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Cannes Film Festival
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Cannes Film Festival
Location
Cannes, France
Founded
20 September 1946; 71 years ago (1946-09-20) (as International Film Festival)
Awards
Palme d'Or, Grand Prix
Website
www.festival-cannes.com
Cannes seen from Le Suquet
The Cannes Festival (/kæn/; French: Festival de Cannes), named until 2002 as the International Film Festival (Festival international du film) and known in English as the Cannes Film Festival, is an annual film festival held in Cannes, France, which previews new films of all genres, including documentaries from all around the world. Founded in 1946, the invitation-only festival is held annually (usually in May) at the Palais des Festivals et des Congrès.[1]
On 1 July 2014, co-founder and former head of French pay-TV operator Canal+, Pierre Lescure, took over as President of the Festival, while Thierry Fremaux became the General Delegate. The board of directors also appointed Gilles Jacob as Honorary President of the Festival.[2][3]
The 2018 Cannes Film Festival took place between 8 and 19 May 2018. The jury president was Australian actress Cate Blanchett, and Shoplifters, directed by Hirokazu Kore-eda, won the Palme d'Or.[4]
Contents
1 History
1.1 The early years
1.2 1950s and 1960s
1.3 1970s and 1980s
1.4 1990s to the present
2 Programmes
3 Authorities of the Festival
4 Juries
5 Awards
6 Impact
7 Gender discrimination and sexual harassment controversies
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 Media
12 External links
History[edit]
The early years[edit]
The Cannes Film Festival has its origins in 1932 when Jean Zay, the French Minister of National Education, on the proposal of historian Philippe Erlanger and with the support of the British and Americans, set up an international cinematographic festival. Its origins may be attributed in part to the French desire to compete with the Venice Film Festival, which at the time was shocking the democratic world by its fascist bias.[5] The first festival was planned for 1939, Cannes was selected as the location for it, but the funding and organization were too slow and finally the beginning of World War II put an end to this plan.[6]
On 20 September 1946, twenty-one countries presented their films at the First Cannes International Film Festival, which took place at the former Casino of Cannes.[7] In 1947, amid serious problems of efficiency, the festival was held as the "Festival du film de Cannes", where films from sixteen countries were presented. The festival was not held in 1948 and 1950 on account of budgetary problems. In 1949, the Palais des Festivals was expressly constructed for the occasion on the seafront promenade of La Croisette, although its inaugural roof, while still unfinished, blew off during a storm. In 1951, the festival was moved to spring to avoid a direct competition with the Venice Festival which was held in autumn.[6]
1950s and 1960s[edit]
During the early 1950s, the festival attracted a lot of tourism and press attention, with showbiz scandals and high-profile personalities' love affairs. At the same time, the artistic aspect of the festival started developing. Because of controversies over the selection of films, the Critics' Prize was created for the recognition of original films and daring filmmakers. In 1954, the Special Jury Prize was awarded for the first time. In 1955, the Palme d'Or was created, replacing the Grand Prix du Festival which had been given until that year. In 1957, Dolores del Río was the first female member of the jury for the official selection.[8]
In 1959, the Marché du Film (Film Market) was founded, giving the festival a commercial character and facilitating exchanges between sellers and buyers in the film industry. Today it has become the first international platform for film commerce. Still, in the 1950s, some outstanding films, like Night and Fog in 1956 and Hiroshima, My Love in 1959 were excluded from the competition for diplomatic concerns. Jean Cocteau, three times president of the jury in those years, is quoted to have said: "The Cannes Festival should be a no man's land in which politics has no place. It should be a simple meeting between friends."[9][10]
In 1962, the International Critics' Week was born, created by the French Union of Film Critics as the first parallel section of the Cannes Film Festival. Its goal was to showcase first and second works by directors from all over the world, not succumbing to commercial tendencies. In 1965 Olivia de Havilland was named the first female president of the jury, while the next year Sofia Loren became president.[11]
The 1968 festival was halted on 19 May. Some directors, such as Carlos Saura and Miloš Forman, had withdrawn their films from the competition. On 18 May filmmaker Louis Malle along with a group of directors took over the large room of the Palais and interrupted the projections in solidarity with students and labour on strike throughout France,[12] and in protest to the eviction of the then President of the Cinémathèque Française. The filmmakers achieved the reinstatement of the President, and they founded the Film Directors' Society (SRF) that same year.[13] In 1969 the SRF, led by Pierre-Henri Deleau created the Directors' Fortnight (Quinzaine des Réalisateurs), a new non-competitive section that programs a selection of films from around the world, distinguished by the independent judgment displayed in the choice of films.[14]
1970s and 1980s[edit]
During the 1970s, important changes occurred in the Festival. In 1972, Robert Favre Le Bret was named the new President, and Maurice Bessy the General Delegate. He introduced important changes in the selection of the participating films, welcoming new techniques, and relieving the selection from diplomatic pressures, with films like MASH, and later Chronicle of the Years of Fire marking this turn. In some cases, these changes helped directors like Tarkovski overcome problems of censorship in their own country.[15] Also, until that time, the different countries chose the films that would represent them in the festival. Yet, in 1972, Bessy created a committee to select French films, and another for foreign films.[16]
In 1978, Gilles Jacob assumed the position of General Delegate, introducing the Caméra d'Or award, for the best first film of any of the main events, and the Un Certain Regard section, for the non-competitive categories. Other changes were the decrease of length of the festival down to thirteen days, thus reducing the number of selected films; also, until that point the Jury was composed by Film Academics, and Jacob started to introduce celebrities and professionals from the film industry.[17]
In 1983, a new, much bigger Palais des Festivals et des Congrès was built to host the festival, while the Directors' Fortnight remained in the old building. The new building was nicknamed "The Bunker", provoking a lot of criticism, especially since it was hardly finished at the event and several technical problems occurred.[18] In 1984 Pierre Viot replaced Robert Favre Le Bret as President of the Festival.[19] In his term, the Festival started including films from more countries, like Philippines, China, Cuba, Australia, India, New Zealand and Argentina. In 1987, for the first time of the Festival, a red carpet was placed at the entrance of the Palais. In 1989, during the first Cinéma & liberté forum, hundred directors from many countries signed a declaration "against all forms of censorship still existing in the world".[20]
Stars posing for photographers are a part of Cannes folklore.
1990s to the present[edit]
American actress Kim Novak (2013)
In 1998, Gilles Jacob created the last section of the Official Selection: la Cinéfondation, aiming to support the creation of works of cinema in the world and to contribute to the entry of the new scenario writers in the circle of the celebrities.[21] The Cinéfondation was completed in 2000 with La Résidence, where young directors could refine their writing and screenplays, and in 2005 L'Atelier, which helps twenty directors per year with the funding of their films. Gilles Jacob was appointed Honorary President in 2000, and in 2002, the Festival officially adopted the name Festival de Cannes.[22][23]
During the 2000s, the Festival started focusing more on the technological advances taking place in the film world, especially the digital techniques. In 2004 the restored historical films of the Festival were presented as Cannes Classics, which included documentaries. In 2007 Thierry Frémaux became General Delegate. In 2009 he extended the Festival in Buenos Aires, as La Semana de Cine del Festival de Cannes, and in 2010 he created the Cannes Court Métrage for the Short Film competition.
