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National World War II Memorial
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For other uses, see World War II Memorial.
World War II Memorial
Location
Washington, D.C.
Coordinates
38°53′21.84″N 77°2′25.86″W / 38.8894000°N 77.0405167°W / 38.8894000; -77.0405167Coordinates: 38°53′21.84″N 77°2′25.86″W / 38.8894000°N 77.0405167°W / 38.8894000; -77.0405167
Established
May 29, 2004
Visitors
4,410,000 (in 2005)
Governing body
National Park Service
Website
World War II Memorial
The World War II Memorial is a memorial of national significance[1][2] dedicated to Americans who served in the armed forces and as civilians during World War II. Consisting of 56 pillars and a pair of small triumphal arches surrounding a square and fountain, it sits on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., on the former site of the Rainbow Pool at the eastern end of the Reflecting Pool, between the Lincoln Memorial and the Washington Monument.
Opened on April 29, 2004, it was dedicated by President George W. Bush on May 29, 2004.[3] The memorial is administered by the National Park Service under its National Mall and Memorial Parks group.[4] As of 2009, more than 4.4 million people visit the memorial each year.[not verified in body]
Contents
[hide]
1 Design
1.1 Freedom Wall
2 History
2.1 Fundraising
2.2 Picking the site
2.3 Designing the memorial
3 Construction
4 Controversy
4.1 Criticism of the location
4.2 Criticism of the design and style
4.3 FDR's D-Day prayer
5 Gallery
5.1 With the Washington Monument in background
5.2 Of the Central Fountain
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Design[edit]
Aerial view of the World War II Memorial
The memorial consists of 56 granite pillars, each 17 feet (5.2 m) tall, arranged in a semicircle around a plaza with two 43-foot (13 m) triumphal arches on opposite sides. Two-thirds of the 7.4-acre (30,000 m2) site is landscaping and water. Each pillar is inscribed with the name of one of the 48 U.S. states of 1945, as well as the District of Columbia, the Alaska Territory and Territory of Hawaii, the Commonwealth of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The northern arch is inscribed with "Atlantic"; the southern one, "Pacific." The plaza is 337 ft 10 in (102.97 m) long and 240 feet 2 inches (73.20 m) wide, is sunk 6 feet (1.8 m) below grade, and contains a pool that is 246 feet 9 inches by 147 feet 8 inches (75.2 × 45.0 m).[5]
The memorial includes two[6] inconspicuously located "Kilroy was here" engravings. Their inclusion in the memorial acknowledges the significance of the symbol to American soldiers during World War II and how it represented their presence and protection wherever it was inscribed.[7]
On approaching the semicircle from the east, a visitor walks along one of two walls (right side wall and left side wall) picturing scenes of the war experience in bas relief. As one approaches on the left (toward the Pacific arch), the scenes begin with soon-to-be servicemen getting physical exams, taking the oath, and being issued military gear. The reliefs progress through several iconic scenes, including combat and burying the dead, ending in a homecoming scene. On the right-side wall (toward the Atlantic arch) there is a similar progression, but with scenes generally more typical of the European theatre. Some scenes take place in England, depicting the preparations for air and sea assaults. The last scene is of a handshake between the American and Russian armies when the western and eastern fronts met in Germany.
Freedom Wall[edit]
The Freedom Wall is on the west side of the memorial, with a view of the Reflecting Pool and Lincoln Memorial behind it. The wall has 4,048 gold stars, each representing 100 Americans who died in the war. In front of the wall lies the message "Here we mark the price of freedom".[8]
History[edit]
View of The World War II Memorial (bottom) and the Lincoln Memorial (top) from the Washington Monument
In 1987, World War II veteran Roger Durbin approached Representative Marcy Kaptur, a Democrat from Ohio, to ask if a World War II memorial could be constructed. Kaptur introduced the World War II Memorial Act to the House of Representatives as HR 3742 on December 10. The resolution authorized the American Battle Monuments Commission (ABMC) to establish a World War II memorial in "Washington, D.C., or its environs", but the bill was not voted on before the end of the session, so it was not passed. Two more times, in 1989 and 1991, Rep. Kaptur introduced similar legislation, but these bills suffered the same fate as the first, and did not become law.
Kaptur reintroduced legislation in the House a fourth time as HR 682 on January 27, 1993, one day after Senator Strom Thurmond (a Republican from South Carolina) introduced companion Senate legislation. On March 17, 1993, the Senate approved the act, and the House approved an amended version of the bill on May 4. On May 12, the Senate also approved the amended bill, and the World War II Memorial Act was signed into law by President Bill Clinton on May 25 of that year, becoming Public Law 103-32.
