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Plato
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Plato
Roman copy of a portrait bust by Silanion for the Academia in Athens (c. 370 BC)
Born
428/427 or 424/423 BC
Athens, Greece
Died
348/347 BC (age c. 80)
Athens, Greece
Notable work
Apology
Phaedo
Symposium
Republic
Era
Ancient philosophy
Region
Western philosophy
School
Platonism
Main interests
Metaphysics
Ethics
Politics
Epistemology
Rhetoric
Art
Literature
Education
Society
Friendship
Love
Notable ideas
Platonic philosophy
Agathos kai sophos
Demiurge
Hyperuranion
Khôra
Metaxy
Philosopher king
Philotimon
Platonic Forms
Platonic solid
Poiesis
Sophrosyne
Theia mania
Tripartite soul
Influences[show]
Socrates, Parmenides, Pythagoras, Heraclitus
Influenced[show]
Virtually all subsequent Western philosophy
Part of a series on
Platonism
Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511)
Early life
Works
Epistemology
Idealism / realism
Demiurge
Theory of forms
Theory of soul
Transcendentals
Form of the Good
Third man argument
Euthyphro dilemma
Five regimes
Philosopher king
Plato's unwritten doctrines
political philosophy
Allegories and metaphors
Atlantis
Ring of Gyges
The Cave
The Divided Line
The Sun
Ship of State
Myth of Er
The Chariot
Related articles
Commentaries
The Academy in Athens
Socratic problem
Middle Platonism
Neoplatonism
and Christianity
Allegorical interpretations of Plato
Socratic fallacy
Philosophy portal
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Plato (/ˈpleɪtoʊ/;[a][1] Greek: Πλάτων[a] Plátōn, pronounced [plá.tɔːn] in Classical Attic; 428/427 or 424/423[b] – 348/347 BC) was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, especially the Western tradition.[2] Unlike nearly all of his philosophical contemporaries, Plato's entire work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years.[3]
Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle, Plato laid the foundations of Western philosophy and science.[4] Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato."[5] In addition to being a foundational figure for Western science, philosophy, and mathematics, Plato has also often been cited as one of the founders of Western religion and spirituality.[6]
Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy. Plato appears to have been the founder of Western political philosophy, with his Republic, and Laws among other dialogues, providing some of the earliest extant treatments of political questions from a philosophical perspective. Plato's own most decisive philosophical influences are usually thought to have been Socrates, Parmenides, Heraclitus and Pythagoras, although few of his predecessors' works remain extant and much of what we know about these figures today derives from Plato himself.[7]
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes Plato as "...one of the most dazzling writers in the Western literary tradition and one of the most penetrating, wide-ranging, and influential authors in the history of philosophy. ... He was not the first thinker or writer to whom the word “philosopher” should be applied. But he was so self-conscious about how philosophy should be conceived, and what its scope and ambitions properly are, and he so transformed the intellectual currents with which he grappled, that the subject of philosophy, as it is often conceived—a rigorous and systematic examination of ethical, political, metaphysical, and epistemological issues, armed with a distinctive method—can be called his invention. Few other authors in the history of Western philosophy approximate him in depth and range: perhaps only Aristotle (who studied with him), Aquinas and Kant would be generally agreed to be of the same rank."[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Biography
1.1 Early life
1.1.1 Birth and family
1.1.2 Name
1.1.3 Education
1.2 Later life
1.3 Death
2 Intellectual influences on Plato
2.1 Pythagoras
2.2 Heraclitus and Parmenides
2.3 Socrates
3 Plato's use of myth
4 Philosophy
4.1 Recurrent themes
4.2 Metaphysics
4.3 Theory of Forms
4.4 Epistemology
4.5 The state
4.6 Unwritten doctrines
4.7 Dialectic
5 Dialogues
5.1 Writings of doubted authenticity
5.1.1 Spurious writings
5.2 Composition of the dialogues
5.3 Narration of the dialogues
5.4 Trial of Socrates
5.5 Unity and diversity of the dialogues
5.6 Platonic scholarship
5.7 Textual sources and history
5.8 Modern editions
6 Plato in the arts
7 See also
8 Notes
9 Citations
10 References
10.1 Primary sources (Greek and Roman)
10.2 Secondary sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Biography
Early life
Main article: Early life of Plato
Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about Plato's early life and education. The philosopher came from one of the wealthiest and most politically active families in Athens. Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies. His father contributed all which was necessary to give to his son a good education, and, therefore, Plato must have been instructed in grammar, music, gymnastics and philosophy by some of the most distinguished teachers of his era.
Birth and family
The exact time and place of Plato's birth are unknown, but it is certain that he belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina[c] between 429 and 423 BC. His father was Ariston. According to a disputed tradition, reported by Diogenes Laertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus, and the king of Messenia, Melanthus.[9] Plato's mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker and lyric poet Solon.[10] Perictione was sister of Charmides and niece of Critias, both prominent figures of the Thirty Tyrants, the brief oligarchic regime, which followed on the collapse of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War (404–403 BC).[11] Besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children; these were two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus (the nephew and successor of Plato as head of his philosophical Academy).[11] The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston,[12] and presumably brothers of Plato, but some have argued they were uncles.[13] But in a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato.[14]
The traditional date of Plato's birth (428/427) is based on a dubious interpretation of Diogenes Laertius, who says, "When [Socrates] was gone, [Plato] joined Cratylus the Heracleitean and Hermogenes, who philosophized in the manner of Parmenides. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, [Plato] went to Euclides in Megara." As Debra Nails argues, "The text itself gives no reason to infer that Plato left immediately for Megara and implies the very opposite."[15] In his Seventh Letter, Plato notes that his coming of age coincided with the taking of power by the Thirty, remarking, "But a youth under the age of twenty made himself a laughingstock if he attempted to enter the political arena." Thus, Nails dates Plato's birth to 424/423.[16]
According to some accounts, Ariston tried to force his attentions on Perictione, but failed in his purpose; then the god Apollo appeared to him in a vision, and as a result, Ariston left Perictione unmolested.[17] Another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping: an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy.[18]
Ariston appears to have died in Plato's childhood, although the precise dating of his death is difficult.[19] Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mother's brother,[20] who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, the leader of the democratic faction in Athens.[21] Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty.[22] Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes' second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato, who appears in Parmenides.[23]
In contrast to reticence about himself, Plato often introduced his distinguished relatives into his dialogues, or referred to them with some precision: Charmides has a dialogue named after him; Critias speaks in both Charmides and Protagoras; and Adeimantus and Glaucon take prominent parts in the Republic.[24] These and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Plato's family tree. According to Burnet, "the opening scene of the Charmides is a glorification of the whole [family] connection ... Plato's dialogues are not only a memorial to Socrates, but also the happier days of his own family."[25]
Name
According to Diogenes Laërtius, the philosopher was named Aristocles (Ἀριστοκλῆς) after his grandfather.[26] It was common in Athenian society for boys to be named after grandfathers (or fathers). But there is only one inscriptional record of an Aristocles, an early Archon of Athens in 605/4 BC. There is no record of a line from Aristocles to Plato's father, Ariston. However, if Plato was not named after an ancestor named Plato (there is no record of one), then the origin of his renaming as Plato becomes a conundrum.[27]
The sources of Diogenes account for this fact by claiming that his wrestling coach, Ariston of Argos, dubbed him Platon, meaning "broad," on account of his robust figure[28] or that Plato derived his name from the breadth (πλατύτης, platytēs) of his eloquence, or else because he was very wide (πλατύς, platýs) across the forehead.[29] Recently a scholar has argued that even the name Aristocles for Plato was a much later invention.[30] Although Platon was a fairly common name (31 instances are known from Athens alone[31]), the name does not occur in Plato's known family line. Another scholar, however, claims that "there is good reason for not dismissing [the idea that Aristocles was Plato's given name] as a mere invention of his biographers", noting how prevalent that account is in our sources.[27] The fact that the philosopher in his maturity called himself Platon is indisputable, but the origin of this naming must remain moot unless the record is made to yield more information.
Education
Bust excavated at the Villa of the Papyri, possibly of Dionysus, Plato or Poseidon.
Apuleius informs us that Speusippus praised Plato's quickness of mind and modesty as a boy, and the "first fruits of his youth infused with hard work and love of study".[32] Plato must have been instructed in grammar, music, and gymnastics by the most distinguished teachers of his time.[33] Dicaearchus went so far as to say that Plato wrestled at the Isthmian games.[34] Plato had also attended courses of philosophy; before meeting Socrates, he first became acquainted with Cratylus (a disciple of Heraclitus, a prominent pre-Socratic Greek philosopher) and the Heraclitean doctrines.[35]
Ambrose believed that Plato met Jeremiah in Egypt and was influenced by his ideas. Augustine initially accepted this claim, but later rejected it, arguing in "The City of God", that "Plato was born a hundred years after Jeremiah prophesied." [36] Hebrew-language chronology works[by whom?] argue that, based on seder hadoroth chronology, Jeremiah's final year of prophecy was 411 BCE (3350 HC), at which time Plato was a teenager[37] and that he initially perceived Jeremiah to be absurd.[38][need quotation to verify]
Later life
Plato may have traveled in Italy, Sicily, Egypt and Cyrene.[39] Said to have returned to Athens at the age of forty, Plato founded one of the earliest known organized schools in Western Civilization on a plot of land in the Grove of Hecademus or Academus.[40] The Academy was a large enclosure of ground about six stadia outside of Athens proper. One story is that the name of the Academy comes from the ancient hero, Academus; still another story is that the name came from a supposed former owner of the plot of land, an Athenian citizen whose name was (also) Academus; while yet another account is that it was named after a member of the army of Castor and Pollux, an Arcadian named Echedemus.[41] The Academy operated until it was destroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 84 BC. Neoplatonists revived the Academy in the early 5th century but there was no institutional continuity with Plato's school, and it operated until 529 AD, when it was closed by Justinian I of Byzantium.[42] Many intellectuals were schooled in the Academy, the most prominent one being Aristotle.[43][44]
Throughout his later life, Plato became entangled with the politics of the city of Syracuse. According to Diogenes Laertius, Plato initially visited Syracuse while it was under the rule of Dionysius.[45] During this first trip Dionysius's brother-in-law, Dion of Syracuse, became one of Plato's disciples, but the tyrant himself turned against Plato. Plato almost faced death, but he was sold into slavery. Then Anniceris[46] bought Plato's freedom for twenty minas,[47] and sent him home. After Dionysius's death, according to Plato's Seventh Letter, Dion requested Plato return to Syracuse to tutor Dionysius II and guide him to become a philosopher king. Dionysius II seemed to accept Plato's teachings, but he became suspicious of Dion, his uncle. Dionysius expelled Dion and kept Plato against his will. Eventually Plato left Syracuse. Dion would return to overthrow Dionysius and ruled Syracuse for a short time before being usurped by Calippus, a fellow disciple of Plato.
Death
A variety of sources have given accounts of Plato's death. One story, based on a mutilated manuscript,[48] suggests Plato died in his bed, whilst a young Thracian girl played the flute to him.[49] Another tradition suggests Plato died at a wedding feast. The account is based on Diogenes Laertius's reference to an account by Hermippus, a third-century Alexandrian.[50] According to Tertullian, Plato simply died in his sleep.[50]
Intellectual influences on Plato
Pythagoras
Bust of Pythagoras based on traditional iconography at the Museum Capitolini, Rome.
See also: Pythagoreanism
Although Socrates influenced Plato directly as related in the dialogues, the influence of Pythagoras upon Plato also appears to have significant discussion in the philosophical literature. Pythagoras, or in a broader sense, the Pythagoreans, allegedly exercised an important influence on the work of Plato. According to R. M. Hare, this influence consists of three points: (1) The platonic Republic might be related to the idea of "a tightly organized community of like-minded thinkers", like the one established by Pythagoras in Croton. (2) There is evidence that Plato possibly took from Pythagoras the idea that mathematics and, generally speaking, abstract thinking is a secure basis for philosophical thinking as well as "for substantial theses in science and morals". (3) Plato and Pythagoras shared a "mystical approach to the soul and its place in the material world". It is probable that both were influenced by Orphism.[51][52]
