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Sound localization
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This article is about the biological process of sound localization. For sound localization via mechanical or electrical means, see acoustic location.
Sound localization is a listener's ability to identify the location or origin of a detected sound in direction and distance. It may also refer to the methods in acoustical engineering to simulate the placement of an auditory cue in a virtual 3D space (see binaural recording, wave field synthesis).
The sound localization mechanisms of the mammalian auditory system have been extensively studied. The auditory system uses several cues for sound source localization, including time- and level-differences (or intensity-difference) between both ears, spectral information, timing analysis, correlation analysis, and pattern matching.
These cues are also used by other animals, but there may be differences in usage, and there are also localization cues which are absent in the human auditory system, such as the effects of ear movements. Animals with the ability to localize sound have a clear evolutionary advantage.
Contents
[hide]
1 How sound reaches the brain
2 Neural interactions
3 The cone of confusion
4 Sound localization by the human auditory system
4.1 General Introduction
4.2 Duplex Theory
4.2.1 Duplex Theory
4.2.2 ITD and IID
4.2.3 Evaluation for low frequencies
4.2.4 Evaluation for high frequencies
4.3 Pinna Filtering Effect Theory
4.3.1 Motivations
4.3.2 Math Model
4.3.3 HRTF Database
4.4 Other Cues for 3D Space Localization
4.4.1 Monaural cues
4.4.2 Dynamic binaural cues
4.5 Distance of the sound source
4.6 Signal processing
4.7 Localization in enclosed rooms
5 Specific techniques with applications
5.1 Auditory transmission stereo system
5.2 3D para-virtualization stereo system
5.3 Multichannel stereo virtual reproduction
6 Animals
6.1 Lateral information (left, ahead, right)
6.2 Odontocetes
6.3 In the median plane (front, above, back, below)
6.4 Head tilting
6.5 Localization with coupled ears (flies)
6.6 Bi-coordinate sound localization (owls)
7 History
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
How sound reaches the brain[edit]
Sound is the perceptual result of mechanical vibrations traveling through a medium such as air or water. Through the mechanisms of compression and rarefaction, sound waves travel through the air, bounce off the pinna and concha of the exterior ear, and enter the ear canal. The sound waves vibrate the tympanic membrane (ear drum), causing the three bones of the middle ear to vibrate, which then sends the energy through the oval window and into the cochlea where it is changed into a chemical signal by hair cells in the organ of corti, which synapse onto spiral ganglion fibers that travel through the cochlear nerve into the brain.
Neural interactions[edit]
In vertebrates, inter-aural time differences are known to be calculated in the superior olivary nucleus of the brainstem. According to Jeffress,[1] this calculation relies on delay lines: neurons in the superior olive which accept innervation from each ear with different connecting axon lengths. Some cells are more directly connected to one ear than the other, thus they are specific for a particular inter-aural time difference. This theory is equivalent to the mathematical procedure of cross-correlation. However, because Jeffress' theory is unable to account for the precedence effect, in which only the first of multiple identical sounds is used to determine the sounds' location (thus avoiding confusion caused by echoes), it cannot be entirely used to explain the response. Furthermore, a number of recent physiological observations made in the midbrain and brainstem of small mammals have shed considerable doubt on the validity of Jeffress' original ideas [2]
Neurons sensitive to inter-aural level differences (ILDs) are excited by stimulation of one ear and inhibited by stimulation of the other ear, such that the response magnitude of the cell depends on the relative strengths of the two inputs, which in turn, depends on the sound intensities at the ears.
In the auditory midbrain nucleus, the inferior colliculus (IC), many ILD sensitive neurons have response functions that decline steeply from maximum to zero spikes as a function of ILD. However, there are also many neurons with much more shallow response functions that do not decline to zero spikes.
The cone of confusion[edit]
Most mammals are adept at resolving the location of a sound source using interaural time differences and interaural level differences. However, no such time or level differences exist for sounds originating along the circumference of circular conical slices, where the cone's axis lies along the line between the two ears.
Consequently, sound waves originating at any point along a given circumference slant height will have ambiguous perceptual coordinates. That is to say, the listener will be incapable of determining whether the sound originated from the back, front, top, bottom or anywhere else along the circumference at the base of a cone at any given distance from the ear. Of course, the importance of these ambiguities are vanishingly small for sound sources very close to or very far away from the subject, but it is these intermediate distances that are most important in terms of fitness.
These ambiguities can be removed by tilting the head, which can introduce a shift in both the amplitude and phase of sound waves arriving at each ear. This translates the vertical orientation of the interaural axis horizontally, thereby leveraging the mechanism of localization on the horizontal plane. Moreover, even with no alternation in the angle of the interaural axis (i.e. without tilting one's head) the hearing system can capitalize on interference patterns generated by pinnae, the torso, and even the temporary re-purposing of a hand as extension of the pinna (e.g., cupping one's hand around the ear).
As with other sensory stimuli, perceptual disambiguation is also accomplished through integration of multiple sensory inputs, especially visual cues. Having localized a sound within the circumference of a circle at some perceived distance, visual cues serve to fix the location of the sound. Moreover, prior knowledge of the location of the sound generating agent will assist in resolving its current location.
Sound localization by the human auditory system[edit]
Sound localization is the process of determining the location of a sound source. Objectively speaking, the major goal of sound localization is to simulate a specific sound field, including the acoustic sources, the listener, the media and environments of sound propagation. The brain utilizes subtle differences in intensity, spectral, and timing cues to allow us to localize sound sources.[3][4] In this section, to more deeply understand the human auditory mechanism, we will briefly discuss about human ear localization theory.
General Introduction[edit]
Localization can be described in terms of three-dimensional position: the azimuth or horizontal angle, the elevation or vertical angle, and the distance (for static sounds) or velocity (for moving sounds).[5]
The azimuth of a sound is signaled by the difference in arrival times between the ears, by the relative amplitude of high-frequency sounds (the shadow effect), and by the asymmetrical spectral reflections from various parts of our bodies, including torso, shoulders, and pinnae.[5]
The distance cues are the loss of amplitude, the loss of high frequencies, and the ratio of the direct signal to the reverberated signal.[5]
Depending on where the source is located, our head acts as a barrier to change the timbre, intensity, and spectral qualities of the sound, helping the brain orient where the sound emanated from.[4] These minute differences between the two ears are known as interaural cues.[4]
Lower frequencies, with longer wavelengths, diffract the sound around the head forcing the brain to focus only on the phasing cues from the source.[4]
Helmut Haas discovered that we can discern the sound source despite additional reflections at 10 decibels louder than the original wave front, using the earliest arriving wave front.[4] This principle is known as the Haas effect, a specific version of the precedence effect.[4] Haas measured down to even a 1 millisecond difference in timing between the original sound and reflected sound increased the spaciousness, allowing the brain to discern the true location of the original sound. The nervous system combines all early reflections into a single perceptual whole allowing the brain to process multiple different sounds at once.[6] The nervous system will combine reflections that are within about 35 milliseconds of each other and that have a similar intensity.[6]
Duplex Theory[edit]
To determine the lateral input direction (left, front, right), the auditory system analyzes the following ear signal information:
Duplex Theory[edit]
In 1907, Lord Rayleigh utilized tuning forks to generate monophonic excitation and studied the lateral sound localization theory on a human head model without auricle. He first presented the interural clue difference based sound localization theory, which is known as Duplex Theory.[7] Human ears are on the different sides of the head, thus they have different coordinates in space. As shown in fig. 2, since the distances between the acoustic source and ears are different, there are time difference and intensity difference between the sound signals of two ears. We call those kinds of differences as Interaural Time Difference (ITD) and Interaural Intensity Difference (IID) respectively.
