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United Nations Economic and Social Council
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United Nations Economic and Social Council
The room of the United Nations Economic and Social Council. UN headquarters, New York City, New York, U.S.
Abbreviation
ECOSOC
CESNU
Formation
1945; 73 years ago (1945)[1]
Type
Primary organ
Legal status
Active
Head
President of the ECOSOC
As of 29 July 2017[update]:
Marie Chatardová[2]
Website
www.un.org/en/ecosoc
United Nations System
Principal Organs
United Nations Secretariat
United Nations Security Council
United Nations General Assembly
International Court of Justice
United Nations Economic and Social Council
United Nations Trusteeship Council
The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC; French: Conseil économique et social des Nations unies, CESNU) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations, responsible for coordinating the economic, social, and related work of 15 UN specialized agencies, their functional commissions and five regional commissions. The ECOSOC has 54 members. The General Assembly selects 18 new members for ECOSOC each year for the term of 3 years with a provision that a retiring member can be re-elected. It holds one seven-week session each year in July, and since 1998, it has also held an annual meeting in April with finance ministers heading key committees of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
ECOSOC serves as the central forum for discussing international economic and social issues and formulating policy recommendations addressed to member states and the United Nations system.[3] A number of non-governmental organisations have been granted consultative status to the Council to participate in the work of the United Nations.
Contents
[hide]
1 President
2 Members
2.1 Observer Inter-Governmental Autonomous organisations
3 Functional commissions
4 Regional commissions
5 Specialised agencies
6 Other related entities, mechanisms and processes
7 "World Economic and Social Survey 2011: The Great Green Technological Transformation"
8 Reform of the Economic and Social Council
9 Chamber design
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
President[edit]
The president is elected for a one-year term and chosen from the small or mid-sized powers represented on the ECOSOC.[2] Marie Chatardová was elected seventy-third President of the Economic and Social Council on 27 July 2017. Ambassador Chatardová is currently the Ambassador and Permanent Representative of the Czech Republic to the United Nations in New York.
Presidents
Term
President
From
2017 Mr. Marc Smith Switzerland
2016 Mr. Frederick Musiiwa Makamure Shava Zimbabwe
2015 Mr. Oh Joon Republic of Korea
2014 Mr. Martin Sajdik Austria
2013 Mr. Néstor Osorio Londoño Colombia
2012 Mr. Miloš Koterec Slovakia
2011 Mr. Lazarous Kapambwe Zambia
2010 Mr. Hamidon Ali Malaysia
2009 Ms. Sylvie Lucas Luxembourg
2008 Mr. Léo Mérorès Haiti
2007 Mr. Dalius Čekuolis Lithuania
2006 Mr. Ali Hachani Tunisia
2005 Mr. Munir Akram Pakistan
Members[edit]
See also: List of members of the United Nations Economic and Social Council
The Council has 54 member states out of the 193 UN member states, which are elected by the United Nations General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms. Seats on the Council are based on geographical representation with 14 allocated to African states, 11to Asia-Pacific states, 6 to East European states, 10 to Latin American and Caribbean states and 13 to West European and other states.
Term
African States (14)
Asian States (11)
Eastern European
States (6)
Latin American &
Caribbean States (10)
Western European &
Other States (13)
2018-20[4] Ghana
Malawi
Morocco
Sudan
Togo India
Japan
Iran

Philippines
Belarus Ecuador
El Salvador
Mexico
Uruguay France
Germany
Ireland
Spain
Turkey
2017-19[5] Benin
Cameroon
Chad
Swaziland China
Republic of Korea
Tajikistan
United Arab Emirates Azerbaijan
Russian Federation
Bosnia and Herzegovina Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Colombia
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Norway
Sweden
Andorra
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
2016-18 Algeria
Somalia
South Africa
Rwanda
Nigeria Afghanistan
Lebanon
Iraq
Viet Nam Republic of Moldova
Czech Republic Chile
Guyana
Peru Australia
Italy
Belgium
United States of America
2015-17 Burkina Faso
Ghana
Mauritania
Uganda
Zimbabwe India
Japan
Pakistan Estonia Argentina
Brazil
Honduras
Trinidad and Tobago France
Germany
Greece
Portugal
2014-16 Botswana
Congo
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Togo Bangladesh
China
Republic of Korea
Kazakhstan Georgia
Russian Federation
Serbia Antigua and Barbuda
Guatemala
Panama Finland
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
2013-15 Tunisia
Benin
Mauritius
South Africa
Sudan Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Nepal
Turkmenistan Albania
Croatia Bolivia (Plurinational State of)
Colombia
Haiti Australia
United States of America
Italy
San Marino
Before 2013 Botswana' Bangladesh' Albania Antigua and Barbuda' Austria
Benin China Belarus Bolivia (Plurinational State of) Canada
Burkina Faso India Bulgaria* Brazil Denmark
Cameroon* Indonesia Croatia Colombia France
Congo' Japan Georgia' Cuba Ireland*
Democratic Republic of the Congo' Kazakhstan' Latvia* Dominican Republic Netherlands*
Ethiopia Kuwait Russian Federation Ecuador* New Zealand
Gabon* Kyrgyzstan Serbia' El Salvador San Marino
Lesotho Nepal Guatemala' Spain*
Libya Pakistan* Haiti Sweden
Malawi* Qatar* Mexico* Turkey*