Pythagoras held that all things are number, and the cosmos comes from numerical principles. The physical world of becoming is an imitation of the mathematical world of being. This ideas were very influential in Heraclitus, Parmenides and Plato.[53]
Aristotle claimed that the philosophy of Plato closely followed the teachings of the Pythagoreans,[54] and Cicero repeats this claim: "They say Plato learned all things Pythagorean" (Platonem ferunt didicisse Pythagorea omnia).[55]
George Karamanolis notes that
Numenius accepted both Pythagoras and Plato as the two authorities one should follow in philosophy, but he regarded Plato's authority as subordinate to that of Pythagoras, whom he considered to be the source of all true philosophy—including Plato's own. For Numenius it is just that Plato wrote so many philosophical works, whereas Pythagoras' views were originally passed on only orally.[56]
Heraclitus and Parmenides
Heraclitus (1628) by Hendrick ter Brugghen
Bust of Parmenides from Velia
See also: Metaphysics
These two philosophers, following the way initiated by the pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, particularly Pythagoras, depart from the mythological tradition, and initiate the metaphysical philosophical approach, that strongly influenced Plato and has arrived till our days.[53]
Heraclitus thinking specially remarked the fact that all things are continuously changing, or becoming. It is well known his image of the river, with ever-changing waters. Plato received the ideas of this philosopher through Cratylus, that emphasized even more than his teacher the idea of change; and considered that this vision of continuous change leads to skepticism, since we can not define a thing that has not a permanent nature.[57]
Parmenides adopted an altogether contrary vision, and emphasized the idea of changeless Being, and considered that change is an illusion of the senses.[53] John Palmer notes "Parmenides’ distinction among the principal modes of being and his derivation of the attributes that must belong to what must be, simply as such, qualify him to be seen as the founder of metaphysics or ontology as a domain of inquiry distinct from theology."[58]
These ideas about change and permanence, or becoming and Being, was the influence that led Plato to formulate his theory of forms. According to it, there is a world of perfect, eternal and changeless forms, the realm of Being, and an imperfect sensible world of becoming that partakes the qualities of the forms, and is its instantiation in the sensible world.[57]
Socrates
Main article: Socratic problem
Bust of Socrates at the Louvre.
The precise relationship between Plato and Socrates remains an area of contention among scholars. Plato makes it clear in his Apology of Socrates that he was a devoted young follower of Socrates. In that dialogue, Socrates is presented as mentioning Plato by name as one of those youths close enough to him to have been corrupted, if he were in fact guilty of corrupting the youth, and questioning why their fathers and brothers did not step forward to testify against him if he was indeed guilty of such a crime (33d–34a). Later, Plato is mentioned along with Crito, Critobolus, and Apollodorus as offering to pay a fine of 30 minas on Socrates' behalf, in lieu of the death penalty proposed by Meletus (38b). In the Phaedo, the title character lists those who were in attendance at the prison on Socrates' last day, explaining Plato's absence by saying, "Plato was ill". (Phaedo 59b)
Plato never speaks in his own voice in his dialogues. In the Second Letter, it says, "no writing of Plato exists or ever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of a Socrates become beautiful and new" (341c); if the Letter is Plato's, the final qualification seems to call into question the dialogues' historical fidelity. In any case, Xenophon and Aristophanes seem to present a somewhat different portrait of Socrates from the one Plato paints. Some have called attention to the problem of taking Plato's Socrates to be his mouthpiece, given Socrates' reputation for irony and the dramatic nature of the dialogue form.[59]
Aristotle attributes a different doctrine with respect to Forms to Plato and Socrates (Metaphysics 987b1–11). Aristotle suggests that Socrates' idea of forms can be discovered through investigation of the natural world, unlike Plato's Forms that exist beyond and outside the ordinary range of human understanding.
Plato's use of myth
Mythos and logos are terms that evolved along classical Greece history. In the times of Homer and Hesiod (8th century BC) they were quite synonyms, and contained the meaning of tale or history. Later came historians like Herodotus and Thucydides, as well as philosophers as Parmenides and other Presocratics that introduced a distinction between both terms, and mythos became more a nonverifiable account, and logos a rational account.[60] Plato, being a disciple of Socrates, and a strong partisan of philosophy based on logos, it seems that should have avoided the use of myth-telling. Instead he made an abundant use of it. This fact has produced analytical and interpretative work, in order to clarify the reasons and purposes for that use.
Plato, in general, distinguished between three types of myth.[d] First there were the false myths, like those based on stories of gods subject to passions and sufferings, because reason teaches that God is perfect. Then came the myths based on true reasoning, and therefore also true. Finally there were those non verifiable because beyond of human reason, but containing some truth in them. Regarding the subjects of Plato's myths they are of two types, those dealing with the origin of the universe, and those about morals and the origin and fate of the soul.[61]
It is generally agreed that the main purpose for Plato in using myths was didactic. He considered that only a few people were capable or interested in following a reasoned philosophical discourse, but men in general are attracted by stories and tales. Consequently then, he used the myth to convey the conclusions of the philosophical reasoning. Some of Plato's myths were based in traditional ones, others were modifications of them, and finally he also invented altogether new myths.[62]
Philosophy
As old man, Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms.
Recurrent themes
Plato often discusses the father-son relationship and the question of whether a father's interest in his sons has much to do with how well his sons turn out. In ancient Athens, a boy was socially located by his family identity, and Plato often refers to his characters in terms of their paternal and fraternal relationships. Socrates was not a family man, and saw himself as the son of his mother, who was apparently a midwife. A divine fatalist, Socrates mocks men who spent exorbitant fees on tutors and trainers for their sons, and repeatedly ventures the idea that good character is a gift from the gods. Plato's dialogue Crito reminds Socrates that orphans are at the mercy of chance, but Socrates is unconcerned. In the Theaetetus, he is found recruiting as a disciple a young man whose inheritance has been squandered. Socrates twice compares the relationship of the older man and his boy lover to the father-son relationship (Lysis 213a, Republic 3.403b), and in the Phaedo, Socrates' disciples, towards whom he displays more concern than his biological sons, say they will feel "fatherless" when he is gone.
In several of Plato's dialogues, Socrates promulgates the idea that knowledge is a matter of recollection, and not of learning, observation, or study.[63] He maintains this view somewhat at his own expense, because in many dialogues, Socrates complains of his forgetfulness. Socrates is often found arguing that knowledge is not empirical, and that it comes from divine insight. In many middle period dialogues, such as the Phaedo, Republic and Phaedrus Plato advocates a belief in the immortality of the soul, and several dialogues end with long speeches imagining the afterlife. More than one dialogue contrasts knowledge and opinion, perception and reality, nature and custom, and body and soul.
Several dialogues tackle questions about art: Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus (265a–c), and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great poetry, and laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literature that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted.
Socrates and his company of disputants had something to say on many subjects, including politics and art, religion and science, justice and medicine, virtue and vice, crime and punishment, pleasure and pain, rhetoric and rhapsody, human nature and sexuality, as well as love and wisdom.
Metaphysics
Main article: Platonic realism
"Platonism" is a term coined by scholars to refer to the intellectual consequences of denying, as Plato's Socrates often does, the reality of the material world. In several dialogues, most notably the Republic, Socrates inverts the common man's intuition about what is knowable and what is real. While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real. In the Theaetetus, he says such people are eu amousoi (εὖ ἄμουσοι), an expression that means literally, "happily without the muses" (Theaetetus 156a). In other words, such people live without the divine inspiration that gives him, and people like him, access to higher insights about reality.
Socrates' idea that reality is unavailable to those who use their senses is what puts him at odds with the common man, and with common sense. Socrates says that he who sees with his eyes is blind, and this idea is most famously captured in his Allegory of the Cave, and more explicitly in his description of the divided line. The Allegory of the Cave (begins Republic 7.514a) is a paradoxical analogy wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world is the most intelligible ("noeton") and that the visible world ("(h)oraton") is the least knowable, and the most obscure.
Socrates says in the Republic that people who take the sun-lit world of the senses to be good and real are living pitifully in a den of evil and ignorance. Socrates admits that few climb out of the den, or cave of ignorance, and those who do, not only have a terrible struggle to attain the heights, but when they go back down for a visit or to help other people up, they find themselves objects of scorn and ridicule.
According to Socrates, physical objects and physical events are "shadows" of their ideal or perfect forms, and exist only to the extent that they instantiate the perfect versions of themselves. Just as shadows are temporary, inconsequential epiphenomena produced by physical objects, physical objects are themselves fleeting phenomena caused by more substantial causes, the ideals of which they are mere instances. For example, Socrates thinks that perfect justice exists (although it is not clear where) and his own trial would be a cheap copy of it.
The Allegory of the Cave (often said by scholars to represent Plato's own epistemology and metaphysics) is intimately connected to his political ideology (often said to also be Plato's own), that only people who have climbed out of the cave and cast their eyes on a vision of goodness are fit to rule. Socrates claims that the enlightened men of society must be forced from their divine contemplations and be compelled to run the city according to their lofty insights. Thus is born the idea of the "philosopher-king", the wise person who accepts the power thrust upon him by the people who are wise enough to choose a good master. This is the main thesis of Socrates in the Republic, that the most wisdom the masses can muster is the wise choice of a ruler.[64]
Theory of Forms
Main article: Theory of Forms
The theory of Forms (or theory of Ideas) typically refers to the belief that the material world as it seems to us is not the real world, but only an "image" or "copy" of the real world. In some of Plato's dialogues, this is expressed by Socrates, who spoke of forms in formulating a solution to the problem of universals. The forms, according to Socrates, are archetypes or abstract representations of the many types of things, and properties we feel and see around us, that can only be perceived by reason (λογική). (That is, they are universals.) In other words, Socrates was able to recognize two worlds: the apparent world, which constantly changes, and an unchanging and unseen world of forms, which may be the cause of what is apparent.
Epistemology
Main article: Platonic epistemology
Many have interpreted Plato as stating—even having been the first to write—that knowledge is justified true belief, an influential view that informed future developments in epistemology.[65] This interpretation is partly based on a reading of the Theaetetus wherein Plato argues that knowledge is distinguished from mere true belief by the knower having an "account" of the object of her or his true belief (Theaetetus 201c–d). And this theory may again be seen in the Meno, where it is suggested that true belief can be raised to the level of knowledge if it is bound with an account as to the question of "why" the object of the true belief is so (Meno 97d–98a).[66] Many years later, Edmund Gettier famously demonstrated the problems of the justified true belief account of knowledge. That the modern theory of justified true belief as knowledge which Gettier addresses is equivalent to Plato's is accepted by some scholars but rejected by others.[67] Plato himself also identified problems with the justified true belief definition in the Theaetetus, concluding that justification (or an "account") would require knowledge of differentness, meaning that the definition of knowledge is circular (Theaetetus 210a–b).[68]
Later in the Meno, Socrates uses a geometrical example to expound Plato's view that knowledge in this latter sense is acquired by recollection. Socrates elicits a fact concerning a geometrical construction from a slave boy, who could not have otherwise known the fact (due to the slave boy's lack of education). The knowledge must be present, Socrates concludes, in an eternal, non-experiential form.