fig.2 Duplex Theory
ITD and IID[edit]
Interaural Time Difference (ITD) between left ear (top) and right ear (bottom).
[sound source: 100 ms white noise from right]
Interaural Level Difference (ILD) between left ear (left) and right ear (right).
[sound source: a sweep from right]
From fig.2 we can see that no matter for source B1 or source B2, there will be a propagation delay between two ears, which will generate the ITD. Simultaneously, human head and ears may have shadowing effect on high frequency signals, which will generate IID.
Interaural Time Difference (ITD) Sound from the right side reaches the right ear earlier than the left ear. The auditory system evaluates interaural time differences from: (a) Phase delays at low frequencies and (b) group delays at high frequencies.
Massive experiments demonstrate that ITD relates to the signal frequency f. Suppose the angular position of the acoustic source is θ, the head radius is r and the acoustic velocity is c, the function of ITD is given by:[8] I T D = { 300 × r × sin  θ / c , if f ≤ 4000Hz 200 × r × sin  θ / c , if f > 4000Hz {\displaystyle ITD={\begin{cases}300\times {\text{r}}\times \sin \theta /{\text{c}},&{\text{if }}f\leq {\text{4000Hz }}\\200\times {\text{r}}\times \sin \theta /{\text{c}},&{\text{if }}f>{\text{ 4000Hz}}\end{cases}}} . In above closed form, we assumed that the 0 degree is in the right ahead of the head and counter-clockwise is positive.
Interaural Intensity Difference (IID) or Interaural Level Difference (ILD) Sound from the right side has a higher level at the right ear than at the left ear, because the head shadows the left ear. These level differences are highly frequency dependent and they increase with increasing frequency. Massive theoretical researches demonstrate that IID relates to the signal frequency f and the angular position of the acoustic source θ. The function of IID is given by:[8] I I D = 1.0 + ( f / 1000 ) 0.8 × sin  θ {\displaystyle IID=1.0+(f/1000)^{0.8}\times \sin \theta }
For frequencies below 1000 Hz, mainly ITDs are evaluated (phase delays), for frequencies above 1500 Hz mainly IIDs are evaluated. Between 1000 Hz and 1500 Hz there is a transition zone, where both mechanisms play a role.
Localization accuracy is 1 degree for sources in front of the listener and 15 degrees for sources to the sides. Humans can discern interaural time differences of 10 microseconds or less.[9][10]
Evaluation for low frequencies[edit]
For frequencies below 800 Hz, the dimensions of the head (ear distance 21.5 cm, corresponding to an interaural time delay of 625 µs) are smaller than the half wavelength of the sound waves. So the auditory system can determine phase delays between both ears without confusion. Interaural level differences are very low in this frequency range, especially below about 200 Hz, so a precise evaluation of the input direction is nearly impossible on the basis of level differences alone. As the frequency drops below 80 Hz it becomes difficult or impossible to use either time difference or level difference to determine a sound's lateral source, because the phase difference between the ears becomes too small for a directional evaluation.[11]
Evaluation for high frequencies[edit]
For frequencies above 1600 Hz the dimensions of the head are greater than the length of the sound waves. An unambiguous determination of the input direction based on interaural phase alone is not possible at these frequencies. However, the interaural level differences become larger, and these level differences are evaluated by the auditory system. Also, group delays between the ears can be evaluated, and is more pronounced at higher frequencies; that is, if there is a sound onset, the delay of this onset between the ears can be used to determine the input direction of the corresponding sound source. This mechanism becomes especially important in reverberant environments. After a sound onset there is a short time frame where the direct sound reaches the ears, but not yet the reflected sound. The auditory system uses this short time frame for evaluating the sound source direction, and keeps this detected direction as long as reflections and reverberation prevent an unambiguous direction estimation.[12] The mechanisms described above cannot be used to differentiate between a sound source ahead of the hearer or behind the hearer; therefore additional cues have to be evaluated.[13]
Pinna Filtering Effect Theory[edit]
fig.4 HRTF
Motivations[edit]
Duplex theory clearly points out that ITD and IID play significant roles in sound localization but they can only deal with lateral localizing problems. For example, based on duplex theory, if two acoustic sources are symmetrically located on the right front and right back of the human head, they will generate equal ITDs and IIDs, which is called as cone model effect. However, human ears can actually distinguish this set of sources. Besides that, in natural sense of hearing, only one ear, which means no ITD or IID, can distinguish the sources with a high accuracy. Due to the disadvantages of duplex theory, researchers proposed the pinna filtering effect theory.[14] The shape of human pinna is very special. It is concave with complex folds and asymmetrical no matter horizontally or vertically. The reflected waves and the direct waves will generate a frequency spectrum on the eardrum, which is related to the acoustic sources. Then auditory nerves localize the sources by this frequency spectrum. Therefore, a corresponding theory was proposed and called as pinna filtering effect theory.[15]
Math Model[edit]
These spectrum clue generated by pinna filtering effect can be presented as Head-Related Transfer Functions (HRTF). The corresponding time domain expressions are called as Head-Related Impulse Response (HRIR). HRTF is also called as the transfer function from the free field to a specific point in the ear canal. We usually recognize HRTFs as LTI systems:[8]
H L = H L ( r , θ , φ , ω , α ) = P L ( r , θ , φ , ω , α ) / P 0 ( r , ω ) {\displaystyle H_{L}=H_{L}(r,\theta ,\varphi ,\omega ,\alpha )=P_{L}(r,\theta ,\varphi ,\omega ,\alpha )/P_{0}(r,\omega )}
H R = H R ( r , θ , φ , ω , α ) = P R ( r , θ , φ , ω , α ) / P 0 ( r , ω ) {\displaystyle H_{R}=H_{R}(r,\theta ,\varphi ,\omega ,\alpha )=P_{R}(r,\theta ,\varphi ,\omega ,\alpha )/P_{0}(r,\omega )} ,
where L and R represent the left ear and right ear respectively. P L {\displaystyle P_{L}} and P R {\displaystyle P_{R}} represent the amplitude of sound pressure at entrances of left and right ear canal. P 0 {\displaystyle P_{0}} is the amplitude of sound pressure at the center of the head coordinate when listener does not exist. In general, HRTFs H L {\displaystyle H_{L}} and H R {\displaystyle H_{R}} are functions of source angular position θ {\displaystyle \theta } , elevation angle φ {\displaystyle \varphi } , distance between source and center of the head r {\displaystyle r} , the angular velocity ω {\displaystyle \omega } and the equivalent dimension of the head α {\displaystyle \alpha } .