Mauritius Republic of Korea Nicaragua* United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Nigeria Turkmenistan Panama' United States of America
Senegal*
South Africa
Sudan
Togo'
Tunisia
ECOSOC Resolution 2007/25: Support to Non-Self-Governing Territories by the specialised agencies and international institutions associated with the United Nations (26 July 2007)
Observer Inter-Governmental Autonomous organisations[edit]
Participation on a continuing basis:[6]
African Regional Centre of Technology
Asian and Pacific Development Centre
Asian Productivity Organisation
Council of Arab Economic Unity
Global Water Partnership
Helsinki Commission
Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture
Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable Development
Intergovernmental Institution For the Use of Micro-Algae Spirulina Against Malnutrition - IIMSAM
International Association of Economic and Social Councils and Similar Institutions
International Center for Public Enterprises in Developing Countries
International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
Latin American Energy Organisation
Organisation of Ibero-American States
Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
Regional organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment
Union des Conseils Économiques et Sociaux Africains
Economic Community of West African States
World Deserts Foundation
World Tourism Organisation
Participation on an ad hoc basis:[6]
African Accounting Council
African Cultural Institute
Arab Security Studies and Training Center
Council of Arab Ministers of the Interior
International Bauxite Association
International Civil Defence Organisation
Latin American Social Sciences Institute
Functional commissions[edit]
UN Commission for Social Development
UN Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR): disbanded 2006, replaced by the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC), a subsidiary organ of the General Assembly
Commission on Narcotic Drugs
Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice
Commission on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD)
Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) – Disbanded 2013, replaced with High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development a joint subsidiary body of the General Assembly and ECOSOC
UN Commission on the Status of Women (UN CSW)
The UN Commission on the Status of Women formally became a functional commission of the Economic and Social Council on 21 June 1946[7]. The UN Commission on the status of women is a global intergovernmental body dedicated to promoting gender equality, and empowering women[7]. Originally, the proposal for the council was turned down with the thought that the Commission on Human Rights would be sufficient to deal with women’s issues[8]. Eventually at the urging of the then Danish delegate, Bodil Begtrup, the Commission on the Status of Women was formed as a freestanding functional commission, dedicated specifically to women’s issues, in 1946[8]. Bodil Begtrup went on to become the first chair of the Commission on the Status of Women. The Commission on the Status of Women engages with the Commission on Human Rights and serves as a lobby specifically for women, often working closely with women’s NGOs[8]. The commission was initially focused on women’s rights to equality, gradually shifting to a focus on issues of women’s education, social status, political equality etc[8].
Commission on Population and Development
UN Statistical Commission
United Nations Forum on Forests
Regional commissions[edit]
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE)
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA)
United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA)
Specialised agencies[edit]
These specialised agencies are autonomous organisations working with the United Nations and each other inter alia through the coordinating machinery of the Economic and Social Council.[9][citation needed]
International Labour Organisation (ILO)
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
World Health Organisation (WHO)
World Bank Group
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
International Development Association (IDA)
International Finance Corporation (IFC)
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)
International Maritime Organisation (IMO)
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
Universal Postal Union (UPU)
World Meteorological Organisation (WMO)
World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO)
United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO)
Other related entities, mechanisms and processes[edit]
Financing for Development, the Monterrey Consensus and Doha Declaration
Development Cooperation Forum
United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII)
Sessional and Standing Committees Expert, ad hoc and related bodies
United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
United Nations Interagency Task Force on the Prevention and Control of NCDs (UNIATF)
International Federation for Family Development has general consultative status
"World Economic and Social Survey 2011: The Great Green Technological Transformation"[edit]
In a report issued in early July 2011, the UN called for spending nearly USD 2 trillion on green technologies to prevent what it termed "a major planetary catastrophe", warning that "It is rapidly expanding energy use, mainly driven by fossil fuels, that explains why humanity is on the verge of breaching planetary sustainability boundaries through global warming, biodiversity loss, and disturbance of the nitrogen-cycle balance and other measures of the sustainability of the earth's ecosystem".
UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon added: "Rather than viewing growth and sustainability as competing goals on a collision course, we must see them as complementary and mutually supportive imperatives". The report concluded that "Business as usual is not an option".[10]
Reform of the Economic and Social Council[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Governance of the multilateral system has historically been complex and fragmented. This has limited the capacity of ECOSOC to influence international policies in trade, finance and investment. Reform proposals aim to enhance the relevance and contribution of the council. A major reform was approved by the 2005 World Summit on the basis of proposals submitted by secretary-general Kofi Annan.[11] The Summit aimed to establish ECOSOC as a quality platform for high-level engagement among member states and with international financial institutions, the private sector and civil society on global trends, policies and action. It was decided to hold biennial high-level Development Cooperation Forums at the national-leadership level by transforming the high-level segment of the Council to review trends in international development cooperation and promote greater coherence in development activities. At the Summit it was also decided to hold annual ministerial-level substantive reviews to assess progress in achieving internationally agreed development goals (particularly the Millennium Development Goals). These "Annual Ministerial Reviews" will be replaced by the High Level Political Forum from 2016 onwards after the new post-MDG/post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals are agreed.
Subsequent proposals by the High-Level Panel Report on System-Wide Coherence in November 2006 aimed to establish a forum within the ECOSOC as a counter-model to the exclusive clubs of the G8 and G20. The Forum was to comprise 27 heads of state (L27, corresponding to half of ECOSOC's membership) to meet annually and provide international leadership in the development area. This proposal, however, was not approved by the General Assembly.
Chamber design[edit]
The Economic and Social Council Chamber in the United Nations Conference Building was a gift from Sweden. It was conceived by Swedish architect Sven Markelius, one of the 11 architects in the international team that designed the UN headquarters. Wood from Swedish pine trees was used in the delegates' area for the railings and doors.
The pipes and ducts in the ceiling above the public gallery were deliberately left exposed; the architect believed that anything useful could be left uncovered. The "unfinished" ceiling is a symbolic reminder that the economic and social work of the United Nations is never finished; there will always be something more which can be done to improve living conditions for the world's people.[12]
See also[edit]
Consultative status
List of organisations with consultative status to the United Nations Economic and Social Council
Copenhagen Consensus
French Economic and Social Council
European Economic and Social Committee (EU)
Hard Choices: Moral Dilemmas in Humanitarian Intervention
International Court of Justice
International Hydrological Programme
UN General Assembly
UN Secretariat
UN Security Council
UN Trusteeship Council
UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Union of International Associations
Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "About Us - UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC and SOCIAL COUNCIL". www.un.org.
^ Jump up to: a b "ECOSOC: President: Welcome". United Nations. Retrieved 2015-08-18.
Jump up ^ "Background Information". UN Economic and Social Council.
Jump up ^ "General Assembly Unanimously Adopts Text Creating United Nations Counter-Terrorism Office; Elects 18 Members to Economic and Social Council | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases". www.un.org.
Jump up ^ "General Assembly Elects 18 Members of Economic and Social Council, Also Adopts Texts, Including One Designating 29 June International Day of Tropics | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases". www.un.org.
^ Jump up to: a b ECOSOC observers, Part V Archived 22 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b "Commission on the Status of Women".
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Research paper" (PDF). .mpil.de.
Jump up ^ Cohn, Theodore H. (2016-05-05). Global Political Economy: Theory and Practice. Routledge. ISBN 9781317334828.
Jump up ^ "The World Economic and Social Survey 2011: The Great Green Technological Transformation'". Thaindian News. Retrieved 23 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Ian Williams, "Annan has paid his dues". The Guardian, 19 September 2005
Jump up ^ UN website.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to United Nations Economic and Social Council.
United Nations Economic and Social Council
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United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
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United Nations
http://www.un.org/french/pubs/chronique/2006/numero1/0106p54.htm "The Group of Eight, ECOSOC and the Constitutional Paradox"
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Lymphatic system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Lymphatic drainage" redirects here. For the massage technique, see Manual lymphatic drainage.
