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Ford Power Stroke engine
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Ford Power Stroke engine
Overview
Manufacturer
Navistar International (1994-2010)
Ford Motor Company (2011-present)
Also called
Ford Powerstroke
Production
1994-present
Combustion chamber
Configuration
OHV 90° V8
DOHC
Chronology
Predecessor
International Harvester IDI (1983-1994.5)
Power Stroke is a line of diesel engines found in Ford diesel trucks, Ford Excursion SUVs, Ford Econoline vans, Ford LCF commercial vehicles and the Brazilian Ford Ranger. The V8 engines were produced by Navistar International Corp. until 2010 when Ford decided to build their diesel engine completely in-house. The Power Stroke engines compete primarily in the United States full-size pickup truck market with the Duramax V8 from General Motors/Isuzu and the B Series straight-six from Cummins.
Contents
[hide]
1 7.3 Power Stroke
2 6.0 Power Stroke
2.1 Key specifications
2.1.1 Common Issues
2.1.2 Electrical and fuel
3 6.4 Power Stroke
3.1 Key specifications
4 6.7 Power Stroke
4.1 Key specifications
5 3.2 Power Stroke
5.1 Key specifications
6 3.0 Power Stroke
7 Applications
8 Other engines with the Power Stroke name
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
7.3 Power Stroke[edit]
Main article: Navistar T444E engine
7.3 Power Stroke
Overview
Manufacturer
Navistar International
Combustion chamber
Configuration
V8
Displacement
7.3 L, 444 cu³
Cylinder bore
4.11 inches
Piston stroke
4.18 inches
Cylinder block alloy
Iron
Cylinder head alloy
Iron
Valvetrain
OHV
Combustion
Fuel type
Diesel
Output
Power output
210-275 hp [1]
Torque output
425-525 lb-ft[1]
Dimensions
Dry weight
≈920(Dry)
Chronology
Predecessor
7.3 L IDI
Successor
6.0 Power Stroke
The 7.3L Power Stroke diesel was made available for 1994.5 models in Ford Econoline vans, and Ford heavy duty pickups. It effectively replaced the 7.3 IDI with which it shares nothing other than displacement size.
The Power Stroke is an electronically controlled, direct injection engine with a 4.11 in (104 mm) bore and 4.18 in (106 mm) stroke creating a displacement of 444 cu in (7.3 L). It has a 17.5:1 compression ratio, and a dry weight of approximately 920 lb (420 kg). This engine produces up to 250 hp (190 kW) and 505 lb·ft (685 N·m) of torque in automatic-transmission trucks from the last years of production, and 275 hp (205 kW) and 525 lb·ft (712 N·m) of torque in manual-transmission trucks. The oil capacity is 15 quarts (14.2 liters). The oil pan holds 12 quarts (11.36 liters) while the top end holds an additional 3 quarts (2.84 liters).
The 1994.5 to 1996/97 DI Power stroke has "single shot" HEUI (hydraulically actuated electronic unit injection) fuel injectors and ran a high pressure oil pump (HPOP) to create the necessary oil pressure to fire the fuel injectors. This generation of Power Stroke utilizes an HPOP with a 15° swash plate angle. The 1995-1997 trucks use a cam-driven fuel pump, whereas the 1999-2003 trucks use a frame rail mounted electric fuel pump. The California trucks from 1996 and 1997 have split-shot fuel injectors; other trucks did not get split-shot injectors until 1999. Single-shot injectors only inject one charge of fuel per cycle, whereas the split-shot injector releases a preliminary light load before the main charge to initiate combustion in a more damped manner. This controlled injection helps reduce the sharp combustion 'knock'.
It utilizes a single turbocharger with a turbine housing size of 1.15 A/R. In 1999, an air-to-air intercooler was added to cool the charged air from the turbo for increased air density. With the new cooler, denser air would increase the horsepower potential of the engine, while also reducing exhaust gas temperatures (EGT). Eventually, the turbine housing was changed to a .84 A/R and a wastegate was added. With larger injectors, the HPOP output was increased by utilizing a 17° swash plate angle to meet the requirements of the new, higher flowing injectors.
The 7.3 L DI Power Stroke was in production until the second quarter of model year 2003 when it was replaced by the 6.0L because of its inability to meet newer emission requirements. Nearly 2 million 7.3s were produced from International's Indianapolis plant.[2]
The 7.3 L DI Power Stroke engine is commonly referred to as one of the best engines that International produced.[3]
6.0 Power Stroke[edit]
Main article: 6.0L Power Stroke
The 7.3 L (444 CID) Power Stroke was replaced by the 6.0 L (365 CID) beginning in the second quarter of the 2003 model year. The 6.0L Power Stroke, was used in Ford Super Duty trucks until the 2007 model year but lasted until 2009 in the Ford Econoline vans (model year 2010) and in the Ford Excursion SUVs until after the 2005 models when Ford discontinued Excursion production. The engine has a 3.74 in (95 mm) bore and 4.13 in (105 mm) stroke creating a displacement of 365 cu in (6.0 L) or 5,954 cc. It utilizes a variable geometry turbocharger and intercooler, producing 325 hp (242 kW) and 570 lb·ft (773 N·m) torque with an 18:1 compression ratio, with fuel cutoff at 4,200 rpm. Many of the 6.0 L Power Stroke engines experienced problems,[4]
Key specifications[edit]
Fuel injection system: Split-shot HEUI (hydraulic electronic unit injectors)
Valve train: OHV 4-valves per cylinder, 32 valves total (16 intake valves, 16 exhaust valves)
Turbo configuration: Single; variable vane geometry (VGT)
Common Issues[edit]
Oil Cooler/EGR Cooler - The sources of the main issues with the 6.0L were the in-block oil cooler, and the EGR cooler materials. The oil cooler is located in the valley of the engine block, underneath the cartridge oil filter set up. The sealed outer portion of the oil cooler is submerged in engine oil, with coolant flowing through the center passages. Over time, the oil cooler will develop small cracks in the aluminum tubes from the constant heating and cooling of the engine. This situation usually results in oil pushing it's way into the cooling system. The sludge created from the mixture of oil and coolant creates a high pressure environment in the EGR cooler (due to the viscosity change in the coolant), leading to cracking of the EGR cooler's coolant passages. Once the EGR cooler cracks, it begins to leak coolant into the intake system and is then routed into the engine's cylinders to be burnt. The burning of coolant in the cylinders then causes a steam buildup, thus increasing cylinder pressures and the stretching of the head bolts; which leads to head gasket failure. The early EGR coolers (2003-2004.5) were also susceptible to pre-mature failure without oil cooler issues, also resulting in head gasket failure.
