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Pulmonary circulation
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The part of the circulatory system which carries blood from heart to lungs and back to the heart
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Pulmonary circulation
Human pulmonary circulation. Oxygen-rich blood is shown in red; oxygen-depleted blood in blue
Pulmonary circulation in the heart
Details
System
Circulatory system
Identifiers
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The pulmonary circulation is the portion of the circulatory system which carries deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle of the heart, to the lungs, and returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium and ventricle of the heart.[1] The term pulmonary circulation is readily paired and contrasted with the systemic circulation. The vessels of the pulmonary circulation are the pulmonary arteries and the pulmonary veins.
A separate system known as the bronchial circulation supplies oxygenated blood to the tissue of the larger airways of the lung.
The earliest human discussions of pulmonary circulation date back to Egyptian times. Human knowledge of pulmonary circulation grew gradually over centuries, and scientists Ibn al-Nafis, Michael Servetus, and William Harvey provided some of the first accurate descriptions of this process.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Lungs
1.2 Veins
1.3 Arteries
2 Development
3 Clinical significance
4 History
5 See also
6 External links
7 References
Structure[edit]
3D rendering of a high resolution computed tomography of the thorax. The anterior thoracic wall, the airways and the pulmonary vessels anterior to the root of the lung have been digitally removed in order to visualize the different levels of the pulmonary circulation.
Image showing main pulmonary artery coursing ventrally to the aortic root and trachea, and the right pulmonary artery passes dorsally to the ascending aorta, while the left pulmonary artery passes ventrally to the descending aorta.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the heart, goes to the lungs, and then re-enters the heart; Deoxygenated blood leaves through the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery. From the right atrium, the blood is pumped through the tricuspid valve (or right atrioventricular valve), into the right ventricle. Blood is then pumped from the right ventricle through the pulmonary valve and into the main pulmonary artery.
Lungs[edit]
The pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs, where carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is picked up during respiration. Arteries are further divided into very fine capillaries which are extremely thin-walled. The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart.
Veins[edit]
Main article: Pulmonary vein
The oxygenated blood then leaves the lungs through pulmonary veins, which return it to the left heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. This blood then enters the left atrium, which pumps it through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. From the left ventricle, the blood passes through the aortic valve to the aorta. The blood is then distributed to the body through the systemic circulation before returning again to the pulmonary circulation.
Arteries[edit]
Main article: Pulmonary artery
From the right ventricle, blood is pumped through the semilunar pulmonary valve into the left and right main pulmonary arteries (one for each lung), which branch into smaller pulmonary arteries that spread throughout the lungs.
Development[edit]
The pulmonary circulation loop is virtually bypassed in fetal circulation. The fetal lungs are collapsed, and blood passes from the right atrium directly into the left atrium through the foramen ovale: an open conduit between the paired atria, or through the ductus arteriosus: a shunt between the pulmonary artery and the aorta. When the lungs expand at birth, the pulmonary pressure drops and blood is drawn from the right atrium into the right ventricle and through the pulmonary circuit. Over the course of several months, the foramen ovale closes, leaving a shallow depression known as the fossa ovalis.
Clinical significance[edit]
A number of medical conditions can affect the pulmonary circulation.
Pulmonary hypertension describes an increase in resistance in the pulmonary arteries
Pulmonary embolus is a blood clot, usually from a deep vein thrombosis that has lodged in the pulmonary vasculature. It can cause difficulty breathing or chest pain, is usually diagnosed through a CT pulmonary angiography or V/Q scan, and is often treated with anticoagulants such as heparin and warfarin.
Cardiac shunt is an unnatural connection between parts of the heart that leads to blood flow that bypasses the lungs.
Vascular resistance
Pulmonary shunt
History[edit]
The discovery of pulmonary circulation has been attributed to several scientists over the years. In much of modern medical literature, the discovery is credited to English physician William Harvey (1578 - 1657 CE).[3][4] Other sources credit Spanish physician Michael Servetus (c. 1509 - 1553 CE) and Arab physician Ibn al-Nafis (1213 - 1288 CE) with the discovery.[5][2] However, the first descriptions of the cardiovascular system came before these men.
