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Now That's What I Call Music! 80 (UK series)
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Now That's What I Call Music! 80
Compilation album
Released
21 November 2011
Length
2:37:36
Label
Sony Music Entertainment UK, EMI, Virgin, Universal, WEA
Now! UK series chronology
Now That's What I Call Music! 79
(2011)Now That's What I Call Music! 792011 Now That's What I Call Music! 80
(2011) Now That's What I Call Music! 81
(2012)Now That's What I Call Music! 812012
Now That's What I Call Music! 80 or Now! 80 is a double-disc compilation album released in the United Kingdom on 21 November 2011.[1] It is the 80th edition of the UK Now! series. Now 80 peaked at number one on the UK Compilations Chart[2] and went 5x Platinum.[3]
Contents
1 Track listing
2 Charts
3 References
4 External links
Track listing[edit]
CD 1
No.
Title
Artist(s)
Length
1. "Moves like Jagger" Maroon 5 featuring Christina Aguilera 3:22
2. "We Found Love" Rihanna featuring Calvin Harris 3:53
3. "What Makes You Beautiful" One Direction 3:22
4. "Marry You" Bruno Mars 3:50
5. "Take a Chance on Me" JLS 3:36
6. "Jar of Hearts" Christina Perri 3:34
7. "Mr. Know It All" Kelly Clarkson 3:52
8. "Heart Skips a Beat" Olly Murs featuring Rizzle Kicks 3:22
9. "Lightning" The Wanted 3:24
10. "All About Tonight" Pixie Lott 3:08
11. "All Fired Up" The Saturdays 3:12
12. "The Edge of Glory" Lady Gaga 5:20
13. "Jealousy" Will Young 3:13
14. "I Won't Let You Go" James Morrison 3:42
15. "You Need Me, I Don't Need You" Ed Sheeran 3:04
16. "Cannonball" Damien Rice 3:27
17. "Video Games" Lana Del Rey 4:01
18. "Wherever You Will Go" Charlene Soraia 3:18
19. "Iris" Goo Goo Dolls 4:50
20. "Run for Your Life" Matt Cardle 4:04
21. "Lighthouse" Westlife 4:26
Total length: 1:18:56
CD 2
No.
Title
Artist(s)
Length
1. "Set Fire to the Rain" Adele 4:02
2. "Read All About It" Professor Green featuring Emeli Sandé 3:54
3. "Stereo Hearts" Gym Class Heroes featuring Adam Levine of Maroon 5 3:32
4. "Earthquake" Labrinth featuring Tinie Tempah 3:35
5. "It Girl" Jason Derulo 3:12
6. "No Regrets" Dappy 3:50
7. "Without You" David Guetta featuring Usher 3:28
8. "Feel So Close" Calvin Harris 3:24
9. "Collide" Leona Lewis & Avicii 3:59
10. "Stay Awake" Example 3:25
11. "Party All Night (Sleep All Day)" Sean Kingston 3:43
12. "Off the Record" Tinchy Stryder featuring Calvin Harris & BURNS 3:30
13. "Loca People" Sak Noel 2:14
14. "Down with the Trumpets" Rizzle Kicks 3:08
15. "With Ur Love" Cher Lloyd featuring Mike Posner 3:46
16. "Who's Laughing Now" Jessie J 3:10
17. "Cheers (Drink to That)" Rihanna 4:21
18. "Got 2 Luv U" Sean Paul featuring Alexis Jordan 3:25
19. "Heaven" Emeli Sandé 3:42
20. "I Need" Maverick Sabre 3:38
21. "Don't Go" Wretch 32 featuring Josh Kumra 3:55
22. "Teardrop" The Collective 3:46
Total length: 1:18:40
Charts[edit]
Chart (2011)
Peak
position
UK Compilations Chart[4] 1
UK Download Albums Chart[5] 1
References[edit]
Jump up ^ NOW That's What I Call Music! 80
Jump up ^ Official Compilations Chart - 27 November 2011
Jump up ^ Now 80 certifications
Jump up ^ "Archive Chart (Compilations Archive)". The Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Archive Chart (Album Download Archive)". The Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
External links[edit]
Official site
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Introduced species
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
"Alien species" redirects here. For life on planets other than Earth, see Extraterrestrial life.
