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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Earth science or geoscience is a widely embraced term for the fields of science related to the planet Earth. It is the branch of science dealing with the physical constitution of the earth and its atmosphere. Earth science is the study of our planet’s physical characteristics, from earthquakes to raindrops, and floods to fossils. Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science, but with a much older history. “Earth science” is a broad term that encompasses four main branches of study, each of which is further broken down into more specialized fields.
There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. It is also the study of the Earth and its neighbors in space. Some Earth scientists use their knowledge of the Earth to locate and develop energy and mineral resources. Others study the impact of human activity on Earth's environment, and design methods to protect the planet. Some use their knowledge about Earth processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and hurricanes to plan communities that will not expose people to these dangerous events.
The Earth sciences can include the study of geology, the lithosphere, and the large-scale structure of the Earth's interior, as well as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Typically, Earth scientists use tools from geography, chronology, physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth works and evolves. Earth science affects our everyday lives. For example, meteorologists study the weather and watch for dangerous storms. Hydrologists study water and warn of floods. Seismologists study earthquakes and try to predict where they will strike. Geologists study rocks and help to locate useful minerals. Earth scientists mainly work “in the field”—climbing mountains, exploring the seabed, crawling through caves, or wading in swamps. They measure and collect samples (such as rocks or river water), then they record their findings on charts and maps.
Contents
[hide]
1 Fields of study
2 Earth's interior
3 Earth's atmosphere
4 Earth's magnetic field
5 Methodology
6 Earth's spheres
6.1 Partial list of the major Earth science topics
6.1.1 Atmosphere
6.1.2 Biosphere
6.1.3 Hydrosphere
6.1.4 Lithosphere (geosphere)
6.1.5 Pedosphere
6.1.6 Systems
6.1.7 Others
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Fields of study[edit]
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The following fields of science are generally categorized within the Earth sciences:
Physical geography, covers aspects of geomorphology, soil study, hydrology, meteorology, climatology, and biogeography.[1]
Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earth's crust (or lithosphere) and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology, geochemistry, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology, and sedimentology.[2][3]
Geophysics and geodesy investigate the shape of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the Earth's core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere.[3][4][5] Geophysics is commonly used to supplement the work of geologists in developing a comprehensive understanding of crustal geology, particularly in mineral and petroleum exploration. See geophysical survey.
Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes (or pedosphere).[6] Major subdisciplines include edaphology and pedology.[7]
Ecology covers the interactions between the biota, with their natural environment. This field of study differentiates the study of the Earth, from the study of other planets in the Solar System; the Earth being the only planet teeming with life.
Hydrology (includes oceanography and limnology) is a study revolved around the movement, distribution, and quality of the water and involves all the components of the hydrologic cycle on the earth and its atmosphere (or hydrosphere). "Sub-disciplines of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface water hydrology, hydrogeology, watershed science, forest hydrology, and water chemistry."[8]
Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth (or cryosphere).
Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth (or atmosphere) between the surface and the exosphere (about 1000 km). Major subdisciplines include meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry, and atmospheric physics.
Earth's interior[edit]
A volcanic eruption is the release of stored energy from below the surface of Earth.[9]
Plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the Earth's crust.[10]
Beneath the Earth's crust lies the mantle which is heated by the radioactive decay of heavy elements. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics.[11][12][13][14]
Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. As the result of seafloor spreading, new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from the mantle to the near surface, through fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through subduction, oceanic crust and lithosphere returns to the convecting mantle.[12][14][15]
Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries, those where it is brought back into the Earth are convergent boundaries and those where plates slide past each other, but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed, are referred to as transform (or conservative) boundaries[12][14][16] Earthquakes result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the Earth as part of subduction.[17]
Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes.[12][17]
Earth's atmosphere[edit]
Main article: Atmosphere of Earth
The magnetosphere shields the surface of Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind.
(image not to scale.)
The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and 0.92% argon. 75% of the gases in the atmosphere are located within the troposphere, the bottom-most layer. The remaining one percent of the atmosphere (all but the nitrogen, oxygen, and argon) contains small amounts of other gases including CO2 and water vapors.[18] Water vapors and CO2 allow the Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect.[19] This allows Earth's surface to be warm enough to have liquid water and support life. In addition to storing heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding some of the Earth's surface from cosmic rays—of which are often incorrectly thought to be deflected by the magnetic field. [20] The magnetic field—created by the internal motions of the core—produces the magnetosphere which protects the Earth's atmosphere from the solar wind.[21] As the Earth is 4.5 billion years old,[22] it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there were no protective magnetosphere.
Earth's magnetic field[edit]
An electromagnet is a magnet that is created by an electric current.[23] The Earth has a solid iron inner core surrounded by fluid outer core that convects;[24] therefore, the Earth is an electromagnet. The motion of fluid convection sustains the Earth's magnetic field.[24][25]
Methodology[edit]
Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or go to many of the world's most exotic locations to study Earth phenomena (e.g. Antarctica or hot spot island chains).
A foundational idea within the study Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism. Uniformitarianism dictates that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed."[citation needed] In other words, any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in the same ways throughout geologic time. This enables those who study Earth's history to apply knowledge of how Earth processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and changed throughout deep history.
Earth's spheres[edit]
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Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere;[26] these correspond to rocks, water, air and life. Also included by some are the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the pedosphere (corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere.
