text:
Enigma machine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Military Enigma machine, model "Enigma 1", used during the late 1930s and during the war; displayed at Museo scienza e tecnologia Milano, Italy
Military Enigma machine (in wooden box)
The Enigma
cipher machine
Enigma machine
Enigma rotors
Breaking Enigma
Polish Cipher Bureau
Doubles
Grill
Clock
Cyclometer
Bomba
Zygalski sheets
Bletchley Park
Banburismus
Herivel tip
Crib
Bombe
Hut 3
Hut 6
Hut 8
PC Bruno
Ultra
v
t
e
The Enigma machines were a series of electro-mechanical rotor cipher machines developed and used in the early- to mid-20th century to protect commercial, diplomatic and military communication. Enigma was invented by the German engineer Arthur Scherbius at the end of World War I.[1] Early models were used commercially from the early 1920s, and adopted by military and government services of several countries, most notably Nazi Germany before and during World War II.[2] Several different Enigma models were produced, but the German military models, having a plugboard, were the most complex. Japanese and Italian models were also in use.
Around December 1932, Marian Rejewski of the Polish Cipher Bureau used the theory of permutations and flaws in the German military message procedures to break the message keys of the plugboard Enigma machine. Rejewski achieved this result without knowledge of the wiring of the machine, so the result did not allow the Poles to decrypt actual messages. The French had a spy – Hans Thilo Schmidt – with access to German cipher materials that included the daily keys used in September and October 1932. Those keys included the plugboard settings. The French gave the material to the Poles, and Rejewski used some of that material and the message traffic in September and October to solve for the unknown rotor wiring. Consequently, the Poles were able to build their own Enigma machines, which were called Enigma doubles. Rejewski was aided by cryptanalysts Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski, both of whom had been recruited with Rejewski from Poznań University. The Polish Cipher Bureau developed techniques to defeat the plugboard and find all components of the daily key, which enabled the Cipher Bureau to read the German's Enigma messages. Over time, the German cryptographic procedures improved, and the Cipher Bureau developed techniques and designed mechanical devices to continue breaking the Enigma traffic. As part of that effort, the Poles exploited quirks of the rotors, compiled catalogs, built a cyclometer to help make a catalog with 100,000 entries, made Zygalski sheets and built the electro-mechanical cryptologic bomb to search for rotor settings. In 1938, the Germans added complexity to the Enigma machines that finally became too expensive for the Poles to counter. The Poles had six bomby, but when the Germans added two more rotors, ten times as many bomby were needed, but the Poles did not have the resources.[3]
On 26 and 27 July 1939,[4] in Pyry near Warsaw, the Poles initiated French and British military intelligence representatives into their Enigma-decryption techniques and equipment, including Zygalski sheets and the cryptologic bomb, and promised each delegation a Polish-reconstructed Enigma. The demonstration represented a vital basis for the later British continuation and effort.[5] During the war, British cryptologists decrypted a vast number of messages enciphered on Enigma. The intelligence gleaned from this source, codenamed "Ultra" by the British, was a substantial aid to the Allied war effort.[6]
Though Enigma had some cryptographic weaknesses, in practice it was German procedural flaws, operator mistakes, failure to systematically introduce changes in encipherment procedures, and Allied capture of key tables and hardware that, during the war, enabled Allied cryptologists to succeed and "turned the tide" in the Allies' favor.[7][8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Design
2.1 Electrical pathway
2.2 Rotors
2.3 Stepping
2.4 Turnover
2.5 Entry wheel
2.6 Reflector
2.7 Plugboard
2.8 Accessories
2.8.1 Schreibmax
2.8.2 Fernlesegerät
2.8.3 Uhr
2.9 Mathematical analysis
3 Operation
3.1 Basic operation
3.2 Details
3.3 Indicator
3.4 Additional details
4 History
4.1 Commercial Enigma
4.1.1 Enigma A (1923)
4.1.2 Enigma B (1924)
4.1.3 Enigma C (1926)
4.1.4 Enigma D (1927)
4.1.4.1 "Navy Cipher D" – Italian Navy
4.1.5 Enigma H (1929)
4.1.6 Enigma K
4.1.7 Typex
4.2 Military Enigma
4.2.1 Funkschlüssel C
4.2.2 Enigma G (1928–1930)
4.2.3 Wehrmacht Enigma I (1930–1938)
4.2.4 M3 (1934)
4.2.5 Two extra rotors (1938)
4.2.6 M4 (1942)
5 Breaking Enigma
6 Surviving machines
7 Derivatives
8 Simulators
9 In popular culture
10 See also
11 References
11.1 Notes
11.2 Bibliography
12 Further reading
13 External links
Etymology[edit]
The word Enigma is derived from the Latin word aenigma ("riddle"), which again has been derived itself from the Ancient Greek verbal noun τὸ αἴνιγμα.
Design[edit]
Enigma in use, 1943
Like other rotor machines, the Enigma machine is a combination of mechanical and electrical subsystems. The mechanical subsystem consists of a keyboard; a set of rotating disks called rotors arranged adjacently along a spindle; one of various stepping components to turn at least one rotor with each key press, and a series of lamps, one for each letter.
Electrical pathway[edit]
Enigma wiring diagram with arrows and the numbers 1 to 9 showing how current flows from key depression to a lamp being lit. The A key is encoded to the D lamp. D yields A, but A never yields A; this property was due to a patented feature unique to the Enigmas, and could be exploited by cryptanalysts in some situations.
The mechanical parts act in such a way as to form a varying electrical circuit. When a key is pressed, one or more rotors rotate on the spindle. On the sides of the rotors are a series of electrical contacts that, after rotation, line up with contacts on the other rotors or fixed wiring on either end of the spindle. When the rotors are properly aligned, each key on the keyboard is connected to a unique electrical pathway through the series of contacts and internal wiring. Current, typically from a battery, flows through the pressed key, into the newly configured set of circuits and back out again, ultimately lighting one display lamp, which shows the output letter. For example, when encrypting a message starting ANX..., the operator would first press the A key, and the Z lamp might light, so Z would be the first letter of the ciphertext. The operator would next press N, and then X in the same fashion, and so on.
The scrambling action of Enigma's rotors is shown for two consecutive letters with the right-hand rotor moving one position between them.
Current flowed from the battery (1) through a depressed bi-directional keyboard switch (2) to the plugboard (3). Next, it passed through the (unused in this instance, so shown closed) plug "A" (3) via the entry wheel (4), through the wiring of the three (Wehrmacht Enigma) or four (Kriegsmarine M4 and Abwehr variants) installed rotors (5), and entered the reflector (6). The reflector returned the current, via an entirely different path, back through the rotors (5) and entry wheel (4), proceeding through plug "S" (7) connected with a cable (8) to plug "D", and another bi-directional switch (9) to light the appropriate lamp.[9]
The repeated changes of electrical path through an Enigma scrambler implemented a polyalphabetic substitution cipher that provided Enigma's security. The diagram on the right shows how the electrical pathway changed with each key depression, which caused rotation of at least the right-hand rotor. Current passed into the set of rotors, into and back out of the reflector, and out through the rotors again. The greyed-out lines are other possible paths within each rotor; these are hard-wired from one side of each rotor to the other. The letter A encrypts differently with consecutive key presses, first to G, and then to C. This is because the right-hand rotor has stepped, sending the signal on a completely different route. Eventually other rotors step with a key press.
Rotors[edit]
Enigma rotor assembly. In the Wehrmacht Enigma, the three installed movable rotors are sandwiched between two fixed wheels: the entry wheel, on the right, and the reflector on the left.
Main article: Enigma rotor details
The rotors (alternatively wheels or drums, Walzen in German) formed the heart of an Enigma machine. Each rotor was a disc approximately 10 cm (3.9 in) in diameter made from hard rubber or bakelite with 26 brass, spring-loaded, electrical contact pins arranged in a circle on one face; the other side housing the corresponding number of circular plate electrical contacts. The pins and contacts represent the alphabet—typically the 26 letters A–Z (this will be assumed for the rest of this description). When the rotors were mounted side-by-side on the spindle, the pins of one rotor rested against the plate contacts of the neighbouring rotor, forming an electrical connection. Inside the body of the rotor, 26 wires connected each pin on one side to a contact on the other in a complex pattern. Most of the rotors were identified by Roman numerals, and each issued copy of rotor I was wired identically to all others. The same was true for the special thin beta and gamma rotors used in the M4 naval variant.
Three Enigma rotors and the shaft, on which they are placed when in use.
By itself, a rotor performs only a very simple type of encryption—a simple substitution cipher. For example, the pin corresponding to the letter E might be wired to the contact for letter T on the opposite face, and so on. Enigma's security came from using several rotors in series (usually three or four) and the regular stepping movement of the rotors, thus implementing a polyalphabetic substitution cipher.
When placed in an Enigma, each rotor can be set to one of 26 possible positions. When inserted, it can be turned by hand using the grooved finger-wheel, which protrudes from the internal Enigma cover when closed. So that the operator can know the rotor's position, each had an alphabet tyre (or letter ring) attached to the outside of the rotor disk, with 26 characters (typically letters); one of these could be seen through the window, thus indicating the rotational position of the rotor. In early models, the alphabet ring was fixed to the rotor disk. A later improvement was the ability to adjust the alphabet ring relative to the rotor disk. The position of the ring was known as the Ringstellung ("ring setting"), and was a part of the initial setting prior to an operating session. In modern terms it was a part of the initialization vector.
Two Enigma rotors showing electrical contacts, stepping ratchet (on the left) and notch (on the right-hand rotor opposite D).
Each rotor contained a notch (or more than one) that controlled rotor stepping. In the military variants, the notches are located on the alphabet ring.
The Army and Air Force Enigmas were used with several rotors, initially three. On 15 December 1938, this changed to five, from which three were chosen for a given session. Rotors were marked with Roman numerals to distinguish them: I, II, III, IV and V, all with single notches located at different points on the alphabet ring. This variation was probably intended as a security measure, but ultimately allowed the Polish Clock Method and British Banburismus attacks.