Festival Director Thierry Fremaux is known to have ‘banned’ selfies on the Red Carpet of the world’s largest Film Festival back in 2015. [24] In 2017, along with the 70th anniversary events of the Festival, the issue of changing the rules on theatrical screening caused controversy.[25] The enforcement of theatrical screening in 2018 resulted in Netflix being banned.[26]
Programmes[edit]
The Cannes Film Festival is organised in various sections:[27]
The Official Selection – The main event of the festival.
In Competition – The twenty films competing for the Palme d'Or. They are projected in the Théâtre Lumière.
Un Certain Regard – Twenty films selected from cultures near and far; original and different works. They are projected at the Salle Debussy.
Out of Competition – These films are also projected in the Théâtre Lumière but do not compete for the main prize.
Special Screenings – The selection committee chooses for these films an environment specially adapted to their particular identity.
Cinéfondation – About fifteen shorts and medium-length motion pictures from film schools over the world are presented at the Salle Buñuel.
Short Films – The shorts competing for the Short Film Palme d'Or are presented at Buñuel and Debussy theatres. There are approximately 10 films in this competition.
Cannes Classics – It celebrates the heritage of film, aiming to highlight works of the past, presented with brand new or restored prints.
Cinéma de la Plage – Screening of Cannes Classics and Out of Competition films for the mass public on Macé beach, preceded by a programme dedicated to film music.
Parallel Sections – These are non-competitive programmes dedicated to discovering other aspects of cinema.
International Critics' Week – From 1962, it focuses on discovering new talents and showcases first and second feature films by directors from all over the world.
Directors' Fortnight – From 1969, it cast its lot with the avant-garde, even as it created a breeding ground where the Cannes Festival would regularly find its prestigious auteurs.
Tous les Cinémas du Monde – It showcases the vitality and diversity of cinema across the world. Each day, one country is invited to present a range of features and shorts in celebration of its unique culture, identity and recent film works.
Caméra d'Or – It rewards the best first film of the Festival, choosing among the debutants' works among the Official Selection, the Directors' Fortnight and the International Critics' Week selections.
Other Sections – Produced by outside organisations during the Cannes Festival.
ACID (Association for Independent Cinema and its Distribution)
Events
Marché du Film – The busiest movie market in the world.
Masterclasses – Given in public by world-renowned filmmakers.
Tributes – Honors internationally renowned artists with the presentation of the Festival Trophee following the screening of one of their films.
Producers Network – An opportunity to make international co-productions.
Exhibitions – Each year, an artist, a body of work or a cinematographic theme becomes the focus of an exhibition that diversifies or illustrates the event's programme.
60th Anniversary – Events organised in 2007 dedicated to the 60th anniversary of the Festival.
Authorities of the Festival[edit]
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Year
President
General Delegate
Gen. Secretary
1949 – – Jean Touzet
1952 Robert Favre Le Bret
1972 Robert
Favre Le Bret Maurice Bessy
1978 Gilles Jacob
1984 Pierre Viot
1985 Michel P. Bonnet
1991 François
Erlenbach
2001 Gilles Jacob General Director
Véronique Cayla Artistic Delegate
Thierry Frémaux
2005 Catherine Démier
2007 Thierry Frémaux
2014 Pierre Lescure
2017
The President of the Festival, who represents the Festival in front of its financial partners, the public authorities and the media, is elected by the board of directors of the Festival, officially named the "French Association of the Film Festival". The Board is composed of authorities of the world of cinema, as well as of public authorities which subsidize the event. The President has a renewable 3-year mandate and appoints the members of his team, including the General Delegate, with the approval of the board of directors.[28] Sometimes a President, after his last term, becomes the Honorary President of the Festival.
The General Delegate is responsible for the coordination of the events. When Gilles Jacob passed from General Delegate to the position of the President, in 2001, two new positions were created to take over his former post, the General Director to oversee the smooth running of the event, and the Artistic Director, responsible for the selection of films. However, in 2007, the Artistic Director Thierry Fremaux, became again the General Delegate of the Festival.
The general secretary is responsible for the reception of works and other practical matters.
Juries[edit]
Main article: List of Cannes Film Festival juries (Feature films)
Prior to the beginning of each event, the Festival's board of directors appoints the juries who hold sole responsibility for choosing which films will receive a Cannes award. Jurors are chosen from a wide range of international artists, based on their body of work and respect from their peers.[29] The appointment of the President of the Jury is made following several annual management proposals made in the fall and submitted to the Festival's board of directors for validation.[30]
Feature Films – An international jury composed of a President and various film or art personalities, who determine the prizes for the feature films in Competition.
Cinéfondation and Short Films – Composed of a President and four film personalities. It awards the Short Film Palme d'Or as well as the three best films of the Cinéfondation.
Un Certain Regard – Composed of a President, journalists, students in cinema, and industry professionals. It awards the Un Certain Regard Prize for best film and can, moreover, honour two other films.
Caméra d'Or – Composed of a President, as well as film directors, technicians, and French and international critics. They award the best film in any category.
The jury meets annually at the historic Villa Domergue to select the winners.[31]
Awards[edit]
Palme d'Or awarded to Apocalypse Now at the 1979 Cannes Film Festival
In 2013, Adèle Exarchopoulos and Léa Seydoux became the first and only cast members to receive the Palme d'Or for Blue Is the Warmest Colour in an "unprecedented move", alongside the director Abdellatif Kechiche.
The most prestigious award given at Cannes is the Palme d'Or ("Golden Palm") for the best film.
Competition
Palme d'Or – Golden Palm
Grand Prix – Grand Prize of the Festival
Prix du Jury – Jury Prize
Palme d'Or du court métrage – Best Short Film
Prix d'interprétation féminine – Best Actress
Prix d'interprétation masculine – Best Actor
Prix de la mise en scène – Best Director
Prix du scénario – Best Screenplay
Other Sections
Prix Un Certain Regard – Young talent, innovative and audacious works
Cinéfondation prizes – Student films
Caméra d'Or – Best first feature film
Given by Independent Entities
Prix de la FIPRESCI – International Federation of Film Critics Prize
Directors' Fortnight Prizes
Prix Vulcain – Awarded to a technical artist by the CST
International Critics' Week Prizes
Prize of the Ecumenical Jury
François Chalais Prize
L'Œil d'or – Best documentary film
Trophée Chopard
Palm Dog, for best canine performance.[32]
Queer Palm, for LGBT-related films.[33]
Cannes Soundtrack Award
Impact[edit]
The festival has become an important showcase for European films. Jill Forbes and Sarah Street argue in European Cinema: An Introduction (ISBN 0333752104), that Cannes "became...extremely important for critical and commercial interests and for European attempts to sell films on the basis of their artistic quality" (page 20).[34] Forbes and Street also point out that, along with other festivals such as the Venice Film Festival and Berlin International Film Festival, Cannes offers an opportunity to determine a particular country's image of its cinema and generally foster the notion that European cinema is "art" cinema.[34]
Additionally, given massive media exposure, the non-public festival is attended by many movie stars and is a popular venue for film producers to launch their new films and to attempt to sell their works to the distributors who come from all over the globe.
