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Indulgence
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A Catholic bishop granting plenary indulgences for the public during times of calamity. Note the almsgiving in the background. Wall Fresco by Italian Artist Lorenzo Lotto, Suardi, Italy, circa 1524.
In the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, an indulgence is "a way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for sins".[1] It may reduce the "temporal punishment for sin" after death (as opposed to the eternal punishment merited by mortal sin), in the state or process of purification called Purgatory.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes an indulgence as "a remission before God of the temporal punishment due to sins whose guilt has already been forgiven, which the faithful Christian who is duly disposed gains under certain prescribed conditions through the action of the Church which, as the minister of redemption, dispenses and applies with authority the treasury of the satisfactions of Christ and the saints".[2]
The recipient of an indulgence must perform an action to receive it. This is most often the saying (once, or many times) of a specified prayer, but may also include the visiting of a particular place, or the performance of specific good works.
Sacred inscription on the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran in Rome: Indulgentia plenaria perpetua quotidiana toties quoties pro vivis et defunctis (English trans: "Perpetual everyday plenary indulgence on every occasion for the living and the dead")
Indulgences were introduced to allow for the remission of the severe penances of the early Church and granted at the intercession of Christians awaiting martyrdom or at least imprisoned for the faith.[3] They draw on the treasury of merit accumulated by Christ's superabundantly meritorious sacrifice on the cross and the virtues and penances of the saints.[4] They are granted for specific good works and prayers[4] in proportion to the devotion with which those good works are performed or prayers recited.[5]
By the late Middle Ages, the abuse of indulgences, mainly through commercialization, had become a serious problem which the Church recognized but was unable to restrain effectively. Indulgences were from the beginning of the Protestant Reformation a target of attacks by Martin Luther and all other Protestant theologians. Eventually the Catholic Counter-Reformation curbed the excesses, but indulgences continue to play a role in modern Catholic religious life. Reforms in the 20th century largely abolished the quantification of indulgences, which had been expressed in terms of days or years. These days or years were meant to represent the equivalent of time spent in penance, although it was widely taken to mean time spent in Purgatory. The reforms also greatly reduced the number of indulgences granted for visiting particular churches and other locations.
Contents
[hide]
1 Catholic teaching
1.1 Dispositions necessary to gain an indulgence
1.2 Present discipline
1.2.1 Actions for which indulgences are granted
2 History
2.1 Early and medieval beliefs
2.2 Late medieval abuses
2.3 Protestant Reformation
2.4 Council of Trent
3 Eastern Orthodox Church
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
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"When a person sins, he acquires certain liabilities: the liability of guilt and the liability of punishment."[6] A mortal sin (one that is grave, or serious, in nature and is committed knowingly and freely) is equivalent to refusing friendship with God and communion with the only source of eternal life. The loss of eternal life with God, and the eternal death of hell that is the effect of this rejection, is called the "eternal punishment" of sin. The Sacrament of Penance removes the guilt and the liability of eternal punishment related to mortal sin. "Though your sins are like scarlet, they shall be white as snow; though they are red like crimson, they shall become like wool."[7]
The forgiveness of sin and restoration of communion with God entail the remission of the eternal punishment of sin, but temporal punishment of sin remains. An example of this can be seen in 2 Samuel 12 when after David repents of his sin, the prophet Nathan tells him that he is forgiven but, "Thus says the Lord God of Israel:...Now, therefore, the sword shall never depart from your house, because you have despised me and have taken the wife of Uriah to be your wife."[8]
In addition to this eternal punishment due to mortal sin, every sin, including venial sin, is a turning away from God through what the Catechism of the Catholic Church calls an unhealthy attachment to creatures, an attachment that must be purified either here on earth, or after death in the state called purgatory.[9] "The process of sanctification and interior renewal requires not only forgiveness from the guilt (culpa) of sin, but also purification from the harmful effects or wounds of sin."[10] This purification process gives rise to "temporal punishment", because, not involving a total rejection of God, it is not eternal and can be expiated.
"While patiently bearing sufferings and trials of all kinds and, when the day comes, serenely facing death, the Christian must strive to accept this temporal punishment of sin as a grace. He should strive by works of mercy and charity, as well as by prayer and the various practices of penance, to put off completely the 'old man' and to put on the 'new man."[11]
The temporal punishment that follows sin is thus undergone either during life on earth or in purgatory. In this life, as well as by patient acceptance of sufferings and trials, the necessary cleansing from attachment to creatures may, at least in part, be achieved by turning to God in prayer and penance and by works of mercy and charity.[6] Indulgences (from the Latin verb indulgere meaning to forgive, to be lenient toward)[10] are a help towards achieving this purification.
