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List of Italian musical terms used in English
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For a general, non-specific list of terms, see Musical terminology.
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Many musical terms are in Italian, because many of the most important early composers from the Renaissance to the Baroque period were Italian, and that period is when numerous musical indications were used extensively for the first time[citation needed]. (See also sheet music.)
Here are some of these expressions:
Contents
[hide]
1 Musical forms
2 Musical instruments
3 Voices
4 Tempo
5 Dynamics – volume
6 Moods
7 Musical expression (general)
8 Patterns within the musical score
9 Directions
10 Techniques
11 Roles
12 Criticism
13 Musical direction and staging
14 See also
15 External links
Musical forms[edit]
Italian term
Literal translation
Definition
A cappella in chapel style Sung with no (instrumental) accompaniment, has lots of harmonizing
Aria air Piece of music, usually for a singer
Aria di sorbetto sorbet air A lesser aria within an opera
Arietta little air A short or light aria
Arioso airy A type of solo vocal piece during an opera or operetta
Ballabile danceable (song) to be danced to
Battaglia battle An instrumental or vocal piece suggesting a battle
Bergamasca from Bergamo A peasant dance from Bergamo
Burletta a little joke A light comic or farcical opera
Cabaletta from copola (couplet) A two-part musical form
Cadenza falling A florid solo at the end of a performance
Cantata sung A piece for orchestra and singers
Capriccio caprice A lively piece, free in form, often used to show musical skill
Cavatina small instrumental tone A simple melody or song
Coda tail The end of a piece
Concerto concert A work for one or more solo instruments accompanied by an orchestra
Concertino little concert A short concerto; the solo instrument in a concerto
Concerto grosso big concert A Baroque form of concerto, with a group of solo instruments
Da capo aria from the head aria A three-section musical form
Dramma giocoso jocular drama A form of opera
Dramma per musica drama for music Libretto
Fantasia fantasy A musical composition or “idea” typified by improvisation
Farsa farce A one-act comical opera
festa teatrale theatrical party A genre of opera
Fioritura flowery A highly embellised vocal line
Intermedio intermediate A short connecting instrumental movement – an intermezzo
Intermezzo interval A short connecting instrumental movement
Libretto little book A work containing the words to an opera, musical, or ballet
Melodramma melodrama A style of opera
Opera work A drama set to music for singers and instrumentalists
Opera buffa humorous opera A comic opera
Opera semiseria semi-serious opera A variety of opera
Opera seria serious opera An opera with a serious, esp. classical theme
Operetta little opera A variety of light opera
Oratorio oratory Large musical composition for orchestra, choir, and soloists
Pasticcio pastiche A musical piece containing works by different composers
Ripieno concerto padding concert A form of Baroque concerto with no solo parts
Serenata Serenade A song or composition in someone’s honour. Originally, a musical greeting performed for a lover
Soggetto cavato carved subject A musical cryptogram, using coded syllables as a basis for the composition
Sonata sounded A composition for one or two instruments in sonata form
Verismo realism A genre of operas with scenarios based on contemporary everyday life
Musical instruments[edit]
Piano(forte) soft-loud A keyboard instrument
Viola viola, orig. Latin vitulari "be joyful" A medium-sized stringed instrument
(Violon)cello Small violone (violone means "big viola") A large stringed instrument
Viola da gamba leg viola A stringed instrument held between the legs
Viola da braccio arm viola A stringed instrument held in the arm, such as a violin or viola
Viola d'amore love viola A tenor viol with no frets
Tuba tube A large brass instrument
Piccolo little A tiny woodwind instrument
Sordun deaf, dull in sound An archaic double-reed wind instrument
Timpani drums Large drums
Cornetto little horn An old woodwind instrument
Campana bell A bell used in an orchestra; also campane "bells"
Orchestra orchestra, orig. Greek orkesthai "dance" An ensemble of instruments
Voices[edit]
Soprano upper The highest vocal line
Mezzo-soprano middle-upper Between soprano and alto
Alto high Second-highest vocal line
Contralto against high Alto, esp. a female alto
Basso low Or "bass;" the lowest vocal line
Basso profondo deep and low A very deep bass voice
Coloratura soprano colouring soprano A soprano specialised in complex, ornamented melody
Soprano sfogato unlimited soprano A soprano who has extended her upper range beyond the usual range of a soprano
Spinto soprano pushed soprano A soprano whose voice, while normally of lyric weight and fluidity, can be pushed to a more forceful weight
Squillo ringing The resonant clarity of an operatic singer’s voice
Tenore contraltino ' A tenor voice capable of a slightly higher range of sustainable notes than usual
Tenore di grazia or ‘’’Leggiero tenor’’’ ' A lightweight, flexible tenor voice
Tessitura texture A singer’s comfortable range
Falsetto little false A vocal register immediately above the modal voice range
Falsettone ' Falsetto, sung using the usual techniques of modal voice register
Castrato castrated A male singer, castrated so as to be able to sing soprano (now sung by women, conventional countertenors, or sopranisti)
Musico musician Originally, a trained musician; later, a castrato or female singer