Gender discrimination and sexual harassment controversies[edit]
In recent years a number of gender and sexual controversies has surrounded the Cannes Film Festival. These include “Heelgate” in which numerous female attendees of a red carpet premiere were stopped from entering in 2015 for wearing flat soled shoes instead of high heels.[35] The incident caused numerous female celebrities to wear flat soled shoes or no shoes at all to other red carpet premiers in a show of solidarity and protest.[36]
A number of high-profile directors and producers have also been accused of sexual harassment and abuse at past festivals. According to an accusation of rape involving Harvey Weinstein, it has allegedly happened at the Venice festival.[37]
As a result of the past sexual controversies and the #MeToo movement that arose out of the Harvey Weinstein scandal, in 2018, Cannes Film Festival officials announced the creation of a telephone hotline during the festival in which victims could report incidents of sexual harassment and other crimes.[38] The hotline is in collaboration with the French government.[39]
See also[edit]
France portal
Film portal
Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival
Directors' Fortnight
International Critics' Week
List of Cannes Film Festival jury presidents
List of Cannes Film Festival juries (Feature films)
Marché du Film
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Presentation of the Palais". palaisdesfestivals.com. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Cannes Film Festival Names Pierre Lescure President". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Pierre Lescure elected President of the Festival de Cannes". Festival de Cannes. Archived from the original on 26 March 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Cannes 2018: Hirokazu Kore-eda's Shoplifters wins the Palme d'Or – as it happened". theguardian.com. Retrieved 19 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "First Cannes Film Festival". history.com. Archived from the original on 27 December 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "1938–1951: The birth of the Festival". fresques.ina.fr. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "1st Cannes Film Festival". Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Honoring the Female Trailblazers of Cannes /2. Dolores del Río". harpersbazaar.com. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Festival de Cannes – Festival History". festival-cannes.fr. Archived from the original on 14 May 2007.
Jump up ^ "1952–1959: Celebrities, politics and the film world". fresques.ina.fr. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "1960–1968: The growing legitimacy of cinema and a world of new horizons". fresques.ina.fr. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "1968 Cannes Festival". cannes-fest.com. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Fortnight in action". quinzaine-realisateurs.com. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Directors' Fortnight". Directors' Fortnight website. Retrieved 27 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "1969–1977: A Festival that moves with the times". fresques.ina.fr. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "1972 – Tout le monde il est beau, tout le monde il est gentil". cannes-fest.com. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "1978 – Cannes, Le Retour". Cannes-fest.com. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "1983 – Le Festival blessé". Cannes-fest.com archive. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "1978–1986: A wind of change". fresques.ina.fr. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "The History of the Festival / The 80s: The Modern Era". festival-cannes.com. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Presentation". Cinéfondation. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "1987–1996: The first Palme d'Or for a woman director". fresques.ina.fr. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "1997-today: The Festival enters a new century". fresques.ina.fr. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "'I am so Pathetic: I Took a Selfie at the Red Carpet' at the Cannes Film Festival=Ikon London Magazine". Retrieved 2017-05-17.
Jump up ^ "Netflix Defends Strategy at Cannes: 'The Culture Is Changing'". nytimes.com. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Chiu, Allyson (26 March 2018). "Cannes Film Festival bans Netflix films from competition. Also, no more selfies". The Washington Post. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Festival de Cannes – Official Site". Retrieved 28 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Pierre Lescure officiellement à la tête du Festival de Cannes". LeMond.fr (in French). Retrieved 30 May 2017. Le président du Festival de Cannes est élu par le conseil d'administration de l'Association française du Festival international du film. Cette instance compte vingt-huit membres et repose sur un subtil équilibre entre le monde du cinéma et les pouvoirs publics, qui subventionnent l'événement.
Jump up ^ "Festival de Cannes: Juries". festival-cannes.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007.
Jump up ^ "Festival de Cannes: Juries". festival-cannes.com. Archived from the original on 18 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Patrimoine: Villa Domergue". Site officiel de la Ville de Cannes. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Pixar pooch picks Up Cannes prize". BBC News. 22 May 2009. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Transgender activist Pascale Ourbih on Cannes gay prize jury". On Top Magazine. 10 May 2010. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Forbes, Jill; Street, Sarah (2001). European Cinema: An Introduction. London: Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 0-333-75210-4.
Jump up ^ Film, Telegraph (9 May 2016). "Heelgate and beyond: 13 controversial Cannes moments". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Controversy at Cannes: When the festival made news for all the wrong reasons". hindustantimes.com. 2017-05-16. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Davies, Caroline; Khomami, Nadia (21 October 2017). "Harvey Weinstein: a list of the women who have accused him". the Guardian. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Keslassy, Elsa (27 April 2018). "Cannes Film Festival to Create Hotline for Sexual Harassment Victims (Report)". Variety. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Cannes film festival to open anti-sexual predator hotline". RFI. 2018-04-27. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
Further reading[edit]
Coyle, Jake (10 May 2017). "Outcry over Netflix films prompts Cannes to change rules". CBC/Radio-Canada.
Ford, Rebecca; Roxborough, Scott (17 May 2017). "Why Awards Hopefuls Are Losing Confidence in Cannes Debuts". The Hollywood Reporter.
Mumford, Gwilym (17 May 2017). "Concrete flowerpots and drone killers: Cannes opens with beefed-up security". The Guardian.
Books
Craig, Benjamin (2018). Cannes: A Festival Virgin's Guide (7 ed.). Cinemagine Media Publishing. ISBN 978-1999996109.
Bart, Peter; The Editors of Variety (1997). Cannes: Fifty Years of Sun, Sex & Celluloid: Behind the Scenes at the World's Most Famous Film Festival. Miramax Books. ISBN 978-0786882953.
Beauchamp, Cari; Behar, Henri (1992). Hollywood on the Riviera: The Inside Story of the Cannes Film Festival. William Morrow and Company. ISBN 978-0688110079.
Jungen, Christian (2015). Hollywood in Canne$: The History of a Love-Hate Relationship (Film Culture in Transition). Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-9089645661.
Media[edit]
Footage from the 1946 Cannes Film Festival
Retrospective footage of the Festival presented by INA in 2007
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cannes Film Festival.
