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Columbian Exchange
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New World native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. Maize (Zea mays) 2. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) 3. Potato (Solanum tuberosum) 4. Vanilla (Vanilla) 5. Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) 6. Cacao (Theobroma cacao) 7. Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica)
Old World native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. Citrus (Rutaceae); 2. Apple (Malus domestica); 3. Banana (Musa); 4. Mango (Mangifera); 5. Onion (Allium); 6. Coffee (Coffea); 7. Wheat (Triticum spp.); 8. Rice (Oryza sativa)
The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries, related to European colonization and trade after Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage.[1] Invasive species, including communicable diseases, were a byproduct of the Exchange. The changes in agriculture significantly altered and changed global populations. However, the most significant immediate impact of the Columbian Exchange was the cultural exchanges and the transfer of people between continents. Furthermore, a byproduct of the Columbian Exchange was the Atlantic slave trade, where as many as 12.5 million enslaved African people were forcibly transferred as a labor source to other regions.[2]
The new contact between the global population circulated a wide variety of crops and livestock, which supported increases in population in both hemispheres, although diseases initially caused precipitous declines in the numbers of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Traders returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which became very important crops in Europe by the 18th century.
The term was first used in 1972 by American historian Alfred W. Crosby in his environmental history book The Columbian Exchange.[3] It was rapidly adopted by other historians and journalists and has become widely known.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin of the term
2 Influence
2.1 Crops
2.1.1 Tomatoes
2.2 Livestock
2.3 Disease
2.4 Columbian Exchange and the trans-Atlantic slave trade
2.4.1 Context and relevant history
2.4.2 The beginning of the trans-Atlantic slave trade
2.5 Cultural exchanges
3 Organism examples
4 Later history
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Origin of the term[edit]
In 1972 Alfred W. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin, published The Columbian Exchange.[3] This book covers the environmental impact of Columbus' landing in the new world.[4]
The term has become popular among historians and journalists, such as Charles C. Mann, whose book 1493 expands and updates Crosby's original research.[5]
Influence[edit]
Inca-era terraces on Taquile are used to grow traditional Andean staples such as quinoa and potatoes, alongside wheat, a European introduction.
Crops[edit]
Portuguese trading animals in Japan; detail of Nanban panel (1570–1616)
Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of South America. By the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that the proximate cause of the Great Famine was a potato disease.[6] Potatoes eventually became an important staple of the diet in much of Europe. Many European rulers, including Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, encouraged the cultivation of the potato.[7]
Maize and cassava, introduced to the Portuguese from South America in the 16th century,[8] have replaced sorghum and millet as Africa's most important food crops.[9] 16th-century Spanish colonizers introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia.[10]
Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New World via Spain, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value (see below). From the 19th century tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cuisine and, ultimately, Italian cuisine in general.[11] Coffee (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the Middle East and sugarcane (introduced from South Asia) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America have become an integral part of Indian cuisine.[12]
Before the Columbian Exchange, there were no oranges in Florida, no bananas in Ecuador, no paprika in Hungary, no potatoes in Ireland, no coffee in Colombia, no pineapples in Hawaii, no rubber trees in Africa, no chili peppers in Thailand, no tomatoes in Italy, and no chocolate in Switzerland.
Tomatoes[edit]
It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become widely accepted. Of all the New World plants introduced to Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In large part this was due to 16th-century physicians believing that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of "melancholic humours." In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548 the tomato was given its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo I de' Medici, Duke of Florence, wrote to the De' Medici's private secretary that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely." At this time, the label pomi d'oro was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.[13]
In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovan Vettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty" and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Spain wrote, "it is said [tomatoes] are good for sauces." Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato sauce was developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around 32,000 acres (12,950 ha) of tomatoes are cultivated in Italy, although there are still areas where relatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.[13]
Livestock[edit]
Further information: Plains Indians § The horse
Initially, at least, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went through one route, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, large dogs, cats and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses.[14] One of the first European exports to the Americas, the horse, changed the lives of many Native American tribes in the mountains. They shifted to a nomadic lifestyle, as opposed to agriculture, based on hunting bison on horseback and moved down to the Great Plains. The existing Plains tribes expanded their territories with horses, and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth.[15]
Still, the effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World were not always positive. In the Caribbean, the proliferation of European animals had large effects on native fauna and undergrowth and damaged conucos, plots managed by indigenous peoples for subsistence.[16]
Disease[edit]
Further information: Influx of disease in the Caribbean
European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle-cell disease.[1]:164
Before regular communication had been established between the two hemispheres, the varieties of domesticated animals and infectious diseases that jumped to humans, such as smallpox, were substantially more numerous in the Old World than in the New due to more extensive long-distance trade networks. Many had migrated west across Eurasia with animals or people, or were brought by traders from Asia, so diseases of two continents were suffered by all occupants. While Europeans and Asians were affected by the Eurasian diseases, their endemic status in those continents over centuries resulted in many people gaining acquired immunity.