Spinto pushed A forceful voice, between the lyric and dramatic in weight
Passaggio crossing A vocal range
Tempo[edit]
Tempo time The speed of music e.g. 120 BPM
Grave solemn Slow and solemn, slower than largo
Largo broad Slow and dignified
Larghetto a little bit broad Not as slow as largo
Lentando slowing Becoming slower
Lento slow Slow
Tardo slow Slow
Adagio ad agio, at ease Slow, but not as slow as largo
Adagietto little adagio Faster than adagio; or a short adagio composition
Andante at a walking pace Moderately slow, flowing along
Andantino slightly faster than andante slightly faster than andante
Moderato moderately At a moderate speed
Allegretto a little bit joyful Slightly slower than allegro
Largamente broadly Slow and dignified
Mosso moved Agitated
Allegro joyful; lively and fast Moderately fast
Sostenuto sustained A slowing of tempo, often accompanied by legato playing
Fermata stopped Marks a note to be held or sustained
Presto ready Very fast
Prestissimo very ready Very very fast, as fast as possible
Accelerando accelerating Accelerating
Affrettando becoming hurried Accelerating
Allargando slowing and broadening Slowing down and broadening, becoming more stately and majestic, possibly louder
Ritardando slowing down Decelerating
Rallentando becoming progressively slower Decelerating
Rubato robbed Free flowing and exempt from steady rhythm
Tenuto sustained Holding or sustaining a single note
Accompagnato accompanied The accompaniment must follow the singer who can speed up or slow down at will
Alla marcia as a march In strict tempo at a marching pace (e.g. 120 bpm)
A tempo to time Return to previous tempo
L'istesso tempo Same speed At the same speed
Dynamics – volume[edit]
Calando quietening Becoming softer and slower
Crescendo growing Becoming louder
Decrescendo shrinking Becoming softer
Diminuendo dwindling Becoming softer
Forte strong Loud
Fortissimo very strong Very loud
Marcato marked A note played forcefully
Mezzo forte half-strong Moderately loud
Piano gentle Soft
Pianissimo very gentle Very soft
Mezzo piano half-gentle Moderately soft
Sforzando strained Sharply accented
Stentato in the manner of Stentor Loud, boisterous
Tremolo trembling A rapid repetitive variation in the volume (or pitch) of a tone
Messa di voce placing the voice A style of singing involving changing volume while holding a single note
Moods[edit]
Affettuoso with feeling Tenderly
Agitato agitated Excited and fast
Animato animated Animated
Brillante brilliant Brilliant, bright
Bruscamente brusquely Brusquely – abruptly
Cantabile singable In a singing style
Colossale colossal In a fashion which suggests immensity
Comodo convenient Comfortably, moderately
Con amore with love With love
Con fuoco with fire With fiery manner
Con brio with bright brightly
Con moto with movement With (audible) movement
Con spirito with spirit With spirit
Dolce sweetly Sweet
Espressivo expressive Expressively
Festoso happy With happiness
Furioso furious With passion
Grazioso graciously or gracefully With charm
Lacrimoso teary Tearfully, sadly
Maestoso majestic Stately
Misterioso mysterious Mysteriously, secretively, enigmatic
Pesante heavy Heavy, slowly, sadly
Risoluto resolved Resolved, decisive
Scherzando playfully Playfully
Sotto subdued Subdued
Semplicemente simply Simply
Slancio passion Enthusiasm
Vivace vivacious Up-tempo
Musical expression (general)[edit]
Molto very Used with other terms, such as molto allegro
Assai very Used with other terms, such as allegro assai
Più more Used with other terms, such as più mosso
Poco little "A little". Used with other terms, such as poco diminuendo
poco a poco little by little "little by little", "slowly but steadily". Used with other terms, such as poco a poco crescendo
ma non tanto but not so much Used with other terms, such as adagio ma non tanto
ma non troppo but not too much Used with other terms, such as allegro ma non troppo
Meno less Used with other terms, such as meno mosso
Subito suddenly, quickly Used with other terms, such as subito fortissimo
Patterns within the musical score[edit]
Lacuna gap A silent pause in a piece of music
Ossia alternatively A secondary passage of music which may be played in place of the original
Ostinato stubborn A repeated motif or phrase in a piece of music
Ritornello little return A recurring passage in a piece of Baroque music
Segue it follows A smooth movement from one passage to another with no pause
Stretto tightened In a fugue, the repeating of a motif by a second voice before the first rendition is completed
Pensato thought A composed imaginary note
Directions[edit]
Attacca attach Proceed to the next section without pause
Cambiare change Any change, such as to a new instrument
Da Capo (al fine) from the beginning (to the end) Abbreviated as D.C., informs the performer to go back to the beginning (capo) (finishing where the part is marked fine)
Dal Segno from the sign Abbreviated as D.S., informs the performer to repeat a specific section marked by a sign (segno)
Divisi divided Instructs one section to divide into two or more separate sections, each playing a separate part. Often these separate parts are written on the same staff.
Oppure otherwise Informs the player of alternative ways to play a passage. See Ossia.
solo alone A piece or performance to be played by a single musician
Techniques[edit]
Altissimo very high Very high
Arpeggio harp-like A chord with the notes spread out in time
Acciaccatura crushing An extra, very fast grace note
Appoggiatura leaning A type of ornament
Basso continuo continuous bass Continuous bass accompaniment (see figured bass.)