The Naval version of the Wehrmacht Enigma had always been issued with more rotors than the other services: at first six, then seven, and finally eight. The additional rotors were marked VI, VII and VIII, all with different wiring, and had two notches, resulting in more frequent turnover. The four-rotor Naval Enigma (M4) machine accommodated an extra rotor in the same space as the three-rotor version. This was accomplished by replacing the original reflector with a thinner one and by adding a thin fourth rotor. That fourth rotor was one of two types, Beta or Gamma, and never stepped, but could be manually set to any of 26 positions. One of the 26 made the machine perform identically to the three-rotor machine.
Stepping[edit]
To avoid merely implementing a simple (and easily breakable) substitution cipher, every key press caused one or more rotors to step by one twenty-sixth of a full rotation, before the electrical connections were made. This changed the substitution alphabet used for encryption, ensuring that the cryptographic substitution was different at each new rotor position, producing a more formidable polyalphabetic substitution cipher. The stepping mechanism varied slightly from model to model. The right-hand rotor stepped once with each keystroke, and other rotors stepped less frequently.
Turnover[edit]
The Enigma stepping motion seen from the side away from the operator. All three ratchet pawls (green) push in unison as a key is depressed. For the first rotor (1), which to the operator is the right-hand rotor, the ratchet (red) is always engaged, and steps with each keypress. Here, the middle rotor (2) is engaged because the notch in the first rotor is aligned with the pawl; it will step (turn over) with the first rotor. The third rotor (3) is not engaged, because the notch in the second rotor is not aligned to the pawl, so it will not engage with the rachet.
The advancement of a rotor other than the left-hand one was called a turnover by the British. This was achieved by a ratchet and pawl mechanism. Each rotor had a ratchet with 26 teeth and every time a key was pressed, the set of spring-loaded pawls moved forward in unison, trying to engage with a ratchet. The alphabet ring of the rotor to the right normally prevented this. As this ring rotated with its rotor, a notch machined into it would eventually align itself with the pawl, allowing it to engage with the ratchet, and advance the rotor on its left. The right-hand pawl, having no rotor and ring to its right, stepped its rotor with every key depression.[10] For a single-notch rotor in the right-hand position, the middle rotor stepped once for every 26 steps of the right-hand rotor. Similarly for rotors two and three. For a two-notch rotor, the rotor to its left would turn over twice for each rotation.
The first five rotors to be introduced (I–V) contained one notch each, while the additional naval rotors VI, VII and VIII each had two notches. The position of the notch on each rotor was determined by the letter ring which could be adjusted in relation to the core containing the interconnections. The points on the rings at which they caused the next wheel to move were as follows.[11]
Position of turnover notches
Rotor
Turnover position(s)
BP mnemonic
I R Royal
II F Flags
III W Wave
IV K Kings
V A Above
VI, VII and VIII A and N
The design also included a feature known as double-stepping. This occurred when each pawl aligned with both the ratchet of its rotor and the rotating notched ring of the neighbouring rotor. If a pawl engaged with a ratchet through alignment with a notch, as it moved forward it pushed against both the ratchet and the notch, advancing both rotors. In a three-rotor machine, double-stepping affected rotor two only. If in moving forward the ratchet of rotor three was engaged, rotor two would move again on the subsequent keystroke, resulting in two consecutive steps. Rotor two also pushes rotor one forward after 26 steps, but since rotor one moves forward with every keystroke anyway, there is no double-stepping.[10] This double-stepping caused the rotors to deviate from odometer-style regular motion.
With three wheels and only single notches in the first and second wheels, the machine had a period of 26 × 25 × 26 = 16,900 (not 26 × 26 × 26, because of double-stepping).[10] Historically, messages were limited to a few hundred letters, and so there was no chance of repeating any combined rotor position during a single session, denying cryptanalysts valuable clues.
To make room for the Naval fourth rotors, the reflector was made much thinner. The fourth rotor fitted into the space made available. No other changes were made, which eased the changeover. Since there were only three pawls, the fourth rotor never stepped, but could be manually set into one of 26 possible positions.
A device that was designed, but not implemented before the war's end, was the Lückenfüllerwalze (gap-fill wheel) that implemented irregular stepping. It allowed field configuration of notches in all 26 positions. If the number of notches was a relative prime of 26 and the number of notches were different for each wheel, the stepping would be more unpredictable. Like the Umkehrwalze-D it also allowed the internal wiring to be reconfigured.[12]
Entry wheel[edit]
The current entry wheel (Eintrittswalze in German), or entry stator, connects the plugboard to the rotor assembly. If the plugboard is not present, the entry wheel instead connects the keyboard and lampboard to the rotor assembly. While the exact wiring used is of comparatively little importance to security, it proved an obstacle to Rejewski's progress during his study of the rotor wirings. The commercial Enigma connects the keys in the order of their sequence on a QWERTZ keyboard: Q → {\displaystyle \rightarrow } A, W → {\displaystyle \rightarrow } B, E → {\displaystyle \rightarrow } C and so on. The military Enigma connects them in straight alphabetical order: A → {\displaystyle \rightarrow } A, B → {\displaystyle \rightarrow } B, C → {\displaystyle \rightarrow } C, and so on. It took inspired guesswork for Rejewski to penetrate the modification.
Reflector[edit]
Internal mechanism of an Enigma machine showing the type B reflector and rotor stack.
With the exception of models A and B, the last rotor came before a 'reflector' (German: Umkehrwalze, meaning 'reversal rotor'), a patented feature unique to Enigma among the period's various rotor machines. The reflector connected outputs of the last rotor in pairs, redirecting current back through the rotors by a different route. The reflector ensured that Enigma is self-reciprocal: conveniently, encryption was the same as decryption. The reflector also gave Enigma the property that no letter ever encrypted to itself. This was a severe conceptual flaw and a cryptological mistake subsequently exploited by codebreakers.
In Model 'C', the reflector could be inserted in one of two different positions. In Model 'D', the reflector could be set in 26 possible positions, although it did not move during encryption. In the Abwehr Enigma, the reflector stepped during encryption in a manner similar to the other wheels.
In the German Army and Air Force Enigma, the reflector was fixed and did not rotate; there were four versions. The original version was marked 'A', and was replaced by Umkehrwalze B on 1 November 1937. A third version, Umkehrwalze C was used briefly in 1940, possibly by mistake, and was solved by Hut 6.[13] The fourth version, first observed on 2 January 1944, had a rewireable reflector, called Umkehrwalze D, allowing the Enigma operator to alter the connections as part of the key settings.
Plugboard[edit]
The plugboard (Steckerbrett) was positioned at the front of the machine, below the keys. When in use during World War II, there were ten connections. In this photograph, just two pairs of letters have been swapped (A↔J and S↔O).
The plugboard (Steckerbrett in German) permitted variable wiring that could be reconfigured by the operator (visible on the front panel of Figure 1; some of the patch cords can be seen in the lid). It was introduced on German Army versions in 1930, and was soon adopted by the Reichsmarine (German Navy). The plugboard contributed more cryptographic strength than an extra rotor. Enigma without a plugboard (known as unsteckered Enigma) can be solved relatively straightforwardly using hand methods; these techniques are generally defeated by the plugboard, driving Allied cryptanalysts to develop special machines to solve it.
A cable placed onto the plugboard connected letters in pairs; for example, E and Q might be a steckered pair. The effect was to swap those letters before and after the main rotor scrambling unit. For example, when an operator presses E, the signal was diverted to Q before entering the rotors. Up to 13 steckered pairs might be used at one time, although only 10 were normally used.
Current flowed from the keyboard through the plugboard, and proceeded to the entry-rotor or Eintrittswalze. Each letter on the plugboard had two jacks. Inserting a plug disconnected the upper jack (from the keyboard) and the lower jack (to the entry-rotor) of that letter. The plug at the other end of the crosswired cable was inserted into another letter's jacks, thus switching the connections of the two letters.
Accessories[edit]
The Schreibmax was a printing unit which could be attached to the Enigma, removing the need for laboriously writing down the letters indicated on the light panel.
Other features made various Enigma machines more secure or more convenient.[14]
Schreibmax[edit]
Some M4 Enigmas used the Schreibmax, a small printer that could print the 26 letters on a narrow paper ribbon. This eliminated the need for a second operator to read the lamps and transcribe the letters. The Schreibmax was placed on top of the Enigma machine and was connected to the lamp panel. To install the printer, the lamp cover and light bulbs had to be removed. It improved both convenience and operational security; the printer could be installed remotely such that the signal officer operating the machine no longer had to see the decrypted plaintext.
Fernlesegerät[edit]
Another accessory was the remote lamp panel Fernlesegerät. For machines equipped with the extra panel, the wooden case of the Enigma was wider and could store the extra panel. A lamp panel version could be connected afterwards, but that required, as with the Schreibmax, that the lamp panel and lightbulbs be removed.[9] The remote panel made it possible for a person to read the decrypted plaintext without the operator seeing it.
Uhr[edit]
The Enigma Uhr attachment
In 1944, the Luftwaffe introduced a plugboard switch, called the Uhr (clock), a small box containing a switch with 40 positions. It replaced the standard plugs. After connecting the plugs, as determined in the daily key sheet, the operator turned the switch into one of the 40 positions, each producing a different combination of plug wiring. Most of these plug connections were, unlike the default plugs, not pair-wise.[9] In one switch position, the Uhr did not swap letters, but simply emulated the 13 stecker wires with plugs.