Cannes Film Festival official website (in English)
Cannes Film Festival at the Internet Movie Database
The History of the Festival at the official website
Festival de Cannes at the official website of tourism in France 2017 (in French)
Cannes – A Festival Virgin's Guide – Detailed festival history and information for attendees
Radio France Internationale coverage of the Cannes Film Festival 2017 (in English)
Cannes Film Festival unofficial blog
Cannes Film Festival: A Potted History
Cannes Film Festival at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
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Cannes Film Festival
Awards
Palme d'Or
Grand Prix
Best Director Award
Best Actor Award
Best Actress Award
Best Screenplay Award
Jury Prize
Short Film Palme d'Or
Un Certain Regard
Cinéfondation
Caméra d'Or
Awards given
by independent entities
Prix de la FIPRESCI
François Chalais Prize
Trophée Chopard
Vulcan Award
L'Œil d'or
France 4 Visionary Award
Prize of the Ecumenical Jury
Palm Dog Award
Queer Palm
Cannes Soundtrack Award
By year
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Directors' Fortnight
International Critics' Week
Marché du Film
List of jury presidents
List of jury members
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Palme d'Or winning films
Union Pacific (1939)
Torment (Hets) (1946)
The Lost Weekend (1946)
The Red Meadows (1946)
Brief Encounter (1946)
María Candelaria (1946)
Neecha Nagar (1946)
The Turning Point (1946)
La Symphonie pastorale (1946)
The Last Chance (1946)
Men Without Wings (1946)
Rome, Open City (1946)
The Third Man (1949)
Miss Julie (1951)
Miracle in Milan (1951)
The Tragedy of Othello: The Moor of Venice (1951)
Two Cents Worth of Hope (1952)
The Wages of Fear (1953)
Gate of Hell (1954)
Marty (1955)
The Silent World (1956)
Friendly Persuasion (1957)
The Cranes Are Flying (1958)
Black Orpheus (1959)
La Dolce Vita (1960)
The Long Absence (1961)
Viridiana (1961)
O Pagador de Promessas (1962)
The Leopard (1963)
The Umbrellas of Cherbourg (1964)
The Knack ...and How to Get It (1965)
A Man and a Woman (1966)
The Birds, the Bees and the Italians (1966)
Blowup (1967)
if.... (1969)
MASH (1970)
The Go-Between (1971)
The Working Class Goes to Heaven (1972)
The Mattei Affair (1972)
The Hireling (1973)
Scarecrow (1973)
The Conversation (1974)
Chronicle of the Years of Fire (1975)
Taxi Driver (1976)
Padre Padrone (1977)
The Tree of Wooden Clogs (1978)
Apocalypse Now (1979)
The Tin Drum (1979)
All That Jazz (1980)
Kagemusha (1980)
Man of Iron (1981)
Missing (1982)
Yol (1982)
The Ballad of Narayama (1983)
Paris, Texas (1984)
When Father Was Away on Business (1985)
The Mission (1986)
Under the Sun of Satan (1987)
Pelle the Conqueror (1988)
Sex, Lies, and Videotape (1989)
Wild at Heart (1990)
Barton Fink (1991)
The Best Intentions (1992)
Farewell My Concubine (1993)
The Piano (1993)
Pulp Fiction (1994)
Underground (1995)
Secrets & Lies (1996)
Taste of Cherry (1997)
The Eel (1997)
Eternity and a Day (1998)
Rosetta (1999)
Dancer in the Dark (2000)
The Son's Room (2001)
The Pianist (2002)
Elephant (2003)
Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004)
The Child (2005)
The Wind That Shakes the Barley (2006)
4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days (2007)
The Class (2008)
The White Ribbon (2009)
Uncle Boonmee Who Can Recall His Past Lives (2010)
The Tree of Life (2011)
Amour (2012)
Blue Is the Warmest Colour (2013)
Winter Sleep (2014)
Dheepan (2015)
I, Daniel Blake (2016)
The Square (2017)
Shoplifters (2018)
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Short Film Palme d'Or Winners
1950s
White Mane – Albert Lamorisse (1953)
Blinkity Blank – Norman McLaren (1955)
The Red Balloon – Albert Lamorisse (1956)
Courte Histoire – Ion Popescu-Gopo (1957)
N.Y., N.Y. – Francis Thompson (1959)
Zmiana warty – Halina Bielinska and Wlodzimierz Haupe (1959)
1960s
La Petite cuillère – Carlos Vilardebo (1961)
La Rivière du hibou – Robert Enrico (1961)
À fleur d'eau – Alexander J. Seiler and Rob Gnant (1963)
Le Haricot – Edmond Séchan (1963)
Nyitany – János Vadász (1965)
Skaterdater – Noel Black (1966)
Sky Over Holland – John Fernhout (1967)
Cîntecele Renasterii – Mirel Iliesiu (1969)
1970s
Magic Machines – Bob Curtis (1970)
Le Fusil à lunette – Jean Chapot (1972)
Balablok – Bretislav Pojar (1973)
Ostrov – Fedor Khitrouk, Edouard Nazarov and Vladimir Zouïkov (1974)
Lautrec – Geoff Dunbar (1975)
Metamorphosis – Barry Greenwald (1976)
The Struggle – Marcell Jankovics (1977)
Rowing Across the Atlantic – Jean-François Laguionie (1978)
Harpya – Raoul Servais (1979)
1980s
Seaside Woman – Oscar Grillo (1980)
Moto perpetuo – Béla Vajda (1981)
Merlin ou le cours de l'or – Arthur Joffé (1982)
Je sais que j'ai tort mais demandez à mes copains ils disent la même chose – Pierre Levy (1983)
Le Cheval de fer – Gérald Frydman and Pierre Levie (1984)
Chiri – David Takaichvili (1984)
Jenitba – Slav Bakalov and Rumen Petkov (1985)
An Exercise in Discipline - Peel – Jane Campion (1986)
Palisade – Laurie McInnes (1987)
Vykrutasy – Garry Bardin (1988)
50 ans – Gilles Carle (1989)
1990s
The Lunch Date – Adam Davidson (1990)
Z podniesionymi rekami – Mitko Panov (1991)
Omnibus – Sam Karmann (1992)
Coffee and Cigarettes: Somewhere in California – Jim Jarmusch (1993)
El héroe– Carlos Carrera (1994)
Gagarin– Alexij Kharitidi (1995)
Szél– Marcell Iványi (1996)
...Is It the Design on the Wrapper? – Tessa Sheridan (1997)
L'Interview – Xavier Giannoli (1998)
When the Day Breaks – Wendy Tilby and Amanda Forbis (1999)
2000s
Anino – Raymond Red (2000)
Bean Cake – David Greenspan (2001)
Esö után – Péter Mészáros (2002)
Cracker Bag – Glendyn Ivin (2003)
Trafic – Catalin Mitulescu (2004)
Podorozhni – Igor Strembitsky (2005)
Sniffer – Bobbie Peers (2006)
Ver Llover – Elisa Miller (2007)
Megatron – Marian Crisan (2008)
Arena – João Salaviza (2009)
2010s
Barking Island – Serge Avédikian (2010)
Cross – Maryna Vroda (2011)
Sessiz-Be Deng – Rezan Yeşilbaş (2012)
Safe – Byoung-gon Moon (2013)
Leidi – Simón Mesa Soto (2014)
Waves '98 – Ely Dagher (2015)
A Gentle Night - Qiu Yang (2017)
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Cannes Film Festival jury presidents
1946–1975
Georges Huisman (1946)
Georges Huisman (1947)
Georges Huisman (1949)
André Maurois (1951)
Maurice Genevoix (1952)
Jean Cocteau (1953)
Jean Cocteau (1954)
Marcel Pagnol (1955)
Maurice Lehmann (1956)
André Maurois (1957)
Marcel Achard (1958)
Marcel Achard (1959)
Georges Simenon (1960)
Jean Giono (1961)
Tetsurō Furukaki (1962)
Armand Salacrou (1963)
Fritz Lang (1964)
Olivia de Havilland (1965)
Sophia Loren (1966)
Alessandro Blasetti (1967)
André Chamson (1968)
Luchino Visconti (1969)
Miguel Ángel Asturias (1970)
Michèle Morgan (1971)
Joseph Losey (1972)
Ingrid Bergman (1973)
René Clair (1974)
Jeanne Moreau (1975)
1975–2000
Tennessee Williams (1976)
Roberto Rossellini (1977)
Alan J. Pakula (1978)
Françoise Sagan (1979)
Kirk Douglas (1980)
Jacques Deray (1981)
Giorgio Strehler (1982)
William Styron (1983)
Dirk Bogarde (1984)
Miloš Forman (1985)
Sydney Pollack (1986)
Yves Montand (1987)
Ettore Scola (1988)
Wim Wenders (1989)
Bernardo Bertolucci (1990)
Roman Polanski (1991)
Gérard Depardieu (1992)
Louis Malle (1993)
Clint Eastwood (1994)
Jeanne Moreau (1995)
Francis Ford Coppola (1996)
Isabelle Adjani (1997)
Martin Scorsese (1998)
David Cronenberg (1999)
Luc Besson (2000)
2001–present
Liv Ullmann (2001)
David Lynch (2002)
Patrice Chéreau (2003)
Quentin Tarantino (2004)
Emir Kusturica (2005)
