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Psychoactive drug
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An assortment of psychoactive drugs—street drugs and medications:
cocaine
crack cocaine
methylphenidate (Ritalin)
ephedrine
MDMA (ecstasy)
mescaline (cactus)
LSD blotter
psilocybin mushroom (Psilocybe cubensis)
Salvia divinorum
diphenhydramine (Benadryl)
Amanita muscaria mushroom
Tylenol 3 (contains codeine)
codeine with muscle relaxant
pipe tobacco
bupropion (Zyban)
cannabis
hashish
A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, or psychotropic is a chemical substance that changes brain function and results in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior.[1] These substances may be used medically; recreationally; to purposefully improve performance or alter one's consciousness; as entheogens; for ritual, spiritual, or shamanic purposes; or for research. Some categories of psychoactive drugs, which have therapeutic value, are prescribed by physicians and other healthcare practitioners. Examples include anesthetics, analgesics, anticonvulsant and antiparkinsonian drugs as well as medications used to treat neuropsychiatric disorders, such as antidepressants, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, and stimulant medications. Some psychoactive substances may be used in the detoxification and rehabilitation programs for persons dependent on or addicted to other psychoactive drugs.
Psychoactive substances often bring about subjective (although these may be objectively observed) changes in consciousness and mood that the user may find rewarding and pleasant (e.g., euphoria or a sense of relaxation) or advantageous (e.g. increased alertness) and are thus reinforcing. Substances which are both rewarding and positively reinforcing have the potential to induce a state of addiction – compulsive drug use despite negative consequences. In addition, sustained use of some substances may produce physical or psychological dependence or both, associated with somatic or psychological-emotional withdrawal states respectively. Drug rehabilitation attempts to reduce addiction, through a combination of psychotherapy, support groups, and other psychoactive substances. Conversely, certain psychoactive drugs may be so unpleasant that the person will never use the substance again. This is especially true of certain deliriants (e.g. Jimson weed), powerful dissociatives (e.g. Salvia divinorum), and classic psychedelics (e.g. LSD, psilocybin), in the form of a "bad trip".
Psychoactive drug misuse, dependence and addiction have resulted in legal measures and moral debate. Governmental controls on manufacture, supply and prescription attempt to reduce problematic medical drug use. Ethical concerns have also been raised about over-use of these drugs clinically, and about their marketing by manufacturers. Popular campaigns to allow certain recreational drug use (e.g. cannabis) are also ongoing.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Purposes
3 Uses
3.1 Anesthesia
3.2 Pain management
3.3 Mental disorders
3.4 Recreation
3.5 Ritual and spiritual
3.6 Military
4 Route of administration
5 Determinants of effects
6 Effects
6.1 Affected neurotransmitter systems
7 Addiction and dependence
8 Legality
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
History[edit]
Alcohol is a widely used and abused psychoactive drug. The global alcoholic drinks market was expected to exceed $1 trillion in 2013.[2] Beer is the third-most popular drink overall, after water and tea.[3]
Psychoactive drug use can be traced to prehistory. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances (mostly plants) dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years.[4] The chewing of coca leaves, for example, dates back over 8,000 years ago in Peruvian society.[5][6]
Medicinal use is one important facet of psychoactive drug usage. However, some have postulated that the urge to alter one's consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger or sexual desire.[7] Supporters of this belief contend that the history of drug use and even children's desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding indicate that the drive to alter one's state of mind is universal.[8]
One of the first people to articulate this point of view, set aside from a medicinal context, was American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow (1836–1870) in his book The Hasheesh Eater (1857):
[D]rugs are able to bring humans into the neighborhood of divine experience and can thus carry us up from our personal fate and the everyday circumstances of our life into a higher form of reality. It is, however, necessary to understand precisely what is meant by the use of drugs. We do not mean the purely physical craving...That of which we speak is something much higher, namely the knowledge of the possibility of the soul to enter into a lighter being, and to catch a glimpse of deeper insights and more magnificent visions of the beauty, truth, and the divine than we are normally able to spy through the cracks in our prison cell. But there are not many drugs which have the power of stilling such craving. The entire catalog, at least to the extent that research has thus far written it, may include only opium, hashish, and in rarer cases alcohol, which has enlightening effects only upon very particular characters.[9]
This relationship is not limited to humans. A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated, such as cats after consuming catnip. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use.[10] Animals and psychoactive plants appear to have co-evolved, possibly explaining why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.[11]
During the 20th century, many governments across the world initially responded to the use of recreational drugs by banning them and making their use, supply, or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this was Prohibition in the United States, where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments, government officials and persons in law enforcement have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization. Organizations such as Law Enforcement Against Prohibition (LEAP) have come to such a conclusion, believing:
[T]he existing drug policies have failed in their intended goals of addressing the problems of crime, drug abuse, addiction, juvenile drug use, stopping the flow of illegal drugs into this country and the internal sale and use of illegal drugs. By fighting a war on drugs the government has increased the problems of society and made them far worse. A system of regulation rather than prohibition is a less harmful, more ethical and a more effective public policy.[12][not in citation given]
In some countries, there has been a move toward harm reduction by health services, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have adequate factual information readily available, and that the negative effects of their use be minimized. Such is the case of Portuguese drug policy of decriminalization, which achieved its primary goal of reducing the adverse health effects of drug abuse.[13]
Purposes[edit]
Psychoactive substances are used by humans for a number of different purposes to achieve a specific end. These uses vary widely between cultures. Some substances may have controlled or illegal uses while others may have shamanic purposes, and still others are used medicinally. Other examples would be social drinking, nootropic, or sleep aids. Caffeine is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive substance, but unlike many others, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all jurisdictions. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily.[14]
Psychoactive drugs are divided into different groups according to their pharmacological effects. Commonly used psychoactive drugs and groups:
Anxiolytics
Example: benzodiazepines, barbiturates
Empathogen–entactogens
Example: MDMA (Ecstasy), MDA, 6-APB, AMP
Stimulants ("uppers"). This category comprises substances that wake one up, stimulate the mind, and may cause euphoria, but do not affect perception.
