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Secretary of state
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The title secretary of state or state secretary[1] is commonly used for senior or mid-level posts in governments around the world. The role varies between countries, and in some cases there are multiple secretaries of state in the government.
In many countries, a secretary of state is a mid-level post. It is usually a politically appointed position, although in some countries, such as Germany and Sweden, it can be filled by a member of the executive bureaucracy (civil service) as a political appointment. In the Holy See, the administrative body of the Catholic Church, the Cardinal Secretary of State coordinates all the departments of the Roman Curia (and is thus equivalent to a prime minister). In the United Kingdom, a secretary of state is a member of the cabinet appointed by the Queen on the advice of the prime minister (and thus equivalent to a cabinet minister). The United States Secretary of State is the foreign minister of the federal government of the United States while in most of the individual U.S. states the secretary of state is an administrative officer responsible for certain governmental functions, often including overseeing elections.
Contents
[hide]
1 Africa
1.1 Orange Free State
1.2 Portuguese-speaking African countries
1.3 South African Republic
2 The Americas
2.1 Argentina
2.2 Brazil
2.3 Canada
2.4 Mexico
2.5 United States
2.5.1 Federal government
2.5.2 State government
3 Asia
3.1 Indonesia
3.2 Kuwait
3.3 Malaysia
3.4 Timor-Leste
4 Europe
4.1 Belgium
4.2 Estonia
4.3 Finland
4.4 France
4.5 Germany
4.6 Greece
4.7 Holy See
4.8 Luxembourg
4.9 Netherlands
4.10 Norway
4.11 Portugal
4.12 Russia
4.13 San Marino
4.14 Spain
4.15 Sweden
4.16 Switzerland
4.17 United Kingdom
4.17.1 Historical origin
4.17.2 Modern role
5 References
Africa[edit]
Orange Free State[edit]
In the Orange Free State (1854–1902) the Secretary of State was the original title of the main administrative officer of the State, who worked closely with both the State President as head of state and head of government, and his cabinet, and with the Volksraad, the parliament of the Orange Free State. The title of State Secretary was replaced by that of Government Secretary soon after the formation of the state apparatus and was thereafter never used again.
Portuguese-speaking African countries[edit]
The organization of the governments of Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique and São Tome and Príncipe closely mirrors the Portuguese government model. Thus, in these countries, a Secretary of State (Portuguese: secretário de Estado) is a junior minister, subordinate to a cabinet minister. Usually, the secretaries of State do not participate in the council of ministers.
In Mozambique, the role of vice-minister (Portuguese: vice-ministro) exists as an intermediate government rank between those of minister and Secretary of State. The role of vice-minister also exists in the Government of Angola, but it is junior to that of Secretary of State.
South African Republic[edit]
In the South African Republic the Secretary of State was the main administrative officer of the State, working closely with both the State President as head of state and head of government, and the parliament of the South African Republic.
The Americas[edit]
Argentina[edit]
The Secretary of State (Secretario de Estado) in Argentina (federal government) is a high official with the same rank of a Minister, who is responsible directly to the President. The position must be distinguished from a "Secretary", a lower position, responsible to a Minister.
The official responsible for foreign policy is called Minister of Foreign Affairs (Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores) or "Chancellor" (Canciller).
Brazil[edit]
In Brazil, a Secretary of State ([secretário de Estado or secretário estadual] error: {{lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help)) – commonly referred simply as "Secretary" (Portuguese: secretário) is one of the government members of each of the Brazilian states, subordinate to the respective State Governor. At state level, the Brazilian secretaries of State have functions similar to those of the Ministers of the Federal Government.
At federal level, the officer responsible for foreign affaris, a position equivalent to that of the United States Secretary of State, is the Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Canada[edit]
The Canadian Cabinet used to have a Secretary of State for External Affairs who acted as the country's Foreign Minister, but this position was abolished in 1993 and a new position of Minister of Foreign Affairs was created. From 1867 to 1993, there was also a Secretary of State for Canada who was a Cabinet minister whose duties varied over time but who was responsible for the Department of Secretary of State until the position was abolished. Since 1993, some junior ministers have been styled Secretary of State, and assigned in specific policy areas to assist Cabinet ministers. However, these junior ministers are not themselves members of Cabinet. A similar role is played by Ministers of State, however Ministers are members of the cabinet.
Mexico[edit]
In Mexico a Secretary of State is a member of the Mexican Executive Cabinet who responds to the President of the Republic.
United States[edit]
Federal government[edit]
Main article: United States Secretary of State
In the United States federal government, "Secretary of State" refers to the official responsible for executing the non-military and non-homeland security aspects of foreign policy, the analogue of the foreign secretary or foreign minister of a country that has one or the other. The U.S. Secretary of State is head of the United States Department of State. He or she is responsible for the administration of United States Embassies and their subsidiary units throughout the world.
The U.S. Secretary of State has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U.S. soil for any reason.
Six Secretaries of State became presidents (Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Martin Van Buren and James Buchanan) and five won Nobel Peace Prizes (Frank Kellogg, Cordell Hull, George Marshall, Elihu Root, and Henry Kissinger).
The now long-established terms "Department ..." and "Secretary of State" were preceded (for two months following the effective date of the Constitution) by the narrower title Secretary of Foreign Affairs and the corresponding departmental name; the change reflected the addition of some miscellaneous domestic responsibilities.[2]
The position is widely regarded as the most senior in the Cabinet. In the presidential line of succession the Secretary of State falls first among Cabinet officers, and fourth overall. The Secretary of State is also, in protocol, the first Cabinet member in the order of precedence, immediately preceding any former presidents and former first ladies, who are followed by the rest of the Cabinet.
