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Two-second rule
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The two-second rule is a time for the defensive driver to judge the minimum safe trailing distance to help avoid collisions under ideal driving conditions. The red car's driver picks a tree to judge a two-second safety buffer.
The two-second rule (also known as the three-second rule in some states) is a rule of thumb by which a driver may maintain a safe trailing distance at any speed.[1][2] The rule is that a driver should ideally stay at least two seconds behind any vehicle that is directly in front of his or her vehicle. It is intended for automobiles, although its general principle applies to other types of vehicles.
The two seconds is not a guide to safe stopping distance. It is more a guide to reaction times.
The two-second rule is useful as it can be applied to any speed. It is equivalent to one vehicle-length for every 8 km/h (5 mph) of the current speed, but drivers can find it difficult to estimate the correct distance from the car in front, let alone to remember the stopping distances that are required for a given speed, or to compute the linear equation on the fly. The two-second rule gets around these problems, and provides a simple and common-sense way of improving road safety.
The practice has been shown to considerably reduce risk of collision, and also the severity of an accident, if an accident occurs. It also helps to avoid tailgating and road rage for all drivers.
A large risk of tailgating is the accident avoidance time being much less than the driver reaction time. Driving instructors advocate that drivers always use the "two-second rule" regardless of speed or the type of road. During adverse weather, downhill slopes, or hazardous conditions such as black ice, it is important to maintain an even greater distance.
The two-second rule tells a defensive driver the minimum distance needed to reduce the risk of collision under ideal driving conditions. The allotted two-seconds is a safety buffer, to allow the following driver time to respond.
To estimate the time, a driver can wait until the rear end of the vehicle in front passes any distinct and fixed point on the roadway—e.g. a road sign, mailbox, line/crack/patch in the road. After the car ahead passes a given fixed point, the front of one's car should pass the same point no less than two seconds later. If the elapsed time is less than this, one should increase the distance, then repeat the method again until the time is at least two seconds.
One can count the duration of time simply by saying "zero... one... two" but for greater accuracy,[dubious – discuss] it is suggested that drivers say "only a fool breaks the two-second rule". At a normal speaking rate, this sentence takes approximately two seconds to say, and serves as a reminder to the driver of the importance of the rule itself.
The TailGuardian distance advisory decals recently adopted by Stagecoach Buses in the UK use the two-second rule in their calibration.[3] Advisory Decals for 30, 50 and 70 mph are calibrated to be invisible outside those safe distance, only rendering themselves visible once the car following has entered the safety zone for the speed that they are travelling.
Some authorities regard two seconds as inadequate, and recommend a three-second rule.[4] German law requires a minimum 0.9 second distance but when tested under relaxed conditions[5] researchers found that their test subjects spent 41% of the test time at following distances under 0.9 second.
The United States National Safety Council suggests that a three-second rule—with increases of one second per factor of driving difficulty—is more appropriate. Factors that make driving more difficult include poor lighting conditions (dawn and dusk are the most common); inclement weather (ice, rain, snow, fog, etc.), adverse traffic mix (heavy vehicles, slow vehicles, impaired drivers, pedestrians, bicyclists, etc.), and personal condition (fatigue, sleepiness, drug-related loss of response time, distracting thoughts, etc.). For example, a fatigued driver piloting a car in rainy weather at dusk would do well to observe a six-second following distance, rather than the basic three-second gap.
See also[edit]
Assured Clear Distance Ahead (ACDA)
Braking distance
Stopping sight distance
Tailgating
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The two-second rule". Road Safety Authority (Government of Ireland). Archived from the original on March 9, 2012. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ "NYS DMV - Driver's Manual - Chapter 8: Defensive Driving". New York State Department of Motor Vehicles. September 2011. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Police support for TailGuardian". Road Safety GB. January 12, 2009. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ The 3-second rule Smartmotorist.com
Jump up ^ Distance behaviour on motorways Darmstadt University of Technology
External links[edit]
Tutorial: Keep Your Distance—Traveling Safely behind other traffic, by Driving School Ireland
Illinois Rules of the Road—See Chapter 11 "Safe Driving Tips" for details on the "three-second rule"
How to practice following distance rules
Passive advisory decals to following traffic
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Phosphorus cycle
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Phosphorus Cycle on land
The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many other biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth. The production of phosphine gas occurs in only specialized, local conditions.
On the land, phosphorus (chemical symbol, P) gradually becomes less available to plants over thousands of years, because it is slowly lost in runoff. Low concentration of P in soils reduces plant growth, and slows soil microbial growth - as shown in studies of soil microbial biomass. Soil microorganisms act as both sinks and sources of available P in the biogeochemical cycle.[1] Locally, transformations of P are chemical, biological and microbiological: the major long-term transfers in the global cycle, however, are driven by tectonic movements in geologic time.[2]
Humans have caused major changes to the global P cycle through shipping of P minerals, and use of P fertilizer, and also the shipping of food from farms to cities, where it is lost as effluent.