Lymphatic System
Human lymphatic system
Details
Identifiers
Latin
systema lymphoideum
TA
A13.0.00.000
FMA
74594
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The Lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system and a vital part of the immune system, comprising a network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph (from Latin, lympha meaning "water"[1]) directionally towards the heart. The lymphatic system was first described in the seventeenth century independently by Olaus Rudbeck and Thomas Bartholin. Unlike the circulatory system, the lymphatic system is not a closed system. The human circulatory system processes an average of 20 liters of blood per day through capillary filtration, which removes plasma while leaving the blood cells. Roughly 17 litres of the filtered plasma are reabsorbed directly into the blood vessels, while the remaining three litres remain in the interstitial fluid. One of the main functions of the lymph system is to provide an accessory return route to the blood for the surplus three litres.[2]
The other main function is that of defense in the immune system. Lymph is very similar to blood plasma: it contains lymphocytes. It also contains waste products and cellular debris together with bacteria and proteins. Associated organs composed of lymphoid tissue are the sites of lymphocyte production. Lymphocytes are concentrated in the lymph nodes. The spleen and the thymus are also lymphoid organs of the immune system. The tonsils are lymphoid organs that are also associated with the digestive system. Lymphoid tissues contain lymphocytes, and also contain other types of cells for support.[3] The system also includes all the structures dedicated to the circulation and production of lymphocytes (the primary cellular component of lymph), which also includes the bone marrow, and the lymphoid tissue associated with the digestive system.[4]
The blood does not come into direct contact with the parenchymal cells and tissues in the body (except in case of an injury causing rupture of one or more blood vessels), but constituents of the blood first exit the microvascular exchange blood vessels to become interstitial fluid, which comes into contact with the parenchymal cells of the body. Lymph is the fluid that is formed when interstitial fluid enters the initial lymphatic vessels of the lymphatic system. The lymph is then moved along the lymphatic vessel network by either intrinsic contractions of the lymphatic passages or by extrinsic compression of the lymphatic vessels via external tissue forces (e.g., the contractions of skeletal muscles), or by lymph hearts in some animals. The organization of lymph nodes and drainage follows the organization of the body into external and internal regions; therefore, the lymphatic drainage of the head, limbs, and body cavity walls follows an external route, and the lymphatic drainage of the thorax, abdomen, and pelvic cavities follows an internal route.[5] Eventually, the lymph vessels empty into the lymphatic ducts, which drain into one of the two subclavian veins, near their junction with the internal jugular veins.
Play media
Introduction to the lymphatic system
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Lymphoid tissue
1.1.1 Thymus
1.1.2 Spleen
1.1.3 Lymph nodes
1.2 Other lymphoid tissue
1.3 Lymphatic vessels
1.4 Development
2 Function
2.1 Function of the fatty acid transport system
2.2 Immune function
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Lymphadenopathy
3.2 Lymphedema
3.3 Cancer
3.4 Other
4 History
4.1 Etymology
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Structure[edit]
Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic organs, a conducting network of lymphatic vessels, and the circulating lymph.
The primary or central lymphoid organs generate lymphocytes from immature progenitor cells.
The thymus and the bone marrow constitute the primary lymphoid organs involved in the production and early clonal selection of lymphocyte tissues. Bone marrow is responsible for both the creation of T cells and the production and maturation of B cells. From the bone marrow, B cells immediately join the circulatory system and travel to secondary lymphoid organs in search of pathogens. T cells, on the other hand, travel from the bone marrow to the thymus, where they develop further. Mature T cells join B cells in search of pathogens. The other 95% of T cells begin a process of apoptosis, a form of programmed cell death.
Secondary or peripheral lymphoid organs, which include lymph nodes and the spleen, maintain mature naive lymphocytes and initiate an adaptive immune response. The peripheral lymphoid organs are the sites of lymphocyte activation by antigens. Activation leads to clonal expansion and affinity maturation. Mature lymphocytes recirculate between the blood and the peripheral lymphoid organs until they encounter their specific antigen.
Secondary lymphoid tissue provides the environment for the foreign or altered native molecules (antigens) to interact with the lymphocytes. It is exemplified by the lymph nodes, and the lymphoid follicles in tonsils, Peyer's patches, spleen, adenoids, skin, etc. that are associated with the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT).
In the gastrointestinal wall the appendix has mucosa resembling that of the colon, but here it is heavily infiltrated with lymphocytes.
The tertiary lymphoid tissue[clarification needed] typically contains far fewer lymphocytes, and assumes an immune role only when challenged with antigens that result in inflammation. It achieves this by importing the lymphocytes from blood and lymph.[6])
Lymphoid tissue[edit]
Thymus[edit]
Main article: Thymus
The thymus is a primary lymphoid organ and the site of maturation for T cells, the lymphocytes of the adaptive immune system. The thymus increases in size from birth in response to postnatal antigen stimulation, then to puberty and regresses thereafter.[7] The loss or lack of the thymus results in severe immunodeficiency and subsequent high susceptibility to infection.[7] In most species, the thymus consists of lobules divided by septa which are made up of epithelium and is therefore an epithelial organ. T cells mature from thymocytes, proliferate and undergo selection process in the thymic cortex before entering the medulla to interact with epithelial cells.