Fundraising[edit]
On September 30, 1994, President Bill Clinton appointed a 12-member Memorial Advisory Board (MAB) to advise the ABMC in picking the site, designing the memorial, and raising money to build it. A direct mail fundraising effort brought in millions of dollars from individual Americans. Additional large donations were made by veterans' groups, including the American Legion, the Veterans of Foreign Wars, Veterans of the Battle of the Bulge and others. The majority of the corporate fundraising effort was led by two co-chairs: Senator Bob Dole, a decorated World War II veteran and 1996 Republican nominee for president; and Frederick W. Smith, the president and chief executive officer of FedEx Corporation and a former U.S. Marine Corps officer. The U.S. federal government provided about $16 million. A total of $197 million was raised.
Picking the site[edit]
On January 20, 1995, Colonel Kevin C. Kelley, project manager for the ABMC, organized the first meeting of the ABMC and the MAB, at which the project was discussed and initial plans made. The meeting was chaired by Commissioner F. Haydn Williams, chairman of ABMC's World War II Memorial Site and Design Committee, who would go on to guide the project through the site selection and approval process and the selection and approval of the Memorial's design. Representatives from the United States Commission of Fine Arts, the National Capital Planning Commission, the National Capital Memorial Commission, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the National Park Service attended the meeting. Selection of an appropriate site was taken on as the first action.
Over the next months, several sites were considered. Three quickly gained favor:[9][10]
U.S. Capitol Reflection Pool area – between 3rd Street and the Ulysses S. Grant Memorial
Constitution Gardens – east end, between Constitution Avenue and the Rainbow Pool
Freedom Plaza – on Pennsylvania Avenue between 14th and 15th Streets
Other sites considered but quickly rejected were:
Tidal Basin – northeast side, east of the Tidal Basin parking lot and west of the 14th Street Bridge access road
West Potomac Park – between Ohio Drive and the north shore of the Potomac River, northwest of the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial
Grounds of the Washington Monument – at Constitution Avenue between 14th and 15th Streets, west of the National Museum of American History
Henderson Hall, adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery – dropped from consideration because of its unavailability
The selection of the Rainbow Pool site was announced on October 5, 1995. The design would incorporate the Rainbow Pool fountain, located across 17th Street from the Washington Monument and near the Constitution Gardens site.[11]
The location is itself a significant symbol. The memorial will be given a more prominent spot than any monument on the National Mall since the Lincoln Memorial opened in 1922. The location, between the Washington Monument and the Lincoln Memorial, represents the first addition in more than 70 years to the grand corridor of open space that stretches from the Capitol 2.1 miles west to the Potomac River.[12]
Designing the memorial[edit]
A nationwide design competition drew 400 submissions from architects from around the country. Friedrich St. Florian's initial design was selected in 1997. Over the next four years, St. Florian's design was altered during the review and approval process required of proposed memorials in Washington, D.C. Ambassador Haydn Williams guided the design development for ABMC.
St. Florian's design consists of an architectural sculpture that evokes a classical monument. The two memorial arches, Pacific and Atlantic baldacchinos each have laurel wreaths suspended in the air with 4 eagles carrying it. The chandelier sculpture symbolizes the victory of the War with the Nation's bird carrying a Grecian symbol of victory but with an American adaptation of oak laurel wreaths to symbolize strength.
Each of the 56 pillars all consists of oak laurel wreaths and wheat laurel wreath. The oak symbolizes military and industrial strength and the wheat symbolizes agricultural and breadbasket during the U.S. part in the war.
Construction[edit]
Ground was broken in September 2001. The construction was managed by the General Services Administration.
The triumphal arches were crafted by Rock of Ages Corporation. Sculptor Raymond Kaskey created the bronze eagles and wreaths that were installed under the arches, as well as 24 bronze bas-relief panels that depict wartime scenes of combat and the home front.[13] The bronzes were cast over the course of two and a half years at Laran Bronze in Chester, Pennsylvania.[14] The stainless-steel armature that holds up the eagles and wreaths was designed at Laran, in part by sculptor James Peniston,[15] and fabricated by Apex Piping of Newport, Delaware.[16]
The John Stevens Shop designed the lettering for the memorial and most of the inscriptions were hand-carved in situ.