Examples: amphetamine, caffeine, cocaine, nicotine
Depressants ("downers"), including sedatives, hypnotics, and opioids. This category includes all of the calmative, sleep-inducing, anxiety-reducing, anesthetizing substances, which sometimes induce perceptual changes, such as dream images, and also often evoke feelings of euphoria.
Examples: ethanol (alcoholic beverages), opioids, barbiturates, benzodiazepines.
Hallucinogens, including psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants. This category encompasses all those substances that produce distinct alterations in perception, sensation of space and time, and emotional states[15]
Examples: psilocybin, LSD, Salvia divinorum and nitrous oxide.
Uses[edit]
Anesthesia[edit]
Main article: Anesthesia
General anesthetics are a class of psychoactive drug used on people to block physical pain and other sensations. Most anesthetics induce unconsciousness, allowing the person to undergo medical procedures like surgery without the feelings of physical pain or emotional trauma.[16] To induce unconsciousness, anesthetics affect the GABA and NMDA systems. For example, propofol is a GABA agonist,[17] and ketamine is an NMDA receptor antagonist.[18]
Pain management[edit]
Main article: Analgesics
Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to manage pain. The subjective experience of pain is primarily regulated by endogenous opioid peptides. Thus, pain can often be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system, also known as opioid receptor agonists. This class of drugs can be highly addictive, and includes opiate narcotics, like morphine and codeine.[19] NSAIDs, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are also analgesics. These agents also reduce eicosanoid-mediated inflammation by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase.
Mental disorders[edit]
Main article: Psychiatric medications
Zoloft (sertraline) is an SSRI antidepressant.
Psychiatric medications are psychoactive drugs prescribed for the management of mental and emotional disorders, or to aid in overcoming challenging behavior.[20] There are six major classes of psychiatric medications:
Antidepressants treat disorders such as clinical depression, dysthymia, anxiety, eating disorders and borderline personality disorder.[21]
Stimulants, used to treat disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy, and for weight reduction.
Antipsychotics, used to treat psychotic symptoms, such as those associated with schizophrenia or severe mania, or as adjuncts to relieve clinical depression.
Mood stabilizers, used to treat bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorder.
Anxiolytics, used to treat anxiety disorders.
Depressants, used as hypnotics, sedatives, and anesthetics, depending upon dosage.
In addition, several psychoactive substances are currently employed to treat various addictions. These include acamprosate or naltrexone in the treatment of alcoholism, or methadone or buprenorphine maintenance therapy in the case of opioid addiction.[22]
Exposure to psychoactive drugs can cause changes to the brain that counteract or augment some of their effects; these changes may be beneficial or harmful. However, there is a significant amount of evidence that relapse rate of mental disorders negatively corresponds with length of properly followed treatment regimens (that is, relapse rate substantially declines over time), and to a much greater degree than placebo.[23]
Recreation[edit]
Main article: Recreational drug use
Many psychoactive substances are used for their mood and perception altering effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and psychiatry. Examples of psychoactive substances include caffeine, alcohol, cocaine, LSD, and cannabis.[24] Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally include:
Stimulants, which activate the central nervous system. These are used recreationally for their euphoric effects.
Hallucinogens (psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants), which induce perceptual and cognitive alterations.
Hypnotics, which depress the central nervous system.
Opioid analgesics, which also depress the central nervous system. These are used recreationally because of their euphoric effects.
Inhalants, in the forms of gas aerosols, or solvents, which are inhaled as a vapor because of their stupefying effects. Many inhalants also fall into the above categories (such as nitrous oxide which is also an analgesic).
In some modern and ancient cultures, drug usage is seen as a status symbol. Recreational drugs are seen as status symbols in settings such as at nightclubs and parties.[25] For example, in ancient Egypt, gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic plants.[26]
Because there is controversy about regulation of recreational drugs, there is an ongoing debate about drug prohibition. Critics of prohibition believe that regulation of recreational drug use is a violation of personal autonomy and freedom.[27] In the United States, critics have noted that prohibition or regulation of recreational and spiritual drug use might be unconstitutional, and causing more harm than is prevented.[28]
Ritual and spiritual[edit]
Timothy Leary was a leading proponent of spiritual hallucinogen use.
Main article: Entheogens
Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. Native Americans have used peyote cacti containing mescaline for religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years.[29] The muscimol-containing Amanita muscaria mushroom was used for ritual purposes throughout prehistoric Europe.[30]
The use of entheogens for religious purposes resurfaced in the West during the counterculture movements of the 1960s and 70s. Under the leadership of Timothy Leary, new spiritual and intention-based movements began to use LSD and other hallucinogens as tools to access deeper inner exploration. In the United States, the use of peyote for ritual purposes is protected only for members of the Native American Church, which is allowed to cultivate and distribute peyote. However, the genuine religious use of peyote, regardless of one's personal ancestry, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Oregon.[31]
Military[edit]
Main articles: Psychochemical warfare and List of drugs used by militaries
Psychoactive drugs have been used in military applications as non-lethal weapons. In World War II, between 1939 and 1945, 60 million amphetamine pills were made for use by soldiers.[citation needed] Both military and civilian American intelligence officials are known to have used psychoactive drugs while interrogating captives apprehended in its War on Terror. In July 2012, Jason Leopold and Jeffrey Kaye, psychologists and human rights workers, had a Freedom of Information Act request fulfilled that confirmed that the use of psychoactive drugs during interrogation was a long-standing practice.[32][33] Captives and former captives had been reporting medical staff collaborating with interrogators to drug captives with powerful psychoactive drugs prior to interrogation since the very first captives' release.[34][35] In May 2003, recently released Pakistani captive Sha Mohammed Alikhel described the routine use of psychoactive drugs. He said that Jihan Wali, a captive kept in a nearby cell, was rendered catatonic through the use of these drugs.
The military justice system has also been known to use psychoactive drugs to obtain a conviction. (U.S. vs. Juillerat)[36]
Route of administration[edit]
Psychoactive drugs are administered via oral ingestion as a tablet, capsule, powder, liquid, and beverage; via injection by subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intravenous route; via rectum by suppository and enema; and via inhalation by smoking, vaporization and insufflation ("snorting"). The efficiency of each method of administration varies from drug to drug.[37]
The psychiatric drugs fluoxetine, quetiapine, and lorazepam are ingested orally in tablet or capsule form. Alcohol and caffeine are ingested in beverage form; nicotine and cannabis are smoked or vaped; peyote and psilocybin mushrooms are ingested in botanical form or dried; and crystalline drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamines are usually insufflated (inhaled or "snorted").