Wong Kar-wai (2006)
Stephen Frears (2007)
Sean Penn (2008)
Isabelle Huppert (2009)
Tim Burton (2010)
Robert De Niro (2011)
Nanni Moretti (2012)
Steven Spielberg (2013)
Jane Campion (2014)
Joel and Ethan Coen (2015)
George Miller (2016)
Pedro Almodóvar (2017)
Cate Blanchett (2018)
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FIAPF-accredited film festivals
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Tampere
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
GND: 4196849-9
LCCN: n82052860
NDL: 01024765
SUDOC: 028867378
VIAF: 149760515
Coordinates: 43°33′03.10″N 7°01′02.10″E / 43.5508611°N 7.0172500°E / 43.5508611; 7.0172500
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cannes_Film_Festival&oldid=856160636"
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Mary II of England
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"Mary II" redirects here. For other uses, see Mary II (disambiguation).
Mary II
Portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1690
Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland (more...)
Reign
1689[a] – 1694
Coronation
11 April 1689
Predecessor
James II & VII
Successor
William III & II
Co-monarch
William III & II
Born
30 April 1662
(N.S.: 10 May 1662)
St James's Palace, London
Died
28 December 1694 (aged 32)
(N.S.: 7 January 1695)
Kensington Palace, London
Burial
5 March 1695
Westminster Abbey, London
Spouse
William III & II (m. 1677)
House
Stuart
Father
James II & VII
Mother
Anne Hyde
Religion
Anglican
Mary II (30 April 1662 – 28 December 1694) was Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland, co-reigning with her husband and first cousin, King William III and II, from 1689 until her death; popular histories usually refer to their joint reign as that of William and Mary. William and Mary, both Protestants, became king and queen regnant following the Glorious Revolution, which resulted in the adoption of the English Bill of Rights and the deposition of her Roman Catholic father, James II and VII. William became sole ruler upon her death in 1694. He reigned as such until his own death in 1702, when he was succeeded by Mary’s sister Anne.
Mary wielded less power than William when he was in England, ceding most of her authority to him, though he heavily relied on her. She did, however, act alone when William was engaged in military campaigns abroad, proving herself to be a powerful, firm, and effective ruler.
Contents
1 Early life
2 Marriage
3 James's reign
4 Glorious Revolution
5 Reign
6 Legacy
6.1 In film and television
7 Title, styles, honours and arms
7.1 Titles and styles
7.2 Arms
8 Ancestry
8.1 Family tree
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Citations
11 External links
Early life[edit]
Mary, born at St James's Palace in London on 30 April 1662, was the eldest daughter of the Duke of York (the future King James II & VII), and his first wife, Anne Hyde. Mary's uncle was King Charles II, who ruled the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland; her maternal grandfather, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, served for a lengthy period as Charles's chief advisor. She was baptised into the Anglican faith in the Chapel Royal at St James's, and was named after her ancestor, Mary, Queen of Scots. Her godparents included her father's cousin, Prince Rupert of the Rhine.[1] Although her mother bore eight children, all except Mary and her younger sister Anne died very young, and King Charles II had no legitimate children. Consequently, for most of her childhood, Mary was second in line to the throne after her father.[2]
Portrait by Caspar Netscher, 1676, the year before her marriage
The Duke of York converted to Roman Catholicism in 1668 or 1669 and the Duchess about eight years earlier, but Mary and Anne were brought up as Anglicans, pursuant to the command of Charles II.[3] They were moved to their own establishment at Richmond Palace, where they were raised by their governess Lady Frances Villiers, with only occasional visits to see their parents at St James's or their grandfather Lord Clarendon at Twickenham.[4] Mary's education, from private tutors, was largely restricted to music, dance, drawing, French, and religious instruction.[5] Her mother died in 1671, and her father remarried in 1673, taking as his second wife Mary of Modena, a Catholic who was only four years older than Mary.[6]
From about the age of nine until her marriage, Mary wrote passionate letters to an older girl, Frances Apsley, the daughter of courtier Sir Allen Apsley. In time, Frances became uncomfortable with the correspondence,[7] and replied more formally. At the age of fifteen, Mary became betrothed to her cousin, the Protestant Stadtholder of Holland, William III of Orange. William was the son of the King's late sister, Mary, Princess Royal, and thus fourth in the line of succession after James, Mary, and Anne.[8] At first, Charles II opposed the alliance with the Dutch ruler—he preferred that Mary wed the heir to the French throne, the Dauphin Louis, thus allying his realms with Catholic France and strengthening the odds of an eventual Catholic successor in Britain; but later, under pressure from Parliament and with a coalition with the Catholic French no longer politically favourable, he approved the proposed union.[9] The Duke of York agreed to the marriage, after pressure from chief minister Lord Danby and the King, who incorrectly assumed that it would improve James's popularity among Protestants.[10] When James told Mary that she was to marry her cousin, "she wept all that afternoon and all the following day".[11]
Marriage[edit]
Portrait by Peter Lely, 1677
William and a tearful Mary were married in St James's Palace by Bishop Henry Compton on 4 November 1677.[12] Mary accompanied her husband on a rough sea crossing back to the Netherlands later that month, after a delay of two weeks caused by bad weather.[13] Rotterdam was inaccessible because of ice, and they were forced to land at the small village of Ter Heijde, and walk through the frosty countryside until met by coaches to take them to Huis Honselaarsdijk.[14] On 14 December, they made a formal entry to The Hague in a grand procession.[15]
Mary's animated and personable nature made her popular with the Dutch people, and her marriage to a Protestant prince was popular in Britain.[16] She was devoted to her husband, but he was often away on campaigns, which led to Mary's family supposing him to be cold and neglectful.[17] Within months of the marriage Mary was pregnant; however, on a visit to her husband at the fortified city of Breda, she suffered a miscarriage, which may have permanently impaired her ability to have children.[18] She suffered further bouts of illness that may have been miscarriages in mid-1678, early 1679, and early 1680.[19] Her childlessness would be the greatest source of unhappiness in her life.[20]
From May 1684, King Charles's illegitimate son, James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, lived in the Netherlands, where he was fêted by William and Mary. Monmouth was viewed as a rival to the Duke of York, and as a potential Protestant heir who could supplant the Duke in the line of succession. William, however, did not consider him a viable alternative and correctly assumed that Monmouth had insufficient support.[21]
James's reign[edit]
Mary's father, James II and VII, was the last Catholic monarch in Britain. Portrait by Nicolas de Largillière, c 1686.