President Barack Obama named Hillary Clinton as his choice for 67th Secretary of State on December 1, 2008. She was confirmed on January 21, 2009, the day after Obama's inauguration and is the third woman to hold the position.[3] On December 21, 2012 President Obama announced his choice for Secretary of State during his second term, Senator John Kerry. His confirmation hearing took place on January 24, 2013, before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. The committee unanimously voted to approve him on January 29, 2013, and the same day the full Senate confirmed him on a vote of 94–3. On February 1, 2013, Hillary Clinton resigned as Secretary of State and John Kerry was sworn in as the 68th Secretary of State.
On February 1, 2017, Rex Wayne Tillerson was sworn in as the 69th United States Secretary of State.
State government[edit]
Main article: Secretary of State (U.S. state government)
In most of the individual states of the United States, the Secretary of State is an administrative officer responsible for certain governmental functions. The specific powers and duties of this office depend on the constitution and laws of the particular state, but they often include responsibility for overseeing elections within the state. In three states (Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia), the position is called "Secretary of the Commonwealth". In Connecticut, this office is called the "Secretary of the State".
Asia[edit]
Indonesia[edit]
In Indonesia, the Minister-Secretary of State (Menteri Sekretaris Negara) is a Government official of Ministerial rank who heads the Ministry of State Secretariat. The Minister-Secretary of State gives technical and administrative assistance to the President and Vice President in running State affairs. In the President's case, the Minister-Secretary of State also provides assistance for the President in his role as Commander-in-chief of Indonesian National Armed Forces. In addition, the State Secretary provides the President and Vice President with their reports, coordinates household matters and protocols, as well as assisting in the drafting of bills and/or Governmental regulations.
Kuwait[edit]
The Kuwaiti Minister of Foreign Affairs, Dr. Sheikh Muhammad Al-Sabah Al-Salem Al-Sabah, is in charge of international relations of Kuwait, and all Kuwaiti representatives abroad. Al-Sabah is a member of the cabinet of ministers, and reports directly to Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, The Emir of Kuwait. He is also in charge of all the diplomatic representatives in Kuwait.
Malaysia[edit]
Main article: Chief Secretary to the Government
In Malaysia, Chief Secretary to the Government is the Malaysian secretary of state.
However, every state in Malaysia have their own Secretary of State, except federal territories. Secretary of State is the member of the State Executive Council, appointed by the Governor (in Malacca, Penang, Sabah and Sarawak) or the Sultan (except in Negeri Sembilan, appointed by the Yang DiPertuan Besar; and Perlis, appointed by the King.) The Secretary of State is the head of the public service in his/her state.
Timor-Leste[edit]
Following the Portuguese model, in the Government of Timor-Leste, a Secretary of State (Sekretáriu Estadu in Tetum, Secretário de Estado in Portuguese) is a junior minister, subordinate to a cabinet minister. Despite being members of the Government, the Secretaries of State usually do not participate in the Council of Ministers, unless they are specially summoned for and, in this case, without right to vote.
Europe[edit]
Belgium[edit]
As in France, a Secretary of State in Belgium is a junior minister who is responsible to a minister or the Prime Minister. For example, Vincent Van Quickenborne was a Secretary of State charged with the simplification of the administration, and in this role he was accountable to the Prime Minister. Secretaries of state do not fall under the constitutional provision that there should be an equal number of French and Dutch-speaking ministers (with the possible exception of the Prime Minister). See Current list of Secretary of States for Belgian Federal Government.
There are also three secretaries of State in the government of the Brussels-Capital Region, one of whom has to be Flemish.
Estonia[edit]
The Secretary of State (Riigisekretär) directs the Government Office. Its mission is to support the Government of Estonia and the Prime Minister of Estonia in policy drafting and implementation. It also supports any Ministers without portfolio and helps to ensure good governance. The first Secretary of State was Karl Terras. Before the Soviet re-occupation in 1944, the State Secretary went into exile until the position came back to Estonia in 1992.[4]
Finland[edit]
A Secretary of State, valtiosihteeri, is the highest official below each minister. Ministers, who lead ministries (government departments), comprise the Finnish Council of State. Each Secretary of State is appointed for the term of the minister, and is responsible to the minister.
This is a new arrangement; during the introduction of this model, a secretary was called "political state secretary" (poliittinen valtiosihteeri). In contrast, previously only two ministries, ministries of finance and foreign affairs, used to have Secretaries of State, who were permanently appointed. One such example is Raimo Sailas.
France[edit]
In France, a Secretary of State (Secrétaire d'État) is a junior minister, responsible to a minister or the Prime Minister. It is not to be confused with the Minister of State title given to a senior French cabinet minister of particular importance.
Under the Ancien Régime, Secretaries of State were Crown officers whose responsibilities were similar to those of today's governmental ministers.
Germany[edit]
The German Staatssekretär is a Beamter (civil servant) who is second only to the minister in a state or federal ministry. While officially it is not a political office, often it is assigned by appointment based on political criteria such as party affiliation, rather than by career progression as a civil servant. Nevertheless, he is the administrative head of the ministry. They depend on the full confidence of their minister and can at any time be posted into provisional retirement with their pension paid in full. This happens usually when the government or the minister changes. De facto such a provisional retirement is lifelong.
A special case is the Parlamentarischer Staatssekretär (parliamentary secretary of state), which is a member of parliament who is appointed to a ministry as a Staatssekretär; in the German Foreign Office and the German Chancellery the official title is Staatsminister (Minister of State). Such posts, which were intended to improve the connection between a ministry and the parliament, have recently become subject of some controversy. Critics claim that parliamentary secretaries of state are usually given little to no influence and responsibility within their ministry. All the while they are paid very generously due to receiving two salaries, both as secretary of state and as member of parliament. For example, when interviewed about his post as a parliamentary minister of state in the German Foreign Office during an investigation into visa abuse, Ludger Volmer claimed that he had been cut off from the workflow within the ministry, and called the Staatsminister office an "Unding" (absurdity).