An indulgence does not forgive the guilt of sin, nor does it provide release from the eternal punishment associated with unforgiven mortal sins. The Catholic Church teaches that indulgences relieve only the temporal punishment resulting from the effect of sin (the effect of rejecting God the source of good), and that a person is still required to have his grave sins absolved, ordinarily through the sacrament of Confession, to receive salvation. Similarly, an indulgence is not a permit to commit sin, a pardon of future sin, nor a guarantee of salvation for oneself or for another.[12][13] Ordinarily, forgiveness of mortal sins is obtained through Confession (i.e., penance or reconciliation).
According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The 'treasury of the Church' is the infinite value, which can never be exhausted, which Christ's merits have before God. They were offered so that the whole of mankind could be set free from sin and attain communion with the Father. ... In Christ, the Redeemer himself, the satisfactions and merits of his Redemption exist and find their efficacy. ...This treasury includes as well the prayers and good works of the Blessed Virgin Mary. They are truly immense, unfathomable, and even pristine in their value before God. In the treasury, too, are the prayers and good works of all the saints, all those who have followed in the footsteps of Christ the Lord and by his grace have made their lives holy and carried out the mission in the unity of the Mystical Body."[14]
Pursuant to the Church's understanding of the power of binding or loosing granted by Christ, it administers to those under its jurisdiction the benefits of these merits in consideration of prayer or other pious works undertaken by the faithful.[3] In opening for individual Christians its treasury, "the Church does not want simply to come to the aid of these Christians, but also to spur them to works of devotion, penance, and charity".[15]
Dispositions necessary to gain an indulgence[edit]
An indulgence is not the purchase of a pardon which secures the buyer's salvation or releases the soul of another from Purgatory. Sin is only pardoned, i.e. its effects entirely obliterated, when complete reparation in the form of sacramental confession is made and prescribed conditions are followed. After a firm amendment is made internally not to sin again, and the serious execution of one's assigned penance, the release one from penalty in the spiritual sense consequentially follows. [16]
An indulgence may be plenary (remits all temporal "punishment" required to cleanse the soul from attachment to anything but God) or partial (remits only part of the temporal "punishment", i.e. cleansing, due to sin).[2][17]
To gain a plenary indulgence, upon performing the charitable work or praying the aspiration or prayer for which the indulgence is granted, one must fulfill the prescribed conditions of:
A complete and whole-hearted detachment from all sin of any kind, even venial sin,
Making a valid sacramental confession,
Receiving Holy Communion in the state of grace
Praying for the intentions of the Pope.[18]
The minimum condition for gaining a partial indulgence is to be contrite in heart: on this condition, a Catholic who performs the work or recites the prayer in question is granted, through the Church, remission of temporal punishment equal to that obtained by the person's own action.[19]
Since those who have died in the state of grace (with all mortal sins forgiven) are members of the communion of saints, the living (members of the Churches Militant) can assist those whose purification from their sins was not yet completed at the time of death through prayer but also by obtaining indulgences in their behalf.[20] Since the Church has no jurisdiction over the dead, indulgences can be gained for them only per modum suffragii, i.e. by an act of intercession.[3] This is sometimes termed impetration, which Aquinas explains "...is not founded on God's justice, but on His goodness."[21]
Present discipline[edit]
Further information: Indulgentiarum Doctrina
Archbishop Socrates B. Villegas bestows the Easter Mass Plenary Indulgence in 2012 (St. John the Evangelist Metropolitan Cathedral, Dagupan City, Pangasinan).