Contents
[hide]
1 Phosphorus in the environment
1.1 Ecological function
1.2 Biological function
1.3 Process of the cycle
1.4 Phosphatic minerals
2 Human influences
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Phosphorus in the environment[edit]
The aquatic phosphorus cycle
Ecological function[edit]
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals. Phosphorus is a limiting nutrient for aquatic organisms. Phosphorus forms parts of important life-sustaining molecules that are very common in the biosphere. Phosphorus does not enter the atmosphere, remaining mostly on land and in rock and soil minerals. Eighty percent of the mined phosphorus is used to make fertilizers. Phosphates from fertilizers, sewage and detergents can cause pollution in lakes and streams. Overenrichment of phosphate in both fresh and inshore marine waters can lead to massive algae blooms which, when they die and decay, leads to eutrophication of fresh waters only. An example of this is the Canadian Experimental Lakes Area. These freshwater algal blooms should not be confused with those in saltwater environments. Recent research suggests that the predominant pollutant responsible for algal blooms in salt water estuaries and coastal marine habitats is Nitrogen.[3]
Phosphorus occurs most abundantly in nature as part of the orthophosphate ion (PO4)3−, consisting of a P atom and 4 oxygen atoms. On land most phosphorus is found in rocks and minerals. Phosphorus rich deposits have generally formed in the ocean or from guano, and over time, geologic processes bring ocean sediments to land. Weathering of rocks and minerals release phosphorus in a soluble form where it is taken up by plants, and it is transformed into organic compounds. The plants may then be consumed by herbivores and the phosphorus is either incorporated into their tissues or excreted. After death, the animal or plant decays, and phosphorus is returned to the soil where a large part of the phosphorus is transformed into insoluble compounds. Runoff may carry a small part of the phosphorus back to the ocean. Generally with time (thousands of years) soils become deficient in phosphorus leading to ecosystem retrogression.[4]
Biological function[edit]
The primary biological importance of phosphates is as a component of nucleotides, which serve as energy storage within cells (ATP) or when linked together, form the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. The double helix of our DNA is only possible because of the phosphate ester bridge that binds the helix. Besides making biomolecules, phosphorus is also found in bone and the enamel of mammalian teeth, whose strength is derived from calcium phosphate in the form of Hydroxylapatite. It is also found in the exoskeleton of insects, and phospholipids (found in all biological membranes).[5] It also functions as a buffering agent in maintaining acid base homeostasis in the human body.[6]
Process of the cycle[edit]
Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move them through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the slowest biogeochemical cycles.[2][7]
Initially, phosphate weathers from rocks and minerals, the most common mineral being apatite. Overall small losses occur in terrestrial environments by leaching and erosion, through the action of rain. In soil, phosphate is adsorbed on iron oxides, aluminium hydroxides, clay surfaces, and organic matter particles, and becomes incorporated (immobilized or fixed). Plants and fungi can also be active in making P soluble.[citation needed]
Unlike other cycles, P is not normally found in the air as a gas; it only occurs under highly reducing conditions as the gas phosphine PH3.[citation needed]
Phosphatic minerals[edit]
The availability of phosphorus in an ecosystem is restricted by the rate of release of this element during weathering. The release of phosphorus from apatite dissolution is a key control on ecosystem productivity. The primary mineral with significant phosphorus content, apatite [Ca5(PO4)3OH] undergoes carbonation.[2][8]
Little of this released phosphorus is taken up by biota (organic form), whereas a larger proportion reacts with other soil minerals. This leads to precipitation into unavailable forms in the later stage of weathering and soil development. Available phosphorus is found in a biogeochemical cycle in the upper soil profile, while phosphorus found at lower depths is primarily involved in geochemical reactions with secondary minerals. Plant growth depends on the rapid root uptake of phosphorus released from dead organic matter in the biochemical cycle. Phosphorus is limited in supply for plant growth. Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move them through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the slowest biogeochemical cycles.[2][7]
Low-molecular-weight (LMW) organic acids are found in soils. They originate from the activities of various microorganisms in soils or may be exuded from the roots of living plants. Several of those organic acids are capable of forming stable organo-metal complexes with various metal ions found in soil solutions. As a result, these processes may lead to the release of inorganic phosphorus associated with aluminium, iron, and calcium in soil minerals. The production and release of oxalic acid by mycorrhizal fungi explain their importance in maintaining and supplying phosphorus to plants.[2][9]
The availability of organic phosphorus to support microbial, plant and animal growth depends on the rate of their degradation to generate free phosphate. There are various enzymes such as phosphatases, nucleases and phytase involved for the degradation. Some of the abiotic pathways in the environment studied are hydrolytic reactions and photolytic reactions. Enzymatic hydrolysis of organic phosphorus is an essential step in the biogeochemical phosphorus cycle, including the phosphorus nutrition of plants and microorganisms and the transfer of organic phosphorus from soil to bodies of water.[1] Many organisms rely on the soil derived phosphorus for their phosphorus nutrition.[citation needed]
Human influences[edit]
Nutrients are important to the growth and survival of living organisms, and hence, are essential for development and maintenance of healthy ecosystems. Humans have greatly influenced the phosphorus cycle by mining phosphorus, converting it to fertilizer, and by shipping fertilizer and products around the globe. Transporting phosphorus in food from farms to cities has made a major change in the global Phosphorus cycle. However, excessive amounts of nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, are detrimental to aquatic ecosystems. Waters are enriched in phosphorus from farms' run-off, and from effluent that is inadequately treated before it is discharged to waters. Natural eutrophication is a process by which lakes gradually age and become more productive and may take thousands of years to progress. Cultural or anthropogenic eutrophication, however, is water pollution caused by excessive plant nutrients; this results in excessive growth in the algal population; when this algae dies its putrefaction depletes the water of oxygen.Such eutrophication may also give rise to toxic algal bloom.Both these effects cause animal and plant death rates to increase as the plants take in poisonous water while the animals drink the poisoned water. Surface and subsurface runoff and erosion from high-phosphorus soils may be major contributing factors to this fresh water eutrophication. The processes controlling soil Phosphorus release to surface runoff and to subsurface flow are a complex interaction between the type of phosphorus input, soil type and management, and transport processes depending on hydrological conditions.[10][11]
Repeated application of liquid hog manure in excess to crop needs can have detrimental effects on soil phosphorus status. Also, application of biosolids may increase available phosphorus in soil.[12] In poorly drained soils or in areas where snowmelt can cause periodic waterlogging, dereducing conditions can be attained in 7–10 days. This causes a sharp increase in phosphorus concentration in solution and phosphorus can be leached. In addition, reduction of the soil causes a shift in phosphorus from resilient to more labile forms. This could eventually increase the potential for phosphorus loss. This is of particular concern for the environmentally sound management of such areas, where disposal of agricultural wastes has already become a problem. It is suggested that the water regime of soils that are to be used for organic wastes disposal is taken into account in the preparation of waste management regulations.[13]
Human interference in the phosphorus cycle occurs by overuse or careless use of phosphorus fertilizers. This results in increased amounts of phosphorus as pollutants in bodies of water resulting in eutrophication. Eutrophication devastates water ecosystems by inducing anoxic conditions.[14]
See also[edit]
Peak phosphorus
Planetary boundaries
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Turner B.L et al. (2003) Organic phosphorus in the environment. CABI publishing
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Schlesinger W.H. Biogeochemistry: An analysis of global change. (1991)
Jump up ^ https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/soils-in-the-city/green-infrastructure/important-terms/eutrophication
Jump up ^ Peltzer, D.A. et al. 2010. Understanding ecosystem retrogression. Ecological Monographs 80; 509-529.
