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Tesla Supercharger
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"Supercharger network" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Super-Charged network.
"Tesla station" redirects here. For Nikola Tesla's Colorado Springs laboratory, see Tesla Experimental Station.
Tesla Supercharger network rapid charging station in Tejon Ranch, California. The rooftop of the carport has a solar collector manufactured by SolarCity feeding energy into the grid.
The Tesla Supercharger network is a system of 480-volt DC fast-charging stations built by American vehicle manufacturer Tesla Inc. to allow longer journeys for their all-electric manufactured vehicles (Model S, 3 and X), through quick charging of the vehicle's battery packs.
Tesla began building the network in 2012. As of December 2017[update], there were 1,045 stations globally, with 7,496 chargers.[1] The Supercharger is a proprietary direct current (DC) technology that provides up to 120 kW of power per car (depending on circumstances),[2] giving the 90 kWh Model S an additional 170 miles (270 km) of range in about 30 minutes charge and a full charge in around 75 minutes.[1] A software update provided in 2015 to all Tesla cars uses demand information from each Supercharger station to plan the fastest route, if charging will be necessary to reach the destination.[3]
Tesla has taken several measures to discourage drivers from using Superchargers for longer than necessary. In December 2016, Tesla started fining owners who remain plugged into a Supercharger after the car is fully charged. A year later, Tesla banned commercial, ride-sharing, taxicab, or government vehicles from using Superchargers. Additionally, owners of vehicles purchased after January 15, 2017, were given an annual limit of 400 kWh (about 1,000 miles or 1,600 km) of free charging "credit" before they have to pay for charging.
As of April 2017[update], Tesla plans to expand from approximately 9,000 destination charging stations to 15,000 during 2017, in advance of the Model 3 rollout which they expect to put significant additional demand for use of the facilities.[4]
When both pairs of Tesla Supercharger station stalls (A and B) occupied, they share the available power of up to 145 kW[5] (each Supercharger cabinet[6] with twelve charger modules[7][8][9][10] feeds two charging stalls (max 120 kW per car), so if two cars are charging at the same time their charging rate may be reduced).[11]
Contents
[hide]
1 Supercharger technology
1.1 Controversy
2 Supercharging network
2.1 North America
2.2 Europe
2.3 Asia-Pacific
2.4 Top 42 Stations by Number of Superchargers
3 Battery-swap proposal
3.1 History
3.2 Deployment
3.3 Regulatory issues
4 Tesla Megacharger
5 References
6 External links
Supercharger technology[edit]
Tesla logo at Supercharger station
Tesla supercharging stations charge with up to 145 kW of power distributed between two cars with a maximum of 120 kW per car.[12][5][13] They take about 20 minutes to charge to 50%, 40 minutes to charge to 80%, and 75 minutes to 100% on the original 85 kwh Model S. The charging stations provide high-power direct-current (DC) charging power directly to the battery, bypassing the internal charging power supply.[1] The next version of Supercharging is expected to charge with more than 350 kW.[14][15]
A few of the Tesla supercharging stations use solar panels to offset energy use and provide shade.[16] In the next few years after 2016, Tesla plans to install additional solar power generation at superchargers. For Model S and X vehicles ordered through January 2017, the cost for using the superchargers for the life of the car is covered with the purchase of the car. As of January 2017, the network is exclusive to Model S and Model X. Supercharging hardware is standard on Model S vehicles equipped with a battery of 70 kWh or greater, and optional (with a one-time payment of US$2,000) on Model S vehicles equipped with a 60 kWh battery. The Roadster is not equipped to charge from the Superchargers, but all future Tesla cars will include the ability.[17][18][19] In May 2017, Tesla announced that existing Tesla owners can give free Supercharging to up to five friends if they use their referral code, and all existing Tesla owners who purchase a new Model S or Model X will receive free Supercharging on those cars.[20]
In the European market, Tesla uses the standardized IEC 62196 Type 2 connector for its cars and Superchargers.[21] This results in an incompatibility with imported US Tesla cars. As of 2017, Tesla is the only automaker which offers direct current (DC) charging based on the IEC 62196-2 specification. Other manufacturers use the IEC 62196-3 Combined Charging System (CCS) charging standard.[22]
Tesla has indicated on multiple occasions that they were interested in having discussions with other auto manufacturers about sharing the Supercharger network, however no agreements have been completed or made public to date.[23][24]
Controversy[edit]
In 2016, Advertising Standards Authority (United Kingdom) ruled that Tesla Superchargers are the highest power chargers available in the UK, turning down a complaint by Ecotricity. Although the Superchargers are technically capable of 145 kW, Tesla cars restrict the power to 120 kW. The Chinese GB/T standard has a maximum of 180 kW, but no cars can receive that.[12][5]
Supercharging network[edit]
Tesla is planning to build large Supercharger stations in urban areas, with a charge rate up to 74 kW.[25] The first "Urban Superchargers" opened in 2017.