Upon the death of Charles II without legitimate issue in February 1685, the Duke of York became king as James II in England and Ireland and James VII in Scotland. Mary was playing cards when her husband informed her of her father's accession, and that she was heir presumptive.[22]
When Charles's illegitimate son the Duke of Monmouth assembled an invasion force at Amsterdam, and sailed for Britain, William informed James of the Duke's departure, and ordered English regiments in the Low Countries to return to Britain.[23] To William's relief, Monmouth was defeated, captured and executed, but both he and Mary were dismayed by James's subsequent actions.[24]
James had a controversial religious policy; his attempt to grant freedom of religion to non-Anglicans by suspending acts of Parliament by royal decree was not well received.[25] Mary considered such action illegal, and her chaplain expressed this view in a letter to the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Sancroft, on her behalf.[26] She was further dismayed when James refused to help when the Catholic King of France, Louis XIV, invaded Orange and persecuted Huguenot refugees there. In an attempt to damage William, James encouraged his daughter's staff to inform her that William was having an affair with Elizabeth Villiers. Acting on the information, Mary waited outside Villiers's room and caught her husband leaving it late at night. William denied adultery, and Mary apparently believed and forgave him.[27] Possibly, Villiers and William were not meeting as lovers but to exchange diplomatic intelligence.[28] Mary's staff was dismissed and sent back to Britain.[29]
Glorious Revolution[edit]
Main article: Glorious Revolution
Mary by Jan Verkolje, 1685
Disgruntled Protestant politicians and noblemen were in contact with Mary's husband as early as 1686.[30] After James took the step of forcing Anglican clergymen to read the Declaration of Indulgence—the proclamation granting religious liberty to Catholics and dissenters—from their churches in May 1688, his popularity plunged further.[25] Alarm amongst Protestants increased when his wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth to a son—James Francis Edward—in June 1688, for the son would, unlike Mary and Anne, be raised a Roman Catholic. Some charged that the boy was "supposititious", having been secretly smuggled into the Queen's room in a bed-warming pan as a substitute for her stillborn baby.[31] Seeking information, Mary sent a pointed list of questions to her sister, Anne, regarding the circumstances of the birth. Anne's reply, and continued gossip, seemed to confirm Mary's suspicions that the child was not her natural brother, and that her father was conspiring to secure a Catholic succession.[32]
On 30 June, the "Immortal Seven" secretly requested William—then in the Dutch Republic with Mary—to come to England with an army to depose James.[33] William had made known earlier that a military intervention, for which he had been assembling forces, would be conditional on such an invitation. At first, William was still reluctant; possibly he was jealous of his wife's position as the heiress to the English Crown and feared she would become more powerful than he was. According to Gilbert Burnet, however, Mary convinced her husband that she did not care for political power, and told him "she would be no more but his wife, and that she would do all that lay in her power to make him King for life".[34] She would, she assured him, always obey her husband as she had promised to do in her marriage vows.[35]
William agreed to invade and issued a declaration which referred to James's newborn son as the "pretended Prince of Wales". He also gave a list of grievances of the English people and stated that his proposed expedition was for the sole purpose of having "a free and lawful Parliament assembled".[36] William and the Dutch army, without Mary who stayed behind in the Netherlands, finally landed on 5 November 1688, having been turned back by storms in October.[37] The disaffected English Army and Navy went over to William,[38] and on 11 December the defeated King James attempted to flee, but was intercepted. A second attempt at flight, on 23 December, was successful; William deliberately allowed James to escape to France, where he lived in exile until his death.[39]
Mary was upset by the circumstances surrounding the deposition of her father, and was torn between concern for him and duty to her husband, but was convinced that her husband's actions, however unpleasant, were necessary to "save the Church and State".[40] When Mary travelled to England after the New Year, she wrote of her "secret joy" at returning to her homeland, "but that was soon checked with the consideration of my father's misfortunes".[41] William ordered her to appear cheerful on their triumphant arrival in London. As a result, she was criticised, by John Evelyn and Sarah Churchill, for appearing cold to her father's plight.[42] James, too, wrote a diatribe against her criticising her disloyalty, an action which deeply affected the pious Mary.[43]
Mary's husband, William of Orange, by Sir Godfrey Kneller
In January 1689, a Convention Parliament summoned by the Prince of Orange assembled, and much discussion relating to the appropriate course of action ensued.[44] A party led by Lord Danby held that Mary should be sole monarch, as the rightful hereditary heir, while William and his supporters were adamant that a husband could not be subject to his wife.[45] William wished to reign as a king, rather than function as a mere consort of a queen.[46] For her part, Mary did not wish to be queen regnant, believing that women should defer to their husbands, and "knowing my heart is not made for a kingdom and my inclination leads me to a retired quiet life".[47]
On 13 February 1689, Parliament passed the Declaration of Right, in which it deemed that James, by attempting to flee on 11 December 1688, had abdicated the government of the realm, and that the Throne had thereby become vacant.[48][49] Parliament offered the Crown not to James's eldest son, James Francis Edward (who would have been the heir apparent under normal circumstances), but to William and Mary as joint sovereigns. The only precedent for a joint monarchy dated from the sixteenth century: when Queen Mary I married Philip of Spain, it was agreed that the latter would take the title of king, but only during his wife's lifetime, and restrictions were placed on his power. William, however, would be king even after his wife's death, and "the sole and full exercise of the regal power [would be] executed by the said Prince of Orange in the names of the said Prince and Princess during their joint lives."[48] The declaration was later extended to exclude not only James and his heirs (other than Anne) from the throne, but all Catholics, since "it hath been found by experience that it is inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince".[49]
The Bishop of London, Henry Compton, crowned William and Mary together at Westminster Abbey on 11 April 1689. Normally, the Archbishop of Canterbury performs coronations, but the incumbent Archbishop, William Sancroft, although an Anglican, refused to recognise the validity of James II's removal.[50] Neither William nor Mary enjoyed the ceremony; she thought it "all vanity" and William called it "Popish".[51] On the same day, the Convention of the Estates of Scotland—which was much more divided than the English Parliament—finally declared that James was no longer King of Scotland, that "no Papist can be King or Queen of this Realm", that William and Mary would be joint sovereigns, and that William would exercise sole and full power. The following day, they were proclaimed king and queen in Edinburgh. They took the Scottish coronation oath in London on 11 May.[48]
Even after the declaration, there was still substantial support for James in Scotland. Viscount Dundee raised an army in the Scottish Highlands and won a convincing victory at Killiecrankie on 27 July. The huge losses suffered by Dundee's troops, however, coupled with his fatal wounding at the start of the battle, served to remove the only effective resistance to William and the uprising was quickly crushed, suffering a resounding defeat the next month at the Battle of Dunkeld.[52][53]