A bocca chiusa mouth closed Wordless humming in a choral piece
Chiuso closed Calls for a horn to be muted by hand
Coll'arco with the bow Cancels col legno and pizzicato (in a string passage, arco is usually expected and is not written except at the end of col legno or pizzicato passages.)
Colla voce with the voice A note to accompanists to play with (in time with) the singer, especially when slowing for textual effect
Col legno with the wood Calls for a bowed instrument to be struck with the wood rather than the hair of the bow
Coloratura coloration Elaborate ornamentation of a vocal line
Glissando glide A sweeping glide from one pitch to another
Legato tied together A series of notes played with a smooth connection between them
Martellato hammered Notes are strongly accented and detached
Con sordino with mute Calls for mute to be applied, esp. to string instruments.
Senza sordino without mute Calls for mute to be removed, esp. from string instruments.
Pizzicato plucked Calls for a bowed instrument to be plucked with the fingers
Portamento carrying A sliding of pitch between two notes
Portato carried A style of playing between staccato and legato
Sforzando using force Played with strong, marked emphasis
Coperti covered Of a drum, muted with a cloth
Una corda one string With the soft pedal, on a piano
Due corde two strings With the soft pedal, on a piano. For why both terms exist, see piano.
Tre corde or tutte le corde Three strings or all the strings Cancels an una corda
Spiccato separated Playing a stringed instrument by bouncing the bow lightly on the strings
Tutti all A direction for the entire ensemble to play or sing, rather than a soloist
staccatissimo very detached Forcefully exaggerated staccato
Staccato detached A form of musical articulation in which notes are distinct and separated from each other by short gaps
Scordatura mistuning Alternate tuning (of strings)
vibrato vibrating A rapid repetitive variation in the pitch of a tone
Roles[edit]
Prima donna first lady Leading female role
Primo uomo first man Leading male role
Banda band A small music ensemble used as a supplement to the orchestra in an opera
Comprimario con primario, with the first A supporting role
Concertino little concert The smaller, more virtuosic, group of musicians in a concerto grosso
Coro choir An ensemble of singers
Diva female deity A leading female singer
Ripieno filling or stuffing The larger group of musicians in a concerto grosso
Convenienze conveniences The rules relating to the ranking of singers in opera
Criticism[edit]
Bel canto beautiful voice Any fine singing, esp. that popular in 18th- and 19th-century Italian opera
Bravura skill A performance of extraordinary virtuosity
Bravo skillful A cry of congratulation to a male singer or performer. Fem. brava, pl. bravi, fem.pl. brave. The use of ! after "Bravo/a/i/e(!)" strongly emphasizes the written expression.
Musical direction and staging[edit]
Maestro Master, teacher Conductor, music director, music teacher, also composer and other eminent musicians and singers
Maestro sostituto Deputy master Assistant conductor
Maestro collaboratore Collaborating master Assistant conductor
Maestro suggeritore Master prompter Prompter
Stagione season A variety of formal organisation of players and crew in the staging of operas
See also[edit]
Musical terminology
External links[edit]
8notes glossary
Pronounce It Right: Italian musical terms
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Metamorphism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Metamorphism (disambiguation).
Schematic representation of a metamorphic reaction. Abbreviations of minerals: act = actinolite; chl = chlorite; ep = epidote; gt = garnet; hbl = hornblende; plag = plagioclase. Two minerals represented in the figure do not participate in the reaction, they can be quartz and K-feldspar. This reaction takes place in nature when a rock goes from amphibolite facies to greenschist facies.
Metamorphism is the change of minerals or geologic texture (distinct arrangement of minerals) in pre-existing rocks (protoliths), without the protolith melting into liquid magma (a solid-state change).[1] The change occurs primarily due to heat, pressure, and the introduction of chemically active fluids. The chemical components and crystal structures of the minerals making up the rock may change even though the rock remains a solid. Changes at or just beneath Earth's surface due to weathering and/or diagenesis are not classified as metamorphism.[2] Metamorphism typically occurs between diagenesis (max. 200°C), and melting (~850°C).[3]
Three types of metamorphism exist: contact, dynamic, and regional. Metamorphism produced with increasing pressure and temperature conditions is known as prograde metamorphism. Conversely, decreasing temperatures and pressure characterize retrograde metamorphism.
Contents
[hide]
1 Solid state recrystalization and neocrystalization
2 Limits
3 Types
3.1 Regional
3.2 Contact (thermal)
3.3 Hydrothermal
3.4 Shock
3.5 Dynamic
4 Classification of metamorphic rocks
4.1 Metamorphic facies
4.2 Metamorphic grades
5 Metamorphic processes
5.1 Recrystallization
5.2 Phase change
5.3 Neocrystallization
5.4 Pressure solution
5.5 Plastic deformation
6 Prograde and retrograde
7 See also
8 Footnotes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Solid state recrystalization and neocrystalization[edit]
Metamorphic rocks can change without melting. Heat causes atomic bonds to break, and the atoms move and form new bonds with other atoms, creating new minerals with different chemical components or crystalline structures (neocrystallization), or enabling recrystallization.[3] When pressure is applied, somewhat flattened grains that orient in the same direction have a more stable configuration.
Limits[edit]
The temperature lower limit on what is considered to be a metamorphic process is generally considered to be 100 – 200 °C;[4] this excludes diagenetic changes due to compaction and the formation of sedimentary rocks. There is no agreement on a pressure lower limit for metamorphism; some argue that changes in barometric pressure are not metamorphic, but some types of metamorphism can occur at extremely low pressures.