Jump up ^ http://www.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/480.html
Jump up ^ Voet D and Voet J.G. (2003) Biochemistry pg 607-608.
^ Jump up to: a b Oelkers E.H (2008) Phosphate mineral reactivity: from global cycles to sustainable development Mineralogical Magazine 72: 337 - 340.
Jump up ^ Filippelli G.M (2002) The Global Phosphorus Cycle. Reviews in Mineralogy and geochemistry 48: 391 – 425
Jump up ^ Harrold S.A. and Tabatabai M.A (2006) Release of Inorganic Phosphorus from Soils by Low-Molecular-Weight Organic Acids. Communications in soil science and plant analysis, volume, issue 9 & 10
Jump up ^ Branom J.R and Sarkar D (2004) Phosphorus bioavailability in sediments of a sludge-disposal lake. Environmental Geoscience 11: 42 - 52
Jump up ^ Schelde K et al. (2006) Effects of Manure Application and Plowing on Transport of Colloids and Phosphorus to Tile Drains. 5: 445 - 458.
Jump up ^ "The effects of incubation on phosphorus desorption properties, phosphorus availability, and salinity of biosolids-amended soils". Environmental Earth Sciences. 69: 899–908. doi:10.1007/s12665-012-1975-6.
Jump up ^ Ajmone-Marsan. F et al. (2005) Phosphorus transformations under reduction in long-term manured soils.
Jump up ^ Conley, Daniel J.; et al. (2009). "Controlling Eutrophication: Nitrogen and Phosphorus". Science. 323: 1014–1015. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
External links[edit]
Part III of "Matter cycles": The phosphorus cycle, Lenntech Water treatment & air purification, Holding B.V. 2006
Environmental Literacy Council - Phosphorus Cycle
Monitoring and assessing water quality, section 5.6 Phosphorus - EPA
Prentice Hall Biology, Kenneth R. Miller and Joseph Levine 2001
Katie Corbin-Soil Microbiology
Environmental Literacy Council: Phosphorus Cycle
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1936
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Atlas
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The political system of the Soviet Union was characterized by the superior role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only party permitted by the Constitution.
For information about the government, see Government of the Soviet Union.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Legislative branch
2.1 Congress of Soviets (1922–1936) and the Supreme Soviet (1936–1989)
2.2 Congress of People's Deputies and State Council (1989–1991)
3 Executive branch
3.1 Premier and the Council (1922–1991)
3.2 President and the Cabinet (1991)
4 Judicial branch
5 Role of the Communist Party
5.1 Organization
5.2 Ideology
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
Background[edit]
The Bolsheviks who took power during the October Revolution, the final phase of the Russian Revolution, were the first Communist Party to take power and attempt to apply the Leninist variant of Marxism in a practical way. Although they grew very quickly during the Revolution, from 24,000 to 100,000 members, and some support, 25% of the votes for the Constituent Assembly in November, 1917, the Bolsheviks were a minority party when they took power by force in Petrograd and Moscow. Their advantages were discipline and a platform supporting the movement of workers, peasants, soldiers and sailors who had seized factories, organized soviets, appropriated the lands of the aristocracy and other large landholders, deserted from the army and mutinied against the navy during the Revolution.
Karl Marx made no detailed proposals for the structure of a socialist or communist government and society other than the replacement of capitalism with socialism, and eventually communism, by the victorious working class. Lenin, the leader of the Bolsheviks, had developed the theory that a Communist Party should serve as the vanguard of the proletariat, ruling in their name and interest, but, like Marx, had not developed a detailed economic or political program. The new Communist government of the Soviet Union faced alarming problems: extending practical control beyond the major cities, combatting counter-revolution and opposing political parties, coping with the continuing war, and setting up a new economic and political system.
Despite their relative discipline, the Bolsheviks were not of one mind, the Party being a coalition of committed revolutionaries, but with somewhat differing views as to what was practical and proper. These diverging tendencies resulted in debates within the Party over the next decade, followed by a period of consolidation of the Party as definite programs were adopted.