By the apostolic constitution Indulgentiarum doctrina[22] of 1 January 1967, Pope Paul VI, responding to suggestions made at the Second Vatican Council, substantially revised the practical application of the traditional doctrine.[23]
He made it clear that the Church's aim was not merely to help the faithful make due satisfaction for their sins, but chiefly to bring them to greater fervour of charity. For this purpose he decreed that partial indulgences, previously granted as the equivalent of a certain number of days, months, quarantines (forty-day periods) or years of canonical penance, simply supplement, and to the same degree, the remission that those performing the indulgenced action already gain by the charity and contrition with which they do it.[3]
The abolition of the classification by years and days made it clearer than before that repentance and faith are required not only for remission of eternal punishment for mortal sin but also for remission of temporal punishment for sin. In Indulgentiarum doctrina Pope Paul VI wrote that indulgences cannot be gained without a sincere conversion of outlook and unity with God.[24]
In the same bull, Pope Paul ordered that the official list of indulgenced prayers and good works, called the Raccolta, be revised "with a view to attaching indulgences only to the most important prayers and works of piety, charity and penance".[25] The Raccolta was replaced with the Enchiridion Indulgentiarum. While a number of indulgenced prayers and good works were removed from the list, it now includes new general grants of partial indulgences that apply to a wide range of prayerful actions, and it indicates that the prayers that it does list as deserving veneration on account of divine inspiration or antiquity or as being in widespread use are only examples[26] of those to which the first of these general grants applies: "Raising the mind to God with humble trust while performing one's duties and bearing life's difficulties, and adding, at least mentally, some pious invocation".[27] In this way, the Enchiridion Indulgentiarum, in spite of its smaller size, classifies as indulgenced an immensely greater number of prayers than were treated as such in the Raccolta.
Actions for which indulgences are granted[edit]
There are four general grants of indulgence, which are meant to encourage the faithful to infuse a Christian spirit into the actions of their daily lives and to strive for perfection of charity. These indulgences are partial, and their worth therefore depends on the fervour with which the person performs the recommended actions:
Raising the mind to God with humble trust while performing one's duties and bearing life's difficulties, and adding, at least mentally, some pious invocation.
Devoting oneself or one's goods compassionately in a spirit of faith to the service of one's brothers and sisters in need.
Freely abstaining in a spirit of penance from something licit and pleasant.
Freely giving open witness to one's faith before others in particular circumstances of everyday life.[28]
Among the particular grants, which, on closer inspection, will be seen to be included in one or more of the four general grants, especially the first, the Enchiridion Indulgentiarum draws special attention[29] to four activities for which a plenary indulgence can be gained on any day, though only once a day:
Piously reading or listening to Sacred Scripture for at least half an hour.[30]
Adoration of Jesus in the Eucharist for at least half an hour.[31]
The pious exercise of the Stations of the Cross.[32]
Recitation of the Rosary or the Akathist in a church or oratory, or in a family, a religious community, an association of the faithful and, in general, when several people come together for an honourable purpose.[33]
A plenary indulgence may also be gained on some occasions, which are not everyday occurrences. They include but are not limited to:
Receiving, even by radio or television, the blessing given by the Pope Urbi et Orbi (to the city of Rome and to the world) or that which a bishop is authorized to give three times a year to the faithful of his diocese.[34]
Taking part devoutly in the celebration of a day devoted on a world level to a particular religious purpose.[35] Under this heading come the annual celebrations such as the World Day of Prayer for Vocations, and occasional celebrations such as World Youth Day.[36][37]
Taking part for at least three full days in a spiritual retreat.[38]
Taking part in some functions during the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity.[39]
Special indulgences are also granted on occasions of particular spiritual significance such as a jubilee year[40] or the centenary or similar anniversary of an event such as the apparition of Our Lady of Lourdes[41]
The prayers specifically mentioned in the Enchiridion Indulgentiarum are not of the Latin Church tradition alone, but also from the traditions of the Eastern Catholic Churches, such as the Akathistos, Paraklesis, Evening Prayer, and Prayer for the Faithful Departed (Byzantine), Prayer of Thanksgiving (Armenian), Prayer of the Shrine and the Lakhu Mara (Chaldean), Prayer of Incense and Prayer to Glorify Mary the Mother of God (Coptic), Prayer for the Remission of Sins and Prayer to Follow Christ (Ethiopian), Prayer for the Church, and Prayer of Leave-taking from the Altar (Maronite), and Intercessions for the Faithful Departed (Syrian).