The memorial opened to the public on April 29, 2004, and was dedicated in a May 29 ceremony attended by thousands of people. The memorial became a national park on November 1, when authority over it was transferred to the National Park Service.
In 2012, the memorial's fountain was renovated.[17]
The memorial under construction in August 2002
Controversy[edit]
Criticism of the location[edit]
Critics such as the National Coalition to Save Our Mall opposed the location of the memorial. A major criticism of the location was that it would interrupt what had been an unbroken view between the Washington Monument and the Lincoln Memorial. The memorial was also criticized for taking up open space that had been historically used for major demonstrations and protests.[18][19][20]
Washington Monument View
Critics were particularly bothered by the expedited approval process, which is considerably lengthy most of the time.[21] The United States Congress, worried that World War II veterans were dying before an appropriate memorial could be built, passed legislation exempting the World War II Memorial from further site and design review. Congress also dismissed pending legal challenges to the memorial.[22]
Criticism of the design and style[edit]
There were also aesthetic objections to the design. A critic from the Boston Herald described the monument as "vainglorious, demanding of attention and full of trite imagery."[23] The Philadelphia Inquirer argued that "this pompous style was also favored by Hitler and Mussolini"[24] (see Nazi architecture). The Washington Post described it as "overbearing", "bombastic", and a "hodgepodge of cliche and Soviet-style pomposity" with "the emotional impact of a slab of granite".[25]
Some supporters said that the design evoked federal architecture during the New Deal period, influenced by an austere interpretation of Art Deco/Beaux Arts styles.[citation needed] This view, and the monument, were dismissed by one prominent architecture critic as "knee-jerk historicism"[26]
FDR's D-Day prayer[edit]
On May 23, 2013, Senator Rob Portman introduced the World War II Memorial Prayer Act of 2013 (S. 1044; 113th Congress), a bill that would direct the United States Secretary of the Interior to install at the World War II memorial in the District of Columbia a suitable plaque or an inscription with the words that President Franklin D. Roosevelt prayed with the United States on June 6, 1944, the morning of D-Day.[27] The bill was opposed by the American Civil Liberties Union, the American Jewish Committee, Americans United for Separation of Church and State, the Hindu American Foundation, and the Interfaith Alliance.[28] Together the organizations argued that the bill "endorses the false notion that all veterans will be honored by a war memorial that includes a prayer proponents characterize as reflecting our country's 'Judeo-Christian heritage and values.'"[28] The organizations argued that "the memorial, as it currently stands, appropriately honors those who served and encompasses the entirety of the war" and was carefully created, so no additional elements, such as FDR's prayer, need to be added.[28] But, they said, "the effect of this bill, however, is to co-opt religion for political purposes, which harms the beliefs of everyone."[28] The bill passed in the United States Senate on June 5, 2014.[29]
Gallery[edit]
The southern end of the memorial, dedicated to the Pacific theater
The northern end of the memorial, dedicated to the Atlantic theater
"The Price of Freedom"
Engraving of Kilroy on the memorial
Close up of the engraving at the memorial
The Pacific Arch
A seal on the floor of the memorial using the World War II Victory Medal design
Each of the 4,048 gold stars represents 100 Americans who died during the war
The Pacific Arch (Atlantic Arch in the background)
The Atlantic Arch
View of the World War II Memorial in Washington, D.C. from the "Atlantic" arch of the memorial.
World War II Memorial (2013)
Panoramic view at night, Washington Monument in the background
With the Washington Monument in background[edit]
The memorial, looking east in winter
Five state pillars and flag
North Carolina pillar
Pennsylvania pillar
Of the Central Fountain[edit]
Central Fountain with the Atlantic Arch in background
World War II Memorial Fountain in Washington D.C.
World War II Memorial, Fountain in the evening.
World War II Memorial
Panoramic view
See also[edit]
List of public art in Washington, D.C., Ward 2
The National WWII Museum, in New Orleans
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://uscode.house.gov/statutes/pl/103/32.pdf
Jump up ^ https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/16/chapter-1/subchapter-LXI
Jump up ^ National World War II Memorial
Jump up ^ World War II Memorial (U.S. National Park Service)
Jump up ^ "Memorial Design". National WWII Memorial. Archived from the original on 2008-05-31. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
Jump up ^ http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WM4F0R_Kilroy_Was_Here_World_War_II_Memorial_Washington_DC
Jump up ^ "Kilroy Is Here—Can You Find Him?". The Washington Post.