In other dialogues, the Sophist, Statesman, Republic, and the Parmenides, Plato himself associates knowledge with the apprehension of unchanging Forms and their relationships to one another (which he calls "expertise" in Dialectic), including through the processes of collection and division.[69] More explicitly, Plato himself argues in the Timaeus that knowledge is always proportionate to the realm from which it is gained. In other words, if one derives one's account of something experientially, because the world of sense is in flux, the views therein attained will be mere opinions. And opinions are characterized by a lack of necessity and stability. On the other hand, if one derives one's account of something by way of the non-sensible forms, because these forms are unchanging, so too is the account derived from them. That apprehension of forms is required for knowledge may be taken to cohere with Plato's theory in the Theaetetus and Meno.[70] Indeed, the apprehension of Forms may be at the base of the "account" required for justification, in that it offers foundational knowledge which itself needs no account, thereby avoiding an infinite regression.[71]
The state
Main article: The Republic (Plato)
Oxyrhynchus Papyri, with fragment of Plato's Republic
Some of Plato's most famous doctrines are contained in the Republic as well as in the Laws and the Statesman. Because these doctrines are not spoken directly by Plato and vary between dialogues, they cannot be straightforwardly assumed as representing Plato's own views.
Socrates asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul. The appetite/spirit/reason are analogous to the castes of society.[72]
Productive (Workers) – the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the "appetite" part of the soul.
Protective (Warriors or Guardians) – those who are adventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces. These correspond to the "spirit" part of the soul.
Governing (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) – those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the "reason" part of the soul and are very few.
In the Timaeus, Socrates locates the parts of the soul within the human body: Reason is located in the head, spirit in the top third of the torso, and the appetite in the middle third of the torso, down to the navel.[73][74]
According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule. Instead of rhetoric and persuasion, Socrates says reason and wisdom should govern. As Socrates puts it:
"Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men genuinely and adequately philosophise, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, while the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils,... nor, I think, will the human race." (Republic 473c–d)
Plato in his academy, drawing after a painting by Swedish painter Carl Johan Wahlbom
Socrates describes these "philosopher kings" as "those who love the sight of truth" (Republic 475c) and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. According to him, sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings.
In addition, the ideal city is used as an image to illuminate the state of one's soul, or the will, reason, and desires combined in the human body. Socrates is attempting to make an image of a rightly ordered human, and then later goes on to describe the different kinds of humans that can be observed, from tyrants to lovers of money in various kinds of cities. The ideal city is not promoted, but only used to magnify the different kinds of individual humans and the state of their soul. However, the philosopher king image was used by many after Plato to justify their personal political beliefs. The philosophic soul according to Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in virtuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate love for wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right relations between all that exists.
Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Socrates asks which is better—a bad democracy or a country reigned by a tyrant. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad tyrant, than by a bad democracy (since here all the people are now responsible for such actions, rather than one individual committing many bad deeds.) This is emphasised within the Republic as Socrates describes the event of mutiny on board a ship.[75] Socrates suggests the ship's crew to be in line with the democratic rule of many and the captain, although inhibited through ailments, the tyrant. Socrates' description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the state and the inherent problems that arise.
According to Socrates, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honorable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant).[76] Aristocracy in the sense of government (politeia) is advocated in Plato's Republic. This regime is ruled by a philosopher king, and thus is grounded on wisdom and reason.
The aristocratic state, and the man whose nature corresponds to it, are the objects of Plato's analyses throughout much of the Republic, as opposed to the other four types of states/men, who are discussed later in his work. In Book VIII, Socrates states in order the other four imperfect societies with a description of the state's structure and individual character. In timocracy the ruling class is made up primarily of those with a warrior-like character.[77] Oligarchy is made up of a society in which wealth is the criterion of merit and the wealthy are in control.[78] In democracy, the state bears resemblance to ancient Athens with traits such as equality of political opportunity and freedom for the individual to do as he likes.[79] Democracy then degenerates into tyranny from the conflict of rich and poor. It is characterized by an undisciplined society existing in chaos, where the tyrant rises as popular champion leading to the formation of his private army and the growth of oppression.[80][76][81]
Unwritten doctrines
Main article: Plato's unwritten doctrines
For a long time, Plato's unwritten doctrine[82][83][84] had been controversial. Many modern books on Plato seem to diminish its importance; nevertheless, the first important witness who mentions its existence is Aristotle, who in his Physics (209 b) writes: "It is true, indeed, that the account he gives there [i.e. in Timaeus] of the participant is different from what he says in his so-called unwritten teachings (ἄγραφα δόγματα)." The term "ἄγραφα δόγματα" literally means unwritten doctrines and it stands for the most fundamental metaphysical teaching of Plato, which he disclosed only orally, and some say only to his most trusted fellows, and which he may have kept secret from the public. The importance of the unwritten doctrines does not seem to have been seriously questioned before the 19th century.
A reason for not revealing it to everyone is partially discussed in Phaedrus (276 c) where Plato criticizes the written transmission of knowledge as faulty, favoring instead the spoken logos: "he who has knowledge of the just and the good and beautiful ... will not, when in earnest, write them in ink, sowing them through a pen with words, which cannot defend themselves by argument and cannot teach the truth effectually." The same argument is repeated in Plato's Seventh Letter (344 c): "every serious man in dealing with really serious subjects carefully avoids writing." In the same letter he writes (341 c): "I can certainly declare concerning all these writers who claim to know the subjects that I seriously study ... there does not exist, nor will there ever exist, any treatise of mine dealing therewith." Such secrecy is necessary in order not "to expose them to unseemly and degrading treatment" (344 d).
It is, however, said that Plato once disclosed this knowledge to the public in his lecture On the Good (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ), in which the Good (τὸ ἀγαθόν) is identified with the One (the Unity, τὸ ἕν), the fundamental ontological principle. The content of this lecture has been transmitted by several witnesses. Aristoxenus describes the event in the following words: "Each came expecting to learn something about the things that are generally considered good for men, such as wealth, good health, physical strength, and altogether a kind of wonderful happiness. But when the mathematical demonstrations came, including numbers, geometrical figures and astronomy, and finally the statement Good is One seemed to them, I imagine, utterly unexpected and strange; hence some belittled the matter, while others rejected it."[85] Simplicius quotes Alexander of Aphrodisias, who states that "according to Plato, the first principles of everything, including the Forms themselves are One and Indefinite Duality (ἡ ἀόριστος δυάς), which he called Large and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν)", and Simplicius reports as well that "one might also learn this from Speusippus and Xenocrates and the others who were present at Plato's lecture on the Good".[30]
Their account is in full agreement with Aristotle's description of Plato's metaphysical doctrine. In Metaphysics he writes: "Now since the Forms are the causes of everything else, he [i.e. Plato] supposed that their elements are the elements of all things. Accordingly the material principle is the Great and Small [i.e. the Dyad], and the essence is the One (τὸ ἕν), since the numbers are derived from the Great and Small by participation in the One" (987 b). "From this account it is clear that he only employed two causes: that of the essence, and the material cause; for the Forms are the cause of the essence in everything else, and the One is the cause of it in the Forms. He also tells us what the material substrate is of which the Forms are predicated in the case of sensible things, and the One in that of the Forms—that it is this the duality (the Dyad, ἡ δυάς), the Great and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν). Further, he assigned to these two elements respectively the causation of good and of evil" (988 a).
The most important aspect of this interpretation of Plato's metaphysics is the continuity between his teaching and the neoplatonic interpretation of Plotinus[86] or Ficino[87] which has been considered erroneous by many but may in fact have been directly influenced by oral transmission of Plato's doctrine. A modern scholar who recognized the importance of the unwritten doctrine of Plato was Heinrich Gomperz who described it in his speech during the 7th International Congress of Philosophy in 1930.[88] All the sources related to the ἄγραφα δόγματα have been collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as Testimonia Platonica.[89] These sources have subsequently been interpreted by scholars from the German Tübingen School of interpretation such as Hans Joachim Krämer or Thomas A. Szlezák.[90]
Dialectic
The role of dialectic in Plato's thought is contested but there are two main interpretations: a type of reasoning and a method of intuition.[91] Simon Blackburn adopts the first, saying that Plato's dialectic is "the process of eliciting the truth by means of questions aimed at opening out what is already implicitly known, or at exposing the contradictions and muddles of an opponent's position."[91] A similar interpretation has been put forth by Louis Hartz, who suggests that elements of the dialectic are borrowed from Hegel.[92] According to this view, opposing arguments improve upon each other, and prevailing opinion is shaped by the synthesis of many conflicting ideas over time. Each new idea exposes a flaw in the accepted model, and the epistemological substance of the debate continually approaches the truth. Hartz's is a teleological interpretation at the core, in which philosophers will ultimately exhaust the available body of knowledge and thus reach "the end of history." Karl Popper, on the other hand, claims that dialectic is the art of intuition for "visualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behind the common man's everyday world of appearances."[93]
Dialogues
See also: Stephanus pagination
Thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters (the Epistles) have traditionally been ascribed to Plato, though modern scholarship doubts the authenticity of at least some of these. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts.
The usual system for making unique references to sections of the text by Plato derives from a 16th-century edition of Plato's works by Henricus Stephanus. An overview of Plato's writings according to this system can be found in the Stephanus pagination article.
Volume 3, pages 32–33, of the 1578 Stephanus edition of Plato, showing a passage of Timaeus with the Latin translation and notes of Jean de Serres
One tradition regarding the arrangement of Plato's texts is according to tetralogies. This scheme is ascribed by Diogenes Laertius to an ancient scholar and court astrologer to Tiberius named Thrasyllus.
The works are usually grouped into Early (sometimes by some into Transitional), Middle, and Late period.[94][95] This choice to group chronologically is thought worthy of criticism by some (Cooper et al),[96] given that it's recognised that there is no absolute agreement as to the true chronologicity, since the facts of the temporal order of writing are not confidently ascertained.[97]
Early: Apology (of Socrates), Charmides, Crito, Euthyphro, Gorgias, (Lesser) Hippias (minor), (Greater) Hippias (major), Ion, Laches, Lysis, Protagoras
Middle/Transitional: Cratylus, Euthydemus, Meno, Parmenides, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Republic, Symposium,
Middle/Late: Theaetetus
Late: Critias, Sophist, Statesman / Politicus, Timaeus, Philebus, Laws
Chronologicity was not a consideration in ancient times, in that grouping of this nature are virtually absent (Tarrant) in the extant writings of ancient Platonists.[98]
Writings of doubted authenticity
Jowett mentions in his Appendix to Menexenus, that works which bore the character of a writer were attributed to that writer even when the actual author was unknown.[99]
For below:
(*) if there is no consensus among scholars as to whether Plato is the author, and (‡) if most scholars agree that Plato is not the author of the work.[100]
First Alcibiades (*), Second Alcibiades (‡), Clitophon (*), Epinomis (‡), Epistles (*), Hipparchus (‡), Menexenus (*), Minos (‡), (Rival) Lovers (‡), Theages (‡)