Determinants of effects[edit]
The theory of dosage, set, and setting is a useful model in dealing with the effects of psychoactive substances, especially in a controlled therapeutic setting as well as in recreational use. Dr. Timothy Leary, based on his own experiences and systematic observations on psychedelics, developed this theory along with his colleagues Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert (Ram Dass) in the 1960s.[38]
Dosage
The first factor, dosage, has been a truism since ancient times, or at least since Paracelsus who said, "Dose makes the poison." Some compounds are beneficial or pleasurable when consumed in small amounts, but harmful, deadly, or evoke discomfort in higher doses.
Set
The set is the internal attitudes and constitution of the person, including their expectations, wishes, fears, and sensitivity to the drug. This factor is especially important for the hallucinogens, which have the ability to make conscious experiences out of the unconscious. In traditional cultures, set is shaped primarily by the worldview, health and genetic characteristics that all the members of the culture share.
Setting
The third aspect is setting, which pertains to the surroundings, the place, and the time in which the experiences transpire.
This theory clearly states that the effects are equally the result of chemical, pharmacological, psychological, and physical influences. The model that Timothy Leary proposed applied to the psychedelics, although it also applies to other psychoactives.[39]
Effects[edit]
Illustration of the major elements of neurotransmission. Depending on its method of action, a psychoactive substance may block the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron (dendrite), or block reuptake or affect neurotransmitter synthesis in the pre-synaptic neuron (axon).
Main article: Neuropsychopharmacology
Psychoactive drugs operate by temporarily affecting a person's neurochemistry, which in turn causes changes in a person's mood, cognition, perception and behavior. There are many ways in which psychoactive drugs can affect the brain. Each drug has a specific action on one or more neurotransmitter or neuroreceptor in the brain.
Drugs that increase activity in particular neurotransmitter systems are called agonists. They act by increasing the synthesis of one or more neurotransmitters, by reducing its reuptake from the synapses, or by mimicking the action by binding directly to the postsynaptic receptor. Drugs that reduce neurotransmitter activity are called antagonists, and operate by interfering with synthesis or blocking postsynaptic receptors so that neurotransmitters cannot bind to them.[40]
Exposure to a psychoactive substance can cause changes in the structure and functioning of neurons, as the nervous system tries to re-establish the homeostasis disrupted by the presence of the drug (see also, neuroplasticity). Exposure to antagonists for a particular neurotransmitter can increase the number of receptors for that neurotransmitter or the receptors themselves may become more responsive to neurotransmitters; this is called sensitization. Conversely, overstimulation of receptors for a particular neurotransmitter may cause a decrease in both number and sensitivity of these receptors, a process called desensitization or tolerance. Sensitization and desensitization are more likely to occur with long-term exposure, although they may occur after only a single exposure. These processes are thought to play a role in drug dependence and addiction.[41] Physical dependence on antidepressants or anxiolytics may result in worse depression or anxiety, respectively, as withdrawal symptoms. Unfortunately, because clinical depression (also called major depressive disorder) is often referred to simply as depression, antidepressants are often requested by and prescribed for patients who are depressed, but not clinically depressed.
Affected neurotransmitter systems[edit]
The following is a brief table of notable drugs and their primary neurotransmitter, receptor or method of action. It should be noted that many drugs act on more than one transmitter or receptor in the brain.[42]
Neurotransmitter/receptor
Classification
Examples

Acetylcholine Cholinergics (acetylcholine receptor agonists) arecoline, nicotine, piracetam
Muscarinic antagonists (acetylcholine receptor antagonists) scopolamine, benzatropine, dimenhydrinate, diphenhydramine, doxylamine, atropine, quetiapine, olanzapine, most tricyclics
Nicotinic antagonists (acetylcholine receptor antagonists) memantine, bupropion
Adenosine Adenosine receptor antagonists[43] caffeine, theobromine, theophylline

Dopamine Dopamine reuptake inhibitors (DRIs) cocaine, bupropion, methylphenidate, St John's wort, and certain TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine, phenethylamine, and methamphetamine
Dopamine releasers Cavendish bananas,[44] TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine, phenethylamine, and methamphetamine
Dopamine receptor agonists pramipexole, Ropinirole, L-DOPA (prodrug), memantine (also see NMDA, below)
Dopamine receptor antagonists haloperidol, droperidol, many antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine)
Dopamine receptor partial agonists LSD, aripiprazole

gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) GABA reuptake inhibitors tiagabine, St John's wort, vigabatrin, deramciclane
GABA receptor agonists ethanol, niacin,[45] barbiturates, diazepam, clonazepam, lorazepam, temazepam, alprazolam and other benzodiazepines, zolpidem, eszopiclone, zaleplon and other nonbenzodiazepines, muscimol
GABA receptor antagonists thujone, bicuculline

Norepinephrine Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors St John's wort,[46] most non-SSRI antidepressants such as amoxapine, atomoxetine, bupropion, venlafaxine, quetiapine, the tricyclics, methylphenidate, SNRIs such as duloxetine, venlafaxine, cocaine, tramadol, and certain TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine, phenethylamine, methamphetamine.