Mathematical analysis[edit]
The Enigma transformation for each letter can be specified mathematically as a product of permutations.[15] Assuming a three-rotor German Army/Air Force Enigma, let P {\displaystyle P} denote the plugboard transformation, U {\displaystyle U} denote that of the reflector, and L , M , R {\displaystyle L,M,R} denote those of the left, middle and right rotors respectively. Then the encryption E {\displaystyle E} can be expressed as
E = P R M L U L − 1 M − 1 R − 1 P − 1 . {\displaystyle E=PRMLUL^{-1}M^{-1}R^{-1}P^{-1}.}
After each key press, the rotors turn, changing the transformation. For example, if the right-hand rotor R {\displaystyle R} is rotated i {\displaystyle i} positions, the transformation becomes ρ i R ρ − i {\displaystyle \rho ^{i}R\rho ^{-i}} , where ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is the cyclic permutation mapping A to B, B to C, and so forth. Similarly, the middle and left-hand rotors can be represented as j {\displaystyle j} and k {\displaystyle k} rotations of M {\displaystyle M} and L {\displaystyle L} . The encryption transformation can then be described as
E = P ( ρ i R ρ − i ) ( ρ j M ρ − j ) ( ρ k L ρ − k ) U ( ρ k L − 1 ρ − k ) ( ρ j M − 1 ρ − j ) ( ρ i R − 1 ρ − i ) P − 1 . {\displaystyle E=P(\rho ^{i}R\rho ^{-i})(\rho ^{j}M\rho ^{-j})(\rho ^{k}L\rho ^{-k})U(\rho ^{k}L^{-1}\rho ^{-k})(\rho ^{j}M^{-1}\rho ^{-j})(\rho ^{i}R^{-1}\rho ^{-i})P^{-1}.}
Combining three rotors from a set of five, the rotor settings with 26 positions, and the plugboard with ten pairs of letters connected, the military Enigma has 158,962,555,217,826,360,000 (nearly 159 quintillion) different settings.[16]
Operation[edit]
Basic operation[edit]
Play media
Enciphering and deciphering using an enigma machine
A German Enigma operator would be given a plaintext message to encrypt. For each letter typed in, a lamp indicated a different letter according to a pseudo-random substitution, based upon the wiring of the machine. The letter indicated by the lamp would be recorded as the enciphered substitution. The action of pressing a key also moved the rotor so that the next key press used a different electrical pathway, and thus a different substitution would occur. For each key press there was rotation of at least the right hand rotor, giving a different substitution alphabet. This continued for each letter in the message until the message was completed and a series of substitutions, each different from the others, had occurred to create a cyphertext from the plaintext. The cyphertext would then be transmitted as normal to an operator of another Enigma machine. This operator would key in the cyphertext and—as long as all the settings of the deciphering machine were identical to those of the enciphering machine—for every key press the reverse substitution would occur and the plaintext message would emerge.
Details[edit]
German Kenngruppenheft (a U-boat codebook with grouped key codes)
Monthly key list Number 649 for the German Air Force Enigma, including settings for the reconfigurable reflector.
In use, the Enigma required a list of daily key settings and auxiliary documents. In German military practice, communications were divided into separate networks, each using different settings. These communication nets were termed keys at Bletchley Park, and were assigned code names, such as Red, Chaffinch, and Shark. Each unit operating in a network was given the same settings list for its Enigma, valid for a period of time. The procedures for German Naval Enigma were more elaborate and more secure than those in other services and employed auxiliary codebooks. Navy codebooks were printed in red, water-soluble ink on pink paper so that they could easily be destroyed if they were endangered.
An Enigma machine's setting (its cryptographic key in modern terms; Schlüssel in German) specified each operator-adjustable aspect of the machine:
Wheel order (Walzenlage) – the choice of rotors and the order in which they are fitted.
Ring settings (Ringstellung) – the position of each alphabet ring relative to its rotor wiring.
Plug connections (Steckerverbindungen) – the pairs of letters in the plugboard that are connected together.
In very late versions, the wiring of the reconfigurable reflector.
Starting position of the rotors (Grundstellung) – chosen by the operator, should be different for each message.
For a message to be correctly encrypted and decrypted, both sender and receiver had to configure their Enigma in the same way; rotor selection and order, ring positions, plugboard connections and starting rotor positions must be identical. Except for the starting positions, these settings were established beforehand, distributed in key lists and changed daily. For example, the settings for the 18th day of the month in the German Luftwaffe Enigma key list number 649 (see image) were as follows:
Wheel order: IV, II, V
Ring settings: 15, 23, 26
Plugboard connections: EJ OY IV AQ KW FX MT PS LU BD
Reconfigurable reflector wiring: IU AS DV GL FT OX EZ CH MR KN BQ PW
Indicator groups: lsa zbw vcj rxn
Enigma was designed to be secure even if the rotor wiring was known to an opponent, although in practice considerable effort protected the wiring configuration. If the wiring is secret, the total number of possible configurations has been calculated to be around 3 x 10114 (approximately 380 bits); with known wiring and other operational constraints, this is reduced to around 1023 (76 bits).[17] Users of Enigma were confident of its security because of the large number of possibilities; it was not then feasible for an adversary to even begin to try a brute force attack.
Indicator[edit]
See also: Cryptanalysis § Indicator
Most of the key was kept constant for a set time period, typically a day. A different initial rotor position was used for each message, a concept similar to an initialisation vector in modern cryptography. The reason is that encrypting many messages with identical or near-identical settings (termed in cryptanalysis as being in depth), would enable an attack using a statistical procedure such as Friedman's Index of coincidence.[18] The starting position for the rotors was transmitted just before the ciphertext, usually after having been enciphered. The exact method used was termed the indicator procedure. Design weakness and operator sloppiness in these indicator procedures were two of the main weaknesses that made cracking Enigma possible.
Figure 2. With the inner lid down, the Enigma was ready for use. The finger wheels of the rotors protruded through the lid, allowing the operator to set the rotors, and their current position, here RDKP, was visible to the operator through a set of windows.
One of the earliest indicator procedures was used by Polish cryptanalysts to make the initial breaks into the Enigma. The procedure was for the operator to set up his machine in accordance with his settings list, which included a global initial position for the rotors (the Grundstellung, meaning ground setting), say, AOH. The operator turned his rotors until AOH was visible through the rotor windows. At that point, the operator chose his own arbitrary starting position for that particular message. An operator might select EIN, and these became the message settings for that encryption session. The operator then typed EIN into the machine, twice, to allow for detection of transmission errors. The results were an encrypted indicator—the EIN typed twice might turn into XHTLOA, which would be transmitted along with the message. Finally, the operator then spun the rotors to his message settings, EIN in this example, and typed the plaintext of the message.
At the receiving end, the operation was reversed. The operator set the machine to the initial settings and typed in the first six letters of the message (XHTLOA). In this example, EINEIN emerged on the lamps. After moving his rotors to EIN, the receiving operator then typed in the rest of the ciphertext, deciphering the message.
The weakness in this indicator scheme came from two factors. First, use of a global ground setting—this was later changed so the operator selected his initial position to encrypt the indicator, and sent the initial position in the clear. The second problem was the repetition of the indicator, which was a serious security flaw. The message setting was encoded twice, resulting in a relation between first and fourth, second and fifth, and third and sixth character. This security problem enabled the Polish Cipher Bureau to break into the pre-war Enigma system as early as 1932. In 1940 the Germans changed procedure.
During World War II, codebooks were only used each day to set up the rotors, their ring settings and the plugboard. For each message, the operator selected a random start position, let's say WZA, and a random message key, perhaps SXT. He moved the rotors to the WZA start position and encoded the message key SXT. Assume the result was UHL. He then set up the message key, SXT, as the start position and encrypted the message. Next, he transmitted the start position, WZA, the encoded message key, UHL, and then the ciphertext. The receiver set up the start position according to the first trigram, WZA, and decoded the second trigram, UHL, to obtain the SXT message setting. Next, he used this SXT message setting as the start position to decrypt the message. This way, each ground setting was different and the new procedure avoided the security flaw of double encoded message settings.[19]
This procedure was used by Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe only. The Kriegsmarine procedures on sending messages with the Enigma were far more complex and elaborate. Prior to encryption the message was encoded using the Kurzsignalheft code book. The Kurzsignalheft contained tables to convert sentences into four-letter groups. A great many choices were included, for example, logistic matters such as refueling and rendezvous with supply ships, positions and grid lists, harbour names, countries, weapons, weather conditions, enemy positions and ships, date and time tables. Another codebook contained the Kenngruppen and Spruchschlüssel: the key identification and message key.[20]
Additional details[edit]
The Army Enigma machine used only the 26 alphabet characters. Punctuation was replaced with rare character combinations. A space was omitted or replaced with an X. The X was generally used as period or full-stop.
Some punctuation marks were different in other parts of the armed forces. The Wehrmacht replaced a comma with ZZ and the question mark with FRAGE or FRAQ.
The Kriegsmarine replaced the comma with Y and the question mark with UD. The combination CH, as in "Acht" (eight) or "Richtung" (direction), was replaced with Q (AQT, RIQTUNG). Two, three and four zeros were replaced with CENTA, MILLE and MYRIA.
The Wehrmacht and the Luftwaffe transmitted messages in groups of five characters.
The Kriegsmarine, using the four rotor Enigma, had four-character groups. Frequently used names or words were varied as much as possible. Words like Minensuchboot (minesweeper) could be written as MINENSUCHBOOT, MINBOOT, MMMBOOT or MMM354. To make cryptanalysis harder, messages were limited to 250 characters. Longer messages were divided into several parts, each using a different message key.[21][22]