Jump up ^ Knight, Christopher (2004-05-23). "A memorial to forget". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 2005-12-26. — Many sources give the number of stars as 4,000. The wall contains 23 panels of 11 columns and 16 rows of stars. The number of stars can also be counted in Image:Wwii memorial stars march 2006.jpg. See also discussion at Talk:National World War II Memorial#Number the Stars.
Jump up ^ Forgey, Benjamin (1995-07-01). "Site-seeking at the Mall: Placing World War II memorial in the grand scheme of things". The Washington Post. p. C1.
Jump up ^ Forgey, Benjamin (1995-07-28). "No Accord on WWII Memorial; Two Agencies Send Mixed Signals About Location". The Washington Post. p. B3.
Jump up ^ Forgey, Benjamin (1995-10-06). "WWII Memorial Gets Choice Mall Site; 2nd Panel Approves Location, Clearing Way for Design Phase". The Washington Post. p. B1.
Jump up ^ http://articles.latimes.com/1995-11-09/news/mn-1182_1_world-war-ii-monument
Jump up ^ WWII Memorial: The “High Point” of Raymond Kaskey’s Career - Carnegie Mellon Today Archived 2008-04-07 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "WWII MEMORIAL". Retrieved 2009-09-09. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "James Peniston Sculpture: Bio". Retrieved 2008-09-09.
Jump up ^ "Building the Memorial". Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved June 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ "World War II Memorial Site Renovations". Long Fence. Retrieved April 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ Linda Wheeler and Spencer S. Hsu (17 May 2001). "Bush Backs War Memorial". Washington Post. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Fisher, Marc (4 May 2004). "A Memorial That Doesn't Measure Up". Washington Post. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
Jump up ^ "The World War II Memorial Defaces a National Treasure". National Coalition to Save Our Mall. January 2001. Archived from the original on 2007-05-04. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
Jump up ^ Van Oss, Alex (2001-02-25). "World War II Memorial" (RealAudio). Weekend Edition Sunday. National Public Radio. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
Jump up ^ Killian, Michael (2001-05-22). "Senate OKs WWII Memorial". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28.
Jump up ^ Keane, Thomas M., Jr. (June 25, 2004). "WWII Memorial fails both past, present". Boston Herald. p. 27.
Jump up ^ Saffron, Inga (May 28, 2004). "Monument to Democracy, The National World War II Memorial deserves its prominent location in Washington, as a tribute to heroes and a great cause". The Philadelphia Inquirer. p. E01.
Jump up ^ Fisher, Marc (May 4, 2004). "A Memorial That Doesn't Measure Up". The Washington Post. p. B01.
Jump up ^ Ouroussoff, Nicolai, “Get Me Rewrite: A New Monument to Press Freedom”, The New York Times, April 11, 2008.
Jump up ^ "S. 1044 - Summary". United States Congress. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Letter to Chairman Udall and Ranking Member Portman" (PDF). American Civil Liberties Union. 29 July 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "S. 1044 - All Actions". United States Congress. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to World War II Memorial.
NPS - National World War II Memorial
Trust for the National Mall: World War II Memorial
White House dedication
World War II Memorial Gallery
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Nest
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Nest (disambiguation).
A bird nest
A night heron building a nest.
A nest is a structure built by certain animals to hold eggs, offspring, and, occasionally, the animal itself. Although nests are most closely associated with birds, members of all classes of vertebrates and some invertebrates construct nests. They may be composed of organic material such as twigs, grass, and leaves, or may be a simple depression in the ground, or a hole in a rock, tree, or building. Human-made materials, such as string, plastic, cloth, or paper, may also be used. Nests can be found in all types of habitat.
Nest building is driven by a biological urge known as the nesting instinct in birds and mammals. Generally each species has a distinctive style of nest. Nest complexity is roughly correlated with the level of parental care by adults. Nest building is considered a key adaptive advantage among birds, and they exhibit the most variation in their nests ranging from simple holes in the ground to elaborate communal nests hosting hundreds of individuals. Nests of prairie dogs and several social insects can host millions of individuals.
Contents
[hide]
1 Nest building
2 Nest builders
2.1 Birds
2.2 Mammals
2.3 Amphibians
2.4 Fish
2.5 Reptiles
2.6 Dinosaurs
2.7 Insects
3 Effects on other species
4 Names of nests
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Nest building[edit]
Nest building is often driven by a biological urge in pregnant animals to protect one's offspring known as the nesting instinct. Animals build nests to protect their eggs, their offspring, or themselves from danger. The simplest nests are designed to hide eggs from predators, shield them from the sun or other environmental factors, or simply keep them from being scattered in ocean currents. In some cases, nests also help provide safety in numbers for egg-laying animals.[1]
A pair of ospreys building a nest.