Reign[edit]
William and Mary on a five guinea coin of 1692
In December 1689, Parliament passed one of the most important constitutional documents in English history, the Bill of Rights. This measure—which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right—established restrictions on the royal prerogative; it declared, among other things, that the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, infringe the right to petition, raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail, or inflict cruel or unusual punishments. The Bill of Rights also confirmed the succession to the throne. Following the death of either William III or Mary II, the other was to continue to reign. Next in the line of succession would be any children of the couple, to be followed by Mary's sister Anne and her children. Last in the line of succession stood any children William III might have had from any subsequent marriage.[54]
From 1690 onwards, William was often absent from England on campaign, each year generally from the spring until the autumn. In 1690, he fought Jacobites (who supported James) in Ireland. William had crushed the Irish Jacobites by 1692, but he continued with campaigns abroad to wage war against France in the Netherlands. Whilst her husband was away, Mary administered the government of the realm with the advice of a nine-member Cabinet Council.[55][56] She was not keen to assume power and felt "deprived of all that was dear to me in the person of my husband, left among those that were perfect strangers to me: my sister of a humour so reserved that I could have little comfort from her."[57] Anne had quarrelled with William and Mary over money, and the relationship between the two sisters had soured.[58]
When her husband was away, Mary acted on her own if his advice was not available; whilst he was in England, Mary completely refrained from interfering in political matters, as had been agreed in the Declaration and Bill of Rights,[48][54] and as she preferred.[59] However, she proved a firm ruler, ordering the arrest of her own uncle, Henry Hyde, 2nd Earl of Clarendon, for plotting to restore James II to the throne.[60] In January 1692, the influential John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough, was dismissed on similar charges; the dismissal somewhat diminished her popularity[34] and further harmed her relationship with her sister Anne (who was strongly influenced by Churchill's wife, Sarah).[61] Anne appeared at court with Sarah, obviously supporting the disgraced Churchill, which led to Mary angrily demanding that Anne dismiss Sarah and vacate her lodgings.[62]
Mary fell ill with a fever in April 1692, and missed Sunday church service for the first time in 12 years.[63] She also failed to visit Anne, who was suffering a difficult labour. After Mary's recovery and the death of Anne's baby soon after it was born, Mary did visit her sister, but chose the opportunity to berate Anne for her friendship with Sarah.[64] The sisters never saw each other again.[65] Marlborough was arrested and imprisoned, but then released after his accuser was revealed to be an impostor.[66] Mary recorded in her journal that the breach between the sisters was a punishment from God for the "irregularity" of the Revolution.[67] She was extremely devout, and attended prayers at least twice a day.[68]
Many of Mary's proclamations focus on combating licentiousness, insobriety and vice.[69] She often participated in the affairs of the Church—all matters of ecclesiastical patronage passed through her hands.[70] On the death of Archbishop of Canterbury John Tillotson in December 1694, Mary was keen to appoint Bishop of Worcester Edward Stillingfleet to the vacancy, but William over-ruled her and the post went to Bishop of Lincoln Thomas Tenison.[71]
Mary was tall (5 foot 11 inches; 180 cm) and apparently fit; she would regularly walk between her palaces at Whitehall and Kensington.[72] In late 1694, however, she contracted smallpox. She sent away anyone who had not previously had the disease, to prevent the spread of infection.[73] Anne, who was once again pregnant, sent Mary a letter saying she would run any risk to see her sister again, but the offer was declined by Mary's groom of the stole, the Countess of Derby.[74] Mary died at Kensington Palace shortly after midnight on the morning of 28 December, at the young age of 32.[75]
William, who had grown increasingly to rely on Mary, was devastated by her death, and told Burnet that "from being the happiest" he was "now going to be the miserablest creature on earth".[73] While the Jacobites considered her death divine retribution for breaking the fifth commandment ("honour thy father"), she was widely mourned in Britain.[76] During a cold winter, in which the Thames froze, her embalmed body lay in state in Banqueting House, Whitehall. On 5 March, she was buried at Westminster Abbey. Her funeral service was the first of any royal attended by all the members of both Houses of Parliament.[77] For the ceremony, composer Henry Purcell wrote Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary.[78][79]
Legacy[edit]
William and Mary depicted on the ceiling of the Painted Hall, Greenwich, by Sir James Thornhill
Mary endowed the College of William and Mary (in the present day Williamsburg, Virginia) in 1693, supported Thomas Bray, who founded the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and was instrumental in the foundation of the Royal Hospital for Seamen, Greenwich, after the Anglo-Dutch victory at the Battle of La Hogue.[80] She is credited with influencing garden design at Het Loo and Hampton Court Palaces, and with popularising blue and white porcelain and the keeping of goldfish as pets.[81]
Mary was depicted by Jacobites as an unfaithful daughter who destroyed her father for her own and her husband's gain.[82] In the early years of their reign, she was often seen as completely under the spell of her husband, but after she had temporarily governed alone during his absences abroad, she was portrayed as capable and confident. Nahum Tate's A Present for the Ladies (1692) compared her to Queen Elizabeth I.[83] Her modesty and diffidence were praised in works such as A Dialogue Concerning Women (1691) by William Walsh, which compared her to Cincinnatus, the Roman general who took on a great task when called to do so, but then willingly abandoned power.[84]
A week before her death, Mary went through her papers, weeding out some which were burnt, but her journal survives, as do her letters to William and to Frances Apsley.[85] The Jacobites lambasted her, but the assessment of her character that came down to posterity was largely the vision of Mary as a dutiful, submissive wife, who assumed power reluctantly, exercised it with considerable ability when necessary, and willingly deferred it to her husband.[86]
In film and television[edit]
Mary is portrayed by:
Lisa Daniely in the 1969 mini-series The First Churchills
Sarah Crowden in the 1992 film Orlando
Rebecca Front in the 1995 film England, My England
Victoria Wood in the 2005 film The League of Gentlemen's Apocalypse
Title, styles, honours and arms[edit]
Titles and styles[edit]
30 April 1662 – 4 November 1677: Her Highness The Lady Mary[87]
4 November 1677 – 13 February 1689: Her Highness The Princess of Orange[48]
13 February 1689 – 28 December 1694: Her Majesty The Queen
The joint style of William III and Mary II was "William and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, France and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, etc." when they ascended the English throne. From 11 April 1689—when the Estates of Scotland recognised them as sovereigns—the royal couple used the style "William and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, etc.".[88]
Arms[edit]
The coat of arms used by the King and Queen were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); overall an escutcheon Azure billetty a lion rampant Or (for the House of Orange-Nassau).
