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Luc Besson
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Luc Besson
Besson at San Diego Comic-Con International in July 2016
Born
(1959-03-18) 18 March 1959 (age 58)
Paris, France
Occupation
Producer, director, screenwriter
Years active
1981–present
Spouse(s)
Anne Parillaud (m. 1986–91)
Maïwenn Le Besco (m. 1992–97)
Milla Jovovich (m. 1997–99)
Virginie Silla (m. 2004)
Children
5
Luc Besson (French: [lyk bɛsɔ̃]; born 18 March 1959) is a French film director, screenwriter, and producer. He directed or produced the films Subway (1985), The Big Blue (1988), and Nikita (1990). Besson is known for his distinctive filmmaking style and is associated with the movement critics call Cinéma du look. He has been nominated for a César Award for Best Director and Best Picture for his films Léon: The Professional and The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc. He won Best Director and Best French Director for his sci-fi action film The Fifth Element (1997). He wrote and directed the 2014 sci-fi thriller film Lucy.
In 1980, he founded his own production company, called Les Films du Loup, and later Les Films du Dauphin (fr). This was superseded in 2000 by his co-founding EuropaCorp film company with his longtime collaborator, Pierre-Ange Le Pogam (fr). As writer, director, or producer, Besson has so far been involved in the creation of more than 50 films.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
2.1 Cinéma du look
2.2 Work
2.3 Critical evaluation
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
5 Legacy and honours
6 Film company
7 Music videos
8 References
9 External links
Early life[edit]
Besson was born in Paris, to parents who both worked as Club Med scuba-diving instructors.[1] Influenced by this milieu, as a child Besson planned to become a marine biologist. He spent much of his youth traveling with his parents to tourist resorts in Italy, SFR Yugoslavia, and Greece.[2] The family returned to France when Besson was 10. His parents promptly divorced and each remarried.
"Here there is two families, and I am the only bad souvenir of something that doesn't work," he said in the International Herald Tribune. "And if I disappear, then everything is perfect. The rage to exist comes from here. I have to do something! Otherwise I am going to die."[3]
At the age of 17, Besson had a diving accident that left him unable to dive.[4]
"I was 17 and I wondered what I was going to do. ... So I took a piece of paper and on the left I put everything I could do, or had skills for, and all the things I couldn't do. The first line was shorter and I could see that I loved writing, I loved images, I was taking a lot of pictures. So I thought maybe movies would be good. But I thought that to really know I should go to a set. And a friend of mine knew a guy whose brother was a third assistant on a short film. It's true," he said in a 2000 interview with The Guardian.[5]

"So, I said: 'OK, let's go on the set.' So I went on the set...The day after I went back to see my mum and told her that I was going to make films and stop school and 'bye. And I did it! Very soon after I made a short film and it was very, very bad. I wanted to prove that I could do something, so I made a short film. That was in fact my main concern, to be able to show that I could do one."[5]
Career[edit]
He reportedly worked on the first drafts of Le Grand Bleu while still in his teens. Out of boredom, Besson started writing stories, including the background to what he later developed as The Fifth Element (1997), one of his most popular movies.[6] The film is inspired by the French comic books which Besson read as a teenager. Besson directed and co-wrote the screenplay of this science fiction thriller with the screenwriter Robert Mark Kamen.[7]
At 18, Besson returned to his birthplace of Paris. There he took odd jobs in film to get a feel for the industry. He worked as an assistant to directors including Claude Faraldo and Patrick Grandperret. Besson directed three short films, a commissioned documentary, and several commercials.[8]
After this, he moved to the United States for three years, but returned to Paris, where he formed his own production company. He first named it Les Films du Loup, but changed it to Les Films du Dauphin. In the early 1980s, Besson met Éric Serra and asked him to compose the score for his first short film, L'Avant dernier. He later used Serra as a composer for other films of his.
Since the late 20th century, Besson has written and produced numerous action movies, including the Taxi (1998–2007) and The Transporter (2002–2008) series, and the Jet Li films Kiss of the Dragon and Unleashed/Danny the Dog. His English-language films Taken, Taken 2 and Taken 3, all starring Liam Neeson, have been major successes, with Taken 2 becoming the largest-grossing export French film. Besson produced the promotional movie for the Paris bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics.
Besson won Best Director and Best French Director for his film The Fifth Element (1997). He was nominated for Best Director and Best Picture César Awards for his films Léon: The Professional (1994) and The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc (1999).
French actor Jean Reno has appeared in several films by Besson, including Le dernier combat (1985), Subway, The Big Blue (1988), Nikita (1990), and Léon: The Professional (1994).
Cinéma du look[edit]
Critics[who?] cite Besson as a pivotal figure in the Cinéma du look movement, a specific, highly visual style produced from the 1980s into the early 1990s. Subway (1985), The Big Blue (1988) and Nikita (1990) are all considered to be of this stylistic school. The term was coined by critic Raphaël Bassan in a 1989 essay in La Revue du Cinema n° 449.[9] A partisan of the experimental cinema and friend of the New Wave ("nouvelle vague") directors, Bassan grouped Besson with Jean-Jacques Beineix and Leos Carax as three directors who shared the style of "le look." These directors were later described critically as favoring style over substance, and spectacle over narrative.[10]
Besson, along with most of the filmmakers so categorized, was uncomfortable with the label, particularly in light of the achievements of their forebears: France's New Wave. "Jean-Luc Godard and François Truffaut were rebelling against existing cultural values and used cinema as a means of expression simply because it was the most avant-garde medium at the time," said Besson in a 1985 interview in The New York Times. "Today, the revolution is occurring entirely within the industry and is led by people who want to change the look of movies by making them better, more convincing and pleasurable to watch.
"Because it's becoming increasingly difficult to break into this field, we have developed a psychological armor and are ready to do anything in order to work", he added in this same interview. "I think our ardor alone is going to shake the pillars of the moviemaking establishment."[11]
Besson directed a biopic of Aung San Suu Kyi called The Lady (original title Dans la Lumiere), which was released in the fall of 2011. He also worked on Lockout, which was released in April 2012.[12]
Work[edit]
Many of Besson's films have achieved popular, if not critical, success. One such release was Le Grand Bleu.
"When the film had its premiere on opening night at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival, it was mercilessly drubbed, but no matter; it was a smash," observed the International Herald Tribune in a 2007 profile of Besson. "Embraced by young people who kept returning to see it again, the movie sold 10 million tickets and quickly became what the French call a 'film générationnel,' a defining moment in the culture."[13]
Besson created the Arthur series, which comprises Arthur and the Minimoys, Arthur and the Forbidden City, Arthur and the Vengeance of Maltazard and Arthur and the War of the Two Worlds. He directed Arthur and the Invisibles, an adaptation of the first two books of the collection. A film with live action and animation, it was released in the UK and the US and starred Freddie Highmore, Madonna, Snoop Dogg, Mia Farrow, Robert De Niro and David Bowie.
Critical evaluation[edit]
Besson has been described as "the most Hollywood of French filmmakers."[14] Scott Tobias wrote that his "slick, commercial" action movies were "so interchangeable—drugs, sleaze, chuckling supervillainy, and Hong Kong-style effects—that each new project probably starts with white-out on the title page."[15]
American film critic Armond White has praised Besson, whom he ranks as one of the best film producers, for refining and revolutionizing action film. He wrote that Besson dramatizes the struggle of his characters "as a conscientious resistance to human degradation".[16]
Personal life[edit]
Besson has been married four times; first, in 1986, to actress Anne Parillaud who starred in Besson's Nikita (1990).[citation needed] Besson and Parillaud had a daughter, Juliette, born in 1987. The couple divorced in 1991.