Many nest builders provide parental care to their young, while others simply lay their eggs and leave. Brooding (incubating eggs by sitting on them) is common among birds. In general, nest complexity increases in relation to the level of parental care provided.[1] Nest building reinforces social behavior, allowing for larger populations in small spaces to the point of increasing the carrying capacity of an environment. Insects that exhibit the most complex nest building also exhibit the greatest social structure. Among mammals, the naked mole-rat displays a caste structure similar to the social insects while building extensive burrows that house hundreds of individuals.[2]
At the most basic level, there are only two types of nest building: sculpting and assembly. Sculpting is the process of removing material to achieve a desired outcome. Most commonly this entails burrowing into the ground or plant matter to create a nesting site. Assembly entails gathering, transporting, and arranging materials to create a novel structure. Transportation has the greatest time and energy cost so animals are usually adapted to build with materials available in their immediate environment. Versatility in use of construction material may be an adaptive advantage (less energy used to gather materials) or a disadvantage (less ability to specialize construction). The available evidence suggests that natural selection more often favors specialization over flexibility in nest construction.[2]
Plant matter is the most common construction material for nests. Other common materials include fur or feathers, perhaps from the animal itself, mud or dirt, fecal matter, and specialized secretions from the animal's body. Nest building can have a substantial impact on the environment in which animals live. The combined digging activity of termites and mole-rats in South Africa has created a "mima prairie" landscape marked by huge areas of flat land punctuated by mounds 30 metres (98 ft) wide and 2 metres (6.6 ft) high. Similar structures exist in the United States (created by pocket gophers) and Argentina (rodents of the Ctenomys genus). Nests constructed by megapode birds have been mistaken for anthropological features by professionals, due to their exceptional height (10 metres [33 ft]) and abundance (hundreds in a single location).[2]
Nest builders[edit]
Hundreds of honeybees gather on their honeycomb nest.
Nest architecture may be as useful for distinguishing species as the animals' physical appearance. Species identified through such means are called ethospecies. This is especially common in wasps and termites, but also can apply to birds. In most animals, there is some variation in nest construction between individuals. Whether these differences are driven by genetics or learned behavior is unknown.[2]
With the exception of a few tunneling mammals, nest builders exhibit no specialized anatomy, instead making use of body parts primarily used for other purposes. This is possibly due to the sporadic nature of nest building, minimizing the selective pressures of anatomy used for nest building.[2]
Birds[edit]
Main article: Bird nest
In general, birds are the most skilled nest builders, although not all species of birds build nests, some laying their eggs directly onto rock ledges or bare soil without first modifying the area. Complex nest building is considered to be one of the key adaptive advantages of birds.[1] Nests help regulate temperature and reduce predation risks, thus increasing the chance that offspring live to adulthood.[2]
Bird nests vary from simple depressions in the ground known as scrapes to largely unstructured collections of branches to elaborately woven pendants or spheres. The megapodes, one of the few groups who do not directly brood their young, incubate their young in a mound of decomposing vegetation. One species, Macrocephalon maleo, uses volcanic sand warmed by geothermal heat to keep its eggs warm.[1] Among the simple nest builders are falcons, owls, and many shorebirds. The weavers exhibit perhaps the most elaborate nests, complete with strands of grass tied into knots. Most bird nests lie somewhere in the middle, with the majority building cup-shaped nests using some combination of mud, twigs and leaves, and feathers. Some birds, such flamingos and swifts, use saliva to help hold their nest together. The edible-nest swiftlet uses saliva alone to construct their nests.[3] The rufous hornero nest is composed entirely of mud and feces, which is placed on tree branches to allow the sun to harden it into a usable structure.[4] The tailorbirds stitch together leaves to provide cover for their nest sites.[1]
A single nesting colony of the sociable weaver may house hundreds of individuals
The sociable weaver builds large communal nests in which many individual nests reside. They divide the nest using walls of grass placed atop a base of large sticks. At the entrances to the nest, sharp sticks are placed to ward off intruders.[4] A single communal site can measure 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height and 8 metres (26 ft) in width. As many as 300 mating pairs may reside in the structure.[5] Other birds often built their own nests on top of Weaver nest sites.[4]