The upper boundary of metamorphic conditions is related to the onset of melting processes in the rock. The maximum temperature for metamorphism is typically 700 – 900 °C, depending on the pressure and on the composition of the rock. Migmatites are rocks formed at this upper limit, which contain pods and veins of material that has started to melt but has not fully segregated from the refractory residue. Since the 1980s it has been recognized that rocks are rarely dry enough and of a refractory enough composition to record without melting "ultra-high" metamorphic temperatures of 900 – 1100 °C.
Types[edit]
Regional[edit]
Regional or Barrovian metamorphism covers large areas of continental crust typically associated with mountain ranges, particularly those associated with convergent tectonic plates or the roots of previously eroded mountains. Conditions producing widespread regionally metamorphosed rocks occur during an orogenic event. The collision of two continental plates or island arcs with continental plates produce the extreme compressional forces required for the metamorphic changes typical of regional metamorphism. These orogenic mountains are later eroded, exposing the intensely deformed rocks typical of their cores. The conditions within the subducting slab as it plunges toward the mantle in a subduction zone also produce regional metamorphic effects, characterized by paired metamorphic belts. The techniques of structural geology are used to unravel the collisional history and determine the forces involved. Regional metamorphism can be described and classified into metamorphic facies or metamorphic zones of temperature/pressure conditions throughout the orogenic terrane.
Contact (thermal)[edit]
A metamorphic aureole in the Henry Mountains, Utah. The greyish rock on top is the igneous intrusion, consisting of porphyritic granodiorite from the Henry Mountains laccolith, and the pinkish rock on the bottom is the sedimentary country rock, a siltstone. In between, the metamorphosed siltstone is visible as both the dark layer (~5 cm thick) and the pale layer below it.
Contact metamorphism occurs typically around intrusive igneous rocks as a result of the temperature increase caused by the intrusion of magma into cooler country rock. The area surrounding the intrusion where the contact metamorphism effects are present is called the metamorphic aureole.[5] Contact metamorphic rocks are usually known as hornfels. Rocks formed by contact metamorphism may not present signs of strong deformation and are often fine-grained.
Contact metamorphism is greater adjacent to the intrusion and dissipates with distance from the contact. The size of the aureole depends on the heat of the intrusion, its size, and the temperature difference with the wall rocks. Dikes generally have small aureoles with minimal metamorphism whereas large ultramafic intrusions can have significantly thick and well-developed contact metamorphism.
The metamorphic grade of an aureole is measured by the peak metamorphic mineral which forms in the aureole. This is usually related to the metamorphic temperatures of pelitic or aluminosilicate rocks and the minerals they form.The metamorphic grades of aureoles are andalusite hornfels, sillimanite hornfels, pyroxene hornfels.
Magmatic fluids coming from the intrusive rock may also take part in the metamorphic reactions. Extensive addition of magmatic fluids can significantly modify the chemistry of the affected rocks. In this case the metamorphism grades into metasomatism. If the intruded rock is rich in carbonate the result is a skarn. Fluorine-rich magmatic waters which leave a cooling granite may often form greisens within and adjacent to the contact of the granite. Metasomatic altered aureoles can localize the deposition of metallic ore minerals and thus are of economic interest.
A special type of contact metamorphism, associated with fossil fuel fires, is known as pyrometamorphism.[6][7]
Hydrothermal[edit]
Hydrothermal metamorphism is the result of the interaction of a rock with a high-temperature fluid of variable composition. The difference in composition between existing rock and the invading fluid triggers a set of metamorphic and metasomatic reactions. The hydrothermal fluid may be magmatic (originate in an intruding magma), circulating groundwater, or ocean water. Convective circulation of hydrothermal fluids in the ocean floor basalts produces extensive hydrothermal metamorphism adjacent to spreading centers and other submarine volcanic areas. The fluids eventually escape through vents in the ocean floor known as black smokers.[8] The patterns of this hydrothermal alteration is used as a guide in the search for deposits of valuable metal ores.
Shock[edit]
Main article: Shock metamorphism
This kind of metamorphism occurs when either an extraterrestrial object (a meteorite for instance) collides with the Earth's surface or during an extremely violent volcanic eruption. Impact metamorphism is, therefore, characterized by ultrahigh pressure conditions and low temperature. The resulting minerals (such as SiO2 polymorphs coesite and stishovite) and textures are characteristic of these conditions.
Dynamic[edit]
Dynamic metamorphism is associated with zones of high to moderate strain such as fault zones. Cataclasis, crushing and grinding of rocks into angular fragments, occurs in dynamic metamorphic zones, giving cataclastic texture.
The textures of dynamic metamorphic zones are dependent on the depth at which they were formed, as the temperature and confining pressure determine the deformation mechanisms which predominate. Within depths less than 5 km, dynamic metamorphism is not often produced because the confining pressure is too low to produce frictional heat. Instead, a zone of breccia or cataclasite is formed, with the rock milled and broken into random fragments. This generally forms a mélange. At depth, the angular breccias transit into a ductile shear texture and into mylonite zones.