Besson's second wife was actress Maïwenn Le Besco, who was 15 when they began dating in 1991.[17] They were married in late 1992 when Le Besco was pregnant with their daughter Shanna, who was born on 3 January 1993.[18] Le Besco later claimed that their relationship inspired Besson's film Léon (1994), where the plot involved the emotional relationship between an adult man and a 12-year-old girl.[17] Their marriage ended in 1997, when Besson became involved with actress Milla Jovovich during the filming of The Fifth Element (1997). He married the 22-year-old on 14 December 1997, at the age of 38, but they divorced in 1999.[19]
On 28 August 2004, at the age of 45, Besson married film producer Virginie Silla. The couple has three children: Thalia, Sateen, and Mao Besson.[20]
Filmography[edit]
Main article: Luc Besson filmography
Legacy and honours[edit]
Among Besson's awards are the Brussels International Festival of Fantasy Film Critics Prize, Fantasporto Audience Jury Award-Special Mention, Best Director, and Best Film, for Le Dernier Combat in 1983; the Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists Silver Ribbon-Best Director-Foreign Film, for La Femme Nikita, 1990; the Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film, Nil by Mouth, 1997; and the Best Director Cesar Award, for The Fifth Element, 1997.[7]
Film company[edit]
Main article: EuropaCorp
In 2000, Besson superseded his production company by co-founding EuropaCorp with Pierre-Ange Le Pogam, with whom he had frequently worked since 1985. Le Pogam had then been Distribution Director with Gaumont. EuropaCorp has had strong growth based on several English-language films, with international distribution. It has production facilities in Paris, Normandy, and Hollywood, and is establishing distribution partnerships in Japan and China.
Music videos[edit]
Pull Marine: Isabelle Adjani (1983)
Mon Légionnaire: Serge Gainsbourg (1988)
Que mon cœur lâche: Mylène Farmer (1992)
Love Profusion: Madonna (2003)
L'impasse: Kery James
I Feel Everything: Cara Delevingne (2017)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Luc Besson on 'Arthur And The Invisibles' – CANOE
Jump up ^ "Luc Besson", Contemporary Authors Online, Gale, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Luc Besson: The most Hollywood of French filmmakers", International Herald Tribune, 20 May 2007
Jump up ^ Hayward, Susan (1998). Luc Besson. Manchester: Manchester university press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-7190-5076-3. Retrieved 6 September 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Luc Besson interviewed by Richard Jobson The Guardian
Jump up ^ Interviews with European Film Directors – Luc Besson EuroScreenwriters
^ Jump up to: a b "Luc Besson," International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers, Volume 2: Directors, 4th ed. St. James Press, 2000.
Jump up ^ Elley, Derek. "Pop pic auteur", Variety, 23 June 1997, v. 367 n. 8, pp. 44–45.
Jump up ^ Translated into English: "The French neo-baroques directors: Beineix, Besson, Carax from Diva to le Grand Bleu" (pp. 11–23), in The Films of Luc Besson: Master of Spectacle (Under the direction of Susan Hayward and Phil Powrie), Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007. ISBN 0-7190-7028-7
Jump up ^ Austin, Guy (1999) Contemporary French Cinema: An Introduction, Manchester University Press, pp. 119–120, 126–128. ISBN 0-7190-4611-4
Jump up ^ Tremblay, Anne (21 July 1985) "France Breeds a New Crop of Auteurs", The New York Times,.
Jump up ^ Sobel, Ian (9 June 2011) "‘Looper’, ‘Anonymous’, And ‘Lockout’ Do The Release Date Shuffle'", Screenjunkies.com.
Jump up ^ "Luc Besson: The most Hollywood of French filmmakers", International Herald Tribune, 20 May 2007
Jump up ^ Tobias, Scott (20 May 2007). "Le Cinéma du Blockbuster", The New York Times, Retrieved 13 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Tobias, Scott (5 May 2006). "District B13", The Onion. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
Jump up ^ White, Armond (28 January 2009). "We Need New Heroes: Taken", New York Press. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Leon: The Professional. sbs.com.au
Jump up ^ Shanna Besson. Sbs.com.au (15 August 2012). Retrieved on 20 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Kee, Chang; Stevens, Victoria (5 May 2012). Maïwenn's "Polisse". Anthem Magazine, 5 May 2012. "Text: Kee Chang Images: Victoria Stevens". Retrieved on 20 September 2013 from http://anthemmagazine.com/film-critic-maiwenns-polisse/.
Jump up ^ karenr (29 September 2005). "Besson Becomes A Father For The Fifth Time". Blog, SFGate, 29 September 2005. Retrieved from http://blog.sfgate.com/dailydish/2005/09/29/besson-becomes-a-father-for-the-fifth-time/.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Luc Besson.
Luc Besson on IMDb
Luc Besson at AllMovie
Luc Besson Official Homepage at Luc-Besson.com
Luc Besson Interview, Angel-A
JewReview.net video interview with Luc Besson and Rie Rasmussen about Angel-A
In-depth interview with Luc Besson
The films of Luc Besson, Hell Is For Hyphenates, February 28, 2014
Les Films du Loup (France) - uniFrance Films
Les Films du Loup on IMDb
Les Films du Dauphin - uniFrance Films
Les Films du Dauphin on IMDb
Awards and achievements
Preceded by
Patrice Leconte
for Ridicule César Award for Best Director
for The Fifth Element
1998 Succeeded by
Patrice Chéreau
for Those Who Love Me Can Take the Train
[show]
v
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Luc Besson
Directed
Le Dernier Combat (1983)
Subway (1985)
The Big Blue (1988)
Nikita (1990)
Atlantis (1991)
Léon: The Professional (1994)
The Fifth Element (1997)
The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc (1999)
Angel-A (2005)
Arthur and the Invisibles (2006)
Arthur and the Revenge of Maltazard (2009)
Arthur 3: The War of the Two Worlds (2010)
The Extraordinary Adventures of Adèle Blanc-Sec (2010)
The Lady (2011)
The Family (2013)
Lucy (2014)
Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets (2017)
Produced
Le Dernier Combat (1983)
Subway (1985)
Atlantis (1991)
Cold Moon (1991)
Nil by Mouth (1997)
Taxi (1998)
Taxi 2 (2000)
Kiss of the Dragon (2001)
Wasabi (2001)
La Turbulence des fluides (2002)
The Transporter (2002)