The earliest known description of the role of air in circulation was produced in Egypt in 3500 BCE. At this time, Egyptians believed that the heart was the origin of many channels that connected different parts of the body and transported air as well as urine, blood, and the soul.[6] The Edwin Smith Papyrus (1700 BCE), named for American Egyptologist Edwin Smith (1822 - 1906 CE) who purchased the scroll in 1862, provided evidence that Egyptians believed that the heartbeat created a pulse that transported the above substances throughout the body.[7] A second scroll, the Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE), also emphasized the importance of the heart and its connection to vessels throughout the body and described methods to detect cardiac disease through pulse abnormalities. However, despite their knowledge of the heartbeat, vessels, and pulse, the Egyptians attributed the movement of substances throughout the vessels to air that resided in these channels, rather than to the heart's force.[8] The Egyptians knew that air played an important role in circulation, but they did not yet have a concept for the precise role of the lungs.
The next addition to the human understanding of pulmonary circulation came with the Ancient Greeks. The physician Alcmaeon (520 - 450 BCE) proposed that the brain, not the heart, was the connection point for all of the vessels in the body. He believed that the function of these vessels was to bring the spirit (pneuma) and air to the brain.[6][9] Empedocles (492 - 432 BCE), a philosopher, proposed a series of pipes impermeable to blood but continuous with blood vessels which carried the pneuma throughout the body. He proposed that this spirit was internalized with pulmonary respiration.[6] The physician Hippocrates (460 - 370 BCE) developed the view that the liver and spleen produced blood, which traveled to the heart to be cooled by the lungs that surrounded it.[2] Hippocrates described the heart as having two ventricles connected by an interventricular septum. He depicted the heart as the connecting point for all the vessels of the body and proposed that some vessels carried only blood, while others also carried air. These air-carrying vessels were the pulmonary veins, which brought air to the left ventricle, and the pulmonary artery, which carried air to the right ventricle and blood to the lungs. He also proposed two atria of the heart that functioned to capture air. Hippocrates was one of the first to begin to accurately describe the anatomy of the heart and to describe the involvement of the lungs in circulation, but his descriptions of the process of pulmonary circulation and of the functions of the parts of the heart were still largely incorrect.[6]
Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle (384 - 322 BCE) followed Hippocrates and proposed that the heart had three ventricles, rather than two, that all connected to the lungs.[6] The Greek physician Erasistratus (315 - 240 BCE) agreed with Hippocrates and Aristotle that the heart was the origin of all of the vessels in the body but proposed a system in which air was breathed into the lungs and traveled to the left ventricle via pulmonary veins. It was transformed there into the pneuma and distributed throughout the body by arteries, which contained only air.[7] In this system, veins distributed blood throughout the body, and this blood did not circulate, but rather was consumed by the organs.[6]
The Greek physician Galen (129 - c. 210 CE) provided the next insights into pulmonary circulation. Though many of his theories, like those of his predecessors, were incorrect, his theory of pulmonary circulation dominated the medical community for hundreds of years after his death.[7] Galen contradicted Erasistratus before him by proposing that arteries carried both air and blood, rather than air alone.[2] He proposed that the liver was the point of origin for all blood vessels and that the heart was not a pumping muscle, but rather an organ which blood passed through.[7] Galen's theory included a new description of pulmonary circulation. In it, air was inhaled into the lungs where it became the pneuma. Pulmonary veins transmitted this pneuma to the left ventricle of the heart to cool the blood simultaneously arriving there. This mixture of pneuma, blood, and cooling produced the vital spirits which could then be transported throughout the body via arteries. Galen also proposed that the heat of the blood arriving in the heart produced noxious vapors which were expelled through the same pulmonary veins that first brought the pneuma.[10] He wrote that the right ventricle played a different role than the left; it transported blood to the lungs where the impurities were vented out so that clean blood could be distributed throughout the body. Though Galen's description of the anatomy of the heart was more complete than those of his predecessors, it included several mistakes. Most notably, Galen believed that blood flowed between the two ventricles of the heart through small, invisible pores in the interventricular septum.[6]