Of particular significance is the plenary indulgence attached to the Apostolic Blessing that a priest is to impart when giving the sacraments to a person in danger of death, and which, if no priest is available, the Church grants to any rightly disposed Christian at the moment of death, on condition that that person was accustomed to say some prayers during life. In this case the Church itself makes up for the three conditions normally required for a plenary indulgence: sacramental confession, Eucharistic communion and prayer for the Pope's intentions.[42]
History[edit]
Early and medieval beliefs[edit]
In the early church, especially from the third century on, ecclesiastic authorities allowed a confessor or a Christian awaiting martyrdom to intercede for another Christian in order to shorten the other's canonical penance.[3] During the Decian persecution, many Christians obtained signed statements (libelli) certifying that they had sacrificed to the Roman gods in order to avoid persecution or confiscation of property. When these lapsi later wished to once again be admitted to the Christian community, some of the lapsi presented a second libellus purported to bear the signature of some martyr or confessor who, it was held, had the spiritual prestige to reaffirm individual Christians. Bishop Cyprian of Carthage insisted that none of the lapsi be admitted without sincere repentance.[43]
Council of Epaone in 517 witnesses to the rise of the practice of replacing severe canonical penances with a new milder penance: its 29th canon reduced to two years the penance that apostates were to undergo on their return to the Church, but obliged them to fast one day in three during those two years, to come to church and take their place at the penitents' door, and to leave with the catechumens. Any who objected to the new arrangement was to observe the much longer ancient penance.[44]
The sixth century saw the development in Ireland of Penitentials, handbooks for confessors in assigning penance. The Penitential of Cummean counseled a priest to take into consideration in imposing a penance, the penitent's strengths and weaknesses. Some penances could be commuted through payments or substitutions. It became customary to commute penances to less demanding works, such as prayers, alms, fasts and even the payment of fixed sums of money depending on the various kinds of offenses (tariff penances). While the sanctions in early penitentials, such as that of Gildas, were primarily act of mortification or in some cases excommunication, the inclusion of fines in later compilations derive from secular law.[45]
By the tenth century, some penances were not replaced but merely reduced in connection with pious donations, pilgrimages, and similar meritorious works. Then, in the 11th and 12th centuries, the recognition of the value of these works began to become associated not so much with canonical penance but with remission of the temporal punishment due to sin. A particular form of the commutation of penance was practiced at the time of the Crusades when the confessor required the penitent to go on a Crusade in place of some other penance.[46] The earliest record of a plenary indulgence was Pope Urban II's declaration at the Council of Clermont (1095) that he remitted all penance incurred by crusaders who had confessed their sins in the Sacrament of Penance, considering participation in the crusade equivalent to a complete penance.[47]
Theologians looked to God's mercy, the value of the Church's prayers, and the merits of the saints as the basis on which indulgences could be granted. Around 1230 the Dominican Hugh of St-Cher proposed the idea of a "treasury" at the Church's disposal, consisting of the infinite merits of Christ and the immeasurable abundance of the saints' merits, a thesis that was demonstrated by great scholastics such as Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas and remains the basis for the theological explanation of indulgences.[46]
Indulgences were intended to offer remission of the temporal punishment due to sin equivalent to that someone might obtain by performing a canonical penance for a specific period of time. As Purgatory became more prominent in Christian thinking, the idea developed that the term of indulgences related to remission of time in Purgatory. Indeed, many Late Medieval indulgences were for terms well over a human lifetime, reflecting this belief. For several centuries it was debated by theologians whether penance or purgatory was the currency of the indulgences granted, and the church did not settle the matter definitively, for example avoiding doing so at the Council of Trent.[48] The modern view of the church is that the term is penance.
Late medieval abuses[edit]
"Pardoner" redirects here. For the character in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, see The Pardoner's Tale.
A Question to a Mintmaker, woodcut by Jörg Breu the Elder of Augsburg, circa 1530, presenting the Pope and indulgences as one of three causes of inflation, the others being minting of debased coinage and cheating by merchants.
Indulgences became increasingly popular in the Middle Ages as a reward for displaying piety and doing good deeds, though, doctrinally speaking, the Church stated that the indulgence was only valid for temporal punishment for sins already forgiven in the Sacrament of Confession. The faithful asked that indulgences be given for saying their favourite prayers, doing acts of devotion, attending places of worship, and going on pilgrimage; confraternities wanted indulgences for putting on performances and processions; associations demanded that their meetings be rewarded with indulgences. Good deeds included charitable donations of money for a good cause, and money thus raised was used for many righteous causes, both religious and civil; building projects funded by indulgences include churches, hospitals, leper colonies, schools, roads, and bridges.[46]
However, in the later Middle Ages growth of considerable abuses occurred. Greedy commissaries sought to extract the maximum amount of money for each indulgence.[49] Professional "pardoners"[3] (quaestores in Latin) - who were sent to collect alms for a specific project - practiced the unrestricted sale of indulgences. Many of these quaestores exceeded official Church doctrine, whether in avarice or ignorant zeal, and promised rewards like salvation from eternal damnation in return for money. With the permission of the Church, indulgences also became a way for Catholic rulers to fund expensive projects, such as Crusades and cathedrals, by keeping a significant portion of the money raised from indulgences in their lands.[46] There was a tendency to forge documents declaring that indulgences had been granted.[46] Indulgences grew to extraordinary magnitude, in terms of longevity and breadth of forgiveness.