Legislative branch[edit]
Congress of Soviets (1922–1936) and the Supreme Soviet (1936–1989)[edit]
Main articles: Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union and Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union
The Congress of Soviets was the supreme organ of power, in accordance with Article 8 of the 1924 Soviet Constitution.[1] The Congress was replaced in the 1936 Soviet Constitution by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union; in accordance with Article 30,[2] it functioned as the highest state authority[3] and the only legislative branch of the USSR.[4] According to Article 108 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, the Supreme Soviet was empowered to deal with all matters within the jurisdiction of the USSR. The admission of new republics; creation of new Autonomous Republics and Autonomous Regions; approval of the five-year plan for social and economic development; creation of the state budget and the institution of bodies to which the USSR was accountable were the exclusive prerogative of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The Law of the USSR was enacted by the Supreme Soviet or by referendum.[5]
The Supreme Soviet consisted of two chambers: the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities; both chambers had equal rights.[6] The Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities had an equal number of deputies. The Soviet of the Union was elected by constituencies with equal populations; the Soviet of Nationalities was elected on the basis of the following representation: 32 deputies from each Union Republic, 11 deputies from each Autonomous Republic, five deputies from each Autonomous Region, and one deputy from each Autonomous Area. The Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities (upon submission by the elected credentials commissions) had the power to decide the validity of the elected deputies' credentials, and (in cases where election law had been violated) would declare the election null and void.[7] Both chambers elected a Chairman and four Deputies. The Chairmen of the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities presided over sessions of their respective chambers and conducted their affairs. Joint sessions of the chambers were presided over by (alternately) the Chairman of the Soviet of the Union and the Chairman of the Soviet of Nationalities.[8]
Congress of People's Deputies and State Council (1989–1991)[edit]
Main articles: Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union and State Council of the Soviet Union
Through a constitutional amendment made by Mikhail Gorbachev, the Supreme Soviet became a permanent parliament which was elected by the Congress of the People's Deputies. In the 1989 Soviet legislative election the Soviet people, for the first time, elected candidates democratically. The new amendment called for a smaller working body (later known as the Supreme Soviet), to be elected by the 2,250-member Congress of People's Deputies. One-third of the seats in the Congress of People's Deputies was reserved for the Communist Party and other public organisations. The amendment clearly stated that multiple candidates could participate in elections,[9] and Soviet voters stunned the authorities by voting for non-CPSU candidates and reformers. However, genuine reformers were estimated to have won only about 300 seats.[10] Following the failed August Coup attempt, the State Council became the highest organ of state power "in the period of transition".[11]
Executive branch[edit]
Premier and the Council (1922–1991)[edit]
See also: Premier of the Soviet Union
Main articles: Council of People's Commissars and Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)
According to the 1924 Soviet Constitution, the executive branch was headed by the Council of People's Commissars;[12] in the 1977 Soviet Constitution, the Council of Ministers was the head of the executive branch.[13] The Council of Ministers was formed at a joint meeting of the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities. The Council consisted of the Chairman, the First Deputies, the Deputies, the ministers, the chairmen of the state committees and the Chairmen of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Republics. The Chairman of the Council of Ministers could recommend to the Supreme Soviet other heads of organisations in the USSR as members of the Council. The Council of Ministers laid down its power before the first session of the newly elected Supreme Soviet.[14]
The Council of Ministers was both responsible for and accountable to the Supreme Soviet, and in the period between sessions of the Supreme Soviet it was accountable to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. The Council of Ministers regularly reported to the Supreme Soviet on its work.[15] It was tasked with resolving all state administrative duties within the jurisdiction of the USSR, to the degree that they did not come under the competence of the Supreme Soviet or the Presidium. Within its limits, the Council of Ministers had authority to:[16]
Ensure management of the national economy and its socio-cultural construction and development
Formulate and submit the five-year plan of "economic and social development" and the state budget to the Supreme Soviet, and submit its fulfilment to the Supreme Soviet
Defend the interests of the state, socialist property and public order, and protect the rights of Soviet citizens
Ensure state security
Exercise general leadership of the Soviet armed forces and determine how many were to be drafted into service
Exercise general leadership over Soviet foreign relations; trade and the economic, scientific-technical and cultural cooperation of the USSR with foreign countries. It also confirmed and announced international treaties signed by the USSR.
Set up necessary organisations within the Council of Ministers in matters of economics, socio-cultural issues and defence
It also had the power to issue decrees and resolutions, and to later verify their execution. All organisations were obligated to follow the decrees and resolutions issued by the All-Union Council of Ministers.[17] The All-Union Council also had the power to suspend all issues and decrees made by itself or organisations subordinate to it.[18] It coordinated and directed the work of the republics and their ministries, state committees and other organs subordinate to the All-Union Council.[19] Finally, the competence of the Council of Ministers and its Presidium in their procedures and activities (and its relationship with subordinate organs) was defined in the Soviet constitution by the Law on the Council of Ministers of the USSR.[20]
President and the Cabinet (1991)[edit]
Main articles: President of the Soviet Union and Cabinet of Ministers (Soviet Union)
In 1990 Mikhail Gorbachev created the office of the President of the Soviet Union, the head of the executive branch.[21] In the meantime, the Council of Ministers was dissolved and replaced by the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR. The new cabinet was headed by the Premier.[22] Gorbachev's election as President marked the third time in one year he was elected to an office equivalent to that of Soviet head of state; he was elected by the Congress of People's Deputies on all three occasions.[10]
Judicial branch[edit]
Main articles: Law of the Soviet Union, Supreme Court of the Soviet Union, and Procurator General of the Soviet Union