The thymus provides an inductive environment for development of T cells from hematopoietic progenitor cells. In addition, thymic stromal cells allow for the selection of a functional and self-tolerant T cell repertoire. Therefore, one of the most important roles of the thymus is the induction of central tolerance.
The thymus is largest and most active during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods. By the early teens, the thymus begins to atrophy and thymic stroma is mostly replaced by adipose tissue. Nevertheless, residual T lymphopoiesis continues throughout adult life.
Spleen[edit]
Main article: Spleen
The main functions of the spleen are:
to produce immune cells to fight antigens
to remove particulate matter and aged blood cells, mainly erythrocytes
to produce blood cells during fetal life
The spleen synthesizes antibodies in its white pulp and removes antibody-coated bacteria and antibody-coated blood cells by way of blood and lymph node circulation. A study published in 2009 using mice found that the spleen contains, in its reserve, half of the body's monocytes within the red pulp.[8] These monocytes, upon moving to injured tissue (such as the heart), turn into dendritic cells and macrophages while promoting tissue healing.[8][9][10] The spleen is a center of activity of the mononuclear phagocyte system and can be considered analogous to a large lymph node, as its absence causes a predisposition to certain infections.
Like the thymus, the spleen has only efferent lymphatic vessels. Both the short gastric arteries and the splenic artery supply it with blood.[11]
The germinal centers are supplied by arterioles called penicilliary radicles.[12]
Up to the fifth month of prenatal development the spleen creates red blood cells. After birth the bone marrow is solely responsible for hematopoiesis. As a major lymphoid organ and a central player in the reticuloendothelial system, the spleen retains the ability to produce lymphocytes. The spleen stores red blood cells and lymphocytes. It can store enough blood cells to help in an emergency. Up to 25% of lymphocytes can be stored at any one time.[13]
Lymph nodes[edit]
Main article: Lymph node
A lymph node showing afferent and efferent lymphatic vessels
A lymph node is an organized collection of lymphoid tissue, through which the lymph passes on its way back to the blood. Lymph nodes are located at intervals along the lymphatic system. Several afferent lymph vessels bring in lymph, which percolates through the substance of the lymph node, and is then drained out by an efferent lymph vessel. There are between five and six hundred lymph nodes in the human body, many of which are grouped in clusters in different regions as in the underarm and abdominal areas. Lymph node clusters are commonly found at the base of limbs (groin, armpits) and in the neck, where lymph is collected from regions of the body likely to sustain pathogen contamination from injuries.
The substance of a lymph node consists of lymphoid follicles in an outer portion called the cortex. The inner portion of the node is called the medulla, which is surrounded by the cortex on all sides except for a portion known as the hilum. The hilum presents as a depression on the surface of the lymph node, causing the otherwise spherical lymph node to be bean-shaped or ovoid. The efferent lymph vessel directly emerges from the lymph node at the hilum. The arteries and veins supplying the lymph node with blood enter and exit through the hilum.
The region of the lymph node called the paracortex immediately surrounds the medulla. Unlike the cortex, which has mostly immature T cells, or thymocytes, the paracortex has a mixture of immature and mature T cells. Lymphocytes enter the lymph nodes through specialised high endothelial venules found in the paracortex.
A lymph follicle is a dense collection of lymphocytes, the number, size and configuration of which change in accordance with the functional state of the lymph node. For example, the follicles expand significantly when encountering a foreign antigen. The selection of B cells, or B lymphocytes, occurs in the germinal center of the lymph nodes.
Lymph nodes are particularly numerous in the mediastinum in the chest, neck, pelvis, axilla, inguinal region, and in association with the blood vessels of the intestines.[4]
Other lymphoid tissue[edit]
Regional lymph nodes
Lymphoid tissue associated with the lymphatic system is concerned with immune functions in defending the body against infections and the spread of tumors. It consists of connective tissue formed of reticular fibers, with various types of leukocytes, (white blood cells), mostly lymphocytes enmeshed in it, through which the lymph passes.[14] Regions of the lymphoid tissue that are densely packed with lymphocytes are known as lymphoid follicles. Lymphoid tissue can either be structurally well organized as lymph nodes or may consist of loosely organized lymphoid follicles known as the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue.