Tesla Supercharger stations allow Tesla vehicles to be fast-charged at the network within an hour. In October 2014, there were 119 standard Tesla Supercharger stations operating in the United States, 76 in Europe, and 26 in Asia.[1] On 31 March 2016, Tesla CEO Elon Musk announced that the number of Supercharger stations would be doubled (from 613 stations with 3,628 chargers) by 2017.[26] As of November 2017[update], Tesla operates 7,320 superchargers in 1,063 stations worldwide;[1] these included 443 stations in the U.S., 31 in Canada, 6 in Mexico, 353 in Europe, and 230 in the Asia/Pacific region.[27]
The number of Supercharger stations grew to 280 by the end of 2014; 584 by the end of 2015; 623 as of April 2016; and about 875 expected by the end of 2016.[1] By December 2017, there were 1,045 Supercharger Locations worldwide.[28] By December 2014, two stations were solar powered.[29][16] A solar-assisted Supercharger was opened in Belgium in 2017.[30]
The average number of Teslas per Supercharger was 34 in 2016.[31][32] Cost estimates range from US$100,000 in 2013[33] to US$270,000 in 2015, depending on circumstances.[34] Tesla estimates that stations last 12 years.[35] Most charging occurs at home or work, a situation that Tesla has compared to cell phone charging.[36] As of 2014[update], less than 10% of charging came from superchargers.[37]
Most Superchargers are owned by Tesla, but some are owned by fleet operators to charge their Tesla cars, such as taxis. These chargers are limited to 60 kW.[38] In December 2017, Tesla changed its terms of service so that any vehicles being used as taxis or for commercial, ride-share, or government purposes were effectively banned from using superchargers. This ban only applies to vehicles bought after December 15, 2017. Other charging options would be provided for these vehicles.[28][39]
Supercharging is free for all Model S and Model X cars that were ordered before January 15, 2017[40] or for vehicles that were purchased using a referral code.[41] Model S and Model X cars that were ordered after January 15, 2017, are limited to free 400 kWh (about 1,000 miles or 1,600 km) per year.[42] Beyond that, supercharging will have a fee, but at a lower price than filling up a gas-powered car.[43] Since December 16, 2016, any car that remains connected to a Supercharger after being fully charged is fined US$0.40 per minute. This fee is waived if the car is removed in five minutes. Any incurred fees could be paid at the next service visit.[44]
North America[edit]
Tesla Model S charging at the Supercharger network station in Newark, Delaware.
Illuminated non-round Tesla's own "charge port" on a US Model S.
Tesla Model 3 using Mobile Charger 2.0
There were eight initial Supercharger stations[45][46] around the United States, located at strategic points on the Boston-to-Washington and Los Angeles-to-San Francisco highway corridors. By mid-July 2013, 15 were open across the United States, with the number expected to nearly double by the end of the summer.[47] The stations were developed and mass constructed in cooperation with Black & Veatch.[48] Supercharging stations were available in Canada along the Highway 401 corridor between Toronto and Montreal by 2014.[49]
The initial network was built in high-traffic corridors across North America, followed by networks in Europe and Asia in the second half of 2013. The first Supercharger corridor in the US opened with free access in October 2012. This corridor included six stations placed along routes connecting San Francisco, Lake Tahoe, Los Angeles, and Las Vegas.[17][18] A second corridor was opened in December 2012 along the Northeast megalopolis, connecting Washington, DC, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York City and Boston; it includes three stations in highway rest areas, one in Delaware and two adjacent ones in Connecticut.[19] At some stations, the electricity is paid by a local business to attract customers.[50]
The electricity used by the Supercharger (277V L-N of a 480Y/277V 3-phase configuration) in the West Coast corridor comes partly from a solar carport system[clarification needed] provided by SolarCity.[citation needed] Eventually, all Supercharger stations are to be supplied by solar power. According to Musk, "...we expect all of the United States to be covered by the end of next year [2013]". He also said that Tesla owners' use of the network would be free forever.[51]
As of August 2017[update] North Dakota, Alaska, and Hawaii are the few remaining states without Superchargers. Supercharging stations are planned to be opened later in 2017 in North Dakota and Hawaii,[52] but there are no current plans to add one in Alaska.[53] In September 2017, Tesla started adopting a new strategy of installing "Urban Superchargers" in the centers of major cities in anticipation of the mass production of the Tesla Model 3.[54][55] The first Urban Supercharger stations were a 10-unit charger in Chicago and an 8-unit charger in Boston.[56]
Europe[edit]
Type 2 compatible inlet implementing a three-phase AC charging and DC Supercharging on European Tesla Model S and Model X.