Fanfan la Tulipe (2003)
Les Côtelettes (2003)
Michel Vaillant (2003)
Taxi 3 (2003)
District 13 (2004)
Taxi (2004)
Revolver (2005)
The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada (2005)
Transporter 2 (2005)
Unleashed (2005)
Angel-A (2005)
Arthur and the Invisibles (2006)
Bandidas (2006)
Love and Other Disasters (2006)
Nuovomondo (2006)
Tell No One (2006)
The Secret (2007)
Taxi 4 (2007)
Hitman (2007)
Taken (2008)
Transporter 3 (2008)
District 13: Ultimatum (2009)
Home (2009)
Staten Island (2009)
Arthur and the Revenge of Maltazard (2009)
Arthur 3: The War of the Two Worlds (2010)
From Paris with Love (2010)
22 Bullets (2010)
Colombiana (2011)
The Source (2011)
A Monster in Paris (2011)
The Lady (2011)
Lockout (2012)
Taken 2 (2012)
No Limit (2012)
Collison (2013)
Jack and the Cuckoo-Clock Heart (2013)
3 Days to Kill (2013)
The Family (2013)
Brick Mansions (2014)
The Homesman (2014)
Taken 3 (2015)
The Transporter Refueled (2015)
The Warriors Gate (2016)
Renegades (2016)
Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets (2017)
Taxi 5 (2018)
Written
Taxi (1998)
Taxi 2 (2000)
Kiss of the Dragon (2001)
Wasabi (2001)
Yamakasi (2001)
The Transporter (2002)
Fanfan la Tulipe (2003)
Taxi 3 (2003)
Michel Vaillant (2003)
Crimson Rivers II: Angels of the Apocalypse (2004)
District 13 (2004)
Revolver (2005)
Transporter 2 (2005)
Unleashed (2005)
Bandidas (2006)
Taxi 4 (2007)
Taken (2008)
Transporter 3 (2008)
District 13: Ultimatum (2009)
From Paris with Love (2010)
Colombiana (2011)
Lockout (2012)
Taken 2 (2012)
3 Days to Kill (2014)
Brick Mansions (2014)
Lucy (2014)
Taken 3 (2015)
The Transporter Refueled (2015)
The Warriors Gate (2016)
Renegades (2017)
Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets (2017)
TV series
No Limit (2012-2015)
Taxi Brooklyn (2014)
Taken (2017)
See also
Filmography
EuropaCorp
[show]
Awards for Luc Besson
[show]
v
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César Award for Best Director
1976 Bertrand Tavernier
1977 Joseph Losey
1978 Alain Resnais
1979 Christian de Chalonge
1980 Roman Polanski
1981 François Truffaut
1982 Jean-Jacques Annaud
1983 Andrzej Wajda
1984 Ettore Scola
1985 Claude Zidi
1986 Michel Deville
1987 Alain Cavalier
1988 Louis Malle
1989 Jean-Jacques Annaud
1990 Bertrand Blier
1991 Jean-Paul Rappeneau
1992 Alain Corneau
1993 Claude Sautet
1994 Alain Resnais
1995 André Téchiné
1996 Claude Sautet
1997 Patrice Leconte / Bertrand Tavernier
1998 Luc Besson
1999 Patrice Chéreau
2000 Tonie Marshall
2001 Dominik Moll
2002 Jean-Pierre Jeunet
2003 Roman Polanski
2004 Denys Arcand
2005 Abdellatif Kechiche
2006 Jacques Audiard
2007 Guillaume Canet
2008 Abdellatif Kechiche
2009 Jean-François Richet
2010 Jacques Audiard
2011 Roman Polanski
2012 Michel Hazanavicius
2013 Michael Haneke
2014 Roman Polanski
2015 Abderrahmane Sissako
2016 Arnaud Desplechin
2017 Xavier Dolan
[show]
v
t
e
Lumières Award for Best Director
Mathieu Kassovitz (1996)
Cédric Klapisch (1997)
Luc Besson (1998)
Erick Zonca (1999)
Luc Besson (2000)
Agnès Jaoui (2001)
Patrice Chéreau (2002)
François Ozon (2003)
Alain Resnais (2004)
Jean-Pierre Jeunet (2005)
Philippe Garrel (2006)
Pascale Ferran (2007)
Abdellatif Kechiche (2008)
François Dupeyron (2009)
Jacques Audiard (2010)
Roman Polanski (2011)
Maïwenn (2012)
Jacques Audiard (2013)
Abdellatif Kechiche (2014)
Abderrahmane Sissako (2015)
Arnaud Desplechin (2016)
Paul Verhoeven (2017)
[show]
v
t
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Cannes Film Festival jury presidents
1946–1975
Georges Huisman (1946)
Georges Huisman (1947)
Georges Huisman (1949)
André Maurois (1951)
Maurice Genevoix (1952)
Jean Cocteau (1953)
Jean Cocteau (1954)
Marcel Pagnol (1955)
Maurice Lehmann (1956)
André Maurois (1957)
Marcel Achard (1958)
Marcel Achard (1959)
Georges Simenon (1960)
Jean Giono (1961)
Tetsurō Furukaki (1962)
Armand Salacrou (1963)
Fritz Lang (1964)
Olivia de Havilland (1965)
Sophia Loren (1966)
Alessandro Blasetti (1967)
André Chamson (1968)
Luchino Visconti (1969)
Miguel Ángel Asturias (1970)
Michèle Morgan (1971)
Joseph Losey (1972)
Ingrid Bergman (1973)
René Clair (1974)
Jeanne Moreau (1975)
1975–2000
Tennessee Williams (1976)
Roberto Rossellini (1977)
Alan J. Pakula (1978)
Françoise Sagan (1979)
Kirk Douglas (1980)
Jacques Deray (1981)
Giorgio Strehler (1982)
William Styron (1983)
Dirk Bogarde (1984)
Miloš Forman (1985)
Sydney Pollack (1986)
Yves Montand (1987)
Ettore Scola (1988)
Wim Wenders (1989)
Bernardo Bertolucci (1990)
Roman Polanski (1991)
Gérard Depardieu (1992)
Louis Malle (1993)
Clint Eastwood (1994)
Jeanne Moreau (1995)
Francis Ford Coppola (1996)
Isabelle Adjani (1997)
Martin Scorsese (1998)
David Cronenberg (1999)
Luc Besson (2000)
2001–present
Liv Ullmann (2001)
David Lynch (2002)
Patrice Chéreau (2003)
Quentin Tarantino (2004)
Emir Kusturica (2005)
Wong Kar-wai (2006)
Stephen Frears (2007)
Sean Penn (2008)
Isabelle Huppert (2009)
Tim Burton (2010)
Robert De Niro (2011)
Nanni Moretti (2012)
Steven Spielberg (2013)
Jane Campion (2014)
Joel and Ethan Coen (2015)
George Miller (2016)
Pedro Almodóvar (2017)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 39402466
LCCN: nr88012368
ISNI: 0000 0001 2095 9639
GND: 119137909
SUDOC: 029171156
BNF: cb120815926 (data)
MusicBrainz: 02b643d9-310d-4cb9-8581-b420f3683c15
NDL: 00512033
ICCU: IT\ICCU\RAVV\098042
BNE: XX1176274
IATH: w6tx45wt
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luc_Besson&oldid=804282262"
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Luc Besson
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Frank–Starling law
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Cardiac function curve In diagrams illustrating the Frank–Starling law of the heart, the y-axis often describes the stroke volume, stroke work, or cardiac output. The x-axis often describes end-diastolic volume, right atrial pressure, or pulmonary capillary wedge pressure. The three curves illustrate that shifts along the same line indicate a change in preload, while shifts from one line to another indicate a change in afterload or contractility. A blood volume increase would cause a shift along the line to the right, which increases left ventricular end diastolic volume (x axis), and therefore also increases stroke volume (y axis).