The central nervous system also has lymphatic vessels, as discovered by University of Virginia Researchers. The search for T-cell gateways into and out of the meninges uncovered functional lymphatic vessels lining the dural sinuses, anatomically integrated into the membrane surrounding the brain.[15] [16] See Meningeal lymphatic vessels.
Lymphatic vessels[edit]
Main article: Lymphatic vessel
Lymph capillaries in the tissue spaces
The lymphatic vessels, also called lymph vessels, conduct lymph between different parts of the body. They include the tubular vessels of the lymph capillaries, and the larger collecting vessels–the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct (the left lymphatic duct). The lymph capillaries are mainly responsible for the absorption of interstitial fluid from the tissues, while lymph vessels propel the absorbed fluid forward into the larger collecting ducts, where it ultimately returns to the bloodstream via one of the subclavian veins. These vessels are also called the lymphatic channels or simply lymphatics.[17]
The lymphatics are responsible for maintaining the balance of the body fluids. Its network of capillaries and collecting lymphatic vessels work to efficiently drain and transport extravasated fluid, along with proteins and antigens, back to the circulatory system. Numerous intraluminal valves in the vessels ensure a unidirectional flow of lymph without reflux.[18] Two valve systems are used to achieve this one directional flow—a primary and a secondary valve system.[19] The capillaries are blind-ended, and the valves at the ends of capillaries use specialised junctions together with anchoring filaments to allow a unidirectional flow to the primary vessels. The collecting lymphatics, however, act to propel the lymph by the combined actions of the intraluminal valves and lymphatic muscle cells.[20]
Development[edit]
Lymphatic tissues begin to develop by the end of the fifth week of embryonic development. Lymphatic vessels develop from lymph sacs that arise from developing veins, which are derived from mesoderm.
The first lymph sacs to appear are the paired jugular lymph sacs at the junction of the internal jugular and subclavian veins. From the jugular lymph sacs, lymphatic capillary plexuses spread to the thorax, upper limbs, neck and head. Some of the plexuses enlarge and form lymphatic vessels in their respective regions. Each jugular lymph sac retains at least one connection with its jugular vein, the left one developing into the superior portion of the thoracic duct.
The next lymph sac to appear is the unpaired retroperitoneal lymph sac at the root of the mesentery of the intestine. It develops from the primitive vena cava and mesonephric veins. Capillary plexuses and lymphatic vessels spread from the retroperitoneal lymph sac to the abdominal viscera and diaphragm. The sac establishes connections with the cisterna chyli but loses its connections with neighboring veins.
The last of the lymph sacs, the paired posterior lymph sacs, develop from the iliac veins. The posterior lymph sacs produce capillary plexuses and lymphatic vessels of the abdominal wall, pelvic region, and lower limbs. The posterior lymph sacs join the cisterna chyli and lose their connections with adjacent veins.
With the exception of the anterior part of the sac from which the cisterna chyli develops, all lymph sacs become invaded by mesenchymal cells and are converted into groups of lymph nodes.
The spleen develops from mesenchymal cells between layers of the dorsal mesentery of the stomach. The thymus arises as an outgrowth of the third pharyngeal pouch.
Function[edit]
The lymphatic system has multiple interrelated functions:[21]
It is responsible for the removal of interstitial fluid from tissues
It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chyle from the digestive system
It transports white blood cells to and from the lymph nodes into the bones
The lymph transports antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells, to the lymph nodes where an immune response is stimulated.
Function of the fatty acid transport system[edit]
Lymph vessels called lacteals are in the beginning of the gastrointestinal tract, predominantly in the small intestine. While most other nutrients absorbed by the small intestine are passed on to the portal venous system to drain via the portal vein into the liver for processing, fats (lipids) are passed on to the lymphatic system to be transported to the blood circulation via the thoracic duct. (There are exceptions, for example medium-chain triglycerides are fatty acid esters of glycerol that passively diffuse from the GI tract to the portal system.) The enriched lymph originating in the lymphatics of the small intestine is called chyle. The nutrients that are released to the circulatory system are processed by the liver, having passed through the systemic circulation.
Immune function[edit]
Further information: Immune system
The lymphatic system plays a major role in body's immune system, as the primary site for cells relating to adaptive immune system including T-cells and B-cells. Cells in the lymphatic system react to antigens presented or found by the cells directly or by other dendritic cells. When an antigen is recognized, an immunological cascade begins involving the activation and recruitment of more and more cells, the production of antibodies and cytokines and the recruitment of other immunological cells such as macrophages.