History[edit]
The Enigma family included multiple designs. The earliest were commercial models dating from the early 1920s. Starting in the mid-1920s, the German military began to use Enigma, making a number of security-related changes. Various nations either adopted or adapted the design for their own cipher machines.
A selection of seven Enigma machines and paraphernalia exhibited at the US National Cryptologic Museum. From left to right, the models are: 1) Commercial Enigma; 2) Enigma T; 3) Enigma G; 4) Unidentified; 5) Luftwaffe (Air Force) Enigma; 6) Heer (Army) Enigma; 7) Kriegsmarine (Naval) Enigma—M4.
An estimated 100,000 Enigma machines were constructed. After the end of World War II, the Allies sold captured Enigma machines, still widely considered secure, to developing countries.[23]
Commercial Enigma[edit]
Scherbius's Enigma patent—U.S. Patent 1,657,411, granted in 1928.
On 23 February 1918, Arthur Scherbius with E. Richard Ritter applied for a patent for a ciphering machine that used rotors and founded the firm of Scherbius & Ritter. They approached the German Navy and Foreign Office with their design, but neither agencies were interested. Scherbius & Ritter then assigned the patent rights to Gewerkschaft Securitas, who founded the Chiffriermaschinen Aktien-Gesellschaft (Cipher Machines Stock Corporation) on 9 July 1923; Scherbius and Ritter were on the board of directors.
Enigma A (1923)[edit]
Chiffriermaschinen AG began advertising a rotor machine—Enigma model A—which was exhibited at the Congress of the International Postal Union in 1924. The machine was heavy and bulky, incorporating a typewriter. It measured 65×45×38 cm and weighed about 50 kilograms (110 lb).
Enigma B (1924)[edit]
In 1924 Enigma model B was introduced, and was of a similar construction.[24] While bearing the Enigma name, both models A and B were quite unlike later versions: they differed in physical size and shape, but also cryptographically, in that they lacked the reflector.
Enigma C (1926)[edit]
The reflector—suggested by Scherbius's colleague Willi Korn—was introduced in Enigma C (1926).
Model C was smaller and more portable than its predecessors. It lacked a typewriter, relying on the operator; hence the informal name of "glowlamp Enigma" to distinguish it from models A and B.
Enigma D (1927)[edit]
The Enigma C quickly gave way to Enigma D (1927). This version was widely used, with shipments to Sweden, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, Japan, Italy, Spain, United States and Poland. In 1927 Hugh Foss at the British Government Code and Cypher School was able to show that commercial Enigma machines could be broken provided that suitable cribs were available.[25]
"Navy Cipher D" – Italian Navy[edit]
Other countries used Enigma machines. The Italian Navy adopted the commercial Enigma as "Navy Cipher D". The Spanish also used commercial Enigma during their Civil War. British codebreakers succeeded in breaking these machines, which lacked a plugboard.[26] Enigma were also used by diplomatic services.
Enigma H (1929)[edit]
A rare 8-rotor printing Enigma model H (1929).
There was also a large, eight-rotor printing model, the Enigma H, called Enigma II by the Reichswehr. In 1933 the Polish Cipher Bureau detected that it was in use for high-level military communications, but that it was soon withdrawn, as it was unreliable and jammed frequently.[27]
Enigma K[edit]
The Swiss used a version of Enigma called model K or Swiss K for military and diplomatic use, which was very similar to commercial Enigma D. The machine was cracked by Poland, France, the United Kingdom and the United States (the latter codenamed it INDIGO). An Enigma T model (codenamed Tirpitz) was used by Japan.
Typex[edit]
Once the British broke the Enigma, they fixed the problem with it and created their own, which the Germans believed to be unsolvable.[28]
Military Enigma[edit]
Funkschlüssel C[edit]
The Reichsmarine was the first military branch to adopt Enigma. This version, named Funkschlüssel C ("Radio cipher C"), had been put into production by 1925 and was introduced into service in 1926.[29]
The keyboard and lampboard contained 29 letters—A-Z, Ä, Ö and Ü—which were arranged alphabetically, as opposed to the QWERTZUI ordering.[30] The rotors had 28 contacts, with the letter X wired to bypass the rotors unencrypted.[8] 3 rotors were chosen from a set of five[31] and the reflector could be inserted in one of four different positions, denoted α, β, γ and δ.[32] The machine was revised slightly in July 1933.[33]
Enigma G (1928–1930)[edit]
By 15 July 1928,[34] the German Army (Reichswehr) had introduced their own exclusive version of the Enigma machine; the Enigma G.
The Abwehr used the Enigma G (the Abwehr Enigma). This Enigma variant was a four-wheel unsteckered machine with multiple notches on the rotors. This model was equipped with a counter which incremented upon each key press, and so is also known as the "counter machine" or the Zählwerk Enigma.
Wehrmacht Enigma I (1930–1938)[edit]
Enigma machine G was modified to the Enigma I by June 1930.[35] Enigma I is also known as the Wehrmacht, or "Services" Enigma, and was used extensively by German military services and other government organisations (such as the railways[36]) before and during World War II.
Heinz Guderian in the Battle of France, with an Enigma machine
The major difference between Enigma I (German Army version from 1930), and commercial Enigma models was the addition of a plugboard to swap pairs of letters, greatly increasing cryptographic strength.
Other differences included the use of a fixed reflector and the relocation of the stepping notches from the rotor body to the movable letter rings. The machine measured 28 cm × 34 cm × 15 cm (11.0 in × 13.4 in × 5.9 in) and weighed around 12 kg (26 lb).[37]
In August 1935, the Air Force introduced the Wehrmacht Enigma for their communications.[35]
M3 (1934)[edit]
By 1930, the Reichswehr had suggested that the Navy adopt their machine, citing the benefits of increased security (with the plugboard) and easier interservice communications.[38] The Reichsmarine eventually agreed and in 1934[39] brought into service the Navy version of the Army Enigma, designated Funkschlüssel ' or M3. While the Army used only three rotors at that time, the Navy specified a choice of three from a possible five.[40]
Enigma in use on the Russian front
Two extra rotors (1938)[edit]
In December 1938, the Army issued two extra rotors so that the three rotors were chosen from a set of five.[35] In 1938, the Navy added two more rotors, and then another in 1939 to allow a choice of three rotors from a set of eight.[40]
M4 (1942)[edit]
See also: German Navy 4-rotor Enigma
A four-rotor Enigma was introduced by the Navy for U-boat traffic on 1 February 1942, called M4 (the network was known as Triton, or Shark to the Allies). The extra rotor was fitted in the same space by splitting the reflector into a combination of a thin reflector and a thin fourth rotor.
Enigma G, used by the Abwehr, had four rotors, no plugboard, and multiple notches on the rotors.
The German-made Enigma-K used by the Swiss Army had three rotors and a reflector, but no plugboard. It had locally re-wired rotors and an additional lamp panel.
An Enigma model T (Tirpitz)—a modified commercial Enigma K manufactured for use by the Japanese.
An Enigma machine in the UK's Imperial War Museum
Enigma in use in Russia (image Bundesarchiv)
Enigma
Breaking Enigma[edit]
Main article: Cryptanalysis of the Enigma
Surviving machines[edit]
US Enigma replica on display at the National Cryptologic Museum in Fort Meade, Maryland, USA.
The effort to break the Enigma was not disclosed until the 1970s. Since then, interest in the Enigma machine has grown. Enigmas are on public display in museums around the world, and several are in the hands of private collectors and computer history enthusiasts.[41]
The Deutsches Museum in Munich has both the three- and four-rotor German military variants, as well as several civilian versions. Enigma machines are exhibited at the National Codes Centre in Bletchley Park, the Government Communications Headquarters, the Science Museum in London, the Polish Army Museum in Warsaw, the Swedish Army Museum (Armémuseum) in Stockholm, the Military Museum of A Coruña in Spain, the Nordland Red Cross War Memorial Museum in Narvik,[42] Norway, The Artillery, Engineers and Signals Museum in Hämeenlinna, Finland[43] the Technical University of Denmark in Lyngby, Denmark, and at the Australian War Memorial and in the foyer of the Defence Signals Directorate, both in Canberra, Australia. The Jozef Pilsudski Institute in London exhibits a rare Polish Enigma double assembled in France in 1940.[44][45]
A four–rotor Kriegsmarine (German Navy, 1. February 1942 to 1945) Enigma machine on display at the US National Cryptologic Museum
In the United States, Enigma machines can be seen at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, and at the National Security Agency's National Cryptologic Museum in Fort Meade, Maryland, where visitors can try their hand at enciphering and deciphering messages. Two machines that were acquired after the capture of U-505 during World War II are on display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois. A four rotor device is on display in the ANZUS Corridor of the Pentagon on the second floor, A ring, between corridors 9 and 10. This machine is on loan from Australia. The United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs has a machine on display in the Computer Science Department. There's also a machine located at the National World War II Museum in New Orleans. The Museum of World War II in Boston has seven Enigma machines on display, including a U-Boat four-rotor model, one of three surviving examples of an Enigma machine with a printer, one of fewer than ten surviving ten-rotor code machines, an example blown up by a retreating German Army unit, and two three-rotor Enigmas that visitors can operate to encode and decode messages themselves.
In Canada, a Swiss Army issue Enigma-K, is in Calgary, Alberta. It is on permanent display at the Naval Museum of Alberta inside the Military Museums of Calgary. A 4-rotor Enigma machine is on display at the Military Communications and Electronics Museum at Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Kingston in Kingston, Ontario.
Occasionally, Enigma machines are sold at auction; prices have in recent years ranged from US$40,000[46][47] to US$547,500[48] in 2017. Replicas are available in various forms, including an exact reconstructed copy of the Naval M4 model, an Enigma implemented in electronics (Enigma-E), various simulators and paper-and-scissors analogues.
A rare Abwehr Enigma machine, designated G312, was stolen from the Bletchley Park museum on 1 April 2000. In September, a man identifying himself as "The Master" sent a note demanding £25,000 and threatening to destroy the machine if the ransom was not paid. In early October 2000, Bletchley Park officials announced that they would pay the ransom, but the stated deadline passed with no word from the blackmailer. Shortly afterward, the machine was sent anonymously to BBC journalist Jeremy Paxman, missing three rotors.