Partial list of the major Earth science topics[edit]
Further information: Outline of Earth sciences
Atmosphere[edit]
Atmospheric chemistry
Geography
Climatology
Meteorology
Hydrometeorology
Paleoclimatology
Biosphere[edit]
Biogeochemistry
Biogeography
Ecology
Landscape ecology
Geoarchaeology
Geomicrobiology
Paleontology
Palynology
Micropaleontology
Hydrosphere[edit]
Hydrology
Hydrogeology
Limnology (freshwater science)
Oceanography (marine science)
Chemical oceanography
Physical oceanography
Biological oceanography (marine biology)
Geological oceanography (marine geology)
Paleoceanography
Lithosphere (geosphere)[edit]
Geology
Economic geology
Engineering geology
Environmental geology
Historical geology
Quaternary geology
Planetary geology and planetary geography
Sedimentology
Stratigraphy
Structural geology
Geography
Physical geography
Geochemistry
Geomorphology
Geophysics
Geochronology
Geodynamics (see also Tectonics)
Geomagnetism
Gravimetry (also part of Geodesy)
Seismology
Glaciology
Hydrogeology
Mineralogy
Crystallography
Gemology
Petrology
Speleology
Volcanology
Pedosphere[edit]
Geography
Soil science
Edaphology
Pedology
Systems[edit]
Earth system science
Environmental science
Geography
Human geography
Physical geography
Gaia hypothesis
Systems ecology
Systems geology
Others[edit]
Geography
Cartography
Geoinformatics (GIS)
Geostatistics
Geodesy and Surveying
NASA Earth Science Enterprise
Remote Sensing
See also[edit]
Main article: Outline of earth science
Book: Earth science
Earth sciences graphics software
Environmental geoscience
GEO-LEO (GEO Library Experts Online)
Glossary of geology terms
List of geoscience organizations
List of Russian Earth scientists
List of unsolved problems in geoscience
Making North America (2015 PBS film)
Nanogeoscience
Structure of the Earth
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "1(b). Elements of Geography – 2nd Edition, by M. Pidwirny, 2006". physicalgeography.net.
Jump up ^ Adams & Lambert 2006, p. 20
^ Jump up to: a b Smith & Pun 2006, p. 5
Jump up ^ "WordNet Search – 3.1". princeton.edu.
Jump up ^ "NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Global Positioning Tutorial". noaa.gov.
Jump up ^ Elissa Levine, 2001, The Pedosphere As A Hub broken link? Archived October 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Duane Gardiner, Lecture: Why Study Soils? excerpted from Miller, R.W. & D.T. Gardiner, 1998. Soils in our Environment, 8th Edition". nau.edu.
Jump up ^ Craig, Kendall. "Hydrology of the Watershed".
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, Academic Press, London, 2000
Jump up ^ "Earth's Energy Budget". ou.edu.
Jump up ^ Simison 2007, paragraph 7
^ Jump up to: a b c d Adams & Lambert 2006, pp. 94–95, 100, 102
Jump up ^ Smith & Pun 2006, pp. 13–17, 218, G-6
^ Jump up to: a b c Oldroyd 2006, pp. 101,103,104
Jump up ^ Smith & Pun 2006, p. 327
Jump up ^ Smith & Pun 2006, p. 331
^ Jump up to: a b Smith & Pun 2006, pp. 325–26, 329
Jump up ^ Adams & Lambert 2006, pp. 107–08
Jump up ^ American Heritage, p. 770
Jump up ^ Parker, Eugene (March 2006), Shielding Space (PDF), Scientific American
Jump up ^ Adams & Lambert 2006, pp. 21–22
Jump up ^ Smith & Pun 2006, p. 183
Jump up ^ American Heritage, p. 576
^ Jump up to: a b Oldroyd 2006, p. 160
Jump up ^ Demorest, Paul (2001-05-21). "Dynamo Theory and Earth's Magnetic Field." (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 21, 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
Jump up ^ Earth's Spheres Archived August 31, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.. ©1997–2000. Wheeling Jesuit University/NASA Classroom of the Future. Retrieved November 11, 2007.
Further reading[edit]
Allaby M., 2008. Dictionary of Earth Sciences, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-921194-4
Adams, Simon; Lambert, David (2006). Earth Science: An illustrated guide to science. New York, NY: Chelsea House. ISBN 0-8160-6164-5.
Joseph P. Pickett (executive editor) (1992). American Heritage dictionary of the English language (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-395-82517-2.
Korvin G., 1998. Fractal Models in the Earth Sciences, Elsvier, ISBN 978-0-444-88907-2
"Earth's Energy Budget". Oklahoma Climatological Survey. 1996–2004. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
Miller, George A.; Christiane Fellbaum; and Randee Tengi; and Pamela Wakefield; and Rajesh Poddar; and Helen Langone; Benjamin Haskell (2006). "WordNet Search 3.0". WordNet a lexical database for the English language. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University/Cognitive Science Laboratory. Retrieved 2007-11-10.
"NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Geodesy". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-03-08. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
Oldroyd, David (2006). Earth Cycles: A historical perspective. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-33229-0.
Reed, Christina (2008). Earth Science: Decade by Decade. New York, NY: Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-5533-3.
Simison, W. Brian (2007-02-05). "The mechanism behind plate tectonics". Retrieved 2007-11-17.
Smith, Gary A.; Pun, Aurora (2006). How Does the Earth Work? Physical Geology and the Process of Science. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-034129-0.
Tarbuck E. J., Lutgens F. K., and Tasa D., 2002. Earth Science, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-035390-0
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Earth sciences.
American Geosciences Institute
Earth Science Picture of the Day, a service of Universities Space Research Association, sponsored by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
Geoethics in Planetary and Space Exploration.
National Earth Science Teachers Association
Earth Sciences Degree Program Directory
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Abdul Karim (the Munshi)
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This article is about Queen Victoria's Indian Secretary. For other uses, see Abdul Karim (disambiguation).
Munshi Hafiz
Mohammed Abdul Karim
CIE CVO
منشى عبدالكريم
Portrait by Rudolf Swoboda, 1888
Indian Secretary to Queen Victoria
In office
1892–1901
Personal details
Born
1863
Lalitpur near Jhansi, British India
Died
April 1909 (aged 46)
Agra, British India
Nationality
Indian (British subject)
Spouse(s)
Rashidan Karim
Hafiz Mohammed Abdul Karim, CIE, CVO (1863 – April 1909), known as "the Munshi", was an Indian attendant of Queen Victoria. He served her during the final fifteen years of her reign, gaining her maternal affection over that time.
Karim was born the son of a hospital assistant near Jhansi in British India. In 1887, the year of Victoria's Golden Jubilee, Karim was one of two Indians selected to become servants to the Queen. Victoria came to like him a great deal and gave him the title of "Munshi" ("clerk" or "teacher"). Victoria appointed him to be her Indian Secretary, showered him with honours, and obtained a land grant for him in India.