Coat of arms on expeditionary banner of William and Mary, 1688, showing their arms impaled Coat of arms of William and Mary as joint Sovereigns of England Coat of arms of William and Mary used in Scotland from 1691
Ancestry[edit]
showAncestors of Mary II of England
16. Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley
8. James I of England
17. Mary, Queen of Scots
4. Charles I of England
18. Frederick II of Denmark
9. Anne of Denmark
19. Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow
2. James II of England
20. Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme
10. Henry IV of France
21. Joan III of Navarre
5. Henrietta Maria of France
22. Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany
11. Marie de' Medici
23. Joanna of Austria
1. Mary II of England
24. Laurence Hyde[89]
12. Henry Hyde
25. Anne Sibell[89]
6. Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon
26. Edward Langford[89]
13. Mary Langford
27. Mary St Barbe[90]
3. Anne Hyde
28. William Aylesbury[89][91]
14. Sir Thomas Aylesbury, 1st Baronet
29. Anne Poole[89][91]
7. Frances Aylesbury
30. Francis Denman[89][91]
15. Anne Denman
31. Ann Blount[89]
Family tree[edit]
Edward Hyde
1609–1674
Charles I
1600–1649
Henry Hyde
1638–1709
Anne Hyde
1637–1671
James II & VII
1633–1701
Mary
1631–1660
Charles II
1630–1685
James
1688–1766
Anne
1665–1714
Mary II
1662–1694
William III & II
1650–1702
James Scott
1649–1685
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Mary II was declared Queen by the Parliament of England on 13 February 1689 and by the Parliament of Scotland on 11 April 1689.
References[edit]
Van der Kiste, John (2003) William and Mary. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-3048-9.
Waller, Maureen (2006). Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-6628-8.
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 249
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 252
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 32
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 251
Jump up ^ Waller, pp. 251–253
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 255
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 34
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 256
Jump up ^ John Pollock. The Policy of Charles II and James II. (1667–87.).
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 44–45
Jump up ^ Mary's chaplain, Dr Edward Lake, quoted in Waller, p. 257
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 47–48; Waller, p. 258
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 50–51; Waller, p. 259
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 51; Waller, pp. 258–259
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 52
Jump up ^ Waller, pp. 257–259
Jump up ^ Waller, pp. 259–262
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 55–58; Waller, p. 261
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 57, 58, 62
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 162; Waller, p. 262
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 72–73
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 76
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 78
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 79
^ Jump up to: a b Van der Kiste, p. 91
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 265
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 81; Waller, p. 264
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste p. 64; Waller, p. 264
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 82; Waller, p. 264
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 86
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 92
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 90, 94–95; Waller, pp. 268–269
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 93–94
^ Jump up to: a b "Mary II". Encyclopædia Britannica. XVII (11th ed.). New York: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1911. p. 816.
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 85; Waller, p. 266
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 98
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 100–102
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 104
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 105–107
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 95; Waller, pp. 269–271
Jump up ^ Mary, quoted by Van der Kiste, p. 113 and Waller, p. 271
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 113; Waller, pp. 272–273
Jump up ^ "The House of Stuart: William III and Mary II". English Monarchs. 2004. Retrieved 18 September 2006.
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 274
Jump up ^ Waller, pp. 274–275
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 108; Waller, p. 273
Jump up ^ Mary, quoted in Van der Kiste, p. 114 and Waller, p. 273
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "King James' Parliament: The succession of William and Mary". The History and Proceedings of the House of Commons: volume 2. British History Online. 1742. pp. 255–77. Retrieved 19 September 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b "William III and Mary II". The Royal Household. Retrieved 18 September 2006.
Jump up ^ "William Sancroft". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2006. Retrieved 21 September 2006.
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 118
Jump up ^ "John Graham of Claverhouse, 1st viscount of Dundee". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2006. Retrieved 21 September 2006.
Jump up ^ "The Contemplator's Short History of "Bonnie Dundee" John Graham, Earl of Claverhouse, Viscount of Dundee". Retrieved 20 September 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b "Bill of Rights". 1689. Retrieved 19 September 2006.
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 138
Jump up ^ See also the Absence of King William Act 1689.
Jump up ^ Memoirs of Mary, Queen of England edited by R. Doebner (1886), quoted in Van der Kiste, p. 138
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 130–131
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 144; Waller, pp. 280, 284
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 281
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 159–160
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 160
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 155
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 161
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 162
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 161–162
Jump up ^ Quoted in Waller, p. 279
Jump up ^ Waller, pp. 277, 282
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 164; Waller, pp. 281, 286
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 163–164
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 176
Jump up ^ Waller, p.285
^ Jump up to: a b Van der Kiste, p. 177
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 179
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 179–180
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 288
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 186; Waller, p. 289
Jump up ^ "Music for Queen Mary". The Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County. Retrieved 18 September 2006.
Jump up ^ Van der Kiste, p. 187
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 283
Jump up ^ Waller, pp. 260, 285–286
Jump up ^ Waller, pp. 277–279
Jump up ^ Waller, pp. 283–284
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 284
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 287
Jump up ^ Waller, p. 290
Jump up ^ "No. 1249". The London Gazette. 5 November 1677. p. 1.
Jump up ^ Brewer, E. Cobham (1898). Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. Philadelphia: Henry Altemus Company. p. 891.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Jones, W. A. (1853). "Lord Clarendon and his Trowbridge Ancestry", The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, vol. 9, pp. 282–290
Jump up ^ Evans, C. F. H. (January 1975). "Clarendon's Grandparents", Notes and Queries, vol. 22, no. 1, p. 28
^ Jump up to: a b c Alsbury, Colin (2004). "Aylesbury, Sir Thomas, baronet (1579/80–1658)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press. Retrieved 20 September 2011. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mary II of England.
Portraits of Mary II of England at the National Portrait Gallery, London
The Correspondence of Mary II Stuart, Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland in EMLO
"Mary II.". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
Mary II
House of Stuart
Born: 30 April 1662 Died: 28 December 1694
Regnal titles
Vacant
Glorious Revolution
Title last held by
James II & VII Queen of England,
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WorldCat Identities
BIBSYS: 1450248439842
BNE: XX1306721
BNF: cb12268865r (data)
BPN: 30352746
GND: 118865838
ISNI: 0000 0001 2096 4438
LCCN: n80044552
LNB: 000205952
SELIBR: 214268
SNAC: w6dv1pwg
SUDOC: 066912709
ULAN: 500354686
VIAF: 76375822
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_II_of_England&oldid=866026049"
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Mary II of England
1662 births
1694 deaths
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