In 1998, chancellor Gerhard Schröder introduced the new office of Federal Government Commissioner for Culture and the Media (Beauftragter der Bundesregierung für Kultur und Medien) at the formal rank of a Parlamentarischer Staatssekretär, hence the office is usually called Kulturstaatsminister ("Minister of Culture") for short – although some of the incumbents did not hold a seat in parliament. The German Parliamentary Commission for Culture and the Media (Ausschuss für Kultur und Medien im Deutschen Bundestag) serves in place of a proper ministry for this department. Since 1998, the office of Kulturstaatsminister has been held by Michael Naumann (1998–2001), Julian Nida-Rümelin (2001–2002), Christina Weiss (2002–2005), Bernd Neumann (2005-2013) and Monika Grütters (since 2013).
Greece[edit]
In Greece, the title "Secretary of State" (Greek: Γραμματεύς της Επικρατείας) was used only intermittently during the early years of the modern Greek state. It was first employed for the head of the cabinet under the governorship of Ioannis Kapodistrias, a post held successively by Spyridon Trikoupis (1828–29) and Nikolaos Spiliadis (1829–31). It was then abandoned, until used instead of the title of "Minister" (Υπουργός) for the cabinet members in the 1835–37 Cabinet of Josef Ludwig von Armansperg, with Armansperg being designated "Chief Secretary of State" (Αρχιγραμματεύς της Επικρατείας).
Holy See[edit]
The Secretary of State of His Holiness The Pope, or Cardinal Secretary of State, presides over the Secretariat of State, which is the most important dicastery of the Roman Curia, as it organizes, makes appointments to, and directs the activities of the other dicasteries.[5] The secretariat is also responsible for the Holy See's foreign relations.[5] During a sede vacante, the former Secretary of State (the appointment expires when the pope dies or resigns) assumes some of the functions of the head of state as a part of a temporary commission.[6]
Luxembourg[edit]
Luxembourgian Secretaries of State (French: secrétaire d'Etat, Luxembourgish: Staatssekretär(in), German: Staatssekretär(in)) are members of the cabinet, and are ranked below ministers. They are given specific briefs, covering the same briefs as the ministers, and help to assist their respective ministers to perform their functions. They often hold more than one brief or assist more than one minister. In the first Juncker-Asselborn cabinet, there was one Secretary of State, Octavie Modert, who is responsible for Relations with Parliament; Agriculture, Viticulture, and Rural Development; and Culture, Higher Education, and Research. There had been two in the previous cabinet, and three between 1984 and 1989.
Netherlands[edit]
As in France and Belgium, a State secretary in the Netherlands is a junior minister who is responsible to a Cabinet Minister or the Prime Minister. Some of them may, in specific circumstances, call themselves Minister when visiting a foreign country.
The top civil servant in a government department is called Secretary-General (secretaris-generaal).
Norway[edit]
Main article: State Secretary (Norway)
A statssekretær in Norway plays more or less the same role as the French or Swedish equivalent. Secretaries of State are connected to specific ministry, and serve as a de facto vice minister. However, the State Secretary cannot attend a Council of State and the only minister is constitutionally responsible for all the statssekretær's descions in office.
Portugal[edit]
In Portugal, a secretary of State (Portuguese: secretário de Estado, masculine; secretária de Estado, feminine; secretários de Estado, plural) is a junior minister, of intermediate rank between that of cabinet minister and that of under-secretary of State. Although members of the Government, the secretaries of State do not usually participate in the Council of Ministers, unless summoned for certain meetings and, in those cases, without right to vote.
Until the reorganization of the Portuguese Public Administration structure in 2004, it was common for a secretary of State to be in charge of a secretariat of State (Portuguese: secretaria de Estado), a Government department with a status below that of a ministry. A secretariat of State could be organized as a division of a ministry or occasionally be directly subordinate to the Prime Minister. Despite this type of departament no longer officially exists in the organization of the Portuguese Government, it is still common usage for a set of agencies dependent on a secretary of State to be collectively referred as a "secretariat of State".
Presently, each secretary of State acts merely as a deputy minister, having only the powers delegated to him by his minister.
Historically, since the 17th century, the title of "secretary of State" was used to designate the heads of the Government departments of Portugal. In the 19th century, the title of "minister" started to be used instead, the official complete title of each of the ministers becoming "minister and secretary of State of a given portfolio" until the end of the Monarchy in 1910. From them on, the title "minister" completely replaced that of "secretary of State" (with the exception of the brief presidential system that existed during 1918, in which the ministers were re-titled "secretaries of State"). In 1958, the title of "secretary of State" was reintroduced to designate the then created role of a junior minister, subordinate to a cabinet minister.
Russia[edit]
The position of State Secretary existed during certain periods of time. It exists now.
In Russian Empire:
Count Karl Nesselrode, State Secretary in 1814, Foreign Minister in 1816
M. de Freigang sometime in the 1820–1828 time period[citation needed]
Sergei Witte 1903–1905[citation needed]
In Russian Federation:
Gennady Burbulis, 1991–1992
Grigory Karasin, 2005–
San Marino[edit]
In the Republic of San Marino a Secretary of State is a senior Cabinet Minister in charge of a State Department. The Secretary of State is a member of the Council of Ministers (Congresso di Stato).