High Pressure Oil System - With the use of Split-shot HEUI fuel injectors, high pressure oil is required to pressurize the fuel injectors. The main high pressure oil (HPO) system components are; High Pressure Oil Pump (HPOP), HPO manifolds, Stand pipes and branch tube. The HPOP is located in the engine valley at the rear of the engine block. Early build years (2003.5-04.5) are well known for pre-mature HPOP failure. This is due to the poor quality materials used in manufacturing. The HPOP is pressurized by a rotating gear, meshed with a rear camshaft gear. The early model HPOP gears were known to be weak, and develop stress cracks in the teeth resulting in gear failure, thus causing a no start issue for the engine. Early models also had the ICP sensor located on the HPOP cover. The high amount of heat in this location, combined with the exposure to debris in the oil was known to cause ICP sensor failure also resulting in a no start condition. This issue was addressed by Ford with the late 2004 engine update, bringing a new HPOP design, along with relocation of the ICP sensor to the Passenger side valve cover. The newly designed pump is not known for frequent failure, however a new issue arose with the update. In the late model engines, Ford also redesigned the HPO stand pipes and dummy plugs in the HPO manifold, using poor quality o-rings. These o-rings were prone to failure causing a HPO leak, and eventually a no start condition. Ford addressed this concern with updated Viton o-ring washers fixing the issue. With the new HPO system design also came a Snap To Connet (STC) fitting. Some models had issue with the prongs of the STC fitting breaking causing the fitting to lose it's sealing property and again, a no start condition for the engine. Another frequent (but not always catastrophic) issue with the HPO system is the Injection Pressure Regulator (IPR) screen. The IPR screen is located in the engine valley with the oil cooler. The material used was susceptible to failure and neglecting to replace the screen during an oil cooler replacement could lead to the debris being sent through the HPOP causing complete failure.
Head Gaskets - Ford/International used four Torque to Yield (TTY) cylinder head bolts per cylinder for the 6.0s and 6.4s. TTY bolts offer some of the most precise clamping force available, but can be problematic. In certain situations (Oil cooler/EGR cooler failure, high boost/load levels brought on by improper use of aftermarket programmers) TTY bolts can be stretched beyond their torque mark by increased cylinder pressures. This has never been addressed by Ford due to the fact that other malfunctions or abuse must occur to stretch the bolts. Some in the aftermarket will replace the factory bolts with head studs in an attempt to protect the head gaskets from future failure. If this is done without addressing the underlying issue, the head gaskets may fail again bringing along a cracked or warped cylinder head. In contrast, the Powerstroke 7.3s and 6.7s have 6 head bolts per cylinder while the IDI 7.3s and 6.9s have five. [5]
Electrical and fuel[edit]
Numerous PCM recalibrations, fuel injector stiction along with several other driveability and quality control problems have plagued the 6.0. The FICM (fuel injection control module) has been a problem, where low voltage in the vehicle's electrical system due to failing batteries or a low-output alternator can cause damage to the FICM. In addition, the placement of the FICM on top of the engine subjects it to varying and extreme temperatures and vibrations causing solder joints and components to fail in early build models; mostly in the power supply itself. The FICM multiplies the voltage in the fuel injector circuit from 12 to 48-50 volts to fire the injectors. Low voltage can eventually cause damage to the fuel injectors.
6.4 Power Stroke[edit]
Main article: 6.4L Power Stroke
The 6.4L Power Stroke was introduced for the 2008 model year. The 6.4L Power Stroke was the first engine introduced to the light truck market that utilized dual turbochargers from the factory. This was the first Power Stroke to use a diesel particulate filter (DPF) in order to nearly eliminate particulate emissions. The new DPS and active regeneration system greatly hindered the engine's fuel economy capability, though the engine proved to be comparatively strong and reliable. The engine was ultimately retired after the 2010 model year, as Ford replaced it with its own in-house built 6.7L Power Stroke.
The engine has a 3.87 in (98 mm) bore and 4.13 in (105 mm) stroke, resulting in a total calculated displacement of 387 cu in (6.3 L) (6,333 cc). Despite having to meet emission regulations, the engine was able to increase horsepower ratings to 350 hp (261 kW) and torque to 650 lb·ft (881 N·m) at the flywheel. Horsepower and torque are achieved at 3,000 rpm and 2,000 rpm respectively. It also features a compound VGT turbo system. Air enters the low-pressure turbo (the smaller of the two) and is fed into the high-pressure turbo (the larger of the two), then is directed into the engine or intercooler. This system is designed to result in reduced turbo lag when accelerating from a stop. The series-turbo system is set up to provide a better throttle response while in motion to give a power flow more like a naturally aspirated engine. The 6.4 L also has a DPF and dual EGR coolers which are capable of reducing exhaust gas temps by up to 1,000 degrees before they reach the EGR valve and mix with the intake charge. The DPF traps soot and particulates from the exhaust and virtually eliminates the black smoke that most diesel engines expel upon acceleration. The engine computer is programmed to periodically inject extra fuel in the exhaust stroke of the engine (known as a "regeneration" in the F-Series) to burn off soot that accumulates in the DPF. This engine is designed to only run on ultra low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel which has no more than 15 ppm sulfur content; using regular diesel fuel results in emission equipment malfunctions and violates manufacturer warranties.
The 6.4L has had one recall (safety product recall 07S49 was released on March 23, 2007) that addresses the potential for flames to come from the tailpipe of the truck. This problem arises from the DPF which is part of the diesel after-treatment system. A PCM recalibration was released to eliminate the possibility of excessive exhaust temperatures combined with certain rare conditions resulting from what is becoming known as a "thermal event".