The close platonic relationship between Karim and the Queen led to friction within the Royal Household, the other members of which felt themselves to be superior to him. The Queen insisted on taking Karim with her on her travels, which caused arguments between her and her other attendants. Following Victoria's death in 1901, her successor, Edward VII, returned Karim to India and ordered the confiscation and destruction of the Munshi's correspondence with Victoria. Karim subsequently lived quietly near Agra, on the estate that Victoria had arranged for him, until his death at the age of 46.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Royal servant
3 Household hostility
4 Land grant and family matters
5 Travels and Diamond Jubilee
6 Later life
7 Legacy
8 Notes and references
8.1 Bibliography
9 External links
Early life[edit]
Mohammed Abdul Karim was born into a Muslim family at Lalitpur near Jhansi in 1863.[1] His father, Haji Mohammed Waziruddin, was a hospital assistant stationed with the Central India Horse, a British cavalry regiment.[2] Karim had one older brother, Abdul Aziz, and four younger sisters. He was taught Persian and Urdu privately[3] and, as a teenager, travelled across North India and into Afghanistan.[4] Karim's father participated in the conclusive march to Kandahar, which ended the Second Anglo-Afghan War, in August 1880. After the war, Karim's father transferred from the Central India Horse to a civilian position at the Central Jail in Agra, while Karim worked as a vakil ("agent" or "representative") for the Nawab of Jaora in the Agency of Agar. After three years in Agar, Karim resigned and moved to Agra, to become a vernacular clerk at the jail. His father arranged a marriage between Karim and the sister of a fellow worker.[5]
Prisoners in the Agra jail were trained and kept employed as carpet weavers as part of their rehabilitation. In 1886, 34 convicts travelled to London to demonstrate carpet weaving at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in South Kensington. Karim did not accompany the prisoners, but assisted Jail Superintendent John Tyler in organising the trip, and helped to select the carpets and weavers. When Queen Victoria visited the exhibition, Tyler gave her a gift of two gold bracelets, again chosen with the assistance of Karim.[6] The Queen had a longstanding interest in her Indian territories and wished to employ some Indian servants for her Golden Jubilee. She asked Tyler to recruit two attendants who would be employed for a year.[7] Karim was hastily coached in British manners and in the English language and sent to England, along with Mohammed Buksh. Major-General Thomas Dennehy, who was about to be appointed to the Royal Household, had previously employed Buksh as a servant.[8] It was planned that the two Indian men would initially wait at table, and learn to do other tasks.[9]
Royal servant[edit]
The Munshi in a painting by Laurits Tuxen, commissioned by Queen Victoria, 1887
After a journey by rail from Agra to Bombay and by mail steamer to Britain, Karim and Buksh arrived at Windsor Castle in June 1887.[10] They were put under the charge of Major-General Dennehy and first served the Queen at breakfast in Frogmore House at Windsor on 23 June 1887. The Queen described Karim in her diary for that day: "The other, much younger, is much lighter [than Buksh], tall, and with a fine serious countenance. His father is a native doctor at Agra. They both kissed my feet."[11]
Five days later, the Queen noted that "The Indians always wait now and do so, so well and quietly."[12] On 3 August, she wrote: "I am learning a few words of Hindustani to speak to my servants. It is a great interest to me for both the language and the people, I have naturally never come into real contact with before."[13] On 20 August she had some "excellent curry" made by one of the servants.[14] By 30 August Karim was teaching her Urdu,[15] which she used during an audience in December to greet the Maharani Chimnabai of Baroda.[16]
Victoria took a great liking to Karim and ordered that he was to be given additional tuition in the English language.[17] By February 1888 he had "learnt English wonderfully" according to Victoria.[18] After he complained to the Queen that he had been a clerk in India and thus menial work as a waiter was beneath him,[19][20] he was promoted to the position of "Munshi" in August 1888.[21] In her journal, the Queen writes that she made this change so that he would stay: "I particularly wish to retain his services as he helps me in studying Hindustani, which interests me very much, & he is very intelligent & useful."[22] Photographs of him waiting at table were destroyed and he became the first personal Indian clerk to the Queen.[23] Buksh remained in the Queen's service, but only as a khidmatgar or table servant,[24] until his death at Windsor in 1899.[25]
According to Karim biographer Sushila Anand, the Queen's own letters testify that "her discussions with the Munshi were wide-ranging—philosophical, political and practical. Both head and heart were engaged. There is no doubt that the Queen found in Abdul Karim a connection with a world that was fascinatingly alien, and a confidant who would not feed her the official line."[26] Karim was placed in charge of the other Indian servants and made responsible for their accounts. Victoria praised him in her letters and journal. "I am so very fond of him" she wrote, "He is so good & gentle & understanding all I want & is a real comfort to me."[27] She admired "her personal Indian clerk & Munshi, who is an excellent, clever, truly p[i]ous & very refined gentle man, who says, 'God ordered it' ... God's Orders is what they implicitly obey! Such faith as theirs & such conscientiousness set us a g[rea]t. example."[28] At Balmoral Castle, the Queen's Scottish estate, Karim was allocated the room previously occupied by John Brown, a favourite servant of the Queen's who had died in 1883.[29] Despite the serious and dignified manner that Karim presented to the outside world, the Queen wrote that "he is very friendly and cheerful with the Queen's maids and laughs and even jokes now—and invited them to come and see all his fine things offering them fruit cake to eat".[30]
Household hostility[edit]
In November 1888, Karim was given four months' leave to return to India, during which time he visited his father. Karim wrote to Victoria that his father, who was due to retire, had hopes of a pension and that his former employer, John Tyler, was angling for promotion. As a result, throughout the first six months of 1889, Victoria wrote to the Viceroy of India, Lord Lansdowne, demanding action on Waziruddin's pension and Tyler's promotion. The Viceroy was reluctant to pursue the issues because Waziruddin had told the local governor, Sir Auckland Colvin, that he desired only gratitude and also because Tyler had a reputation for tactless behaviour and bad-tempered remarks.[31][32]