Spain[edit]
In present-day organisation of the Spanish Government a Secretario de Estado is a junior minister. Each ministry may have one or several Secretaries of State. For example, the Secretary of State for Latin America works for the Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation.
From 1715 to 1834 the Secretarios de Estado y del Despacho were the heads of different government departments. The Secretary of State usually served as Chief Minister (See List of Prime Ministers of Spain).
Sweden[edit]
Main article: State Secretary (Sweden)
In Sweden, a State Secretary (Swedish: Statssekreterare) is a political appointee, second in rank to the Minister (Swedish: Statsråd) in charge of the ministry. Unlike ministers, state secretaries are not members of the cabinet. Typically, there is one State Secretary assigned for each minister in the cabinet, and two for the Prime Minister. For historical reasons, the State Secretary in the Ministry for Foreign Affairs has another title (Swedish: Kabinettssekreterare, in English literally "Cabinet Secretary"). State Secretaries tend to, more often than the Ministers do, hail from a fixed civil servant background or a professional background relevant to the area of responsibility that belongs to their respective ministries.
Switzerland[edit]
In the Swiss federal administration, secretaries of state are the most senior career officials. The title is conferred by the Swiss Federal Council on heads of federal offices whose duties entail independent interaction with senior foreign authorities (cf. article 46 of the Government and Administration Organisation Act). In practice, the function of a secretary of state is the same as in France.
United Kingdom[edit]
Historical origin[edit]
Main article: Secretary of State (England)
In the Kingdom of England, before 1660, an officer entitled Secretary of State came into being near the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603), the usual title before that having been King's Clerk, King's Secretary, or Principal Secretary. From 1540 there were sometimes two secretaries of state.
From 1660 there were always two secretaries of state, between whom oversight of foreign affairs was divided on a geographical basis while domestic affairs were shared: the Northern Secretary and the Southern Secretary. In 1707, England and Scotland were merged into the Kingdom of Great Britain, and there was a third Secretary of State for Scotland until 1746. A third Secretary of State for the Colonies existed from 1768. In 1782 the system was reformed back to two secretaries of state: a Home Secretary (including colonial affairs) and a Foreign Secretary, with the addition of a third for War from 1794.
The United Kingdom was formed by the union of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland in 1801. By a gradual process between then and the 1960s, most of the ministers of the British cabinet became secretaries of state.
Modern role[edit]
Main article: Secretary of State (United Kingdom)
In the United Kingdom, a secretary of state is a cabinet minister in charge of a government department (though not all departments are headed by a secretary of state, e.g. HM Treasury is headed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer). Secretaries of state are appointed directly by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, and are responsible, along with other Cabinet members, for the collective government of the United Kingdom. There is in theory only one office of Secretary of State,[7] and legislation generally refers only to "the Secretary of State". In practice, there are a number of secretaries of state, each of whom can exercise some of the functions of the Secretary of State,[7] and are formally titled "Her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for ...". These positions can be created without primary legislation.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ This and many other government and judiciary titles are often capitalized in government documents in violation of the much more common rule in English to capitalize titles only before a name, when it in fact becomes part of the name. Therefore lowercase spelling is the first or only variant recorded in some major dictionaries such as the American Heritage Dictionary, the Oxford Online Dictionaries, and the Random House Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "Frequently asked questions – Office of the Historian". Office of the Historian, United States Department of State. Retrieved August 13, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Etaiwannews.com". Etaiwannews.com. 2008-12-01. Retrieved 2014-08-23.
Jump up ^ Riigisekretäri ülesanded (in Estonian)
^ Jump up to: a b Pope John Paul II (1988-06-28). "Pastor Bonus". The Holy See. Retrieved 2008-11-17.
Jump up ^ Pope John Paul II (1996-02-22). "Universi Dominici Gregis". The Holy See. Retrieved 2008-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b "Draft Cabinet Manual" (PDF). Cabinet Office. 14 December 2010. p. 42. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
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List of major opera composers
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This list provides a guide to opera composers, as determined by their presence on a majority of compiled lists of significant opera composers. (See the "Lists Consulted" section for full details.) The composers run from Jacopo Peri, who wrote the first ever opera in late 16th century Italy, to John Adams, one of the leading figures in the contemporary operatic world. The brief accompanying notes offer an explanation as to why each composer has been considered major. Also included is a section about major women opera composers, compiled from the same lists. For an introduction to operatic history, see opera. The organisation of the list is by birthdate.
Contents
[hide]
1 Major opera composers
1.1 1550–1699
1.2 1700–99
1.3 1800–49
1.4 1850–99
1.5 1900–present
2 Female opera composers
3 See also
4 References
4.1 Sources
4.2 Lists consulted
Major opera composers[edit]
1550–1699[edit]
Jacopo Peri as Arion in La pellegrina
Jacopo Peri (1561–1633). A Florentine who composed both the first opera ever, Dafne (1598), and the first surviving opera, Euridice (1600).[1]
Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643) is generally regarded as the first major opera composer.[2] In Orfeo (1607) he blended Peri's experiments in opera with the lavish spectacle of the intermedi.[3] Later, in Venice in the 1640s, he helped make opera a commercially viable form with Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria and L'incoronazione di Poppea, one of the earliest operas in the present-day operatic repertoire.
Francesco Cavalli (1602–1676). Amongst the most important of Monteverdi's successors, Cavalli was a major force in spreading opera throughout Italy and also helped introduce it to France. His Giasone was " the most popular opera of the 17th century".[4]
Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632–1687). In close collaboration with the librettist Philippe Quinault, Lully founded the tradition of tragédie en musique,[5] combining singing, dance and visual spectacle, which would remain the most prestigious French operatic genre for almost a hundred years. Cadmus et Hermione (1673) is often regarded as the first example of French opera.