The Supreme Court was the highest judicial body in the country; it supervised the administration of justice by the courts of the USSR and its Soviet Republics within the limits of established law. The leadership of the Supreme Court was elected by the Supreme Soviet; the exceptions were the Chairmen of the Supreme Courts of the Soviet Republics, who were ex officio members. The organisation and the procedures of the Supreme Court were defined by law.[23] As written in Article 157 of the Brezhnev constitution, "Justice is administered in the USSR on the principle of the equality of citizens before the law and the court."[24] In the following articles it was made clear that all individuals (no matter their circumstances) had the right to legal assistance.[25] All judicial proceedings in the USSR were conducted in the language of the Soviet Republic, "Autonomous Republic, Autonomous Region, or Autonomous Area, or in the language spoken by the majority of the people in the locality". People who participated in court proceedings without knowledge of the language had the right to become fully acquainted with the materials in the case, the right to an interpreter during the proceedings and the right to address the court in their own language.[26]
The Procurator General was (according to Article 165) appointed to the office by the Supreme Soviet. The Procurator was responsible and accountable to the Supreme Soviet or, between sessions of the Supreme Soviet, to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet.[27] The Procurator General supervised most activities of Soviet agencies such as ministries, state committees and local Prosecutor Generals.[28] Subordinate agencies of the Procurator General exercised their functions independent from meddling by the Soviet state, and were subordinate only to the Prosecutor's office. The organisation and procedures of these subordinates were defined in the Law on the Procurator's Office of the USSR.[29]
Role of the Communist Party[edit]
See also: Communist Party of the Soviet Union and List of leaders of the Soviet Union
According to Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution, the Party was "the leading and guiding force of Soviet society and the nucleus of its political system, of all state organisations and public organisations, is the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The CPSU exists for the people and serves the people." The Communist Party was officially a Marxist-Leninist communist party, which determined the general development of Soviet society both in domestic and foreign policy. Also, it directed the "great work" of building communism through economic planning and the struggle for the victory of communism. All Communist Party organisations had to follow the framework laid down by the 1977 Soviet Constitution.[30] After mounting pressure against him by the reformers, Mikhail Gorbachev removed the phrase "the leading and guiding force" and replaced it with "the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and other political parties".[31]
The Nomenklatura was the Soviet Union's ruling group, and remained one of the main reasons why the USSR existed as long as it did. Members of the Nomenklatura were elected by the CPSU to all important posts in Soviet society; this could mean a locally or nationally significant office. This, along with the CPSU's monopoly on power, led to the gradual physical and intellectual degeneration of the USSR as a state. As long as the General Secretary of the CPSU commanded the loyalty of the Politburo he would remain more-or-less unopposed, and in all probability become the leader of the country.[32]
Organization[edit]
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The CPSU controlled the government apparatus and took decisions affecting economy and society. The Communist Party followed the ideology of Marxism-Leninism and operated on the principle of democratic centralism. The primary CPSU bodies were the Politburo, the highest decision-making organ; the Secretariat, the controller of party bureaucracy; and the Central Committee, the party's policy forum. CPSU membership reached more than 19 million (9.7 percent of the adult population) in 1987, and was dominated by male Russian professionals. Party members occupied positions of authority in all officially recognized institutions throughout the country.
Single party rule, combined with democratic centralism, which, in practice, consisted of a hierarchal structure which with the aid of a secret police organization enforced decisions made by the ruling party as well on the personnel of all governmental institutions, including the courts, the press, cultural and economic organizations and labor unions. The Soviet Union is considered by many to have been a totalitarian state for much of its existence. Critics include Western authors such as Robert Conquest and Russian critics such as Alexander Yakovlev.
Ideology[edit]
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Main article: State ideology of the Soviet Union
Education and political discourse proceeded on the assumption that it was possible to mold people using collectivist institutional forms into an ideal Soviet man or woman, new Soviet man. The validity of ideas, public discourse, and institutional form were evaluated in terms of the official ideology of Marxism-Leninism, as interpreted by the Communist Party.
See also[edit]
Economy of the Soviet Union
History of the Soviet Union
USSR Heads of State
Premier of the Soviet Union
List of Governments of the Soviet Union
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Article #8 of the 1924 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of January 1924 Article 8. .
Jump up ^ Article #30 of the 1936 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 5 December 1936 Article 30. .
Jump up ^ Article #14 of the 1936 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 5 December 1936 Article 14. .
Jump up ^ Article #31 of the 1936 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 5 December 1936 Article 31. .
Jump up ^ Article #108 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 108. .
Jump up ^ Article #109 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 109. .
Jump up ^ Article #110 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 110. .
Jump up ^ Article #111 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 111. .
Jump up ^ Soviet Union law № 9853-XI "On amendments and additions to the Constitution (Basic Law) of the USSR
^ Jump up to: a b "Gorbachev's Reform Dilemma". Library of Congress Country Studies. Retrieved 16 October 2010.
Jump up ^ Government of the USSR: Gorbachev, Mikhail (21 March 1972). УКАЗ: ПОЛОЖЕНИЕ О МИНИСТЕРСТВЕ ЮСТИЦИИ СССР [Law: About state governing bodies of USSR in a transition period On the bodies of state authority and administration of the USSR in Transition] (in Russian). sssr.su. Retrieved 15 October 1991. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Article #37 of the 1924 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of January 1924 Article 37. .
Jump up ^ Article #128 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 128. .
Jump up ^ Article #129 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 129. .
Jump up ^ Article #130 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 130. .
Jump up ^ Article #131 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 131. .
Jump up ^ Article #133 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 133. .
Jump up ^ Article #134 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 134. .
Jump up ^ Article #135 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 135. .
Jump up ^ Article #136 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 136. .
Jump up ^ Polmar, Norman (1991). The Naval Institute guide to the Soviet. United States Naval Institute. p. 1. ISBN 0-87021-241-9.
Jump up ^ McCauley, Martin (2007). The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union. Pearson Education. p. 490. ISBN 0-582-78465-4.
Jump up ^ Article #153 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 153. .
