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Alexander Fleming
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This article is about the biologist. For other people named Alexander Fleming, see Alexander Fleming (disambiguation).
Sir Alexander Fleming
FRS FRSE FRCS
Born
(1881-08-06)6 August 1881
Darvel, East Ayrshire, Scotland
Died
11 March 1955(1955-03-11) (aged 73)
London, England
Citizenship
British
Alma mater
Royal Polytechnic Institution
St Mary's Hospital Medical School
Imperial College London
Known for
Discovery of penicillin and
Lysozyme
Awards
FRS (1943)[1]
Nobel Prize (1945)[2]
FRSE
FRCS(Eng)
Knight Bachelor (1944)
Scientific career
Fields
Bacteriology, immunology
Signature
Sir Alexander Fleming FRS FRSE FRCS[1] (6 August 1881 – 11 March 1955) was a Scottish physician, microbiologist, and pharmacologist. His best-known discoveries are the enzyme lysozyme in 1923 and the world's first antibiotic substance benzylpenicillin (Penicillin G) from the mould Penicillium notatum in 1928, for which he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 with Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain.[3][4][5] He wrote many articles on bacteriology, immunology, and chemotherapy.
Fleming was knighted for his scientific achievements in 1944.[6] In 1999, he was named in Time magazine's list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century. In 2002, he was chosen in the BBC's television poll for determining the 100 Greatest Britons, and in 2009, he was also voted third "greatest Scot" in an opinion poll conducted by STV, behind only Robert Burns and William Wallace.
Contents
1 Early life and education
2 Research
2.1 Work before penicillin
3 Accidental discovery
3.1 Purification and stabilisation
3.2 Antibiotics
4 Myths
5 Awards and honours
6 Personal life
7 Death
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Early life and education[edit]
Born on 6 August 1881 at Lochfield farm near Darvel, in Ayrshire, Scotland, Alexander was the third of four children of farmer Hugh Fleming (1816–1888) from his second marriage to Grace Stirling Morton (1848–1928), the daughter of a neighbouring farmer. Hugh Fleming had four surviving children from his first marriage. He was 59 at the time of his second marriage, and died when Alexander was seven.[7]
Fleming went to Loudoun Moor School and Darvel School, and earned a two-year scholarship to Kilmarnock Academy before moving to London, where he attended the Royal Polytechnic Institution.[8] After working in a shipping office for four years, the twenty-year-old Alexander Fleming inherited some money from an uncle, John Fleming. His elder brother, Tom, was already a physician and suggested to him that he should follow the same career, and so in 1903, the younger Alexander enrolled at St Mary's Hospital Medical School in Paddington; he qualified with an MBBS degree from the school with distinction in 1906.[7]
Fleming had been a private in the London Scottish Regiment of the Volunteer Force since 1900,[3] and had been a member of the rifle club at the medical school. The captain of the club, wishing to retain Fleming in the team, suggested that he join the research department at St Mary's, where he became assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in vaccine therapy and immunology. In 1908, he gained a BSc degree with Gold Medal in Bacteriology, and became a lecturer at St Mary's until 1914. Fleming served throughout World War I as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps, and was Mentioned in Dispatches. He and many of his colleagues worked in battlefield hospitals at the Western Front in France. In 1918 he returned to St Mary's Hospital, where he was elected Professor of Bacteriology of the University of London in 1928. In 1951 he was elected the Rector of the University of Edinburgh for a term of three years.[7]
Research[edit]
Work before penicillin[edit]
During World War I, Fleming witnessed the death of many soldiers from sepsis resulting from infected wounds. Antiseptics, which were used at the time to treat infected wounds, often worsened the injuries.[9] In an article he submitted for the medical journal The Lancet during World War I, Fleming described an ingenious experiment, which he was able to conduct as a result of his own glass blowing skills, in which he explained why antiseptics were killing more soldiers than infection itself during World War I. Antiseptics worked well on the surface, but deep wounds tended to shelter anaerobic bacteria from the antiseptic agent, and antiseptics seemed to remove beneficial agents produced that protected the patients in these cases at least as well as they removed bacteria, and did nothing to remove the bacteria that were out of reach.[10] Sir Almroth Wright strongly supported Fleming's findings, but despite this, most army physicians over the course of the war continued to use antiseptics even in cases where this worsened the condition of the patients.[7]
At St Mary's Hospital Fleming continued his investigations into antibacterial substances. Testing the nasal secretions from a patient with a heavy cold, he found that nasal mucus had an inhibitory effect on bacterial growth.[11] This was the first recorded discovery of lysozyme, an enzyme present in many secretions including tears, saliva, skin, hair and nails as well as mucus. Although he was able to obtain larger amounts of lysozyme from egg whites, the enzyme was only effective against small counts of harmless bacteria, and therefore had little therapeutic potential.[9]
Accidental discovery[edit]
Miracle cure.
Main article: History of penicillin
One sometimes finds, what one is not looking for. When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer. But I suppose that was exactly what I did.