Spurious writings
The following works were transmitted under Plato's name, most of them already considered spurious in antiquity, and so were not included by Thrasyllus in his tetralogical arrangement. These works are labelled as Notheuomenoi ("spurious") or Apocrypha.
Axiochus, Definitions, Demodocus, Epigrams, Eryxias, Halcyon, On Justice, On Virtue, Sisyphus.
Composition of the dialogues
No one knows the exact order Plato's dialogues were written in, nor the extent to which some might have been later revised and rewritten. A significant distinction of the early Plato and the later Plato has been offered by scholars such as E.R. Dodds and has been summarized by Harold Bloom in his book titled Agon: "E.R. Dodds is the classical scholar whose writings most illuminated the Hellenic descent (in) The Greeks and the Irrational [...] In his chapter on Plato and the Irrational Soul [...] Dodds traces Plato's spiritual evolution from the pure rationalist of the Protagoras to the transcendental psychologist, influenced by the Pythagoreans and Orphics, of the later works culminating in the Laws."[101]
Lewis Campbell was the first[102] to make exhaustive use of stylometry to prove objectively that the Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman were all clustered together as a group, while the Parmenides, Phaedrus, Republic, and Theaetetus belong to a separate group, which must be earlier (given Aristotle's statement in his Politics[103] that the Laws was written after the Republic; cf. Diogenes Laertius Lives 3.37). What is remarkable about Campbell's conclusions is that, in spite of all the stylometric studies that have been conducted since his time, perhaps the only chronological fact about Plato's works that can now be said to be proven by stylometry is the fact that Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman are the latest of Plato's dialogues, the others earlier.[104]
Increasingly in the most recent Plato scholarship, writers are skeptical of the notion that the order of Plato's writings can be established with any precision,[105] though Plato's works are still often characterized as falling at least roughly into three groups.[106] The following represents one relatively common such division.[107] It should, however, be kept in mind that many of the positions in the ordering are still highly disputed, and also that the very notion that Plato's dialogues can or should be "ordered" is by no means universally accepted.
Among those who classify the dialogues into periods of composition, Socrates figures in all of the "early dialogues" and they are considered the most faithful representations of the historical Socrates.[108] They include The Apology of Socrates, Charmides, Crito, Euthyphro, Ion, Laches, Lesser Hippias, Lysis, Menexenus, and Protagoras (often considered one of the last of the "early dialogues"). Three dialogues are often considered "transitional" or "pre-middle": Euthydemus, Gorgias, and Meno.
Whereas those classified as "early dialogues" often conclude in aporia, the so-called "middle dialogues" provide more clearly stated positive teachings that are often ascribed to Plato such as the theory of Forms. These dialogues include Cratylus, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Republic, Symposium, Parmenides, and Theaetetus. Proponents of dividing the dialogues into periods often consider the Parmenides and Theaetetus to come late in this period and be transitional to the next, as they seem to treat the theory of Forms critically (Parmenides) or only indirectly (Theaetetus).[109] Ritter's stylometric analysis places Phaedrus as probably after Theaetetus and Parmenides,[110] although it does not relate to the theory of Forms in the same way. The first book of the Republic is often thought to have been written significantly earlier than the rest of the work, although possibly having undergone revisions when the later books were attached to it.[109]
The remaining dialogues are classified as "late" and are generally agreed to be difficult and challenging pieces of philosophy. This grouping is the only one proven by stylometric analysis.[104] While looked to for Plato's "mature" answers to the questions posed by his earlier works, those answers are difficult to discern. Some scholars[108] indicate that the theory of Forms is absent from the late dialogues, its having been refuted in the Parmenides, but there isn't total consensus that the Parmenides actually refutes the theory of Forms.[111] The so-called "late dialogues" include Critias, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, Statesman, and Timaeus.[108]
Narration of the dialogues
Plato never presents himself as a participant in any of the dialogues, and with the exception of the Apology, there is no suggestion that he heard any of the dialogues firsthand. Some dialogues have no narrator but have a pure "dramatic" form (examples: Meno, Gorgias, Phaedrus, Crito, Euthyphro), some dialogues are narrated by Socrates, wherein he speaks in first person (examples: Lysis, Charmides, Republic). One dialogue, Protagoras, begins in dramatic form but quickly proceeds to Socrates' narration of a conversation he had previously with the sophist for whom the dialogue is named; this narration continues uninterrupted till the dialogue's end.
Painting of a scene from Plato's Symposium (Anselm Feuerbach, 1873)
Two dialogues Phaedo and Symposium also begin in dramatic form but then proceed to virtually uninterrupted narration by followers of Socrates. Phaedo, an account of Socrates' final conversation and hemlock drinking, is narrated by Phaedo to Echecrates in a foreign city not long after the execution took place.[112] The Symposium is narrated by Apollodorus, a Socratic disciple, apparently to Glaucon. Apollodorus assures his listener that he is recounting the story, which took place when he himself was an infant, not from his own memory, but as remembered by Aristodemus, who told him the story years ago.
The Theaetetus is a peculiar case: a dialogue in dramatic form embedded within another dialogue in dramatic form. In the beginning of the Theaetetus (142c–143b), Euclides says that he compiled the conversation from notes he took based on what Socrates told him of his conversation with the title character. The rest of the Theaetetus is presented as a "book" written in dramatic form and read by one of Euclides' slaves (143c). Some scholars take this as an indication that Plato had by this date wearied of the narrated form.[113] With the exception of the Theaetetus, Plato gives no explicit indication as to how these orally transmitted conversations came to be written down.
Trial of Socrates
Main article: Trial of Socrates
The trial of Socrates is the central, unifying event of Plato's dialogues. Because of this, Apology is among the most frequently read of his works. In the Apology, Socrates tries to dismiss rumors that he is a sophist and defends himself against charges of disbelief in the gods and corruption of the young. Socrates insists that long-standing slander will be the real cause of his demise, and says the legal charges are essentially false. Socrates famously denies being wise, and explains how his life as a philosopher was launched by the Oracle at Delphi. He says that his quest to resolve the riddle of the oracle put him at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the reason he has been mistaken for a menace to the city-state of Athens.
If Plato's important dialogues do not refer to Socrates' execution explicitly, they allude to it, or use characters or themes that play a part in it. Five dialogues foreshadow the trial: In the Theaetetus (210d) and the Euthyphro (2a–b) Socrates tells people that he is about to face corruption charges. In the Meno (94e–95a), one of the men who brings legal charges against Socrates, Anytus, warns him about the trouble he may get into if he does not stop criticizing important people. In the Gorgias, Socrates says that his trial will be like a doctor prosecuted by a cook who asks a jury of children to choose between the doctor's bitter medicine and the cook's tasty treats (521e–522a). In the Republic (7.517e), Socrates explains why an enlightened man (presumably himself) will stumble in a courtroom situation. The Apology is Socrates' defense speech, and the Crito and Phaedo take place in prison after the conviction. In the Protagoras, Socrates is a guest at the home of Callias, son of Hipponicus, a man whom Socrates disparages in the Apology as having wasted a great amount of money on sophists' fees.
Unity and diversity of the dialogues
Two other important dialogues, the Symposium and the Phaedrus, are linked to the main storyline by characters. In the Apology (19b, c), Socrates says Aristophanes slandered him in a comic play, and blames him for causing his bad reputation, and ultimately, his death. In the Symposium, the two of them are drinking together with other friends. The character Phaedrus is linked to the main story line by character (Phaedrus is also a participant in the Symposium and the Protagoras) and by theme (the philosopher as divine emissary, etc.) The Protagoras is also strongly linked to the Symposium by characters: all of the formal speakers at the Symposium (with the exception of Aristophanes) are present at the home of Callias in that dialogue. Charmides and his guardian Critias are present for the discussion in the Protagoras. Examples of characters crossing between dialogues can be further multiplied. The Protagoras contains the largest gathering of Socratic associates.
In the dialogues Plato is most celebrated and admired for, Socrates is concerned with human and political virtue, has a distinctive personality, and friends and enemies who "travel" with him from dialogue to dialogue. This is not to say that Socrates is consistent: a man who is his friend in one dialogue may be an adversary or subject of his mockery in another. For example, Socrates praises the wisdom of Euthyphro many times in the Cratylus, but makes him look like a fool in the Euthyphro. He disparages sophists generally, and Prodicus specifically in the Apology, whom he also slyly jabs in the Cratylus for charging the hefty fee of fifty drachmas for a course on language and grammar. However, Socrates tells Theaetetus in his namesake dialogue that he admires Prodicus and has directed many pupils to him. Socrates' ideas are also not consistent within or between or among dialogues.
Platonic scholarship
"The safest general characterisation of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato." (Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality, 1929).
Although their popularity has fluctuated over the years, the works of Plato have never been without readers since the time they were written.[114] Plato's thought is often compared with that of his most famous student, Aristotle, whose reputation during the Western Middle Ages so completely eclipsed that of Plato that the Scholastic philosophers referred to Aristotle as "the Philosopher". However, in the Byzantine Empire, the study of Plato continued.
The only Platonic work known to western scholarship was Timaeus, until translations were made at a time post the fall of Constantinople, which occurred during 1453,[115] George Gemistos Plethon brought Plato's original writings from Constantinople in the century of its fall. It is believed that Plethon passed a copy of the Dialogues to Cosimo de' Medici when in 1438 the Council of Ferrara, called to unify the Greek and Latin Churches, was adjourned to Florence, where Plethon then lectured on the relation and differences of Plato and Aristotle, and fired Cosimo with his enthusiasm;[116] Cosimo would supply Marsilio Ficino with Plato's text for translation to Latin. During the early Islamic era, Persian and Arab scholars translated much of Plato into Arabic and wrote commentaries and interpretations on Plato's, Aristotle's and other Platonist philosophers' works (see Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Hunayn ibn Ishaq). Many of these comments on Plato were translated from Arabic into Latin and as such influenced Medieval scholastic philosophers.[117]
During the Renaissance, with the general resurgence of interest in classical civilization, knowledge of Plato's philosophy would become widespread again in the West. Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artists who broke with Scholasticism and fostered the flowering of the Renaissance, with the support of the Plato-inspired Lorenzo (grandson of Cosimo), saw Plato's philosophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences. His political views, too, were well-received: the vision of wise philosopher-kings of the Republic matched the views set out in works such as Machiavelli's The Prince. More problematic was Plato's belief in metempsychosis, transmigration of the soul, as well as his ethical views (on polyamory and euthanasia in particular), which did not match those of Christianity. It was Plethon's student Bessarion who reconciled Plato with Christian theology, arguing that Plato's views were only ideals, unattainable due to the fall of man.[118]
By the 19th century, Plato's reputation was restored, and at least on par with Aristotle's. Notable Western philosophers have continued to draw upon Plato's work since that time. Plato's influence has been especially strong in mathematics and the sciences. He helped to distinguish between pure and applied mathematics by widening the gap between "arithmetic", now called number theory and "logistic", now called arithmetic. He regarded "logistic" as appropriate for business men and men of war who "must learn the art of numbers or he will not know how to array his troops," while "arithmetic" was appropriate for philosophers "because he has to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being."[119] Plato's resurgence further inspired some of the greatest advances in logic since Aristotle, primarily through Gottlob Frege and his followers Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, and Alfred Tarski. Albert Einstein suggested that the scientist who takes philosophy seriously would have to avoid systematization and take on many different roles, and possibly appear as a Platonist or Pythagorean, in that such a one would have "the viewpoint of logical simplicity as an indispensable and effective tool of his research."[120]