Karim's swift rise began to create jealousy and discontent among the members of the Royal Household, who would normally never mingle socially with Indians below the rank of prince. The Queen expected them to welcome Karim, an Indian of ordinary origin, into their midst, but they were not willing to do so.[30] Karim, for his part, expected to be treated as an equal. When Albert Edward, Prince of Wales (later Edward VII), hosted an entertainment for the Queen at his home in Sandringham on 26 April 1889, Karim found he had been allocated a seat with the servants. Feeling insulted, he retired to his room. The Queen took his part, stating that he should have been seated among the Household.[33] When the Queen attended the Braemar Games in 1890, her son Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, approached the Queen's private secretary Sir Henry Ponsonby in outrage after he saw the Munshi among the gentry. Ponsonby suggested that as it was "by the Queen's order", the Duke should approach the Queen about it.[34] "This entirely shut him up", noted Ponsonby.[35]
Victoria biographer Carolly Erickson described the situation:
The rapid advancement and personal arrogance of the Munshi would inevitably have led to his unpopularity, but the fact of his race made all emotions run hotter against him. Racialism was a scourge of the age; it went hand in hand with belief in the appropriateness of Britain's global dominion. For a dark-skinned Indian to be put very nearly on a level with the queen's white servants was all but intolerable, for him to eat at the same table as them, to share in their daily lives was viewed as an outrage. Yet the queen was determined to impose harmony on her household. Race hatred was intolerable to her, and the "dear good Munshi" deserving of nothing but respect.[36]
When complaints were brought to her, Victoria refused to believe any negative comments about Karim.[37] She dismissed concerns about his behaviour, deemed high-handed by Household and staff, as "very wrong".[38] In June 1889, Karim's brother-in-law, Hourmet Ali, sold one of Victoria's brooches to a jeweller in Windsor. She accepted Karim's explanation that Ali had found the brooch and that it was customary in India to keep anything that one found, whereas the rest of the Household thought Ali had stolen it.[39] In July, Karim was assigned the room previously occupied by Dr (later Sir) James Reid, Victoria's physician, and given the use of a private sitting room.[40]
Glassalt Shiel: Victoria's remote getaway on the Balmoral estate
The Queen, influenced by the Munshi, continued to write to Lord Lansdowne on the issue of Tyler's promotion and the administration of India. She expressed reservations on the introduction of elected councils on the basis that Muslims would not win many seats because they were in the minority, and urged that Hindu feasts be re-scheduled so as not to conflict with Muslim ones. Lansdowne dismissed the latter suggestion as potentially divisive,[41] but appointed Tyler Acting Inspector General of Prisons in September 1889.[42]
To the Household's surprise and concern, during Victoria's stay at Balmoral in September 1889, she and Karim stayed for one night at a remote house on the estate, Glassalt Shiel at Loch Muick. Victoria had often been there with Brown and after his death had sworn never to stay there again.[42] In early 1890, Karim fell ill with an inflamed boil on his neck and Victoria instructed Reid, her physician, to attend to Karim.[43] She wrote to Reid expressing her anxiety and explaining that she felt responsible for the welfare of her Indian servants because they were so far from their own land.[44] Reid performed an operation to open and drain the swelling, after which Karim recovered.[44] Reid wrote on 1 March 1890 that the Queen was "visiting Abdul twice daily, in his room taking Hindustani lessons, signing her boxes, examining his neck, smoothing his pillows, etc."[45]
Land grant and family matters[edit]
In 1890, the Queen had Karim's portrait painted by Heinrich von Angeli. According to the Queen, von Angeli was keen to paint Karim as he had never painted an Indian before and "was so struck with his handsome face and colouring".[46] On 11 July 1890, she wrote to Lansdowne, and the Secretary of State for India Lord Cross, for "a grant of land to her really exemplary and excellent young Munshi, Hafiz Abdul Karim".[47] The ageing Queen did not trust her relatives and the Royal Household to look after the Munshi after she was gone, and so sought to secure his future.[48] Lansdowne replied that grants of land were given only to soldiers, and then only in cases of long and meritorious service. Nevertheless, the Viceroy agreed to find a grant for Karim that would provide about 600 rupees annually, the same amount that an old soldier could expect after performing exceptionally.[49] Victoria wrote to Lansdowne repeatedly between July and October, pressuring him on the land grant. Apart from wasteland, there was little government-controlled land near Agra; thus Lansdowne was having trouble finding a suitable plot.[50] On 30 October, the Munshi left Balmoral for four months' leave in India, travelling on the same ship as Lady Lansdowne. On the same day, Lord Lansdowne telegraphed the Queen to let her know that a grant of land in the suburbs of Agra had been arranged.[51] Lansdowne made a point of informing the Queen:
... quite recently one of the men who at the peril of his life, and under a withering fire helped to blow up the Kashmiri Gate of Delhi in the Mutiny, received, on his retirement from the service, a grant of land yielding only Rs 250 for life. Abdul Karim, at the age of 26, had received a perpetual grant of land representing an income of more than double that amount in recognition of his services as a member of your Majesty's Household.[52]
Lansdowne visited Agra in November 1890. He and the Munshi met, and Lansdowne arranged for Karim to be seated with the viceregal staff during a durbar.[53] Lansdowne met both the Munshi and Waziruddin privately, and Lady Lansdowne met his wife and mother-in-law, who were smuggled into the Viceroy's camp in secrecy to comply with rules of purdah.[54]
In 1891, after Karim's return to Britain, he asked Reid to send his father a large quantity of medicinal compounds, which included strychnine, chloral hydrate, morphine, and many other poisons. Reid calculated that the amount requested was "amply sufficient to kill 12,000 to 15,000 full grown men or an enormously large number of children" and consequently refused.[55] Instead, Reid persuaded the Queen that the chemicals should be obtained at her expense by the appropriate authorities in India.[55] In June 1892, Waziruddin visited Britain and stayed at both Balmoral and Windsor Castles.[56] He retired in 1893 and in the New Year Honours 1894 he was rewarded, to Victoria's satisfaction, with the title of Khan Bahadur, which Lansdowne noted was "one which under ordinary circumstances the Doctor [could] not have ventured to expect".[57]
In May 1892, the Munshi returned to India on six months' leave; on his return, his wife and mother-in-law accompanied him. Both women were shrouded from head to foot and travelled in railway compartments with drawn curtains. Victoria wrote, "the two Indian ladies ... who are, I believe, the first Mohammedan purdah ladies who ever came over ... keep their custom of complete seclusion and of being entirely covered when they go out, except for the holes for their eyes."[58] As a woman, Victoria saw them without veils.[59] The Munshi and his family were housed in cottages at Windsor, Balmoral and Osborne, the Queen's retreat on the Isle of Wight.[60] Victoria visited regularly, usually bringing her female guests, including the Empress of Russia and the Princess of Wales, to meet the Munshi's female relatives.[61] One visitor, Marie Mallet, the Queen's maid-in-waiting and wife of civil servant Bernard Mallet, recorded:
I have just been to see the Munshi's wife (by Royal Command). She is fat and not uncomely, a delicate shade of chocolate and gorgeously attired, rings on her fingers, rings on her nose, a pocket mirror set in turquoises on her thumb and every feasible part of her person hung with chains and bracelets and ear-rings, a rose-pink veil on her head bordered with heavy gold and splendid silk and satin swathings round her person. She speaks English in a limited manner ..."[62]
Queen Victoria and the Munshi in 1893
Dr Reid never saw Mrs Karim unveiled, though he claimed that whenever he was called to examine her, a different tongue was protruded from behind the veil for his inspection.[63]
In 1892, the Munshi's name began to appear in the Court Circular among the names of officials accompanying the Queen on her annual March trip to the French Riviera.[29] As usual, Victoria spent Christmas 1892 at Osborne House, where the Munshi, as he had in previous years, participated in tableaux vivants arranged as entertainment.[64] The following year, during Victoria's annual holiday in continental Europe, he was presented to King Umberto I of Italy.[65] In the words of a contemporary newspaper account, "The King did not understand why this magnificent and imposing Hindoo should have been formally presented to him. The popular idea in Italy is that the Munshi is a captive Indian prince, who is taken about by the Queen as an outward and visible sign of Her Majesty's supremacy in the East."[66]
By 1893, Victoria was sending notes to Karim signed in Urdu.[60] She often signed off her letters to Karim as "your affectionate mother, VRI"[67] or "your truly devoted and fond loving mother, VRI".[68]
Travels and Diamond Jubilee[edit]
The Munshi was perceived to have taken advantage of his position as the Queen's favourite, and to have risen above his status as a menial clerk, causing resentment in the court. On a journey through Italy, he published an advertisement in the Florence Gazette stating that "[h]e is belonging to a good and highly respectful famiely [sic]".[29] Karim refused to travel with the other Indians and appropriated the maid's bathroom for his exclusive use.[69] On a visit to Coburg, he refused to attend the marriage of Victoria's granddaughter Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, because her father, Victoria's son Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, assigned him a seat in the gallery with the servants.[70] Confronted by the opposition of her family and retainers, the Queen defended her favourite.[71] She wrote to her private secretary Sir Henry Ponsonby: "to make out that the poor good Munshi is so low is really outrageous & in a country like England quite out of place ... She has known 2 Archbishops who were sons respectively of a Butcher & a Grocer ... Abdul's father saw good & honourable service as a Dr & he [Karim] feels cut to the heart at being thus spoken of."[72]
Lord Lansdowne's term of office ended in 1894, and he was replaced by Lord Elgin. Ponsonby's son Frederick was Elgin's aide-de-camp in India for a short time before being appointed an equerry to Victoria. Victoria asked Frederick to visit Waziruddin, the "surgeon-general" at Agra.[73] On his return to Britain, Frederick told Victoria that Waziruddin "was not the surgeon-general but only the apothecary at the jail", which Victoria "stoutly denied" saying Frederick "must have seen the wrong man".[73] To "mark her displeasure", Victoria did not invite Frederick to dinner for a year.[73]
At Christmas 1894, the Munshi sent Lord Elgin a sentimental greeting card, which to Victoria's dismay went unacknowledged.[74] Through Frederick Ponsonby, she complained to Elgin, who replied that he did "not imagine that any acknowledgement was necessary, or that the Queen would expect him to send one", pointing out "how impossible it would be for an Indian Viceroy to enter into correspondence of this kind".[75]
Frederick wrote to Elgin in January 1895 that Karim was deeply unpopular in the Household, and that he occupied "very much the same position as John Brown used to".[76] Princesses Louise and Beatrice, Prince Henry of Battenberg, Prime Minister Lord Rosebery, and Secretary of State for India Henry Fowler had all raised concerns about Karim with the Queen, who "refused to listen to what they had to say but was very angry, so as you see the Munshi is a sort of pet, like a dog or cat which the Queen will not willingly give up".[76] Elgin was warned by both Ponsonby and the India Office that the Queen gave his letters to the Munshi to read, and that consequently his correspondence to her should not be of a confidential nature.[77] Victoria's advisors feared Karim's association with Rafiuddin Ahmed, an Indian political activist resident in London who was connected to the Muslim Patriotic League. They suspected that Ahmed extracted confidential information from Karim to pass onto the Amir of Afghanistan, Abdur Rahman Khan.[78] There is no indication that these fears were well-founded, or that the Munshi was ever indiscreet.[79]
Victoria on holiday in the South of France
During the Queen's annual holiday in the French Riviera, in March 1895, the local newspapers ran articles on Le Munchy, secrétaire indien and le professor de la Reine, which according to Frederick Ponsonby were instigated by Karim.[80] In the Queen's 1895 Birthday Honours that May, Karim was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire (CIE),[81] despite the opposition of both Rosebery and Fowler.[82] Tyler was astonished by Karim's elevation when he visited England the following month.[82]
After the United Kingdom general election, 1895, Rosebery and Fowler were replaced by Lord Salisbury and Lord George Hamilton respectively. Hamilton thought Karim was not as dangerous as some supposed but that he was "a stupid man, and on that account he may become a tool in the hands of other men."[83] In early 1896, Karim returned to India on six months' leave, and Hamilton and Elgin placed him under "unobtrusive" surveillance.[83] They dared not be too obvious lest the Munshi notice and complain to the Queen.[84] Despite fears that Karim might meet with hostile agents, his visit home appears to have been uneventful.[85]
He left Bombay for Britain in August 1896, bringing with him his young nephew, Mohammed Abdul Rashid.[86] Karim had no children of his own. Victoria had arranged for a female doctor to examine the Munshi's wife in December 1893, as the couple had been trying to conceive without success.[87] By 1897, according to Reid, Karim had gonorrhea.[88]