—  Alexander Fleming[12]
By 1927, Fleming had been investigating the properties of staphylococci. He was already well-known from his earlier work, and had developed a reputation as a brilliant researcher, but his laboratory was often untidy. On 3 September 1928, Fleming returned to his laboratory having spent August on holiday with his family. Before leaving, he had stacked all his cultures of staphylococci on a bench in a corner of his laboratory. On returning, Fleming noticed that one culture was contaminated with a fungus, and that the colonies of staphylococci immediately surrounding the fungus had been destroyed, whereas other staphylococci colonies farther away were normal, famously remarking "That's funny".[13] Fleming showed the contaminated culture to his former assistant Merlin Price, who reminded him, "That's how you discovered lysozyme."[14] Fleming grew the mould in a pure culture and found that it produced a substance that killed a number of disease-causing bacteria. He identified the mould as being from the genus Penicillium, and, after some months of calling it "mould juice", named the substance it released penicillin on 7 March 1929.[15] The laboratory in which Fleming discovered and tested penicillin is preserved as the Alexander Fleming Laboratory Museum in St. Mary's Hospital, Paddington.
He investigated its positive anti-bacterial effect on many organisms, and noticed that it affected bacteria such as staphylococci and many other Gram-positive pathogens that cause scarlet fever, pneumonia, meningitis and diphtheria, but not typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever, which are caused by Gram-negative bacteria, for which he was seeking a cure at the time. It also affected Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which causes gonorrhoea, although this bacterium is Gram-negative.
Fleming published his discovery in 1929, in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology,[16] but little attention was paid to his article. Fleming continued his investigations, but found that cultivating penicillium was quite difficult, and that after having grown the mould, it was even more difficult to isolate the antibiotic agent. Fleming's impression was that because of the problem of producing it in quantity, and because its action appeared to be rather slow, penicillin would not be important in treating infection. Fleming also became convinced that penicillin would not last long enough in the human body (in vivo) to kill bacteria effectively. Many clinical tests were inconclusive, probably because it had been used as a surface antiseptic. In the 1930s, Fleming's trials occasionally showed more promise,[17] but Fleming largely abandoned penicillin work, leaving Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain at the Radcliffe Infirmary in Oxford to take up research to mass-produce it, with funds from the U.S. and British governments.[18] They started mass production after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. By D-Day in 1944, enough penicillin had been produced to treat all the wounded in the Allied forces.
Purification and stabilisation[edit]
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3D-model of benzylpenicillin.
In Oxford, Ernst Boris Chain and Edward Abraham were studying the molecular structure of the antibiotic. Abraham was the first to propose the correct structure of penicillin.[19][20] Shortly after the team published its first results in 1940, Fleming telephoned Howard Florey, Chain's head of department, to say that he would be visiting within the next few days. When Chain heard that Fleming was coming, he remarked "Good God! I thought he was dead."
Norman Heatley suggested transferring the active ingredient of penicillin back into water by changing its acidity. This produced enough of the drug to begin testing on animals. There were many more people involved in the Oxford team, and at one point the entire Dunn School was involved in its production.
After the team had developed a method of purifying penicillin to an effective first stable form in 1940, several clinical trials ensued, and their amazing success inspired the team to develop methods for mass production and mass distribution in 1945.
Fleming was modest about his part in the development of penicillin, describing his fame as the "Fleming Myth" and he praised Florey and Chain for transforming the laboratory curiosity into a practical drug. Fleming was the first to discover the properties of the active substance, giving him the privilege of naming it: penicillin. He also kept, grew, and distributed the original mould for twelve years, and continued until 1940 to try to get help from any chemist who had enough skill to make penicillin. But Sir Henry Harris said in 1998: "Without Fleming, no Chain; without Chain, no Florey; without Florey, no Heatley; without Heatley, no penicillin."[21]
Antibiotics[edit]
Modern antibiotics are tested using a method similar to Fleming's discovery.
Fleming's accidental discovery and isolation of penicillin in September 1928 marks the start of modern antibiotics. Before that, several scientists had published or pointed out that mould or penicillium sp. were able to inhibit bacterial growth, and even to cure bacterial infections in animals. Ernest Duchesne in 1897 in his thesis "Contribution to the study of vital competition in micro-organisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes",[22] or also Clodomiro Picado Twight whose work at the Institut Pasteur in 1923 on the inhibiting action of fungi of the "Penicillin sp" genre in the growth of staphylococci drew little interest from the directors of the Institut at the time. Fleming was the first to push these studies further by isolating the penicillin, and by being motivated enough to promote his discovery at a larger scale. Fleming also discovered very early that bacteria developed antibiotic resistance whenever too little penicillin was used or when it was used for too short a period. Almroth Wright had predicted antibiotic resistance even before it was noticed during experiments. Fleming cautioned about the use of penicillin in his many speeches around the world. On 26 June 1945, he made the following cautionary statements "... the microbes are educated to resist penicillin and a host of penicillin-fast organisms is bred out... In such cases the thoughtless person playing with penicillin is morally responsible for the death of the man who finally succumbs to infection with the penicillin-resistant organism. I hope this evil can be averted."[23] He cautioned not to use penicillin unless there was a properly diagnosed reason for it to be used, and that if it were used, never to use too little, or for too short a period, since these are the circumstances under which bacterial resistance to antibiotics develops.
Myths[edit]
The popular story[24] of Winston Churchill's father paying for Fleming's education after Fleming's father saved young Winston from death is false. According to the biography, Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution by Kevin Brown, Alexander Fleming, in a letter[25] to his friend and colleague Andre Gratia,[26] described this as "A wondrous fable." Nor did he save Winston Churchill himself during World War II. Churchill was saved by Lord Moran, using sulphonamides, since he had no experience with penicillin, when Churchill fell ill in Carthage in Tunisia in 1943. The Daily Telegraph and The Morning Post on 21 December 1943 wrote that he had been saved by penicillin. He was saved by the new sulphonamide drug Sulphapyridine, known at the time under the research code M&B 693, discovered and produced by May & Baker Ltd, Dagenham, Essex – a subsidiary of the French group Rhône-Poulenc. In a subsequent radio broadcast, Churchill referred to the new drug as "This admirable M&B".[27] It is highly probable that the correct information about the sulphonamide did not reach the newspapers because, since the original sulphonamide antibacterial, Prontosil, had been a discovery by the German laboratory Bayer, and as Britain was at war with Germany at the time, it was thought better to raise British morale by associating Churchill's cure with a British discovery, penicillin.