Engraving of the Mass of Saint Gregory by Israhel van Meckenem, 1490s, with an unauthorized indulgence at the bottom[50]
The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) suppressed some abuses connected with indulgences, spelling out, for example, that only a one-year indulgence would be granted for the consecration of churches and no more than a 40-days indulgence for other occasions. The Council also stated that "Catholics who have girded themselves with the cross for the extermination of the heretics, shall enjoy the indulgences and privileges granted to those who go in defense of the Holy Land."[51]
Very soon these limits were widely exceeded. False documents were circulated with indulgences surpassing all bounds: indulgences of hundreds or even thousands of years.[46] In 1392, more than a century before Martin Luther published the 95 Theses, Pope Boniface IX wrote to the Bishop of Ferrara condemning the practice of certain members of religious orders who falsely claimed that they were authorized by the pope to forgive all sorts of sins, and obtained money from the simple-minded faithfuls by promising them perpetual happiness in this world and eternal glory in the next.[52] The "Butter Tower" of Rouen Cathedral earned its nickname because the money to build it was raised by the sale of indulgences allowing the use of butter during Lent.[53]
Satan distributing indulgences, an illumination from a Czech manuscript, 1490s; Jan Hus (the main leader of the Bohemian Reformation) condemned the selling of indulgences already in 1412
An engraving by Israhel van Meckenem of the Mass of Saint Gregory contained a "bootlegged" indulgence of 20,000 years; one of the copies of this plate (not the one illustrated, but also from the 1490s) was altered in a later state to increase it to 45,000 years. The indulgences applied each time a specified collection of prayers - in this case seven each of the Creed, Our Father, and Hail Mary - were recited in front of the image.[54] The image of the Mass of Saint Gregory had been especially associated with large indulgences since the jubilee year of 1350 in Rome, when it was at least widely believed that an indulgence of 14,000 years had been granted for praying in the presence of the Imago Pietatis ("Man of Sorrows"), a popular pilgrimage destination in the basilica of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme in Rome.[55]
Protestant Reformation[edit]
The scandalous conduct of the "pardoners" was an immediate occasion of the Protestant Reformation.[3] In 1517, Pope Leo X offered indulgences for those who gave alms to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The aggressive marketing practices of Johann Tetzel in promoting this cause provoked Martin Luther to write his Ninety-Five Theses, condemning what he saw as the purchase and sale of salvation. In Thesis 28 Luther objected to a saying attributed to Tetzel: "As soon as a coin in the coffer rings, a soul from purgatory springs".[56] The Ninety-Five Theses not only denounced such transactions as worldly but denied the Pope's right to grant pardons on God's behalf in the first place: the only thing indulgences guaranteed, Luther said, was an increase in profit and greed, because the pardon of the Church was in God's power alone.[57]
This oft-quoted saying was by no means representative of the official Catholic teaching on indulgences, but rather, more a reflection of Tetzel’s capacity to exaggerate. Yet if Tetzel overstated the matter in regard to indulgences for the dead, his teaching on indulgences for the living was pure. German Catholic historian of the Papacy, Ludwig von Pastor explains:[58]
The Pope as the Antichrist, signing and selling indulgences, from Luther's 1521 Passional Christi und Antichristi, by Lucas Cranach the Elder[59]
Above all, a most clear distinction must be made between indulgences for the living and those for the dead.
As regards indulgences for the living, Tetzel always taught pure doctrine. The assertion that he put forward indulgences as being not only a remission of the temporal punishment of sin, but as a remission of its guilt, is as unfounded as is that other accusation against him, that he sold the forgiveness of sin for money, without even any mention of contrition and confession, or that, for payment, he absolved from sins which might be committed in the future. His teaching was, in fact, very definite, and quite in harmony with the theology of the Church, as it was then and as it is now, i.e., that indulgences "apply only to the temporal punishment due to sins which have been already repented of and confessed"....