In early 2015, the first European supercharger to be upgraded with a 'solar canopy' (a carport with solar cells on the roof) in Køge, Denmark.[citation needed] According to the person responsible for Tesla's superchargers in the Nordic countries, Christian Marcus, the 12-stall supercharger in Køge has 300 m2 solar cells with a projected annual production of about 40 MWh and is or will be equipped with its own battery bank for temporary storage of excess production. Unlike other European Supercharger stations, Tesla has bought the land on which the Køge supercharger stands.[57] On April 26, 2016, Kostomłoty became the first charger to open in Poland.[58] There are a few privately operated Supercharger stations such as the one opened on April 27, 2016, in Zarechye, Russia, with 3 stalls and also one in Jordan.[59]
By 2016, the European supercharger network is planned to allow a Model S to drive from the North Cape in Norway to Istanbul or Lisbon.[57] As of October 2017[update], the supercharger closest to Istanbul is the one in Vrgorac (Croatia), and the ones nearest to Lisbon are Montemor-o-Novo and Fátima.[52] The map of current and planned sites includes every European Union country except Malta and Cyprus, and represents all of the countries in the world in the top 10 of electric vehicle adoption rates (excepting, Iceland at #2).[52]
Asia-Pacific[edit]
As of June 2015[update], Hong Kong has the highest density of Tesla superchargers in the world, with eight stations with a total of 54 supercharger stalls, allowing most Model S owners to have a supercharger within 20 minutes' drive.[60] Other Superchargers can also be found in Australia, the People's Republic of China,[61] Japan, Macau, New Zealand, South Korea, and Taiwan.[1]
Tesla also plans to deploy a nationwide network of Superchargers in India.[62][63]
Top 42 Stations by Number of Superchargers[edit]
Number of Superchargers
Country
Name
Tesla-operated Amenities
Station in Operation (Y/N)
[hide]Date Put in Operation
40 USA Kettleman City, CA 24H Tesla Customer Lounge Y November 14th, 2017[64]
50 China Shanghai
Battery-swap proposal[edit]
A "Tesla station" was a planned second version of the supercharger[65] that, as of 2013, would provide Tesla owners with extremely-fast battery pack swaps as well fast-recharge for Tesla Model S and Model X vehicles.[66][67] The company's plans changed and battery swapping is no longer a significant part of Tesla's charging infrastructure plans.
By December 2014, 18 months after the announcement, no battery swapping stations had yet opened to the public.[29] That same month, the company announced a revision to their much-delayed[29][68] plans. A single battery-swap station would be opened in California as a pilot project, where only invited Model S owners could do battery swaps by appointment, to assess technical and economic aspects of the service. Demand for the priced service—which was expected to take three minutes (instead of the 90-second time demonstrated in 2013)—would be used to determine whether the company would fully commercialize battery swapping stations more generally.[69] The original plan in the June 2013 company announcement explicitly indicated that the company would eventually upgrade all existing Tesla Supercharger stations to become Tesla stations, which would offer the battery-pack swap for the Model S in addition to the fast recharge capability that each facility initially opened with.[67] By June 2015, the company had indicated that battery swapping capabilities was no longer a significant part of Tesla's plans for on-road energy replacement for their vehicles.[70]
History[edit]
In June 2013, Tesla announced the goal to deploy a battery swapping station in each of its existing supercharging stations, now to be renamed Tesla stations.[65] At an event at Tesla's design studio in Los Angeles, CEO Elon Musk demonstrated a battery swap operation with the Tesla Model S, which took just over 90 seconds each for the two cars participating in the demo. The swapping operation took less than half the time needed to refill a gasoline-powered car used for comparison purposes during the event.[71][72] The Tesla Model S was designed from the beginning to support fast battery swapping,[65][73] with Tesla publicly discussing the capability as early as March 2009.[74]
By December 2014, no battery-swapping stations had been opened to the public.[29] On 19 December, Tesla announced revised plans. They would now build only a single battery-swapping station, and institute a "Battery Swap Pilot Program" at that selected station in Harris Ranch, California in order to "assess demand." Only invited Model S owners would be able to participate in the pilot battery swaps. The company stated they would "evaluate relative demand from customers ... to assess whether it merits the engineering resources and investment necessary" for the upgrade of additional first-generation Supercharger stations.[69]
In June 2015, Tesla announced that of 200 invitations sent out to try the pilot pack swap station, only approximately five tried it. Tesla then invited all California Model S owners to try it out, but expected a low usage rate.[70] A survey showed that most users were not interested.[75]
Deployment[edit]
Tesla Supercharger stations are also available at highway rest areas. These are placed at a rest area at the Bundesautobahn 9 in Germany at the Münchberg / Nord Autohof exit.