By contrast, "Old World" diseases had a devastating effect when introduced to Native American populations via European carriers, as the people in the Americas had no natural immunity to the new diseases. Measles caused many deaths. The smallpox epidemics are believed to have caused the largest death tolls among Native Americans, surpassing any wars[17] and far exceeding the comparative loss of life in Europe due to the Black Death.[1]:164 It is estimated that upwards of 80–95 percent of the Native American population died in these epidemics within the first 100–150 years following 1492. Many regions in the Americas lost 100%.[1]:165 The beginning of demographic collapse on the North American continent has typically been attributed to the spread of a well-documented smallpox epidemic from Hispaniola in December 1518.[16] At that point in time, approximately only 10,000 indigenous people were still alive in Hispaniola.[16]
Similarly, yellow fever is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave trade. Because it was endemic in Africa, many people there had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African-descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and continuing into the late 19th century. The disease caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave-based sugar plantation.[16] The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical area by reducing the number of potential natural predators.[16] Yet, the means of the transmission was unknown until 1881, when Carlos Finlay suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes, now known to be female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti.[16]
The history of syphilis has been well-studied, but the exact origin of the disease is unknown and remains a subject of debate.[18] There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized.[19] These are referred to as the "Columbian" and "pre-Columbian" hypotheses.[19] The first written descriptions of the disease in the Old World came in 1493.[20] The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494/1495 in Naples, Italy, among the army of Charles VIII, during their invasion of Naples.[19][21][22][23]
Columbian Exchange and the trans-Atlantic slave trade[edit]
Context and relevant history[edit]
Main article: Atlantic slave trade
Prior to the trans-Atlantic slave trade, Columbus directly participated in and championed the slave trade. Upon landing in what is now known and assumed to be San Salvador Island, Columbus encountered the Taíno. In his journal of 1492, Columbus noted that
It appears to me, that the people are ingenious and would be good servants and I am of opinion that they would very readily become Christians, as they appear to have no religion. They very quickly learn such words as are spoken to them. If it please our Lord, I intend at my return to carry home six of them to your Highnesses, that they may learn our language.[24]
The idea of enslaving the Tainos had instantly struck Columbus as plausible, even desirable. "They ought to be good servants," he continued, "and of good skill, for I see they repeat very quickly whatever was said to them."[25] As part of his journey,
Columbus had planned to inaugurate a regular slave trade between the Indies and Spain. With gold in short supply, the slave trade gradually took on greater urgency. Portugal and Genoa had their slave trade, why not Spain? Columbus set about establishing a slave trade including both Caribs and Tainos.[26]
However, it was not until the colonized lands emerged as profitable plantation lands that the use of West African people as slaves transformed the globe.
Following Columbus were a series of Spaniards seeking to expand the Spanish empire while at the same time increasing their own power and wealth. Such an example was explorer Hernán Cortés. Cortés was interested in expanding the Spanish-controlled lands and often disobeyed his rulers in the process. However, the Spanish royalty was struggling to accurately define the policy related to the enslavement of the Taínos and other Caribbean people. Mann notes that "obtaining the wealth of the Americas would involve subjugating people who had committed no offense against Spain".[27] Like Cortez, Columbus angered the Spanish royalty through subjugating and enslaving the native people. For example, Columbus sent 550 Taíno to Seville in 1495.[28] The parade of enslaved Taíno in Seville angered Queen Isabella to the point that she ordered the Spanish to send the enslaved people back to the Americas.[citation needed] By 1503, the Spanish solidified their policy through the implementation of the encomienda system. This system was supposed to ensure the safety and freedom of the Taíno and other indigenous populations, while also converting them to Christianity. To achieve these goals, Spaniards were appointed as trustees who oversaw the religious instruction and treatment of the people. However, the trustees did not like working with the Taíno, and the Taíno resisted the efforts of the Spaniards. For the Taíno, this system represented a "legal justification for slavery" and the Spaniards justified the enslavement of the people through arguing that the Taíno were "less human than Europeans".[29]
These earlier forays into the enslavement of people laid the foundation for the future trans-Atlantic slave trade. Like other enslaved people, the Taíno and other enslaved Indians had periods of rebellion. Indigenous peoples in what is now known as New Mexico resisted early Spanish colonization and enslavement, resulting in the Acoma Massacre under Juan de Oñate at Acoma Pueblo. In recounting this event, it was said,
[W]hat had happened was that the Indians, as soon as they saw that the forces were divided, began to attack and kill. So this witness fell back immediately with his soldiers to rejoin the maese de campo, followed by the Indians who had hitherto accompanied this witness. They paused the Spaniards in large groups, and began to hurl countless stones, arrows, and clubs, not only from the ground but from the terraces, both men and women participating in the attack.[30]
When the colonized lands emerged as profitable plantation lands, the Spanish and other colonizers increased the importation of Africans as enslaved laborers, altering global demographics.