The next developments in the human understanding of pulmonary circulation did not come until centuries later. Persian polymath Avicenna (c. 980 - 1037 CE) wrote a medical encyclopedia entitled The Canon of Medicine. In this book, he translated and compiled contemporary medical knowledge and added some new information of his own.[11] However, Avicenna's description of pulmonary circulation reflected the incorrect views of Galen.[2] Another Persian physician, Ibn al-Nafis, wrote the Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon in 1242 in which he provided the first known accurate description of pulmonary circulation as it is known today. Ibn al-Nafis made two key improvements on Galen's ideas of pulmonary circulation. First, he disproved the existence of the pores in the interventricular septum that Galen had believed to allow blood flow between the left and right ventricles. Second, he followed that the only way for blood to get from the right to the left ventricle in the absence of interventricular pores was pulmonary circulation. He also described the anatomy of the lungs in clear, correct detail, which his predecessors had not.[11] However, like Aristotle and Galen, al-Nafis still believed that the vital spirit was formed in the left ventricle from a mixture of blood and air. Despite the enormity of Ibn al-Nafis's improvements on the theories of pulmonary circulation that preceded him, his commentary on The Canon was not widely known to Western scholars until the manuscript was discovered in Berlin, Germany, in 1924. As a result, Ibn al-Nafis was not widely credited with the discovery of pulmonary circulation in Western medical literature until recently.[2][11]
It took several hundred years for European scientists and physicians to reach the same conclusions that al-Nafis had. Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519 CE) was one of the first to propose that the heart was just a muscle, rather than a vessel of spirits and air, but he ascribed to Galen's ideas of circulation and defended the existence of interventricular pores.[6] The Flemish physician Andreas Vesalius (1514 - 1564 CE) published corrections to Galen's view of circulatory anatomy, questioning the existence of interventricular pores, in his book De humani corporis fabrica libri septem in 1543.[10] Michael Servetus after him was the first European physician to accurately describe pulmonary circulation. His assertions matched those of al-Nafis, and though he has been frequently credited with making the discovery on his own, it is likely that he had access to Ibn al-Nafis's work while writing his own texts. Servetus published his findings in Christianismi Restituto (1553), a theological work that was criticized and ignored by many Christian factions at the time.[2] Italian physician Realdo Colombo (c. 1515 - 1559 CE) published a book, De re anatomica libri XV, in 1559 that accurately described pulmonary circulation as well. It is still debated among historians as to whether or not Colombo reached his conclusions on his own or if he based his work on those of al-Nafis and Servetus.[2][6] Finally, William Harvey provided the most complete and accurate description of pulmonary circulation of any of the European physicians in his treatise Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus in 1628.[5]
See also[edit]
Underwater diving portal
External links[edit]
Official Journal of the Pulmonary Vascular Research Institute
Michael Servetus Research Study on the Manuscript of Paris with the description of the Pulmonary Circulation, and more works by Servetus.
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pulmonary circulation.
Jump up ^ Hine R (2008). A dictionary of biology (6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 540. ISBN 978-0-19-920462-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Akmal M, Zulkifle M, Ansari A (March 2010). "Ibn nafis - a forgotten genius in the discovery of pulmonary blood circulation". Heart Views. 11 (1): 26–30. PMC 2964710  . PMID 21042463.
Jump up ^ Ribatti D (September 2009). "William Harvey and the discovery of the circulation of the blood". Journal of Angiogenesis Research. 1: 3. doi:10.1186/2040-2384-1-3. PMC 2776239  . PMID 19946411.
Jump up ^ Azizi MH, Nayernouri T, Azizi F (May 2008). "A brief history of the discovery of the circulation of blood in the human body" (PDF). Archives of Iranian Medicine. 11 (3): 345–50. PMID 18426332.
^ Jump up to: a b Bosmia A, Watanabe K, Shoja MM, Loukas M, Tubbs RS (July 2013). "Michael Servetus (1511-1553): physician and heretic who described the pulmonary circulation". International Journal of Cardiology. 167 (2): 318–21. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2012.06.046. PMID 22748500.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Bestetti RB, Restini CB, Couto LB (December 2014). "Development of anatomophysiologic knowledge regarding the cardiovascular system: from Egyptians to Harvey". Arquivos Brasileiros De Cardiologia. 103 (6): 538–45. doi:10.5935/abc.20140148. PMC 4290745  . PMID 25590934.
^ Jump up to: a b c d ElMaghawry M, Zanatta A, Zampieri F (2014). "The discovery of pulmonary circulation: From Imhotep to William Harvey". Global Cardiology Science & Practice. 2014 (2): 103–16. doi:10.5339/gcsp.2014.31. PMC 4220440  . PMID 25405183.