HRTF Database[edit]
At present, the main institutes that work on measuring HRTF database includes CIPIC[16] International Lab, MIT Media Lab, The Graduate School in Psychoacoustics at the University of Oldenburg, Neurophysiology Lab in University of Wisconsin-Madison and Ames Lab of NASA. They carefully measures the HRIRs from both humans and animals and share the results on Internet for people who want to study.
fig. 5 HRIR
Other Cues for 3D Space Localization[edit]
Monaural cues[edit]
The human outer ear, i.e. the structures of the pinna and the external ear canal, form direction-selective filters. Depending on the sound input direction in the median plane, different filter resonances become active. These resonances implant direction-specific patterns into the frequency responses of the ears, which can be evaluated by the auditory system (directional bands) for vertical sound localization. Together with other direction-selective reflections at the head, shoulders and torso, they form the outer ear transfer functions. These patterns in the ear's frequency responses are highly individual, depending on the shape and size of the outer ear. If sound is presented through headphones, and has been recorded via another head with different-shaped outer ear surfaces, the directional patterns differ from the listener's own, and problems will appear when trying to evaluate directions in the median plane with these foreign ears. As a consequence, front–back permutations or inside-the-head-localization can appear when listening to dummy head recordings, or otherwise referred to as binaural recordings. It has been shown that human subjects can monaurally localize high frequency sound but not low frequency sound. Binaural localization, however, was possible with lower frequencies. This is likely due to the pinna being small enough to only interact with sound waves of high frequency.[17] It seems that people can only accurately localize the elevation of sounds that are complex and include frequencies above 7,000 Hz, and a pinna must be present.[18]
Dynamic binaural cues[edit]
When the head is stationary, the binaural cues for lateral sound localization (interaural time difference and interaural level difference) do not give information about the location of a sound in the median plane. Identical ITDs and ILDs can be produced by sounds at eye level or at any elevation, as long as the lateral direction is constant. However, if the head is rotated, the ITD and ILD change dynamically, and those changes are different for sounds at different elevations. For example, if an eye-level sound source is straight ahead and the head turns to the left, the sound becomes louder (and arrives sooner) at the right ear than at the left. But if the sound source is directly overhead, there will be no change in the ITD and ILD as the head turns. Intermediate elevations will produce intermediate degrees of change, and if the presentation of binaural cues to the two ears during head movement is reversed, the sound will be heard behind the listener.[13][19] Hans Wallach[20] artificially altered a sound’s binaural cues during movements of the head. Although the sound was objectively placed at eye level, the dynamic changes to ITD and ILD as the head rotated were those that would be produced if the sound source had been elevated. In this situation, the sound was heard at the synthesized elevation. The fact that the sound sources objectively remained at eye level prevented monaural cues from specifying the elevation, showing that it was the dynamic change in the binaural cues during head movement that allowed the sound to be correctly localized in the vertical dimension. The head movements need not be actively produced; accurate vertical localization occurred in a similar setup when the head rotation was produced passively, by seating the blindfolded subject in a rotating chair. As long as the dynamic changes in binaural cues accompanied a perceived head rotation, the synthesized elevation was perceived.[13]
Distance of the sound source[edit]
The human auditory system has only limited possibilities to determine the distance of a sound source. In the close-up-range there are some indications for distance determination, such as extreme level differences (e.g. when whispering into one ear) or specific pinna (the visible part of the ear) resonances in the close-up range.
The auditory system uses these clues to estimate the distance to a sound source:
Direct/ Reflection ratio: In enclosed rooms, two types of sound are arriving at a listener: The direct sound arrives at the listener's ears without being reflected at a wall. Reflected sound has been reflected at least one time at a wall before arriving at the listener. The ratio between direct sound and reflected sound can give an indication about the distance of the sound source.
Loudness: Distant sound sources have a lower loudness than close ones. This aspect can be evaluated especially for well-known sound sources.
Sound spectrum : High frequencies are more quickly damped by the air than low frequencies. Therefore, a distant sound source sounds more muffled than a close one, because the high frequencies are attenuated. For sound with a known spectrum (e.g. speech) the distance can be estimated roughly with the help of the perceived sound.
ITDG: The Initial Time Delay Gap describes the time difference between arrival of the direct wave and first strong reflection at the listener. Nearby sources create a relatively large ITDG, with the first reflections having a longer path to take, possibly many times longer. When the source is far away, the direct and the reflected sound waves have similar path lengths.
Movement: Similar to the visual system there is also the phenomenon of motion parallax in acoustical perception. For a moving listener nearby sound sources are passing faster than distant sound sources.
Level Difference: Very close sound sources cause a different level between the ears.
Signal processing[edit]
Sound processing of the human auditory system is performed in so-called critical bands. The hearing range is segmented into 24 critical bands, each with a width of 1 Bark or 100 Mel. For a directional analysis the signals inside the critical band are analyzed together.
The auditory system can extract the sound of a desired sound source out of interfering noise. So the auditory system can concentrate on only one speaker if other speakers are also talking (the cocktail party effect). With the help of the cocktail party effect sound from interfering directions is perceived attenuated compared to the sound from the desired direction. The auditory system can increase the signal-to-noise ratio by up to 15 dB, which means that interfering sound is perceived to be attenuated to half (or less) of its actual loudness.[citation needed]
Localization in enclosed rooms[edit]
In enclosed rooms not only the direct sound from a sound source is arriving at the listener's ears, but also sound which has been reflected at the walls. The auditory system analyses only the direct sound,[12] which is arriving first, for sound localization, but not the reflected sound, which is arriving later (law of the first wave front). So sound localization remains possible even in an echoic environment. This echo cancellation occurs in the Dorsal Nucleus of the Lateral Lemniscus (DNLL).[citation needed]
In order to determine the time periods, where the direct sound prevails and which can be used for directional evaluation, the auditory system analyzes loudness changes in different critical bands and also the stability of the perceived direction. If there is a strong attack of the loudness in several critical bands and if the perceived direction is stable, this attack is in all probability caused by the direct sound of a sound source, which is entering newly or which is changing its signal characteristics. This short time period is used by the auditory system for directional and loudness analysis of this sound. When reflections arrive a little bit later, they do not enhance the loudness inside the critical bands in such a strong way, but the directional cues become unstable, because there is a mix of sound of several reflection directions. As a result, no new directional analysis is triggered by the auditory system.