Cattle Bos primigenius taurus introduced worldwide
Sweet clover (Melilotus sp.), introduced and naturalized to the Americas from Europe as a forage and cover crop.
An introduced species (alien species, exotic species, non-indigenous species, or non-native species) is a species living outside its native distributional range, which has arrived there by human activity, either deliberate or accidental. Non-native species can have various effects on the local ecosystem. Introduced species that become established and spread beyond the place of introduction are called invasive species. The impact of introduced species is highly variable. Some have a negative effect on a local ecosystem, while other introduced species may have no negative effect or only minor impact. Some species have been introduced intentionally to combat pests. They are called biocontrols and may be regarded as beneficial as an alternative to pesticides in agriculture for example. In some instances the potential for being beneficial or detrimental in the long run remains unknown.[1]
The effects of introduced species on natural environments have gained much scrutiny from scientists, governments, farmers and others.
Contents
1 Terminology: introduced species and subsets
1.1 Invasive species
2 Nature of introductions
2.1 Intentional introductions
2.1.1 Motivations for intentional introductions
2.1.2 Human enjoyment
2.1.3 Addressing environmental problems
2.2 Unintentional introductions
3 Introduced plants
4 Introduced animals
4.1 Most commonly introduced species
5 Genetics
6 On a planetary body
7 See also
8 Notes
9 External links
Terminology: introduced species and subsets[edit]
Life timeline
view • discuss • edit
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Axis scale: million years

Also see: Human timeline and Nature timeline
The formal definition of an introduced species, from the United States Environmental Protection Agency, is A species that has been intentionally or inadvertently brought into a region or area. Also called an exotic or non-native species.[2]
There are many terms associated with introduced species that represent subsets of introduced species, and the terminology associated with introduced species is now in flux for various reasons. Examples of these terms are acclimatized, adventive, naturalized, and immigrant species but those terms refer to a subset of introduced species. The term "invasive" is used to describe introduced species when the introduced species causes substantial damage to the area in which it was introduced.
Subset descriptions:
Acclimatized species: Introduced species that have changed physically and/or behaviorally in order to adjust to their new environment. Acclimatized species are not necessarily optimally adjusted to their new environment and may just be physically/behaviorally sufficient for the new environment.
Adventive species
Naturalized species (plants): A naturalized plant species refers to a non-native plant that does not need human help to reproduce and maintain its population in an area that it is not native to.
General description of introduced species:
In the broadest and most widely used sense, an introduced species is synonymous with non-native and therefore applies as well to most garden and farm organisms; these adequately fit the basic definition given above. However, some sources add to that basic definition "and are now reproducing in the wild",[3] which removes from consideration as introduced species that were raised or grown in gardens or farms that do not survive without tending by people. With respect to plants, these latter are in this case defined as either ornamental or cultivated plants.
Invasive species[edit]
Introduction of a species outside its native range is all that is required to be qualified as an "introduced species" such that one can distinguish between introduced species that may not occur except in cultivation, under domestication or captivity whereas others become established outside their native range and reproduce without human assistance. Such species might be termed "naturalized", "established", "wild non-native species". If they further spread beyond the place of introduction and cause damage to nearby species, they are called "invasive". The transition from introduction, to establishment and to invasion has been described in the context of plants.[4] Introduced species are essentially "non-native" species. Invasive species are those introduced species that spreadwidely or quickly and cause harm, be that to the environment,[5] human health, other valued resources or the economy. There have been calls from scientists to consider a species "invasive" only in terms of their spread and reproduction rather than the harm they may cause.[6]
According to a practical definition, an invasive species is one that has been introduced and become a pest in its new location, spreading (invading) by natural means. The term is used to imply both a sense of urgency and actual or potential harm. For example, U.S. Executive Order 13112 (1999) defines "invasive species" as "an alien species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health".[7] The biological definition of invasive species, on the other hand, makes no reference to the harm they may cause, only to the fact that they spread beyond the area of original introduction.