Some birds build nests in trees, some (such as vultures, eagles, and many seabirds) will build them on rocky ledges, and others nest on the ground or in burrows.[3] Each species has a characteristic nest style, but few are particular about where they build their nests. Most species will choose whatever site in their environment best protects their nest, taking into account the nest's style. Several species will build on a cactus whenever possible. The bushtit and Bullock's oriole will suspend their nests from the tips of slender branches.[1] The oropendolas take hanging nests to the extreme, constructing pouches up to 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) tall using hanging vines as their base.[1][4] The hanging nest is attached to thin tree branches, discouraging predation.[4] Other species seek out crevices, using buildings or birdhouses when tree holes are not available.[1]
Typical bird nests range from 2 centimetres (0.79 in) in size (hummingbirds) to 2 metres (6.6 ft) (eagles) in diameter.[3] The largest nest on record was made by a pair of bald eagles. It was 2.9 metres (9.5 ft) in diameter, 6 metres (20 ft) deep and was estimated to weigh more than 2 tonnes (4,400 lb).[6] The lightest bird nests may weigh only a few grams.[3] Incubation mounds of the mallee fowl can reach heights of 4.57 metres (15.0 ft) and widths of 10.6 metres (35 ft). It is estimated the animal uses as much as 300 tonnes (660,000 lb) of material in its construction.[5] The extinct Sylviornis neocaledoniae may have constructed nesting mounds 50 metres (160 ft) in diameter.[2]
Mammals[edit]
See also: Nest-building in primates and Nest-building in domestic pigs
Many species of small mammals such as rodents, rabbits, and ground squirrels dig burrows into the ground to protect themselves and their young.[7] Prairie dogs build an elaborate system of tunnels which can span large stretches of land. One such structure, called a town, spanned 25,000 square miles (65,000 km2) and held an estimate 400 million individuals. Their homes are designed to withstand large (above-ground) temperature variation, floods, and fire. Their young are raised in the deepest chambers where the temperature is the most stable.[4]
Many mammals, including raccoons and skunks, seek natural cavities in the ground or in trees to build their nests. Tree squirrels build their nests (dreys) in trees, while voles nest in tall grass.[7] In some species, the nest serve as homes for adults while in others they are used to raise young. The duck-billed platypus and the echidna lay eggs in nests.[3]
Gorillas build fresh nests daily out of leaves and other vegetation in which they sleep at night. They sometimes also build nests during the day for resting in. The smaller species of gorilla build their nests in trees, while the larger are confined to the ground. Nests of the western gorilla, the largest species, measure about 1 metre (3.3 ft) in diameter.[8]
Amphibians[edit]
Paradise fish begin to hatch from a bubble nest.
Some species of frog build nests ranging from simple to modest complexity.[3] Many stream-dwelling frogs lay their eggs in a gelatinous mass which they attach to underwater vegetation. The jelly structure prevents the eggs from washing away.[1]
Fish[edit]
Fish engage in nest building activities ranging from simply scooping out sediment to building enclosed structures out of plant matter. Male sticklebacks produce a special enzyme in their kidneys that they use to bind plants together.[3]
Reptiles[edit]
The American Alligator is known for its parenting skills. They build large nests of mud and vegetation on river banks or vegetation mats. The female digs a hole in the center to lay her eggs, covers them, and then guards them for two months until they hatch. When eggs start to hatch, she breaks open the nest which has hardened over time and leads the young to the water where she continues to care for them for another year. Alligators are very particular about their nesting sites and will abandon a site if things go wrong.[1]
Cobras use leaves and other debris to build nests in which they lay eggs that both sexes guard. They carry the vegetation to the nest site by kinking their necks.[3] Sea turtles dig a hole in the sand above the high tide line in which they lay their eggs. They then cover the soft eggs to protect them from the sun and predators and leave.[1]
Dinosaurs[edit]
See also: Dinosaur egg
From the fossil record, it is known that many, or perhaps all, dinosaurs laid eggs. Paleontologists have identified a number of features that allow them to distinguish a nesting site from a random clustering of eggs. Those include regular clustering patterns, the co-occurrence of whole eggs with broken eggs and/or hatchlings, and the occurrence of physical features such as evidence of excavation.[1]
Maiasaura probably exhibited great amounts of parental care.