Key specifications[edit]
Fuel injection system: High pressure commonrail
Valve train: OHV 4-valve
Compound VGT turbo
DPF
Advanced multi-shot piezoelectric fuel injection control
6.7 Power Stroke[edit]
Emissions controls include exhaust gas recirculation, Denoxtronic-based selective catalytic reduction (SCR) from Bosch, and a DPF. Output was originally 390 hp (291 kW) and 735 lb·ft (997 N·m).[6] but shortly after production started, Ford announced that they made an update to the 6.7L diesel. The new engine control software makes the engine capable of 400 hp (298 kW) at 2,800 rpm and 800 lb·ft (1,085 N·m) at 1,600 rpm while achieving better fuel economy and without any physical changes to the engine. [7] The 2015 engines are rated at 440 horsepower (330 kW) and 860 lb·ft (1,166 N·m).[8] Ford claims the bump in horsepower is from a new turbo, new injector nozzles and exhaust improvements. For 2017, the torque has risen to 925 lb·ft (1,254 N·m) at 1800rpm, Horsepower remains the same..[9]
Key specifications[edit]
DPF
Valve train: OHV 4-valve
Turbo configuration: 'GT32 SST (single sequential turbocharger)' --single 64mm turbine and dual-sided compressor
Fuel injection system: High-pressure common-rail, Bosch CP4 injection pump, piezo electric injectors
2015—2016[10]
Turbo configuration: 'GT37' --single 72.5mm turbine and 88mm compressor[11]
Fuel system: High-pressure common-rail, Bosch CP4.2 injection pump, piezo electric injectors
Engine: Power Stroke V-8
Displacement: 6.7L
Bore and stroke: 3.90 x 4.25 inches
Cylinders: 90-degree V-8
Block: Compacted graphite iron
Heads: Aluminum (reverse flow)
Pistons: Forged aluminum
Valvetrain: OHV, four valves per cylinder
Horsepower: 440 at 2,800 rpm
Torque: 860 lb-ft at 1,600 rpm
Emissions equipment: EGR, DPF, SCR
Engine dry weight: 970 pounds
3.2 Power Stroke[edit]
The 3.2 L Power Stroke is an inline five-cylinder engine that debuted in the U.S.-spec Transit for model year 2015. The engine is a modified version of the Ford Duratorq 3.2 L diesel engine that has been adapted to meet emissions in the United States. To aid in economy, emissions, and reduce NVH, it has a high pressure common rail fuel injection system and piezo injectors that can spray up to five different injections per compression event. It has a water cooled EGR system to reduce the temperature of the exhaust gas before being recirculated through the intake. A unique feature to the emissions system is that the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) and the DPF have been combined into one singular unit as opposed to the traditional two separate units. Exhaust treatment continues with SCR which is done by the injection of diesel exhaust fluid in the exhaust to reduce NOx. The engine features a variable geometry turbo which allows for intake air flow tuning on the fly to increase power and fuel economy. The engine also features a variable-flow oil pump to avoid wasting mechanical energy pumping excessive amounts of oil. It has cast aluminum, low friction pistons with oil squirters to keep them cool during heavy-load conditions, a die cast aluminum cam carrier to stiffen up the valve train and reduce NVH, and to increase low end durability, the crankshaft is cast iron and the connecting rods are forged. The block itself is an extra rigid, gray cast iron with a closed deck.[12] The power figures for the 3.2 L Power Stroke are 185 hp at 3,000 rpm and 350 lb-ft at 1,500-2,750 rpm. The Euro Duratorq 3.2 makes 197 HP and 350 ft-lb of torque.
Key specifications[edit]
Fuel injection system: High pressure commonrail
Valve train: DOHC 4-valve
Turbo configuration: Single variable geometry turbo
Combined diesel particulate filter and diesel oxidation catalyst
Urea injected selective catalytic reduction
3.0 Power Stroke[edit]
The 3.0 liter Power Stroke turbo-diesel is set to be introduced in the new 2018 Ford F-150 as a medium duty engine to compete with the Ram 1500 EcoDiesel V6. The engine is expected to produce close to 255 hp (190 kW) while maintaining fuel efficiency.
Applications[edit]
The Power Stroke engine has been used in the following applications.
Ford E-Series (full-size vans)
1995–2003 7.3 L
2004–2010 6.0 L
Ford Excursion (full-size sport utility vehicles}
2000–2003 7.3 L
2003.5–2005 6.0 L
Ford F-Series (full-size pickup trucks)
Mid-1994–Mid-2003 7.3 L[13]
Mid-2003–2007 6.0 L
2008–2010 6.4 L
2011–present 6.7 L
2018– 3.0 L (F-150 only)
LCF (low cab forward)
2005–2010 4.5 L
Ford Transit
2015–present 3.2 L
Other engines with the Power Stroke name[edit]
In South American models, the Ford Ranger 2001 up to 2012 use a Power Stroke engine in their diesel versions. A 2.8L diesel engine was developed by Navistar/International Engines from an inline-four Land Rover Defender diesel 2.5L engine, with 130 (waste gate) or 133 hp (VNT). A 3L common rail four valves per cylinder and 160 hp (waste gate turbo) became the electronic version of the Power Stroke. It has only the block and connect-rods in common with 2.8 L Power Stroke
The above-detailed 3.2L Duratorq I5 is branded as Power Stroke in US-spec Ford Transit vans.
See also[edit]
Ford engines
Ford Modular engine
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.internationalpowerstroke.com/timeline.html
Jump up ^ Ford's Power Stroke Diesel History Power Stroke Spotters' Guide
Jump up ^ "what is best powerstroke - Ford Powerstroke Diesel Forum". www.powerstroke.org. Retrieved 2015-10-27.
Jump up ^ "Launch in Limbo". AutoWeek. Retrieved March 5, 2007.
Jump up ^ https://dieseliq.com/problems-with-power-stroke-60
Jump up ^ Jamie Lareau, Automotive News (2010-02-25). "2011 Ford Super Duty: Pickup has more pickup and more mpg". AutoWeek. Retrieved 2010-02-25.