Within the depth range of 5–10 km pseudotachylite is formed, as the confining pressure is enough to prevent brecciation and milling and thus energy is focused into discrete fault planes. Frictional heating in this case may melt the rock to form pseudotachylite glass.
Within the depth range of 10–20 km, deformation is governed by ductile deformation conditions and hence frictional heating is dispersed throughout shear zones, resulting in a weaker thermal imprint and distributed deformation. Here, deformation forms mylonite, with dynamothermal metamorphism observed rarely as the growth of porphyroblasts in mylonite zones.
Overthrusting may juxtapose hot lower crustal rocks against cooler mid and upper crust blocks, resulting in conductive heat transfer and localised contact metamorphism of the cooler blocks adjacent to the hotter blocks, and often retrograde metamorphism in the hotter blocks. The metamorphic assemblages in this case are diagnostic of the depth and temperature and the throw of the fault and can also be dated to give an age of the thrusting.
Classification of metamorphic rocks[edit]
Metamorphic rocks are classified by their mineral composition, the source rock, also known as a protolith, and the context (pressure, temperature, hydrological features, etc.) of its formation.
Metamorphic facies[edit]
Metamorphic facies are recognizable terranes or zones with an assemblage of key minerals that were in equilibrium under specific range of temperature and pressure during a metamorphic event. The facies are named after the metamorphic rock formed under those facies conditions from basalt. Facies relationships were first described by Pentti Eskola in 1921.
Metamorphic facies with regard to temperature and pressure
Temperature
Pressure
Facies
Low Low Zeolite
Lower Moderate Lower Moderate Prehnite-Pumpellyite
Moderate to High Low Hornfels
Low to Moderate Moderate to High Blueschist
Moderate → High Moderate Greenschist→Amphibolite→Granulite
Moderate to High High Eclogite
See diagram for more detail.
Metamorphic grades[edit]
Metamorphic grade is an informal indication of the amount or degree of metamorphism.[9] A more complete indication of this intensity or degree is provided with the concept of metamorphic facies.[9]
In the Barrovian sequence (described by George Barrow in zones of progressive metamorphism in Scotland), metamorphic grades are also classified by mineral assemblage based on the appearance of key minerals in rocks of pelitic (shaly, aluminous) origin:
Low grade ------------------- Intermediate --------------------- High grade
Greenschist ------------- Amphibolite ----------------------- Granulite
Slate --- Phyllite ---------- Schist ---------------------- Gneiss --- Migmatite
Chlorite zone
Biotite zone
Garnet zone
Staurolite zone
Kyanite zone
Sillimanite zone
Metamorphic processes[edit]
Recrystallization[edit]
During recrystallization, the grains making up the protolith change shape and size. The identity of the mineral does not change during this process, only the texture. Recrystallization occurs due to heating of the protolith. The temperature at which this occurs can vary depending on the minerals present. Recrystallization generally begins when temperatures reach above half the melting point of the mineral on the Kelvin scale.[10]
Phase change[edit]
Phase change metamorphism is the creating of new minerals with the same chemical formula as the protolith. This involves a rearrangement of the atoms in the crystals.
Neocrystallization[edit]
Neocrystallization involves the creation of new mineral crystals different from the protolith. Chemical reactions digest the minerals of the protolith which yields new minerals. This is a very slow process as it can also involve the diffusion of atoms through solid crystals.
Pressure solution[edit]
Main article: Pressure solution
Pressure solution is a metamorphic process that requires a rock to be under strong pressure from one direction and in the presence of hot water. During this process mineral of the protolith partially dissolve, diffuse through the water and precipitate elsewhere.
Plastic deformation[edit]
In plastic deformation pressure is applied to the protolith, which causes it to shear or bend, but not break. In order for this to happen temperatures must be high enough that brittle fractures do not occur, but not so high that diffusion of crystals takes place.[11]
Prograde and retrograde[edit]
Metamorphism is further divided into prograde and retrograde metamorphism. Prograde metamorphism involves the change of mineral assemblages (paragenesis) with increasing temperature and (usually) pressure conditions. These are solid state dehydration reactions, and involve the loss of volatiles such as water or carbon dioxide. Prograde metamorphism results in rock characteristic of the maximum pressure and temperature experienced. Metamorphic rocks usually do not undergo further change when they are brought back to the surface.
Retrograde metamorphism involves the reconstitution of a rock via revolatisation under decreasing temperatures (and usually pressures), allowing the mineral assemblages formed in prograde metamorphism to revert to those more stable at less extreme conditions. This is a relatively uncommon process, because volatiles must be present.
See also[edit]
Geothermobarometry
Metamorphic rock
Metasomatism
Subduction zone metamorphism
Ultrahigh-temperature metamorphism
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Marshak, p 176
Jump up ^ Vernon, 2008, p. 1
^ Jump up to: a b Marshak, p 177
Jump up ^ Bucher, p. 4.
Jump up ^ Marshak, p. 187
Jump up ^ Grapes, R.H., 2006. Pyrometamorphism. Springer Verlag, Berlin
Jump up ^ Sokol, E.V., Maksimova, N.V., Nigmatulina, E.N., Sharygin, V.V., and Kalugin, V.M., 2005. Combustion metamorphism. Publishing House of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk (in Russian, with parts in English)
Jump up ^ Marshak, p. 190.
^ Jump up to: a b Marshak p. 183
Jump up ^ Gillen, p. 31
Jump up ^ Vernon, 1976, p. 149.