Henry Purcell (1659–1695). Purcell was the first English operatic composer of significance. His masterwork is Dido and Aeneas.[6]
Alessandro Scarlatti (1660–1725). A key figure in the development of opera seria, Scarlatti claimed to have composed over 100 operas, of which La Griselda is a notable example.[7]
Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683–1764) was the most important French opera composer of the 18th century. Following in the genre established by Lully,[8] he endowed his works with a great richness of invention. Rameau's musical daring provoked great controversy in his day,[8] but he was an important influence on Gluck.
Johann Christoph Pepusch (1667–1752). Composer of the first English ballad opera, the biting political satire, The Beggar's Opera.[9]
George Frideric Handel (1685–1759). Handel's opera serias set the standard in his day.[10] Handel composed a series of over 30 operas.
1700–99[edit]
Gluck in a 1775 portrait by Joseph Duplessis.
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710–1736). Though Pergolesi also composed opera serias, his most influential work was the short opera buffa, La serva padrona.[11]
Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714–1787) was a key figure in the transformation of Baroque into Classical opera, paving the way for Mozart, though his influence stretched much further into the 19th century, with both Berlioz and Wagner acknowledging their debt to him. In his reform operas from Orfeo ed Euridice onwards, he sought to throw off the formal conventions of opera seria and write music of "beautiful simplicity" (his own words).[12]
Giovanni Paisiello (1740-1816). Italian composer who wrote the first opera to include Beaumarchais' character Figaro as a main character, as well as writing a substantial number of other operas, some of them in St. Petersburg.
Domenico Cimarosa (1749–1801). Italian composer most famous for the opera buffa, Il matrimonio segreto, which forms a bridge between the comedies of Mozart and Rossini.[13]
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791). Mozart's series of comic collaborations (Così fan tutte, Don Giovanni, and The Marriage of Figaro) with Lorenzo da Ponte are among the most popular operas in the repertoire today,[14] along with his Singspiel The Magic Flute.
Antonio Salieri (1750-1825). Italian composer who was a major contributor to and shaper of Viennese musical life from 1770 to 1820, he also composed successful operas in Italy and Paris, and won admiration from German operagoers as a composer who, in the words of one contemporary critic, ‘could bind all the power of German music to the sweet Italian style’.[15] His opera Europa riconosciuta was composed for the inauguration of La Scala. Among his other most successful operas were Les Danaïdes, Axur, re d'Ormus (the Italian version of French Tarare) and Falstaff.
Luigi Cherubini (1760–1842). A follower of Gluck, Cherubini's most famous opera is Médée. The title role has proved a challenge to sopranos (including Maria Callas) since its premiere in 1797.[16]
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) wrote only one opera, Fidelio, a tale of freedom from political oppression, which has become one of the major German language operas.[17]
Gaspare Spontini (1774–1851). Though Italian, Spontini is best known for his work in France during the Napoleonic era. His masterpiece La vestale influenced Bellini and Berlioz.[18]
Daniel-François-Esprit Auber (1782–1871). French composer celebrated for high-spirited opéra comiques such as Fra Diavolo and Le domino noir. His grand opera La muette de Portici attained unexpected political influence when a performance in Brussels in 1830 sparked off a revolution which led to the creation of Belgium.[19]
Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826) founded German Romantic opera[20] in order to challenge the dominance of Italian bel canto. A master of orchestral colour and atmosphere, Weber was never well served by his librettists, and only one of his works, Der Freischütz, is performed with any frequency. Though he died young, his influence on later German composers, especially Wagner, was immense.
Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791–1864). The archetypal composer of French grand opera, Meyerbeer's huge extravaganzas such as Les Huguenots and Le prophète were immensely popular in their day.[21]
Gioachino Rossini (1792–1868) links bel canto with Grand Opera. His immortal Barber of Seville was the only one of his operas that was continuously performed into the 20th century,[22] but his serious operas, such as Semiramide and Ermione, are recognised as masterpieces now that singers with appropriate technique are again available to perform them. Guillaume Tell, his swan-song, has a vast sweep[22] only equalled in the 19th century by the later works of Verdi, Mussorgsky and Wagner.
Heinrich Marschner (1795-1861). German composer who was the most important exponent of German Romantic opera in the generation between Weber and Wagner.[23] His most successful operas were Hans Heiling, Der Vampyr and Der Templer und die Jüdin.
Gaetano Donizetti (1797–1848). Along with Rossini and Bellini, Donizetti is generally acknowledged as one of the masters of the bel canto style. His masterwork is generally cited as being Lucia di Lammermoor.[24]
Jacques Fromental Halévy (1799–1862). Along with Meyerbeer, the best known composer of French grand opera, Halévy's key work is La Juive, a story of religious intolerance set in 15th century Switzerland.[25]
1800–49[edit]
Giuseppe Verdi, by Giovanni Boldini, 1886 (National Gallery of Modern Art, Rome)
Vincenzo Bellini (1801–1835). On account of such works as Norma and I puritani, Bellini is recognised as one of the leading composers of the bel canto style of opera.[26]
Hector Berlioz (1803–1869). Berlioz's attempts to carve out an operatic career for himself were thwarted by an unimaginative musical establishment.[27] Nevertheless, he managed to produce Benvenuto Cellini, Béatrice et Bénédict and his masterpiece, the epic Les Troyens,.[28] Berlioz's dramatic legend, La damnation de Faust, has also been staged as an opera in recent years.