Although some argue that "invasive" is a loaded word and harm is difficult to define,[3] the fact of the matter is that organisms have and continue to be introduced to areas in which they are not native, sometimes with but usually without much regard to the harm that could result.
From a regulatory perspective, it is neither desirable nor practical to list as undesirable or outright ban all non-native species (although the State of Hawaii has adopted an approach that comes close to this). Regulations require a definitional distinction between non-natives that are deemed especially onerous and all others. Introduced pest species that are officially listed as invasive, best fit the definition of an invasive species. Early detection and rapid response is the most effective strategy for regulating a pest species and reducing economic and environmental impacts of an introduction [8]
In Great Britain, the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 prevents the introduction of any animal not naturally occurring in the wild or any of a list of both animals or plants introduced previously and proved to be invasive.
Nature of introductions[edit]
By definition, a species is considered "introduced" when its transport into an area outside of its native range is human mediated. Introductions by humans can be described as either intentional or accidental. Intentional introductions have been motivated by individuals or groups who either (1) believe that the newly introduced species will be in some way beneficial to humans in its new location or, (2) species are introduced intentionally but with no regard to the potential impact. Unintentional or accidental introductions are most often a byproduct of human movements, and are thus unbound to human motivations. Subsequent range expansion of introduced species may or may not involve human activity.
Wheat Triticum introduced worldwide from its place of origin Mesopotamia.
Intentional introductions[edit]
Species that humans intentionally transport to new regions can subsequently become successfully established in two ways. In the first case, organisms are purposely released for establishment in the wild. It is sometimes difficult to predict whether a species will become established upon release, and if not initially successful, humans have made repeated introductions to improve the probability that the species will survive and eventually reproduce in the wild. In these cases it is clear that the introduction is directly facilitated by human desires.
Male Lophura nycthemera (silver pheasant), a native of East Asia that has been introduced into parts of Europe for ornamental reasons.
In the second case, species intentionally transported into a new region may escape from captive or cultivated populations and subsequently establish independent breeding populations. Escaped organisms are included in this category because their initial transport to a new region is human motivated.
Motivations for intentional introductions[edit]
Economic: Perhaps the most common motivation for introducing a species into a new place is that of economic gain. Non-native species can become such a common part of an environment, culture, and even diet that little thought is given to their geographic origin. For example, soybeans, kiwi fruit, wheat, honey bees, and all livestock except the American bison and the turkey are non-native species to North America. Collectively, non-native crops and livestock comprise 98% of US food.[9] These and other benefits from non-natives are so vast that, according to the Congressional Research Service, they probably exceed the costs.[10]
Other examples of species introduced for the purposes of benefiting agriculture, aquaculture or other economic activities are widespread.[11] Eurasian carp was first introduced to the United States as a potential food source. The apple snail was released in Southeast Asia with the intent that it be used as a protein source, and subsequently to places like Hawaii to establish a food industry. In Alaska, foxes were introduced to many islands to create new populations for the fur trade. About twenty species of African and European dung beetles have established themselves in Australia after deliberate introduction by the Australian Dung Beetle Project in an effort to reduce the impact of livestock manure. The timber industry promoted the introduction of Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) from California to Australia and New Zealand as a commercial timber crop. These examples represent only a small subsample of species that have been moved by humans for economic interests.
The rise in the use of genetically modified organisms has added another potential economic advantage to introducing new/modified species into different environments. Companies such as Monsanto that earn much of their profit through the selling of genetically modified seeds has added to the controversy surrounding introduced species. The effect of genetically modified organisms varies from organism to organism and is still being researched today, however the rise of genetically modified organisms has added complexity to the conversations surrounding introduced species.
Human enjoyment[edit]
Introductions have also been important in supporting recreation activities or otherwise increasing human enjoyment. Numerous fish and game animals have been introduced for the purposes of sport fishing and hunting (earthworms as invasive species). The introduced amphibian (Ambystoma tigrinum) that threatens the endemic California salamander (Ambystoma californiense) was introduced to California as a source of bait for fishermen.[12] Pet animals have also been frequently transported into new areas by humans, and their escapes have resulted in several successful introductions, such as those of feral cats and parrots.