The first Tesla Station with battery-swapping capability was planned to be piloted in California late in 2013,[76] but this was subsequently delayed. Elon Musk said at an event in February 2014 that a few battery swap stations will open in the next few months along the route between Los Angeles and San Francisco, and that the initial stations will be studied before deciding to build any more.[77] In mid-2013 each swapping station was projected to cost US$500,000 and have approximately 50 batteries available without requiring reservations.[71]
Elon Musk said the battery swapping service would be offered for the price of about 15 US gallons (57 l; 12 imp gal) of gasoline at the current local rate, around US$60 to US$80 at June 2013 prices. Owners may pick up their own battery pack fully charged on the return trip for no extra payment. Tesla will also offer the option to keep the pack received on the swap and pay the price difference if the battery received is newer; or to receive the original pack back from Tesla for a transport fee. The billing will be handled via customer credit card on file with Tesla. Pricing had not been determined as of June 2013[update].[71]
Regulatory issues[edit]
The California Air Resources Board staff considered modifying the Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) regulation to exclude battery swapping as a "fast refueling" technology; this change would deny Tesla some of the ZEV credits that the manufacturer might otherwise receive when the battery-swapping station is placed in service in California.[72] After criticism from several motoring manufacturers, this proposal was withdrawn.[78]
Tesla Megacharger[edit]
Tesla announced a higher-capacity "Megacharger" along with the unveiling of a prototype for its Tesla Semi, a semi-trailer truck, in November 2017. These trucks would use the Tesla Megacharger Network to charge. The solar-powered Megacharger Network stations would charge the semi trucks with 400 miles (645 km) of charge in 30 minutes, out of the total capacity of 500 miles (805 km) in the battery pack.[79][80][81][82] To accomplish this, it will likely have an output level over one megawatt.[80]
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External links[edit]
Official website
Video of battery swap
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Aortic hiatus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Aortic hiatus
The diaphragm. Under surface. (Aortic hiatus labeled near center.)
Celiac and cranial mesenteric ganglion in a cat. 1 Crus sinistrum (Diaphragma), 2 hiatus aorticus, 3 Aorta, 4 Arteria lumbalis, 5 Nervus splanchnicus major, 6 Arteria coeliaca, 7 Arteria phrenica caudalis, 8 Ganglion coeliacum, 9 Plexus coeliacus, 10 Ganglion mesentericum craniale, 11 Plexus mesentericus cranialis, 12 Arteria mesenterica cranialis, 13 Nervus splanchnicus minor, 14 Adrenal gland, 15 Arteria abdominalis cranialis, 16 Stomach, 17 Liver (Lobus caudatus), 18 Kidney
Details
Identifiers
Latin
hiatus aorticus
TA
A04.4.02.010
FMA
58288
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The aortic hiatus is a hole in the diaphragm. It is the lowest and most posterior of the large apertures.
It is located approximately at the level of the twelfth thoracic vertebra (T12).
Contents
1 Structure
2 Structures passing through
3 Additional images
4 External links
Structure[edit]
Strictly speaking, it is not an aperture in the diaphragm but an osseoaponeurotic opening between it and the vertebral column, and therefore behind the diaphragm (Meaning that diaphragmatic contractions do not directly influence the Aorta or aortic supply).
Occasionally some tendinous fibers prolonged across the bodies of the vertebræ from the medial parts of the inferior ends of the crura pass posterior to the aorta, and thus convert the hiatus into a fibrous ring.
The hiatus is situated slightly to the left of the mid line, and is bound anteriorly by the crura, and posteriorly by the body of the first lumbar vertebra.