Jump up ^ http://detnews.com/article/20100803/AUTO01/8030349/1148/rss25
Jump up ^ "440 Horsepower Powers Stroke". Retrieved 6 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "6.7L Power Stroke Spec and Information". Retrieved 6 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Gonderman, Monica (June 10, 2014). "Second-Generation Ford 6.7L Power Stroke - Torque Specs, 440 hp and 860 lb-ft of torque". Diesel Power Magazine. Diesel Power. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "2015 Ford F-Series Super Duty Features Improved Power Stroke Diesel". Ford Motor Company. Ford. September 26, 2013. Retrieved 19 November 2014.
Jump up ^ http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=37486
Jump up ^ "7.3 DIT Powerstroke Direct Injection Turbocharged Diesel Engine, "F" Series Super Duty Features, Description, Service Features" (PDF). Ford Motor Company. 1999. Retrieved 19 December 2015.
External links[edit]
Powerstroke Diesel home page
Navistar International
Power Stroke Diesel Specs
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Ford Power Stroke engine
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Mimi Lockhart
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Mimi Lockhart
Farah Fath as Mimi Lockhart
Days of our Lives character
Portrayed by
Doren Fein (1999)
Farah Fath (1999–2007)
Duration
1999–2007
First appearance
August 17, 1999
Last appearance
March 1, 2007
Created by
Sally Sussman Morina
Introduced by
Ken Corday
Tom Langan
Classification
Former, regular
Profile
Residence
Phoenix, Arizona
[show]Family
Parents
David Lockhart
Bonnie Lockhart
Siblings
Patrick Lockhart
Connor Lockhart
Spouse
Shawn-Douglas Brady (2006–07)
Children
Tyler Kiriakis
Mimi Lockhart (formerly Brady) is a fictional character from Days of Our Lives. Mimi was originated by Doren Fein from August 17 to 19, 1999. She is most recognized by actress Farah Fath who played the role from September 16, 1999, to March 1, 2007.
Contents
[hide]
1 Storylines
1.1 Childhood
1.2 High school
1.3 College and young adult
2 External links
Storylines
Childhood
Mimi grew up in an abusive household. Her father, David, attacked Mimi and Bonnie on a number of occasions forcing her older brother, Patrick, to split at an early age. Mimi looked after her younger brother Connor until he too moved away at a young age.
High school
Mimi was Belle Black's best friend since kindergarten. Mimi grew jealous of Belle's new friendship with Chloe Lane and began working with Jan Spears to cast Chloe as a social outcast. Jan preyed on Mimi's insecurities and used her to torment Chloe, including taking nude pictures of Chloe in the shower. Mimi developed a crush on Shawn-Douglas Brady but he was interested in Belle. Shawn agreed to take both Belle and Mimi to the dance after Mimi got down on bended knee to beg Shawn to take her. Jan's hatred for Chloe intensified and Jan used Mimi to sneak the photos of Chloe into the slide projector to humiliate Chloe and advertise their website operagirl.net. The prank almost landed Mimi in jail; instead she was forced to spend her senior year at Salem High cleaning bathrooms.
Despite Mimi's involvement in the pranks, her friends noticed her odd behavior that included staying away from her friends and roaming the streets at night. Chloe was the first to discover that Mimi and her family were homeless. Her father had been laid off, and was out of town searching for work. Mimi's friends rallied together and built a Habitat for Humanity house for the Lockhart family.
During the summer of 2001, Mimi joined her classmates on a trip to Puerto Rico to study the environment. She and Belle became close again, but she became even closer to geeky Kevin Lambert and the two nearly had sex on the island. With her newfound self-esteem, Mimi became determined to do the right thing and make up with Chloe. In fact, Chloe and Mimi joined forces toward to help Belle and Shawn get back together. She accomplished that task, along with high school graduation, and spent the summer with Kevin; they broke up at the end of the summer so he could go away to college.
College and young adult
Mimi started the following year at Salem University with Belle. Mimi eventually got together with Rex DiMera but feared he might be the Salem Stalker. Rex suffered from massive headaches and mood swings. At one point, Rex accidentally killed Dr. Rolf, Rex's "creator." After this ordeal, the couple landed on solid groupd until Mimi found out she was pregnant. Mimi's insecurities returned and she convinced herself she had a good thing with Rex and it would be ruined with a baby. Mimi made the heartbreaking decision to have an abortion without telling Rex. Due to a resulting infection, Mimi was rendered sterile.
Jan returned to Salem and Mimi learned that she had been keeping Shawn hostage at her country home. Before Mimi could expose Jan, Jan blackmailed her about the abortion. Jan tripped and hit her head on a rock while arguing with Mimi and ended up in serious condition in the hospital. Mimi confessed to all her sins and was sentenced to jail. Rex and Patrick managed to get their hands on a video clearing Mimi's name just in time, and Mimi was released. Mimi's guilt over her lies to Rex mounted but her mother, Bonnie convinced her to keep quiet and hold on to her man.
Rex overheard an argument between Belle and Mimi and learned that Mimi had aborted his child without ever telling him that she was pregnant. He left her, and Salem. Mimi blamed Belle for ruining her life and grew closer with her new roommate and high school crush, Shawn. After the birth of Belle's daughter, Claire, Mimi attempted to mend fences with Belle. After months of escalating romance, Shawn proposed to Mimi on New Year's Eve and they married in March 2006.
Mimi did everything she could to keep Shawn and Belle apart because she feared they would fall in love again. Mimi and Shawn went thru the "in vitro" process and Mimi became pregnant in May 2006, just two months after the couple wed. In early June, Mimi and Belle were out shopping when she started having cramps. Lexie Carver told Shawn, Belle and Phillip that Mimi had miscarried. Mimi was truly devastated and Shawn stuck by her. They decided to ask a surrogate to carry their child but a mix-up in the lab caused Mimi's egg to be fertilized with Philip's sperm and Belle's egg with Shawn's sperm; the Gloved Hand was responsible for this mix-up as part of his crusade to ruin the lives of the people in Salem. Mimi knew that Shawn was the father of Belle's baby and told no one. When the truth was finally revealed, Shawn left Mimi and they got a divorce. She and Philip signed away their rights to their baby to the surrogate, Lauren.