The beginning of the trans-Atlantic slave trade[edit]
The trans-Atlantic Slave Trade represents the largest migration in human history. While many Europeans migrated to the Americas, it was enslaved Africans that dominated the North and South American continents. The Columbian Exchange saw the rise of luxury goods which necessitated cheap or free labor to produce the largest potential profit. One of these luxury goods was sugar. In the early history of sugar, Islamic and European-owned plantations paid relatively high wages for this labor-intensive and profitable crop. However, as time progressed the European-sugar plantation owners reconsidered the use of highly paid labor and made the transition to the exploitation of people to meet the growing global sugar demand.[31] In the 1440s, the Portuguese discovered that the Madeira Islands were suited not to the growth of wheat but rather sugarcane. It was in Madeira that the early system of Iberian slavery was transformed. Originally, the enslaved people who worked on the Madeira sugarcane plantations were convicts, Guanches (persons from the Canary Islands), Berbers (individuals from Northwest Africa), and Conversos (Iberian Jewish people). As time passed, these early enslaved people were replaced by enslaved Africans from the West-Central African regions [32]). Eventually, by the 1560s and 1570s sugarcane plantations in Brazil dominated the sugar industry and Madeira switched from sugarcane production to wine.
The use of slave labor was not regulated to only the sugarcane plantations. Rather, slave labor was used in coffee, tobacco and even grains such as rice. In these systems, the enslaved people had little power, however, they did have some influence in agricultural methods. For example, in the rice production there is some evidence that slaves from Africa utilized traditional methods in the production of rice. Furthermore, enslaved Africans were responsible for growing their own food. In these cases, the enslaved people preferred rice that was part of their culture as opposed to the European preference for Carolina rice. However, in a system of power and control the slaves were eventually banned from using their preferred rice [33] Therefore, the system of slavery transmitted not only the people but also their cultures to new regions.
Cultural exchanges[edit]
One of the influences related to the migration of people were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800" Pieter Remmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a 'clash of cultures' had begun in the Atlantic".[34] This clash of culture transferred European values to indigenous cultures. For example, the emergence of private property in regions where there were little to no rights to lands, the concepts of monogamy and the nuclear family, the role of women and children in the family system, and the "superiority of free labor".[35] An example of this type of cultural exchange occurred during the 1500s in North America. When these early European colonizers first entered North America, they encountered fence-less lands which indicated to them that this land was unimproved. For these Europeans, they were seeking economic opportunities, therefore, land and resources were important for the success of the mission. When these colonizers entered North America they encountered a fully established culture of people called the Powhatan. The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots within larger cleared areas. These larger cleared areas were a communal place for naturally growing and useful plants. As the Europeans viewed fences as "hallmarks of civilization" they set about transforming "the land into something more suitable for themselves".[36] In implementing their practices, the Europeans enslaved, murdered, and exploited indigenous populations. Furthermore, in cases of enslaved peoples (and in particular, enslaved Africans) the Europeans simultaneously implemented their value system while at the same time justifying enslaving people through a philosophy which reduced the enslaved people to property. Thus, the slave traders and some of the plantation owners used the concept of family to exploit and control the enslaved people. In other subtle ways, which had a large impact the cultural exchanges involved sharing practices and traditions. An example of this can be found in the Tobacco industry.
Tobacco was one of the luxury goods which was spread as a direct result of the Columbian Exchange. As is discussed in regard to the trans-Atlantic Slave trade, the Tobacco Industry resulted in increased demands for free labor and the spread of Tobacco worldwide. In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish physician Nicolas Monardes (1493–1588) noted that "The black people that have gone from these parts to the Indies, has taken the same manner and use of the Tobacco, that the Indians have".[37] As the European colonizers and enslaved Africans traveled the globe and came into contact with indigenous people they took the cultural practices related to tobacco, adopted them, and then spread them to additional regions. As such, there were growing demands for tobacco which were linked to the cultural exchanges and increased contact between people.
Organism examples[edit]
See also: New World crops, Agriculture in Mesoamerica, and Muisca agriculture
Post-Columbian transfers of native organisms with close ties to humans
Type of organism
Old World to New World
New World to Old World
Domesticated animals
cat (domestic – wild species already present)
cattle
chicken
donkey
goat (the goats of the Old World, genus Capra, are different from the mountain goat of the New World, genus Oreamnos)
guineafowl
honey bee (European honey bee – other wild and domesticated species already present)
horse
rabbit (domestic)
pig
sheep (domestic)
water buffalo
alpaca
guinea pig
llama
Muscovy duck
turkey
Cultivated plants
almond
apple
apricot
asparagus
banana (including cooking banana)
barley
basil
beetroot
Brassica oleracea-derived vegetables
broccoli
Brussels sprout
cabbage
cauliflower
collard greens
kale
cantaloupe
carrot
celery
chickpea
citrus (orange, lemon, etc.)