Many plants have been introduced with the intent of aesthetically improving public recreation areas or private properties. The introduced Norway maple for example occupies a prominent status in many of Canada's parks.[13] The transport of ornamental plants for landscaping use has and continues to be a source of many introductions. Some of these species have escaped horticultural control and become invasive. Notable examples include water hyacinth, salt cedar, and purple loosestrife
In other cases, species have been translocated for reasons of "cultural nostalgia," which refers to instances in which humans who have migrated to new regions have intentionally brought with them familiar organisms. Famous examples include the introduction of starlings to North America by Englishman Eugene Schieffelin, a lover of the works of Shakespeare and the chairman of the American Acclimatization Society, who, it is rumoured, wanted to introduce all of the birds mentioned in Shakespeare's plays into the United States. He deliberately released eighty starlings into Central Park in New York City in 1890, and another forty in 1891.
Yet another prominent example of an introduced species that became invasive is the European rabbit in Australia. Thomas Austin, a British landowner had rabbits released on his estate in Victoria because he missed hunting them. A more recent example is the introduction of the common wall lizard to North America by a Cincinnati boy, George Rau, around 1950 after a family vacation to Italy.[14]
Addressing environmental problems[edit]
Intentional introductions have also been undertaken with the aim of ameliorating environmental problems. A number of fast spreading plants such as kudzu have been introduced as a means of erosion control. Other species have been introduced as biological control agents to control invasive species and involves the purposeful introduction of a natural enemy of the target species with the intention of reducing its numbers or controlling its spread.
A special case of introduction is the reintroduction of a species that has become locally endangered or extinct, done in the interests of conservation.[15] Examples of successful reintroductions include wolves to Yellowstone National Park in the U.S., and the red kite to parts of England and Scotland. Introductions or translocations of species have also been proposed in the interest of genetic conservation, which advocates the introduction of new individuals into genetically depauperate populations of endangered or threatened species.[16]
The above examples highlight the intent of humans to introduce species as a means of incurring some benefit. While these benefits have in some cases been realized, introductions have also resulted in unforeseen costs, particularly when introduced species take on characteristics of invasive species.
Unintentional introductions[edit]
Unintentional introductions occur when species are transported by human vectors. Increasing rates of human travel are providing accelerating opportunities for species to be accidentally transported into areas in which they are not considered native. For example, three species of rat (the black, Norway and Polynesian) have spread to most of the world as hitchhikers on ships, and arachnids such as scorpions and exotic spiders are sometimes transported to areas far beyond their native range by riding in shipments of tropical fruit. There are also numerous examples of marine organisms being transported in ballast water, one being the zebra mussel. Over 200 species have been introduced to the San Francisco Bay in this manner making it the most heavily invaded estuary in the world.[17] There is also the accidental release of the Africanized honey bees (AHB), known colloquially as "killer bees" or Africanized bee to Brazil in 1957 and the Asian carps to the United States. The insect commonly known as the brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys) was introduced accidentally in Pennsylvania. Another form of unintentional introductions is when an intentionally introduced plant carries a parasite or herbivore with it. Some become invasive, for example the oleander aphid, accidentally introduced with the ornamental plant, oleander.
Most accidentally or intentionally introduced species do not become invasive as the ones mentioned above. For instance Some 179 coccinellid species have been introduced to the U.S. and Canada; about 27 of these non-native species have become established, and only a handful can be considered invasive, including the intentionally introduced Harmonia axyridis, multicolored Asian lady beetle.[18] However the small percentage of introduced species that become invasive can produce profound ecological changes. In North America Harmonia axyridis has become the most abundant lady beetle and probably accounts for more observations than all the native lady beetles put together.[19]
Introduced plants[edit]
A horse chestnut tree, Aesculus hippocastanum. Native to Greece, it has been introduced across most of Europe and parts of North America as an ornamental plant. The horse chestnut tree is an example of a non-invasive introduced species, as while it is foreign it has naturalised and integrated into the ecosystems it was introduced to without apparent negative effects on native species there
Many non-native plants have been introduced into new territories, initially as either ornamental plants or for erosion control, stock feed, or forestry. Whether an exotic will become an invasive species is seldom understood in the beginning, and many non-native ornamentals languish in the trade for years before suddenly naturalizing and becoming invasive.