Clinical significance[edit]
Main article: Lymphatic disease
The study of lymphatic drainage of various organs is important in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of cancer. The lymphatic system, because of its closeness to many tissues of the body, is responsible for carrying cancerous cells between the various parts of the body in a process called metastasis. The intervening lymph nodes can trap the cancer cells. If they are not successful in destroying the cancer cells the nodes may become sites of secondary tumors.
Lymphadenopathy[edit]
Main article: Lymphadenopathy
Lymphadenopathy refers to one or more enlarged lymph nodes. Small groups or individually enlarged lymph nodes are generally reactive in response to infection or inflammation. This is called local lymphadenopathy. When many lymph nodes in different areas of the body are involved, this is called generalised lymphadenopathy. Generalised lymphadenopathy may be caused by infections such as infectious mononucleosis, tuberculosis and HIV, connective tissue diseases such as SLE and rheumatoid arthritis, and cancers, including both cancers of tissue within lymph nodes, discussed below, and metastasis of cancerous cells from other parts of the body, that have arrived via the lymphatic system.[22]
Lymphedema[edit]
Main article: Lymphedema
Lymphedema is the swelling caused by the accumulation of lymph, which may occur if the lymphatic system is damaged or has malformations. It usually affects limbs, though the face, neck and abdomen may also be affected. In an extreme state, called elephantiasis, the edema progresses to the extent that the skin becomes thick with an appearance similar to the skin on elephant limbs.[23]
Causes are unknown in most cases, but sometimes there is a previous history of severe infection, usually caused by a parasitic disease, such as lymphatic filariasis.
Lymphangiomatosis is a disease involving multiple cysts or lesions formed from lymphatic vessels.[relevant to this paragraph? – discuss]
Lymphedema can also occur after surgical removal of lymph nodes in the armpit (causing the arm to swell due to poor lymphatic drainage) or groin (causing swelling of the leg). Treatment is by massage, and is not permanent.[clarification needed]
Cancer[edit]
Reed–Sternberg cells.
Main article: Lymphoma
Cancer of the lymphatic system can be primary or secondary. Lymphoma refers to cancer that arises from lymphatic tissue. Lymphoid leukemias and lymphomas are now considered to be tumors of the same type of cell lineage. They are called "leukemia" when in the blood or marrow and "lymphoma" when in lymphatic tissue. They are grouped together under the name "lymphoid malignancy".[24]
Lymphoma is generally considered as either Hodgkin lymphoma or non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Hodgkin lymphoma is characterised by a particular type of cell, called a Reed–Sternberg cell, visible under microscope. It is associated with past infection with the Epstein-Barr Virus, and generally causes a painless "rubbery" lymphadenopathy. It is staged, using Ann Arbor staging. Chemotherapy generally involves the ABVD and may also involve radiotherapy.[25] Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a cancer characterised by increased proliferation of B-cells or T-cells, generally occurs in an older age group than Hodgkin lymphoma. It is treated according to whether it is high-grade or low-grade, and carries a poorer prognosis than Hodgkin lymphoma.[25]
Lymphangiosarcoma is a malignant soft tissue tumor, whereas lymphangioma is a benign tumor occurring frequently in association with Turner syndrome. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis is a benign tumor of the smooth muscles of the lymphatics that occurs in the lungs.
Lymphoid leukemia is another form of cancer where the host is devoid of different lymphatic cells.
Other[edit]
Lymphangitis
Kikuchi disease
Chylothorax
Castleman's disease
Kawasaki disease
Lymphatic filariasis
Solitary lymphatic nodule
History[edit]
Hippocrates, in 5th century BC, was one of the first people to mention the lymphatic system. In his work On Joints, he briefly mentioned the lymph nodes in one sentence. Rufus of Ephesus, a Roman physician, identified the axillary, inguinal and mesenteric lymph nodes as well as the thymus during the 1st to 2nd century AD.[26] The first mention of lymphatic vessels was in 3rd century BC by Herophilos, a Greek anatomist living in Alexandria, who incorrectly concluded that the "absorptive veins of the lymphatics," by which he meant the lacteals (lymph vessels of the intestines), drained into the hepatic portal veins, and thus into the liver.[26] The findings of Ruphus and Herophilos were further propagated by the Greek physician Galen, who described the lacteals and mesenteric lymph nodes which he observed in his dissection of apes and pigs in the 2nd century AD.[26][27]