Many recent philosophers have diverged from what some would describe as the ontological models and moral ideals characteristic of traditional Platonism. A number of these postmodern philosophers have thus appeared to disparage Platonism from more or less informed perspectives. Friedrich Nietzsche notoriously attacked Plato's "idea of the good itself" along with many fundamentals of Christian morality, which he interpreted as "Platonism for the masses" in one of his most important works, Beyond Good and Evil (1886). Martin Heidegger argued against Plato's alleged obfuscation of Being in his incomplete tome, Being and Time (1927), and the philosopher of science Karl Popper argued in The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) that Plato's alleged proposal for a utopian political regime in the Republic was prototypically totalitarian. The political philosopher and professor Leo Strauss is considered by some as the prime thinker involved in the recovery of Platonic thought in its more political, and less metaphysical, form. Strauss' political approach was in part inspired by the appropriation of Plato and Aristotle by medieval Jewish and Islamic political philosophers, especially Maimonides and Al-Farabi, as opposed to the Christian metaphysical tradition that developed from Neoplatonism. Deeply influenced by Nietzsche and Heidegger, Strauss nonetheless rejects their condemnation of Plato and looks to the dialogues for a solution to what all three latter day thinkers acknowledge as 'the crisis of the West.'
Textual sources and history
First page of the Euthyphro, from the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39), 895 AD. The text is Greek minuscule.
See also: List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues
Some 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive.[121] The texts of Plato as received today apparently represent the complete written philosophical work of Plato and are generally good by the standards of textual criticism.[122] No modern edition of Plato in the original Greek represents a single source, but rather it is reconstructed from multiple sources which are compared with each other. These sources are medieval manuscripts written on vellum (mainly from 9th to 13th century AD Byzantium), papyri (mainly from late antiquity in Egypt), and from the independent testimonia of other authors who quote various segments of the works (which come from a variety of sources). The text as presented is usually not much different from what appears in the Byzantine manuscripts, and papyri and testimonia just confirm the manuscript tradition. In some editions however the readings in the papyri or testimonia are favoured in some places by the editing critic of the text. Reviewing editions of papyri for the Republic in 1987, Slings suggests that the use of papyri is hampered due to some poor editing practices.[123]
In the first century AD, Thrasyllus of Mendes had compiled and published the works of Plato in the original Greek, both genuine and spurious. While it has not survived to the present day, all the extant medieval Greek manuscripts are based on his edition.[124]
The oldest surviving complete manuscript for many of the dialogues is the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39, or Codex Boleianus MS E.D. Clarke 39), which was written in Constantinople in 895 and acquired by Oxford University in 1809.[125] The Clarke is given the siglum B in modern editions. B contains the first six tetralogies and is described internally as being written by "John the Calligrapher" on behalf of Arethas of Caesarea. It appears to have undergone corrections by Arethas himself.[126] For the last two tetralogies and the apocrypha, the oldest surviving complete manuscript is Codex Parisinus graecus 1807, designated A, which was written nearly contemporaneously to B, circa 900 AD.[127] A must be a copy of the edition edited by the patriarch, Photios, teacher of Arethas.[128][129][130]A probably had an initial volume containing the first 7 tetralogies which is now lost, but of which a copy was made, Codex Venetus append. class. 4, 1, which has the siglum T. The oldest manuscript for the seventh tetralogy is Codex Vindobonensis 54. suppl. phil. Gr. 7, with siglum W, with a supposed date in the twelfth century.[131] In total there are fifty-one such Byzantine manuscripts known, while others may yet be found.[132]
To help establish the text, the older evidence of papyri and the independent evidence of the testimony of commentators and other authors (i.e., those who quote and refer to an old text of Plato which is no longer extant) are also used. Many papyri which contain fragments of Plato's texts are among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri. The 2003 Oxford Classical Texts edition by Slings even cites the Coptic translation of a fragment of the Republic in the Nag Hammadi library as evidence.[133] Important authors for testimony include Olympiodorus the Younger, Plutarch, Proclus, Iamblichus, Eusebius, and Stobaeus.
During the early Renaissance, the Greek language and, along with it, Plato's texts were reintroduced to Western Europe by Byzantine scholars. In September or October 1484 Filippo Valori and Francesco Berlinghieri printed 1025 copies of Ficino's translation, using the printing press at the Dominican convent S.Jacopo di Ripoli.[134][135] Cosimo had been influenced toward studying Plato by the many Byzantine Platonists in Florence during his day, including George Gemistus Plethon.
The 1578 edition [136] of Plato's complete works published by Henricus Stephanus (Henri Estienne) in Geneva also included parallel Latin translation and running commentary by Joannes Serranus (Jean de Serres). It was this edition which established standard Stephanus pagination, still in use today.[137]
Modern editions
The Oxford Classical Texts offers the current standard complete Greek text of Plato's complete works. In five volumes edited by John Burnet, its first edition was published 1900-1907, and it is still available from the publisher, having last been printed in 1993.[138][139] The second edition is still in progress with only the first volume, printed in 1995, and the Republic, printed in 2003, available. The Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts and Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries series includes Greek editions of the Protagoras, Symposium, Phaedrus, Alcibiades, and Clitophon, with English philological, literary, and, to an extent, philosophical commentary.[140][141] One distinguished edition of the Greek text is E. R. Dodds' of the Gorgias, which includes extensive English commentary.[142][143]
The modern standard complete English edition is the 1997 Hackett Plato, Complete Works, edited by John M. Cooper.[144][145] For many of these translations Hackett offers separate volumes which include more by way of commentary, notes, and introductory material. There is also the Clarendon Plato Series by Oxford University Press which offers English translations and thorough philosophical commentary by leading scholars on a few of Plato's works, including John McDowell's version of the Theaetetus.[146] Cornell University Press has also begun the Agora series of English translations of classical and medieval philosophical texts, including a few of Plato's.[147]
Plato in the arts
Plato's Academy mosaic was created in the villa of T. Siminius Stephanus in Pompeii, around 100 BC to 100 CE. The School of Athens fresco by Raphael features Plato also as a central figure.
See also
Philosophy portal
Allegorical interpretations of Plato
Archestratus of Phrearrhi, Plato’s next door neighbour
Cambridge Platonists
Harold F. Cherniss, major Plato scholar
List of speakers in Plato's dialogues
Ellen Francis Mason, translator of Plato
Plato's Problem
Plato's unwritten doctrines
Plato's views on women
Platonic love
Definist fallacy
Notes
a. ^ Plato is a nickname from the adjective πλατύς platýs "broad". Diogenes Laertius mentions three possible meanings of the nickname:[148]
ἐγυμνάσατο δὲ παρὰ Ἀρίστωνι τῷ Ἀργείῳ παλαιστῇ· ἀφ' οὗ καὶ Πλάτων διὰ τὴν εὐεξίαν μετωνομάσθη, πρότερον Ἀριστοκλῆς ἀπὸ τοῦ πάππου καλούμενος [ὄνομα], καθά φησιν Ἀλέξανδρος ἐν Διαδοχαῖς. ἔνιοι δὲ διὰ τὴν πλατύτητα τῆς ἑρμηνείας οὕτως ὀνομασθῆναι· ἢ ὅτι πλατὺς ἦν τὸ μέτωπον, ὥς φησι Νεάνθης.
"And he learnt gymnastics under Ariston, the Argive wrestler. And from him he received the name of Plato on account of his robust figure, in place of his original name which was Aristocles, after his grandfather, as Alexander informs us in his Successions of Philosophers. But others affirm that he got the name Plato from the breadth of his style, or from the breadth of his forehead, as suggested by Neanthes."
Seneca mentions the meaning of Plato's name in connection to a moral lesson:[149]
Illud simul cogitemus, si mundum ipsum, non minus mortalem quam nos sumus, providentia periculis eximit, posse aliquatenus nostra quoque providentia longiorem prorogari huic corpusculo moram, si voluptates, quibus pars maior perit, potuerimus regere et coercere. Plato ipse ad senectutem se diligentia protulit. Erat quidem corpus validum ac forte sortitus et illi nomen latitudo pectoris fecerat, sed navigationes ac pericula multum detraxerant viribus; parsimonia tamen et eorum quae aviditatem evocant modus et diligens sui tutela perduxit illum ad senectutem multis prohibentibus causis.
"Let us at the same time reflect, seeing that Providence rescues from its perils the world itself, which is no less mortal than we ourselves, that to some extent our petty bodies can be made to tarry longer upon earth by our own providence, if only we acquire the ability to control and check those pleasures whereby the greater portion of mankind perishes. Plato himself, by taking pains, advanced to old age. To be sure, he was the fortunate possessor of a strong and sound body (his very name was given him because of his broad chest); but his strength was much impaired by sea voyages and desperate adventures. Nevertheless, by frugal living, by setting a limit upon all that rouses the appetites, and by painstaking attention to himself, he reached that advanced age in spite of many hindrances."
b. ^ The grammarian Apollodorus of Athens argues in his Chronicles that Plato was born in the first year of the eighty-eighth Olympiad (427 BC), on the seventh day of the month Thargelion; according to this tradition the god Apollo was born this day.[150] According to another biographer of him, Neanthes, Plato was eighty-four years of age at his death.[150] If we accept Neanthes' version, Plato was younger than Isocrates by six years, and therefore he was born in the second year of the 87th Olympiad, the year Pericles died (429 BC).[151] According to the Suda, Plato was born in Aegina in the 88th Olympiad amid the preliminaries of the Peloponnesian war, and he lived 82 years.[152] Sir Thomas Browne also believes that Plato was born in the 88th Olympiad.[153] Renaissance Platonists celebrated Plato's birth on November 7.[154] Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff estimates that Plato was born when Diotimos was archon eponymous, namely between July 29, 428 BC and July 24, 427 BC.[155] Greek philologist Ioannis Kalitsounakis believes that the philosopher was born on May 26 or 27, 427 BC, while Jonathan Barnes regards 428 BC as year of Plato's birth.[4][156] For her part, Debra Nails asserts that the philosopher was born in 424/423 BC.[154] According to Seneca Plato died at the age of 81 on the same day he was born.[157]
c. ^ Diogenes Laertius mentions that Plato "was born, according to some writers, in Aegina in the house of Phidiades the son of Thales". Diogenes mentions as one of his sources the Universal History of Favorinus. According to Favorinus, Ariston, Plato's family, and his family were sent by Athens to settle as cleruchs (colonists retaining their Athenian citizenship), on the island of Aegina, from which they were expelled by the Spartans after Plato's birth there.[158] Nails points out, however, that there is no record of any Spartan expulsion of Athenians from Aegina between 431–411 BC.[159] On the other hand, at the Peace of Nicias, Aegina was silently left under Athens' control, and it was not until the summer of 411 that the Spartans overran the island.[160] Therefore, Nails concludes that "perhaps Ariston was a cleruch, perhaps he went to Aegina in 431, and perhaps Plato was born on Aegina, but none of this enables a precise dating of Ariston's death (or Plato's birth).[159] Aegina is regarded as Plato's place of birth by Suda as well.[152]
d. ^ Some Wikipedia editors use the term allegory instead of myth. This is in accordance with the practice in the specialized literature, in which it is common to find that the terms allegory and myth are used as synonyms. Nevertheless, there is a trend among modern scholars to use the term myth and avoid the term allegory, as it is considered more appropriate to modern interpretation of Plato's writings. One of the first to initiate this trend was the Oxford University professor John Alexander Stewart, in his work The Myths of Plato.
Citations
Jump up ^ Jones 2006.
Jump up ^ "...the subject of philosophy, as it is often conceived—a rigorous and systematic examination of ethical, political, metaphysical, and epistemological issues, armed with a distinctive method—can be called his invention" ( Kraut, Richard (11 September 2013). Zalta, Edward N., ed. "Plato". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. Retrieved 3 April 2014. )
Jump up ^ Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D. S., eds. (1997): "Introduction".
^ Jump up to: a b Plato at Encyclopædia Britannica
Jump up ^ Whitehead 1978, p. 39.
Jump up ^ Michel Foucault, The Hermeneutics of the Subject
Jump up ^ "Though influenced primarily by Socrates, to the extent that Socrates is usually the main character in many of Plato's writings, he was also influenced by Heraclitus, Parmenides, and the Pythagoreans" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/plato/).
Jump up ^ Kraut, Richard (11 September 2013). Zalta, Edward N., ed. "Plato". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, III
• Nails 2002, p. 53
• Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 46
Jump up ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, I
^ Jump up to: a b Guthrie 1986, p. 10
• Taylor 2001, p. xiv
• Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47
Jump up ^ Plato, Republic 368a
• Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47
Jump up ^ According to James Adam, some have held that "Glaucon and Adeimantus were uncles of Plato, but Zeller decides for the usual view that they were brothers" (source).
Jump up ^ Xenophon, Memorabilia, 3.6.1
Jump up ^ Nails 2002, p. 247.
Jump up ^ Nails 2002, p. 246.
Jump up ^ Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 1
• Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, I
• "Plato". Suda.
Jump up ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, I, 36
Jump up ^ Nails 2002, p. 53
• Taylor 2001, p. xiv
Jump up ^ Plato, Charmides 158a
• Nails 2003, pp. 228–229
Jump up ^ Plato, Charmides 158a
• Plutarch, Pericles, IV
Jump up ^ Plato, Gorgias 481d and Gorgias 513b
• Aristophanes, Wasps, 97
Jump up ^ Plato, Parmenides 126c
Jump up ^ Guthrie 1986, p. 11.
Jump up ^ Kahn 2004, p. 186.
Jump up ^ Laërtius 1925, § 4.
^ Jump up to: a b David Sedley, Plato's Cratylus, Cambridge University Press 2003, pp. 21–22.
Jump up ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV
Jump up ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV
• Notopoulos 1939, p. 135
^ Jump up to: a b see Tarán 1981, p. 226.
Jump up ^ Guthrie 1986, p. 12 (footnote).
Jump up ^ Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 2
Jump up ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV
• Smith 1870, p. 393
Jump up ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, V
Jump up ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1.987a
Jump up ^ Craig, Edward (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. p. 432. ISBN 0415073103.
Jump up ^ Jeremiah’s ministry was active from the thirteenth year of Josiah, king of Judah (3298 HC, 463 BCE, until after the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of Solomon’s Temple in 403 BCE (3358 HC.[original research?]
Jump up ^ Torath Ha'ola (http://hebrewbooks.org/11920, Rabbi Meir Isserles, p. Prague 1570 ch. 1, par. 11. Seder HaDoroth year 3300 (HC). Ma'var Yabok (A. Berekiah), ch. 33 p. 234
Jump up ^ McEvoy 1984.
Jump up ^ Cairns 1961, p. xiii.
Jump up ^ Robinson 1827, p. 16.
Jump up ^ Lindberg, David C. 2007. "The Beginnings of Western Science". The University of Chicago Press. page 70
Jump up ^ Dillon 2003, pp. 1–3.
Jump up ^ Press 2000, p. 1.
Jump up ^ Riginos 1976, p. 73.
Jump up ^ Not to be confused with Anniceris the Cyrenaic philosopher.
Jump up ^ Diogenes Laertius, Book iii, 20
Jump up ^ Riginos 1976, p. 194.
Jump up ^ Schall 1996.
^ Jump up to: a b Riginos 1976, p. 195.
Jump up ^ R.M. Hare, Plato in C.C.W. Taylor, R.M. Hare and Jonathan Barnes, Greek Philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 (1982), 103–189, here 117–9.
Jump up ^ Russell, Bertrand (1991). History of Western Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 120–124. ISBN 0-415-07854-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c McFarlane, Thomas J. "Plato's Parmenides". Integralscience. Retrieved 12 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Metaphysics, 1.6.1 (987a)
Jump up ^ Tusc. Disput. 1.17.39.
Jump up ^ George Karamanolis (2013). "Numenius". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
^ Jump up to: a b Large, William. "Heraclitus". Arasite. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
Jump up ^ John Palmer. "Parmenides". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Jump up ^ Strauss 1964, pp. 50–51.
Jump up ^ Chappel, Timothy. "Mythos and Logos in Plato". Open University. Retrieved 20 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Edelstein, Ludwig (October 1949). "The Function of the Myth in Plato's Philosophy". Journal of the History of Ideas. X (4): 463–481.
Jump up ^ Partenie, Catalin. "Plato's Myths". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 29 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Baird & Kaufmann 2008.
Jump up ^ "Plato's The Allegory of the Cave: Meaning and Interpretation". Bachelor and Master. Retrieved February 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Fine 2003, p. 5.
Jump up ^ McDowell 1973, p. 230.
Jump up ^ Fine 1979, p. 366.
Jump up ^ McDowell 1973, p. 256.
Jump up ^ Taylor 2011, pp. 176–187.
Jump up ^ Lee 2011, p. 432.
Jump up ^ Taylor 2011, p. 189.
Jump up ^ Blössner 2007, pp. 345–349.
Jump up ^ Plato, Timaeus 44d & Timaeus 70
Jump up ^ Dorter 2006, p. 360.
Jump up ^ Plato, Republic 488
^ Jump up to: a b Blössner 2007, p. 350.
Jump up ^ Republic 550b
Jump up ^ Republic 554a
Jump up ^ Republic 561a–b
Jump up ^ Republic 571a
Jump up ^ Dorter 2006, pp. 253–267.
Jump up ^ Rodriguez-Grandjean 1998.
Jump up ^ Reale 1990. Cf. p. 14 and onwards.
Jump up ^ Krämer 1990. Cf. pp. 38–47.
Jump up ^ Elementa harmonica II, 30–31; quoted in Gaiser 1980, p. 5.
Jump up ^ Plotinus describes this in the last part of his final Ennead (VI, 9) entitled On the Good, or the One (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ ἢ τοῦ ἑνός). Jens Halfwassen states in Der Aufstieg zum Einen' (2006) that "Plotinus' ontology—which should be called Plotinus' henology—is a rather accurate philosophical renewal and continuation of Plato's unwritten doctrine, i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krämer and Gaiser."
Jump up ^ In one of his letters (Epistolae 1612) Ficino writes: "The main goal of the divine Plato ... is to show one principle of things, which he called the One (τὸ ἕν)", cf. Montoriola 1926, p. 147.
Jump up ^ Gomperz 1931.
Jump up ^ Gaiser 1998.
Jump up ^ For a brief description of the problem see for example Gaiser 1980. A more detailed analysis is given by Krämer 1990. Another description is by Reale 1997 and Reale 1990. A thorough analysis of the consequences of such an approach is given by Szlezak 1999. Another supporter of this interpretation is the German philosopher Karl Albert, cf. Albert 1980 or Albert 1996. Hans-Georg Gadamer is also sympathetic towards it, cf. Grondin 2010 and Gadamer 1980. Gadamer's final position on the subject is stated in Gadamer 1997.
^ Jump up to: a b Blackburn 1996, p. 104.
Jump up ^ Hartz, Louis. 1984. A Synthesis of World History. Zurich: Humanity Press
Jump up ^ Popper 1962, p. 133.
Jump up ^ CDC Reeve (Delta Kappa Epsilon Distinguished Professor of Philosophy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill), A Plato Reader: Eight Essential Dialogues (p. vi), Hackett Publishing, 2012 ISBN 1603849173.
Jump up ^ Robin Barrow (Professor of Philosophy of Education at Simon Fraser University, Canada and Fellow of The Royal Society of Canada), Plato: Appendix 2: Notes on the authenticity and Groupings of Plato's works, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014 ISBN 1472504852.
Jump up ^ Platonic Writings/Platonic Readings (page x) (edited by CL Griswold Jr), Penn State Press, 2010 ISBN 0271044810.
Jump up ^ JM Cooper (Stuart Professor of Philosophy, Princeton University, 1997); DS Hutchinson, Complete Works (p. xii), Hackett Publishing, 1997.
Jump up ^ H Tarrant (Professor of Classics at the University of Newcastle, New South Wales), Plato's First Interpreters, Cornell University Press, 2000 ISBN 080143792X.
Jump up ^ B Jowett, Menexenus: Appendix I (1st paragraph).
Jump up ^ The extent to which scholars consider a dialogue to be authentic is noted in Cooper 1997, pp. v–vi.
Jump up ^ Bloom 1982, p. 5.
Jump up ^ Burnet 1928b, p. 9.
Jump up ^ Aristotle, Politics 1264b24-27.
^ Jump up to: a b Cooper 1997, p. xiv.
Jump up ^ Kraut 2013; Schofield 2002; and Rowe 2006.
Jump up ^ Brickhouse & Smith.
Jump up ^ See Guthrie 1986; Vlastos 1991; Penner 1992; Kahn 1996; Fine 1999b.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dodds 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b Brandwood 1990, p. 251.
Jump up ^ Brandwood 1990, p. 77.
Jump up ^ Meinwald 1991.
Jump up ^ "The time is not long after the death of Socrates; for the Pythagoreans [Echecrates & co.] have not heard any details yet" (Burnet 1911, p. 5).
Jump up ^ Burnet 1928a, §177.
Jump up ^ Cooper 1997, p. vii.
Jump up ^ C. U. M. Smith - Brain, Mind and Consciousness in the History of Neuroscience (page 1) Springer Science & Business, 1 Jan 2014, 374 pages, Volume 6 of History, philosophy and theory of the life sciences SpringerLink : Bücher ISBN 9401787743 [Retrieved 2015-06-27]
Jump up ^ Lackner 2001, p. 21.
Jump up ^ See Burrell 1998 and Hasse 2002, pp. 33–45.
Jump up ^ Harris, Jonathan (2002). "Byzantines in Renaissance Italy". ORB: The Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies. College of Staten Island, City University of New York. Archived from the original on 30 September 2003. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Boyer 1991, p. 86: 'Plato is important in the history of mathematics largely for his role as inspirer and director of others, and perhaps to him is due the sharp distinction in ancient Greece between arithmetic (in the sense of the theory of numbers) and logistic (the technique of computation). Plato regarded logistic as appropriate for the businessman and for the man of war, who "must learn the art of numbers or he will not know how to array his troops." The philosopher, on the other hand, must be an arithmetician "because he has to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being."'
Jump up ^ Einstein 1949, pp. 683–684.
Jump up ^ Brumbaugh & Wells 1989.
Jump up ^ Irwin 2011, pp. 64 & 74. See also Slings 1987, p. 34: "... primary MSS. together offer a text of tolerably good quality" (this is without the further corrections of other sources).
Jump up ^ Slings 1987, p. 31.
Jump up ^ Cooper 1997, pp. viii–xii.
Jump up ^ "Manuscripts – Philosophy Faculty Library". 2 March 2012. Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ Dodds 1959, pp. 35–36.
Jump up ^ Dodds 1959, p. 37.
Jump up ^ RD McKirahan, Philosophy Before Socrates: An Introduction with Texts and Commentary (2nd ed.), Hackett Publishing, 2011, p. 1 ISBN 1603846123.
Jump up ^ RS Brumbaugh, Plato for the Modern Age (p. 199), University Press of America, 1991 ISBN 0819183563.
Jump up ^ J Duffy Byzantine Philosophy and Its Ancient Sources: "The lonely mission of Michael Psellos" edited by K Ierodiakonou (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0199269718.
Jump up ^ Dodds 1959, p. 39.
Jump up ^ Irwin 2011, p. 71.
Jump up ^ Slings 2003, p. xxiii.
Jump up ^ J Hankins, Plato in the Italian Renaissance Vol. 1 (p. 300), BRILL, 1990 ISBN 9004091610.
Jump up ^ Allen 1975, p. 12.
Jump up ^ Platonis opera quae extant omnia edidit Henricus Stephanus, Genevae, 1578.
Jump up ^ Suzanne 2009.
Jump up ^ Cooper 1997, pp. xii & xxvii.
Jump up ^ Oxford Classical Texts – Classical Studies & Ancient History Series. Oxford University Press
Jump up ^ Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics – Series. Cambridge University Press
Jump up ^ Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries. Cambridge University Press
Jump up ^ Irwin 1979, pp. vi & 11.
Jump up ^ Dodds 1959.
Jump up ^ Fine 1999a, p. 482.
Jump up ^ Complete Works – Philosophy
Jump up ^ Clarendon Plato Series – Philosophy Series. Oxford University Press
Jump up ^ Cornell University Press : Agora Editions
Jump up ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, 3.4; translation by Robert Drew Hicks
Jump up ^ Seneca, Epistulae, VI 58:29-30; translation by Robert Mott Gummere
^ Jump up to: a b Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, II
Jump up ^ Nietzsche 1967, p. 32.
^ Jump up to: a b "Plato". Suda.
Jump up ^ Browne 1672.
^ Jump up to: a b Nails 2006, p. 1.
Jump up ^ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 46.
Jump up ^ "Plato". Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios Volume V (in Greek). 1952.
Jump up ^ Seneca, Epistulae, VI, 58, 31: natali suo decessit et annum umum atque octogensimum.
Jump up ^ Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, III
^ Jump up to: a b Nails 2002, p. 54.
Jump up ^ Thucydides, 5.18
• Thucydides, 8.92
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Reale, Giovanni (1990). Catan, John R., ed. Plato and Aristotle. A History of Ancient Philosophy. 2. State University of New York Press.
Reale, Giovanni (1997). Toward a New Interpretation of Plato. Washington, D.C.: CUA Press.
Riginos, Alice (1976). Platonica : the anecdotes concerning the life and writings of Plato. Leiden: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-04565-1.
Robinson, John (1827). Archæologica Græca (Second ed.). London: A. J. Valpy. Archived from the original on 2014-07-01. Retrieved 2017-02-04.
Rodriguez-Grandjean, Pablo (1998). Philosophy and Dialogue: Plato's Unwritten Doctrines from a Hermeneutical Point of View. Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy. Boston.
Rowe, Christopher (2006). "Interpreting Plato". In Benson, Hugh H. A Companion to Plato. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 13–24.
Schall, James V. (Summer 1996). "On the Death of Plato". The American Scholar. 65.
Schofield, Malcolm (23 August 2002). Craig, Edward, ed. "Plato". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
Sedley, David (2003). Plato's Cratylus. Cambridge University Press.
Slings, S. R. (1987). "Remarks on Some Recent Papyri of the Politeia". Mnemosyne. Fourth. 40 (1/2): 27–34. doi:10.1163/156852587x00030.
Slings, S. R. (2003). Platonis Rempublicam. Oxford University Press.
Smith, William (1870). "Plato". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
Strauss, Leo (1964). The City and the Man. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Suzanne, Bernard (8 March 2009). "The Stephanus edition". Plato and his dialogues. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
Szlezak, Thomas A. (1999). Reading Plato. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18984-5.
Tarán, Leonardo (1981). Speusippus of Athens. Brill Publishers.
Tarán, Leonardo (2001). "Plato's Alleged Epitaph". Collected Papers 1962-1999. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004123040.
Taylor, Alfred Edward (2001) [1937]. Plato: The Man and His Work. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41605-4.
Taylor, C. C. W. (2011). "Plato's Epistemology". In Fine, G. The Oxford Handbook of Plato. Oxford University Press. pp. 165–190.
Vlastos, Gregory (1991). Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Cambridge University Press.
Whitehead, Alfred North (1978). Process and Reality. New York: The Free Press.
Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich von (2005) [1917]. Plato: His Life and Work (translated in Greek by Xenophon Armyros). Kaktos. ISBN 960-382-664-2.