In November 2000, an antiques dealer named Dennis Yates was arrested after telephoning The Sunday Times to arrange the return of the missing parts. The Enigma machine was returned to Bletchley Park after the incident. In October 2001, Yates was sentenced to 10 months in prison and served three months.[49]
In October 2008, the Spanish daily newspaper El País reported that 28 Enigma machines had been discovered by chance in an attic of Army headquarters in Madrid. These 4-rotor commercial machines had helped Franco's Nationalists win the Spanish Civil War because, though the British cryptologist Alfred Dilwyn Knox in 1937 broke the cipher generated by Franco's Enigma machines, this was not disclosed to the Republicans, who failed to break the cipher. The Nationalist government continued using its 50 Enigmas into the 1950s. Some machines have gone on display in Spanish military museums,[50][51] including one at the National Museum of Science and Technology (MUNCYT) in La Coruña. Two have been given to Britain's GCHQ.[52]
The Bulgarian military used Enigma machines with a Cyrillic keyboard; one is on display in the National Museum of Military History in Sofia.[53]
Derivatives[edit]
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Enigma was influential in the field of cipher machine design, spinning off other rotor machines. The British Typex was originally derived from the Enigma patents; Typex even includes features from the patent descriptions that were omitted from the actual Enigma machine. The British paid no royalties for the use of the patents, to protect secrecy. The Typex implementation is not the same as that found in German or other Axis versions.
A Japanese Enigma clone was codenamed GREEN by American cryptographers. Little used, it contained four rotors mounted vertically. In the U.S., cryptologist William Friedman designed the M-325, a machine logically similar, although not in construction.
A unique rotor machine was constructed in 2002 by Netherlands-based Tatjana van Vark. This device makes use of 40-point rotors, allowing letters, numbers and some punctuation to be used; each rotor contains 509 parts.[54]
Machines like the SIGABA, NEMA, Typex and so forth, are deliberately not considered to be Enigma derivatives as their internal ciphering functions are not mathematically identical to the Enigma transform.
Several software implementations exist, but not all exactly match Enigma behaviour. The most commonly used software derivative (that is not compliant with any hardware implementation of the Enigma) is at EnigmaCo.de. Many Java applet Enigmas only accept single letter entry, complicating use even if the applet is Enigma compliant. Technically, Enigma@home is the largest scale deployment of a software Enigma, but the decoding software does not implement encipherment making it a derivative (as all original machines could cipher and decipher).
A user-friendly 3-rotor simulator, where users can select rotors, use the plugboard and define new settings for the rotors and reflectors is available.[55] The output appears in separate windows which can be independently made "invisible" to hide decryption.[56] Another includes an "autotyping" function which takes plaintext from a clipboard and converts it to cyphertext (or vice versa) at one of four speeds. The "very fast" option produces 26 characters in less than one second.[57]
A Japanese Enigma clone, codenamed GREEN by American cryptographers.
Tatjana van Vark's Enigma-inspired rotor machine.
Electronic implementation of an Enigma machine, sold at the Bletchley Park souvenir shop
Simulators[edit]
Name
Platform
Machine types
Uhr
UKW-D
Franklin Heath Enigma Simulator[58] Android K Railway, Kriegsmarine M3,M4 No No
EnigmAndroid[59] Android Wehrmacht I, Kriegsmarine M3, M4, Abwehr G31, G312, G260, D, K, Swiss-K, KD, R, T No No
Andy Carlson Enigma Applet (Standalone Version)[60] Java Kriegsmarine M3, M4 No No
Minarke (Minarke Is Not A Real Kriegsmarine Enigma)[61] C/Posix/CLI (MacOS, Linux, UNIX, etc.) Wehrmacht, Kriegsmarine, M3, M4 No No
Russell Schwager Enigma Simulator[62] Java Kriegsmarine M3 No No
PA3DBJ G-312 Enigma Simulator[63] Javascript G312 Abwehr No No
Daniel Palloks Universal Enigma[64] Javascript Wehrmacht, Kriegsmarine M3, M4. D (commercial), K (Swiss), Railway, Tirpitz (Japan), A-865 Zählwerk, G-111 Hungary/Munich, G-260 Abwehr/Argentina, G-312 Abwehr/Bletchley Yes No
Universal Enigma Machine Simulator[65] Javascript D, I, Norway, M3, M4, Zählwerk, G, G-111, G-260, G-312, K, Swiss-K, KD, Railway, T Yes Yes
Terry Long Enigma Simulator[66] MacOS Kriegsmarine M3 No No
Paul Reuvers Enigma Simulator for RISC OS[67] RISC OS Kriegsmarine M3, M4, G-312 Abwehr No No
Dirk Rijmenants Enigma Simulator v7.0[68] Windows Wehrmacht, Kriegsmarine M3, M4 No No
Frode Weierud Enigma Simulators[69] Windows Abwehr, Kriegsmarine M3, M4, Railway No No
In popular culture[edit]
Literature
Hugh Whitemore's play, Breaking the Code (1986), focuses on the life and death of Alan Turing, who was the central force in continuing to break the Enigma code in the United Kingdom, during World War II. Turing was played by Derek Jacobi, who also played Turing in a 1996 television adaptation of the play.
Robert Harris' novel Enigma (1995) is set against the backdrop of World War II Bletchley Park and cryptologists working to read Naval Enigma in Hut 8.
Neal Stephenson's novel Cryptonomicon (1999) prominently features the Enigma machine and efforts to break it, and portrays the German U-boat command under Karl Dönitz using it in apparently deliberate ignorance of its penetration.
Films
Sekret Enigmy (1979; translation: The Enigma Secret), is a Polish film dealing with Polish aspects of the subject.[70]
The plot of the film U-571 (released in 2000) revolves around an attempt by American, rather than British, forces to seize an Enigma machine from a German U-boat.
Harris' book, with substantial changes in plot, was adapted as the film Enigma (2001), directed by Michael Apted and starring Kate Winslet and Dougray Scott. The film was criticised for historical inaccuracies, including neglect of the role of Poland's Biuro Szyfrów. The film—like the book—makes a Pole the villain, who seeks to betray the secret of Enigma decryption.[71]
The film The Imitation Game (2014) tells the story of Alan Turing and his attempts to crack the Enigma machine code during World War II.[41]
Television
In the British television series The Bletchley Circle, the Typex was used by the protagonists during the war, and in Season 2, Episode 4, they visit Bletchley Park to seek one out, in order to crack the code of the black market procurer and smuggler Marta, who used the Typex to encode her ledger. The Circle, forced to settle for using an Enigma, instead, successfully cracks the code.
In season 5, episode 23 ("Scrambled") of the American television series Elementary a drug smuggling gang uses a four-rotor Enigma machine as part of their effort to encrypt their communications.
See also[edit]
Beaumanor Hall, a stately home used during the Second World War for military intelligence
Joan Clarke
Erich Fellgiebel
Gisbert Hasenjaeger—responsible for Enigma security
Fritz Thiele
United States Naval Computing Machine Laboratory
Arlington Hall
Enigma - disambiguation page
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Singh, Simon (26 January 2011). The Code Book: The Science of Secrecy from Ancient Egypt to Quantum Cryptography. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-78784-2.
Jump up ^ Lord, Bob (1998–2010). "1937 Enigma Manual by: Jasper Rosal – English Translation". Retrieved 31 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Kozaczuk 1984, p. 63.
Jump up ^ Ralph Erskine: The Poles Reveal their Secrets – Alastair Dennistons's Account of the July 1939 Meeting at Pyry. Cryptologia. Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology. Taylor & Francis, Philadelphia PA 30.2006,4, p. 294.
Jump up ^ Gordon Welchman, who became head of Hut 6 at Bletchley Park, has written: "Hut 6 Ultra would never have gotten off the ground if we had not learned from the Poles, in the nick of time, the details both of the German military version of the commercial Enigma machine, and of the operating procedures that were in use." Gordon Welchman, The Hut Six Story, 1982, p. 289.
Jump up ^ Much of the German cipher traffic was encrypted on the Enigma machine, and the term "Ultra" has often been used almost synonymously with "Enigma decrypts". Ultra also encompassed decrypts of the German Lorenz SZ 40 and 42 machines that were used by the German High Command, and decrypts of Hagelin ciphers and other Italian ciphers and codes, as well as of Japanese ciphers and codes such as Purple and JN-25.
Jump up ^ Kahn 1991.
^ Jump up to: a b Stripp 1993.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rijmenants, Dirk; Technical details of the Enigma machine Cipher Machines & Cryptology
^ Jump up to: a b c Hamer, David (January 1997). "Enigma: Actions Involved in the 'Double-Stepping' of the Middle Rotor". Cryptologia. 21 (1): 47–50. doi:10.1080/0161-119791885779. Archived from the original (zip) on 19 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Sale, Tony. "Technical specifications of the Enigma rotors". Technical Specification of the Enigma. Retrieved 15 November 2009.
Jump up ^ "Lückenfüllerwalze". Cryptomuseum.com. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Philip Marks, "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part I", Cryptologia 25(2), April 2001, pp. 101–141
Jump up ^ Reuvers, Paul (2008). "Enigma accessories". Retrieved 22 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Rejewski 1980.
Jump up ^ 158,962,555,217,826,360,000 – Numberphile on YouTube
Jump up ^ Miller, A. Ray (2001). "The Cryptographic Mathematics of Enigma" (PDF). National Security Agency.
Jump up ^ Friedman, W.F. (1922). The index of coincidence and its applications in cryptology. Department of Ciphers. Publ 22. Geneva, Illinois, USA: Riverbank Laboratories. OCLC 55786052.
Jump up ^ Rijmenants, Dirk; Enigma message procedures Cipher Machines & Cryptology
Jump up ^ Rijmenants, Dirk; Kurzsignalen on German U-boats Cipher Machines & Cryptology
Jump up ^ "The translated 1940 Enigma General Procedure". codesandciphers.org.uk. Retrieved 16 October 2006.
Jump up ^ "The translated 1940 Enigma Officer and Staff Procedure". codesandciphers.org.uk. Retrieved 16 October 2006.
Jump up ^ Bauer 2000, p. 112.
Jump up ^ "image of Enigma Type B". Archived from the original on 21 October 2005.
Jump up ^ Bletchley Park Trust Museum display
Jump up ^ Smith 2006, p. 23.
Jump up ^ Kozaczuk 1984, p. 28.
Jump up ^ Numberphile (2013-01-14), Flaw in the Enigma Code - Numberphile, retrieved 2017-02-14
Jump up ^ Kahn 1991, pp. 39–41, 299.
Jump up ^ Ulbricht 2005, p. 4.
Jump up ^ Kahn 1991, pp. 40, 299.
Jump up ^ Bauer 2000, p. 108.
Jump up ^ Stripp 1993, plate 3.
Jump up ^ Kahn 1991, pp. 41, 299.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kruh & Deavours 2002, p. 97.
Jump up ^ Smith 2000, p. 73.
Jump up ^ Stripp, 1993
Jump up ^ Kahn 1991, p. 43.