The Frank–Starling law of the heart (also known as Starling's law and the Frank–Starling mechanism) represents the relationship between stroke volume and end diastolic volume.[1] The law states that the stroke volume of the heart increases in response to an increase in the volume of blood in the ventricles, before contraction (the end diastolic volume), when all other factors remain constant.[1] As a larger volume of blood flows into the ventricle, the blood stretches the cardiac muscle fibers, leading to an increase in the force of contraction. The Frank-Starling mechanism allows the cardiac output to be synchronized with the venous return, arterial blood supply and humoral length,[2] without depending upon external regulation to make alterations. The physiological importance of the mechanism lies mainly in maintaining left and right ventricular output equality.[1][3]
Contents
1 Physiology
2 Clinical examples
2.1 Premature ventricular contraction
2.2 Diastolic dysfunction – heart failure
3 History
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Physiology[edit]
The Frank-Starling mechanism occurs as the result of the length-tension relationship observed in striated muscle, including for example skeletal muscles, arthropod muscle[4] and cardiac (heart) muscle.[5][6][7] As a muscle fiber is stretched, active tension is created by altering the overlap of thick and thin filaments. The greatest isometric active tension is developed when a muscle is at its optimal length. In most relaxed skeletal muscle fibers, passive elastic properties maintain the muscle fibers length near optimal, as determined usually by the fixed distance between the attachment points of tendons to the bones (or the exoskeleton of arthropods) at either end of the muscle. In contrast, the relaxed sarcomere length of cardiac muscle cells, in a resting ventricle, is lower than the optimal length for contraction.[1] There is no bone to fix sarcomere length in the heart (of any animal) so sarcomere length is very variable and depends directly upon blood filling and thereby expanding the heart chambers. In the human heart, maximal force is generated with an initial sarcomere length of 2.2 micrometers, a length which is rarely exceeded in a normal heart. Initial lengths larger or smaller than this optimal value will decrease the force the muscle can achieve. For longer sarcomere lengths, this is the result of there being less overlap of the thin and thick filaments;[8][9][10] for shorter sarcomere lengths, the cause is the decreased sensitivity for calcium by the myofilaments.[11][7] An increase in filling of the ventricle increases the load experienced by each cardiac muscle fiber, stretching the fibers toward their optimal length.[1]
The stretching of the muscle fibers augments cardiac muscle contraction by increasing the calcium sensitivity of the myofibrils,[12] causing a greater number of actin-myosin cross-bridges to form within the muscle fibers. Specifically, the sensitivity of troponin for binding Ca2+ increases and there is an increased release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. In addition, there is a decrease in the spacing between thick and thin filaments, when a cardiac muscle fiber is stretched, allowing an increased number of cross-bridges to form.[1] The force that any single cardiac muscle fiber generates is related to the sarcomere length at the time of muscle cell activation by calcium. The stretch on the individual fibers, caused by ventricular filling, determines the sarcomere length of the fibres. Therefore the force (pressure) generated by the cardiac muscle fibres is related to the end-diastolic volume of the left and right ventricles as determined by complexities of the force-sarcomere length relationship.[11][7][6]
Due to the intrinsic property of myocardium that is responsible for the Frank-Starling mechanism, the heart can automatically accommodate an increase in venous return, at any heart rate.[1][10] The mechanism is of functional importance because it serves to adapt left ventricular output to right ventricular output.[3] If this mechanism did not exist and the right and left cardiac outputs were not equivalent, blood would accumulate in the pulmonary circulation (were the right ventricle producing more output than the left) or the systemic circulation (were the left ventricle producing more output than the right).[1][13]
Clinical examples[edit]
Premature ventricular contraction[edit]
Premature ventricular contraction causes early emptying of the left ventricle (LV) into the aorta. Since the next ventricular contraction occurs at its regular time, the filling time for the LV increases, causing an increased LV end-diastolic volume. Due to the Frank–Starling mechanism, the next ventricular contraction is more forceful, leading to the ejection of the larger than normal volume of blood, and bringing the LV end-systolic volume back to baseline.[13]
Diastolic dysfunction – heart failure[edit]
Diastolic dysfunction is associated with a reduced compliance, or increased stiffness, of the ventricle wall. This reduced compliance results in an inadequate filling of the ventricle and a decrease in the end-diastolic volume. The decreased end-diastolic volume then leads to a reduction in stroke volume because of the Frank-Starling mechanism.[1]
History[edit]
The Frank–Starling law is named after the two physiologists, Otto Frank and Ernest Henry Starling. However, neither Frank nor Starling was the first to describe the relationship between the end-diastolic volume and the regulation of cardiac output.[5] The first formulation of the law was theorized by the Italian physiologist Dario Maestrini, who on December 13, 1914, started the first of 19 experiments that led him to formulate the "legge del cuore" .[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26]
Otto Frank's contributions are derived from his 1895 experiments on frog hearts. In order to relate the work of the heart to skeletal muscle mechanics, Frank observed changes in diastolic pressure with varying volumes of the frog ventricle. His data was analyzed on a pressure-volume diagram, which resulted in his description of peak isovolumic pressure and its affects on ventricular volume.[5]
Starling experimented on intact mammalian hearts, such as from dogs, to understand why variations in arterial pressure, heart rate, and temperature do not affect the relatively constant cardiac output.[5] More than 30 years before the development of sliding filament model of muscle contraction and the understanding of the relationship between active tension and sarcomere length, Starling hypothesized in 1914, "the mechanical energy set free in the passage from the resting to the active state is a function of the length of the fiber." Starling used a volume-pressure diagram to construct a length-tension diagram from his data. Starling's data and associated diagrams, provided evidence that the length of the muscle fibers, and resulting tension, altered the systolic pressure.[27]
See also[edit]
Starling equation
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Widmaier, E. P., Hershel, R., & Strang, K. T. (2016).Vander's Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function(14th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-1-259-29409-9
Jump up ^ Costanzo, Linda S. (2007). Physiology. Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-7817-7311-9.
^ Jump up to: a b R., Jacob,; B., Dierberger,; G., Kissling, (1992-11-01)."Functional significance of the Frank-Starling mechanism under physiological and pathophysiological conditions".European Heart Journal.13(suppl_E). doi:10.1093/eurheartj/13.suppl_E.7. ISSN 0195-668X.
Jump up ^ West, J. M.; Humphris, D. C.; Stephenson, D. G. (1992). "Differences in maximal activation properties of skinned short- and long-sarcomere muscle fibres from the claw of the freshwater crustacean Cherax destructor". Journal of Muscle Research and Cell Motility. 13 (6): 668–684. ISSN 0142-4319. PMID 1491074.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Katz, Arnold M. (2002-12-03)."Ernest Henry Starling, His Predecessors, and the "Law of the Heart"".Circulation.106(23): 2986–2992. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000040594.96123.55. ISSN 0009-7322. PMID 12460884.
^ Jump up to: a b Stephenson, D.G.; Stewart, A.W.; Wilson, G.J. (1989). "Dissociation of force from myofibrillar MgATPase and stiffness at short sarcomere lengths in rat and toad skeletal muscle". Journal of Physiology. 410: 351–366. PMC 1190483.
^ Jump up to: a b c Stephenson, D.G.; Williams, D.A. (1982). "Effects of sarcomere length on the force-pCa relation in fast- and slow-twitch skinned muscle fibres from the rat". Journal of Physiology. 333: 637–653. PMC 1197268. PMID 7182478.