In the mid 16th century, Gabriele Falloppio (discoverer of the fallopian tubes), described what are now known as the lacteals as "coursing over the intestines full of yellow matter."[26] In about 1563 Bartolomeo Eustachi, a professor of anatomy, described the thoracic duct in horses as vena alba thoracis.[26] The next breakthrough came when in 1622 a physician, Gaspare Aselli, identified lymphatic vessels of the intestines in dogs and termed them venae alba et lacteae, which is now known as simply the lacteals. The lacteals were termed the fourth kind of vessels (the other three being the artery, vein and nerve, which was then believed to be a type of vessel), and disproved Galen's assertion that chyle was carried by the veins. But, he still believed that the lacteals carried the chyle to the liver (as taught by Galen).[28] He also identified the thoracic duct but failed to notice its connection with the lacteals.[26] This connection was established by Jean Pecquet in 1651, who found a white fluid mixing with blood in a dog's heart. He suspected that fluid to be chyle as its flow increased when abdominal pressure was applied. He traced this fluid to the thoracic duct, which he then followed to a chyle-filled sac he called the chyli receptaculum, which is now known as the cisternae chyli; further investigations led him to find that lacteals' contents enter the venous system via the thoracic duct.[26][28] Thus, it was proven convincingly that the lacteals did not terminate in the liver, thus disproving Galen's second idea: that the chyle flowed to the liver.[28] Johann Veslingius drew the earliest sketches of the lacteals in humans in 1647.[27]
The idea that blood recirculates through the body rather than being produced anew by the liver and the heart was first accepted as a result of works of William Harvey—a work he published in 1628. In 1652, Olaus Rudbeck (1630–1702), a Swede, discovered certain transparent vessels in the liver that contained clear fluid (and not white), and thus named them hepatico-aqueous vessels. He also learned that they emptied into the thoracic duct, and that they had valves.[28] He announced his findings in the court of Queen Christina of Sweden, but did not publish his findings for a year,[29] and in the interim similar findings were published by Thomas Bartholin, who additionally published that such vessels are present everywhere in the body, not just in the liver. He is also the one to have named them "lymphatic vessels."[28] This had resulted in a bitter dispute between one of Bartholin's pupils, Martin Bogdan,[30] and Rudbeck, whom he accused of plagiarism.[29]
Galen's ideas prevailed in medicine until the 17th century. It was thought that blood was produced by the liver from chyle contaminated with ailments by the intestine and stomach, to which various spirits were added by other organs, and that this blood was consumed by all the organs of the body. This theory required that the blood be consumed and produced many times over. Even in the 17th century, his ideas were defended by some physicians.[27]
Alexander Monro, of the University of Edinburgh Medical School, was the first to describe the function of the lymphatic system in detail.[31]
"Claude Galien". Lithograph by Pierre Roche Vigneron. (Paris: Lith de Gregoire et Deneux, ca. 1865)
Gabriele Falloppio
Portrait of Eustachius
Olaus Rudbeck in 1696.
Thomas Bartholin
Etymology[edit]
Lymph originates in the Classical Latin word lympha "water",[32] which is also the source of the English word limpid. The spelling with y and ph was influenced by folk etymology with Greek νύμϕη (nýmphē) "nymph".[33]
The adjective used for the lymph-transporting system is lymphatic. The adjective used for the tissues where lymphocytes are formed is lymphoid. Lymphatic comes from the Latin word lymphaticus, meaning "connected to water."
See also[edit]
List of lymphatic vessels of the human body
American Society of Lymphology
Glymphatic system and Meningeal lymphatic vessels - equivalent for the central nervous system
Lymphangiogenesis
Lymphangion
Manual lymphatic drainage
Mononuclear phagocyte system
Waldemar Olszewski – discovered fundamental processes in human tissues connected with function of the lymphatic system
ru:Чепеленко, Геннадий Владимирович – author of the lymphatic system segmental theory
Trogocytosis
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Louveau, Antoine; Smirnov, Igor; Keyes, Timothy J; Eccles, Jacob D; Rouhani, Sherin J; Peske, J David; Derecki, Noel C; Castle, David; Mandell, James W; Lee, Kevin S; Harris, Tajie H; Kipnis, Jonathan (2015). "Structural and functional features of central nervous system lymphatic vessels.". Nature. 523 (7560): 337–41. PMC 4506234  . PMID 26030524. doi:10.1038/nature14432. Lay summary. we discovered functional lymphatic vessels lining the dural sinuses. These structures express all of the molecular hallmarks of lymphatic endothelial cells, are able to carry both fluid and immune cells from the cerebrospinal fluid, and are connected to the deep cervical lymph nodes. The unique location of these vessels may have impeded their discovery to date, thereby contributing to the long-held concept of the absence of lymphatic vasculature in the central nervous system. The discovery of the central nervous system lymphatic system may call for a reassessment of basic assumptions in neuroimmunology and sheds new light on the aetiology of neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases associated with immune system dysfunction.
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External links[edit]
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