Peaches, for example, originated in China, and have been carried to much of the populated world. Tomatoes are native to the Andes. Squash (pumpkins), maize (corn), and tobacco are native to the Americas, but were introduced to the Old World. Many introduced species require continued human intervention to survive in the new environment. Others may become feral, but do not seriously compete with natives, but simply increase the biodiversity of the area.
Dandelions are also introduced species to North America.
A very troublesome marine species in southern Europe is the seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia. Caulerpa was first observed in the Mediterranean Sea in 1984, off the coast of Monaco. By 1997, it had covered some 50 km². It has a strong potential to overgrow natural biotopes, and represents a major risk for sublittoral ecosystems. The origin of the alga in the Mediterranean was thought to be either as a migration through the Suez Canal from the Red Sea, or as an accidental introduction from an aquarium. Another troublesome plant species is the terrestrial plant Phyla canescens, which was intentionally introduced into many countries in North America, Europe, and Africa as an ornamental plant.[20][21] This species has become invasive in Australia, where it threatens native rare plants and causes erosion and soil slumping around river banks.[22] It has also become invasive in France where it has been listed as an invasive plant species of concern in the Mediterranean region, where it can form monocultures that threaten critical conservation habitats.[23]
Japanese knotweed grows profusely in many nations. Human beings introduced it into many places in the 19th century. It is a source of resveratrol, a dietary supplement.
Chickens Gallus gallus domesticus, from Asia, introduced in the rest of the world
Introduced animals[edit]
Bear in mind that most introduced species do not become invasive. Examples of introduced animals that have become invasive include the gypsy moth in eastern North America, the zebra mussel and alewife in the Great Lakes, the Canada goose and gray squirrel in Europe, the muskrat in Europe and Asia, the cane toad and red fox in Australia, nutria in North America, Eurasia, and Africa, and the common brushtail possum in New Zealand. In Taiwan, the success of introduced bird species was related to their native range size and body size; larger species with larger native range sizes were found to have larger introduced range sizes.[24]
One notoriously devastating introduced species is the Small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes Javanicus Auropunctatus). Originating in a region encompassing Iran and India, it was introduced to the West Indies and Hawaii in the late 1800s for pest control. Since it has thrived on prey unequipped to deal with its speed, nearly leading to the local extinction of a variety of species.[25]
Most commonly introduced species[edit]
Some species, such as the brown rat, house sparrow, ring-necked pheasant and European starling, have been introduced very widely. In addition there are some agricultural and pet species that frequently become feral; these include rabbits, dogs, ducks, goats, fish, pigs and cats.
Genetics[edit]
When a new species is introduced, the species could potentially breed with members of native species, producing hybrids. The effect of the creating of hybrids can range from having little effect, a negative effect, to having devastating effects on native species. Potential negative effects include hybrids that are less fit for their environment resulting in a population decrease. This was seen in the Atlantic Salmon population when high levels of escape from Atlantic Salmon farms into the wild populations resulted in hybrids that had reduced survival.[26] Potential positive effects include adding to the genetic diversity of the population which can increase the adaptation ability of the population and increase the number of healthy individuals within a population. This was seen in the introduction of guppies in Trinidad to encourage population growth and introduce new alleles into the population. The results of this introduction included increased levels of heterozygosity and a larger population size.[27]
On a planetary body[edit]
Main article: Interplanetary contamination
It has been hypothesized that invasive species of microbial life could contaminate a planetary body after the former is introduced by a space probe or spacecraft, either deliberately or unintentionally.[28]
See also[edit]
Avian range expansion
Biodiversity
Biological contamination
Biological dispersal
Burmese pythons in Florida
Directed panspermia
Genetic pollution
Introduced mammals on seabird breeding islands
Introduced species in Australia
Introduced species of the British Isles
Introduced species in New Zealand
Invasion biology terminology
Invasive species
List of introduced bird species
List of introduced mammal species
List of introduced species
Native (indigenous) species
Terraforming
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Dov Sax, Aug 2008. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Archived July 6, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Mid-Atlantic Integrated Assessment. September 16, 2003. Introduced species. Web site at US EPA
^ Jump up to: a b Carlton, James T. 2002. Introduced Species in U.S. Coastal Waters. Pew Oceans Commission.