Jump up ^ Huxley, H.; Hanson, J. (1954-05-22). "Changes in the cross-striations of muscle during contraction and stretch and their structural interpretation". Nature. 173 (4412): 973–976. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 13165698.
Jump up ^ Huxley, A. F.; Niedergerke, R. (1954-05-22). "Structural changes in muscle during contraction; interference microscopy of living muscle fibres". Nature. 173 (4412): 971–973. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 13165697.
^ Jump up to: a b Moss, Richard L.; Fitzsimons, Daniel P. (2002-01-11). "Frank-Starling Relationship". Circulation Research. 90 (1): 11–13. ISSN 0009-7330. PMID 11786511.
^ Jump up to: a b Allen, D.G.; Kentish, J.C. (1985). "The cellular basis of the length-tension relation in cardiac muscle". Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology. 17 (9): 821–840. PMID 3900426.
Jump up ^ Klabunde, Richard E. "Cardiovascular Physiology Concepts". Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2011, p. 74.
^ Jump up to: a b Hall, John (2016). Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology (13th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders/Elsevier. pp. 169–178 (Ch. 14). ISBN 978-1-4160-4574-8.
Jump up ^ Spadolini, Igino (1946). UTET, eds. Trattato di Fisiologia,. 2. Torino. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Berne, Robert M. (2004). Ambrosiana, eds. Fisiologia. Milano. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "www.ancecardio.it" (PDF) (in Italian). pp. 29–31. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-11-09. Retrieved 6 August 2010.
Jump up ^ MAESTRINI, D. (February 1951). "[Genesis of the so-called insufficient contractions of the heart in decompensation.]". Policlinico Prat. 58 (9): 257–68. PMID 14833944.
Jump up ^ MAESTRINI, D. (July 1951). "[The importance of the altered organic exchange (fatigue), of the structure and colloidal state of the fiber, for the genesis of the so-called small, insufficient contractions of the heart in failure.]". Policlinico Prat. 58 (30): 933–45. PMID 14864102.
Jump up ^ MAESTRINI, D. (November 1951). "[The law of the heart in biology and clinical medicine.]". Minerva Med. 42 (80): 857–64. PMID 14919226.
Jump up ^ MAESTRINI, D. (June 1952). "[A new theory of cardiac decompensation.]". Policlinico Prat. 59 (24): 797–814. PMID 14957592.
Jump up ^ MAESTRINI, D. (1947). "[Not Available.]". Gazz Sanit. 18 (5): 162–4. PMID 18859625.
Jump up ^ PENNACCHIO, L.; D. MAESTRINI (September 1952). "[Comment on a new theory of cardiac insufficiency.]". Policlinico Prat. 59 (37): 1223–4. PMID 13026471.
Jump up ^ MAESTRINI, D. (January 1958). "[The law of the heart from its discovery to the present time.]". Minerva Med. 49 (3–4): Varia, 28–36. PMID 13516733.
Jump up ^ MAESTRINI, D. (December 1958). "[Variations of cardiac volume dynamics in clinical practice, examined in the light of the law of the heart.]". Minerva Cardioangiol. 6 (12): 657–67. PMID 13643787.
Jump up ^ MAESTRINI, D. (February 1959). "[S. Baglioni and the law of the heart.]". Policlinico Prat. 66 (7): 224–30. PMID 13645276.
Jump up ^ MAESTRINI, D. (October 1959). "[On cardiac dynamics in the phase preceding right hypertrophy and on its electrocardiographic aspect in man.]". Policlinico Prat. 66: 1409–13. PMID 13853750.
Jump up ^ Boron, Walter F.; Boulpaep, Emile L. (2012-01-13). Medical Physiology, 2e Updated Edition E-Book: with STUDENT CONSULT Online Access. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-1455711819.
External links[edit]
"New Concepts in the Control of Muscle Contraction" by Gerry A Smith PhD (Cantab)
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Catholic (term)
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The word catholic (with lowercase c; derived via Late Latin catholicus, from the Greek adjective καθολικός (katholikos), meaning "universal"[1][2]) comes from the Greek phrase καθόλου (katholou), meaning "on the whole", "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words κατά meaning "about" and ὅλος meaning "whole".[3][4] The term Catholic (usually written with uppercase C in English) was first used to describe the Christian Church in the early 2nd century to emphasize its universal scope. In the context of Christian ecclesiology, it has a rich history and several usages.
The word in English can mean either "of the Roman Catholic faith" or "relating to the historic doctrine and practice of the Western Church".[5][note 1] Many Christians use it to refer more broadly to the whole Christian Church or to all believers in Jesus Christ regardless of denominational affiliation;[6][7] it can also more narrowly refer to Catholicity, which encompasses several historic churches sharing major beliefs. "Catholicos", the title used for the head of some churches in Eastern Christian traditions, is derived from the same linguistic origin.
In non-ecclesiastical use, it derives its English meaning directly from its root, and is currently used to mean the following:
including a wide variety of things; all-embracing
universal or of general interest;
liberal, having broad interests, or wide sympathies;[8] or
inclusive, inviting and containing strong evangelism.
The term has been incorporated into the name of the largest Christian communion, the Roman Catholic Church (also called the Catholic Church). All of the three main branches of Christianity in the East (Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church and Church of the East) had always identified themselves as Catholic in accordance with Apostolic traditions and the Nicene Creed. Anglicans, Lutherans, and some Methodists also believe that their churches are "Catholic" in the sense that they too are in continuity with the original universal church founded by the Apostles. However, each church defines the scope of the "Catholic Church" differently. For instance, the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox churches, and Church of the East, each maintain that their own denomination is identical with the original universal church, from which all other denominations broke away.
Distinguishing beliefs of Catholicity, the beliefs of most Christians who call themselves "Catholic", include the episcopal polity, that bishops are considered the highest order of ministers within the Christian religion,[9] as well as the Nicene Creed of AD 381. In particular, along with unity, sanctity, and apostolicity, catholicity is considered one of Four Marks of the Church,[10] found the line of the Nicene Creed: "I believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church."
During the medieval and modern times, additional distinctions arose regarding the use of the terms Western Catholic and Eastern Catholic. Before the East–West Schism, those terms had just the basic geographical meanings, since only one undivided Catholicity existed, uniting the Latin speaking Christians of West and the Greek speaking Christians of the East. After the split of 1054 terminology became much more complicated, resulting in the creation of parallel and confronting terminological systems.[11]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Historical use
2.1 Ignatius of Antioch
2.2 Other second-century uses
2.3 Cyril of Jerusalem
2.4 Theodosius I
2.5 Augustine of Hippo
2.6 St Vincent of Lerins
2.7 Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church
2.8 Lutheran Churches
3 Contemporary use
3.1 Catholic Church
3.2 Orthodoxy
3.3 Protestantism
3.4 Independent Catholicism
4 Avoidance of use
5 Notes and references
5.1 See also
5.2 Notes
5.3 References
6 External links
Etymology
The Greek adjective katholikos, the origin of the term "catholic" means "universal". Directly from the Greek, or via Late Latin catholicus, the term catholic entered many other languages, becoming the base for the creation of various theological terms such as catholicism and catholicity (Late Latin catholicismus, catholicitas).