Jump up ^ Nunn JF (1996). Ancient Egyptian Medicine. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 0714109819.
Jump up ^ Loukas M, Tubbs RS, Louis RG, Pinyard J, Vaid S, Curry B (August 2007). "The cardiovascular system in the pre-Hippocratic era". International Journal of Cardiology. 120 (2): 145–9. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2006.11.122. PMID 17316844.
^ Jump up to: a b Aird WC (July 2011). "Discovery of the cardiovascular system: from Galen to William Harvey". Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 9 Suppl 1 (Suppl. 1): 118–29. doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04312.x. PMID 21781247.
^ Jump up to: a b c West JB (December 2008). "Ibn al-Nafis, the pulmonary circulation, and the Islamic Golden Age". Journal of Applied Physiology. 105 (6): 1877–80. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.91171.2008. PMC 2612469  . PMID 18845773.
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Alcohol laws in Germany
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Beer in Germany is an important part of German culture
The German laws regulating alcohol use and sale are some of the least restrictive in the world. The foremost function of restraints, as far as they exist, is youth protection. In contrast to many other countries, the legislation is not designed to keep young people away from alcohol completely, but rather to teach them an appropriate approach to alcohol consumption.
Contents
1 Drinking age
2 Enforcement
2.1 Fines for violation
3 Other legislation
3.1 Alcohol consumption in public
3.2 Drinking and driving
3.3 Licensing laws
3.3.1 On-license
3.3.1.1 Rules and Regulations
3.3.1.2 Closing hours
3.3.2 Off-licence
4 See also
5 References
Drinking age[edit]
German Jugendschutzgesetz:
The law has to be placed at every public event and establishments selling or serving alcoholic beverages.
Underage drinking in private is not regulated by a specific legal restriction. However, protection from physical and mental harm is part of parents' general obligation to care for a child.[1] Regarding alcohol purchase and alcohol consumption in public places (such as pubs and restaurants), Germany has three drinking ages regulated by § 9 Jugendschutzgesetz[2] (Protection of Young Persons Act):
§ 9 Alcoholic drinks
(1) The following bans shall apply to restaurants, stores and other points of sale:
Beer, wine, wine-like beverages or sparkling wine or mixtures of beer, wine, wine-like beverages or sparkling wine and soft drinks,
Other alcoholic drinks or food items that contain other alcoholic drinks in more than insignificant quantities must not be sold to Children and Adolescents below the age of 16 years.
Nor must their consumption by said persons be tolerated.
(2) Sub-Clause 1, No. 1 shall not apply to Adolescents accompanied by a Custodial Person.
—  Protection of Young Persons Act, § 9 Alcoholic drinks
At 14 minors are allowed to consume and possess undistilled (fermented) alcoholic beverages, such as beer and wine, as long as they are in the company by a Custodial Person. (§ 9 JuSchG (2) Sub-Clause 1, No. 2)
At 16 - minors are allowed to consume and possess undistilled (fermented) alcoholic beverages, such as beer and wine without their parents or a Custodian. (§ 9 JuSchG (1) 2.)
At 18 - having become adults, people are allowed access to distilled spirits, beverages containing distilled spirits, and food products containing non-negligible amounts of distilled spirits. (§ 9 JuSchG (1) 1.)
Those limits do not apply to married adolescents. (§ 1 JuSchG (5))
Because of moral panic involving alcohol abuse among minors (a 16-year-old boy died after having consumed 45 shots of tequila in a bar in early 2007),[3] some people demanded that the drinking age be raised. Most politicians, however, spoke against that notion, pointing out instead that such abuse was already forbidden according to current laws, which simply needed to be enforced.[4] In Germany and the rest of Europe, alcohol consumption by adolescents is traditional and generally accepted.[citation needed]
Enforcement[edit]
Police operation in Bensheim (Hesse). Several young people have to dispose of illegally obtained alcoholic beverages in the sewers, because they have not reached the required age limit.
In 2008, the federal state of Lower Saxony started a series of trap purchases, conducted by specially trained police cadets, aged 16 or 17, who pose as customers. In 77% of all tests alcohol was sold illegally in shops, filling stations and kiosks. In 2009, about 3000 trap purchases were carried out in Lower Saxony, in 1327 cases (44%) alcohol was sold without age verification to underage persons. Hundreds of summary proceedings led to administrative fines ranging from 500 to 3000 euros. The standard rate for the illegal sale of one bottle of spirits is 1500 euros. Thus, alcohol trap purchases bring a return of around €2 million annually. Other German states, especially Schleswig-Holstein, are considering implementing the Lower Saxony model, but states like Berlin, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia and Baden-Württemberg object to it.