Norepinephrine releasers ephedrine, PPA, pseudoephedrine, amphetamine, phenethylamine, methamphetamine
Norepinephrine receptor agonists clonidine, guanfacine, phenylephrine
Norepinephrine receptor antagonists carvedilol, metoprolol, mianserin, prazosin, propranolol, trazodone, yohimbine, olanzapine
Serotonin Serotonin receptor agonists methylphenidate, LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, DMT
Serotonin reuptake inhibitors most antidepressants including St John's wort, tricyclics such as imipramine, SSRIs such as fluoxetine, sertraline and citalopram, and SNRIs such as duloxetine and venlafaxine, cocaine, tramadol, and certain TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine, tryptamine, and methamphetamine
Serotonin releasers fenfluramine, MDMA (ecstasy), tryptamine
Serotonin receptor antagonists ritanserin, mirtazapine, mianserin, trazodone, cyproheptadine, memantine, atypical antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine)
AMPA receptor AMPA receptor positive allosteric modulators aniracetam, CX717, piracetam
AMPA receptor antagonists kynurenic acid, NBQX, topiramate
Cannabinoid receptor Cannabinoid receptor agonists JWH-018
Cannabinoid receptor partial agonists Anandamide, THC, cannabidiol, cannabinol
Cannabinoid receptor inverse agonists Rimonabant
Anandamide reuptake inhibitors[47] LY 2183240, VDM 11, AM 404
FAAH enzyme inhibitors MAFP, URB597, N-Arachidonylglycine
Melanocortin receptor Melanocortin receptor agonists bremelanotide
NMDA receptor NMDA receptor antagonists ethanol, ketamine, PCP, DXM, Nitrous Oxide, glutamate, memantine (used for moderate to severe Alzheimers)
GHB receptor GHB receptor agonists GHB, Amisulpride, T-HCA
Sigma receptor Sigma-1 receptor agonists cocaine, DMT, DXM, fluvoxamine, ibogaine, opipramol, PCP, methamphetamine
Sigma-2 receptor agonists methamphetamine
Opioid receptor μ-opioid receptor agonists morphine, heroin, oxycodone, codeine
μ-opioid receptor partial agonists buprenorphine
μ-opioid receptor inverse agonists naloxone
μ-opioid receptor antagonists naltrexone
κ-opioid receptor agonists salvinorin A, butorphanol, nalbuphine, pentazocine, ibogaine[48]
κ-opioid receptor antagonists buprenorphine
Histamine receptor H1 histamine receptor antagonists diphenhydramine, doxylamine, mirtazapine, mianserin, quetiapine, olanzapine, meclozine, dimenhydrinate, most tricyclics
Monoamine oxidase Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) phenelzine, iproniazid, tranylcypromine, selegiline, rasagiline, moclobemide, isocarboxazid, Linezolid, benmoxin, St John's wort, coffee,[49] garlic[50]
Melatonin receptor Melatonin receptor agonists ramelteon
Imidazoline receptor Imidazoline receptor agonists apraclonidine, clonidine, moxonidine, rilmenidine
Orexin receptor Orexin receptor agonists modafinil
Orexin receptor antagonists SB-334,867, SB-408,124, TCS-OX2-29, suvorexant
Addiction and dependence[edit]
showAddiction and dependence glossary[51][52][53][54]
addiction – a brain disorder characterized by compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli despite adverse consequences
addictive behavior – a behavior that is both rewarding and reinforcing
addictive drug – a drug that is both rewarding and reinforcing
dependence – an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake)
drug sensitization or reverse tolerance – the escalating effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose
drug withdrawal – symptoms that occur upon cessation of repeated drug use
physical dependence – dependence that involves persistent physical–somatic withdrawal symptoms (e.g., fatigue and delirium tremens)
psychological dependence – dependence that involves emotional–motivational withdrawal symptoms (e.g., dysphoria and anhedonia)
reinforcing stimuli – stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them
rewarding stimuli – stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to approach
sensitization – an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it
substance use disorder – a condition in which the use of substances leads to clinically and functionally significant impairment or distress
tolerance – the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose
v
t
e
Main articles: addiction and ΔFosB
Comparison of the perceived harm for various psychoactive drugs from a poll among medical psychiatrists specialized in addiction treatment (David Nutt et al. 2007).[55]
Psychoactive drugs are often associated with addiction or drug dependence. Dependence can be divided into two types: psychological dependence, by which a user experiences negative psychological or emotional withdrawal symptoms (e.g., depression) and physical dependence, by which a user must use a drug to avoid physically uncomfortable or even medically harmful physical withdrawal symptoms.[56] Drugs that are both rewarding and reinforcing are addictive; these properties of a drug are mediated through activation of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, particularly the nucleus accumbens. Not all addictive drugs are associated with physical dependence, e.g., amphetamine, and not all drugs that produce physical dependence are addictive drugs, e.g., caffeine.
Many professionals, self-help groups, and businesses specialize in drug rehabilitation, with varying degrees of success, and many parents attempt to influence the actions and choices of their children regarding psychoactives.[57]
Common forms of rehabilitation include psychotherapy, support groups and pharmacotherapy, which uses psychoactive substances to reduce cravings and physiological withdrawal symptoms while a user is going through detox. Methadone, itself an opioid and a psychoactive substance, is a common treatment for heroin addiction, as is another opioid, buprenorphine. Recent research on addiction has shown some promise in using psychedelics such as ibogaine to treat and even cure drug addictions, although this has yet to become a widely accepted practice.[58][59]
Legality[edit]
Historical image of legal heroin bottle
Main article: Prohibition of drugs
The legality of psychoactive drugs has been controversial through most of recent history; the Second Opium War and Prohibition are two historical examples of legal controversy surrounding psychoactive drugs. However, in recent years, the most influential document regarding the legality of psychoactive drugs is the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, an international treaty signed in 1961 as an Act of the United Nations. Signed by 73 nations including the United States, the USSR, India, and the United Kingdom, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs established Schedules for the legality of each drug and laid out an international agreement to fight addiction to recreational drugs by combatting the sale, trafficking, and use of scheduled drugs.[60] All countries that signed the treaty passed laws to implement these rules within their borders. However, some countries that signed the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, such as the Netherlands, are more lenient with their enforcement of these laws.[61]
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authority over all drugs, including psychoactive drugs. The FDA regulates which psychoactive drugs are over the counter and which are only available with a prescription.[62] However, certain psychoactive drugs, like alcohol, tobacco, and drugs listed in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs are subject to criminal laws. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 regulates the recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.[63] Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federal National Minimum Drinking Age Act penalizes states for not following a national drinking age.[64] Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments.[65] Most people accept such restrictions and prohibitions of certain drugs, especially the "hard" drugs, which are illegal in most countries.[66][67][68]
In the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for illness is widespread and generally accepted. Little controversy exists concerning over the counter psychoactive medications in antiemetics and antitussives. Psychoactive drugs are commonly prescribed to patients with psychiatric disorders. However, certain critics believe that certain prescription psychoactives, such as antidepressants and stimulants, are overprescribed and threaten patients' judgement and autonomy.[69][70]
See also[edit]
Pharmacy and Pharmacology portal
► Psychoactive drugs
Contact high
Counterculture of the 1960s
Demand reduction
Designer drug
Drug
Drug addiction
Drug rehabilitation
Hard and soft drugs
Neuropsychopharmacology
Poly drug use
Project MKULTRA
Psychedelic plants
Psychoactive fish
Recreational drug use
Responsible drug use
Self-medication
References[edit]
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Addiction: A term used to indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the classification of severe substance-use disorder.