The term "catholicism" is the English form of Late Latin catholicismus, an abstract noun based on the adjective "catholic". The Modern Greek equivalent καθολικισμός (katholikismos) is back-formed and usually refers to the Catholic Church.
The terms "catholic", "catholicism" and "catholicity" is closely related to the use of the term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of that term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. Exhorting Christians to remain closely united with their bishop, he wrote: "Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude [of the people] also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church."[12][13]
From the second half of the second century, the word "catholic" began to be used to mean "orthodox" (non-heretical), "because Catholics claimed to teach the whole truth, and to represent the whole Church, while heresy arose out of the exaggeration of some one truth and was essentially partial and local".[14] In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term "Catholic Christian" exclusively to those who followed the same faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome and Pope Peter of Alexandria.[15] Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315–386), Augustine of Hippo (354–430) further developed the use of the term "catholic" in relation to Christianity.
Historical use
Ignatius of Antioch
Ignatius of Antioch
The earliest recorded evidence of the use of the term "Catholic Church" is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 107 to Christians in Smyrna. Exhorting Christians to remain closely united with their bishop, he wrote: "Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude [of the people] also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church."[12][16][17]
Of the meaning for Ignatius of this phrase J.H. Srawley wrote:
This is the earliest occurrence in Christian literature of the phrase 'the Catholic Church' (ἡ καθολικὴ ἐκκλησία). The original sense of the word is 'universal'. Thus Justin Martyr (Dial. 82) speaks of the 'universal or general resurrection', using the words ἡ καθολικὴ ἀνάστασις. Similarly here the Church universal is contrasted with the particular Church of Smyrna. Ignatius means by the Catholic Church 'the aggregate of all the Christian congregations' (Swete, Apostles Creed, p. 76). So too the letter of the Church of Smyrna is addressed to all the congregations of the Holy Catholic Church in every place. And this primitive sense of 'universal' the word has never lost, although in the latter part of the second century it began to receive the secondary sense of 'orthodox' as opposed to 'heretical'. Thus it is used in an early Canon of Scripture, the Muratorian fragment (circa 170 A.D.), which refers to certain heretical writings as 'not received in the Catholic Church'. So too Cyril of Jerusalem, in the fourth century, says that the Church is called Catholic not only 'because it is spread throughout the world', but also 'because it teaches completely and without defect all the doctrines which ought to come to the knowledge of men'. This secondary sense arose out of the original meaning because Catholics claimed to teach the whole truth, and to represent the whole Church, while heresy arose out of the exaggeration of some one truth and was essentially partial and local.[18][19]
By Catholic Church Ignatius designated the universal church. Ignatius considered that certain heretics of his time, who disavowed that Jesus was a material being who actually suffered and died, saying instead that "he only seemed to suffer" (Smyrnaeans, 2), were not really Christians.[20]
Other second-century uses
The term is also used in the Martyrdom of Polycarp (155) and in the Muratorian fragment (about 177).
Cyril of Jerusalem
As mentioned in the above quotation from J.H. Srawley, Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315–386), who is venerated as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion, distinguished what he called the "Catholic Church" from other groups who could also refer to themselves as an ἐκκλησία (assembly or church):
Since the word Ecclesia is applied to different things (as also it is written of the multitude in the theatre of the Ephesians, And when he had thus spoken, he dismissed the Assembly (Acts 19:14), and since one might properly and truly say that there is a Church of evil doers, I mean the meetings of the heretics, the Marcionists and Manichees, and the rest, for this cause the Faith has securely delivered to you now the Article, "And in one Holy Catholic Church"; that you may avoid their wretched meetings, and ever abide with the Holy Church Catholic in which you were regenerated. And if ever you are sojourning in cities, inquire not simply where the Lord's House is (for the other sects of the profane also attempt to call their own dens houses of the Lord), nor merely where the Church is, but where is the Catholic Church. For this is the peculiar name of this Holy Church, the mother of us all, which is the spouse of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Only-begotten Son of God(Catechetical Lectures, XVIII, 26).[21]
Theodosius I
Theodosius I
Theodosius I, Emperor from 379 to 395, declared "Catholic" Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, declaring in the Edict of Thessalonica of 27 February 380:
It is our desire that all the various nations which are subject to our clemency and moderation, should continue the profession of that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as it has been preserved by faithful tradition and which is now professed by the Pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic holiness. According to the apostolic teaching and the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one Deity of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, in equal majesty and in a holy Trinity. We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title Catholic Christians; but as for the others, since in our judgment they are foolish madmen, we decree that they shall be branded with the ignominious name of heretics, and shall not presume to give their conventicles the name of churches. They will suffer in the first place the chastisement of the divine condemnation, and in the second the punishment which our authority, in accordance with the will of heaven, will decide to inflict.[22] Theodosian Code XVI.i.2
Augustine of Hippo
Augustine of Hippo
Only slightly later, Saint Augustine of Hippo (354–430) also used the term "Catholic" to distinguish the "true" church from heretical groups:
In the Catholic Church, there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the Apostle Peter, to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15–19), down to the present episcopate.
And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house.
Such then in number and importance are the precious ties belonging to the Christian name which keep a believer in the Catholic Church, as it is right they should ... With you, where there is none of these things to attract or keep me... No one shall move me from the faith which binds my mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion... For my part, I should not believe the gospel except as moved by the authority of the Catholic Church. —St. Augustine (354–430): Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith.
— St. Augustine (354–430): Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith.[23]
St Vincent of Lerins
A contemporary of Augustine, St. Vincent of Lerins, wrote in 434 (under the pseudonym Peregrinus) a work known as the Commonitoria ("Memoranda"). While insisting that, like the human body, church doctrine develops while truly keeping its identity (sections 54-59, chapter XXIII),[24] he stated:
In the Catholic Church itself, all possible care must be taken, that we hold that faith which has been believed everywhere, always, by all. For that is truly and in the strictest sense 'catholic,' which, as the name itself and the reason of the thing declare, comprehends all universally. This rule we shall observe if we follow universality, antiquity, consent. We shall follow universality if we confess that one faith to be true, which the whole church throughout the world confesses; antiquity, if we in no wise depart from those interpretations which it is manifest were notoriously held by our holy ancestors and fathers; consent, in like manner, if in antiquity itself we adhere to the consentient definitions and determinations of all, or at the least of almost all priests and doctors.