This first detected direction from the direct sound is taken as the found sound source direction, until other strong loudness attacks, combined with stable directional information, indicate that a new directional analysis is possible. (see Franssen effect)
Specific techniques with applications[edit]
Auditory transmission stereo system[edit]
This kind of sound localization technique provides us the real virtual stereo system.[21] It utilizes "smart" manikins, such as KEMAR, to glean signals or use DSP methods to simulate the transmission process from sources to ears. After amplifying, recording and transmitting, the two channels of received signals will be reproduced through earphones or speakers. This localization approach uses electroacoustic methods to obtain the spatial information of the original sound field by transferring the listener's auditory apparatus to the original sound field. The most considerable advantages of it would be that its acoustic images are lively and natural. Also, it only needs two independent transmitted signal to reproduce the acoustic image of a 3D system.
fig. 6 Sound Localization with Manikin
3D para-virtualization stereo system[edit]
The representatives of this kind of system are SRS Audio Sandbox, Spatializer Audio Lab and Qsound Qxpander[21]. They use HRTF to simulate the received acoustic signals at the ears from different directions with common binary-channel stereo reproduction. Therefore, they can simulate reflected sound waves and improve subjective sense of space and envelopment. Since they are para-virtualization stereo systems, the major goal of them is to simulate stereo sound information. Traditional stereo systems use sensors that are quite different from human ears. Although those sensors can receive the acoustic information from different directions, they do not have the same frequency response of human auditory system. Therefore, when binary-channel mode is applied, human auditory systems still cannot feel the 3D sound effect field. However, the 3D para-virtualization stereo system overcome such disadvantages. It uses HRTF principles to glean acoustic information from the original sound field then produce a lively 3D sound field through common earphones or speakers.
Multichannel stereo virtual reproduction[edit]
Since the multichannel stereo systems require lots of reproduction channels, some researchers adopted the HRTF simulation technologies to reduce the number of reproduction channels.[21] They use only two speakers to simulate multiple speakers in a multichannel system. This process is called as virtual reproduction. Essentially, such approach uses both interaural difference principle and pinna filtering effect theory. Unfortunately, this kind of approach cannot perfectly substitute the traditional multichannel stereo system, such as 5.1 surround sound system. That is because when the listening zone is relatively larger, simulation reproduction through HRTFs may cause invert acoustic images at symmetric positions.
Animals[edit]
Since most animals have two ears, many of the effects of the human auditory system can also be found in other animals. Therefore, interaural time differences (interaural phase differences) and interaural level differences play a role for the hearing of many animals. But the influences on localization of these effects are dependent on head sizes, ear distances, the ear positions and the orientation of the ears.
Lateral information (left, ahead, right)[edit]
If the ears are located at the side of the head, similar lateral localization cues as for the human auditory system can be used. This means: evaluation of interaural time differences (interaural phase differences) for lower frequencies and evaluation of interaural level differences for higher frequencies. The evaluation of interaural phase differences is useful, as long as it gives unambiguous results. This is the case, as long as ear distance is smaller than half the length (maximal one wavelength) of the sound waves. For animals with a larger head than humans the evaluation range for interaural phase differences is shifted towards lower frequencies, for animals with a smaller head, this range is shifted towards higher frequencies.
The lowest frequency which can be localized depends on the ear distance. Animals with a greater ear distance can localize lower frequencies than humans can. For animals with a smaller ear distance the lowest localizable frequency is higher than for humans.
If the ears are located at the side of the head, interaural level differences appear for higher frequencies and can be evaluated for localization tasks. For animals with ears at the top of the head, no shadowing by the head will appear and therefore there will be much less interaural level differences, which could be evaluated. Many of these animals can move their ears, and these ear movements can be used as a lateral localization cue.
Odontocetes[edit]
Dolphins (and other odontocetes) rely on echolocation to aid in detecting, identifying, localizing, and capturing prey. Dolphin sonar signals are well suited for localizing multiple, small targets in a three-dimensional aquatic environment by utilizing highly directional (3 dB beamwidth of about 10 deg), broadband (3 dB bandwidth typically of about 40 kHz; peak frequencies between 40 kHz and 120 kHz), short duration clicks (about 40 μs). Dolphins can localize sounds both passively and actively (echolocation) with a resolution of about 1 deg. Cross-modal matching (between vision and echolocation) suggests dolphins perceive the spatial structure of complex objects interrogated through echolocation, a feat that likely requires spatially resolving individual object features and integration into a holistic representation of object shape. Although dolphins are sensitive to small, binaural intensity and time differences, mounting evidence suggests dolphins employ position-dependent spectral cues derived from well-developed head-related transfer functions, for sound localization in both the horizontal and vertical planes. A very small temporal integration time (264 μs) allows localization of multiple targets at varying distances. Localization adaptations include pronounced asymmetry of the skull, nasal sacks, and specialized lipid structures in the forehead and jaws, as well as acoustically isolated middle and inner ears.
In the median plane (front, above, back, below)[edit]
For many mammals there are also pronounced structures in the pinna near the entry of the ear canal. As a consequence, direction-dependent resonances can appear, which could be used as an additional localization cue, similar to the localization in the median plane in the human auditory system. There are additional localization cues which are also used by animals.
Head tilting[edit]
For sound localization in the median plane (elevation of the sound) also two detectors can be used, which are positioned at different heights. In animals, however, rough elevation information is gained simply by tilting the head, provided that the sound lasts long enough to complete the movement. This explains the innate behavior of[vague] cocking the head to one side when trying to localize a sound precisely. To get instantaneous localization in more than two dimensions from time-difference or amplitude-difference cues requires more than two detectors.
Localization with coupled ears (flies)[edit]
The tiny parasitic fly Ormia ochracea has become a model organism in sound localization experiments because of its unique ear. The animal is too small for the time difference of sound arriving at the two ears to be calculated in the usual way, yet it can determine the direction of sound sources with exquisite precision. The tympanic membranes of opposite ears are directly connected mechanically, allowing resolution of sub-microsecond time differences[22][23] and requiring a new neural coding strategy.[24] Ho[25] showed that the coupled-eardrum system in frogs can produce increased interaural vibration disparities when only small arrival time and sound level differences were available to the animal's head. Efforts to build directional microphones based on the coupled-eardrum structure are underway.
Bi-coordinate sound localization (owls)[edit]
Main article: Sound localization in owls
Most owls are nocturnal or crepuscular birds of prey. Because they hunt at night, they must rely on non-visual senses. Experiments by Roger Payne[26] have shown that owls are sensitive to the sounds made by their prey, not the heat or the smell. In fact, the sound cues are both necessary and sufficient for localization of mice from a distant location where they are perched. For this to work, the owls must be able to accurately localize both the azimuth and the elevation of the sound source.