Mimi moved back home to the Lockhart House with Bonnie and Conner. Mimi briefly worked at Chez Rouge but left after a fight Shawn's girlfriend at the time, Willow Stark. Mimi then got a job working for Max at his garage. She and Max grew close as they looked for a seemingly missing Philip. Victor's goons held them prisoner in a church basement where they shared their first kiss and also discovered a skeleton. Mimi and Max began to date, much to Abby's dismay. Mimi got in the way oh Phillip's search for Claire after Shawn and Belle took her into hiding. Max rescued Mimi and they two helped Shawn and Belle flee to Canada.
The skeleton that they was revealed to be David Lockhart, Mimi's father. Max comforted Mimi through this mystery but it was Bonnie who was able to give Mimi the answers she was looking for. Bonnie explained that Mimi killed her father but suppressed the memories because David used to abuse the family. Instead of letting her daughter take the blame, Bonnie went to jail. With her mother and older brother both in jail, Mimi left to live with her younger brother, Connor, in Arizona.
External links
Mimi at soapcentral.com
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Joey Johnson
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Daniel Jonas
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Deimos Kiriakis
Philip Kiriakis
Paige Larson
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Mimi Lockhart
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Celeste Perrault
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Anne Milbauer
Paul Narita
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Julie Olson Williams
[show]
Past characters
Tom Horton
Alice Horton
Lawrence Alamain
Vivian Alamain
Susan Banks
Bart Beiderbecke
Belle Black
Peter Blake
Bo Brady
Caroline Brady
Carrie Brady
Cassie Brady
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Kristen DiMera
Santo DiMera
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Sydney DiMera
Tony DiMera
Drew Donovan
Theresa Donovan
Lee DuMonde
Renée DuMonde
Nick Fallon
Megan Hathaway
Benjy Hawk
Arianna Hernandez
Dario Hernandez
Eduardo Hernandez
Addie Horton
Allie Horton
Bill Horton
Jeremy Horton
Laura Horton
Marie Horton
Melissa Horton
Mickey Horton
Nathan Horton
Sarah Horton
Tommy Horton
Robin Jacobs
Madison James
Aiden Jennings
Chase Jennings
Joey Johnson
Stephanie Johnson
Daniel Jonas
Melanie Jonas
Parker Jonas
Deimos Kiriakis
Philip Kiriakis
Maxine Landis
Paige Larson
Bonnie Lockhart
Mimi Lockhart
Patrick Lockhart
Carly Manning
Alex Marshall
Serena Mason
Mia McCormick
Jade Michaels
Colin Murphy
Tori Narita
Celeste Perrault
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Billie Reed
Curtis Reed
Jordan Ridgeway
Wilhelm Rolf
Jan Spears
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Continental Army
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American Revolutionary War
Armed Forces
United States
Continental Army
→ Commander-in-Chief
→ Regional departments
→ Units (1775, 1776, 1777–1784)
→ Manual
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Continental Marines
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→ List of militia units
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The Continental Army was formed by the Second Continental Congress after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Congress on June 14, 1775, it was created to coordinate the military efforts of the Thirteen Colonies in their revolt against the rule of Great Britain. The Continental Army was supplemented by local militias and troops that remained under control of the individual states or were otherwise independent. General George Washington was the commander-in-chief of the army throughout the war.
Most of the Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after the Treaty of Paris ended the war. The 1st and 2nd Regiments went on to form the nucleus of the Legion of the United States in 1792 under General Anthony Wayne. This became the foundation of the United States Army in 1796.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Operations
3 Demobilization
4 Rank insignia
5 Major battles
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Bibliography
7.2 Further reading
8 External links
Origins[edit]
The Continental Army consisted of soldiers from all 13 colonies and, after 1776, from all 13 states. When the American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the colonial revolutionaries did not have an army. Previously, each colony had relied upon the militia, made up of part-time citizen-soldiers, for local defense, or the raising of temporary "provincial regiments" during specific crises such as the French and Indian War of 1754–63. As tensions with Great Britain increased in the years leading to the war, colonists began to reform their militias in preparation for the perceived potential conflict. Training of militiamen increased after the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774. Colonists such as Richard Henry Lee proposed forming a national militia force, but the First Continental Congress rejected the idea.[1]
On April 23, 1775, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized the raising of a colonial army consisting of 26 company regiments. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut soon raised similar but smaller forces. On June 14, 1775, the Second Continental Congress decided to proceed with the establishment of a Continental Army for purposes of common defense, adopting the forces already in place outside Boston (22,000 troops) and New York (5,000).[2] It also raised the first ten companies of Continental troops on a one-year enlistment, riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware and Virginia to be used as light infantry,[2] who became the 1st Continental Regiment in 1776.
On June 15, 1775, the Congress elected by unanimous vote George Washington as Commander-in-Chief, who accepted and served throughout the war without any compensation except for reimbursement of expenses.[3][4][5][6]
On July 18, 1775, the Congress requested all colonies form militia companies from "all able bodied effective men, between sixteen and fifty years of age." It was not uncommon for men younger than sixteen to enlist as most colonies had no requirement of parental consent for those under twenty-one (adulthood).[7]
Four major-generals (Artemas Ward, Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler, and Israel Putnam) and eight brigadier-generals (Seth Pomeroy, Richard Montgomery, David Wooster, William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan, and Nathanael Greene) were appointed by the Second Continental Congress in the course of a few days.[8][9][10] After Pomeroy did not accept, John Thomas was appointed in his place.[11]
General George Washington was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army on June 15, 1775.
As the Continental Congress increasingly adopted the responsibilities and posture of a legislature for a sovereign state, the role of the Continental Army became the subject of considerable debate. Some Americans had a general aversion to maintaining a standing army; but on the other hand the requirements of the war against the British required the discipline and organization of a modern military. As a result, the army went through several distinct phases, characterized by official dissolution and reorganization of units.
Soldiers in the Continental Army were citizens who had volunteered to serve in the army (but were paid), and at various times during the war, standard enlistment periods lasted from one to three years. Early in the war the enlistment periods were short, as the Continental Congress feared the possibility of the Continental Army evolving into a permanent army. The army never numbered more than 17,000 men. Turnover proved a constant problem, particularly in the winter of 1776–77, and longer enlistments were approved. Broadly speaking, Continental forces consisted of several successive armies, or establishments:
The Continental Army of 1775, comprising the initial New England Army, organized by Washington into three divisions, six brigades, and 38 regiments. Major General Philip Schuyler's ten regiments in New York were sent to invade Canada.