Mikhail Glinka (1804–1857) founded the Russian operatic tradition with his historical drama A Life for the Tsar and his fairy tale piece Ruslan and Lyudmila.[29]
Ambroise Thomas (1811–1896). French composer noted for the operas Mignon and Hamlet.[30]
Richard Wagner (1813–1883). Wagner revolutionised opera. In a series of "music dramas" such as Tristan und Isolde, Parsifal, and most of all his epic tetralogy Der Ring des Nibelungen, Wagner abolished the traditional distinction between recitative and aria and pioneered a new through-composed style of opera.[31]
Giuseppe Verdi (1813–1901) had a long composing career, during which his compositional style kept evolving. Among his most famous works are Rigoletto, Il Trovatore, La traviata, Don Carlos, Aida, and Otello.[32]
Charles Gounod (1818–1893) wrote lyrical operas on literary themes, including Roméo et Juliette and Mireille. His Faust still holds the stage today,[28] in spite of criticisms of its "Victorianism".
Faust: "O merveille! ... A moi les plaisirs"
Charles Gounod's Faust: Méphistophélès (Marcel Journet) gives Faust (Enrico Caruso) a glimpse of Marguerite, and he signs the contract with the Devil, then leaves with him to experience the world. Recorded in 1910.
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Jacques Offenbach (1819–1880) was the founder of French operetta and a prolific composer of pieces which achieved tremendous success with Parisian audiences for their catchy melodies and satirical bite such as La Vie parisienne and Orpheus in the Underworld.[33] At the time of his death, Offenbach was working on a more serious opera, The Tales of Hoffmann.
Bedřich Smetana (1824–1884) established Czech national opera with such historical epics as Dalibor.[34] His folk comedy The Bartered Bride has entered the international repertory.
Aleksandr Borodin (1833–1887). A "weekend composer" who spent 17 years working on a single opera, Prince Igor, which now forms a key part of the Russian repertory.[35]
Camille Saint-Saëns (1835–1921). French composer of around a dozen operas of which one, the Biblical Samson et Delila, is still performed.[36]
Léo Delibes (1836–1891). French composer, whose Lakmé is notable for its Flower duet and as a vehicle for coloratura sopranos.[37]
Georges Bizet (1838–1875). Bizet's masterwork Carmen is a staple of the repertoire of opera houses the world over. At the time of its premiere, the controversial plot scandalised both critics and the public.[38]
Modest Mussorgsky (1839–1881). Mussorgsky completed only one opera, but Boris Godunov proved to be inspiration for generations of Russian composers on account of its uniquely nationalist character.[39]
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840–1893). Tchaikovsky's international fame as an opera composer mainly rests on two works, Eugene Onegin and The Queen of Spades.[40] Less interested in cultivating a uniquely Russian style than his contemporary Mussorgsky, Tchaikovsky also shows the influence of Mozart, bel canto and Bizet's Carmen in these pieces.[41]
Emmanuel Chabrier (1841–1894) had ambitions to write grand operas in the Wagnerian vein, but is now most celebrated for lighter pieces, such as L'étoile and Le roi malgré lui, which were greatly admired by Ravel and Poulenc.[42]
Antonín Dvořák (1841–1904) was the leading Czech opera composer between Smetana and Janáček. His Rusalka, based on the Undine legend, is his most popular work internationally.[43]
Jules Massenet (1842–1912). Arguably the most representative French opera composer of his era (the Belle Époque), Massenet was a prolific and versatile writer whose works cover a wide variety of themes.[44] His popularity faded somewhat after the First World War, but Werther and Manon still make regular appearances in the opera house.[45]
Arthur Sullivan (1842–1900). English composer who is best known for his series of 14 operatic collaborations with the dramatist W. S. Gilbert, including such enduring works as H.M.S. Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado.
Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (1844–1908). Russian composer who wrote colourful operas on legendary and historical subjects.[46]
1850–99[edit]
Giacomo Puccini
Leoš Janáček (1854–1928). Janáček's first mature opera (Jenůfa) blended folksong-like melodies and an emphasis on natural speech-rhythms à la Mussorgsky with a character-driven plot of some intensity;[47] his later works became increasingly terse, with recurrent melodic fragments, lyrical outbursts and unconventional orchestration serving a diverse collection of source-material – just a few bars of these operas can instantly be identified as his.
Ruggiero Leoncavallo (1857–1919) Italian composer associated with verismo. His Pagliacci is a staple of the operatic repertoire and is usually given alongside Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana.[48]
Giacomo Puccini (1858–1924). The only true successor to Giuseppe Verdi in Italian opera,[49] Puccini's Tosca, La Bohème and Madama Butterfly are among the most popular and well-recognised in the repertoire today.
Gustave Charpentier (1860–1956). French composer famous for a single opera, Louise, set in a working class district of Paris.[50]
Claude Debussy (1862–1918). Like Beethoven, Debussy finished only one opera, but his setting of Maeterlinck's Symbolist play Pelléas et Mélisande is a key work in 20th century music drama.[51] In many ways an "anti-opera", Pelléas contained little of the conventional singing or action audiences at the première had come to expect, but Debussy used his subtle orchestration to create an elusive, dream-like atmosphere, which still has the power to fascinate (or repel) listeners today.