Jump up ^ Kahn 1991, p. 43 says August 1934. Kruh & Deavours 2002, p. 15 say October 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b Kruh & Deavours 2002, p. 98.
^ Jump up to: a b Ng, David. "Enigma machine from World War II finds unlikely home in Beverly Hills". Los Angeles Times. 22 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "War Museum".
Jump up ^ "The National Signals Museum".
Jump up ^ "Enigma exhibition in London pays tribute to Poles". Polskie Radio dla Zagranicy. Retrieved 2016-04-05.
Jump up ^ "13 March 2016, ‘Enigma Relay’– how Poles passed the baton to Brits in the run for WWII victory,". pilsudski.org.uk. Retrieved 2016-04-05.
Jump up ^ Hamer, David; Enigma machines – known locations* Archived 4 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Hamer, David; Selling prices of Enigma and NEMA – all prices converted to US$ Archived 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Christi's; 4 Rotor enigma auction
Jump up ^ "Man jailed over Enigma machine". BBC News. 19 October 2001. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Graham Keeley. Nazi Enigma machines helped General Franco in Spanish Civil War, The Times, 24 October 2008, p. 47.
Jump up ^ "Taller de Criptografía – Enigmas españolas". Cripto.es. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Schneier on Security: Rare Spanish Enigma Machine". Schneier.com. 26 March 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Communication equipment". znam.bg. 29 November 2003.
Jump up ^ van Vark, Tatjana The coding machine
Jump up ^ 3 rotor download
Jump up ^ Enigma at Multimania
Jump up ^ Autotype download
Jump up ^ Franklin Heath Ltd. "Enigma Simulator – Android Apps on Google Play". google.com.
Jump up ^ "F-Droid". f-droid.org.
Jump up ^ Andy Carlson, Enigma Applet (Standalone Version)
Jump up ^ John Gilbert, Minarke – A Terminal Friendly Enigma Emulator
Jump up ^ Russell Schwager, Enigma Simulator Russell Schwager Enigma Simulator
Jump up ^ PA3DBJ G-312, Enigma Simulator
Jump up ^ Daniel Palloks,Universal Enigma
Jump up ^ Summerside Makerspace,Universal Enigma Machine Simulator
Jump up ^ Terry Long, Enigma Simulator
Jump up ^ Paul Reuvers, Enigma Simulator for RISC OS
Jump up ^ Dirk Rijmenants, Enigma Simulator v7.0
Jump up ^ Frode Weierud Enigma Simulators
Jump up ^ Enigma machine on IMDb
Jump up ^ Laurence Peter (20 July 2009). "How Poles cracked Nazi Enigma secret". BBC News.
Bibliography[edit]
Bauer, F. L. (2000). Decrypted Secrets (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 3-540-66871-3.
Hamer, David H.; Sullivan, Geoff; Weierud, Frode (July 1998). "Enigma Variations: An Extended Family of Machines" (PDF). Cryptologia. Abingdon: Taylor & Francis. XXII (3). ISSN 0161-1194. Retrieved 18 February 2016.
Stripp, Alan (1993). Hinsley, F. H.; Stripp, Alan, eds. The Enigma Machine: Its Mechanism and Use. Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park.
Kahn, David (1991). Seizing the Enigma: The Race to Break the German U-Boats Codes, 1939–1943. ISBN 0-395-42739-8.
Kozaczuk, Władysław (1984). Kasparek, Christopher, ed. Enigma: How the German Machine Cipher Was Broken, and How It Was Read by the Allies in World War Two. Frederick, MD: University Publications of America. ISBN 0-89093-547-5.
Kozaczuk, Władysław. "The origins of the Enigma/ULTRA". Archived from the original on 17 July 2003.
Kruh, L.; Deavours, C. (2002). "The Commercial Enigma: Beginnings of Machine Cryptography". Cryptologia. 26: 1–16. doi:10.1080/0161-110291890731.
Marks, Philip; Weierud, Frode (2000). "Recovering the Wiring of Enigma's Umkehrwalze A" (PDF). Cryptologia. 24 (1): 55–66. doi:10.1080/0161-110091888781.
Rejewski, Marian (1980). "An Application of the Theory of Permutations in Breaking the Enigma Cipher". Applicationes mathematicae. 16 (4). ISSN 1730-6280.
Smith, Michael (2000). Station X: The Codebreakers of Bletchley Park. Pan. ISBN 0-7522-7148-2.
Smith, Michael (2006). "How it began: Bletchley Park Goes to War". In Copeland, B Jack. Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-284055-4.
Ulbricht, Heinz (2005). "Die Chiffriermaschine Enigma — Trügerische Sicherheit: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Nachrichtendienste" [The Enigma Cipher Machine — Deceptive Security: A contribution to the history of intelligence services] (PDF). PhD Thesis (in German).
Further reading[edit]
Aldrich, Richard James (2010). GCHQ: The Uncensored Story of Britain's Most Secret Intelligence Agency. HarperPress. ISBN 978-0-00-727847-3.
Bertrand, Gustave (1973). Enigma: ou, La plus grande énigme de la guerre 1939–1945. Plon.
Calvocoressi, Peter (2001). Top Secret Ultra. M & M Baldwin. pp. 98–103. ISBN 978-0-947712-41-9.
Grime, James. "Enigma – 158,962,555,217,826,360,000". Numberphile. Brady Haran.
Grime, James. "The Enigma Flaw". Numberphile. Brady Haran.
Heath, Nick, Hacking the Nazis: The secret story of the women who broke Hitler's codes TechRepublic, 27 March 2015
Herivel, John (2008). Herivelismus: And the German Military Enigma. M & M Baldwin.
Keen, John (1 August 2012). Harold 'Doc' Keen and the Bletchley Park Bombe. M & M Baldwin. ISBN 978-0-947712-48-8.
Large, Christine (6 October 2003). Hijacking Enigma: The Insider's Tale. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-86346-6.
Marks, Philip. "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector—Part I", Cryptologia 25(2), April 2001, pp. 101–141.
Marks, Philip. "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector—Part II", Cryptologia 25(3), July 2001, pp. 177–212.
Marks, Philip. "Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector—Part III", Cryptologia 25(4), October 2001, pp. 296–310.
Paillole, Paul (1985). Notre espion chez Hitler [Our Spy with Hitler] (in French). Robert Laffont.
Perera, Tom (2010). Inside ENIGMA. Bedford, UK: Radio Society of Great Britain. ISBN 978-1-905086-64-1.
Perera, Tom. The Story of the ENIGMA: History, Technology and Deciphering, 2nd Edition, CD-ROM, 2004, Artifax Books, ISBN 1-890024-06-6 sample pages
Rebecca Ratcliffe: Searching for Security. The German Investigations into Enigma's security. In: Intelligence and National Security 14 (1999) Issue 1 (Special Issue) S. 146–167.
Ratcliffe, Rebecca (1 January 2005). Winkel, Brian J., ed. How Statistics led the Germans to believe Enigma Secure and Why They Were Wrong: neglecting the practical Mathematics of Cipher machines. The German Enigma Cipher Machine: Beginnings, Success, and Ultimate Failure. Artech House. ISBN 978-1-58053-996-8.
Rejewski, Marian. [1] How Polish Mathematicians Deciphered the Enigma", Annals of the History of Computing 3, 1981. This article is regarded by Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing's biographer, as "the definitive account" (see Hodges' Alan Turing: The Enigma, Walker and Company, 2000 paperback edition, p. 548, footnote 4.5).
Quirantes, Arturo (April 2004). "Model Z: A Numbers-Only Enigma Version". Cryptologia. 28 (=2): 153–156. doi:10.1080/0161-110491892845.
Sebag-Montefiore, Hugh (2011). Enigma: The Battle For The Code. Orion. ISBN 978-1-78022-123-6.
Ulbricht, Heinz. Enigma Uhr, Cryptologia, 23(3), April 1999, pp. 194–205.
Welchman, Gordon (1982). The Hut Six Story: Breaking the Enigma Codes. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-069180-3.
Winterbotham, F. W. (1999). The Ultra Secret. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-64405-7.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Enigma machine.
Gordon Corera, Poland's overlooked Enigma codebreakers, BBC News Magazine, 4 July 2014
Long-running list of places to visit a unit in the real world
Bletchley Park National Code Centre Home of the British codebreakers during the Second World War
Enigma machines on the Crypto Museum website
Pictures of a four-rotor naval enigma, including Flash (SWF) views of the machine
Enigma Pictures and Demonstration by NSA Employee at RSA
Enigma machine at DMOZ
Kenngruppenheft
Process of building an Enigma M4 replica
Breaking German Navy Ciphers
An online Enigma Machine simulator
Enigma simulation
Enigma Simulator APK
Universal Enigma simulator
Public Enigma Simulator – Java simulator, including 13 Enigma machine variations
v
t
e
Classical cryptography
Ciphers
by family
Caesar
Affine (Atbash)
ROT13
Null
Null cipher (Null encryption)
One time pad
Book
One-time pad
Polybius square
ADFGVX
Bifid
Tap code
3D (Trifid: Nihilist and VIC cipher)
Square
Two-square
Four-square
Substitution cipher
Autokey
Chaocipher
Great
Hill
Keyword
Running key
Transposition cipher
Rail fence cipher
Other
Alberti
BATCO (Slidex)
Beaufort
Dvorak
Enigma
Elian
Kama Sutra
Navajo code
Pigpen
Playfair
Polyalphabetic
Rasterschlüssel 44
Reihenschieber
Reservehandverfahren
Scytale
Smithy code
Solitaire
Straddling checkerboard
Tabula recta
Transposition
Trithemius
Vigenère
Cryptanalysis
Frequency analysis
Index of coincidence (Units: Ban and Nat)
Information leakage
Kasiski examination
Miscellaneous
Cryptogram
Bacon
Scytale
[show]
v
t
e
Cryptography
History of cryptography
Cryptanalysis
Outline of cryptography
Symmetric-key algorithm
Block cipher
Stream cipher
Public-key cryptography
Cryptographic hash function
Message authentication code
Random numbers
Steganography
Category
Portal
WikiProject
v
t
e
Cipher machines
Rotor machines
CCM
Enigma
M-125 Fialka
Hebern
HX-63
KL-7
Lacida
M-325
Mercury
NEMA
OMI
Portex
RED
SIGABA
SIGCUM
Singlet
Typex
Mechanical
Bazeries cylinder
C-36
C-52
CD-57
Cipher disk
HC-9
Kryha
Jefferson disk
M-94
M-209
Reihenschieber
Scytale
Teleprinter
5-UCO
BID 770
DUDEK
KW-26
KW-37
Lorenz SZ 40/42
Siemens and Halske T52
Secure voice
BID 150
FASCINATOR
KY-3
KY-57
KY-58
KY-68
NESTOR
OMNI
SCIP
Sectéra Secure Module
SIGSALY
STE
STU-II
STU-III
VINSON
Other
JADE
KG-84
KL-43
KL-51
Noreen
Red
Purple
Pinwheel
Rockex
[show]
v
t
e
Cryptography
History of cryptography
Cryptanalysis
Outline of cryptography
Symmetric-key algorithm
Block cipher
Stream cipher
Public-key cryptography
Cryptographic hash function
Message authentication code
Random numbers
Steganography
Category
Portal
WikiProject
Authority control
GND: 4209290-5
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Enigma_machine&oldid=807098668"
Categories:
Products introduced in 1918
Broken stream ciphers
Cryptographic hardware
Cryptography
Rotor machines
Signals intelligence of World War II
World War II military equipment of Germany
Encryption devices
Enigma machine
Military communications of Germany
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Use dmy dates from July 2012
Articles containing Latin-language text
Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text
Articles that may contain original research from April 2013
All articles that may contain original research
CS1 German-language sources (de)
CS1 French-language sources (fr)
Articles with DMOZ links
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Articles with inconsistent citation formats
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Azərbaycanca
Български
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Magyar
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Occitan
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Suomi
Svenska
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 25 October 2017, at 21:59.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Museo della Scienza e della Tecnologia "Leonardo da Vinci"