Awards and honours[edit]
Display of Fleming's awards, including his Nobel Prize. Also shows a sample of penicillin and an example of an early apparatus for preparing it.
Fleming (centre) receiving the Nobel prize from King Gustaf V of Sweden (right) in 1945
Faroe Islands postage stamp commemorating Fleming
Barcelona to Sir Alexander Fleming (1956), by Catalan sculptor Josep Manuel Benedicto. Barcelona: jardins del Doctor Fleming.
Fleming's discovery of penicillin changed the world of modern medicine by introducing the age of useful antibiotics; penicillin has saved, and is still saving, millions of people around the world.[28]
The laboratory at St Mary's Hospital where Fleming discovered penicillin is home to the Fleming Museum, a popular London attraction. His alma mater, St Mary's Hospital Medical School, merged with Imperial College London in 1988. The Sir Alexander Fleming Building on the South Kensington campus was opened in 1998, where his son Robert and his great granddaughter Claire were presented to the Queen; it is now one of the main preclinical teaching sites of the Imperial College School of Medicine.
His other alma mater, the Royal Polytechnic Institution (now the University of Westminster) has named one of its student halls of residence Alexander Fleming House, which is near to Old Street.
Fleming, Florey and Chain jointly received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1945. According to the rules of the Nobel committee a maximum of three people may share the prize. Fleming's Nobel Prize medal was acquired by the National Museums of Scotland in 1989 and is on display after the museum re-opened in 2011.[29]
Fleming was a member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences.[3]
Fleming was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1943.[1]
Fleming was awarded the Hunterian Professorship by the Royal College of Surgeons of England.
Fleming was knighted, as a Knight Bachelor, by king George VI in 1944.[30][31]
He was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Alfonso X the Wise in 1948.
In 1999, Time magazine named Fleming one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century, stating:
It was a discovery that would change the course of history. The active ingredient in that mould, which Fleming named penicillin, turned out to be an infection-fighting agent of enormous potency. When it was finally recognized for what it was, the most efficacious life-saving drug in the world, penicillin would alter forever the treatment of bacterial infections. By the middle of the century, Fleming's discovery had spawned a huge pharmaceutical industry, churning out synthetic penicillins that would conquer some of mankind's most ancient scourges, including syphilis, gangrene and tuberculosis.[32]
When 2000 was approaching, at least three large Swedish magazines ranked penicillin as the most important discovery of the millennium.
In 2002, Fleming was named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a nationwide vote.[33]
A statue of Alexander Fleming stands outside the main bullring in Madrid, Plaza de Toros de Las Ventas.[34] It was erected by subscription from grateful matadors, as penicillin greatly reduced the number of deaths in the bullring.[34]
Flemingovo náměstí is a square named after Fleming in the university area of the Dejvice community in Prague.
A secondary school is named after him in Sofia, Bulgaria.
In Athens, a small square in the downtown district of Votanikos is named after Fleming and bears his bust. There are also a number of Streets in greater Athens and other towns in Greece named after either Fleming or his Greek second wife Amalia.
In mid-2009, Fleming was commemorated on a new series of banknotes issued by the Clydesdale Bank; his image appears on the new issue of £5 notes.[35]
In 2009, Fleming was voted third greatest Scot in an opinion poll conducted by STV, behind only Scotland's national poet Robert Burns and national hero William Wallace.[36]
91006 Fleming, an asteroid in the Asteroid Belt, is named after Fleming.
Personal life[edit]
On 24 December 1915, Fleming married a trained nurse, Sarah Marion McElroy of Killala, County Mayo, Ireland. Their only child, Robert Fleming (1924–2015), became a general medical practitioner. After his first wife's death in 1949, Fleming married Dr. Amalia Koutsouri-Vourekas, a Greek colleague at St. Mary's, on 9 April 1953; she died in 1986.[37]
From 1921 until his death in 1955, Fleming owned a country home in Barton Mills, Suffolk.[38]
Death[edit]
On 11 March 1955, Fleming died at his home in London of a heart attack. He is buried in St Paul's Cathedral.[2]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Colebrook, L. (1956). "Alexander Fleming 1881-1955". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 2: 117–126. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1956.0008. JSTOR 769479.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sir Alexander Fleming – Biography". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 25 October 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Alexander Fleming Biography". Les Prix Nobel. The Nobel Foundation. 1945. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Hugh, TB (2002). "Howard Florey, Alexander Fleming and the fairy tale of penicillin". The Medical Journal of Australia. 177 (1): 52–53; author 53 53. PMID 12436980.
Jump up ^ Cruickshank, Robert (1955). "Sir Alexander Fleming, F.R.S". Nature. 175 (4459): 663. Bibcode:1955Natur.175..663C. doi:10.1038/175663a0.