Library resources about
Plato
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Resources in your library
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Further reading
Alican, Necip Fikri (2012). Rethinking Plato: A Cartesian Quest for the Real Plato. Amsterdam and New York: Editions Rodopi B.V. ISBN 978-90-420-3537-9.
Allen, R. E. (1965). Studies in Plato's Metaphysics II. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0710036264
Ambuel, David (2007). Image and Paradigm in Plato's Sophist. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-04-9
Arieti, James A. Interpreting Plato: The Dialogues as Drama, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-8476-7662-5
Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5
Barrow, Robin (2007). Plato: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-8408-5.
Cadame, Claude (1999). Indigenous and Modern Perspectives on Tribal Initiation Rites: Education According to Plato, pp. 278–312, in Padilla, Mark William (editor), "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society", Bucknell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-5418-X
Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S., eds. (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 0-87220-349-2.
Corlett, J. Angelo (2005). Interpreting Plato's Dialogues. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-02-5
Durant, Will (1926). The Story of Philosophy. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-69500-2.
Derrida, Jacques (1972). La dissémination, Paris: Seuil. (esp. cap.: La Pharmacie de Platon, 69–199) ISBN 2-02-001958-2
Field, G. C. (1969). The Philosophy of Plato (2nd ed. with an appendix by Cross, R. C. ed.). London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-888040-5.
Fine, Gail (2000). Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology Oxford University Press, US, ISBN 0-19-875206-7
Finley, M. I. (1969). Aspects of antiquity: Discoveries and Controversies The Viking Press, Inc., USA
Garvey, James (2006). Twenty Greatest Philosophy Books. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-9053-0.
Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Plato – The Man & His Dialogues – Earlier Period), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31101-2
Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Later Plato & the Academy) Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31102-0
Havelock, Eric (2005). Preface to Plato (History of the Greek Mind), Belknap Press, ISBN 0-674-69906-8
Hamilton, Edith; Cairns, Huntington, eds. (1961). The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Including the Letters. Princeton Univ. Press. ISBN 0-691-09718-6.
Harvard University Press publishes the hardbound series Loeb Classical Library, containing Plato's works in Greek, with English translations on facing pages.
Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: A play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern performance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-8020-9538-1 (paper)
Hermann, Arnold (2010). Plato's Parmenides: Text, Translation & Introductory Essay, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-71-1
Irwin, Terence (1995). Plato's Ethics, Oxford University Press, USA, ISBN 0-19-508645-7
Jackson, Roy (2001). Plato: A Beginner's Guide. London: Hoder & Stroughton. ISBN 0-340-80385-1.
Jowett, Benjamin (1892). [The Dialogues of Plato. Translated into English with analyses and introductions by B. Jowett.], Oxford Clarendon Press, UK, UIN:BLL01002931898
Kochin, Michael S. (2002). Gender and Rhetoric in Plato's Political Thought. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 0-521-80852-9.
Kraut, Richard, ed. (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Plato. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43610-9.
Lilar, Suzanne (1954), Journal de l'analogiste, Paris, Éditions Julliard; Reedited 1979, Paris, Grasset. Foreword by Julien Gracq
Lilar, Suzanne (1963), Le couple, Paris, Grasset. Translated as Aspects of Love in Western Society in 1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Griffin London, Thames and Hudson.
Lilar, Suzanne (1967) A propos de Sartre et de l'amour , Paris, Grasset.
Lundberg, Phillip (2005). Tallyho - The Hunt for Virtue: Beauty, Truth and Goodness Nine Dialogues by Plato: Pheadrus, Lysis, Protagoras, Charmides, Parmenides, Gorgias, Theaetetus, Meno & Sophist. Authorhouse. ISBN 1-4184-4977-6.
Márquez, Xavier (2012) A Stranger's Knowledge: Statesmanship, Philosophy & Law in Plato's Statesman, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-79-7
Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-19-517510-7.
Miller, Mitchell (2004). The Philosopher in Plato's Statesman. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-16-2
Mohr, Richard D. (2006). God and Forms in Plato - and other Essays in Plato's Metaphysics. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-01-8
Mohr, Richard D. (Ed.), Sattler, Barbara M. (Ed.) (2010) One Book, The Whole Universe: Plato's Timaeus Today, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-32-2
Moore, Edward (2007). Plato. Philosophy Insights Series. Tirril, Humanities-Ebooks. ISBN 978-1-84760-047-9
Nightingale, Andrea Wilson. (1995). "Genres in Dialogue: Plato and the Construct of Philosophy", Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48264-X
Oxford University Press publishes scholarly editions of Plato's Greek texts in the Oxford Classical Texts series, and some translations in the Clarendon Plato Series.
Patterson, Richard (Ed.), Karasmanis, Vassilis (Ed.), Hermann, Arnold (Ed.) (2013) Presocratics & Plato: Festschrift at Delphi in Honor of Charles Kahn, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-75-9
Sallis, John (1996). Being and Logos: Reading the Platonic Dialogues. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21071-2.
Sallis, John (1999). Chorology: On Beginning in Plato's "Timaeus". Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21308-8.
Sayre, Kenneth M. (2005). Plato's Late Ontology: A Riddle Resolved. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-09-4
Seung, T. K. (1996). Plato Rediscovered: Human Value and Social Order. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-8112-2
Smith, William. (1867). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. University of Michigan/Online version.
Stewart, John. (2010). Kierkegaard and the Greek World – Socrates and Plato. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-6981-4
Thesleff, Holger (2009). Platonic Patterns: A Collection of Studies by Holger Thesleff, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-29-2
Thomas Taylor has translated Plato's complete works.
Thomas Taylor (1804). The Works of Plato, viz. His Fifty-Five Dialogues and Twelve Epistles 5 vols
Vlastos, Gregory (1981). Platonic Studies, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-10021-7
Vlastos, Gregory (2006). Plato's Universe – with a new Introducution by Luc Brisson, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-13-1
Zuckert, Catherine (2009). Plato's Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-99335-5
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Platon
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Plato complete works, annotated and searchable, at ELPENOR
Quick Links to Plato's Dialogues (English, Greek, French, Spanish)
The Dialogues of Plato with Apocryphal Works from Loeb Classical Library edition (1925–1968)
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
Plato
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Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
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Plato's Ethics and Politics in The Republic
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Other resources:
Plato at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
Plato at PhilPapers
"Plato and Platonism". Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913.
Website on Plato and his works: Plato and his dialogues by Bernard Suzanne
Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early and Middle Dialogues
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BIBSYS: 90059026
BNE: XX1155787
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ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\007350
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SNAC: w6715dwv
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ULAN: 500248317
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plato&oldid=848978080"
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https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Afrikaans
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https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Alemannisch
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https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Old English
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Platon – Azerbaijani
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values: Плятон – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