The Oviraptor nests of Mongolia are perhaps the most famous case of dinosaur nesting. One specimen was found fossilized atop a nest in a brooding posture, proving the animal had been poorly named (Oviraptor means "egg taker").[1]
A site known as Egg Mountain in Montana provides exceptional evidence of dinosaur nesting behavior. The site features dozens of nests each with 20 or more eggs belonging to the Maiasaura. Juvenile teeth at the site exhibit signs of wear, while the leg bones are not developed enough to walk. This allowed scientists to conclude that the species provided extensive parental care for its young. It is likely the species covered its nests with sand and vegetation to keep them warm and nested in colonies for increased protection.[1]
Insects[edit]
Social insects, including most species of ants, bees, termites, and wasps, are nest builders. Their often elaborate nests may be found above or below ground. Features often include ventilation systems and separate chambers for the queen, her eggs, and developing individuals.[3]
Bees and hornets often seek out natural cavities in which to construct their nests, also known as hives, in which they store food and raise their young. Other species of bee and some wasps dig holes in the ground or chew through wood.[7] In the species Megachile rotundata, for example, females construct tubular-shaped nests in rotting wood as well as small holes in the ground, creating, each cell made from circular disks cut from plant leaves using the bee's mandibles.[9] Bee nests are founded upon the wax the secrete from their bodies, while those of wasps are dependent on their ability to turn plant water into paper using their saliva.[2] Nests often exhibit divided living, with eggs and food stores kept in distinct parts of the hive.[7] Vespid wasps build complex nests from paper-like material where they lay eggs in individual cells. When the young hatch, their parents feed them chewed up larvae. Different species exhibit different nest structures. Paper wasp nesting consist of a single tier of cells, while yellow jacket nests can be many layers thick, reaching up to 30 centimetres (0.98 ft) in diameter.[1] Nesting strategies can be plastic, for instance the wasp Parischnogaster mellyi will significant vary its nest construction based on environmental conditions, and the wasp Mischocyttarus mexicanus is known to nest in groups or alone depending on the distribution of potential nest sites in the area.[2][10] Nest sizes vary dramatically and the largest wasp nest on record measured 1.75 metres (5.7 ft) in diameter and was 3.7 metres (12 ft) tall. Found in New Zealand, it was likely built by the German wasp.[11]
Termite nests can extend 5 metres (16 ft) or more in the air.
Termites build elaborate nests that span multiple generations and may last decades.[2] Using chewed wood, mud, and feces they build large mounds which may extend well into the air.[4] The largest nests, built by members of Amitermes genus, stand nearly 7 metres (23 ft) tall with a similar circumference at the base, and host millions of individuals.[2] Termite mounds are constructed to allow for excellent air flow, regulating the mound temperature. The mounds protect against drying and predation allowing many species to lose ancestral traits such as hard bodies, skin pigmentation, and good eyesight. Magnetic termites construct their nests with flattened sides along the North-South axis to ensure maximum warming during the winter, while exposing minimal surface area to the harshest mid-day sunshine.[2] Other termite species use their nests to farm fungi.[4]
Ant nests feature an elaborate colony structure that may extend 2 metres (6.6 ft) or more underground. As the structure gets further underground, individual chambers become farther and farther apart indicating that the ant is aware of its depth. It is hypothesized that they accomplish this by sensing the level of carbon dioxide in the soil.[4] The leaf cutter ant builds a complex nest which can house 8 million individuals. Its nests feature numerous chambers, most notably garden chambers where they farm fungus on leaves they harvest from the forest.[2]
Species such as the carpenter ant and the wasp Polistes exclamans build "satellite nests" - smaller nests near, but separate from, the main nest.[12][13] These satellite nests are used as an insurance against predators and parasites; if the original nest is attacked, surviving members can move the satellite nest.[12] Other species such as the Black hover wasp, Parischnogaster alternata, construct nests in clusters with the central core composed of older colonies surrounded by younger colonies.[14]
The Eastern carpenter bee, Xylocopa virginica, is unique in that individuals of that species build their nests in wood, bamboo culms, agave stalks, and other similar materials, although their preferred nesting material is pine or cedar lumber. When digging the nests, they use the wood shavings scraped from the wall to create partitions within the tunnels. The nests are usually round and have about 1-4 tunnels, each with multiple branches. Because these materials are often useful for humans in construction, X. virgininica's nesting behavior presents the disadvantage of weakening wood in manmade structures.[15]
Effects on other species[edit]
The abundance of biological resources within the nest has led to a number of specialized predators. The aardvark and the ant eater use long tongues to prey upon termite and ant nests. Birds such as the honey buzzard specialize on wasp and bee nests, a resource also targeted by the tropical hornet. Symbiosis, ranging from feeding on waste to obligate parasitism, is common within the nest. Ant nests alone support symbiotes spanning six classes of arthropods which includes 35 families just from the beetles.[2]
Names of nests[edit]
A badger's nest is called a sett.