attrs: class style

values:
/wiki/Polish_Cipher_Bureau
mw-redirect
Polish Cipher Bureau

values:
/wiki/Polish_Enigma_doubles
mw-redirect
Polish Enigma doubles

values: float:right;clear:right;width:150px;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
/wiki/Alphanumeric_keyboard
mw-redirect
Alphanumeric keyboard

values:
/wiki/Lamp_(electrical_component)
mw-redirect
Lamp (electrical component)

values:
/wiki/Electrical_contact
mw-redirect
Electrical contact

values:
/wiki/Ratchet_and_pawl
mw-redirect
Ratchet and pawl

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.334ex; height:1.843ex;

values:
/wiki/Computer_printer
mw-redirect
Computer printer

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.756ex; height:2.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.793ex; height:2.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.909ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.786ex; height:2.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:32.021ex; height:2.676ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.774ex; height:2.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.813ex; height:2.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.099ex; height:3.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.212ex; height:2.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.016ex; width:0.985ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.222ex; height:2.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.453ex; height:2.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.593ex; height:2.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:76.547ex; height:3.176ex;

values: File:Encrypting and decrypting using an enigma machine.webm

values: <video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm/854px--Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" autoplay="" style="width:854px;height:480px" class="kskin" data-durationhint="253.723" data-startoffset="0" data-mwtitle="Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f7/Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm/Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm.480p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="SD WebM (480P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 480P" data-transcodekey="480p.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" data-bandwidth="1069096" data-framerate="25"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f7/Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm/Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm.720p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="HD WebM (720P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 720P" data-transcodekey="720p.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" data-bandwidth="2150856" data-framerate="25"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Original WebM file, 1,280 × 720 (3.1 Mbps)" data-shorttitle="WebM source" data-width="1280" data-height="720" data-bandwidth="3097418" data-framerate="25"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f7/Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm/Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm.160p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Low bandwidth WebM (160P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 160P" data-transcodekey="160p.webm" data-width="284" data-height="160" data-bandwidth="200600" data-framerate="25"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f7/Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm/Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm.240p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Small WebM (240P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="316536" data-framerate="25"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f7/Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm/Encrypting_and_decrypting_using_an_enigma_machine.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="WebM (360P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 360P" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" data-bandwidth="566280" data-framerate="25"/></video>

values:
/wiki/Brute_force_attack
mw-redirect
Brute force attack

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.google.com/patents/US1657411

values: Scherbius & Ritter (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Kaiserliche_Marine
mw-redirect
Kaiserliche Marine

values: Edit section: "Navy Cipher D" – Italian Navy

values: Edit section: Wehrmacht Enigma I (1930–1938)

values:
/wiki/Deutsche_Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft
mw-redirect
Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft

values:
/wiki/German_Navy_4-rotor_Enigma
mw-redirect
German Navy 4-rotor Enigma

values:
/wiki/M4_(German_Navy_4-rotor_Enigma)
mw-redirect
M4 (German Navy 4-rotor Enigma)

values:
/wiki/Science_Museum_(London)
mw-redirect
Science Museum (London)

values: The Artillery, Engineers and Signals Museum (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Defence_Signals_Directorate
mw-redirect
Defence Signals Directorate

values: Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)

values:
/wiki/National_World_War_II_Museum
mw-redirect
National World War II Museum

values:
/wiki/Museum_of_World_War_II
mw-redirect
Museum of World War II

values: Military Communications and Electronics Museum

values:
/wiki/Alfred_Dilwyn_Knox
mw-redirect
Alfred Dilwyn Knox

values: National Museum of Military History (Bulgaria)

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research

values:
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

values: United States Naval Computing Machine Laboratory

values:
/wiki/Purple_(cipher_machine)
mw-redirect
Purple (cipher machine)

values:
/wiki/Anthony_Sale
mw-redirect
Anthony Sale

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/55786052

values:
nofollow
http://www.warmuseum.no/no/English/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://w1tp.com/enigma/enigma_w.zip

values:
nofollow
external text
http://w1tp.com/enigma/EnigmaSim.zip

values:
nofollow
external text
http://sourceforge.net/projects/minarke

values:
nofollow
http://russells.freeshell.org/enigma/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://cryptocellar.org/simula/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0079878/
external text

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0161-1194

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.enigmahistory.org/text.html

values:
nofollow
http://cryptocellar.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1730-6280

values: John Keen (author) (page does not exist)

values:
nofollow
external text
http://w1tp.com/enigma/ecds.htm

values:
nofollow
http://enigmadisplays.blogspot.ca/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.bletchleypark.org.uk/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.enigma-maschine.de/en/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.enigma.hoerenberg.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://enigmaco.de/enigma/enigma.swf

values:
nofollow
http://www.public-enigma.com/
external text

values:
/wiki/Elian_Script
mw-redirect
Elian Script

values:
/wiki/Vatsyayana_cipher
mw-redirect
Vatsyayana cipher

values:
/wiki/Navajo_code
mw-redirect
Navajo code

values:
/wiki/Straddling_checkerboard
mw-redirect
Straddling checkerboard

values:
/wiki/Trithemius_cipher
mw-redirect
Trithemius cipher

values: Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup

values:
/wiki/Red_(cipher_machine)
mw-redirect
Red (cipher machine)

values: Secure Communications Interoperability Protocol

values:
nofollow
external text
http://d-nb.info/gnd/4209290-5

values: Category:Signals intelligence of World War II

values: Category:World War II military equipment of Germany

values: Category:Military communications of Germany

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Articles containing Latin-language text

values: Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text

values: Category:Articles that may contain original research from April 2013

values: Category:All articles that may contain original research

values: Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)

values: Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Articles with inconsistent citation formats

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Enigma_machine
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: آلة إنجما – Arabic

values: Енигма (машина) – Bulgarian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-bg badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma
Enigma – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma
Enigma – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma
Enigma – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma
Enigma – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values: ماشین انیگما – Persian

values: एनिग्मा (मशीन) – Hindi

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma
Enigma – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values: אניגמה – Hebrew

values: ენიგმა (მანქანა) – Georgian

values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma
Enigma – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma
Enigma – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values: Энигма – Russian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: ماشێنی ئێنیگما – Central Kurdish

values: Енигма – Serbian

values: เครื่องอินิกมา – Thai

values: Енігма (автомат) – Ukrainian

values: انیگما مشین – Urdu

values: 恩尼格玛密码机 – Chinese

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Enigma_machine rootpage-Enigma_machine vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view