Violation of restraints will involve prosecution for vendors who sell alcohol to underage persons and also for bystanders who do not intervene in underage drinking. Although restrictions are nationwide and well-known, some salespersons violate the law at times. Minors themselves can never be prosecuted for alcohol consumption under age. Supermarkets and stores generally check minors for their identity card. The law is less thoroughly enforced in many bars and restaurants, but this can vary by location.
Fines for violation[edit]
The "Bußgeldkatalog" of each state sets the possible fines for each violation of the act and varies slightly by state. In Baden-Württemberg the Bußgeldkatalog for violation against the "Protection of Young Persons Act" provides following fines:[5]
Misdemeanor
Law
Possible fine (retailer & business operator)
Standard fine (retailer & business operator)
Possible fine (other)
Standard fine (other)
Selling or serving spirits or food products, containing more than insignificant quantities of spirits, to a child under 14 years of age § 9 Sec. 1 JuSchG €1,000 - €4,000 €3,000 €300 - €1,000 €500
Selling or serving spirits or food products, containing more than insignificant quantities of spirits, to a young person over the age of 14 but under the age of 18 years § 9 Sec. 1 JuSchG €700 - €3,500 €2,000 €100 - €500 €300
Selling or serving beer, wine, wine-like beverages or sparkling wine or mixtures of beer, wine, wine-like beverages or sparkling wine and soft drinks, to a child under 14 years of age § 9 Sec. 1 JuSchG €700 - €3,500 €2,500 €100 - €500 €300
Selling or serving beer, wine, wine-like beverages or sparkling wine or mixtures of beer, wine, wine-like beverages or sparkling wine and soft drinks, to a unaccompanied young person over 14 years but under 16 years of age § 9 Sec. 1 JuSchG €500 - €3,000 €2,000 €100 - €500 €300
Other legislation[edit]
Alcohol consumption in public[edit]
Alcohol ban in Nikolaistraße
Public parties are prohibited nationally on Good Friday, and regionally on other holidays such as All Saints' Day. Buying alcohol remains possible at these times. The government maintains the right to restrict or ban the sale of alcohol for a certain time to maintain public order (§ 19 GastG)[6].
Beyond this, Germany has very few restrictions on alcohol consumption in public. Exceptions are sometimes made in the context of football (soccer) matches involving rival teams, where police executives may ban the sale of alcoholic drinks inside stadiums and deny entrance to drunk fans. In 2009, the private railway company Metronom, which operates in parts of Northern Germany, introduced a much-discussed complete ban on alcohol in its trains.[7] Some cities have banned alcohol consumption in certain areas and at certain times, such as Göttingen in Nikolaistraße between midnight and 8:00 am on Saturdays and Sundays, or in Hannover Hauptbahnhof.
Until 2009, it was acceptable for employees in many fields of work (especially construction workers, gardeners and the like) to consume medium quantities of alcohol during work hours. However, occupational safety legislation has since tightened down and has induced a significant decrease of alcohol consumption during work hours.[8]
Drinking and driving[edit]
Germany has strict laws regarding operation of motor vehicles under the influence of alcohol and other psychoactive substances. There are a series of different rules and penalties tied to various blood alcohol levels.
0.00% for those under the age of 21 or with less than two years' experience, professional drivers, bus drivers, truck drivers, and drivers transporting passengers commercially;
0.03% in conjunction with an accident or traffic offense;
0.05% otherwise.
0.16% for cyclists, where not in conjunction with any other traffic offense or accident. From 0.16%, cyclists face the same penalties as driving a car at that limit.[9]
Penalties start at a €500 fine and one-month license suspension. Above 0.11%, the penalty is a €500 fine and the withdrawal of the driver's licence for at least six months, but usually about one year (penalty is set by the court); from 0.16%, reissue of the licence requires a successful Medical Psychological Assessment (MPU), often referred to as the "Idiot test". Violators above 0.11% within ten years of a prior offence above 0.05%, there is a minimum €7003100000000000000♠1000 fine and a one-year licence withdrawal; the driver has to successfully pass an MPU and is required to prove to the court that they have been sober for the last twelve months, before they can get their licence back. For repeat offenses, the fine is multiplied by the ordinal of the offence (doubled, tripled, etc.), regardless of the amount by which the driver was over the limit. These minimum penalties are usually exceeded by the German courts. From 0.11%, the courts usually also require the DUI offender to do unpaid community service.