In March 1897 as members of the Household prepared to depart for Cimiez for the Queen's annual visit, they insisted that Karim not accompany the royal party, and decided to resign if he did so. When Harriet Phipps, one of the Queen's maids of honour, informed her of the collective decision, the Queen swept the contents of her desk onto the floor in a fury.[89] The Household backed down, but the holiday was marred by increased resentment and rows between the Household and Victoria. She thought their distrust and dislike of Karim was motivated by "race prejudice" and jealousy.[90] When Rafiuddin Ahmed joined Karim in Cimiez, the Household forced him to leave, which Victoria thought "disgraceful", and she asked the prime minister to issue an apology to Ahmed, explaining he was only excluded because he had written articles in newspapers and pressmen were not permitted.[91] Ponsonby wrote in late April, "[the Munshi] happens to be a thoroughly stupid and uneducated man, and his one idea in life seems to be to do nothing and to eat as much as he can."[90] Reid warned the Queen that her attachment to Karim had led to questions about her sanity,[92] and Hamilton telegraphed to Elgin requesting information on the Munshi and his family in an effort to discredit him.[93] On receiving Elgin's reply that they were "Respectable and trustworthy ... but position of family humble",[93] Hamilton concluded "the Munshi has done nothing to my knowledge which is reprehensible or deserving of official stricture ... enquiries wd not be right, unless they were in connection with some definite statement or accusation." He did, however, authorise further investigation of the "Mohamedan intriguer named Rafiuddin".[94] Nothing was ever proven against Ahmed,[95] who later became a Bombay government official and was knighted in 1932.[96] The effect of the row, in Hamilton's words, was "to put him [the Munshi] more into his humble place, and his influence will not be the same in the future".[97]
The Munshi arranged to have this photograph of himself with the Queen at Balmoral published in the Diamond Jubilee issue of The Graphic, 1897.[98]
After the distress of 1897, Victoria sought to reassure the Munshi. "I have in my Testamentary arrangements secured your comfort," she wrote to him, "and have constantly thought of you well. The long letter I enclose which was written nearly a month ago is entirely and solely my own idea, not a human being will ever know of it or what you answer me. If you can't read it I will help you and then burn it at once."[99] She told Reid the squabbles placed her and the Munshi under strain, which he replied was unlikely in the latter's case "judging from his robust appearance and undiminished stoutness".[100] Lord Salisbury told Reid he thought it unlikely in her case too, and that she secretly enjoyed the arguments because they were "the only form of excitement she can have".[101]
Reid seems to have joined with the other Household members in complaining about the Munshi, for the Queen wrote to him, "I thought you stood between me and them, but now I feel that you chime in with the rest."[102] In 1899, members of the Household again insisted that Karim not accompany the royal party when the Queen took her annual holiday at Cimiez. The Queen duly had Karim remain at Windsor, then when the party had settled into the Excelsior Regina hotel, wired Karim to come and join them.[103]
Later life[edit]
In late 1898 Karim's purchase of a parcel of land adjacent to his earlier grant was finalised; he had become a wealthy man.[104] Reid claimed in his diary that he had challenged Karim over his financial dealings: "You have told the Queen that in India no receipts are given for money, and therefore you ought not to give any to Sir F Edwards [Keeper of the Privy Purse]. This is a lie and means that you wish to cheat the Queen."[105] The Munshi told the Queen he would provide receipts in answer to the allegations, and Victoria wrote to Reid dismissing the accusations, calling them "shameful".[106]
Karim asked Victoria for the title of "Nawab", the Indian equivalent of a peer, and to appoint him a Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (KCIE), which would make him "Sir Abdul Karim". A horrified Elgin suggested instead that she make Karim a Member of the Royal Victorian Order (MVO), which was in her personal gift, bestowed no title, and would have little political implication in India.[107] Privy Purse Sir Fleetwood Edwards and Prime Minister Lord Salisbury advised against even the lower honour.[108] Nevertheless in 1899, on the occasion of her 80th birthday, Victoria appointed Karim a commander of the order (CVO), a rank intermediate between member and knight.[109]
The Munshi returned to India in November 1899 for a year. Waziruddin, described as "a courtly old gentleman" by Lord Curzon, Elgin's replacement as Viceroy, died in June 1900.[110] By the time Karim returned to Britain in November 1900 Victoria had visibly aged, and her health was failing. Within three months she was dead.[111]
After Victoria's death, her son, Edward VII, dismissed the Munshi and his relations from court and had them sent back to India. However, Edward did allow the Munshi to be the last to view Victoria's body before her casket was closed,[112] and to be part of her funeral procession.[113] Almost all of the correspondence between Victoria and Karim was burned on Edward's orders.[114] Lady Curzon wrote on 9 August 1901,
Charlotte Knollys told me that the Munshi bogie which had frightened all the household at Windsor for many years had proved a ridiculous farce, as the poor man had not only given up all his letters but even the photos signed by Queen and had returned to India like a whipped hound. All the Indian servants have gone back so now there is no Oriental picture & queerness at Court.[115]
In 1905–06, George, Prince of Wales, visited India and wrote to the King from Agra, "In the evening we saw the Munshi. He has not grown more beautiful and is getting fat. I must say he was most civil and humble and really pleased to see us. He wore his C.V.O. which I had no idea he had got. I am told he lives quietly here and gives no trouble at all."[116]
The Munshi died at his home, Karim Lodge, on his estate in Agra in 1909.[117] He was survived by two wives,[118] and was interred in a pagoda-like mausoleum in the Panchkuin Kabaristan cemetery in Agra beside his father.[119]
On the instructions of Edward VII, the Commissioner of Agra, W. H. Cobb, visited Karim Lodge to retrieve any remaining correspondence between the Munshi and the Queen or her Household, which was confiscated and sent to the King.[120] The Viceroy (by then Lord Minto), Lieutenant-Governor John Hewitt, and India Office civil servants disapproved of the seizure, and recommended that the letters be returned.[121] Eventually the King returned four, on condition that they would be sent back to him on the death of the Munshi's first wife.[122] Karim's family, who had emigrated to Pakistan during the Partition, kept his diary and some of his correspondence from the time concealed until 2010, when it was made public.[123]
Legacy[edit]
As the Munshi had no children, his nephews and grandnephews inherited his wealth and properties. The Munshi's family continued to reside in Agra until Indian independence and the partition of India in August 1947, after which they emigrated to Karachi, Pakistan. The estate, including Karim Lodge, was confiscated by the Indian government and distributed among Hindu refugees from Pakistan. Half of Karim Lodge was subsequently divided into two individual residences, with the remaining half becoming a nursing home and doctor's office.[124]