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External links[edit]
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Mephenesin
Mephenoxalone
Metaxalone
Methocarbamol
Opioids (e.g., morphine)
Passion flower
Scopolamine
Trazodone
UMB68
Valnoctamide
show
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Hallucinogens
Psychedelics
(5-HT2A
agonists)
Benzofurans
2C-B-FLY
2CBFly-NBOMe
5-MeO-BFE
5-MeO-DiBF
Bromo-DragonFLY
F-2
F-22
TFMFly
Lyserg‐
amides
1P-ETH-LAD
1P-LSD
2-Butyllysergamide
3-Pentyllysergamide
AL-LAD
ALD-52
BU-LAD
Diallyllysergamide
Dimethyllysergamide
Ergometrine
ETH-LAD
IP-LAD
LAE-32
LPD-824
LSA
LSD
LSD-Pip
LSH
LSM-775
LSZ
Methylergometrine
Methylisopropyllysergamide
Methysergide
MLD-41
PARGY-LAD
PRO-LAD
Phenethyl‐
amines
2C-x
2C-B
2C-B-AN
2C-Bn
2C-Bu
2C-C
2C-CN
2C-CP
2C-D
2C-E
2C-EF
2C-F
2C-G
2C-G-1
2C-G-2
2C-G-3
2C-G-4
2C-G-5
2C-G-6
2C-G-N
2C-H
2C-I
2C-iP
2C-N
2C-NH2
2C-O
2C-O-4
2C-P
2C-Ph
2C-SE
2C-T
2C-T-2
2C-T-3
2C-T-4
2C-T-5
2C-T-6
2C-T-7
2C-T-8
2C-T-9
2C-T-10
2C-T-11
2C-T-12
2C-T-13
2C-T-14
2C-T-15
2C-T-16
2C-T-17
2C-T-18
2C-T-19
2C-T-20
2C-T-21
2C-T-22
2C-T-22.5
2C-T-23
2C-T-24
2C-T-25
2C-T-27
2C-T-28
2C-T-30
2C-T-31
2C-T-32
2C-T-33
2C-TFE
2C-TFM
2C-YN
2C-V
25x-NBx
25x-NB3OMe
25B-NB3OMe
25C-NB3OMe
25D-NB3OMe
25E-NB3OMe
25H-NB3OMe
25I-NB3OMe
25N-NB3OMe
25P-NB3OMe
25T2-NB3OMe
25T4-NB3OMe
25T7-NB3OMe
25TFM-NB3OMe
25x-NB4OMe
25B-NB4OMe
25C-NB4OMe
25D-NB4OMe
25E-NB4OMe
25H-NB4OMe
25I-NB4OMe
25N-NB4OMe
25P-NB4OMe
25T2-NB4OMe
25T4-NB4OMe
25T7-NB4OMe
25TFM-NB4OMe
25x-NBF
25B-NBF
25C-NBF
25D-NBF
25E-NBF
25H-NBF
25I-NBF
25P-NBF
25T2-NBF
25T7-NBF
25TFM-NBF
25x-NBMD
25B-NBMD
25C-NBMD
25D-NBMD
25E-NBMD
25F-NBMD
25H-NBMD
25I-NBMD
25P-NBMD
25T2-NBMD
25T7-NBMD
25TFM-NBMD
25x-NBOH
25B-NBOH
25C-NBOH
25CN-NBOH
25D-NBOH
25E-NBOH
25F-NBOH
25H-NBOH
25I-NBOH
25P-NBOH
25T2-NBOH
25T7-NBOH
25TFM-NBOH
25x-NBOMe
25B-NBOMe
25C-NBOMe
25CN-NBOMe
25D-NBOMe
25E-NBOMe
25F-NBOMe
25G-NBOMe
25H-NBOMe
25I-NBOMe
25iP-NBOMe
25N-NBOMe
25P-NBOMe
25T2-NBOMe
25T4-NBOMe
25T7-NBOMe
25TFM-NBOMe
Atypical structures
25I-NB34MD
2CBCB-NBOMe
2CBFly-NBOMe
NBOMe-mescaline
3C-x
3C-AL
3C-BZ
3C-DFE
3C-E
3C-P
4C-x
4C-B
4C-D
4C-T-2
DOx
DOT
DOB
DOC
DOEF
DOET
DOF
DOI
DOiPR
DOM
DON
DOPR
DOTFM
MEM
HOT-x
HOT-2
HOT-7
HOT-17
MDxx
DMMDA
DMMDA-2
Lophophine
MDA
MMDA
MMDA-2
MMDA-3a
MMDMA
Mescaline (subst.)
