^ 2Cor 6:6-7
Jump up ^ 2 Thessalonians 1:11
Jump up ^ Ephesians 5:9
Jump up ^ [3] Strong's Greek Concordance 19. agathosune
Jump up ^ Isaiah 25:1
Jump up ^ Heb 12:2
Jump up ^ [4] Strong's Greek Concordance 4102. pistis
Jump up ^ [5] Strong's Greek Concordance 3982. peithó
Jump up ^ [6] Strong's Greek Concordance 4240. prautés: gentleness
Jump up ^ Graham, Billy. "The Holy Spirit: Activating God's Power in Your Life", Thomas Nelson Inc, 2011 ISBN 9781418515690
Sources[edit]
George A. Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation Through Rhetorical Criticism, George A. Kennedy (University of North Carolina Press: 1984)
Longman, Robert Jr. "Self-Control". Web: 19 Oct 2010. Spirit Home
Classic Sermons on the Fruit of the Spirit, (Warren Wiersbe ed.), Kregel Academic, 2002. ISBN 9780825496387
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