The Continental Army of 1776, reorganized after the initial enlistment period of the soldiers in the 1775 army had expired. Washington had submitted recommendations to the Continental Congress almost immediately after he had accepted the position of Commander-in-Chief, but the Congress took time to consider and implement these. Despite attempts to broaden the recruiting base beyond New England, the 1776 army remained skewed toward the Northeast both in terms of its composition and of its geographical focus. This army consisted of 36 regiments, most standardized to a single battalion of 768 men strong and formed into eight companies, with a rank-and-file strength of 640.
The Continental Army of 1777–80 evolved out of several critical reforms and political decisions that came about when it became apparent that the British were sending massive forces to put an end to the American Revolution. The Continental Congress passed the "Eighty-eight Battalion Resolve", ordering each state to contribute one-battalion regiments in proportion to their population, and Washington subsequently received authority to raise an additional 16 battalions. Enlistment terms extended to three years or to "the length of the war" to avoid the year-end crises that depleted forces (including the notable near-collapse of the army at the end of 1776, which could have ended the war in a Continental, or American, loss by forfeit).
The Continental Army of 1781–82 saw the greatest crisis on the American side in the war. Congress was bankrupt, making it very difficult to replenish the soldiers whose three-year terms had expired. Popular support for the war reached an all-time low, and Washington had to put down mutinies both in the Pennsylvania Line and in the New Jersey Line. Congress voted to cut funding for the Army, but Washington managed nevertheless to secure important strategic victories.
The Continental Army of 1783–84 was succeeded by the United States Army, which persists to this day. As peace was restored with the British, most of the regiments were disbanded in an orderly fashion, though several had already been diminished.
In addition to the Continental Army regulars, local militia units, raised and funded by individual colonies/states, participated in battles throughout the war. Sometimes the militia units operated independently of the Continental Army, but often local militias were called out to support and augment the Continental Army regulars during campaigns. (The militia troops developed a reputation for being prone to premature retreats, a fact that Brigadier-General Daniel Morgan integrated into his strategy at the Battle of Cowpens in 1781.)
The financial responsibility for providing pay, food, shelter, clothing, arms, and other equipment to specific units was assigned to states as part of the establishment of these units. States differed in how well they lived up to these obligations. There were constant funding issues and morale problems as the war continued. This led to the army offering low pay, often rotten food, hard work, cold, heat, poor clothing and shelter, harsh discipline, and a high chance of becoming a casualty.
Operations[edit]
Infantry of the Continental Army.
1778 drawing showing a Stockbridge Mahican Indian, Patriot soldier, of the Stockbridge Militia, in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, from the Revolutionary War diary of Hessian officer, Johann Von Ewald
1781 drawing of American soldiers from the Yorktown campaign showing a black infantryman, on the far left, from the 1st Rhode Island Regiment, one of the regiments in the Continental Army having the largest majority of black patriot soldiers. An estimated 4% of the Continental Army was black (see African Americans in the Revolutionary War).
At the time of the Siege of Boston, the Continental Army at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in June 1775, is estimated to have numbered from 14–16,000 men from New England (though the actual number may have been as low as 11,000 because of desertions). Until Washington's arrival, it remained under the command of Artemas Ward, while John Thomas acted as executive officer and Richard Gridley commanded the artillery corps and was chief engineer. It was during this siege that Washington allegedly uttered his famous words, "It is cold out here." This was a poetic representation of the harsh conditions the men endured during the summer of the siege, and a reference to a political cartoon by Benjamin Franklin. It served as a piece of satire as it was a remark about cold conditions, while the men experienced some of the hottest temperatures of that year.
The British force in Boston was increasing by fresh arrivals. It numbered then about 10,000 men. Major Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, had arrived late in May and joined General Gage in forming and executing plans for dispersing the rebels. Feeling strong with these veteran officers and soldiers around him—and the presence of several Men-of-War under Admiral Graves—the governor issued a proclamation, declaring martial law, branding the entire Continental Army and supporters as "rebels" and "parricides of the Constitution." Amnesty was offered to those who gave up their allegiance to the Continental Army and Congress in favor of the British authorities, though Samuel Adams and John Hancock were still wanted for high treason. This proclamation only served to strengthen the resolve of the Congress and Army.
After the British evacuation of Boston (prompted by the placement of Continental artillery overlooking the city in March 1776), the Continental Army relocated to New York. For the next five years, the main bodies of the Continental and British armies campaigned against one another in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. These campaigns included the notable battles of Trenton, Princeton, Brandywine, Germantown, and Morristown, among many others.
The Continental Army was racially integrated, a condition the United States Army would not see again until Truman ordered the desegregation of the military in 1948. African American slaves were promised freedom in exchange for military service in New England, and made up one fifth of the Northern Continental Army.[12]
Throughout its existence, the Army was troubled by poor logistics, inadequate training, short-term enlistments, interstate rivalries, and Congress's inability to compel the states to provide food, money or supplies. In the beginning, soldiers enlisted for a year, largely motivated by patriotism; but as the war dragged on, bounties and other incentives became more commonplace. Two major mutinies late in the war drastically diminished the reliability of two of the main units, and there were constant discipline problems.
The army increased its effectiveness and success rate through a series of trials and errors, often at great human cost. General Washington and other distinguished officers were instrumental leaders in preserving unity, learning and adapting, and ensuring discipline throughout the eight years of war. In the winter of 1777–1778, with the addition of Baron von Steuben, of Prussian origin, the training and discipline of the Continental Army began to vastly improve. (This was the infamous winter at Valley Forge.) Washington always viewed the Army as a temporary measure and strove to maintain civilian control of the military, as did the Continental Congress, though there were minor disagreements about how this was carried out.
Near the end of the war, the Continental Army was augmented by a French expeditionary force (under General Rochambeau) and a squadron of the French navy (under the Comte de Barras), and in the late summer of 1781 the main body of the army travelled south to Virginia to rendezvous with the French West Indies fleet under Admiral Comte de Grasse. This resulted in the Siege of Yorktown, the decisive Battle of the Chesapeake, and the surrender of the British southern army. This essentially marked the end of the land war in America, although the Continental Army returned to blockade the British northern army in New York until the peace treaty went into effect two years later, and battles took place elsewhere between British forces and those of France and its allies.