References[edit]
Bucher, Kurt, 2002, Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rock, Springer
Eskola P., 1920, The Mineral Facies of Rocks, Norsk. Geol. Tidsskr., 6, 143-194
Gillen, Cornelius, 1982, Metamorphic Geology : an Introduction to Tectonic and Metamorphic Processes, London; Boston: G. Allen & Unwin ISBN 978-0045510580
Marshak, Stephen, 2009, Essentials of Geology, W. W. Norton & Company, 3rd ed. ISBN 978-0393196566
Vernon, R. H., 1976, Metamorphic Processes, Halsted Press
Vernon, Ronald Holden, 2008, Principles of Metamorphic Petrology, Cambridge University Press ISBN 978-0521871785
Further reading[edit]
Winter J.D., 2001, An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology, Prentice-Hall ISBN 0-13-240342-0.
External links[edit]
Recommendations by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks, 1. HOW TO NAME A METAMORPHIC ROCK
Recommendations by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks, 2. TYPES, GRADE AND FACIES OF METAMORPHISM
Recommendations by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks, 3. Structural terms including fault rock terms
Recommendations by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks, 4. HIGH P/T METAMORPHIC ROCKS
James Madison University: Metamorphism
BARROVIAN METAMORPHISM: Brock Univ.
Metamorphism of Carbonate Rocks: University of Wisconsin – Green Bay
Metamorphic Petrology Database (MetPetDB) – Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
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Prevailing winds
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Winds are part of Earth's atmospheric circulation.
The westerlies (blue) and trade winds (yellow and red)
It has been suggested that Global wind patterns be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since June 2017.
Play media
Global surface wind vector flow lines colored by wind speed from June 1, 2011 to October 31, 2011.
Prevailing winds are winds that blow predominantly from a single general direction over a particular point on the Earth's surface. The dominant winds are the trends in direction of wind with the highest speed over a particular point on the Earth's surface. A region's prevailing and dominant winds acted by global patterns of movement in the Earth's atmosphere.[1] In general, easterly flow occurs at low and medium latitudes globally. In the mid-latitudes, westerly winds are the rule and their strength is largely determined by the polar cyclone. In areas where winds tend to be light, the sea breeze/land breeze cycle is the most important to the prevailing wind; in areas which have variable terrain, mountain and valley breezes dominate the wind pattern. Highly elevated surfaces can induce a thermal low, which then augments the environmental wind flow.
Wind roses are tools used to determine the direction of the prevailing wind. Knowledge of the prevailing wind allows the development of prevention strategies for wind erosion of agricultural land, such as across the Great Plains. Sand dunes can orient themselves, or perpendicular to, the prevailing wind regime within coastal and desert locations. Insects drift along with the prevailing wind, while birds are able to fly more independently of it. Prevailing winds in mountain locations can lead to significant rainfall gradients within the topography, ranging from wet across windward-facing slopes to desert-like conditions along their lee slopes. Prevailing winds can have differences due to the uneven heating of the Earth.
Contents
[hide]
1 Determination for a location
2 Climatology
2.1 Trades and their impact
2.2 Westerlies and their impact
2.3 Polar easterlies
3 Local considerations
3.1 Sea and land breezes
3.2 Circulation in elevated regions
4 Effect on precipitation
5 Effect on nature
6 See also
7 References
Determination for a location[edit]
Wind rose plot for Fresno Air Terminal (FAT), Fresno, California for the month of April 1961
Main article: Wind rose
A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of how wind speed and direction are typically distributed at a particular location. Presented in a polar coordinate grid, the wind rose shows the frequency of winds blowing from particular directions. The length of each spoke around the circle is related to the frequency that the wind blows from a particular direction per unit time. Each concentric circle represents a different frequency, emanating from zero at the center to increasing frequencies at the outer circles. A wind rose plot may contain additional information, in that each spoke is broken down into color-coded bands that show wind direction ranges. Wind roses typically use 8 or 16 cardinal directions, such as north (N), NNE, NE, etc.,[2] although they may be subdivided into as many as 32 directions.[3]
Climatology[edit]
Trades and their impact[edit]
Main article: Trade wind
The trade winds (also called trades) are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics near the Earth's equator,[4] equatorward of the subtropical ridge. These winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere.[5] The trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical cyclones that form over world's oceans, guiding their path westward.[6] Trade winds also steer African dust westward across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean sea, as well as portions of southeast North America.[7]
Westerlies and their impact[edit]
Effect of prevailing wind on a coniferous tree, western Turkey.
Main article: Westerlies
The westerlies or the prevailing westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes (i.e., between 35 and 65 degrees latitude), which blow in areas poleward of the high pressure area known as the subtropical ridge in the horse latitudes.[8][9] These prevailing winds blow from the west to the east,[10] and steer extra-tropical cyclones in this general manner. The winds are predominantly from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere.[5] They are strongest in the winter when the pressure is lower over the poles, such as when the polar cyclone is strongest, and weakest during the summer when the polar cyclone is weakest and when pressures are higher over the poles.[11]
Together with the trade winds, the westerlies enabled a round-trip trade route for sailing ships crossing the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, as the westerlies lead to the development of strong ocean currents in both hemispheres. The westerlies can be particularly strong, especially in the southern hemisphere, where there is less land in the middle latitudes to cause the flow pattern to amplify, which slows the winds down. The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes are called the Roaring Forties, between 40 and 50 degrees south latitude, within the Southern Hemisphere.[12] The westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm, equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents,[13][14] especially in the southern hemisphere because of its vast oceanic expanse.