2-Bromomescaline
3-TE
4-TE
3-TM
4-TM
Allylescaline
Asymbescaline
Buscaline
Cyclopropylmescaline
Difluoromescaline
Difluoroescaline
Escaline
Fluoroproscaline
Isobuscaline
Isoproscaline
Jimscaline
Mescaline
Metaescaline
Methallylescaline
Proscaline
Thioproscaline
Trifluoroescaline
Trifluoromescaline
TMAs
TMA
TMA-2
TMA-3
TMA-4
TMA-5
TMA-6
Others
2C-B-BUTTERFLY
2C-B-DragonFLY
2CB-5-hemifly
2-TOM
5-TOET
5-TOM
2CB-Ind
2CD-5EtO
BOB
BOD
βk-2C-B
βk-2C-I
DESOXY
DMCPA
DMBMPP
DOB-FLY
Fenfluramine
Ganesha
Macromerine
MMA
TCB-2
TOMSO
Piperazines
BZP
pFPP
Tryptamines
alpha-alkyltryptamines
4,5-DHP-α-MT
5-MeO-α-ET
5-MeO-α-MT
α-ET
α-MT
x-DALT
(Daltocin) 4-HO-DALT
(Daltacetin) 4-AcO-DALT
5-MeO-DALT
DALT
x-DET
(Ethacetin) 4-AcO-DET
(Ethocin) 4-HO-DET
5-MeO-DET
(T-9) DET
(Ethocybin) 4-PO-DET
x-DiPT
(Ipracetin) 4-AcO-DiPT
(Iprocin) 4-HO-DiPT
(Foxy Methoxy) 5-MeO-DiPT
DiPT
x-DMT
4,5-DHP-DMT
2,N,N-TMT
4-AcO-DMT
4-HO-5-MeO-DMT
4,N,N-TMT
4-Propionyloxy-DMT
5,6-diBr-DMT
5-AcO-DMT
5-Bromo-DMT
5-MeO-2,N,N-TMT
5-MeO-4,N,N-TMT
5-MeO-α,N,N-TMT
5-MeO-DMT
5-N,N-TMT
7,N,N-TMT
α,N,N-TMT
(Bufotenin) 5-HO-DMT
DMT
Norbaeocystin
(Psilocin) 4-HO-DMT
(Psilocybin) 4-PO-DMT
x-DPT
(Depracetin) 4-AcO-DPT
(Deprocin) 4-HO-DPT
5-MeO-DPT
(The Light) DPT
Ibogaine-related
18-MAC
18-MC
Coronaridine
Ibogaine
Ibogamine
ME-18-MC
Noribogaine
Tabernanthine
Voacangine
x-MET
(Metocin) 4-HO-MET
(Metocetin) 4-AcO-MET
5-MeO-MET
MET
x-MiPT
(Mipracetin) 4-AcO-MiPT
(Miprocin) 4-HO-MiPT
5-Me-MiPT
(Moxy) 5-MeO-MiPT
MiPT
Others
4-HO-DBT
4-HO-EPT
4-HO-McPT
(Lucigenol) 4-HO-MPMI
(Meprocin) 4-HO-MPT
5-MeO-EiPT
5-MeO-MALT
5-MeO-MPMI
Aeruginascin
Baeocystin
DBT
DCPT
EiPT
EPT
MPT
PiPT
Others
5-MeO-DiBF
AL-38022A
ALPHA
Dimemebfe
Efavirenz
Lorcaserin
M-ALPHA
RH-34
Also empathogens in general (e. g.: 5-APB, 5-MAPB, 6-APB and other substituted benzofurans, MDAI, MDMA).
Dissociatives
(NMDAR
antagonists)
Arylcyclo‐
hexylamines
Ketamine-related
2-Fluorodeschloroketamine
Arketamine ((R)-ketamine)
Deschloroketamine
Ethketamine (N-Ethylnorketamine)
Esketamine ((S)-ketamine)
Ketamine
Methoxetamine
Methoxmetamine
Methoxyketamine
Norketamine
Tiletamine
PCP-related
3'-HO-PCP
3'-MeO-PCE
3'-MeO-PCMo
3'-MeO-PCP
BDPC
Dieticyclidine (PCDE)
Eticyclidine (PCE)
Methoxydine (4'-MeO-PCP)
PCPr
Phencyclidine (PCP)
Rolicyclidine (PCPy)
Tenocyclidine (TCP)
Others
BTCP
Gacyclidine
PRE-084
Diarylethylamines
Diphenidine
Ephenidine
Fluorolintane
Methoxphenidine
Morphinans
Dextrallorphan
Dextromethorphan
Dextrorphan
Racemethorphan
Racemorphan
Others
2-EMSB
2-MDP
8A-PDHQ
Aptiganel
Budipine
Delucemine
Dexoxadrol
Dizocilpine
Etoxadrol
Herkinorin
Ibogaine
Midafotel
NEFA
Neramexane
Nitrous oxide
Noribogaine
Perzinfotel
RB-64
Remacemide
Salvinorin A
Selfotel
Xenon
Deliriants
(mAChR
antagonists)
Atropine
Benactyzine
Benzatropine
Benzydamine
Biperiden
BRN-1484501
Brompheniramine
BZ
CAR-226,086
CAR-301,060
CAR-302,196
CAR-302,282
CAR-302,368
CAR-302,537
CAR-302,668
Chloropyramine
Chlorphenamine
Clemastine
CS-27349
Cyclizine
Cyproheptadine
Dicycloverine
Dimenhydrinate
Diphenhydramine
Ditran
Doxylamine
EA-3167
EA-3443
EA-3580
EA-3834
Elemicin
Flavoxate
Hyoscyamine
JB-318
JB-336
Meclozine
Mepyramine
Myristicin
Orphenadrine
Oxybutynin
Pheniramine
Phenyltoloxamine
Procyclidine
Promethazine
Scopolamine
Tolterodine
Trihexyphenidyl
Tripelennamine
Triprolidine
WIN-2299
Others
Cannabinoids
(CB1 agonists)
Natural
THC (Dronabinol)
THCV
Synthetic
AM-x
AM-087
AM-251
AM-279
AM-281
AM-356
AM-374
AM-381
AM-404
AM-411
AM-630
AM-661
AM-678
AM-679
AM-694
AM-735
AM-855
AM-881
AM-883
AM-905
AM-906
AM-919
AM-926
AM-938
AM-1116
AM-1172
AM-1220
AM-1221
AM-1235
AM-1241
AM-1248
AM-1710
AM-1714
AM-1902
AM-2201
AM-2212
AM-2213
AM-2232
AM-2233
AM-2389
AM-3102
AM-4030
AM-4054
AM-4056
AM-4113
AM-6545
CP x
CP 47,497
CP 55,244
CP 55,940
(±)-CP 55,940
(+)-CP 55,940
(-)-CP 55,940
HU-x
HU-210
HU-211
HU-239
HU-243
HU-308
HU-320
HU-331
HU-336
HU-345
JWH-x
JWH-007
JWH-015
JWH-018
JWH-019
JWH-030
JWH-047
JWH-048
JWH-051
JWH-057
JWH-073
JWH-081
JWH-098
JWH-116
JWH-120
JWH-122
JWH-133
JWH-139
JWH-147
JWH-148
JWH-149