Until the publication of Frederick Ponsonby's memoirs in 1951, there was little biographical material on the Munshi.[125] Scholarly examination of his life and relationship with Victoria began around the 1960s,[126] focusing on the Munshi as "an illustration of race and class prejudice in Victorian England".[127] Mary Lutyens, in editing the diary of her grandmother Edith (wife of Lord Lytton, Viceroy of India 1876–80), concluded, "Though one can understand that the Munshi was disliked, as favourites nearly always are ... One cannot help feeling that the repugnance with which he was regarded by the Household was based mostly on snobbery and colour prejudice."[128] Victoria biographer Elizabeth Longford wrote, "Abdul Karim stirred once more that same royal imagination which had magnified the virtues of John Brown ... Nevertheless, [it] insinuated into her confidence an inferior person, while it increased the nation's dizzy infatuation with an inferior dream, the dream of Colonial Empire."[129]
Historians agree with the suspicions of her Household that the Munshi influenced the Queen's opinions on Indian issues, biasing her against Hindus and favouring Muslims.[130] But suspicions that he passed secrets to Rafiuddin Ahmed are discounted. Victoria asserted that "no political papers of any kind are ever in the Munshi's hands, even in her presence. He only helps her to read words which she cannot read or merely ordinary submissions on warrants for signature. He does not read English fluently enough to be able to read anything of importance."[131] Consequently, it is thought unlikely that he could have influenced the government's Indian policy or provided useful information to Muslim activists.[127]
The 2017 feature film Victoria & Abdul, directed by Stephen Frears and starring Ali Fazal as Abdul Karim and Judi Dench as Queen Victoria, offers a fictionalised version of the relationship between Karim and the queen.[132]
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 22
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 22–23
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 23
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 23–24
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 24
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 25
Jump up ^ Victoria to Lord Lansdowne, 18 December 1890, quoted in Basu. p. 87
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 26–27
Jump up ^ Anand, p. 13
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 33
Jump up ^ Quoted in Anand, p. 15
Jump up ^ Quoted in Basu, p. 38
Jump up ^ Quoted in Basu, p. 43; Hibbert, p. 446 and Longford, p. 502
Jump up ^ Quoted in Basu, p. 44
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 48
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 57
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 49
Jump up ^ Quoted in Basu, p. 60
Jump up ^ Marina Warner's Queen Victoria's Sketchbook, quoted in "Abdul Karim". PBS. Retrieved on 15 April 2011
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 64–65
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 64
Jump up ^ "Queen Victoria's Journals". RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ (W). Royal Archives. 11 August 1888. Retrieved 24 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 65; Longford, p. 536
Jump up ^ Anand, p. 16
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 174
Jump up ^ Anand, p. 15
Jump up ^ Queen Victoria to the Duchess of Connaught, 3 November 1888, quoted in Basu, p. 65
Jump up ^ Victoria to Sir Theodore Martin, 20 November 1888, quoted in Basu, p. 65
^ Jump up to: a b c Nelson, p. 82
^ Jump up to: a b Anand, p. 18
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 68–69
Jump up ^ Victoria herself acknowledged that "he is a very irascible man, with a violent temper and a total want of tact, and his own enemy, but v. kind-hearted and hospitable, a very good official, and a first-rate physician", to which Lansdowne replied, "Your Majesty has summed up that gentleman's strong and weak points in language which exactly meets the case." (Quoted in Basu, p. 88)
Jump up ^ Anand, pp. 18–19; Basu, pp. 70–71
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 441
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 71; Hibbert, p. 448
Jump up ^ Erickson, Carolly (2002) Her Little Majesty, New York: Simon and Schuster, p. 241. ISBN 0-7432-3657-2. Paragraph break omitted after third sentence.
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 70–71
Jump up ^ Victoria to Dr Reid, 13 May 1889, quoted in Basu, p. 70
Jump up ^ Anand, pp. 20–21; Basu, pp. 71–72
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 72
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 73, 109–110
^ Jump up to: a b Basu, p. 74
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 75
^ Jump up to: a b Basu, p. 76
Jump up ^ Quoted in Anand, p. 22 and Basu, p. 75
Jump up ^ Queen Victoria to Victoria, Princess Royal, 17 May 1890, quoted in Basu, p. 77
Jump up ^ Quoted in Basu, p. 77
Jump up ^ This Sceptered Isle: Part 66, "Queen Victoria and Abdul Karim" BBC Radio 4. Retrieved on 15 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 78
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 79–82
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 83
Jump up ^ Anand, p. 33; Basu, p. 86
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 85
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 86–87
^ Jump up to: a b Basu, p. 100
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 102–103
Jump up ^ Lansdowne to Victoria, December 1893, quoted in Basu, p. 111
Jump up ^ Queen Victoria to Victoria, Princess Royal, 9 December 1893, quoted in Anand, p. 45
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 104–105
^ Jump up to: a b Basu, p. 107
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 106, 108–109
Jump up ^ Mallet, Victor (ed., 1968) Life With Queen Victoria: Marie Mallet's Letters From Court 1887–1901, London: John Murray, p. 96, quoted in Basu, p. 141
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 129; Hibbert, p. 447; Longford, p. 535
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 59–60, 66, 81, 100, 103
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 104
Jump up ^ Birmingham Daily Post, 24 March 1893, quoted in Basu, p. 104
Jump up ^ e.g. Basu, p. 129
Jump up ^ e.g. Basu, p. 109
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 114; Hibbert, p. 450; Nelson, p. 83
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 115
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 116
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 117; Hibbert, p. 449; Longford, p. 536
^ Jump up to: a b c Ponsonby, Frederick (1951) Recollections of Three Reigns, London: Odhams Press, p. 12, quoted in Basu, p. 120 and Hibbert, p. 449
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 119–120; Longford, p. 537
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 121
^ Jump up to: a b Quoted in Anand, p. 54; Basu, p. 125 and Hibbert, p. 451
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 125
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 123–124; Hibbert, p. 448; Longford, pp. 535, 537
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 148–151; Longford, p. 540
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 127–128
Jump up ^ "No. 26628". The London Gazette. 25 May 1895. p. 3080.