In addition to fines, impaired drivers are generally given points on their Verkehrssünderkartei (literally: "traffic sinner card") which are managed by the Federal Motor Transport Authority in Flensburg.
It is however legal to consume alcohol while driving, provided the driver remains under the legal blood alcohol limits.[10]
Licensing laws[edit]
On-license[edit]
The permit is not required if alcohol-free beverages, free samples, prepared food is sold or administered or in connection with a accommodation establishment beverages and prepared food is delivered to residents.[11] Every other establishment which does not apply to this scheme requires a Liquor license (Gaststättenkonzession). In most cases a Liquor license is always then required, when alcoholic beverages are served or sold for consumption in the premises.
Rules and Regulations[edit]
On-licence premises have to place a clearly legible notice with the restrictions of the Protection of Young Persons Act (Jugendschutzgesetz)[12] and the bartender must ensure that alcoholic beverages may not be sold or served to underage or visibly intoxicated persons.[13] Operator of a licensed premises are not allowed to force their customers to buy a meal with a drink or change prices if a customer does not order a meal. Changing prices if a customer does not buy a alcoholic drink is also against the law, and every licensee must ensure that there ist at least one non alcoholic drink that is cheaper than the cheapest alcoholic drink.[13]
Closing hours[edit]
Closing hours for bars and discotheques are appointed mostly by state legislation. Within the past 10 years many states have abolished the closing hours for licensed establishments. Most states remain with the so called "Putzstunde" (Cleaning hour), which refers to the 1-2 hours (usually between 5 AM and 6 AM) during which licensed premises are not allowed to serve their customers.
Federal state
City/Municipality
Closing hours
Notes
Federal Republic of Germany (federal law) States have the right to set closing hours for licensed establishents (§ 18 GastG). Under federal law, it is illegal to serve customers outside of the establishent after 10 PM, or 11 PM with permission of the city (Emissionsschutzgesetz).
Baden-Württemberg Monday-Thursday: 3 AM - 6 AM
Friday & Weekend: 5 AM - 6 AM
Spa Town: 2 AM - 6 AM
Gambling establishments: 12 AM - 6 AM[14] Cities can permit businesses to apply for an exception to the closing hours.
Bavaria 5 AM - 6 AM[15] The closing hours do not apply during the night of 1. January. Cities can permit businesses to apply for an exception to the closing hours.
Berlin None[16] There is no general closing hour for licensed businesses. However, it is against the law if licensed businesses serve their costumers outside after 10 PM without permission of the city, if someone files a complaint.[16]
Brandenburg None[17] In 2006 the government of the state of Brandenburg declared that the closing hours for licensed busineses was abolsihed.[17]
Bremen Generally: 2 AM - 6 AM
Friday, Weekend & Bank holidays: None
Gambling establishment: 2 AM - 6 AM[18] Cities may permit exceptions.[18]
Hamburg None[19] The closing hours where abolished in 2006.[19]
Hesse Generally: 5 AM - 6 AM
Amusement parks & Fairs: 12 PM - 6 AM
During carnival, 1. May & 1. January: None[20] Cities can permit exceptions to the general closing hours.[20]
Lower Saxony None
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern None
North Rhine-Westphalia Generally: 5 AM - 6 AM
[21] Cities can permit exceptions to the general closing hours.[21]
Rhineland-Palatinate Generally: 5 AM - 6 AM
Saturday, Sunday, Bank holiday or Carnival: None
Amusement parks & Fairs: 10 PM - 6 AM
Gambling establishments: 12 PM - 6 AM[22] Cities can permit exceptions to the general closing hours.[22]
Saarland Generally: 5 AM - 6 AM
1. January: None
Amusement parks & Fairs: 10 PM - 7 AM
Gambling establishments: 11 PM - 7 AM[23] Cities can permit exceptions to the general closing hours.[23]
Saxony Generally: 5 AM - 6 AM
1. January, 1. & 2. May: None
Amusement parks, Gambling establishments & Fairs: 10 PM - 6 AM[24] Cities can permit exceptions to the general closing hours.[24]
Saxony-Anhalt None[25] The closing hours for licensed establishments was abolished in 2015.[25]
Schleswig-Holstein None[26] The closing hours for licensed establishments was abolished in 2005.[26]
Thuringia None[27]
Off-licence[edit]
Germany does not require any licenses for the production, wholesale, or retail sale of alcoholic beverages.[28][29]