Jump up ^ McIntyre, N (2007). "Sir Alexander Fleming". Journal of medical biography. 15 (4): 234. doi:10.1258/j.jmb.2007.05-72. PMID 18615899.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mazumdar, PM (1984). "Fleming as Bacteriologist: Alexander Fleming". Science. 225 (4667): 1140–1141. Bibcode:1984Sci...225.1140C. doi:10.1126/science.225.4667.1140. PMID 17782415.
Jump up ^ Brown, Kevin (2004). Penicillin man : Alexander Fleming and the antibiotic revolution. Stroud: Sutton. ISBN 978-0750931526. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Tan, SY; Tatsumura, Y (July 2015). "Alexander Fleming (1881–1955): Discoverer of penicillin". Singapore Medical Journal. 56 (07): 366–367. doi:10.11622/smedj.2015105. PMC 4520913  . PMID 26243971.
Jump up ^ FLEMING, ALEXANDER (September 1917). "THE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND ANTISEPTIC ACTION OF FLAVINE (WITH SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE TESTING OF ANTISEPTICS)". The Lancet. 190 (4905): 341–345. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(01)52126-1.
Jump up ^ Fleming, A (1922). "On a remarkable bacteriolytic element found in tissues and secretions". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 93 (653): 306–317. doi:10.1098/rspb.1922.0023.
Jump up ^ Haven, Kendall F. (1994). Marvels of Science : 50 Fascinating 5-Minute Reads. Littleton, Colo: Libraries Unlimited. p. 182. ISBN 1-56308-159-8.
Jump up ^ Brown, K. (2004). Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution. 320 pp. Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-3152-3.
Jump up ^ Hare, R. The Birth of Penicillin, Allen & Unwin, London, 1970
Jump up ^ Diggins, F. The true history of the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming Biomedical Scientist, March 2003, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, London. (Originally published in the Imperial College School of Medicine Gazette)
Jump up ^ Fleming, A (1980). "On the antibacterial action of cultures of a penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae. (Reprinted from the British Journal of Experimental Pathology 10:226–236, 1929)". Clin Infect Dis. 2 (1): 129–39. doi:10.1093/clinids/2.1.129. PMC 2566493  . PMID 6994200. ; Reprint of "On the Antibacterial Action of Cultures of a Penicillium, with Special Reference to their Use in the Isolation of B. influenzæ". Br J Exp Pathol. 10 (3): 226–236. 929. PMC 2048009  .
Jump up ^ Rossiter, Peter (10 September 2010). "Keith Bernard Rogers". BMJ. 331 (7516): 579. doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7516.579-c. PMC 1200632  . Keith was probably the first patient to be treated clinically with the mould juice.
Jump up ^ Bickel, L. Florey : The Man Who Made Penicillin, Sun Books, Melbourne, 1972. https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/21266280
Jump up ^ in October 1943 Abraham proposed a molecular structure which included a cyclic formation containing three carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom, the β-lactam ring, not then known in natural products. This structure was not immediately published due to the restrictions of wartime secrecy, and was initially strongly disputed, by Sir Robert Robinson among others, but it was finally confirmed in 1945 by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin using X-ray analysis." Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; "Abraham, Sir Edward Penley"
Jump up ^ Lowe, Gordon (13 May 1999). "Obituary: Sir Edward Abraham". The Independent. London.
Jump up ^ Henry Harris, Howard Florey and the development of penicillin, a lecture given on 29 September 1998, at the Florey Centenary, 1898–1998, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, Oxford University (sound recording) [1]
Jump up ^ Duchesne 1897, Antagonism between molds and bacteria. An English translation by Michael Witty. Fort Myers, 2013. ASIN B00E0KRZ0E and B00DZVXPIK.
Jump up ^ Infection Control And Hospital Epidemiology. (April 2012). Policy Statement on Antimicrobial Stewardship by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA), the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), and the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (PIDS). Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/48207C6BE27AB8C26F17672EF25F5808/S0195941700041175a.pdf/div-class-title-policy-statement-on-antimicrobial-stewardship-by-the-society-for-healthcare-epidemiology-of-america-shea-the-infectious-diseases-society-of-america-idsa-and-the-pediatric-infectious-diseases-society-pids-div.pdf
Jump up ^ e.g., The Philadelphia Inquirer, 17 July 1945: Brown, Penicillin Man, note 43 to Chapter 2
Jump up ^ 14 November 1945; British Library Additional Manuscripts 56115: Brown, Penicillin Man, note 44 to Chapter 2
Jump up ^ see Wikipedia Discovery of penicillin article entry for 1920
Jump up ^ A History of May & Baker 1834–1984, Alden Press 1984.
Jump up ^ Roberts, Michael; Ingram, Neil (2001). Biology (2, illustrated ed.). Nelson Thornes. p. 105. ISBN 0-7487-6238-8. Retrieved 4 March 2012. Penicillin is just one of a very large number of drugs which today are used by doctors to treat people with diseases.
Jump up ^ "100,000 visitors in 6 days". National Museums Scotland. 3 August 2011. Archived from the original on 23 February 2012. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "No. 36544". The London Gazette (Supplement). 2 June 1944. p. 2566.
Jump up ^ "People of the century". P. 78. CBS News. Simon & Schuster, 1999
Jump up ^ "Alexander Fleming – Time 100 People of the Century". Time. 29 March 1999.
Jump up ^ "BBC – Great Britons – Top 100". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on 4 December 2002. Retrieved 19 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Edward Lewine (2007). "Death and the Sun: A Matador's Season in the Heart of Spain". p. 123. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2007
Jump up ^ "Banknote designs mark Homecoming". BBC News. 14 January 2008. Archived from the original on 25 January 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "Robert Burns voted Greatest Scot". STV Group. 30 November 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Biographical Index of Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002 (PDF). The Royal Society of Edinburgh. July 2006. ISBN 0 902 198 84 X.