text:
Art song
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Bar five of Schubert's art song entitled Nacht und Träume. The vocal part, including the melody notes and the text, is in the top stave. The two staves below are the piano part.
An art song is a vocal music composition, usually written for one voice with piano accompaniment, and usually in the classical art music tradition. By extension, the term "art song" is used to refer to the collective genre of such songs (e.g., the "art song repertoire").[1] An art song is most often a musical setting of an independent poem or text,[1] "intended for the concert repertory"[2] "as part of a recital or other relatively formal social occasion".[3] While many pieces of vocal music are easily recognized as art songs, others are more difficult to categorize. For example, a wordless vocalise written by a classical composer is sometimes considered an art song[1] and sometimes not.[4]
Other factors help define art songs:
Songs that are part of a staged work (such as an aria from an opera or a song from a musical) are not usually considered art songs.[5] However, some Baroque arias that "appear with great frequency in recital performance"[5] are now included in the art song repertoire.
Songs with instruments besides piano (e.g., cello and piano) and/or other singers are referred to as "vocal chamber music", and are usually not considered art songs.[6]
Songs originally written for voice and orchestra are called "orchestral songs" and are not usually considered art songs, unless their original version was for solo voice and piano.[7]
Folk songs and traditional songs are generally not considered art songs, unless they are art music-style concert arrangements with piano accompaniment written by a specific composer[8] Several examples of these songs include Aaron Copland's two volumes of Old American Songs, the Folksong arrangements by Benjamin Britten,[9] and the Siete canciones populares españolas (Seven Spanish Folksongs) by Manuel de Falla.
There is no agreement regarding sacred songs. Many song settings of biblical or sacred texts were composed for the concert stage and not for religious services; these are widely known as art songs (for example, the Vier ernste Gesänge by Johannes Brahms). Others sacred songs may or may not be considered art songs.[10]
A group of art songs composed to be performed in a group to form a narrative or dramatic whole is called a song cycle.
Contents
1 Languages and nationalities
2 Form
3 Performance and performers
4 Composers
4.1 British
4.2 American
4.3 Austrian and German
4.4 French
4.5 Romanian
4.6 Spanish
4.7 Latin American
4.8 Italian
4.9 Eastern European
4.10 Nordic
4.11 Russian
4.12 Ukrainian
4.13 Asian
4.14 Afrikaans
5 See also
6 Footnotes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Languages and nationalities[edit]
A recording of singer Helge Rosvaenge (Tenor) and Gerald Moore, Pianoforte, performing Der Feuerreiter.
Art songs have been composed in many languages, and are known by several names. The German tradition of art song composition is perhaps the most prominent one; it is known as Lieder. In France, the term mélodie distinguishes art songs from other French vocal pieces referred to as chansons. The Spanish canción and the Italian canzone refer to songs generally and not specifically to art songs.
Form[edit]
The composer's musical language and interpretation of the text often dictate the formal design of an art song. If all of the poem's verses are sung to the same music, the song is strophic. Arrangements of folk songs are often strophic,[1] and "there are exceptional cases in which the musical repetition provides dramatic irony for the changing text, or where an almost hypnotic monotony is desired."[1] Several of the songs in Schubert's Die schöne Müllerin are good examples of this. If the vocal melody remains the same but the accompaniment changes under it for each verse, the piece is called a "modified strophic" song. In contrast, songs in which "each section of the text receives fresh music"[1] are called through-composed. Most through-composed works have some repetition of musical material in them. Many art songs use some version of the ABA form (also known as "song form" or "ternary form"), with a beginning musical section, a contrasting middle section, and a return to the first section's music. In some cases, in the return to the first section's music, the composer may make minor changes.
Performance and performers[edit]
Performance of art songs in recital requires special skills for both the singer and pianist. The degree of intimacy "seldom equaled in other kinds of music"[1] requires that the two performers "communicate to the audience the most subtle and evanescent emotions as expressed in the poem and music."[1] The two performers must agree on all aspects of the performance to create a unified partnership, making art song performance one of the "most sensitive type(s) of collaboration".[1] As well, the pianist must be able to closely match the mood and character expressed by the singer. Even though classical vocalists generally embark on successful performing careers as soloists by seeking out opera engagements, a number of today's most prominent singers have built their careers primarily by singing art songs, including Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Thomas Quasthoff, Ian Bostridge, Matthias Goerne, Wolfgang Holzmair, Susan Graham and Elly Ameling. Pianists, too, have specialized in playing art songs with great singers. Gerald Moore, Geoffrey Parsons, Graham Johnson, Dalton Baldwin, Hartmut Höll and Martin Katz are four such pianists who have specialized in accompanying art song performances. The piano parts in art songs can be so complex that the piano part is not really a subordinate accompaniment part; the pianist in challenging art songs is more of an equal partner with the solo singer. As such, some pianists who specialize in performing art song recitals with singers refer to themselves as "collaborative pianists", rather than as accompanists.
Composers[edit]
British[edit]
Main article: English art song
John Dowland
Thomas Campion
Hubert Parry
Henry Purcell
Frederick Delius
Ralph Vaughan Williams
Roger Quilter
John Ireland
Ivor Gurney
Peter Warlock
Michael Head
Gerald Finzi
Benjamin Britten
Morfydd Llwyn Owen
Michael Tippett
Ian Venables
Judith Weir
George Butterworth
Francis George Scott
American[edit]
Main article: American art song
Amy Beach
Arthur Farwell
Charles Ives
Charles Griffes
Ernst Bacon
John Jacob Niles
John Woods Duke
Ned Rorem
Richard Faith
Samuel Barber
Aaron Copland
Lee Hoiby
William Bolcom
Daron Hagen
Richard Hundley
Emma Lou Diemer
Austrian and German[edit]
Main article: Lieder
Joseph Haydn
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Franz Schubert
Hugo Wolf
Gustav Mahler
Alban Berg
Arnold Schoenberg
Erich Wolfgang Korngold
Viktor Ullmann
Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach
Ludwig van Beethoven
Johann Carl Gottfried Loewe
Fanny Mendelssohn
Felix Mendelssohn
Robert Schumann
Clara Schumann
Johannes Brahms
Richard Strauss
Hanns Eisler
Kurt Weill
French[edit]
Main article: Mélodie
Hector Berlioz
Charles Gounod
Pauline Viardot
César Franck
Camille Saint-Saëns
Georges Bizet
Emmanuel Chabrier
Henri Duparc
Jules Massenet
Gabriel Fauré
Claude Debussy
Erik Satie
Albert Roussel
Maurice Ravel
Jules Massenet
Darius Milhaud
Reynaldo Hahn
Francis Poulenc
Olivier Messiaen
Romanian[edit]
George Enescu
Spanish[edit]
19th century:
Francisco Asenjo Barbieri
Ramón Carnicer y Batlle
Ruperto Chapí
Antonio de la Cruz
Manuel Fernández Caballero
Manuel García
Sebastián de Iradier
José León
Cristóbal Oudrid
Antonio Reparaz
Emilio Serrano y Ruiz
Fernando Sor
Joaquín Valverde
Amadeo Vives
20th century:
Enrique Granados
Manuel de Falla
Joaquín Rodrigo
Joaquín Turina
David del Puerto
Latin American[edit]
In Spanish:
Roberto Caamaño – Argentina
Hector Campos-Parsi – Puerto Rico
Pompeyo Camps – Argentina
Carlos Chávez – Mexico (also in German and English)
Alberto Ginastera – Argentina
Carlos Guastavino – Argentina
Mario Lavista – Mexico
Jaime León Ferro – Colombia
Julián Orbón – Cuba
Juan Orrego-Salas – Chile
Carlos Pedrell – Uruguay
Juan Bautista Plaza – Venezuela
Manuel Ponce – Mexico
Silvestre Revueltas – Mexico
Miguel Sandoval – Guatemala
Domingo Santa Cruz – Chile
Andrés Sas – Peru
Guillermo Uribe-Holguín – Colombia
Aurelio de la Vega – Cuba
In Portuguese (all Brazilian):
Ernani Braga
Camargo Guarnieri
Osvaldo Lacerda
Jaime Ovalle
Heitor Villa-Lobos (also songs in Italian, French, English, Spanish, Nheengatu, and Latin)
Italian[edit]
Claudio Monteverdi
Gioachino Rossini
Gaetano Donizetti
Vincenzo Bellini
Giuseppe Verdi
Amilcare Ponchielli
Paolo Tosti
Ottorino Respighi
Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco
Luciano Berio
Lorenzo Ferrero
Eastern European[edit]
Franz Liszt – Hungary (nearly all his art song settings are of texts in non-Hungarian European languages, such as French and German)
Antonín Dvořák – Bohemia
Leoš Janáček – Bohemia (Czechoslovakia)
Béla Bartók – Hungary
Zoltán Kodály – Hungary
Frédéric Chopin – Poland
Stanisław Moniuszko – Poland
Nordic[edit]
Edvard Grieg – Norway (set German as well as Norse and Danish poetry)
Jean Sibelius – Finland (set both Finnish and Swedish)
Yrjö Kilpinen – Finland
Wilhelm Stenhammar – Sweden
Hugo Alfvén – Sweden
Carl Nielsen – Denmark
Russian[edit]
Main article: Russian art song
Mikhail Glinka
Alexander Borodin
César Cui
Nikolai Medtner
Modest Mussorgsky
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov
Alexander Glazunov
Sergei Rachmaninoff
Sergei Prokofiev
Igor Stravinsky
Dmitri Shostakovich
Ukrainian[edit]
Vasyl Barvinsky[11]
Stanyslav Lyudkevych[11]
Mykola Lysenko
Nestor Nyzhankivsky
Ostap Nyzhankivsky
Denys Sichynsky[11]
Myroslav Skoryk
Ihor Sonevytsky
Yakiv Stepovy
Kyrylo Stetsenko
Asian[edit]
Nicanor Abelardo (Philippines)
Ananda Sukarlan (Indonesia)
Afrikaans[edit]
Jellmar Ponticha
Stephanus Le Roux Marais
See also[edit]
Kundiman
Song
Song cycle
Footnotes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Meister, An Introduction to the Art Song, pp. 11-17.
Jump up ^ Art Song, Grove Online
Jump up ^ Randel, Harvard Dictionary of Music, p. 61
Jump up ^ Kimball, Introduction, p. xiii
^ Jump up to: a b Kimball, p. xiv
Jump up ^ Meister calls it "a variety of art song" (p. 13); Kimball does not include these works in her study of art songs.(p. xiv)
Jump up ^ Meister, p. 14, and Kimball, p. xiv
Jump up ^ Meister refers to them as a "hybrid medium", p. 14
Jump up ^ Benjamin Britten, Complete Folksong Arrangements (61 Songs), edited by Richard Walters, Boosey & Hawkes #M051933747, ISBN 1423421566
Jump up ^ Neither Meister nor Kimball mention sacred songs generally, but both discuss the Brahms songs and selected other works in their books on art song.
^ Jump up to: a b c Composers – Ukrainian Art Song Project Archived 2015-04-16 at the Wayback Machine.
References[edit]
Draayer, Suzanne (2009), Art Song Composers of Spain: An Encyclopedia, Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, ISBN 978-0-8108-6362-0
Draayer, Suzanne (2003), A Singer's Guide to the Songs of Joaquín Rodrigo, Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, ISBN 978-0-8108-4827-6
Kimball, Carol (2005), Song: A Guide to Art Song Style and Literature, revised edition, Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Hal Leonard, ISBN 978-1-4234-1280-9
Meister, Barbara (1980), An Introduction to the Art Song, New York, New York: Taplinger, ISBN 0-8008-8032-3
Randel, Don Michael (2003), The Harvard Dictionary of Music, Harvard University Press, p. 61, ISBN 0-674-01163-5, retrieved 2012-10-22
Villamil, Victoria Etnier (1993), A Singer's Guide to the American Art Song (2004 paperback ed.), Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, ISBN 0-8108-5217-9
Further reading[edit]
Emmons, Shirlee, and Stanley Sonntag (1979), The Art of the Song Recital (paperback ed.), New York: Schirmer Books, ISBN 0-02-870530-0
Hall, James Husst (1953), The Art Song, Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press
Ivey, Donald (1970), Song: Anatomy, Imagery, and Styles, New York: The Free Press, ISBN 0-8108-5217-9
Soumagnac, Myriam (1997). "La Mélodie italienne au début du XXe siècle", in Festschrift volume, Échoes de France et d'Ialie: liber amicorum Yves Gérard (jointly ed. by Marie-Claire Mussat, Jean Mongrédien & Jean-Michel Nectoux). Buchet-Chastel. p. 381-386.
Walter, Wolfgang (2005), Lied-Bibliographie (Song Bibliography): Reference to Literature on the Art Song, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, ISBN 08204-7319-7
Whitton, Kenneth (1984), Lieder: An Introduction to German Song, London: Julia MacRae, ISBN 0-531-09759-5
External links[edit]
Hampsong Foundation
Joy In Singing
The LiederNet Archive - texts to over 140,000 vocal works with over 29,000 translations
Art Song Central
The Art Song Project
The African American Art Song Alliance
Art Song Composers of Spain
Canadian Art Song Project
Latin American Art Song Alliance
Ukrainian Art Song Project
Ukrainian art songs. Audio files.
Hispasong.com Spanish vocal music, in English.
Canciones de España—Songs of Nineteenth-Century Spain [1]
lottelehmannleague.org/singing-sins-archive (archived Hawaii Public Radio broadcasts about arts songs)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Art_song&oldid=824086987"
Categories:
Song forms
Western classical music styles
Art songs
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 5 February 2018, at 06:27 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: img

attrs: href class

attrs: href class title

values: /wiki/Schubert mw-redirect Schubert

attrs: href title

value: i

value: b

values: Vocal chamber music (page does not exist)

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values: Edit section: Languages and nationalities

values: position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 100px; right: 0px; bottom: 0px; height: 0px; width: 0px;

values: left: 50%; top: 50%; margin-left: -35px; margin-top: -27.5px;

values: mediaContainer mwPlayerContainer k-player videoHolder

values: width:200px width: 200px; position: relative;

values: Edit section: Performance and performers

values:
/wiki/Charles_Griffes
mw-redirect
Charles Griffes

values:
/wiki/Johann_Carl_Gottfried_Loewe
mw-redirect
Johann Carl Gottfried Loewe

values:
/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Carnicer_y_Batlle
mw-redirect
Ramón Carnicer y Batlle

values:
/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_de_Iradier
mw-redirect
Sebastián de Iradier

values:
/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Valverde
mw-redirect
Joaquín Valverde

values:
/wiki/Amadeo_Vives
mw-redirect
Amadeo Vives

values:
/wiki/Hector_Campos-Parsi
mw-redirect
Hector Campos-Parsi

values: Domingo Santa Cruz (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Guillermo_Uribe-Holgu%C3%ADn
mw-redirect
Guillermo Uribe-Holguín

values: Aurelio de la Vega (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Russian_art_song
mw-redirect
Russian art song

values:
nofollow
http://hampsongfoundation.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.joyinsinging.org

values:
nofollow
http://www.lieder.net/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://artsongcentral.com

values:
nofollow
external text
http://theartsongproject.com

values:
nofollow
http://www.darryltaylor.com/alliance/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.canadianartsongproject.ca/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://laasa.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.ukrainianartsong.ca/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.hispasong.com

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Art_song
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
/w/index.php?title=Art_song&action=edit
Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
e

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Art_song rootpage-Art_song skin-vector action-view