Jump up ^ Richardson et al. 2000[dead link]
Jump up ^ biodiversity
Jump up ^ Colautti and MacIsaac 2004[dead link]
Jump up ^ CEQ (1999). Web site page with Executive Order 13112 Archived 2008-05-15 at the Wayback Machine. text.
Jump up ^ 2013. Invasive Species Program. Clemson University – DPI. http://www.clemson.edu/public/regulatory/plant_industry/invasive_exotic_programs/. Accessed 24 May 2013.
Jump up ^ David Pimentel, Lori Lach, Rodolfo Zuniga, and Doug Morrison, Environmental and Economic Costs Associated with Non-Indigenous Species in the United States, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University (Ithaca, New York), June 12, 1999.
Jump up ^ Corn; Tim Johnson, "Invasive Species," The Burlington Free Press, November 9, 2003
Jump up ^ Naylor, R.L., S.L. Williams, and D.R. Strong. 2001. Aquaculture—a gateway for exotic species. Science 294: 1655–56.
Jump up ^ Riley, SPD, H.B. Shaffer, S.R. Voss, B.M. Fitzpatrick. Hybridization between a rare, native tiger salamander and its introduced congener. 2003. Ecological Applications 13: 1263–1275.
Jump up ^ Foster, J. and A. Sandberg. Friends or foe? Invasive species and public green space in Toronto. 2004. The Geographical Review 94: 178–198.
Jump up ^ Deichsel, G. & Gist, D. H. On the Origin of the Common Wall Lizards Podarcis muralis (Reptilia: Lacertidae) in Cincinnati, Ohio Archived 2009-09-09 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Shirey, P.D. and G.A. Lamberti. 2010. Assisted colonization under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Conservation Letters 3(1): 45–52.
Jump up ^ Moritz, Craig. 1999. Conservation units and translocations: Strategies for conserving evolutionary processes. Hereditas 130: 217–228.
Jump up ^ Cohen, A.N. And J.T. Carlton. 1998. Accelerating invasion rate in a highly invaded estuary. Science 279: 555–558.
Jump up ^ Field guide to recently introduced species of coccinellidae (Coleoptera) in North America, with a revised key to north American genera of coccinellini
Jump up ^ http://www.lostladybug.org/summary-page-555.php Lost Ladybug Project
Jump up ^ Kennedy, K. 1992. A systematic study of the genus Phyla Lour (Verbenaceae: Verbenoideae, Lantanae). University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA.
Jump up ^ Xu, Cheng-Yuan; Tang, Shaoqing; Fatemi, Mohammad; Gross, Caroline L.; Julien, Mic H.; Curtis, Caitlin; van Klinken, Rieks D. (2015-09-01). "Population structure and genetic diversity of invasive Phyla canescens: implications for the evolutionary potential". Ecosphere. 6 (9): 1–21. doi:10.1890/ES14-00374.1. ISSN 2150-8925.
Jump up ^ Whalley, R. D. B.; Price, J. N.; Macdonald, M. J.; Berney, P. J. (2011). "Drivers of change in the Social-Ecological Systems of the Gwydir Wetlands and Macquarie Marshes in northern New South Wales, Australia". The Rangeland Journal. 33 (2): 109. doi:10.1071/rj11002.
Jump up ^ Olivier, L., J. P. Galland, and H. Maurin, editors.1995. Livre Rouge de la flore menacée de France.Tome I. Espèces prioritaires. SPN-IEGB /MNHN, DNP/Ministère Environnement, CBN Porquerolles, Paris, France
Jump up ^ Su, S.; Cassey, P.; Dyer, E. E.; Blackburn, T. M. (2017). "Geographical range expansion of alien birds and environmental matching". Ibis. 159 (1): 193–203. doi:10.1111/ibi.12418.
Jump up ^ Lowe, Sarah (2000). "00 of the world's worst invasive alien species: a selection from the global invasive species database". Auckland: Invasive Species Specialist Group. 12: 10.