Jump up ^ BartonMills.net local history. Retrieved 17 October 2016.
Further reading[edit]
The Life Of Sir Alexander Fleming, Jonathan Cape, 1959. Maurois, André.
Nobel Lectures, the Physiology or Medicine 1942–1962, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1964
An Outline History of Medicine. London: Butterworths, 1985. Rhodes, Philip.
The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Porter, Roy, ed.
Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution, Stroud, Sutton, 2004. Brown, Kevin.
Alexander Fleming: The Man and the Myth, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984. Macfarlane, Gwyn
Fleming, Discoverer of Penicillin, Ludovici, Laurence J., 1952
The Penicillin Man: the Story of Sir Alexander Fleming, Lutterworth Press, 1957, Rowland, John.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Alexander Fleming
Media related to Alexander Fleming at Wikimedia Commons
Alexander Fleming Obituary
Alexander Fleming Biography
Time, 29 March 1999, Bacteriologist Alexander Fleming
Some places and memories related to Alexander Fleming
Academic offices
Preceded by
Alastair Sim Rector of the University of Edinburgh
1951–1954 Succeeded by
Sydney Smith
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Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
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1902 Ronald Ross
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1906 Camillo Golgi / Santiago Ramón y Cajal
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1957 Daniel Bovet
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1961 Georg von Békésy
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1964 Konrad Bloch / Feodor Lynen
1965 François Jacob / André Lwoff / Jacques Monod
1966 Francis Rous / Charles B. Huggins
1967 Ragnar Granit / Haldan Hartline / George Wald
1968 Robert W. Holley / Har Khorana / Marshall Nirenberg
1969 Max Delbrück / Alfred Hershey / Salvador Luria
1970 Bernard Katz / Ulf von Euler / Julius Axelrod
1971 Earl Sutherland Jr.
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1979 Allan Cormack / Godfrey Hounsfield
1980 Baruj Benacerraf / Jean Dausset / George Snell
1981 Roger Sperry / David H. Hubel / Torsten Wiesel
1982 Sune Bergström / Bengt I. Samuelsson / John Vane
1983 Barbara McClintock
1984 Niels Jerne / Georges Köhler / César Milstein
1985 Michael Brown / Joseph L. Goldstein
1986 Stanley Cohen / Rita Levi-Montalcini
1987 Susumu Tonegawa
1988 James W. Black / Gertrude B. Elion / George H. Hitchings
1989 J. Michael Bishop / Harold E. Varmus
1990 Joseph Murray / E. Donnall Thomas
1991 Erwin Neher / Bert Sakmann
1992 Edmond Fischer / Edwin G. Krebs
1993 Richard J. Roberts / Phillip Sharp
1994 Alfred G. Gilman / Martin Rodbell
1995 Edward B. Lewis / Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard / Eric F. Wieschaus
1996 Peter C. Doherty / Rolf M. Zinkernagel
1997 Stanley B. Prusiner
1998 Robert F. Furchgott / Louis Ignarro / Ferid Murad
1999 Günter Blobel
2000 Arvid Carlsson / Paul Greengard / Eric Kandel
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2001 Leland H. Hartwell / Tim Hunt / Paul Nurse
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2010 Robert G. Edwards
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2012 John B. Gurdon / Shinya Yamanaka
2013 James Rothman / Randy Schekman / Thomas C. Südhof
2014 John O'Keefe / May-Britt Moser / Edvard Moser
2015 William C. Campbell / Satoshi Ōmura / Tu Youyou
2016 Yoshinori Ohsumi
2017 Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash, Michael W. Young
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Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1943
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Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar
Ivan De Burgh Daly
Patrick Alfred Buxton
John Augustine Edgell
Arthur James Ewins
Arthur Felix
Alexander Fleming
John Jacob Fox
William Michael Herbert Greaves
Sydney Harland
George Armand Robert Kon
Andrew McCance
Wilder Penfield
Guy Ellcock Pilgrim
Reginald Stradling
Charles Sykes
John Lighton Synge
George Frederick James Temple
Alexander du Toit
Solly Zuckerman
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Victor Goldschmidt
Bernardo Houssay
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Infectious disease and microbiology
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WorldCat Identities
BNE: XX876430
BNF: cb123502654 (data)
BPN: 37623969
GND: 118533894
ISNI: 0000 0001 0912 2782
LCCN: n83228021
NDL: 00620666
SELIBR: 187011
SNAC: w6cz3kdf
SUDOC: 032480784
VIAF: 69004123
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&oldid=854551867"
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High school diploma
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
High school diploma awarded to the Romanian writer Mihail Sorbul
A high school diploma is a North American academic school leaving qualification awarded upon high school graduation. The high school diploma is typically studied for over the course of four years, from Grade 9 to Grade 12. The diploma is typically awarded by the school in accordance with the requirements of the local state or provincial government. Requirements for earning the diploma vary by jurisdiction, and there may be different requirements for different streams or levels of high school graduation. Typically they include a combination of selected coursework meeting specified criteria for a particular stream and acceptable passing grades earned on the state exit examination.