Jump up ^ Article #157 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 157. .
Jump up ^ Article #158 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 158. .
Jump up ^ Article #159 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 159. .
Jump up ^ Article #165 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 165. .
Jump up ^ Article #164 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 164. .
Jump up ^ Article #168 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 168. .
Jump up ^ Article #6 of the 1977 constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 6. .
Jump up ^ Government of the USSR: Gorbachev, Mikhail (21 March 1972). УКАЗ: Об учреждении поста Президента СССР и внесении изменений и дополнений в Конституцию (Основной Закон) СССР [Law: Establish the post of President of the USSR and the amendments to the Constitution (Fundamental Law) of the USSR] (in Russian). constitution.garant.ru. Retrieved 14 March 1990. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Chubarov, Alexander (2001). Russia's bitter path to modernity: a history of the Soviet and post-Soviet eras. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 58–60. ISBN 0-8264-1350-1.
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/. - Soviet Union
Further reading[edit]
Alexander N. Yakovlev, Anthony Austin, Paul Hollander, Century of Violence in Soviet Russia, Yale University Press (September, 2002), hardcover, 254 pages, ISBN 0-300-08760-8
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Randy Jackson
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other people named Randy Jackson, see Randy Jackson (disambiguation).
Randy Jackson
Jackson in 2009
Background information
Birth name
Randall Darius Jackson
Born
(1956-06-23) June 23, 1956 (age 61)
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.
Genres
Rock, pop, R&B, jazz, jazz fusion
Occupation(s)
Bassist, singer, record producer, entrepreneur, television personality.
Instruments
Vocals, bass, keyboards
Years active
1983–present
Labels
Columbia
Associated acts
Journey, Boston, Brooke White, Mariah Carey, Paula Abdul
Website
randyjacksonnext.com
(archive.org 2012-03-27)
Randall Darius "Randy" Jackson (born June 23, 1956) is an American bassist, singer, record producer, entrepreneur and television personality.
Jackson began his career in the 1980s as a session musician playing bass guitar for an array of jazz, pop, rock and R&B performers. He moved on to work in music production and as A&R at Columbia Records and MCA Records. Jackson is best known from his appearances as a judge on American Idol and executive producer for MTV's America's Best Dance Crew. Jackson has won a Grammy Award as a producer.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Personal life
2 Music career
2.1 Radio program
3 Television
3.1 American Idol
3.2 America's Best Dance Crew
4 Discography
4.1 Albums
4.2 Singles
5 References
6 External links
Personal life
Jackson was born on June 23, 1956, in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, the son of Julia, a homemaker, and Herman Jackson, a plant foreman.[2] His first marriage, to Elizabeth Jackson, was dissolved in 1990; they had one daughter named Taylor.[3] In 1995, Jackson married Erika Riker, with whom he has two children, a 14-year-old daughter named Zoe and a 12-year-old son named Jordan. In 2003, Jackson lost 114 pounds (52 kg) following gastric bypass surgery. He stated in a February 2008 television commercial that he has type 2 diabetes.[4]
Music career
In the early 1980s he played on three albums for Jean-Luc Ponty and with the rock band Taxxi. From 1986 to 1987 he was a session musician for the rock group Journey. Jackson played on Journey's 1986 album Raised on Radio. He moved to Italy in the late 1980s and played on a record by Italian pop star Zucchero. The record, Zucchero and the Randy Jackson Band, was produced by Corrado Rustici who played guitar with Jackson on many albums in the early 1980s. He also played with Billy Cobham.
In 1985, Keith Richards was asked to provide music for the Whoopi Goldberg comedy vehicle Jumpin' Jack Flash. Richards assembled an all-star band which included Aretha Franklin on piano and lead vocals and Jackson on bass guitar. This song was the fourth track on Aretha's 1986 album titled Aretha. Jackson can be seen in the song's video.
In the late 1980s, Jackson was still doing sessions. He was notably on the first solo album by famed session guitarist Steve Lukather. Jackson was a featured bass guitarist on five songs on Maze's 1989 "Silky Soul" album. He also performed on several of Kenny G's albums.
Jackson was the bass guitarist on the 1991 self-titled Divinyls album (which features the song "I Touch Myself") as well as featured bassist on several tracks of Tracy Chapman's 1992 release, Matters of the Heart. He performed on the singles "Bang Bang Bang", "Open Arms", and "Dreaming on a World". That same year, Jackson also played bass on Bruce Springsteen's song "Human Touch."
Jackson has recorded, produced, or toured with many well-known artists and bands, ranging from Mariah Carey (he has worked with her throughout her career, been her musical director for a number of her tours; he has formed part of her band during numerous performances including Live 8 in London in 2005) to 'N Sync, Whitney Houston, (produced) Dionne Farris' (critically acclaimed debut CD, Wild-Seed Wild-Flower), Céline Dion, Fergie (dating back to her days in Wild Orchid), Stryper,[5] and Madonna (he played some bass on her album Like a Prayer although not on the single of the same name).
Jackson played numerous times in Jean-Luc Ponty's backing band. His credits as a session musician range from playing with Aldo Nova, George Benson, Blue Öyster Cult, Jon Bon Jovi, Michael Bolton, Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown, Billy Cobham, Bob Dylan, Aretha Franklin, Herbie Hancock, Ernie Isley, Billy Joel, Brent Bourgeois, Journey, Richard Marx, George Michael, Stevie Nicks, Imogen Heap, Bruce Springsteen and Roger Waters to playing at the Grand Ole Opry with The Charlie Daniels Band. His production/songwriting work in the San Francisco Bay Area with Narada Michael Walden and Walter Afanasieff led Jackson to be in demand as a producer as well.