JWH-149
JWH-161
JWH-164
JWH-166
JWH-167
JWH-171
JWH-175
JWH-176
JWH-181
JWH-182
JWH-184
JWH-185
JWH-192
JWH-193
JWH-193
JWH-194
JWH-195
JWH-196
JWH-197
JWH-198
JWH-199
JWH-200
JWH-203
JWH-205
JWH-210
JWH-210
JWH-213
JWH-220
JWH-229
JWH-234
JWH-249
JWH-250
JWH-251
JWH-253
JWH-258
JWH-300
JWH-302
JWH-307
JWH-336
JWH-350
JWH-359
JWH-387
JWH-398
JWH-424
Misc. designer cannabinoids
4-HTMPIPO
5F-AB-FUPPYCA
5F-AB-PINACA
5F-ADB
5F-ADB-PINACA
5F-ADBICA
5F-AMB
5F-APINACA
5F-CUMYL-PINACA
5F-NNE1
5F-PB-22
5F-SDB-006
A-796,260
A-836,339
AB-001
AB-005
AB-CHFUPYCA
AB-CHMINACA
AB-FUBINACA
AB-PINACA
ADAMANTYL-THPINACA
ADB-CHMINACA
ADB-FUBINACA
ADB-PINACA
ADBICA
ADSB-FUB-187
AMB-FUBINACA
APICA
APINACA
APP-FUBINACA
CB-13
CUMYL-PICA
CUMYL-PINACA
CUMYL-THPINACA
DMHP
EAM-2201
FAB-144
FDU-PB-22
FUB-144
FUB-APINACA
FUB-JWH-018
FUB-PB-22
FUBIMINA
JTE 7-31
JTE-907
Levonantradol
MDMB-CHMICA
MDMB-CHMINACA
MDMB-FUBINACA
MEPIRAPIM
MAM-2201
MDA-19
MN-18
MN-25
NESS-0327
NESS-040C5
Nabilone
Nabitan
NM-2201
NNE1
Org 28611
Parahexyl
PTI-1
PTI-2
PX-1
PX-2
PX-3
QUCHIC
QUPIC
RCS-4
RCS-8
SDB-005
SDB-006
STS-135
THC-O-acetate
THC-O-phosphate
THJ-018
THJ-2201
UR-144
WIN 55,212-2
XLR-11
D2 agonists
Apomorphine
Aporphine
Bromocriptine
Cabergoline
Lisuride
Memantine
Nuciferine
Pergolide
Phenethylamine
Piribedil
Pramipexole
Ropinirole
Rotigotine
Salvinorin A
Also indirect D2 agonists, such as dopamine reuptake inhibitors (cocaine, methylphenidate), releasing agents (amphetamine, methamphetamine), and precursors (levodopa).
GABAA
enhancers
CI-966
Eszopiclone
Ibotenic acid
Muscimol (Amanita muscaria)
Zaleplon
Zolpidem
Zopiclone
Inhalants
(Mixed MOA)
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Butane
Gasoline
Kerosene
Propane
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Toluene
Ethers
Diethyl ether
Enflurane
Haloalkanes
Chlorofluorocarbons
Chloroform
κOR agonists
2-EMSB
Alazocine
Bremazocine
Butorphan
Butorphanol
Cyclazocine
Cyclorphan
Cyprenorphine
Diprenorphine
Enadoline
Herkinorin
Heroin
HZ-2
Ibogaine
Ketazocine
Levallorphan
Levomethorphan
Levorphanol
LPK-26
Metazocine
Morphine
Nalbuphine
Nalmefene
Nalorphine
Noribogaine
Oxilorphan
Pentazocine
Phenazocine
Proxorphan
Racemethorphan
Racemorphan
Salvinorin A
Spiradoline
Tifluadom
U-50488
U-69,593
Xorphanol
Others
Glaucine
Isoaminile
Noscapine
Pukateine
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Stimulants
Adamantanes
Adapromine
Amantadine
Bromantane
Memantine
Rimantadine
Adenosine antagonists
8-Chlorotheophylline
8-Cyclopentyltheophylline
8-Phenyltheophylline
Aminophylline
Caffeine
CGS-15943
Dimethazan
Paraxanthine
SCH-58261
Theobromine
Theophylline
Alkylamines
Cyclopentamine
Cypenamine
Cyprodenate
Heptaminol
Isometheptene
Levopropylhexedrine
Methylhexaneamine
Octodrine
Propylhexedrine
Tuaminoheptane
Ampakines
CX-516
CX-546
CX-614
CX-691
CX-717
IDRA-21
LY-404,187
LY-503,430
Nooglutyl
Org 26576
PEPA
S-18986
Sunifiram
Unifiram
Arylcyclohexylamines
Benocyclidine
Dieticyclidine
Esketamine
Eticyclidine
Gacyclidine
Ketamine
Phencyclamine
Phencyclidine
Rolicyclidine
Tenocyclidine
Tiletamine
Benzazepines
6-Br-APB
SKF-77434
SKF-81297
SKF-82958
Cholinergics
A-84,543
A-366,833
ABT-202
ABT-418
AR-R17779
Altinicline
Anabasine
Arecoline
Bradanicline
Cotinine
Cytisine
Dianicline
Epibatidine
Epiboxidine
GTS-21
Ispronicline
Nicotine
PHA-543,613
PNU-120,596
PNU-282,987
Pozanicline
Rivanicline
Sazetidine A
SIB-1553A
SSR-180,711
TC-1698
TC-1827
TC-2216
Tebanicline
UB-165
Varenicline
WAY-317,538
Convulsants
Anatoxin-a
Bicuculline
DMCM
Flurothyl
Gabazine
Pentetrazol
Picrotoxin
Strychnine
Thujone
Eugeroics
Adrafinil
Armodafinil
CRL-40,940
CRL-40,941
Fluorenol
JZ-IV-10
Modafinil
Oxazolines
4-Methylaminorex
Aminorex
Clominorex
Cyclazodone
Fenozolone
Fluminorex
Pemoline
Thozalinone
Phenethylamines
1-(4-Methylphenyl)-2-aminobutane
1-Methylamino-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)propane
2-Fuoroamphetamine
2-Fuoromethamphetamine
2-OH-PEA
2-Phenyl-3-aminobutane
2,3-MDA
3-Fuoroamphetamine
3-Fluoroethamphetamine
3-Fluoromethcathinone
3-Methoxyamphetamine