A beaver's nest is called a lodge.
An eagle's nest is called an eyrie.
A pheasant's nest is called a nide.
A rabbit's nest is called a form.
A squirrel's or ringtail possum's nest is called a drey.
A wasp's nest is called a vespiary.
See also[edit]
Oology
Bird's nest soup
Nest box
Tree house
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Tom Deméré; Bradford D. Hollingsworth (Spring 2002). "Nests and Nest-building Animals" (pdf). San Diego Natural History Museum. Retrieved August 19, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Mike Hansell (2000). Bird Nests and Construction Behaviour. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521460387.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i "nest". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on September 30, 2013. Retrieved August 19, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Mary Beth Griggs. "8 Amazing Architects of the Animal Kingdom". Popular Mechanics. Archived from the original on August 13, 2013. Retrieved August 22, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Most populous bird's nest". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on August 21, 2014. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Largest bird's nest". Guinness World Records. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Mammal Nests and Burrows". Kids' Inquiry of Diverse Species. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Largest mammal to build a nest". Guinness World Records. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ Milius, Susan (2007-01-06). "Most bees live alone: No hives, no honey, but maybe help for crops". Science News. 171 (1): 11–13. doi:10.1002/scin.2007.5591710110. ISSN 1943-0930. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05.
Jump up ^ Clouse, R. (2001). “Some effects of group size on the output of beginning nests of Mischocyttarus mexicanus (Hymenoptera: Vespidae).” Florida Entomologist. 84(3):418-424.
Jump up ^ "Largest wasp nest". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on July 2, 2013. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Joan E. Strassman (1981). "Evolutionary implications of early male and satellite nest production in Polistes exclamans colony cycles". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 8 (1): 55–64. doi:10.1007/BF00302844.
Jump up ^ Jeff Hahn; Colleen Cannon; Mark Ascerno (2008). "Carpenter ants". University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on September 10, 2013. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ Landi, M., C. Coster-Longman, and S. Turillazzi. "Are the Selfish Herd and the Dilution Effects Important in Promoting Nest Clustering in the Hover Wasp (Stenogastrinae Vespidae Hymenoptera)?" Ethology Ecology & Evolution 14.4 (2002): 297-305. Web.
Jump up ^ Balduf, W. V. (1962-05-01). "Life of the Carpenter Bee, Xylocopa virginica (Linn.) (Xylocopidae, Hymenoptera)". Annals of the Entomological Society of America 55 (3): 263–271. doi:10.1093/aesa/55.3.263. ISSN 0013-8746.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nests.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Nest.
Birds as Builders of Homes
Ingersoll, Ernest (1920). "Nidification". In Rines, George Edwin. Encyclopedia Americana.
Ingersoll, Ernest (1920). "Fishes, Nest-making by". In Rines, George Edwin. Encyclopedia Americana.
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https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nido
Nido – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nesto
Nesto – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habia
Habia – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nid
Nid – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nead
Nead – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nead
Nead – Scottish Gaelic
gd
gd
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%C3%B1o
Niño – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values: માળો (પક્ષી) – Gujarati

values: घोसला – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnijezdo
Gnijezdo – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nesto
Nesto – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarang
Sarang – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nido
Nido – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susuh
Susuh – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values: ಗೂಡುಗಳು – Kannada

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiota
Kiota – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nich
Nich – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nidus
Nidus – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligzda
Ligzda – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nascht
Nascht – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizdas
Lizdas – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nin
Nin – Lombard
lmo
lmo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%A3
巣 – Japanese
ja
ja
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rede
Rede – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reir
Reir – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nis
Nis – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninho
Ninho – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%27isa
Q'isa – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

values: Гнездо – Russian

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nest
Nest – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nidu
Nidu – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nest
Nest – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

values: آکيرو – Sindhi

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hniezdo
Hniezdo – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnezdo
Gnezdo – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Гнездо – Serbian

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnijezdo
Gnijezdo – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayang
Sayang – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pes%C3%A4
Pesä – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rede
Rede – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugad
Pugad – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values: கூடு – Tamil

values: Лона – Tajik

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuva
Yuva – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values: Пузкар – Udmurt

values: گھونسلہ – Urdu

values:
https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nit
Nit – Venetian
vec
vec
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salag
Salag – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%A2
巢 – Chinese
zh
zh
interlanguage-link-target

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