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values: ཕི་ལ་ཐོན། – Tibetan

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https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Bosnian
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https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Breton
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Platone – Corsican
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Platon – Welsh
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Platon – Danish
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https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Northern Sami
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https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – German
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https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Lower Sorbian
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https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Estonian
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https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platono
Platono – Esperanto
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Platon – Basque
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Plato – Fiji Hindi
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https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Faroese
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https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – French
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https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Western Frisian
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https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Goan Konkani
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Platon – Hakka Chinese
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values: प्लेटो – Hindi

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https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Croatian
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https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Ido
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Plato – Igbo
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https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Iloko
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https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Indonesian
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https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Interlingua
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https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Interlingue
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values: Платон – Ossetic

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https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Icelandic
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https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platone
Platone – Italian
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https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Javanese
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values: Платон – Kazakh

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https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Swahili
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https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Haitian Creole
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https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Kurdish
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values: Платон – Kyrgyz

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https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Ladino
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values: ປະລາຕົງ – Lao

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https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Latin
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Platons – Latvian
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https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Luxembourgish
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https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonas
Platonas – Lithuanian
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https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Ligurian
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https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Limburgish
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Platon – Livvi-Karelian
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https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/platon
platon – Lojban
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https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Lombard
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https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Malagasy
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https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Malay
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https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Minangkabau
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https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Min Dong Chinese
cdo
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https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Mirandese
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display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

values: ပလေးတိုး – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nah
display: none;

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Low Saxon
nds-NL
nds-NL
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl
display: none;

values: प्लेटो – Nepali

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ne
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values: Платон – Chechen

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ce
display: none;

values:
https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Northern Frisian
frr
frr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-frr
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pllatoun
Pllatoun – Norman
nrm
nrm
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm
display: none;

values:
https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platone
Platone – Novial
nov
nov
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nov
display: none;

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pileetoo
Pileetoo – Oromo
om
om
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-om
display: none;

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aflotun
Aflotun – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values: ਅਫ਼ਲਾਤੂਨ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pap
display: none;

values: اپلاتون – Pashto

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values:
https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plieto
Plieto – Jamaican Creole English
jam
jam
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jam
display: none;

values: ផ្លាតូ – Khmer

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-km
display: none;

values:
https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Piedmontese
pms
pms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pms
display: none;

values:
https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Tok Pisin
tpi
tpi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi
display: none;

values:
https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Low German
nds
nds
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds
display: none;

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

values:
https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Kara-Kalpak
kaa
kaa
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa
display: none;

values:
https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plahto
Plahto – Colognian
ksh
ksh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh
display: none;

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-qu
display: none;

values: Платон – Rusyn

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rue
display: none;

values: Платон – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ru
display: none;

values: Былатыан – Sakha

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sah
display: none;

values: प्लातोन् – Sanskrit

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sa
display: none;

values:
https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platone
Platone – Sardinian
sc
sc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sc
display: none;

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platoni
Platoni – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platuni
Platuni – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-scn
display: none;

values: ප්ලේටෝ – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values: افلاطون – Sindhi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sd
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Платон – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: பிளேட்டோ – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kab
display: none;

values: Әфләтүн – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: ప్లేటో – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: เพลโต – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Афлотун – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-chr
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Turkmen
tk
tk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: افلاطون – Urdu

values: بىراتۇ – Uyghur

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ug
display: none;

values:
https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Venetian
vec
vec
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vec
display: none;

values:
https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Veps
vep
vep
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vep
display: none;

values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Volapük
vo
vo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro
display: none;

values:
https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Walloon
wa
wa
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu
display: none;

values: פלאטאן – Yiddish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Yoruba
yo
yo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values:
https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Zazaki
diq
diq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-diq
display: none;

values:
https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Zeelandic
zea
zea
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zea
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg
display: none;

values: प्लेटो – Doteli

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-dty
display: none;

values:
https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato
Plato – Gorontalo
gor
gor
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gor
display: none;

values:
https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Kabiye
kbp
kbp
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp
display: none;

values:
https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platon
Platon – Lingua Franca Nova
lfn
lfn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Plato rootpage-Plato skin-vector action-view