coffee
common fig
coriander (also known as cilantro)
cucumber
cumin
eggplant
Elaeis (oil palm)
fennel
flax
garlic
ginger
hemp (including cannabis)
leek
lentil
lettuce
mango
millet
Momordica charantia (bitter melon)
oat
okra
olive
onion
opium
oregano
pea
peach
pear
pistachio
pomegranate
radish
rice
rye
sesame
sorghum
soybean
spinach
sugarcane and sugar beet
turmeric
turnip
watermelon
wheat
yam (sometimes misnamed "sweet potato")
Acca sellowiana (feijoa, pineapple guava, Brazilian guava, guavasteen)
Annona reticulata (custard apple)
agave
allspice
amaranth (as grain)
arrowroot or Maranta arundinacea
avocado
bell pepper
Calathea allouia (leren)
Canna indica (achira)
cashew
cassava (manioc, tapioca, yuca)
chili pepper
cherimoya
cocoa bean
cotton (long-staple species)
cranberry (large cranberry, or bearberry species)
cucurbita (squash)
Eryngium foetidum (culantro, Mexican coriander)
guava (common)
Helianthus (sunflower)
Jerusalem artichoke
Pachyrhizus erosus (jícama)
maize (corn)
Manilkara zapota (sapodilla)
Opuntia ficus-indica (prickly pear)
papaya
passionfruit
peanut
pecan
Phaseolus vulgaris (beans: pinto, lima, kidney, etc.)
pineapple
pitaya (dragon fruit)
potato
pumpkin
quinoa
soursop
stevia
strawberry (commercial varieties)
sugar-apple
sweet potato
tobacco
tomato
vanilla
yerba mate
yucca
zucchini (courgette)
Infectious diseases
bubonic plague
chickenpox
cholera
diphtheria
influenza
leprosy
malaria
measles
pertussis
scarlet fever
smallpox
typhoid fever
typhus
yaws
yellow fever
Chagas disease
Nonvenereal endemic syphilis
pinta
syphilis (disputed)
Later history[edit]
Further information: Introduced species, Invasive species, and Lists of invasive species
Plants that arrived by land, sea, or air in the times before 1492 are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are called neophytes. Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced by chance, including such weeds as tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Japan to the United States to help control soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in the new environment.
Fungi have also been transported, such as the one responsible for Dutch elm disease, killing American elms in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive species have become serious ecosystem and economic problems after establishing in the New World environments.[38][39] A beneficial, although probably unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible for lager beer now thought to have originated in Patagonia.[40]
In addition to these, many animals were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world either accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals as brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New World), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships.[41] Escaped and feral populations of non-indigenous animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, often negatively impacting or displacing native species. In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses and cattle are common, and Burmese pythons are considered problematic. In the Old World, Eastern gray squirrel have been particularly successful in colonising Great Britain and populations of raccoons can now be found in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American mink have extensive populations. Canada geese are also common.
See also[edit]
Agriculture and agronomy portal
Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal
New Spain portal
Alfred W. Crosby
Domestication
Great American Interchange
Glossary of invasion biology terms
Guns, Germs, and Steel
Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Transformed the World
List of food plants native to the Americas
Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
Transformation of culture
1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created
1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ de Vorsey, Louis (2001). "The Tragedy of the Columbian Exchange". In McIlwraith, Thomas F; Muller, Edward K. North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 27. Thanks to…Crosby's work, the term 'Columbian exchange' is now widely used…
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Jump up ^ This transfer reintroduced horses to the Americas, as the species had died out there prior to the development of the modern horse in Eurasia.
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Jump up ^ Smith, Tara C. (December 23, 2015). "Thanks Columbus! The true story of how syphilis spread to Europe". Quartz. Retrieved 1 September 2016. The first cases of the disease in the Old World were described in 1493.
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Jump up ^ A New Skeleton and an Old Debate About Syphilis; The Atlantic; Cari Romm; February 18, 2016
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Jump up ^ Thomas, Hugh (2005). Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire, from Columbus to Magellan (2005 Random House Trade pbk. ed.). New York: Random House Trade paperbacks. p. 155. ISBN 0812970551. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Mann, loc. 5553
Jump up ^ Hammond, George P. and Agapito Rey (editors and translators). Don Juan de Oñate, Colonizer of New Mexico, 1595–1628. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1953). Volume 5, pages 428–479
Jump up ^ Mann, Charles. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. New York, New York: Vintage Books, 2011. loc. 5359)
Jump up ^ Mann, Charles. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. New York, New York: Vintage Books, 2011. 5407-54239)
Jump up ^ Hawthorne, Walter "Labor Over 'Brown' Rice", in From Africa to Brazil, p. 137-72
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Jump up ^ Emmer, Pieter. "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800." European Review 11, no. 1. Feb. 2003. p. 46
Jump up ^ Mann, Charles. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. New York, New York: Vintage Books, 2011. loc. 1094 and 1050
Jump up ^ Monardes, Nicholas. "Of the Tabaco and of his Greate Vertues." Frampton, John trans, Wolf, Michael, ed. Taboacco.org. Accessed June 1, 2017 http://archive.tobacco.org/History/monardes.html
Jump up ^ Simberloff, Daniel (2000). "Introduced Species: The Threat to Biodiversity & What Can Be Done". American Institute of Biological Sciences: Bringing biology to informed decision making.