Pietro Mascagni (1863–1945). Italian composer, famous above all for Cavalleria rusticana, usually given in a double-bill with Leoncavallo's Pagliacci.[52]
Richard Strauss (1864–1949). Strauss was one of very few opera composers in the early years of the 20th century to accept and conquer the challenge laid down by the scale and radical nature of Wagner's innovative works.[53] He composed several operas that remain extremely popular today, including Salome, Elektra, and Der Rosenkavalier.[39]
Hans Pfitzner (1869–1949). A follower of Wagner, Pfitzner is best known for the opera Palestrina which explores the debate between tradition and innovation in music.[54]
Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951). A leading Modernist composer and the deviser of the twelve-tone system, Schoenberg began his operatic career with the Expressionist monodrama Erwartung. His major opera Moses und Aron was left unfinished at his death.[55]
Maurice Ravel (1875–1937) wrote two short, but innovative, operas: L'enfant et les sortilèges, set in the world of childhood, and the Spanish-flavoured L'heure espagnole.[56]
Franz Schreker (1878–1934). An Austrian composer associated with Expressionism, Schreker once rivalled Richard Strauss in popularity but, as a Jew, he fell foul of the Nazis. His operas include Der ferne Klang and Die Gezeichneten.[57]
Béla Bartók (1881–1945) wrote only one opera, Duke Bluebeard's Castle, a key piece in 20th century music theatre and the only Hungarian work with a secure place in the international operatic repertoire.[58]
Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971). After composing the Rimsky-Korsakov-inspired The Nightingale and the near-operas Renard and The Soldier's Tale, Stravinsky bucked 20th century trends by composing a "number" opera, The Rake's Progress, using diatonicism.[59]
Alban Berg (1885–1935). Because of their atonal music which uses tonal conventions harkening back to late romanticism[60] and tragic libretti, Berg's masterworks Wozzeck and Lulu have stayed in the repertory and assumed increased popularity after his death.[49]
Sergei Prokofiev (1891–1953). A major modern composer in the Russian tradition,[61] Prokofiev produced operas on a wide variety of subjects, from the comic fairy-tale The Love for Three Oranges, to the dark and occult The Fiery Angel and the epic War and Peace. Like Shostakovich, Prokofiev suffered under the Soviet artistic regime, but his work has recently been championed by conductors such as Valery Gergiev.
Paul Hindemith (1895–1963). A German composer who came to prominence in the years following World War I. His key opera Mathis der Maler, dealing with the problems of an artist in a time of crisis, has been seen as an allegory of Hindemith's situation during the Third Reich.[62]
George Gershwin (1898–1937) owes his place in the standard operatic repertoire to Porgy and Bess.[63]
1900–present[edit]
William Walton (1902–1983). Walton's major opera is Troilus and Cressida.[64]
Michael Tippett (1905–1998). Probably the most famous British composer to follow in the wake of Benjamin Britten, Tippett wrote operas exploring metaphysical and social themes. They include The Midsummer Marriage and The Knot Garden.[65]
Dmitri Shostakovich (1906–1975). Shostakovich's most famous opera, Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District, a violent love story set in provincial Russia, scandalised Soviet authorities. He later produced a revised version, Katerina Ismailova. Nevertheless, the original became one of the most performed operatic works of the 20th century.[66]
Samuel Barber (1910–1981). An American who composed two major operas, Vanessa and Antony and Cleopatra.[67]
Gian Carlo Menotti (1911–2007). Italian American composer, particularly famous for the Christmas piece Amahl and the Night Visitors, the first opera to be written specifically for television.[68]
Benjamin Britten (1913–1976). One of the handful of British opera composers to reach international acclaim, and one of the extremely few composers of 20th century operas that stayed in the standard repertory after their premieres. These operas include his masterworks Peter Grimes, A Midsummer Night's Dream, and The Turn of the Screw.[69]
Hans Werner Henze (1926–2012). One of the most widely performed post-World War II opera composers, Henze's works include The Bassarids and Elegy for Young Lovers.[70]
Peter Maxwell Davies (1934–2016). A British modernist of the "Manchester school", Davies wrote many stage works, including Taverner and The Martyrdom of Saint Magnus.[71]
Philip Glass (born 1937). A leading American composer of the minimalist school, Glass first came to fame with the opera Einstein on the Beach, a collaboration with the theatre director Robert Wilson. Many stage works (including Akhnaten and The Voyage) followed.[72]
John Adams (born 1947). Like Glass, Adams started as a minimalist. His operas dealing with contemporary subjects, Nixon in China and The Death of Klinghoffer, have gained critical acclaim and provoked political controversy.[73]
Female opera composers[edit]
John Singer Sargent drawing of Ethel Smyth, 1901
A number of reasons, including the high cost of production and high status of opera,[74] have been suggested to explain the relatively few women who have been composers of opera, and no woman composer met the criteria for inclusion above. However, some experts in our sample disagreed,[75] and named either or both of the women below as comparable to those already listed:
Dame Ethel Smyth (1858–1944) is perhaps most famous for her work for the suffragettes; however, she also wrote several operas of note, including The Wreckers.
Judith Weir (born 1954) began composing full-length operas in 1987 with A Night at the Chinese Opera.
See also[edit]
Category:Opera composers
Category:Operas by composer
List of operas by composer
List of important operas
List of Orphean operas
References[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 768
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 18
Jump up ^ Professor Tim Carter in Viking Opera Guide (p. 678) writes: "Monteverdi's recitative owes much to Peri ... However "Orfeo" has much broader roots. There are many references to the tradition of the Florentine intermedi: the spectacular stage effects, the mythological subject matter, the allegorical figures, the number and scoring of the instruments and the extended choruses". See also Carter, writing about the intermedi in The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera (p. 4): "rich display and erudite symbolism made the intermedi an ideal projection of princely magnificence".