History[edit]
The term 'binaural' literally signifies 'to hear with two ears', and was introduced in 1859 to signify the practice of listening to the same sound through both ears, or to two discrete sounds, one through each ear. It was not until 1916 that Carl Stumpf (1848–1936), a German philosopher and psychologist, distinguished between dichotic listening, which refers to the stimulation of each ear with a different stimulus, and diotic listening, the simultaneous stimulation of both ears with the same stimulus.[27]
Later, it would become apparent that binaural hearing, whether dichotic or diotic, is the means by which sound localization occurs.[27][28][page needed]
Scientific consideration of binaural hearing began before the phenomenon was so named, with speculations published in 1792 by William Charles Wells (1757–1817) based on his research into binocular vision.[29] Giovanni Battista Venturi (1746–1822) conducted and described experiments in which people tried to localize a sound using both ears, or one ear blocked with a finger. This work was not followed up on, and was only recovered after others had worked out how human sound localization works.[27][29] Lord Rayleigh (1842–1919) would do these same experiments and come to the results, without knowing Venturi had first done them, almost seventy-five years later.[29]
Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875) did work on optics and color mixing, and also explored hearing. He invented a device he called a "microphone" that involved a metal plate over each ear, each connected to metal rods; he used this device to amplify sound. He also did experiments holding tuning forks to both ears at the same time, or separately, trying to work out how sense of hearing works, that he published in 1827.[29] Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878) and August Seebeck (1805–1849) and William Charles Wells also attempted to compare and contrast what would become known as binaural hearing with the principles of binocular integration generally.[29]
Understanding how the differences in sound signals between two ears contributes to auditory processing in such a way as to enable sound localization and direction was considerably advanced after the invention of the stethophone by Somerville Scott Alison in 1859, who coined the term 'binaural'. Alsion based the stethophone on the stethoscope, which had been invented by René Théophile Hyacinthe Laennec (1781–1826); the stethophone had two separate "pickups", allowing the user to hear and compare sounds derived from two discrete locations.[29][29]
See also[edit]
Acoustic location
Animal echolocation
Binaural fusion
Coincidence detection in neurobiology
Human echolocation
Perceptual-based 3D sound localization
Psychoacoustics
Spatial hearing loss
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b Benade, Arthur H. Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics. New York: Oxford UP, 1976. Print.
Jump up ^ Rayleigh L. XII. On our perception of sound direction[J]. The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 1907, 13(74): 214-232.
^ Jump up to: a b c Zhou X. Virtual reality technique[J]. Telecommunications Science, 1996, 12(7): 46-50.
Jump up ^ Ian Pitt. "Auditory Perception". Archived from the original on 2010-04-10.
Jump up ^ DeLiang Wang; Guy J. Brown (2006). Computational auditory scene analysis: principles, algorithms and applications. Wiley interscience. ISBN 9780471741091. For sinusoidal signals presented on the horizontal plane, spatial resolution is highest for sounds coming from the median plane (directly in front of the listener) with about 1 degree MAA, and it deteriorates markedly when stimuli are moved to the side – e.g., the MAA is about 7 degrees for sounds originating at 75 degrees to the side.
Jump up ^ http://acousticslab.org/psychoacoustics/PMFiles/Module07a.htm
^ Jump up to: a b Wallach,, H; Newman, E.B.; Rosenzweig, M.R. (July 1949). "The precedence effect in sound localization". American Journal of Psychology. 62 (3): 315–336. doi:10.2307/1418275.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wallach, Hans (October 1940). "The role of head movements and vestibular and visual cues in sound localization". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 27 (4): 339–368. doi:10.1037/h0054629.
Jump up ^ Batteau D W. The role of the pinna in human localization[J]. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 1967, 168(1011): 158-180.
Jump up ^ Musicant A D, Butler R A. The influence of pinnae-based spectral cues on sound localization[J]. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1984, 75(4): 1195-1200.
Jump up ^ "The CIPIC HRTF Database".
Jump up ^ Robert A. BUTLER; Richard A. HUMANSKI (1992). "Localization of sound in the vertical plane with and without high-frequency spectral cues" (PDF). Perception & Psychophysics. 51 (2): 182–186. doi:10.3758/bf03212242.
Jump up ^ Roffler Suzanne K.; Butler Robert A. (1968). "Factors That Influence the Localization of Sound in the Vertical Plane". J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 43 (6): 1255–1259. doi:10.1121/1.1910976.
Jump up ^ Thurlow, W.R. "Audition" in Kling, J.W. & Riggs, L.A., Experimental Psychology, 3rd edition, Holt Rinehart & Winston, 1971, pp. 267–268.
Jump up ^ Wallach, H (1939). "On sound localization". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 10 (4): 270–274. doi:10.1121/1.1915985.
^ Jump up to: a b c Zhao R. Study of Auditory Transmission Sound Localization System[D], University of Science and Technology of China, 2006.
Jump up ^ Miles RN, Robert D, Hoy RR (Dec 1995). "Mechanically coupled ears for directional hearing in the parasitoid fly Ormia ochracea". J Acoust Soc Am. 98 (6): 3059–70. PMID 8550933. doi:10.1121/1.413830.
Jump up ^ Robert D, Miles RN, Hoy RR (1996). "Directional hearing by mechanical coupling in the parasitoid fly Ormia ochracea". J Comp Physiol [A]. 179 (1): 29–44. PMID 8965258. doi:10.1007/BF00193432.
Jump up ^ Mason AC, Oshinsky ML, Hoy RR (Apr 2001). "Hyperacute directional hearing in a microscale auditory system". Nature. 410 (6829): 686–90. PMID 11287954. doi:10.1038/35070564.
Jump up ^ Ho CC, Narins PM (Apr 2006). "Directionality of the pressure-difference receiver ears in the northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens pipiens". J Comp Physiol [A]. 192 (4): 417–29. doi:10.1007/s00359-005-0080-7.
Jump up ^ Payne, Roger S., 1962. How the Barn Owl Locates Prey by Hearing. The Living Bird, First Annual of the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, 151-159
^ Jump up to: a b c Wade, NJ; Ono, H (2005). "From dichoptic to dichotic: historical contrasts between binocular vision and binaural hearing.". Perception. 34 (6): 645–68. PMID 16042189. doi:10.1068/p5327.
Jump up ^ Beyer, Robert T. (1999). Sounds of our times : two hundred years of acoustics. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-98435-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Wade, Nicholas J.; Deutsch, Diana (July 2008). "Binaural Hearing—Before and After the Stethophone" (PDF). Acoustics Today: 16–27.