3-Methylamphetamine
3,4-DMMC
4-BMC
4-CMC
4-Ethylamphetamine
4-Fluoroamphetamine
4-Fluoromethamphetamine
4-MA
4-Methylbuphedrone
4-Methylcathinone
4-MMA
4-Methylpentedrone
4-MTA
6-FNE
AL-1095
Alfetamine
a-Ethylphenethylamine
Amfecloral
Amfepentorex
Amfepramone
Amidephrine
2-Amino-1,2-dihydronaphthalene
2-Aminoindane
5-(2-Aminopropyl)indole
2-Aminotetralin
Acridorex
Amphetamine (Dextroamphetamine, Levoamphetamine)
Amphetaminil
Arbutamine
β-Methylphenethylamine
β-Phenylmethamphetamine
Benfluorex
Benzedrone
Benzphetamine
BDB
BOH
3-Benzhydrylmorpholine
BPAP
Buphedrone
Bupropion
Butylone
Camfetamine
Cathine
Cathinone
Chlorphentermine
Cilobamine
Cinnamedrine
Clenbuterol
Clobenzorex
Cloforex
Clortermine
Cypenamine
D-Deprenyl
Denopamine
Dimethoxyamphetamine
Dimethylamphetamine
Dimethylcathinone
Dobutamine
DOPA (Dextrodopa, Levodopa)
Dopamine
Dopexamine
Droxidopa
EBDB
Ephedrine
Epinephrine
Epinine
Etafedrine
Ethcathinone
Ethylnorepinephrine
Ethylone
Etilamfetamine
Etilefrine
Famprofazone
Fencamfamin
Fencamine
Fenethylline
Fenfluramine (Dexfenfluramine, Levofenfluramine)
Fenproporex
Feprosidnine
Flephedrone
Fludorex
Formetorex
Furfenorex
Gepefrine
Hexapradol
Hexedrone
HMMA
Hordenine
4-Hydroxyamphetamine
5-Iodo-2-aminoindane
Ibopamine
IMP
Indanylamphetamine
Iofetamine
Isoetarine
Isoethcathinone
Isoprenaline
L-Deprenyl (Selegiline)
Lefetamine
Lisdexamfetamine
Lophophine
MBDB
MDA (tenamfetamine)
MDBU
MDEA
MDMA (midomafetamine)
MDMPEA
MDOH
MDPR
MDPEA
Mefenorex
Mephedrone
Mephentermine
Metanephrine
Metaraminol
Mesocarb
Methamphetamine (Dextromethamphetamine, Levomethamphetamine)
Methoxamine
Methoxyphenamine
MMA
Methcathinone
Methedrone
Methoxyphenamine
Methylenedioxycathinone
Methylone
Mexedrone
MMDA
MMDMA
MMMA
Morforex
N,alpha-Diethylphenylethylamine
N-Ethylbuphedrone
N-Ethylhexedrone
N,N-Dimethylphenethylamine
Naphthylamphetamine
Nisoxetine
Norepinephrine
Norfenefrine
Norfenfluramine
Normetanephrine
L-Norpseudoephedrine
Octopamine (drug)
Orciprenaline
Ortetamine
Oxifentorex
Oxilofrine
PBA
PCA
PCMA
PHA
Pentorex
Pentedrone
Pentylone
Phenatine
Phenpromethamine
Phentermine
Phenylalanine
Phenylephrine
Phenylpropanolamine
Pholedrine
PIA
PMA
PMEA
PMMA
PPAP
Phthalimidopropiophenone
Prenylamine
Propylamphetamine
Pseudoephedrine
Ropinirole
Salbutamol (Levosalbutamol)
Sibutramine
Solriamfetol
Synephrine
Theodrenaline
Tiflorex
Tranylcypromine
Tyramine
Tyrosine
Xylopropamine
Zylofuramine
Phenylmorpholines
3-Fluorophenmetrazine
Fenbutrazate
Fenmetramide
G-130
Manifaxine
Morazone
Morforex
Oxaflozane
PD-128,907
Phendimetrazine
Phenmetrazine
2-Phenyl-3,6-dimethylmorpholine
Pseudophenmetrazine
Radafaxine
Piperazines
2C-B-BZP
3C-PEP
BZP
CM156
DBL-583
GBR-12783
GBR-12935
GBR-13069
GBR-13098
GBR-13119
MeOPP
MBZP
oMPP
Vanoxerine
Piperidines
1-Benzyl-4-(2-(diphenylmethoxy)ethyl)piperidine
2-Benzylpiperidine
2-Methyl-3-phenylpiperidine
3,4-Dichloromethylphenidate
4-Benzylpiperidine
4-Fluoromethylphenidate
4-Methylmethylphenidate
Desoxypipradrol
Difemetorex
Diphenylpyraline
Ethylnaphthidate
Ethylphenidate
Methylnaphthidate
Isopropylphenidate
Methylphenidate (Dexmethylphenidate)
Nocaine
Phacetoperane
Pipradrol
Propylphenidate
SCH-5472
Pyrrolidines
2-Diphenylmethylpyrrolidine
5-DBFPV
α-PPP
α-PBP
α-PHP
α-PVP
α-PVT
Diphenylprolinol
DMPVP
FPOP
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BTS 74,398
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GSK1360707F
GYKI-52895
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Indanorex
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JNJ-7925476
Lazabemide
Leptacline
Lomevactone
LR-5182
Mazindol
Meclofenoxate
Medifoxamine
Mefexamide
Methamnetamine
Methastyridone
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Nikethamide
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O-2172
Oxaprotiline
PNU-99,194
PRC200-SS
Rasagiline
Rauwolscine
Rubidium chloride
Setazindol
Tametraline
Tandamine
Thiopropamine
Thiothinone
Trazium
UH-232
Yohimbine
ATC code: N06B
Authority control
NDL: 00566700
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