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 189
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 35
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 55
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 942
^ Jump up to: a b Orrey p. 40
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 343
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 59
Jump up ^ Oxford Companion to Music, p. 783
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 85
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide pp. 216–218
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 101
Jump up ^ JANE SCHATKIN HETTRICK, JOHN A. RICE 'Salieri, Antonio' in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 210
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 139
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 1002
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide pp. 37–38
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 140
Jump up ^ Oxford Illustrated History of Opera pp. 146–150
^ Jump up to: a b Britannica p. 631 C.2
Jump up ^ A. DEAN PALMER 'Marschner, Heinrich August' in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 134
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 412
Jump up ^ Orrey pp. 129–133
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 153
^ Jump up to: a b Orrey p. 154
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 180
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 1098.
Jump up ^ Orrey pp. 168–169
Jump up ^ Orrey pp. 137–147
Jump up ^ Britannica p. 633 C.1
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 177
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 134
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 929. Viking says Saint-Saëns wrote 13 operas, including his part in an unfinished work by Guiraud and two opéra comiques.
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 253.
Jump up ^ Orrey pp. 156–157
^ Jump up to: a b Britannica p. 637 C.2
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 182
Jump up ^ David Brown (author of the four-volume Tchaikovsky: A Biographical and Critical Study, Gollancz, 1978–91) in Viking Opera Guide, pp. 1083–1095
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 197
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 302
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 156
Jump up ^ Graham Dixon in Viking Opera Guide, p. 622
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 864
Jump up ^ Britannica p. 638 C.2
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 563
^ Jump up to: a b Orrey p. 225
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide pp. 202–204
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 216
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 617
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 213
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 772
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 952
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 848
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 958
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 55
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 220
Jump up ^ "ALBAN BERG". Composers online. W. W. Norton & Company. Retrieved 2006-09-10.
Jump up ^ Britannica p. 637 C.1
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 467
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 348
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 1207
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 1102
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 232
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 51
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 648
Jump up ^ Orrey p. 234
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 461
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 243
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 360
Jump up ^ Viking Opera Guide p. 17
Jump up ^ See, e.g. Katherine Kolb's review of Women Writing Opera: Creativity and Controversy in the Age of the French Revolution.
Jump up ^ See #Lists consulted
Sources[edit]
Boyden, Matthew; et al. (1997). Opera, the Rough Guide. ISBN 1-85828-138-5.
Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropedia Volume 24, 15th edition. "Opera" in "Musical forms and genres". ISBN 0-85229-434-4
Orrey, Leslie and Milnes, Rodney. Opera: A Concise History. World of Art, Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20217-6. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Parker, Roger (ed.) (1994). The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-816282-0.
Sadie, Stanley (ed) (1992). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. ISBN 0-333-73432-7. , at 5,448 pages, the largest general reference concerning opera in the English language.
The Viking Opera Guide (1993) ISBN 0-670-81292-7: (Now Holden, Amanda (Ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam, 2001. ISBN 0-14-029312-4). Contributions are by noted specialists in their fields.
Warrack, John; West, Ewan (1992). The Oxford Dictionary of Opera. ISBN 0-19-869164-5.
Lists consulted[edit]
This list was compiled by consulting ten lists of great opera composers, created by recognized authorities in the field of opera, and selecting all of the composers who appeared on at least six of these (i.e. all composers on a majority of the lists). Judith Weir appears on four of the ten lists consulted, more than any other female composer in the sample. The lists used were:
"Graeme Kay's Guide to Opera, produced for the BBC".
"The "Opera" Encyclopædia Britannica article".
"Opera," in Columbia Encyclopedia online". Archived from the original on October 5, 2009.
Composers mentioned in Nicholas Kenyon's introduction to the Viking Opera Guide (1993 edition) ISBN 0-670-81292-7.
"The Standard Repertoire of Grand Opera 1607–1969", a list included in Norman Davies's Europe: a History (OUP, 1996; paperback edition Pimlico, 1997) ISBN 0-7126-6633-8.
Composers mentioned in the chronology by Mary Ann Smart in The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera (OUP, 1994) ISBN 0-19-816282-0.
"A Bird's Eye View of the World's Chief Opera Composers" in The Oxford Companion to Music by Percy Scholes (10th edition revised by John Owen Ward, 1970). ISBN 0-19-311306-6.
Composers with recordings included in The Penguin Guide to Opera on Compact Discs ed. Greenfield, March and Layton (1993 edition) ISBN 0-14-046957-5.
The New Kobbe's Opera Book, ed. Lord Harewood (1997 edition) ISBN 0-399-14332-7.
"Table of Contents of The Rough Guide to Opera". by Matthew Boyden. (2002 edition) ISBN 1-85828-749-9.
Note:
The composers included in all 10 lists cited are: Berg, Britten, Donizetti, Gluck, Handel, Monteverdi, Mozart, Puccini, Rameau, Rossini, Richard Strauss, Verdi, and Wagner.
The composers included in nine of the lists are: Bellini, Berlioz, Bizet, Glinka, Gounod, Lully, Massenet, Mussorgsky, and Tchaikovsky.
The composers included in eight of the lists are: Adams, Debussy, Glass, Henze, Janáček, Leoncavallo, Menotti, Meyerbeer, Pergolesi, Purcell, Rimsky-Korsakov, Schoenberg, Smetana, Thomas (Ambroise), Tippett, and Weber.
The composers included in seven of the lists are: Auber, Beethoven, Borodin, Cavalli, Cherubini, Cimarosa, Delibes, Hindemith, Mascagni, Offenbach, Prokofiev, Ravel, Saint-Saëns, Shostakovich, and Gustave Charpentier.
The composers included in six of the lists are: Barber, Bartók, Chabrier, Peter Maxwell Davies, Dvořák, Gay and Pepusch, Gershwin, Halévy, Peri, Pfitzner, Scarlatti, Schreker, Spontini, Stravinsky, Walton.
Judith Weir was included in four lists; Dame Ethel Smyth in two.
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