On March 11, 2008, Jackson released an album produced entirely by himself, titled Randy Jackson's Music Club, Vol. 1. The album's release was preceded by the single "Dance Like There's No Tomorrow" sung by Paula Abdul. In 2009, Randy began working with former Idol finalist Kimberley Locke, producing her 4th album. The lead single, "Strobe Light", was released March 16, 2010.[6] In February 2010, Jackson participated in We Are the World 25 for Haiti as part of the chorus.[citation needed]
Jackson is the manager for the Charlotte-based band Paper Tongues. With the help of Jackson, they signed with a major label, A&M/Octone Records. He has also worked as an executive, spending eight years as vice president of artists and repertoire (A&R) at Columbia Records and four years heading A&R at MCA Records.
Radio program
Jackson also hosts a radio top 40 countdown known as Randy Jackson's Hit List,[7] which is syndicated by Westwood One.[8] Every week, Jackson counts down his top 30 Urban AC and Mainstream AC hits. He also gives behind-the-scenes information on American Idol on the internet radio station Artist Underground.[citation needed]
Television
American Idol
Starting in 2002, Jackson was one of the panel judges on the Fox Network reality television series American Idol, along with Paula Abdul (2002–2009), Simon Cowell (2002–2010), Kara DioGuardi (2009–2010), Ellen DeGeneres (2010), Jennifer Lopez (2011–2012), Steven Tyler (2011–2012), Nicki Minaj (2013), Mariah Carey (2013) and Keith Urban (2013). As a result of Cowell's departure, Jackson was left as the sole original judge on American Idol. His role was originally going to be reduced to that of a mentor, so the 2013 season would have all new judges,[9] but it was later decided that he would remain as a judge for season 12.[10] On May 9, 2013, Jackson announced that he would be leaving American Idol after twelve seasons due to him wanting to focus on other business ventures.[11] On September 3, 2013, it was announced that Jackson would replace Jimmy Iovine as the in-house mentor on American Idol.[12] He departed the series for good in November 2014.[13]
America's Best Dance Crew
Jackson produces America's Best Dance Crew, an American group dance competition and reality television show, which premiered on February 7, 2008 on MTV and was cancelled in 2010 due to declining ratings.[14] Each week, the teams showcase their creative talents in choreography and their dance skills, and one crew is eliminated by the judges. The competition continues until the sole winning dance crew is awarded the title of America's Best Dance Crew, and a cash prize of $100,000.[15] Jackson has admitted to using the show as a platform for his banner-making company.[citation needed]
Discography
Albums
Year
Album details
Chart positions
US
US R&B
2008 Randy Jackson's Music Club, Vol. 1
Released: March 11, 2008
Label: Dream Merchant
50 33
Singles
Year
Single
Peak chart positions
Album
US
US Pop
US Dance
US AC
CAN
2008 "Dance Like There's No Tomorrow" (with Paula Abdul) 62 48 2 29 68 Randy Jackson's Music Club, Vol. 1
"Real Love" (with Katharine McPhee and Elliott Yamin) — — — — —
"—" denotes releases that did not chart
References
Jump up ^ Randy Jackson | America's Best Dance Crew (Season 4), MTV.com
Jump up ^ Randy Jackson Biography (1956–), FilmReference.com
Jump up ^ "Photograph of Randy Jackson family". Black Celebrity Kids.
Jump up ^ Neal, Rome (2004-02-02). "Idol Nearly Half The Man, Randy Jackson Goes On The Lighter Side For A New Look". CBS News. Retrieved 2013-12-13.
Jump up ^ Erickson, Sturdevant (2006). Stryper: Loud n' Clear (unabridged audio ed.). Maryland: Classic CD Books. ISBN 0-9764805-4-9.
Jump up ^ Locke, Kimberley. "New Single – Strobe Light", Official Kimberley Locke Blog, February 8, 2010.
Jump up ^ Randy Jackson's Hit List, RJHitList.com
Jump up ^ "Randy Jackson's Hit List". Affiliates.westwoodone.com. Retrieved 2013-12-13.
Jump up ^ D'Addario, Daniel (2012-08-31). "Randy Jackson No Longer American Idol Judge". Observer. Retrieved 2013-12-13.
Jump up ^ Ross, Dalton (2012-09-10). "Simon Cowell tweets Randy Jackson 'back on Idol'". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 2013-12-13.
Jump up ^ Randy Jackson is Leaving 'American Idol' After This Season. Retrieved May 9, 2013
Jump up ^ Official: J. Lo and Harry Connick Jr. join 'American Idol' Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved September 3, 2013
Jump up ^ Randy Jackson exiting 'American Idol' Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved November 12, 2014
Jump up ^ Marechal, AJ (2012-11-11). "Music stops for 'Best Dance Crew'". Variety. Retrieved 2012-11-11.
Jump up ^ "Randy Jackson is executive producer of ‘America’s Best Dance Crew.’". Boston Herald. Associated Press. February 6, 2008. Retrieved February 25, 2008.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Randy Jackson.
Official website
Randy Jackson's Hit List from Westwood One
Randy Jackson on IMDb
Randy Jackson on Facebook
Preceded by
Bob Glaub Journey bass-guitarist
1986 Succeeded by
Ross Valory
Preceded by
None Judge on American Idol
2002–2013 Succeeded by
Harry Connick Jr.