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Jump up ^ Hoddle, M. S. "Quagga & Zebra Mussels". Center for Invasive Species Research, University of California, Riverside . Retrieved June 29, 2010.
External links[edit]
The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the Old and New Worlds by Alfred W. Crosby (2009)
Worlds Together, Worlds Apart by Jeremy Adelman, Stephen Aron, Stephen Kotkin, et al.
Foods that Changed the World by Steven R. King from the Wayback Machine
The Columbian Exchange video, study guide, analysis, and teaching guide
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South Korea at the Olympics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
South Korea at the
Olympics
IOC code
KOR
NOC
Korean Olympic Committee
Website
www.sports.or.kr (in Korean) (in English)
Medals
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
121 112 104 337
Summer appearances
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
2004
2008
2012
2016
Winter appearances
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1994
1998
2002
2006
2010
2014
2018
Other related appearances
Korea (2018)
The Republic of Korea (commonly known as South Korea) first participated at the Olympic Games in 1948, and has sent athletes to compete in every Summer Olympic Games since then, except for 1980 which they boycotted. South Korea has also participated in every Winter Olympic Games since 1948, except for the 1952 games.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Hosted Games
3 Medal tables
3.1 Medals by Summer Games
3.2 Medals by Winter Games
3.3 Medals by summer sport
3.4 Medals by winter sport
4 Most successful Olympians
4.1 Notes
5 Participated event by competition
5.1 Summer Olympics
5.2 Winter Olympics
6 References
7 External links
8 See also
History[edit]
The first Korean athletes to win medals did so at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, when Sohn Kee-chung and Nam Sung-yong won gold and bronze respectively in the men's marathon. However, as Korea was under Japanese rule at that time, and, since both athletes were members of the Japanese team, the IOC credits both medals to Japan.
South Korea won its first medals as an independent nation at its first appearance in 1948, and won its first gold medal in 1976. South Korean athletes have won a total of 267 medals at the Summer Games, with the most gold medals won in archery, and 70 medals at the Winter Games, a majority in short track speed skating. The nation has won more medals in this winter sport than any other nation since it was introduced to the Olympic program in 1992.
The National Olympic Committee for Korea is the Korean Olympic Committee, and was founded in 1946 and recognized in 1947.
During the 1998-2007 Sunshine Policy era, South Korea and North Korea symbolically marched as one team at the opening ceremonies of the 2000 and 2004 Olympics; but competed separately.
Hosted Games[edit]
The Republic of Korea has hosted the Games on two occasions:
Games
Host city
Dates
Nations
Participants
Events
1988 Summer Olympics Seoul 17 September – 2 October 160 8,391 263
2018 Winter Olympics Pyeongchang 9 – 25 February 92 2,952 102
Medal tables[edit]
See also: All-time Olympic Games medal count
*Red border color indicates tournament was held on home soil.
Medals by Summer Games[edit]
Games
Athletes
Gold Silver Bronze
Total
Rank
1948 London 50 0 0 2 2 32
1952 Helsinki 19 0 0 2 2 37
1956 Melbourne 35 0 1 1 2 29
1960 Rome 36 0 0 0 0 –
1964 Tokyo 154 0 2 1 3 27
1968 Mexico City 54 0 1 1 2 36
1972 Munich 42 0 1 0 1 33
1976 Montreal 50 1 1 4 6 19
1980 Moscow did not participate
1984 Los Angeles 175 6 6 7 19 10
1988 Seoul 401 12 10 11 33 4
1992 Barcelona 226 12 5 12 29 7
1996 Atlanta 300 7 15 5 27 10
2000 Sydney 281 8 10 10 28 12
2004 Athens 264 9 12 9 30 9
2008 Beijing 267 13 11 8 32 7
2012 London 248 13 9 8 30 5
2016 Rio de Janeiro 204 9 3 9 21 8
2020 Tokyo future event
2024 Paris
2028 Los Angeles
Total
90
87
90
267
15
Medals by Winter Games[edit]
Games
Athletes
Gold Silver Bronze
Total
Rank
1948 St. Moritz 3 0 0 0 0 –
1952 Oslo did not participate
1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo 4 0 0 0 0 –
1960 Squaw Valley 7 0 0 0 0 –
1964 Innsbruck 7 0 0 0 0 –
1968 Grenoble 8 0 0 0 0 –
1972 Sapporo 5 0 0 0 0 –
1976 Innsbruck 3 0 0 0 0 –
1980 Lake Placid 10 0 0 0 0 –
1984 Sarajevo 15 0 0 0 0 –
1988 Calgary 28 0 0 0 0 –
1992 Albertville 23 2 1 1 4 10
1994 Lillehammer 24 4 1 1 6 6
1998 Nagano 38 3 1 2 6 9
2002 Salt Lake City 48 2 2 0 4 14
2006 Turin 41 6 3 2 11 7
2010 Vancouver 46 6 6 2 14 5
2014 Sochi 71 3 3 2 8 13
2018 Pyeongchang 122 5 8 4 17 7
2022 Beijing Future event
Total
31
25
14
70
15
Medals by summer sport[edit]
Leading in that sport
Sport
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
Archery 23 9 7 39
Taekwondo 12 2 5 19
Judo 11 16 16 43
Wrestling 11 11 14 36
Shooting 7 8 1 16
Badminton 6 7 6 19
Fencing 4 2 5 11
Boxing 3 7 10 20
Weightlifting 3 6 6 15
Table tennis 3 3 12 18
Handball 2 4 1 7
Gymnastics 1 4 4 9
Swimming 1 3 0 4
Athletics 1 1 0 2
Baseball 1 0 1 2
Golf 1 0 0 1
Field hockey 0 3 0 3
Basketball 0 1 0 1
Football 0 0 1 1
Volleyball 0 0 1 1
Total
90
87
90
267
Medals by winter sport[edit]
Leading in that sport
Sport
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
Short track speed skating 24 13 11 48
Speed skating 5 8 3 16
Figure skating 1 1 0 2
Skeleton 1 0 0 1
Bobsleigh 0 1 0 1
Curling 0 1 0 1
Snowboarding 0 1 0 1
Total
31
25
14
70
Most successful Olympians[edit]
A South Korean volunteer at the Games of the XXIV Olympiad.