Jump up ^ McGinnity, Philip; Prodöhl, Paulo; Ferguson, Andy; Hynes, Rosaleen; Maoiléidigh, Niall ó; Baker, Natalie; Cotter, Deirdre; O'Hea, Brendan; Cooke, Declan (2003-12-07). "Fitness reduction and potential extinction of wild populations of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, as a result of interactions with escaped farm salmon". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 270 (1532): 2443–2450. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2520. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 1691531  . PMID 14667333.
Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick, Sarah W.; Gerberich, Jill C.; Angeloni, Lisa M.; Bailey, Larissa L.; Broder, Emily D.; Torres-Dowdall, Julian; Handelsman, Corey A.; López-Sepulcre, Andrés; Reznick, David N. (2016-08-01). "Gene flow from an adaptively divergent source causes rescue through genetic and demographic factors in two wild populations of Trinidadian guppies". Evolutionary Applications. 9 (7): 879–891. doi:10.1111/eva.12356. ISSN 1752-4571. PMC 4947150  . PMID 27468306.
Jump up ^ Assessment of Planetary Protection and Contamination Control Technologies for Future Planetary Science Missions, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, January 24, 2011
3.1.1 Microbial Reduction Methodologies:
"This protocol was defined in concert with Viking, the first mission to face the most stringent planetary protection requirements; its implementation remains the gold standard today."
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Invasive plants by country.
Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Immigrations, Animal and Vegetal.
GB Non-native Species Secretariat GB Non-native Species – information, ID sheets, risk assessments, case studies, resources, free photos, videos and more.
Alien Plants in Ireland Database of Alien plants in Ireland
Introduced species in the British Isles
Alien species in Poland
Introduced Species in Eastern United States
Pathways for Invasive Species Introduction
Species Profile- Invasive Species, National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for invasive species.
Nonindigenous Species Database Network
The Naked Scientists Invasive Species Articles Ecologists challenge the categories that identify some species as natives and others as invaders.
Bugguide.net List of non-native arthropods in North America
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text:
How to Solve It
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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First edition
(publ. Princeton University Press)
How to Solve It (1945) is a small volume by mathematician George Pólya describing methods of problem solving.[1]
Contents
1 Four principles
1.1 First principle: Understand the problem
1.2 Second principle: Devise a plan
1.3 Third principle: Carry out the plan
1.4 Fourth principle: Review/extend
2 Heuristics
3 Influence
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Four principles[edit]
How to Solve It suggests the following steps when solving a mathematical problem:
First, you have to understand the problem.[2]
After understanding, make a plan.[3]
Carry out the plan.[4]
Look back on your work.[5] How could it be better?
If this technique fails, Pólya advises:[6] "If you can't solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it." Or: "If you cannot solve the proposed problem, try to solve first some related problem. Could you imagine a more accessible related problem?"
First principle: Understand the problem[edit]
"Understand the problem" is often neglected as being obvious and is not even mentioned in many mathematics classes. Yet students are often stymied in their efforts to solve it, simply because they don't understand it fully, or even in part. In order to remedy this oversight, Pólya taught teachers how to prompt each student with appropriate questions,[7] depending on the situation, such as:
What are you asked to find or show?[8]
Can you restate the problem in your own words?
Can you think of a picture or a diagram that might help you understand the problem?
Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?
Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?
Do you need to ask a question to get the answer?
The teacher is to select the question with the appropriate level of difficulty for each student to ascertain if each student understands at their own level, moving up or down the list to prompt each student, until each one can respond with something constructive.
Second principle: Devise a plan[edit]
Pólya mentions that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems.[3] The skill at choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many problems. You will find choosing a strategy increasingly easy. A partial list of strategies is included:
Guess and check[9]
Make an orderly list[10]
Eliminate possibilities[11]
Use symmetry[12]
Consider special cases[13]
Use direct reasoning
Solve an equation[14]
Also suggested:
Look for a pattern[15]
Draw a picture[16]
Solve a simpler problem[17]
Use a model[18]
Work backward[19]
Use a formula[20]
Be creative[21]
Applying these rules to devise a plan takes your own skill and judgement.[22]
Third principle: Carry out the plan[edit]
This step is usually easier than devising the plan.[23] In general, all you need is care and patience, given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan that you have chosen. If it continues not to work, discard it and choose another. Don't be misled; this is how mathematics is done, even by professionals.