—  A Commonitory for the Antiquity and Universality of the Catholic Faith Against the Profane Novelties of All Heresies, section 6, end of chapter II[25]
Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church
See also: Western Catholic (disambiguation) and Eastern Catholic (disambiguation)
During early centuries of Christian history, majority of Christians who followed doctrines represented in Nicene Creed were bound by one common and undivided Catholicity that was uniting the Latin speaking Christians of West and the Greek speaking Christians of the East. In those days, terms "eastern Catholic" and "western Catholic" had their basic geographical meanings, generally corresponding to existing linguistic distinctions between Greek East and Latin West. In spite of various and quite frequent theological and ecclesiastical disagreements between major Christian sees, common Catholicity was preserved until the great disputes that arose between 9th and 11th century. After the East–West Schism, the notion of common Catholicity was broken and each side started to develop its own terminological practice.[11]
All major theological and ecclesiastical disputes in the Christian East or West have been commonly accompanied by attempts of arguing sides to deny each other the right to use the word "Catholic" as term of self-designation. After the acceptance of Filioque clause into the Nicene Creed by the Rome, Orthodox Christians in the East started to refer to adherents of Filioquism in the West just as "Latins" considering them no longer to be "Catholics".[11]
The dominant view in the Eastern Orthodox Church, that all Western Christians who accepted Filioque interpolation and unorthodox Pneumatology ceased to be Catholics, was held and promoted by famous Eastern Orthodox canonist Theodore Balsamon who was patriarch of Antioch. He wrote in 1190:
For many years the once illustrious congregation of the Western Church, that is to say, the Church of Rome, has been divided in spiritual communion from the other four Patriarchates, and has separated itself by adopting customs and dogmas alien to the Catholic Church and to the Orthodox ... So no Latin should be sanctified by the hands of the priests through divine and spotless Mysteries unless he first declares that he will abstain from Latin dogmas and customs, and that he will conform to the practice of the Orthodox.[26]
On the other side of the widening rift, Eastern Orthodox were considered by western theologians to be Schismatics. Relations between East and West were further estranged by the tragic events of the Massacre of the Latins in 1182 and Sack of Constantinople in 1204. Those bloody events were followed by several failed attempts to reach reconciliation (see: Second Council of Lyon, Council of Florence, Union of Brest, Union of Uzhhorod). During the late medieval and early modern period, terminology became much more complicated, resulting in the creation of parallel and confronting terminological systems that exist today in all of their complexity.
During the Early Modern period, a special term "Acatholic" was widely used in the West to mark all those who were considered to hold heretical theological views and irregular ecclesiastical practices. In the time of Counter-Reformation the term Acatholic was used by zealous members of the Catholic Church to designate Protestants as well as Eastern Orthodox Christians. The term was considered to be so insulting that the Council of the Serbian Orthodox Church, held in Temeswar in 1790, decided to send an official plea to emperor Leopold II, begging him to ban the use of the term "Acatholic".[27]
Lutheran Churches
The Augsburg Confession found within the Book of Concord, a compendium of belief of the Lutheran Churches, teaches that "the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church".[28] When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in 1530, they believe to have "showed that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils".[28]
Contemporary use
The term "Catholic" is commonly associated with the whole of the church led by the Roman Pontiff, the Catholic Church. Other Christian churches that use the description "Catholic" include the Eastern Orthodox Church and other churches that believe in the historic episcopate (bishops), such as the Anglican Communion.[29][30] Many of those who apply the term "Catholic Church" to all Christians object to the use of the term to designate what they view as only one church within what they understand as the "whole" Catholic Church. In the English language, the first known use of the term is in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland, "He was a constant Catholic/All Lollard he hated and heretic."[31]
Catholic Church
See also: Catholic Church and Roman Catholic (term)
The Catholic Church, led by the Pope in Rome, usually distinguishes itself from other churches by calling itself the "Catholic", however has also used the description "Roman Catholic". Even apart from documents drawn up jointly with other churches, it has sometimes, in view of the central position it attributes to the See of Rome, adopted the adjective "Roman" for the whole church, Eastern as well as Western, as in the papal encyclicals Divini illius Magistri and Humani generis. Another example is its self-description as "the holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church"[32] (or, by separating each adjective, as the "Holy, Catholic, Apostolic and Roman Church"[33]) in the 24 April 1870 Dogmatic Constitution on the Catholic Faith of the First Vatican Council. In all of these documents it also refers to itself both simply as the Catholic Church and by other names. The Eastern Catholic Churches, while united with Rome in the faith, have their own traditions and laws, differing from those of the Latin Rite and those of other Eastern Catholic Churches.
The contemporary Catholic Church has always considered itself to be the historic Catholic Church, and consider all others as "non-Catholics". This practice is an application of the belief that not all who claim to be Christians are part of the Catholic Church, as Ignatius of Antioch, the earliest known writer to use the term "Catholic Church", considered that certain heretics who called themselves Christians only seemed to be such.[34]
Regarding the relations with Eastern Christians, Pope Benedict XVI stated his wish to restore full unity with the Orthodox. The Roman Catholic Church considers that almost all of the ancient theological differences have been satisfactorily addressed (the Filioque clause, the nature of purgatory, etc.), and has declared that differences in traditional customs, observances and discipline are no obstacle to unity.[35]
Recent historic ecumenical efforts on the part of the Catholic Church have focused on healing the rupture between the Western ("Catholic") and the Eastern ("Orthodox") churches. Pope John Paul II often spoke of his great desire that the Catholic Church "once again breathe with both lungs",[36][37] thus emphasizing that the Roman Catholic Church seeks to restore full communion with the separated Eastern churches.[38]
Orthodoxy
See also: Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church, and Church of the East
All of the three main branches of Christianity in the East (Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church and Church of the East) are continuing to identify themselves as Catholic in accordance with Apostolic traditions and the Nicene Creed.[39] The Eastern Orthodox Church firmly upholds the ancient doctrines of Eastern Orthodox Catholicity and commonly uses the term Catholic, as in the title of The Longer Catechism of the Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church. So does the Coptic Orthodox Church that belongs to Oriental Orthodoxy and considers its communion to be "the True Church of the Lord Jesus Christ".[40] Non of the Eastern Churches, Orthodox or Oriental, have any intention to abandon ancient traditions of their own Catholicity.
Protestantism
Most Reformation and post-Reformation churches use the term Catholic (often with a lower-case c) to refer to the belief that all Christians are part of one Church regardless of denominational divisions; e.g., Chapter XXV of the Westminster Confession of Faith refers to the "catholic or universal Church". It is in line with this interpretation, which applies the word "catholic" (universal) to no one denomination, that they understand the phrase "one holy catholic and apostolic Church" in the Nicene Creed, the phrase the Catholic faith in the Athanasian Creed and the phrase "holy catholic church" in the Apostles' Creed.[citation needed]
The term is used also to mean those Christian churches that maintain that their episcopate can be traced unbrokenly back to the apostles and consider themselves part of a catholic (universal) body of believers. Among those who regard themselves as Catholic but not Roman Catholic are Anglicans and Lutherans,[28] who stress that they are both Reformed and Catholic. The Old Catholic Church and the various groups classified as Independent Catholic Churches also lay claim to the description Catholic. Traditionalist Catholics, even if they may not be in communion with Rome, consider themselves to be not only Catholics but the "true" Roman Catholics.[citation needed]
Some use the term "Catholic" to distinguish their own position from a Calvinist or Puritan form of Reformed-Protestantism. These include a faction of Anglicans often also called Anglo-Catholics, 19th century Neo-Lutherans, 20th century High Church Lutherans or evangelical-Catholics and others.
Methodists and Presbyterians believe their denominations owe their origins to the Apostles and the early church, but do not claim descent from ancient church structures such as the episcopate. However, both of these churches hold that they are a part of the catholic (universal) church. According to Harper's New Monthly Magazine:
The various Protestant sects can not constitute one church because they have no intercommunion...each Protestant Church, whether Methodist or Baptist or whatever, is in perfect communion with itself everywhere as the Roman Catholic; and in this respect, consequently, the Roman Catholic has no advantage or superiority, except in the point of numbers. As a further necessary consequence, it is plain that the Roman Church is no more Catholic in any sense than a Methodist or a Baptist.[41]
—  Henry Mills Alden, Harper's New Monthly Magazine Volume 37, Issues 217-222
As such, according to one viewpoint, for those who "belong to the Church," the term Methodist Catholic, or Presbyterian Catholic, or Baptist Catholic, is as proper as the term Roman Catholic.[42] It simply means that body of Christian believers over the world who agree in their religious views, and accept the same ecclesiastical forms.[42]
Independent Catholicism
Some Independent Catholics accept that, among bishops, that of Rome is primus inter pares, and hold that conciliarism is a necessary check against ultramontanism. They are however, by definition, not recognised by the Catholic Church.