External links[edit]
auditoryneuroscience.com: Collection of multimedia files and flash demonstrations related to spatial hearing
Collection of references about sound localization
Scientific articles about the sound localization abilities of different species of mammals
Interaural Intensity Difference Processing in Auditory Midbrain Neurons: Effects of a Transient Early Inhibitory Input
Online learning center - Hearing and Listening
HearCom:Hearing in the Communication Society, an EU research project
Research on "Non-line-of-sight (NLOS) Localisation for Indoor Environments" by CMR at UNSW
An introduction to sound localization
Sound and Room
An introduction to acoustic holography
An introduction to acoustic beamforming
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text:
Chow mein
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Chow mein
A plate of chow mein
Course
Main course
Place of origin
China
Region or state
Guangdong
Serving temperature
Hot
Main ingredients
Noodles, soy sauce, vegetables
Variations
Chicken, pork, beef, shrimp or tofu
Cookbook: Chow mein Media: Chow mein
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese
炒麵
Simplified Chinese
炒面
Literal meaning
"Stir-fried noodles"
[show]Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
chǎo miàn
IPA
[ʈʂʰàumjɛ̂n]
Hakka
Romanization
cau mien
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
cháau mihn
Jyutping
caau2 min6
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ
chhá-mī
Chow mein (/ˈtʃaʊ ˈmeɪn/) and (/ˈtʃaʊ ˈmiːn/) 炒麵 in Chinese and Chinese English [1] are stir-fried noodles, the name being the romanization of the Taishanese chāu-mèing.[2][better source needed] The dish is popular throughout the Chinese diaspora and appears on the menus of Chinese restaurants.[3] It is particularly popular in the United States,[4] UK,[5] Nepal,[6] and India.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Regional cuisine
2.1 American Chinese cuisine
2.2 Australian Chinese cuisine
2.3 Brazilian Japanese cuisine
2.4 Canadian Chinese cuisine
2.5 Caribbean Chinese cuisine
2.6 Indian Chinese cuisine
2.7 Nepalese Chinese cuisine
2.8 Peruvian Chinese cuisine
3 See also
4 References
Etymology[edit]
The words chow mein mean 'stir-fried noodles', chow meaning 'stir-fried' and mein meaning 'noodles'. The pronunciation chow mein is an English corruption of the Taishanese pronunciation chāu-mèing. The lightly pronounced Taishanese [ŋ], resembling the end of a Portuguese nasal vowel, was taken to be /n/ by English speakers.[citation needed] The Taishan dialect was spoken by migrants to North America from Taishan.
Regional cuisine[edit]
American Chinese cuisine[edit]
Chicken cube chow mein
Subgum chow mein
Soy sauce chow mein
In American Chinese cuisine, it is a stir-fried dish consisting of noodles, meat (chicken being most common but pork, beef, shrimp or tofu sometimes being substituted), onions and celery. It is often served as a specific dish at westernized Chinese restaurants. Vegetarian or vegan Chow Mein is also common.
There are two main kinds of chow meins available on the market:
Steamed chow mein, and
Crispy chow mein, also known as Hong Kong style chow mein (see below).
The steamed chow mein has a softer texture, while the latter is crisper and drier. Crispy chow mein uses fried, flat noodles, while soft chow mein uses long, rounded noodles.[8]
Crispy chow mein has either onions and celery in the finished dish or is served "strained", without any vegetables. Steamed chow mein can have many different kinds of vegetables in the finished dish, most commonly including onions and celery but sometimes carrots, cabbage and mung bean sprouts as well. Crispy chow mein is usually topped with a thick brown sauce, while steamed chow mein is mixed with soy sauce before being served.[9]
There is a regional difference in the US between the East and West Coast use of the term "chow mein". On the East Coast, "chow mein" is always the crispy or "Hong Kong style".[10] At some restaurants located in those areas, the crispy chow mein noodles are sometimes deep fried[11] and could be crispy "like the ones in cans"[12] or "fried as crisp as hash browns".[13] At a few East Coast locations, "chow mein" is also served over rice.[14] There, the steamed style using soft noodles is a separate dish called "lo mein". On the West Coast, "chow mein" is always the steamed style; the crispy style is simply called "Hong Kong style" and the term "lo mein" is not widely used.[8][9]
The crispy version of chow mein can also be served in a hamburger-style bun as a chow mein sandwich.[9]
There are also variations on how either one of the two main types of chow mein can be prepared as a dish. When ordering "chow mein" in some restaurants in Chicago, a diner might receive "chop suey poured over crunchy fried noodles".[15] In Philadelphia, Americanized chow mein tends to be similar to chop suey but has crispy fried noodles on the side and includes lots of celery and bean sprouts and is sometimes accompanied with fried rice.[16] Jeremy Iggers of the Star Tribune describes Minnesota-style chow mein as "a green slurry of celery and ground pork topped with ribbons of gray processed chicken".[17] Bay Area journalist William Wong made a similar comment about what is sold as chow mein in places like Minnesota.[18] A published recipe for Minnesota-style chow mein includes generous portions of celery and bean sprouts.[19][20] Another Minnesotan variant includes ground beef and cream of mushroom soup.[21]
Food historians and cultural anthropologists have noted that chow mein and other dishes served in Chinese American restaurants located away from areas without any significant Asian American population tend to be very different from what is served in China and are heavily modified to fit the taste preference of the local dominant population.[22][23] As an example, the chow mein gravy favored in the Fall River area more closely resembles that used in local New England cooking than that used in traditional Chinese cooking. The founder of the food manufacturer Chun King and the creator of canned chow mein admits of using Italian spices to make his product more acceptable to Americans whose ancestors came from Europe.[24]
Chow mein is mentioned as early as 1920, in the novel Main Street by Sinclair Lewis.[25][26]
It is frequently confused with chop suey; a dish incorrectly labeled as chow mein was sometimes served in American restaurants, drug store soda fountains,[27] school cafeterias,[28] senior citizens facilities,[29] and military bases chow halls.[30] In many of these cases, this particular dish was served over rice and did not include noodles.[27][28][29]
In 1946, one of the first companies to market "chow mein" in a can was Chun King.[31] The product's creator was Jeno Paulucci, the son of Italian immigrants, who developed a recipe based mostly upon Italian spices that would be better catered to the food preferences of European immigrants and some Americans of similar ethnic origins.[24][32][33][34] To keep cost down, Paulucci ingeniously substituted expensive water chestnuts with lower cost celery stalks that were originally destined for cattle feed.[32] Paulucci's company became so successful selling canned chow mein and chop suey that President Gerald Ford quipped “What could be more American than a business built on a good Italian recipe for chop suey?" when praising Paulucci accomplishments with Chun King.[24][35] After Paulucci sold Chun King in 1966, the company would be sold several more times more until it was dissolved in 1995.[36]
By 1960, Paulucci described in the New York Times that "At Chun King we have turned out a 'stew-type' chow mein. I'd guess this type has been around for thirty - maybe forty - years. To make it, all the meat, seasonings and vegetables are dumped into a kettle and stewed for hours - until everything is cooked."[37] At the time of the interview, "sales from restaurants 'to take home' are almost three times as great as in the food markets". Paulucci wanted to increase market share by using more effective advertising.