Athlete
Sport
Type
Olympics
Gold Silver Bronze Total
Jin Jong-oh Shooting Summer 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016 4 2 0 6
Kim Soo-Nyung Archery Summer 1988, 1992, 2000 4 1 1 6
Chun Lee-Kyung Short track speed skating Winter 1992, 1994, 1998 4 0 1 5
Park Sung-Hyun Archery Summer 2004, 2008 3 1 0 4
Ahn Hyun-Soo Short track speed skating Winter 2002, 2006 3 0 1 4
Jin Sun-Yu Short track speed skating Winter 2006 3 0 0 3
Yun Mi-Jin Archery Summer 2000, 2004 3 0 0 3
Kim Ki-Hoon Short track speed skating Winter 1992, 1994 3 0 0 3
Notes[edit]
On 11 February 2014, Lee Sang-hwa won the gold medal for the women's 500m longtrack speedskating race at the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics, having previously won the one at the 2010 Games. She became the third woman and first Korean woman to win back-to-back golds at the 500m.[1][2]
Yuna Kim won a gold medal at Vancouver and a silver medal at Sochi for Women's Figure Skating
Participated event by competition[edit]
Summer Olympics[edit]
Nation
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
84
88
92
96
00
04
08
12
16
20
Archery • • • • • • • • •
Athletics • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Badminton d e • • • • • • •
Baseball d d d d d • • •
Basketball • • • • • • • • • •
Bowling d
Boxing • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Canoeing and kayaking • • • • • • • •
Cycling • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Diving • • • • • • • • • •
Equestrian • • • • • • • •
Fencing • • • • • • • • • •
Field hockey • • • • • • • •
Football • • • • • • • • • •
Gymnastics • • • • • • • • • • • •
Handball • • • • • • • • •
Judo • • • • • • • • • • • •
Modern pentathlon • • • • • • • • •
Rowing • • • • • • • • • •
Sailing • • • • • • • • •
Shooting • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Swimming • • • • • • • • • • • •
Synchronized swimming • • • •
Table tennis • • • • • • • •
Taekwondo d d • • • • •
Tennis d d • • • • • •
Triathlon •
Volleyball • • • • • • • • • • • •
Water polo •
Weightlifting • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Wrestling • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
d : demonstration sports
e : exhibition sports
Winter Olympics[edit]
Event
48
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
84
88
92
94
98
02
06
10
14
18
Alpine skiing • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Biathlon • • • • • • • • •
Bobsleigh • • •
Cross country skiing • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Curling • •
Figure skating • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Freestyle skiing • • • •
Ice hockey •
Luge • • • • • •
Nordic combined •
Short track speed skating d • • • • • • • •
Skeleton • • • • •
Ski jumping • • • • • •
Snowboarding • • •
Speed skating • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
d : Demonstration sports
References[edit]
Jump up ^ James O'Brien (2014-02-11). "Heather Richardson falls short of medal, Lee Sang-hwa wins 500m gold". NBC News.
Jump up ^ Yonhap News Agency (2014-02-11). "(Olympics) Speed skater Lee Sang-hwa poised for gold in women's 500 meters". GlobalPost.
External links[edit]
"Republic of Korea". International Olympic Committee.
"Results and Medalists". Olympic.org. International Olympic Committee.
"Olympic Medal Winners". International Olympic Committee.
"South Korea". Sports-Reference.com.
See also[edit]
South Korea at the Paralympics
List of flag bearers for South Korea at the Olympics
Category:Olympic competitors for South Korea
South Korea at the Asian Games
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United States federal judge
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In the United States, the title of federal judge means a judge (Article Three of the United States Constitution) appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate pursuant to the Appointments Clause in Article II of the United States Constitution.