Avoidance of use
Some Protestant churches avoid using the term completely, to the extent among many Lutherans of reciting the Creed with the word "Christian" in place of "catholic".[43][44][45] The Orthodox churches share some of the concerns about Roman Catholic papal claims, but disagree with some Protestants about the nature of the church as one body.
Notes and references
See also
Religion portal
Anglo-Catholicism
Anglican Catholic Church
Anglican Use
Catechism of the Catholic Church
Catholicism
Christianity
Independent Catholic Churches
Liberal Catholic Church
List of popes
Old Catholic Church
Universal Catholic Church
Notes
Jump up ^ Western Christianity includes both the (Roman) Catholic Church, Protestant Churches that share historic ties with the Catholic Church, as well as independent Catholic Churches that split later
References
Jump up ^ "Catholic". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
Jump up ^ (cf. Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon)
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2011-09-16.
Jump up ^ "On Being Catholic," by Claire Anderson M.Div.
Jump up ^ "catholic". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Beliefs and Social Issues, FAQ". United Methodist Church. Retrieved December 2009. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ "ELCA Terminology". Evengelical Lutheran Church in America. Retrieved December 2009. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ American Heritage Dictionary (4th ed.).
Jump up ^ F.L. Cross, Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 1977:175.
Jump up ^ Christliche Religion, Oskar Simmel Rudolf Stählin, 1960, 150
^ Jump up to: a b c Inventing Latin Heretics: Byzantines and the Filioque in the Ninth Century at Google Books pp.
^ Jump up to: a b "Chapter VIII.—Let nothing be done without the bishop". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 21 November 2008.
Jump up ^ Angle, Paul T. (2007). The Mysterious Origins of Christianity. Wheatmark, Inc. ISBN 978-1-58736-821-9.
Jump up ^ "Ignatius Epistle to the Smyrnaeans".
Jump up ^ "Medieval Sourcebook: Theodosian Code XVI".
Jump up ^ Angle, Paul T. (2007). The Mysterious Origins of Christianity. Wheatmark, Inc. ISBN 9781587368219.
Jump up ^ J. H. Srawley (1900). "Ignatius Epistle to the Smyrnaeans". Retrieved 2007-06-24.
Jump up ^ [J.H. Srawley, The Epistles of St. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, vol. II,] pp. 41-42
Jump up ^ another edition, p.97
Jump up ^ "As certain unbelievers maintain, that He only seemed to suffer, as they themselves only seem to be Christians". Ignatius said these heretics did not believe in the reality of Christ's flesh, which did suffer and was raised up again: "They confess not the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised up again" (Smyrnaeans, 7) and called them "beasts in the shape of men, whom you must not only not receive, but, if it be possible, not even meet with" (Smyrnaeans, 4).
Jump up ^ "Catechetical Lecture 18 (Ezekiel xxxvii)". newadvent.org. Retrieved 2012-03-31.
Jump up ^ Bettenson, Henry (1967). Documents of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press US. p. 22. ISBN 9780195012934.
Jump up ^ "Chapter 5.—Against the Title of the Epistle of Manichæus". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 21 November 2008.
Jump up ^ Vincent of Lerins. "A Commonitory for the Antiquity and Universality of the Catholic Faith Against the Profane Novelties of All Heresies". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 2012-03-05.
Jump up ^ Vincent of Lerins. "A Commonitory for the Antiquity and Universality of the Catholic Faith Against the Profane Novelties of All Heresies". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 2012-03-05.
Jump up ^ Heresy and the Making of European Culture: Medieval and Modern Perspectives at Google Books p. 42
Jump up ^ Радња Благовештенског сабора народа србског у Сремским Карловцима at Google Books p. 210
^ Jump up to: a b c Ludwig, Alan (12 September 2016). "Luther's Catholic Reformation". The Lutheran Witness. When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession before Emperor Charles V in 1530, they carefully showed that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils and even the canon law of the Church of Rome. They boldly claim, “This is about the Sum of our Doctrine, in which, as can be seen, there is nothing that varies from the Scriptures, or from the Church Catholic, or from the Church of Rome as known from its writers” (AC XXI Conclusion 1). The underlying thesis of the Augsburg Confession is that the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church. In fact, it is actually the Church of Rome that has departed from the ancient faith and practice of the catholic church (see AC XXIII 13, XXVIII 72 and other places). Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Steven Kovacevich, Apostolic Christianity and the 23,000 Western Churches, especially p. 15[dead link]
Jump up ^ Basic Principles Of The Attitude of The Russian Orthodox Church toward the Other Christian Confessions, adopted by the Jubilee Bishops’ Council of the Russian Orthodox Church, 14 August 2000
Jump up ^ "Catholic", in Oxford English Dictionary(1989), New York: Oxford University Press, [spelling modernized].
Jump up ^ English translation by Henry Edward Manning in Philip Schaff, Creeds of Christendom: Volume II. The History of Creeds
Jump up ^ Pope Pius IX; Vatican (1870-04-24). "First Vatican Council – Session 3: Dogmatic constitution on the Catholic faith". Retrieved 2007-06-24.
Jump up ^ Smyrnaeans, 2
Jump up ^ Second Vatican Council Decree on Ecumenism Archived 6 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine., 16
Jump up ^ Encyciclical Ut unum sint, 54
Jump up ^ Apostolic Constitution Sacri Canones
Jump up ^ Obituary of Pope John Paul II
Jump up ^ Catholicity and the Church at Google Books pp.
Jump up ^ Characteristics of Our Coptic Church
Jump up ^ Alden, Henry Mills (1868). Harper's new monthly magazine, Volume 37, Issues 217-222. Harper's Magazine Co. Retrieved 2007-03-25. The various Protestant sects can not constitute one church because they have no intercommunion...each Protestant Church, whether Methodist or Baptist or whatever, is in perfect communion with itself everywhere as the Roman Catholic; and in this respect, consequently, the Roman Catholic has no advantage or superiority, except in the point of numbers. As a further necessary consequence, it is plain that the Roman Church is no more Catholic in any sense than a Methodist or a Baptist.
^ Jump up to: a b Harper's magazine, Volume 37. Harper's Magazine Co. 1907. Retrieved 2007-03-25. For those who "belong to the Church," the term Methodist Catholic, or Presbyterian Catholic, or Baptist Catholic, is as proper as the term Roman Catholic. It simply means that body of Christian believers over the world who agree in their religious views, and accept the same ecclesiastical forms.
Jump up ^ "Nicene Creed". The Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod. Archived from the original on 27 May 2008. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
Jump up ^ "Nicene Creed". Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 2008-01-02. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
Jump up ^ "Nicene Creed". International Lutheran Fellowship. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
External links
Look up Catholic or catholic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
"Catholic". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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