Contents
[hide]
1 Diplomas in specific jurisdictions
1.1 Canada
1.1.1 British Columbia
1.1.2 Ontario
1.1.3 Quebec
1.1.4 Saskatchewan
1.2 United States
1.2.1 Alabama
1.2.2 California
1.2.3 Illinois
1.2.4 New York
1.2.5 Texas
2 Alternatives
2.1 General Education Development (GED)
2.2 IB Diploma Programme
2.3 British qualifications
2.3.1 International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE)
2.3.2 Cambridge Advanced International Certificate of Education (AICE) Diploma
2.3.3 Edexcel International Diploma (ID)
2.4 French qualifications
2.4.1 Baccalauréat (Bac)
2.4.2 Baccalauréat Franco Américain (BFA)
3 Recognition
3.1 United Kingdom
3.2 United States and Canada
4 See also
5 References
Diplomas in specific jurisdictions[edit]
Canada[edit]
British Columbia[edit]
In British Columbia, the diploma is known as the British Columbia Certificate of Graduation. The province of BC has two distinct graduation programs: the BC Certificate of Graduation (Dogwood Diploma) and the BC Adult Graduation Diploma (Adult Dogwood). Students also have the opportunity to meet their educational goals (other than graduation) through the BC School Completion Certificate (Evergreen Certificate).
The current Dogwood requirements have been in place since July 1, 2004.[1] Under current regulations, students must earn a minimum of 80 credits to graduate, which must include 48 credits for required courses, a minimum of 28 elective credits, and 4 credits for "graduation transitions", a standards-based assessment evaluated by schools under BC Ministry of Education guidelines.[1] Required courses include, among other things, language arts, social studies, mathematics, and science courses in grades 10, 11, and 12. Part of the evaluation of students includes standardized provincial examinations in a number of the required courses in grades 10 and 12. As part of the 80 credits for the Dogwood, 16 credits must be at the Grade 12 level, and must include English 12 or Communications 12.
Ontario[edit]
Main article: Ontario Secondary School Diploma
In Ontario, the high school diploma is known as the Ontario Secondary School Diploma. The diploma is awarded to all students who complete the Ontario educational curriculum. The requirements for the diploma include compulsory credits in English or French, Mathematics, Science, Canadian History, Canadian Geography, Arts, Health and Physical Education, and a second language; compulsory half credits in Career Studies and Civics; one credit each from three elective groups; 12 optional credits, 4 of which may be obtained through dual-credit classes; 40 hours of community service; and the Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test. Those who leave school after completing 14 credits but prior to obtaining the diploma can obtain the Ontario Secondary School Certificate.
Quebec[edit]
Quebec issued the D.E.S. (French: diplôme des études secondaires), formerly Quebec Certificate of Education (and sometimes were known Quebec HS Secondary Certificate and Québécois baccalaureat) before it changed into HS Diploma/Diplôme D.E.S. at the end of secondary V (grade 11), for graduation from secondary school (high school), a five-year school spanning secondary I (grade 7) to secondary V (grade 11).
Saskatchewan[edit]
To earn a high school diploma, Saskatchewan students are required to earn a total of 24 credits from grades 10 to 12. For a regular English program diploma, they must earn 5 credits in English Language Arts, 3 credits in Social Studies, 2 credits in mathematics, 2 credits in science, 1 credit in Physical Education/Health Education, 2 credits in Arts Education/Practical and Applied Arts, and 9 elective credits.
United States[edit]
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A United States high school diploma usually refers to the satisfactory completion of grade schooling including kindergarten through the 12th grade and is then issued by the school district and the high school after a student's graduation.
Alabama[edit]
In Alabama, all students are required to earn 24 credits. The required credits are: English (4 credits), Math (4 credits), Science (4 credits), History (4 credits), PE/JROTC (1 credit), Health (0.5 credits), Career Prep (1 credit), CTE/arts education/Foreign language (3 credits), and Electives (2.5 credits).
County schools offer Honors, and AP classes.
California[edit]
In California, students are required to take, and successfully complete the following minimum requirements to earn a high school diploma: 3 years of English, 2 years of Math including Algebra I, 3 years of History/Social Studies including one year of U.S. history and geography; one year of world history, culture, and geography; one semester of American government and civics, and one semester of economics, 2 years of science including biological and physical sciences, 1 year of either visual and performing arts, foreign language, or career technical education, 2 years of Physical Education, and Beginning in 2005–06, all students must pass the California High School Exit Examination prior to graduation, which is normally first administered in the 10th grade. Most schools' individual graduation requirements far outweigh the state's minimum standards. The California exit exam was suspended until 2018.
This information is taken from the California Department of Education.[2]
Illinois[edit]
In Illinois, students are required to take English, mathematics, science, social science, world language, fine arts, physical education, and elective classes meeting selected criteria as part of the program of study for the High School Diploma. Electives may include advanced courses, career and technical education (CTE), Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps (JROTC), dual-enrollment, or additional classes in the required subjects that meet school board requirements. Driver's Education is required for all students.[3][4] An additional requirement is a passing grade on the Prairie State Achievement Examination which is typically taken in Grade 11.[5]
Accommodations are made for select students with unique needs. English Language Learner (ELL) students may substitute English as a Second Language for English to meet the graduation requirements. Students receiving special education services may complete modified requirements according to an Individualized Education Plan (IEP).