Structures passing through[edit]
Through it passes the aorta, the azygos vein, the thoracic duct, and hemi-azygos vein passes through the left crus.
Additional images[edit]
The thoracic and right lymphatic ducts.
External links[edit]
Anatomy photo:40:08-0103 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center - "Major Openings in the Diaphragm"
Anatomy image:8906 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center
This cardiovascular system article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v
t
e
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t
e
Thoracic diaphragm
General
Central tendon
Crus of diaphragm
arcuate ligaments
Lateral
Medial
Median
Openings
major:
Caval opening
Esophageal hiatus
Aortic hiatus
minor:
Sternocostal triangle
Lumbocostal triangle
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Science and technology in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about modern science in India. For Indian inventions, see List of Indian inventions, and for historical development of science and technology in India, History of science and technology in India. India's recent developments in the field of Telecommunication and Information technology can be found in Communications in India and Information technology in India.
Vikram Sarabhai—a physicist considered to be 'the father of India's space program'—[1] was instrumental in the creation of both the Indian Space Research Organisation and the Physical Research Laboratory (Ahemadabad).
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India (office: 15 August 1947 – 27 May 1964), initiated reforms to promote higher education, science, and technology in India.[2] The Indian Institutes of Technology – conceived by a 22-member committee of scholars and entrepreneurs in order to promote technical education – was inaugurated on 18 August 1951 at Kharagpur in West Bengal by the minister of education Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.[3] More IITs were soon opened in Bombay, Madras, Kanpur and Delhi as well in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Beginning in the 1960s, close ties with the Soviet Union enabled the Indian Space Research Organisation to rapidly develop the Indian space program and advance nuclear power in India even after the first nuclear test explosion by India on 18 May 1974 at Pokhran.
India accounts for about 10% of all expenditure on research and development in Asia and the number of scientific publications grew by 45% over the five years to 2007[citation needed]. However, according to former Indian science and technology minister, Kapil Sibal, India is lagging in science and technology compared to developed countries.[4] India has only 140 researchers per 1,000,000 population, compared to 4,651 in the United States.[4] India invested US$3.7 billion in science and technology in 2002–2003.[5] For comparison, China invested about four times more than India, while the United States invested approximately 75 times more than India on science and technology.[5] The highest-ranked Indian university for engineering and technology in 2014 was the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay at number 16;[6] natural science ranks lower.[7] One study argued that Indian science did not suffer from lack of funds but from unethical practices, the urge to make illegal money, immense misuse of power, frivolous publications and patents, faulty promotion policies, victimisation for speaking against wrong or corrupt practices in the management, sycophancy, and brain drain.[8]
While India has increased its output of scientific papers fourfold between 2000 and 2015 overtaking Russia and France in absolute number of papers per year, that rate has been exceeded by China and Brazil; Indian papers generate fewer cites than average, and relative to its population it has few scientists.[9]
Contents
[hide]
1 1947–1967
2 1967–1987
3 1987–present
4 Space Exploration
4.1 Mars Orbit Mission
4.2 Chandrayaan-1
4.3 Thirty Meter Telescope
5 Science Academies in India
5.1 Indian Academy of Sciences (IAS)
5.2 National Academy of Sciences, India (NASI)
5.3 Indian National Science Academy (INSA)
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
1947–1967[edit]
The office of the Hijli Detention Camp (photographed September 1951) served as the first academic building of IIT Kharagpur.
Jawaharlal Nehru aimed "to convert India’s economy into that of a modern state and to fit her into the nuclear age and do it quickly." [2] Nehru understood that India had not been at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution, and hence made an effort to promote higher education, and science and technology in India.[2]
Nehru's Planning Commission (1950) fixed investment levels, prescribed priorities, divided funds between agriculture and industry, and divided resources between the state and the federal governments.[2] The result of the efforts between 1947–1962 saw the area under irrigation increase by 45 million acres (180,000 km2), food production rise by 34 million metric tons, installed power generating capacity increase by 79 million kilowatts, and an overall increase of 94 percent in industrial production.[2] The enormous population rise, however, would balance the gains made by Nehru.[2] The economically beleaguered country was nevertheless able to build a large scientific workforce, second in numbers only to that of the United States and the Soviet Union.[2]
Education – provided by the government of India – was free and compulsory up to the Age of 14.[10] More emphasis was paid to the enhancement of vocational and technical skills.[10] J. P. Naik, member-secretary of the Indian Education Commission, commented on the educational policies of the time:[10]
The main justification for the larger outlay on educational reconstruction is the hypothesis that education is the most important single factor that leads to economic growth [based on] the development of science and technology.