Australian Chinese cuisine[edit]
Traditional chow mein is made with egg noodles which are boiled then strained and left to dry.[citation needed] They are then stir fried and finally left to sit at the bottom of the wok and pressed down, this crisps the noodles at the edges and underside. Chow mein is made with either seafood, often just prawns, chicken, beef or barbecued pork. Restaurants will serve a combination chow mein or a single type. Chicken and beef are often softened with a little bicarbonate of soda. The sauce is made from garlic, rice wine, light stock, MSG, salt and corn flour. Vegetables are usually one green such as bok choy or choy sum plus a little chopped carrot, but also other green vegetables are acceptable. This stir fry is poured onto the noodles. Chow mein is unique as its noodles are both soft in part but also crispy.
Brazilian Japanese cuisine[edit]
Chow mein was brought to Brazil by Japanese immigrants and is thus referred as yakisoba (Portuguese pronunciation: [jakiˈsoβɐ] or [jakisoˈba]). It fits Brazilian tastes rather than Japanese ones though, and is thus more similar to the North American versions of chow mein.
Pastelarias and Asian restaurants serve it in the entire country. They generally are presented in chicken (the most common), beef, shrimp and pork versions, with vegetarian and egg versions being much rarer. Brazilian yakisoba is typically served much more al dente than the Japanese, being also heavy in soy sauce, sesame oil, and vegetables, almost always including at least carrot, cabbage, onion and at least one dark green species (usually other than kale, collard, spinach, chicory or mustard) such as Chinese cabbage, and less often either bean sprouts, broccoli/broccolini, zucchini, shiitake, bell pepper and/or cucumber.
Also popular is yakibifum ([jakibiˈfũ], from Japanese yakibīfun), its equivalent that uses rice vermicelli instead of wheat noodles. Brazilian spring rolls' (rolinhos-primavera or harumakis) fillings generally use the same ingredients of the stir-fried noodles in the restaurants or fast-food chains they are found, though spring rolls may have cheese, usually white (such as catupiry or other kinds of requeijão, or queijo minas), or tofu instead of meat, uncommon for the noodles. All of them, but most often and especially spring rolls, may be served with bright red molho agridoce (sweet-sour sauce), that combines ketchup, vinegar, sugar, star anise and other spices.
Canadian Chinese cuisine[edit]
Canadian westernized Chinese restaurants may offer up to three different types of chow mein, none of which is identical to either of the two types of American chow mein. Cantonese style chow mein contains deep-fried crunchy golden egg noodles, green peppers, pea pods, bok choy, bamboo shoots, water chestnuts, shrimp, Chinese roast pork (char siu), chicken, and beef, and is served in a thick sauce. Plain chow mein is similar to other Western chow meins but contains far more mung bean sprouts; some regional recipes may substitute bean sprouts for noodles completely. In Canada, Hong Kong style chow mein is similar to plain chow mein but is always served on a bed of deep-fried crunchy golden egg noodles. The Japanese Canadian community also have their own version of chow mein that might include dried seaweed and pickle ginger and could be served in a bun.[38][39]
Caribbean Chinese cuisine[edit]
Many West Indian people include chow mein in their cuisine, especially peoples from islands like Trinidad and Tobago[40][41] and Jamaica which include a significant ethnic Chinese population; much of the cooking has infused itself into the population in general. As well, in the South American country Guyana the culture and cuisine is similar to the Caribbean's.[42][43] These chow mein dishes are cooked in a similar manner, with green beans, carrots, peas, onions and sometimes other vegetables. Meat used is mostly chicken and sometimes pork and/or shrimp. The main difference is that local spices are added, and the dish is often served with hot Scotch bonnet peppers and/or pepper sauce.
In Cuba, aside from the foreign owned tourist hotels which often serve Western-style Chinese food, local Chinese restaurants can be found in Havana that offer a distinct Cuban style.
In Panama, chow mein is prepared with a mixture of shredded carrots and cabbage with pork or chicken and served over noodles. Another recipe includes canned corn.[44]
Indian Chinese cuisine[edit]
Bangladeshi-style chow mein
Chow mein is also common in Indian Chinese, Bangladeshi Chinese, and Pakistani Chinese cuisine. In India, it was introduced by the Chinese of Calcutta. It is usually offered Hakka or with gravy. Catering to vegetarian diets, there is an Indian variant, vegetable chow mein, which consists of noodles with cabbage, bamboo shoots, pea pods, green peppers, and carrots. In the New Delhi area, chow mein can sometimes include paneer with the mixture of noodles and vegetables. Another non-meat Indian variant includes scrambled egg as a protein source.[45][46] Kolkata has its own variant that is called Calcutta Chow Mein or Calcutta Chowmin that also includes green chilli, chilli garlic, or hot garlic.[47]
Nepalese Chinese cuisine[edit]
Nepalese-style hot chicken chow mein
Tibetans who settled in Nepal brought chow mein with them. It is a popular fast food in Nepal. The Newari people of the Kathmandu Valley use water buffalo meat and chicken in their cuisine, and chow mein in Nepal is often cooked with onion, vegetables and buff (water buffalo meat).
Peruvian Chinese cuisine[edit]
Chinese food (Chifa) is very popular in Peru and is now a part of mainstream Peruvian culture. Chow mein is known to Peruvians as Tallarín salteado and may contain peppers, onions, green onions, and tomatoes.[48]
See also[edit]
China portal
Food portal
Chow mein sandwich
Lo mein
Chinese noodles
Fried noodles
Chop suey (stir fried meat, bean sprouts, cabbage, celery)
List of Chinese dishes
Mie goreng (Indonesian and Malaysian versions of chow mein)
Mein gon (crunchy chow mein cracker-noodles)
Yakisoba (Japanese version of chow mein)
Pancit (Filipino version of chow mein)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Patrick J. Cummings; Hans-Georg Wolf (2011). A Dictionary of Hong Kong English: Words from the Fragrant Harbor. Hong Kong University Press. p. 37. ISBN 9789888083305.
Jump up ^ Hsiung, Deh-Ta & Simonds, Nina (2005). Food of China. Murdoch Books. p. 239.
Jump up ^ Cho, Lily (2010). Eating Chinese. University of Toronto Press. p. 51.
Jump up ^ Aggarwal, Uma (2013). America's Favorite Recipes. iUniverse. p. 199.
Jump up ^ Mason, Laura (2004). Food Culture in Great Britain. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 163.
Jump up ^ Bindloss, Joseph (2010). Nepal: Country Guide Series, Lonely Planet guidebooks. Lonely Planet. p. 65. ISBN 9781742203614.