In addition to the Supreme Court of the United States, whose existence and some aspects of whose jurisdiction are beyond the constitutional power of Congress to alter, Congress has established 13 courts of appeals (also called "circuit courts") with appellate jurisdiction over different regions of the United States, and 94 United States district courts.
Every judge appointed to such a court may be categorized as a federal judge; such positions include the Chief Justice and Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, Circuit Judges of the courts of appeals, and district judges of the United States district courts. All of these judges described thus far are referred to sometimes as "Article III judges" because they exercise the judicial power vested in the judicial branch of the federal government by Article III of the U.S. Constitution. In addition, judges of the Court of International Trade exercise judicial power pursuant to Article III.
Other judges serving in the federal courts, including magistrate judges and bankruptcy judges, are also sometimes referred to as "federal judges"; however, they are neither appointed by the President nor confirmed by the Senate, and their power derives from Article I instead. See Article I and Article III tribunals.
Contents
[hide]
1 Powers and duties
2 Tenure and salary
3 Duty station
4 Discipline
5 Retirement
6 Number of judges
7 Non-Article III judges
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Powers and duties[edit]
The primary function of the federal judges is to resolve matters brought before the United States federal courts. Most federal courts in the United States are courts of general jurisdiction, meaning that they hear both civil and criminal cases falling within their jurisdiction. District Court judges are recognized as having such authority as is needed to dispose of matters brought before them, ranging from setting the dates for trials and hearings to holding parties in contempt or otherwise sanctioning them for improper behavior.
Tenure and salary[edit]
"Article III federal judges" (as opposed to judges of some courts with special jurisdictions) serve "during good behavior" (often paraphrased as appointed "for life"). Judges hold their seats until they resign, die, or are removed from office. Although the legal orthodoxy is that judges cannot be removed from office except by impeachment by the House of Representatives followed by conviction by the Senate, several legal scholars, including William Rehnquist, Saikrishna Prakash, and Steven D. Smith, have argued that the Good Behaviour Clause may, in theory, permit removal by way of a writ of scire facias filed before a federal court, without resort to impeachment.[1]
Since the impeachment process requires a trial by the United States Senate, and since the constitutional provision concerning federal judges' tenure cannot be changed without the ratifications of three-fourths of the states, federal judges have perhaps the best job security available in the United States. Moreover, the Constitution forbids Congress to diminish a federal judge's salary. Twentieth-century experience suggests that Congress is generally unwilling to take time out of its busy schedule to impeach and try a federal judge until, after criminal conviction, he or she is already in prison and still drawing a salary, which cannot otherwise be taken away (see Nixon v. United States, a key Supreme Court case about Congress's discretion in impeaching and trying federal judges).
As of 2015, federal district judges are paid $201,100 a year, circuit judges $213,300, Associate Justices of the Supreme Court $246,800 and the Chief Justice of the United States $258,100. All were permitted to earn a maximum of an additional $21,000 a year for teaching.[2]
Chief Justice John Roberts has repeatedly pleaded for an increase in judicial pay, calling the situation "a constitutional crisis that threatens to undermine the strength and independence of the federal judiciary".[3] The problem is that the most talented associates at the largest U.S. law firms with judicial clerkship experience (in other words, the attorneys most qualified to become the next generation of federal judges) already earn as much as a federal judge in their first year as full-time associates.[4] Thus, when those attorneys eventually become experienced partners and reach the stage in life where one would normally consider switching to public service, their interest in joining the judiciary is tempered by the prospect of a giant pay cut back to what they were making 10 to 20 years earlier (adjusted for inflation). One way for attorneys to soften the financial blow is to spend only a few years on the bench and then return to private practice or go into private arbitration, but such turnover creates a risk of a revolving door judiciary subject to regulatory capture.
Thus, Chief Justice Roberts has warned that "judges are no longer drawn primarily from among the best lawyers in the practicing bar" and "If judicial appointment ceases to be the capstone of a distinguished career and instead becomes a stepping stone to a lucrative position in private practice, the Framers' goal of a truly independent judiciary will be placed in serious jeopardy."[3]
Duty station[edit]
Each federal judge serves at a particular "duty station" for the duration of his or her federal service. This is important because of the relationship among several federal statutes. First, 28 U.S.C. § 456(a) entitles federal judges to reimbursement of transportation and "subsistence" expenses incurred while transacting official business away from their duty stations. Section 456 also prescribes that the District of Columbia is the duty station of all members of the U.S. Supreme Court, the D.C. Circuit, the Federal Circuit, and the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia.
Second, there are several reasons for why a federal judge would need to transact official business outside of their regular courthouse. 28 U.S.C. §§ 291 and 292 authorize a broad variety of temporary reassignments of circuit and district judges, both horizontally (i.e., to other circuits or districts) and vertically (so that a district judge can hear appeals and a circuit judge can try cases). Many federal judges serve on administrative panels like the judicial council for their circuit or the Judicial Conference of the United States. Some of the larger circuit courts like the Ninth Circuit hold regular sessions at multiple locations, and randomly select three-judge panels to hear appeals from all sitting circuit judges regardless of duty station. (Videoconferencing is sometimes now used to reduce the burden of frequent travel on circuit judges.)