India's first reactor (Apsara) and a plutonium reprocessing facility, as photographed by a US satellite on 19 February 1966.
On 18 August 1951 the minister of education Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, inaugurated the Indian Institute of Technology at Kharagpur in West Bengal.[3] Possibly modeled after the Massachusetts Institute of Technology these institutions were conceived by a 22-member committee of scholars and entrepreneurs under the chairmanship of N. R. Sarkar.[3]
The Sino-Indian war (1962) came as a rude awakening to Nehru's military preparedness.[11] Military cooperation with the Soviet Union – partially aimed at developing advanced military technology – was pursued during the coming years.[11] Defence Research and Development Organisation was formed in 1958.
Radio broadcasting was initiated in 1927 but became state responsibility only in 1930.[12] In 1947 it was given the name All India Radio and since 1957 it has been called Akashvani.[12] Limited duration of television programming began in 1959, and complete broadcasting followed in 1965.[12]
The Indian Government acquired the EVS EM computers from the Soviet Union, which were used in large companies and research laboratories.[13]
1967–1987[edit]
The roots of nuclear power in India lie in early acquisition of nuclear reactor technology from a number of western countries, particularly the American support for the Tarapur Atomic Power Station and Canada's CANDU reactors.[14] The peaceful policies of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi may have delayed the inception of nuclear technology in India.[14]
Stanley Wolpert (2008) describes the measures taken by the Indian government to increase agricultural output:[15]
It was not until the late 1960s that chemical fertilisers and high-yield food seeds brought the Green Revolution to India. The results were mixed, as many poor or small farmers were unable to afford the seeds or the risks involved in the new technology. Moreover, as rice and, especially, wheat production increased, there was a corresponding decrease in other grain production. Farmers who benefited most were from the major wheat-growing areas of Haryāna, Punjab, and western Uttar Pradesh.
The Indian space program received only financial support from the Soviet Union, which helped the Indian Space Research Organisation achieve aims such as establishing the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station, launching remote sensing satellites, developing India’s first satellite—Aryabhatta, and sending astronauts into the space.[11] India sustain its nuclear program during the aftermath of Operation Smiling Buddha – India's first nuclear tests.[11]
Though the roots of the Steel Authority of India Ltd. lie in Hindustan Steel Private Limited (1954), the events leading up to the formation of the modern avatar are described below:[16]
The Ministry of Steel and Mines drafted a policy statement to evolve a new model for managing industry. The policy statement was presented to the Parliament on December 2, 1972. On this basis the concept of creating a holding company to manage inputs and outputs under one umbrella was mooted. This led to the formation of Steel Authority of India Ltd. The company, incorporated on January 24, 1973 with an authorised capital of Rs. 2000 crore, was made responsible for managing five integrated steel plants at Bhilai, Bokaro, Durgapur, Rourkela and Burnpur, the Alloy Steel Plant and the Salem Steel Plant. In 1978 SAIL was restructured as an operating company.
In 1981, the Indian Antarctic Programme was started when the first Indian Expedition was flagged off for Antarctica from Goa. More missions were subsequently sent each year to India's base Dakshin Gangotri.[17]
1987–present[edit]
Infosys Media Centre in Bangalore.
Indian agriculture benefited from the developments made in the fields of Biotechnology, for which a separate department was created in 1986 under the Ministry of Science and Technology.[18] Both the Indian private sector and the government have invested in the medical and agricultural applications of biotechnology.[18] Massive Biotech parks were established in India while the government provided tax deduction for research and development under biotechnological firms.[18]
The Indian economy underwent economic reforms in 1991, leading to a new era of globalisation and international economic integration.[19] Economic growth of over 6% annually was seen between 1993–2002.[19] Same year a new permanent Antarctic base Maitri was founded and continues to remain in operation till date.[17] On 25 June 2002 India and the European Union agreed to bilateral cooperation in the field of science and technology.[20] A joint EU-India group of scholars was formed on 23 November 2001 to further promote joint research and development.[20] India holds observer status at CERN while a joint India-EU Software Education and Development Centre is due at Bangalore.[20] Certain scientists and activists, such as MIT systems scientist VA Shiva Ayyadurai, blame caste for holding back innovation and scientific research in India, making it difficult to sustain progress while regressive social organisation prevails.[21] In addition, corruption and inefficiencies in the research sector and have resulted in corruption scandals and undermine innovation initiatives.[22]
Bangalore is considered to be the technological capital of India. IT, Biotechnology, Aerospace, Nuclear Science, Manufacturing Technology, Automobile Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Ship Building, Space science, Electronics, Computer Science and other Medical Science related research and development are going on a large scale in the country. The southern part of India is responsible for the lion share of technology and advancements the country has made. The golden triangle of IT and technology (Hyderabad, Bangalore and Chennai) forms the backbone of Indian Manufacturing, R&D and Science and Technology.