New York[edit]
In New York State, the high school diploma awarded is known as the Regents Diploma, which is earned upon successful completion of the Regents Exams in the required subjects.[6] Two levels are offered: the standard Regents Diploma and the Regents Diploma with Advanced Designation.[6] Both diplomas require 22 credits, including 4 credits in English, 4 credits in Social Studies, 3 credits in Math, 3 credits in Science, 0.5 credits in Health, 1 credit in Art or Music, and 2 credits in Physical Education; the Regents Diploma requires 1 credit of Secondary Language and 3.5 credits in Sequence Courses or Electives, while the Regents Diploma with Advanced Designation requires 3 credits of Secondary Language and 1.5 credits in Sequence Courses or Electives.[6]
The subjects for which passing grades on the Regents Exams are required for the Regents Diploma include Comprehensive English, any one Mathematics, Global History, US History, any one Science, and Language Other Than English (LOTE).[6] The subjects for which passing grades on the Regents Exams are required for the Regents Diploma with Advanced Designation are Comprehensive English, all three Mathematics, Global History, US History, one physical Science, one life Science, and Language Other Than English (LOTE).[6] A passing score is 65 in each subject; the "With Honors" designation is added if the average score in all required exams is 90 or greater.[6] A "Technical Endorsement" is given to students enrolled in a Career and Technical Education (CTE) program who additionally complete an approved technical assessment, a work-based learning experience, and a work-skills employability profile. You are also able to receive a Mastery in Mathematics and Mastery in Science designation on your diploma alongside others.
The New York State Regents Diploma, with or without advanced designation, honors, or mastery, is the most heavily weighed and usually most influential high school diploma offered in the country. A Regents diploma is often referred to as the most difficult and challenging diploma to obtain. The highest level of a New York State Regents diploma is a: New York State Regents diploma with Honors, Advanced Designation, Mastery of Science, Mastery of Mathematics, with a Technical Endorsement. [6]
Texas[edit]
In Texas, there are three programs offered for graduation: the Minimum High School Program (MHSP), the Recommended High School Program (RHSP), and the Advanced (Distinguished) High School Program (AHSP/DHSP).[7] The Recommended and Distinguished programs are the streams typically chosen by most students, and are expected of students who are college-bound. Also required for graduation is successful completion with passing grades on the Exit Level examination of the State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness (STAAR), which is typically taken in Grade 11. Multiple re-sits for the exam are available, in case of failure on a previous attempt.
Students in the Recommended and Distinguished programs must take four years of English, mathematics, science, and social studies classes as part of their program of study.[8] Students in the Distinguished program must also take a minimum amount of advanced-level coursework, which could include Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate classes or university classes taken as dual-enrollment. Students in the Minimum program have less stringent requirements to complete their diploma than students in the other diploma programs.
By Texas state law, completion of the Recommended or Distinguished programs or a program with an equivalent curriculum and level of rigor, along with suitable scores on the SAT or the ACT, is required for a student to be eligible to be considered for admission to a four-year public institution of higher education in Texas.[9]
Alternatives[edit]
General Education Development (GED)[edit]
Main article: General Education Development
The General Education Development (GED) credential is offered as an alternative qualification for those who did not successfully earn a high school diploma. Examination involves taking and passing tests in five subjects: Reading, Writing, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies. A Certificate of High School Equivalency is generally offered to those who successfully complete the GED. While the GED itself may not necessarily enable the same higher education and employment opportunities as the high school diploma, the GED can enhance employability prospects for former high school dropouts, and progression is available to tertiary study at select higher education institutions.
IB Diploma Programme[edit]
Main article: IB Diploma Programme
IB World Schools may offer the IB Diploma[10] in lieu of or alongside a traditional high school diploma. The IB Diploma is an academically rigorous program of study. The program of study for the IB Diploma includes subjects chosen from five subject groups: Studies in Language and Literature, Language Acquisition, Individuals and Societies, Sciences, Mathematics, and the Arts.[10][11] Three subjects are taken at Higher Level, and three are taken at Standard Level.[10][11] Also included is the Diploma Programme Core, which is composed of Extended Essay; Theory of Knowledge; and Creativity, Action, and Service (CAS) components.[10][11] The IB Diploma is an internationally recognized academic school-leaving qualification that provides entry to, and in some cases, advanced standing in, university. International Baccalaureate (IB) exams are typically considered equivalent to Advanced Placement (AP) exams and are at an academic level above the high school diploma, and thus university credit may be awarded for successful completion of IB subjects by American and Canadian universities as well as Universities around the World.
British qualifications[edit]
International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE)[edit]
Main article: International General Certificate of Secondary Education
International schools following the British Curriculum of education may offer the International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) qualification, which is considered to be at the same level, in lieu of or alongside a traditional high school diploma. The IGCSE is the international counterpart to the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) qualification, taken by secondary school students at Key Stage 4 in the United Kingdom. Edexcel and Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) are examination boards which offer the IGCSE qualification worldwide.
Students generally take five to ten subjects, according to their desired program of study and the offerings available at their school; an IGCSE with eight subjects at grades A*-C is considered equivalent to the full high school diploma. Unlike the high school diploma, which is typically studied for in years 9-12 and awarded in year 12, the IGCSE is typically awarded at year 11, after which the A Levels are studied for and awarded.