Demobilization[edit]
See also: Newburgh Conspiracy
A small residual force remained at West Point and some frontier outposts until Congress created the United States Army by their resolution of June 3, 1784.
Planning for the transition to a peacetime force had begun in April 1783 at the request of a congressional committee chaired by Alexander Hamilton. The commander-in-chief discussed the problem with key officers before submitting the army's official views on 2 May. Significantly, there was a broad consensus of the basic framework among the officers. Washington's proposal called for four components: a small regular army, a uniformly trained and organized militia, a system of arsenals, and a military academy to train the army's artillery and engineer officers. He wanted four infantry regiments, each assigned to a specific sector of the frontier, plus an artillery regiment. His proposed regimental organizations followed Continental Army patterns but had a provision for increased strength in the event of war. Washington expected the militia primarily to provide security for the country at the start of a war until the regular army could expand—the same role it had carried out in 1775 and 1776. Steuben and Duportail submitted their own proposals to Congress for consideration.
Although Congress declined on May 12 to make a decision on the peace establishment, it did address the need for some troops to remain on duty until the British evacuated New York City and several frontier posts. The delegates told Washington to use men enlisted for fixed terms as temporary garrisons. A detachment of those men from West Point reoccupied New York without incident on November 25. When Steuben's effort in July to negotiate a transfer of frontier forts with Major General Frederick Haldimand collapsed, however, the British maintained control over them, as they would into the 1790s. That failure and the realization that most of the remaining infantrymen's enlistments were due to expire by June 1784 led Washington to order Knox, his choice as the commander of the peacetime army, to discharge all but 500 infantry and 100 artillerymen before winter set in. The former regrouped as Jackson's Continental Regiment under Colonel Henry Jackson of Massachusetts. The single artillery company, New Yorkers under John Doughty, came from remnants of the 2nd Continental Artillery Regiment.
Congress issued a proclamation on October 18, 1783, which approved Washington's reductions. On November 2, Washington then released his Farewell Order to the Philadelphia newspapers for nationwide distribution to the furloughed men. In the message he thanked the officers and men for their assistance and reminded them that "the singular interpositions of Providence in our feeble condition were such, as could scarcely escape the attention of the most unobserving; while the unparalleled perseverance of the Armies of the United States, through almost every possible suffering and discouragement for the space of eight long years, was little short of a standing miracle."
Continental Army Plaza, Williamsburg, Brooklyn
Washington believed that the blending of persons from every colony into "one patriotic band of Brothers" had been a major accomplishment, and he urged the veterans to continue this devotion in civilian life.
Washington said farewell to his remaining officers on December 4 at Fraunces Tavern in New York City. On December 23 he appeared in Congress, then sitting at Annapolis, and returned his commission as commander-in-chief: "Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of Action; and bidding an Affectionate farewell to this August body under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my Commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life." Congress ended the War of American Independence on January 14, 1784, by ratifying the definitive peace treaty that had been signed in Paris on September 3.
Congress had again rejected Washington's concept for a peacetime force in October 1783. When moderate delegates then offered an alternative in April 1784 which scaled the projected army down to 900 men in one artillery and three infantry battalions, Congress rejected it as well, in part because New York feared that men retained from Massachusetts might take sides in a land dispute between the two states. Another proposal to retain 350 men and raise 700 new recruits also failed. On June 2 Congress ordered the discharge of all remaining men except twenty-five caretakers at Fort Pitt and fifty-five at West Point. The next day it created a peace establishment acceptable to all interests.
The plan required four states to raise 700 men for one year's service. Congress instructed the Secretary at War to form the troops into eight infantry and two artillery companies. Pennsylvania, with a quota of 260 men, had the power to nominate a lieutenant colonel, who would be the senior officer. New York and Connecticut each were to raise 165 men and nominate a major; the remaining 110 men came from New Jersey. Economy was the watchword of this proposal, for each major served as a company commander, and line officers performed all staff duties except those of chaplain, surgeon, and surgeon's mate. Under Josiah Harmar, the First American Regiment slowly organized and achieved permanent status as an infantry regiment of the new Regular Army. The lineage of the First American Regiment is carried on by the 3rd United States Infantry Regiment (The Old Guard).
However the United States military realized it needed a well-trained standing army following St. Clair's Defeat on November 4, 1791, when a force led by General Arthur St. Clair was almost entirely wiped out by the Western Confederacy near Fort Recovery, Ohio. The plans, which were supported by U.S. President George Washington and Henry Knox, Secretary of War, led to the disbandment of the Continental Army and the creation of the Legion of the United States. The command would be based on the 18th-century military works of Henry Bouquet, a professional Swiss soldier who served as a colonel in the British army, and French Marshal Maurice de Saxe. In 1792 Anthony Wayne, a renowned hero of the American Revolutionary War, was encouraged to leave retirement and return to active service as Commander-in-Chief of the Legion with the rank of Major General.
The legion was recruited and raised in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It was formed into four sub-legions. These were created from elements of the 1st and 2nd Regiments from the Continental Army. These units then became the First and Second Sub-Legions. The Third and Fourth Sub-Legions were raised from further recruits. From June 1792 to November 1792, the Legion remained cantoned at Fort LaFayette in Pittsburgh. Throughout the winter of 1792–93, existing troops along with new recruits were drilled in military skills, tactics and discipline at Legionville on the banks of the Ohio River near present-day Baden, Pennsylvania. The following Spring the newly named Legion of the United States left Legionville for the Northwest Indian War, a struggle between American Indian tribes affiliated with the Western Confederacy in the area south of the Ohio River. The overwhelmingly successful campaign was concluded with the decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794, Maj. Gen. Anthony Wayne applied the techniques of wilderness operations perfected by Sullivan's 1779 expedition against the Iroquois. The training the troops received at Legionville was also seen as an instrumental to this overwhelming victory.