In 2017, India became an associate member of European Organization for Nuclear Research.
Space Exploration[edit]
Mars Orbit Mission[edit]
Main article: Mars Orbiter Mission
The Mars Orbiter Mission, also called Mangalyaan[23] was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).[24][25][26][27] It is India's first interplanetary mission[28] making ISRO the fourth space agency to reach Mars, after the Soviet space program, NASA, and the European Space Agency[29][30] and the first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit, and the first nation to do so on its first attempt.[31][32][33][34]
Chandrayaan-1[edit]
On 18 November 2008, the Moon Impact probe was released from Chandrayaan-1 at a height of 100 km (62 mi). During its 25-minute decent, Chandra's Altitudinal Composition Explorer (CHACE) recorded evidence of water in 650 mass spectra readings gathered during this time.[35] On 24 September 2009 Science journal reported that the Chandrayaan-1 had detected water ice on the Moon.[36]
Thirty Meter Telescope[edit]
Main article: Thirty Meter Telescope
The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a planned, eighteen story, astronomical observatory and extremely large telescope to be built on the summit of Mauna Kea in the state of Hawaii. The TMT is designed for near-ultraviolet to mid-infrared (0.31 to 28 μm wavelengths) observations, featuring adaptive optics to assist in correcting image blur. The TMT will be at the highest altitude of all the proposed ELTs. The telescope has government-level support from several R&D spending nations: China, Japan, Canada and India.
Science Academies in India[edit]
The idea of science academies in India has evolved along with the Indian independence movement. The three major science academies Indian National Science Academy, Indian Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences, India were all founded in the pre-independence era (pre-1947) between 1930 and 1935. The countries resulting from partition of the sub-content have subsequently founded their own academies, namely Pakistan which founded Pakistan Academy of Sciences in 1953 and later Bangladesh with the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences founded in 1973.
Indian Academy of Sciences (IAS)[edit]
Also referred to colloquially as the "Bangalore Academy" this was founded in 1934 by C. V. Raman, the eminent physicist of his time in Bangalore (now Bengalooru), Karnataka (formerly known as the State of Mysore), India[37]
National Academy of Sciences, India (NASI)[edit]
The founder and first president of the NASI was Dr. Meghnad Saha in 1930 in Allahabad (Prayag), Uttar Pradesh, India[38]
Indian National Science Academy (INSA)[edit]
Founded in 1935 based on a proposal by the Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA) and National Institute of Science of India (NISI) with Dr. Meghnad Saha's blessings [39] this academy is based in New Delhi, India. According to their own charter, the historical aim of the INSA was to be similar to the Royal Society, London, a gathering of learned people to exchange ideas and further science.
See also[edit]
Biotechnology in India
History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent
Science and Engineering Research Board
Science and Technology Studies in India
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Burleson, D. (2008). Space Programs Outside the United States: All Exploration and Research Efforts, Country by Country. McFarland. 136. ISBN 0-7864-1852-4
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Nanda 2006
^ Jump up to: a b c Vrat 2006
^ Jump up to: a b "India lagging behind in S&Tt: Govt".
^ Jump up to: a b "India lagging in science and technology, says official". scidev.net. 29 August 2006.
Jump up ^ http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings-articles/asian-university-rankings/top-universities-asia-engineering-technology-2014
Jump up ^ http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings-articles/asian-university-rankings/top-universities-asia-natural-sciences-2014
Jump up ^ Akhila, Anand (25 March 2007). "Indian science is not short of money" (PDF). Current Science. 92 (6): 709. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
Jump up ^ http://www.nature.com/news/india-by-the-numbers-1.17519
^ Jump up to: a b c Prabhu 2006
^ Jump up to: a b c d Khan 2006
^ Jump up to: a b c Schwartzberg 2008
Jump up ^ Desai 2006
^ Jump up to: a b Raja 2006
Jump up ^ Wolpert 2008
Jump up ^ SAIL (2008). Background and History.