The westerlies explain why coastal North America tends to be wet, especially from Northern California to Alaska, during the winter. Differential heating from the sun between the land which is quite cool and the ocean which is relatively warm causes areas of low pressure to develop over land. This results in moisture rich air from the Pacific Ocean to flow from the west, resulting in frequent rainstorms and wind on the coast. This moisture continues to flow eastward until orographic lift caused by the Coast, Cascade, Columbia and Rocky Mountains cause a rain shadow effect which limits further penetration of these systems and associated rainfall eastward. This trend reverses in the summer when strong heating of the land causes high pressure and tends to block moisture-rich air from the Pacific from reaching land. This explains why most of coastal North America in the middle latitudes experiences dry summers, despite abundant rainfall in the winter.[8][9]
Polar easterlies[edit]
Main article: Polar easterlies
The polar easterlies (also known as Polar Hadley cells) are the dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the high-pressure areas of the polar highs at the North and South Poles towards the low-pressure areas within the westerlies at high latitudes. Like trade winds and unlike the westerlies, these prevailing winds blow from the east to the west, and are often weak and irregular.[15] Due to the low sun angle, cold air builds up and subsides at the pole creating surface high-pressure areas, forcing an outflow of air toward the equator;[16] that outflow is deflected westward by the Coriolis effect.
Local considerations[edit]
Sea and land breezes[edit]
Main article: Sea breeze
A: Sea breeze, B: Land breeze
In areas where the wind flow is light, sea breezes and land breezes are important factors in a location's prevailing winds. The sea is warmed by the sun to a greater depth than the land due to its greater specific heat.[17] The sea therefore has a greater capacity for absorbing heat than the land, so the surface of the sea warms up more slowly than the land's surface. As the temperature of the surface of the land rises, the land heats the air above it. The warm air is less dense and so it rises. This rising air over the land lowers the sea level pressure by about 0.2%. The cooler air above the sea, now with higher sea level pressure, flows towards the land into the lower pressure, creating a cooler breeze near the coast.
The strength of the sea breeze is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the land mass and the sea. If an off-shore wind of 8 knots (15 km/h) exists, the sea breeze is not likely to develop. At night, the land cools off more quickly than the ocean due to differences in their specific heat values, which forces the daytime sea breeze to dissipate. If the temperature onshore cools below the temperature offshore, the pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land, establishing a land breeze, as long as an onshore wind is not strong enough to oppose it.[18]
Circulation in elevated regions[edit]
Mountain wave schematic. The wind flows towards a mountain and produces a first oscillation (A). A second wave occurs further away and higher. The lenticular clouds form at the peak of the waves (B).
Over elevated surfaces, heating of the ground exceeds the heating of the surrounding air at the same altitude above sea level, creating an associated thermal low over the terrain and enhancing any lows which would have otherwise existed,[19][20] and changing the wind circulation of the region. In areas where there is rugged topography that significantly interrupts the environmental wind flow, the wind can change direction and accelerate parallel to the wind obstruction. This barrier jet can increase the low level wind by 45%.[21] In mountainous areas, local distortion of the airflow is more severe. Jagged terrain combines to produce unpredictable flow patterns and turbulence, such as rotors. Strong updrafts, downdrafts and eddies develop as the air flows over hills and down valleys. Wind direction changes due to the contour of the land. If there is a pass in the mountain range, winds will rush through the pass with considerable speed due to the Bernoulli principle that describes an inverse relationship between speed and pressure. The airflow can remain turbulent and erratic for some distance downwind into the flatter countryside. These conditions are dangerous to ascending and descending airplanes.[22]
Daytime heating and nighttime cooling of the hilly slopes lead to day to night variations in the airflow, similar to the relationship between sea breeze and land breeze. At night, the sides of the hills cool through radiation of the heat. The air along the hills becomes cooler and denser, blowing down into the valley, drawn by gravity. This is known a katabatic wind or mountain breeze. If the slopes are covered with ice and snow, the katabatic wind will blow during the day, carrying the cold dense air into the warmer, barren valleys. The slopes of hills not covered by snow will be warmed during the day. The air that comes in contact with the warmed slopes becomes warmer and less dense and flows uphill. This is known as an anabatic wind or valley breeze.[23]
Effect on precipitation[edit]
Orographic precipitation
Main articles: Orographic lift, Precipitation types (meteorology), and United States rainfall climatology
Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see katabatic wind) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.[24]
In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina.[25] The Sierra Nevada range creates the same effect in North America forming the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts.[26][27]
Effect on nature[edit]
Sand blowing off a crest in the Kelso Dunes of the Mojave Desert, California.