^ Jump up to: a b Basu, p. 130
^ Jump up to: a b Hamilton to Elgin, 21 February 1896, quoted in Basu, p. 137; Hibbert, p. 449 and Longford, p. 538
Jump up ^ Anand, pp. 71–74; Basu, p. 138
Jump up ^ Anand, pp. 71–74
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 140
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 108
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 141; Erickson, p. 246; Hibbert, p. 451
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 141–142; Hibbert, p. 451
^ Jump up to: a b Letter from Frederick Ponsonby to Henry Babington Smith, 27 April 1897, quoted in Anand, pp. 76–77, Basu, p. 148 and Longford, p. 539
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 143; Longford, pp. 540–541
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 141–145; Hibbert, pp. 451–452
^ Jump up to: a b Basu, p. 144
Jump up ^ Hamilton to Elgin, 30 April 1897, quoted in Basu, p. 149
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 147, 151, 172
Jump up ^ Anand, p. 105
Jump up ^ Quoted in Basu, p. 150
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 162; Hibbert, p. 451
Jump up ^ Victoria to Karim, 12 February 1898, quoted in Anand, p. 96; Basu, p. 167 and Hibbert, p. 453
Jump up ^ Reid to Victoria, 23 September 1897, Basu, p. 161
Jump up ^ Reid's diary, 18 February 1898, quoted in Basu, p. 169 and Hibbert, p. 454
Jump up ^ Quoted in Anand, p. 101
Jump up ^ Anand, p. 111
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 173, 192
Jump up ^ Reid's diary, 4 April 1897, quoted in Basu, pp. 145–146 and Nelson, p. 110
Jump up ^ Quoted in Basu, p. 161
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 150–151
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 156
Jump up ^ "No. 27084". The London Gazette. 30 May 1899. p. 3427.
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 178–179
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 180–181
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 182; Hibbert, pp. 498; Rennell, p. 187
Jump up ^ Anand, p. 102
Jump up ^ Anand, p. 96; Basu, p. 185; Longford, pp. 541–542
Jump up ^ Quoted in Anand, p. 102
Jump up ^ Quoted in Anand, pp. 103–104 and Basu, p. 192
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 193
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 198
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 19
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 197–199
Jump up ^ Basu, pp. 200–201
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 202
Jump up ^ Leach, Ben (26 February 2011). "The lost diary of Queen Victoria's final companion". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 26 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Basu, p. 206
Jump up ^ Longford, p. 535
Jump up ^ Longford, p. 536
^ Jump up to: a b Visram, Rozina (2004). "Karim, Abdul (1862/3–1909)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/42022. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
Jump up ^ Lutyens, Mary (1961) Lady Lytton's Court Diary 1895–1899, London: Rupert Hart-Davis, p. 42
Jump up ^ Longford, p. 502
Jump up ^ e.g. Longford, p. 541; Plumb, p. 281
Jump up ^ Victoria to Salisbury, 17 July 1897, quoted in Longford, p. 540
Jump up ^ Al-Khadi, Amrou (16 September 2017). "Victoria and Abdul is another dangerous example of British filmmakers whitewashing colonialism". The Independent. Retrieved 24 September 2017.
Bibliography[edit]
Anand, Sushila (1996) Indian Sahib: Queen Victoria's Dear Abdul, London: Gerald Duckworth & Co., ISBN 0-7156-2718-X
Basu, Shrabani (2010) Victoria and Abdul: The True Story of the Queen's Closest Confidant, Stroud, Gloucestershire: The History Press, ISBN 978-0-7524-5364-4
Hibbert, Christopher (2000) Queen Victoria: A Personal History, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 0-00-638843-4
Longford, Elizabeth (1964) Victoria R.I., London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-17001-5
Nelson, Michael (2007) Queen Victoria and the Discovery of the Riviera, London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, ISBN 978-1-84511-345-2
Plumb, J. H. (1977) Royal Heritage: The Story of Britain's Royal Builders and Collectors, London: BBC, ISBN 0-563-17082-4
Rennell, Tony (2000) Last Days of Glory: The Death of Queen Victoria, New York: St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0-312-30286-X
Waller, Maureen (2006) Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England, New York: St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0-312-33801-5
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Abdul Karim (the Munshi).
Queen Victoria's Last Love, Channel 4 2012 documentary narrated by Geoffrey Palmer, about Queen Victoria (played by Veronica Clifford) and the Munshi (played by Kushal Pal Singh)
Queen Victoria's Last Love (2012), details of the above documentary at the Internet Movie Database
Queen Victoria and Abdul: Diaries reveal secrets, BBC News, 14 March 2011
Abdul Karim, who taught Queen Victoria Hindustani, British Library, Asians in Britain collection
Entries mentioning Abdul Karim in Queen Victoria's Journals, hosted by the Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 33734451
LCCN: n97005221
GND: 141366745
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values: মুন্সি আব্দুল করিম – Bangla

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