Discipline[edit]
The discipline process of federal judges is initiated by the filing of a complaint by any person alleging that a judge has engaged in conduct "prejudicial to the effective and expeditious administration of the business of the courts, or alleging that such judge is unable to discharge all the duties of the office by reason of mental or physical disability."[5] If the chief judge of the circuit does not dismiss the complaint or conclude the proceedings, then he or she must promptly appoint himself or herself, along with equal numbers of circuit judges and district judges, to a special committee to investigate the facts and allegations in the complaint. The committee must conduct such investigation as it finds necessary and then expeditiously file a comprehensive written report of its investigation with the judicial council of the circuit involved. Upon receipt of such a report, the judicial council of the circuit involved may conduct any additional investigation it deems necessary, and it may dismiss the complaint.[6]
If a judge who is the subject of a complaint holds his or her office during good behavior, action taken by the judicial council may include certifying disability of the judge. The judicial council may also, in its discretion, refer any complaint under 28 U.S.C. § 351, along with the record of any associated proceedings and its recommendations for appropriate action, to the Judicial Conference of the United States. The Judicial Conference may exercise its authority under the judicial discipline provisions as a conference, or through a standing committee appointed by the Chief Justice.
Retirement[edit]
Once a judge meets age and service requirements he or she may retire and will then earn his or her final salary for the remainder of his or her life, plus cost of living increases. The "Rule of 80" is the commonly used shorthand for the age and service requirement for a judge to retire, or assume senior status, as set forth in Title 28 of the U.S. Code, section 371(c). Beginning at age 65, a judge may retire at his or her current salary, or take senior status, after performing 15 years of active service as an Article III judge (65 + 15 = 80). A sliding scale of increasing age and decreasing service (66 + 14, 67 + 13, 68 + 12, 69 + 11) results in eligibility for retirement compensation at age 70 with a minimum of 10 years of service (70 + 10 = 80).[7][8][9]
Under section 376 a survivor's annuity to benefit the widow, widower or minor child of the judge may be purchased via a deduction of 2.2% to 3.5% from the retirement benefit.[10]
Number of judges[edit]
The total number of active federal judges is constantly in flux, for two reasons. First, judges retire or die, and a lapse of time occurs before new judges are appointed to fill those positions. Second, from time to time Congress will increase (or, less frequently, decrease) the number of federal judgeships in a particular judicial district, usually in response to shifting population numbers or a changing workload in that district.
As of May 2012, a total of 3,294 individuals had been appointed to federal judgeships, including 2,758 district court judges, 714 courts of appeals judges, 95 judges to the now-extinct circuit courts, and 112 Supreme Court justices. This adds up to 3,679 total appointments; a substantial number of appellate judges (including Supreme Court justices) had previously served on the lower court bench.[11]
There are currently 874 authorized Article III judgeships: nine on the Supreme Court, 179 on the courts of appeals, nine on the Court of International Trade and 677 for the district courts.[12] Although the number of Supreme Court justices has remained the same for well over a century, the number of court of appeals judges has more than doubled since 1950, and the number of district court judges has increased more than three-fold in that period.[11]
Non-Article III judges[edit]
Unlike the judges of Article III courts, non-Article III judges are appointed for specified terms of office. Examples include United States magistrate judges and judges of the United States bankruptcy courts, United States Tax Court, United States Court of Federal Claims, and United States territorial courts. Although the term "non-Article III judges" is used to describe the absence of tenure and salary protection, bankruptcy courts are formally designated as divisions of U.S. District Courts, whose district judges are Article III judicial officers. Moreover, in Freytag v. Commissioner, 501 U.S. 868 (1991), the Supreme Court concluded that the judges of the U.S. Tax Court (and their special trial judges) exercise a portion of "the judicial power of the United States."
See also[edit]
Federal judicial appointment history
List of United States federal judges by longevity of service
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Saikrishna Prakash & Steven D. Smith, "How To Remove a Federal Judge", 116 Yale L.J. 72 (2006).
Jump up ^ "Judicial Salaries Since 1968" (PDF). uscourts.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 5, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b John Roberts. "2006 Year-End Report on the Federal Judiciary" (PDF). supremecourt.us.
Jump up ^ Debra Cassens Weiss, "Scalia Denies Abortion Views Influenced by Religion, Calls His GPS Opinion 'Defendant Friendly'", ABA Journal, 4 February 2012.
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 351(a). See generally 28 U.S.C. ch. 16.
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 354(a)(1)
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 71
Jump up ^ "FAQs on Federal Judges". uscourts.gov.
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 371
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 376
^ Jump up to: a b Federal Judicial Center.
Jump up ^ "Federal Judgeships". uscourts.gov.
This article incorporates public domain material from the Congressional Research Service document "Judicial Discipline Process: An Overview". Retrieved on 14 August 2014.
External links[edit]
Judicial Financial Disclosure Reports
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