^ Jump up to: a b "Maitri". 70south.com. Archived from the original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sharma 2006, Biotechnology Revolution
^ Jump up to: a b Sharma 2006 Globalization
^ Jump up to: a b c Ketkar 2006
Jump up ^ "Scientist blames caste for India’s backwardness in research". Times of India. 25 July 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Reddy, Prashant (20 May 2012). "CSIR Tech. Pvt. Ltd: Its controversial past and its uncertain future". SpicyIP.com. Retrieved 11 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Mangalyaan". ISRO. NASA. 2013. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Walton, Zach (15 August 2012). "India Announces Mars Mission One Week After Landing". Web Pro News. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Manmohan Singh formally announces India's Mars mission". The Hindu. 15 August 2012. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Bal, Hartosh Singh (30 August 2012). "BRICS in Space". New York Times. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Patairiya, Pawan Kumar (23 November 2013). "Why India Is Going to Mars". New York Times. Retrieved 23 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "India’s Mars Shot". New York Times. 25 September 2014. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "India Launches Mars Orbiter Mission". Retrieved 6 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "India's low-cost space mission reaches Mars orbit". Retrieved 24 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "India's Mars satellite successfully enters orbit, bringing country into space elite". The Guardian. 24 September 2014. Retrieved 24 September 2014. India has become the first nation to send a satellite into orbit around Mars on its first attempt, and the first Asian nation to do so.
Jump up ^ "India becomes first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit, joins elite global space club". The Washington Post. 24 September 2014. Retrieved 24 September 2014. India became the first Asian nation to reach the Red Planet when its indigenously made unmanned spacecraft entered the orbit of Mars on Wednesday
Jump up ^ "India's spacecraft reaches Mars orbit ... and history". CNN. 24 September 2014. Retrieved 24 September 2014. India's Mars Orbiter Mission successfully entered Mars' orbit Wednesday morning, becoming the first nation to arrive on its first attempt and the first Asian country to reach the Red Planet.
Jump up ^ Harris, Gardiner (24 September 2014). "On a Shoestring, India Sends Orbiter to Mars on Its First Try". New York Times. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
Jump up ^ http://www.planetary.org/blogs/emily-lakdawalla/2010/2430.html
Jump up ^ "Character and Spatial Distribution of OH/H2O on the Surface of the Moon Seen by M3 on Chandrayaan-1". Science Mag. 15 September 2009. Retrieved 26 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Home Page of the Indian Academy of Sciences
Jump up ^ Home Page of the National Academy of Sciences India
Jump up ^ Home Page of the Indian National Science Academy
References[edit]
Alexander, Steve. E-Commerce. (2006: from Computers and Information Systems). Encyclopædia Britannica 2008.
Desai, Ashok V. (2006). "Information and other Technology Development" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 269–273. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0.
Ketkar, Prafulla (2006). "European Union, Relations with (Science and technology)" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 48–51. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0
Khan, Sultanat Aisha (2006). "Russia, relations with" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 419–422. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31352-9.
Nanda, B. R. (2007). "Nehru, Jawaharlal" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 222–227. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31352-9.
Prabhu, Joseph (2006). "Institutions and Philosophies, Traditional and Modern" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 23–27. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0
Raja, Rajendran (2006). "Nuclear weapons testing and development" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 253–254. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31352-9.
Sankar, U.(2007). The Economics of India's Space Programme, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. ISBN 978-0-19-568345-5.
Sharma. Shalendra D.(2006). "Biotechnology Revolution" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 154–157. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31350-2.
Sharma, Shalendra D. (2006). "Globalization" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 146–149. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0
Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (2008). India. Encyclopædia Britannica.
Vrat, Prem (2006). "Indian Institutes of Technology" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 229–231. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0
Wolpert, Stanley (2008). India. Encyclopædia Britannica.
External links[edit]
Innovation Demands freedom
System defeats scientist return
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Science and technology in India.
India: Science and technology. U.S. Library of Congress.
Indian National Science Academy (2001). Pursuit and promotion of science: The Indian Experience. Indian National Science Academy.
Geek Nation: How Indian Science is Taking Over the World by Angela Saini (2011)
Special report: Physics in India, Matin Durrani, Physics World, 2012.
History of Science in South Asia (hssa-journal.org). HSSA is a peer-reviewed, open-access, online journal for the history of science in India.
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