Nevertheless, Steuben's Blue Book remained the official manual for the legion, as well as for the militia of most states, until Winfield Scott in 1835. In 1796, the United States Army was raised following the discontinuation with the legion of the United States. This preceded the graduation of the first cadets from United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, which was established in 1802.
Rank insignia[edit]
Ribands as rank insignia: Aide-de-camp, commander-in-chief, brigadier-general.
During the American Revolutionary War, the Continental Army initially wore ribbons, cockades and epaulettes of various colors as an ad hoc form of rank insignia, as General George Washington wrote in 1775:
"As the Continental Army has unfortunately no uniforms, and consequently many inconveniences must arise from not being able to distinguish the commissioned officers from the privates, it is desired that some badge of distinction be immediately provided; for instance that the field officers may have red or pink colored cockades in their hats, the captains yellow or buff, and the subalterns green."
In 1776 captains were to have buff or white cockades.
Rank insignia of the Continental Army 1775 [13]
Ribands across the breast
Cockades in the hats
Epaulettes or stripes on the right shoulder
General
and
commander-in-chief
Major general
Brigadier general
Aide-de-camp
Colonel,
Lieutenant colonel,
Major
Captain
Lieutenant, Ensign
Sergeant
Corporal
Later on in the war, the Continental Army established its own uniform with a black cockade (as used in much of the British Army) among all ranks and the following insignia:
Ranks and insignia of the Continental Army 1780[14]
General and
Commander-in-Chief
Major general
Brigadier general
Colonel
Lieutenant colonel
Aide-de-camp
Major
Captain
Subaltern
Lieutenant
Ensign
Sergeant major
Sergeant
Corporal
Private
Gold epaulets
Jacket with gold trim
Silver epaulets
Gold epaulets
Hat with green cockade
Gold epaulets
Gold epaulet
(Right shoulder)
Gold epaulet
(Left shoulder)
No epaulets
Red epaulets
Red epaulet
(Right shoulder)
Green epaulet
(Right shoulder)
No epaulets

Major battles[edit]
Siege of Boston
Battle of Long Island
Battle of Harlem Heights
Battle of Trenton
Battle of Princeton
Battle of Brandywine
Battle of Germantown
Battle of Saratoga
Battle of Monmouth
Siege of Charleston
Battle of Camden
Battle of Cowpens
Battle of Guilford Court House
Siege of Yorktown
See also[edit]
American Revolutionary War portal
United States Army portal
Pluckemin Continental Artillery Cantonment Site
History of the United States Army
Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States
Peter Francisco, Revolutionary War soldier and hero
Middlebrook encampment in Middlebrook, New Jersey, winter of 1776–77 and winter of 1778–79
Jockey Hollow, near Morristown, New Jersey, winter of 1779–80
New Jersey Brigade Encampment Site, adjacent to Jockey Hollow, winter of 1779–80
Badge of Military Merit
Fidelity Medallion
Service stripe
List of infantry weapons in the American Revolution
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Wright, 1983, pp. 10-11
^ Jump up to: a b Cont'l Cong., Formation of the Continental Army, in 2 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 89–90 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905).
Jump up ^ Cont'l Cong., Commission for General Washington, in 2 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 96-7 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905).
Jump up ^ Cont'l Cong., Instructions for General Washington, in 2 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 100-1 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905).
Jump up ^ Cont'l Cong., Resolution Changing "United Colonies" to "United States", in 5 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 747 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905).
Jump up ^ Cont'l Cong., Acceptance of Appointment by General Washington, in 2 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 91–92 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905).
Jump up ^ Rosen, David M. (2015). Child Soldiers in the Western Imagination: From Patriots to Victims. Rutgers University Press.
Jump up ^ Cont'l Cong., Commissions for Generals Ward and Lee, in 2 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 97 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905).
Jump up ^ Cont'l Cong., Commissions for Generals Schuyler and Putnam, in 2 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 99 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905).
Jump up ^ Cont'l Cong., Commissions for Generals Pomeroy, Montgomery, Wooster, Heath, Spencer, Thomas, Sullivan, and Greene, in 2 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 103 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905).
Jump up ^ Cont'l Cong., Commission for General Thomas, in 2 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 191 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905).
Jump up ^ Liberty! The American Revolution (Documentary) Episode II: Blows Must Decide: 1774–1776. Twin Cities Public Television, 1997. ISBN 1-4157-0217-9
Jump up ^ Steven A. Bingaman (2013), The History of American Ranks and Rank Insignia, p. 11.
Jump up ^ Mollo, John (1975). Uniforms of the American Revolution in Color. New York: MacMillian. p. 34-36,164-166,167-169. these are plate numbers, but there isn't a wiki reference tag for that. Needs one.
Bibliography[edit]
Wright, Robert K. (1983). The Continental Army. Center of Military History, U.S. Army. , 451 pages, eBook
Further reading[edit]
Carp, E. Wayne. To Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775–1783. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984. ISBN 0-8078-1587-X.
Cox, Caroline. Boy Soldiers of the American Revolution. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2016.
Gillett, Mary C. The Army Medical Department, 1775–1818. Washington: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1981.
Lengel, Edward G. General George Washington: A Military Life. New York: Random House, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-6081-8.
Martin, James Kirby, and Mark Edward Lender. A Respectable Army: The Military Origins of the Republic, 1763–1789. 2nd ed. Wheeling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, 2006. ISBN 0-88295-239-0.
Mayer, Holly A. Belonging to the Army: Camp Followers and Community during the American Revolution. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1999. ISBN 1-57003-339-0; ISBN 1-57003-108-8.
Risch, Erna (1981). Supplying Washington's Army. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History.
Royster, Charles. A Revolutionary People at War: The Continental Army and American Character, 1775–1783. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979. ISBN 0-8078-1385-0.
Reference materials
RevWar75.com provides "an online cross-referenced index of all surviving orderly books of the Continental Army".
Wright, Robert K. The Continental Army. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History 1983. Available, in part, online from the CMH website
Bibliography of the Continental Army compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History
Primary Sources
Wright Jr., Robert K.; MacGregor Jr., Morris J. "Resolutions of the Continental Congress Adopting the Continental Army and other Sources from the Revolution". Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. E302.5.W85 1987. Washington D.C: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 71-25.
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