Jump up ^ Ahuja, Aashna (2015-11-27). "Indian Chinese Cuisine: India's Love Affair with Chinese Food". NDTV.
^ Jump up to: a b "Chow mein noodles, fried". GourmetSleuth. Retrieved 2015-06-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The pounds – of noodles – pile up at chow mein factory". Made In Fall River. 2008-09-23. Archived from the original on 2013-12-06. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
Jump up ^ Etter, Gerald (1988-11-09). "Classic Cantonese Chow Mein With Fried Noodles – That Was Then. Sophistication, Freshness And Delicacy – This Is Now". Philadelphia Inquirer.
Jump up ^ Kilgannon, Corey (1997-11-23). "In Search of Chow Mein". New York Times.
Jump up ^ Hansen, Barbara (2000-04-19). "Chow Mein Lives". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ Jacobson, Max (1999-04-15). "Soup That Bowls You Over: One man's quest for the perfect won ton min (in America, anyway) ends at Har Lam Kee". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ Ferretti, Fred (1983-04-13). "Chinese Dishes, American Style". New York Times.
Jump up ^ Eng, Monica (2005-11-03). "Theories on origin of other Chinese foods". Chicago Tribune.
Jump up ^ "Top Spots For Chow Mein In The Region". CBS Philly. 2013-09-10.
Jump up ^ Iggers, Jeremy (1999-10-27). "Restaurant review: Chow mein". Minneapolis Star Tribune.
Jump up ^ Wong, William (2010). Yellow Journalist: Dispatches from Asian America. Temple University Press. pp. 92–94. Note: The essay in this book was original published in the July 21, 1988 issue of the East-West News as an article titled "Minnesota Chow Mein".
Jump up ^ "Nankin-Style Subgum Chow Mein". Washington Post. 2007-05-23.
Jump up ^ Grobe, Crystal (2012-10-09). "Bite Of Minnesota: Subgum Chow Mein". WCCO-TV.
Jump up ^ "Recipes: Beef Chow Mein Hot Dish". Minneapolis Star Tribune. 2007-01-17.
Jump up ^ Lim, Imogene L. & Eng-Wong, John (1994). "Chow Mein Sandwiches: Chinese American Entrepreneurship in Rhode Island" (PDF). In Kwok, Munson A. & Quan, Ella Yee. Origins and Destinations: 41 Essays on Chinese America. Los Angeles: Chinese Historical Society of Southern California, UCLA Asian American Studies Center. pp. 417–436. ISBN 9780930377038. OCLC 260218520.
Jump up ^ Lim, Imogene (Spring 2006). "Mostly Mississippi: Chinese Cuisine Made In America". Flavor & Fortune. 13 (1). pp. 11–12.
^ Jump up to: a b c Shapiro, T. Rees (2011-11-30). "Jeno Paulucci, pioneer of frozen-food business, dies at 93". Washington Post.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Sinclair (1920). Main Street. P. F. Collier and Son Corporation. Retrieved 2015-06-16 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Sinclair (1920). Main Street – via Project Gutenberg.
^ Jump up to: a b "Fountain Specials for the Peoples Drug Store ad". Free Lance-Star. 1982-04-08. p. 10.
^ Jump up to: a b "School lunch menus". South Coast Today. 1996-10-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Shriver, Waneta (2004-06-03). "Ruthton News". Tyler Tribune.
Jump up ^ Index of Recipes: Armed Forces Recipe Service; 2003 Index; COG I Stock No. 0530-LP-011-3090 (PDF). Armed Forces Recipe Service. United States Government. 2003.
Jump up ^ Key, Janet (1989-06-22). "RJR Sending Chun King To Orient". Chicago Tribune.
^ Jump up to: a b Gorman, John (1987-03-23). "Food Giant's Green Thumb Grew 2 Big Successes". Chicago Tribune.
Jump up ^ Slotnik, Daniel E. (2011-11-25). "Jeno Paulucci, a Pioneer of Ready-Made Ethnic Foods, Dies at 93". New York Times.
Jump up ^ Witt, Linda (1976-09-13). "What Makes Jeno Paulucci Happy? Italian Influence, Clean Lakes, Punctuality and Pizza Eaters". People. 6 (11). p. 72.
Jump up ^ Ford, Gerald R. (1976-09-16). "Remarks of The President at the Italian-American Foundation Bicentennial Tribute Dinner" (PDF). White House – via Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library.
Jump up ^ McQuaid, Kevin L. (1995-04-04). "Chun King Corp. to close plant, eliminate 173 jobs". Baltimore Sun. Retrieved 2015-06-16.
Jump up ^ Alden, Robert (1960-03-13). "Advertising: Chow Mein to Be Reoriented: Packager Cooks Up Sales Recipe for 'Chinese' Dish". New York Times. p. F12. (Subscription required (help)). Alternate Link via ProQuest.
Jump up ^ Sakauye, Russell (2013-05-29). "The Legacy of the Cumberland Chow Mein". The Bulletin (JCCA). Japanese Canadian Citizens Association. Archived from the original on 2013-09-27.
Jump up ^ Bain, Jennifer (2011-03-08). "Japanese-Canadian chow mein: Chow mein — with seaweed and pickled ginger — never tasted so good". Toronto Star.
Jump up ^ Ganeshram, Ramin (2011-02-01). "Recipe: Eight-Treasure Trini Chow Mein". NPR.
Jump up ^ Ganeshram, Ramin (2011-02-02). "Chinese New Year, Trinidad-Style". NPR.
Jump up ^ Nelson, Cynthia (2013-01-29). "Guyanese-style chicken chowmein": Sometimes you just crave chowmein. Using chowmein noodles, marinaded chicken, and veggies like beans, carrots, and green onion, you can make your own version at home". Christian Science Monitor.
Jump up ^ Seponara-Sills, Jonny & Seponara-Sills, Amy (2011-04-30). "Guyanese chow mein: A traditional Guyanese dish that reveals a fusion of Asian influences". Christian Science Monitor.
Jump up ^ Montenegro, Nayla (2007-03-30). "El "Chow Mein" es panameño" [The "Chow Mein" is Panama]. Panamá América (in Spanish).
Jump up ^ "Recipe: Egg Chowmein". Zee News. 2013-01-21.
Jump up ^ Shaw, Kanchan (2010-03-17). "Egg Hakka Chowmein". Gourmet India.
Jump up ^ Bhattacharya, Chandrima S. (June 21, 2015). "Long live chow mein: Hakka or gravy, Dacres Lane or Tangra, Chandrima S. Bhattacharya traces the journey of the ubiquitous Calcutta chowmin". Calcutta Telegraph.
Jump up ^ "Lunch Bunch: A Peruvian twist; Andes fare meets Mexican eatery". Times Record News. 2012-07-06.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chow mein.
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