Fourth principle: Review/extend[edit]
Pólya mentions that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look back at what you have done, what worked and what didn't.[24][25] Doing this will enable you to predict what strategy to use to solve future problems, if these relate to the original problem.
Heuristics[edit]
The book contains a dictionary-style set of heuristics, many of which have to do with generating a more accessible problem. For example:
Heuristic
Informal Description
Formal analogue
Analogy Can you find a problem analogous to your problem and solve that? Map
Generalization Can you find a problem more general than your problem? Generalization
Induction Can you solve your problem by deriving a generalization from some examples? Induction
Variation of the Problem Can you vary or change your problem to create a new problem (or set of problems) whose solution(s) will help you solve your original problem? Search
Auxiliary Problem Can you find a subproblem or side problem whose solution will help you solve your problem? Subgoal
Here is a problem related to yours and solved before Can you find a problem related to yours that has already been solved and use that to solve your problem? Pattern recognition
Pattern matching
Reduction
Specialization Can you find a problem more specialized? Specialization
Decomposing and Recombining Can you decompose the problem and "recombine its elements in some new manner"? Divide and conquer
Working backward Can you start with the goal and work backwards to something you already know? Backward chaining
Draw a Figure Can you draw a picture of the problem? Diagrammatic Reasoning[26]
Auxiliary Elements Can you add some new element to your problem to get closer to a solution? Extension
Influence[edit]
It has been translated into several languages and has sold over a million copies, and has been continuously in print since its first publication.
Marvin Minsky said in his paper Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence that "everyone should know the work of George Pólya on how to solve problems." [27]
Pólya's book has had a large influence on mathematics textbooks as evidenced by the bibliographies for mathematics education.[28]
Russian physicist Zhores I. Alfyorov, (Nobel laureate in 2000) praised it, saying he was very pleased with Pólya's famous book.
Russian inventor Genrich Altshuller developed an elaborate set of methods for problem solving known as TRIZ, which in many aspects reproduces or parallels Pólya's work.
How to Solve it by Computer is a computer science book by R. G. Dromey[29]. It was inspired by Pólya's work.
See also[edit]
Heuristic
How to Solve It By Computer
Inventor's paradox
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Pólya, George (1945). How to Solve It. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08097-6.
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 pp.6-8
^ Jump up to: a b Pólya 1957 pp.8-12
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 pp.12-14
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 pp.14-15
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p114
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p33
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p214
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p99
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p2
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p94
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p199
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p190
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p172 Pólya advises teachers that asking students to immerse themselves in routine operations only, instead of enhancing their imaginative / judicious side is inexcusable.
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p108
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 pp103-108
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p114 Pólya notes that 'human superiority consists in going around an obstacle that cannot be overcome directly'
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p105, p29-32, for example, Pólya discusses the problem of water flowing into a cone as an example of what is required to visualize the problem, using a figure.
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p105, p225
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 pp141-148. Pólya describes the method of analysis
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p172 (Pólya advises that this requires that the student have the patience to wait until the bright idea appears (subconsciously).)
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 pp148-149. In the dictionary entry 'Pedantry & mastery' Pólya cautions pedants to 'always use your own brains first'
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p.35
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 p.36
Jump up ^ Pólya 1957 pp.14-19
Jump up ^ Diagrammatic Reasoning site
Jump up ^ Minsky, Marvin. "Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence". .
Jump up ^ Schoenfeld, Alan H. (1992). D. Grouws, ed. "Learning to think mathematically: Problem solving, metacognition, and sense-making in mathematics" (PDF). Handbook for Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning. New York: MacMillan: 334–370. .
Jump up ^ Dromey, R. G. (1982). How to Solve it by Computer. Prentice-Hall International. ISBN 978-0-13-434001-2.
References[edit]
Pólya, George (1957). How to Solve It. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. p. 253.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: George Pólya
More information on Pólya can be found here.
Softpanorama page about the value of the book in programming
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