See also: Dune, Erosion, and Insect
Insects are swept along by the prevailing winds, while birds follow their own course.[28] As such, fine line patterns within weather radar imagery, associated with converging winds, are dominated by insect returns.[29] In the Great Plains, wind erosion of agricultural land is a significant problem, and is mainly driven by the prevailing wind. Because of this, wind barrier strips have been developed to minimize this type of erosion. The strips can be in the form of soil ridges, crop strips, crops rows, or trees which act as wind breaks. They are oriented perpendicular to the wind in order to be most effective.[30] In regions with minimal vegetation, such as coastal and desert areas, transverse sand dunes orient themselves perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction, while longitudinal dunes orient themselves parallel to the prevailing winds.[31]
See also[edit]
Trade winds
Wind speed
Atmospheric circulation
Winds in the age of sail
References[edit]
Jump up ^ URS (2008). Section 3.2 Climate conditions (in Spanish). Estudio de Impacto Ambiental Subterráneo de Gas Natural Castor. Retrieved on 2009-04-26.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Wind rose. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 2009-04-25.
Jump up ^ Jan Curtis (2007). Wind Rose Data. Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved on 2009-04-26.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "trade winds". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
^ Jump up to: a b Ralph Stockman Tarr; Frank Morton McMurry; Almon Ernest Parkins (1909). Advanced geography. Macmillan. pp. 246–.
Jump up ^ Joint Typhoon Warning Center (2006). 3.3 JTWC Forecasting Philosophies. United States Navy. Retrieved on 2007-02-11.
Jump up ^ Science Daily (1999-07-14). African Dust Called A Major Factor Affecting Southeast U.S. Air Quality. Retrieved on 2007-06-10.
^ Jump up to: a b Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Westerlies". American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-04-15.
^ Jump up to: a b Sue Ferguson (2001-09-07). "Climatology of the Interior Columbia River Basin" (PDF). Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project. Retrieved 2009-09-12.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Westerlies. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 2009-04-15.
Jump up ^ Halldór Björnsson (2005). Global circulation. Archived 2011-08-07 at the Wayback Machine. Veðurstofu Íslands. Retrieved on 2008-06-15.
Jump up ^ Walker, Stuart (1998). The sailor's wind. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 91. ISBN 9780393045550.
Jump up ^ Barbie Bischof; Arthur J. Mariano; Edward H. Ryan (2003). "The North Atlantic Drift Current". The National Oceanographic Partnership Program. Retrieved 2008-09-10.
Jump up ^ Erik A. Rasmussen; John Turner (2003). Polar Lows. Cambridge University Press. p. 68.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Polar easterlies. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 2009-04-15.
Jump up ^ Michael E. Ritter (2008). The Physical Environment: Global scale circulation. Archived 2009-05-06 at the Wayback Machine. University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point. Retrieved on 2009-04-15.
Jump up ^ Dr. Steve Ackerman (1995). Sea and Land Breezes. University of Wisconsin. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ JetStream: An Online School For Weather (2008). The Sea Breeze. Archived 2006-09-23 at the Wayback Machine. National Weather Service. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service Office in Tucson, Arizona (2008). What is a monsoon? National Weather Service Western Region Headquarters. Retrieved on 2009-03-08.
Jump up ^ Douglas G. Hahn and Syukuro Manabe (1975). The Role of Mountains in the South Asian Monsoon Circulation. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 32, Issue 8, pp. 1515–1541. Retrieved on 2009-03-08.
Jump up ^ J. D. Doyle (1997). The influence of mesoscale orography on a coastal jet and rainband. Monthly weather review, vol. 125, no. 7, pp. 1465–1488. ISSN 0027-0644. Retrieved on 2008-12-25.
Jump up ^ National Center for Atmospheric Research (2006). T-REX: Catching the Sierra’s waves and rotors Retrieved on 2006-10-21.
Jump up ^ ALLSTAR Network (2009). Flight Environment: Prevailing winds. Florida International University. Retrieved on 2009-04-25.
Jump up ^ Dr. Michael Pidwirny (2008). CHAPTER 8: Introduction to the Hydrosphere (e). Cloud Formation Processes. Physical Geography. Retrieved on 2009-01-01.
Jump up ^ Paul E. Lydolph (1985). The Climate of the Earth. Rowman & Littlefield, p. 333. ISBN 978-0-86598-119-5. Retrieved on 2009-01-02.
Jump up ^ Michael A. Mares (1999). Encyclopedia of Deserts. University of Oklahoma Press, p. 252. ISBN 978-0-8061-3146-7. Retrieved on 2009-01-02.
Jump up ^ Adam Ganson (2003). Geology of Death Valley. Indiana University. Retrieved on 2009-02-07.
Jump up ^ Diana Yates (2008). Birds migrate together at night in dispersed flocks, new study indicates. University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign. Retrieved on 2009-04-26.
Jump up ^ Bart Geerts and Dave Leon (2003). P5A.6 Fine-Scale Vertical Structure of a Cold Front As Revealed By Airborne 95 GHZ Radar. University of Wyoming. Retrieved on 2009-04-26.
Jump up ^ W. S. Chepil, F. H. Siddoway and D. V. Armbrust (1964). In the Great Plains: Prevailing Wind Erosion Direction. Archived 2010-06-25 at the Wayback Machine. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, March–April 1964, p. 67. Retrieved on 2009-04-26.
Jump up ^ Ronald Greeley, James D. Iversen (1987). Wind as a geological process on Earth, Mars, Venus and Titan. CUP Archive, pp. 158–162. ISBN 978-0-521-35962-7. Retrieved on 2009-04-26.
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