[show]
v
t
e
American Idol
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Finalists
Winners
Kelly Clarkson
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Taylor Hicks
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Candice Glover
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Runners-up
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Kree Harrison
Jena Irene
Clark Beckham
La'Porsha Renae
Winners' singles
"A Moment Like This"
"Flying Without Wings"
"I Believe"
"Inside Your Heaven"
"Do I Make You Proud"
"This Is My Now"
"The Time of My Life"
"No Boundaries"
"Beautiful Day"
"I Love You This Big"
"Home"
"I Am Beautiful"
"As Long as You Love Me"
"Beautiful Life"
"Falling"
Concert tours
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Related programming
Idol (series)
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The American Idol Experience
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Winners
Jabbawockeez
Super Cr3w
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I.aM.mE
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[show]
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t
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Journey
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Steve Smith
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Randy Jackson
Steve Augeri
Deen Castronovo
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Don't Stop Believin': Everyman's Journey
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"Love Is the Drug"
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WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 58787724
LCCN: no2004026464
ISNI: 0000 0001 1492 2266
MusicBrainz: 39828c81-cc39-4e8a-8e00-f0874c657d47
NKC: xx0082663
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Randy_Jackson&oldid=806949492"
Categories:
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Bank of England 10s note
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Ten shillings
(United Kingdom)
Value
10/-
Width
140 mm
Height
67 mm
Paper type
Cotton
Years of printing
1928–1969
Obverse
Design
Queen Elizabeth II
Design date
12 October 1961
Reverse
Design
Bank of England logo
Design date
12 October 1961
The Bank of England 10s note was a banknote of the pound sterling. Ten shillings in pre-decimal money (written 10s or 10/-) was equivalent to half of one pound. The ten-shilling note was the smallest denomination note ever issued by the Bank of England. The note was issued by the Bank of England for the first time in 1928 and continued to be printed until 1969. The note ceased to be legal tender in 1970 and was removed in favour of the fifty pence coin.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Designs
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
Obverse side of the ten-shilling banknote issued by HM Treasury
In the 18th and 19th centuries, banknotes were handwritten or part-printed and could be exchanged, in whole or in part, for an equivalent amount of gold when presented at the bank. During the First World War the British Government wanted to maintain its stocks of bullion and so banks were ordered to stop exchanging banknotes for gold. One pound and 10 shilling notes were introduced by the Treasury in lieu of gold sovereigns. These notes were nicknamed "Bradburys" because of the prominent signature of Sir John Bradbury, Permanent Secretary to the Treasury displayed on the notes.[1] Britain returned to the gold standard in 1925, but the Bank of England was only obliged to exchange notes for gold in multiples of 400 ounces or more.[clarification needed] The responsibility for the printing of ten-shilling notes was transferred to the Bank of England in 1928, and the right to redeem banknotes for gold ceased in 1931 when Britain stopped using the gold standard.[2]
The first Bank of England ten-shilling notes were two-sided, red, printed banknotes featuring the declaration "I promise to pay the bearer on demand the sum of ten shillings" on the front. This declaration remains on Bank of England banknotes to this day. In 1940, during the Second World War, ten-shilling notes were issued in a new mauve and grey colour scheme in order to deter counterfeiters, although the design remained the same. At the same time, a metallic thread running through the paper was introduced as a security feature. After the war ten-shilling notes were issued in their original red colour. The earliest post-World War II notes did not have the metallic thread security feature, but those issued from October 1948 onward did.[1]
A new design for ten-shilling notes was introduced in 1961, with the old notes ceasing to be legal tender in 1962. These new series C notes were slightly longer and narrower, and were the first ten-shilling notes to feature a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II on the front. The reverse design incorporated the logo of the Bank of England.[1] In the late 1960s it was decided that future banknotes should feature a British historical figure on the reverse. The first such note was the series D £20 note, first issued in 1970, featuring William Shakespeare. A design for a ten-shilling note featuring Walter Raleigh on the reverse was approved in 1964 but was never issued.[3] Instead, in 1969, as part of the process of decimalisation, a new fifty pence coin was introduced as a replacement for the ten-shilling note. The principal reason for the change was economy: the notes had an average lifetime of about five months whereas coins could last at least fifty years.[4] The series C ten shilling notes ceased to be legal tender on 22 November 1970.[1] In the Isle of Man, both the English and Manx Ten Shilling Notes continued to be legal tender for fifty new pence until 2013.[5]
Designs[edit]
Note
First issued
Last issued
Ceased to be legal tender
Colour
Size
Design
Additional information
Series A (1st issue) 22 November 1928 Unknown 29 October 1962 Red-brown 138 × 78 mm
Emergency wartime issue 2 April 1940 Unknown 22 October 1962 Mauve and grey 138 × 78 mm Incorporated metal thread for the first time; same design as series A
Series A (2nd issue) 17 June 1948 Unknown 29 October 1962 Brown 138 × 78 mm Reissue of unthreaded pre-war notes
Series A (3rd issue) 25 October 1948 Unknown 29 October 1962 Brown 138 × 78 mm Metal thread introduced permanently
Series C 12 October 1961 13 October 1969 22 November 1970 Red-brown 140 × 67 mm Front: Queen Elizabeth II; Back: Bank of England logo First 10/- note to carry portrait of monarch
Series D N/A Red-brown 121 × 62 mm Front: Queen Elizabeth II; Back: Sir Walter Raleigh Intended as 50p note following decimalisation; never issued
Information taken from Bank of England website.[1][2]
See also[edit]
Bank of England note issues
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Withdrawn banknotes reference guide" (PDF). Bank of England. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "A brief history of banknotes". Bank of England. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Reverses of English Banknotes". British Notes. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "New 50-pence coin sparks confusion". BBC News. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Withdrawal of Manx Plastic £1 note". Isle of Man Government. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
External links[edit]
Bank of England website
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See also
Pound sterling
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Economy of the United Kingdom
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bank_of_England_10s_note&oldid=849788409"
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