Cambridge Advanced International Certificate of Education (AICE) Diploma[edit]
Main article: Advanced International Certificate of Education
Following successful completion of the GCSE or IGCSE, international schools following the British Curriculum may offer the Cambridge Advanced International Certificate of Education (AICE) Diploma, developed by the Cambridge International Examinations board.[12] As part of the Cambridge AICE Diploma program, students take a combination of Cambridge International AS Level and A Level subjects, administered by Cambridge International Examinations with at least one subject taken in each of three subject areas: Mathematics and Science, Languages, and Arts and Humanities; subjects from a fourth subject group, Global Perspecties, may also be chosen.[12] Six credits must be earned to achieve the Diploma; an AS Level counts as a full (single) credit, and an A Level counts as a double credit.[12] The Cambridge AICE Diploma would typically be completed by the final year of high school. AS and A Levels are at a higher academic level than the high school diploma, and thus university credit may be awarded for A Levels completed as part of the Cambridge AICE Diploma by American and Canadian Universities.
Edexcel International Diploma (ID)[edit]
As an alternative to the Cambridge AICE Diploma, international schools following the British Curriculum may offer the Edexcel International Diploma (ID), in lieu of or alongside the traditional high school diploma, following successful completion of the GCSE or IGCSE.[13] The International Diploma requires successful completion of three Edexcel A Levels or three BTEC Level 3 Extended Diplomas, along with a Level 3 Extended Project (EPQ), a BTEC Level 3 WorkSkills Plus Certificate, and an Edexcel AS Level in General Studies.[13] This qualification thus allows for a blended mix of academic studies and vocational training, to prepare students for higher education as well as the workplace.[13] The Edexcel International Diploma would typically be completed by the final year of high school. AS and A Levels are at a higher academic level than the high school diploma, and thus university credit may be awarded for A Levels completed as part of the International Diploma by American and Canadian universities .
French qualifications[edit]
Baccalauréat (Bac)[edit]
Main article: Baccalauréat
International schools following the French Curriculum of education may offer the Baccalauréat (Le Bac) in lieu of or alongside a traditional high school diploma. The Baccalauréat is the traditional school-leaving qualification of French schools. The Baccalauréat is offered in several streams; subjects chosen for the Baccalauréat depend on the stream chosen by the student.
Baccalauréat Franco Américain (BFA)[edit]
Accredited French international schools in the United States may also offer the Baccalauréat Franco Américain (French American Baccalauréat), as an alternative to the traditional Baccalauréat, in lieu of or alongside a traditional high school diploma.[14][15] The French American Baccalauréat is offered as a joint initiative of the College Board and the French Ministry of Education.[14][15] The curriculum includes Advanced Placement (AP) subjects and French classes; in lieu of three French classes, students take three corresponding AP classes in the première (year 11) and terminale (year 12) years of high school.[14][15] AP exams are taken in May of year 11 or year 12, and French Baccalauréat exams are taken according to the normal academic calendar.[14][15] Students may elect to take the Baccalauréat Franco Américain in the Literature (L), Economics (ES), and Science (S) courses of study.[14][15]
Recognition[edit]
United Kingdom[edit]
In England and Wales, the high school diploma is considered to be at the level of the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), which is awarded at Year 11.[16][17] For college and university admissions, the high school diploma may be accepted in lieu of the GCSE if an average grade of C is obtained in subjects with a GCSE counterpart.[16]
As the more academically rigorous A Levels awarded at Year 13 are expected for university admission, the high school diploma alone is generally not considered to meet university requirements. Students who wish to study in the United Kingdom may additionally participate in the Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) programs, which are considered to be at the level of the A Level qualifications and earn points on the UCAS Tariff,[16][18] or may opt to take A Level examinations in British international schools or as private candidates. College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) tests, such as the SAT, SAT Subject Tests, or the ACT, may also be considered.
The Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) recommends that in addition to a high school diploma, grades of 3 or above in at least two, or ideally three, Advanced Placement exams may be considered as meeting general entry requirements for admission.[16] The IB Diploma may also be accepted. For the College Entrance Examination Board tests, a minimum score of 600 or higher in all sections of the SAT or a minimum score of 26 or higher in all sections of the ACT along with a minimum score of 600 in relevant SAT Subject Tests may be considered as meeting general entry requirements for admission.[16]
United States and Canada[edit]
Within the United States and Canada, there is universal recognition of all officially awarded high school diplomas earned in any jurisdiction. Employers, colleges, and universities generally do not distinguish between high school diplomas based on the jurisdiction of awarding, and consider all high school diplomas of the same level to be equivalent. However, where differences in curriculum requirements or levels of academic rigor are made between diplomas issued in a particular jurisdiction, distinctions may be made. Specific requirements for the curriculum content and the level of academic rigor needed for acceptance may be made by those who request a high school diploma.
See also[edit]
Secondary education in Canada
Secondary education in the United States
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b British Columbia Graduation Requirements
Jump up ^ "California Department of Education Graduation Requirements".
Jump up ^ "Illinois State Board of Education State Graduation Requirements" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "2013-2014 High School Graduation Requirements" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-09.
Jump up ^ "Student Assessment Prairie State Achievement Examination (PSAE)". Archived from the original on 2014-03-01.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Regents Requirements".
Jump up ^ "State Graduation Requirements".
Jump up ^ "Varied requirements mean Texas' high school diplomas aren't one-size-fits-all".
Jump up ^ "Texas Recommended and Distinguished Program".
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The IB Diploma Programme".
^ Jump up to: a b c "Diploma Programme curriculum framework".
^ Jump up to: a b c "Cambridge AICE Diploma Qualification".
^ Jump up to: a b c "Edexcel International Diploma Structure and components".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "French American BAC".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Le Baccalauréat Franco-Américain".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "International Qualifications for entry into ±college or university in 2013" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Info for US Families". Chavegnes International College.
Jump up ^ "UCAS Tariff Tables".
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