See also[edit]
Alcohol belts of Europe
Beer in Germany
Reinheitsgebot
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Youth protection in public". Zentrum Bayern Familie und Soziales, Bayerisches Landesjugendamt. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Protection of Young Person Act
Jump up ^ Korinth, Nadja (13 November 2007). "Attitudes to alcohol in Europe/Germany". BBC News. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Springer, Axel. "In Baden-Württemberg gilt nachts Alkoholverbot". Die Welt. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Bußgeldkatalog für Verstöße nach dem Jugendschutzgesetz (JuSchG)" (PDF). Ministerium für Arbeit und Soziales. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
Jump up ^ "Gaststättengesetz - § 19 Verbot des Ausschanks alkoholischer Getränke". juris GmbH. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
Jump up ^ "Ban on alcohol: Metronom takes actions". kreiszeitung.de. Retrieved 9 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Corral, Antonio. "Use of alcohol and drugs at the workplace". European Working Conditions Observatory. Retrieved 19 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Alkohol im Straßenverkehr Promille-Grenze für Radfahrer bleibt bei 1,6". Mitteldeutsche Zeitung. 8 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Hebermehl, Gregor (25 September 2017). "28 Irrtümer im deutschen Straßenverkehr: Bier am Steuer, Handy am Ohr - Was ist erlaubt?". Auto motor und sport. Retrieved 16 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "§2 GastG". gesetze-im-internet.de. Bundesministerium der Justiz und für Verbraucherschutz (Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection). n.d. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "§3 GastG". gesetze-im-internet.de. Bundesministerium der Justiz und für Verbraucherschutz (Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection). n.d. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "§20 GastG". gesetze-im-internet.de. Bundesministerium der Justiz und für Verbraucherschutz (Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection). n.d. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Sperrzeit - Verkürzung oder Aufhebung beantragen". Ministerium für Inneres, Digitalisierung und Migration Baden-Württemberg. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
Jump up ^ "Sperrzeit; Beantragung einer Verlängerung, Verkürzung oder Aufhebung". Bayerisches Staatsministerium des Innern und für Integration. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Keine Sperrstunde für die Simon-Dach-Straße". Der Tagesspiegel. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Keine Landesregierung hebt Sperrzeitverordnung auf - Brandenburg kann noch gastfreundlicher werden". Landesregierung Brandenburg. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Verordnung zur Ausführung des Bremischen Gaststättengesetzes (Bremische Gaststättenverordnung - BremGastV)". Die Senatorin für Finanzen der Freien Hansestadt Bremen. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Die Sperrzeiten sind gekippt". Hamburger Abendblatt. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Recht im Gaststättengewerbe". IHK Wiesbaden. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "In NRW soll es neue Sperrstunden für eine "gefährliche" Kneipenstraße geben". bento.de. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Welche Sperrzeiten gelten für Rheinland-Pfalz?". IHK Rheinhessen. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Saarländisches Gaststättengesetz (SGastG) Gesetz Nr. 1745 - § 11". saarheim.de. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "10. Welche Sperrzeiten gelten für Gaststättenbetriebe und Spielhallen" (PDF). chemnitz.ihk24.de. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sachsen-Anhalt Land besteht nicht mehr auf Sperrstunde". mz-web.de. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Schleswig-Holstein kippt Sperrstunde". Ina Rometsch, Hamburger Abendblatt. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
Jump up ^ "Übersicht der Sperrzeiten nach Bundesländern". g-wie-gastro.de. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
Jump up ^ "Country Profile: Germany". eurocare.org. Eurocare (European Alcohol Policy Alliance). Retrieved 2014-08-27.
Jump up ^ Österberg, Esa; Karlsson, Thomas, eds. (2003). "Alcohol Policies in EU Member States and Norway" (PDF). ec.europa.eu. European Commission. p. 197. Retrieved 27 August 2014.
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