The case was very different with indulgences for the dead. As regards these there is no doubt that Tetzel did, according to what he considered his authoritative instructions, proclaim as Christian doctrine that nothing but an offering of money was required to gain the indulgence for the dead, without there being any question of contrition or confession. He also taught, in accordance with the opinion then held, that an indulgence could be applied to any given soul with unfailing effect. Starting from this assumption, there is no doubt that his doctrine was virtually that of the drastic proverb:
“As soon as money in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory's fire springs."
The Papal Bull of indulgence gave no sanction whatever to this proposition. It was a vague scholastic opinion, rejected by the Sorbonne in 1482, and again in 1518, and certainly not a doctrine of the Church, which was thus improperly put forward as dogmatic truth. The first among the theologians of the Roman court, Cardinal Cajetan, was the enemy of all such extravagances, and declared emphatically that, even if theologians and preachers taught such opinions, no faith need be given them. "Preachers," said he, "speak in the name of the Church only so long as they proclaim the doctrine of Christ and His Church; but if, for purposes of their own, they teach that about which they know nothing, and which is only their own imagination, they must not be accepted as mouthpieces of the Church. No one must be surprised if such as these fall into error."
While Luther did not deny the Pope’s right to grant pardons for penance imposed by the Church, he made it clear that preachers who claimed indulgences absolved those who obtained them from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error, in agreement with Catholic theology.[60]
Council of Trent[edit]
On 16 July 1562, the Council of Trent suppressed the office of quaestores and reserved the collection of alms to two canon members of the chapter, who were to receive no remuneration for their work; it also reserved the publication of indulgences to the bishop of the diocese.[61] Then on 4 December 1563, in its final session, the Council addressed the question of indulgences directly, declaring them "most salutary for the Christian people", decreeing that "all evil gains for the obtaining of them be wholly abolished", and instructing bishops to be on the watch for any abuses concerning them.[62]
A few years later, in 1567, Pope Pius V canceled all grants of indulgences involving any fees or other financial transactions.[63][64]
After the Council of Trent, Clement VIII established a commission of Cardinals to deal with indulgences according to the mind of the Council. It continued its work during the pontificate of Paul V and published various bulls and decrees on the matter. But only Clement IX established a true Congregation of Indulgences (and Relics) with a Brief of 6 July 1669. In a motu proprio on 28 January 1904, Pius X joined the Congregation of Indulgences with that of Rites, but with the restructuring of the Roman Curia in 1908 all matters regarding indulgences was assigned to the Holy Inquisition. In a motu proprio on 25 March 1915, Benedict XV transferred the Holy Inquisition's Section for Indulgences to the Apostolic Penitentiary, but maintained the Holy Inquisition's responsibility for matters regarding the doctrine of indulgences.[citation needed]
Eastern Orthodox Church[edit]
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An 18th-century absolution certificate granted by the Patriarch of Jerusalem and sold by Greek monks in Wallachia (History Museum, Bucharest)
The Eastern Orthodox Churches believe one can be absolved from sins by the Sacred Mystery of Confession. Because of differences in the theology of salvation, indulgences for the remission of temporal punishment of sin do not exist in Eastern Orthodoxy, but until the twentieth century there existed in some places a practice of absolution certificates (συγχωροχάρτια – synchorochartia).
While some of these certificates were connected with any patriarch's decrees lifting for the living or the dead some serious ecclesiastical penalty, including excommunication, the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, with the approval of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, had the sole privilege, because of the expense of maintaining the Holy Places and paying the many taxes levied on them, of distributing such documents in large numbers to pilgrims or sending them elsewhere, sometimes with a blank space for the name of the beneficiary, living or dead, an individual or a whole family, for whom the prayers would be read.
Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem Dositheos Notaras (1641–1707) wrote: "It is an established custom and ancient tradition, known to all, that the Most Holy Patriarchs give the absolution certificate (συγχωροχάρτιον – synchorochartion) to the faithful people … they have granted them from the beginning and still do."[65]
An unknown and unverified Russian Orthodox source says that these certificates were in use among Greek Orthodox until the middle of the twentieth century, and were "certificates which absolved from sins, which anyone could obtain, often for a specified sum of money. The absolution granted by these papers, according to Christos Yannaras, had no connection with any participation of the faithful in the Mystery of Penance, nor in the Mystery of the Eucharist".[66]
See also[edit]
Pardon of Assisi
Merit
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Peters, Edward (2008). A Modern Guide to Indulgences: Rediscovering This Often Misinterpreted Teaching. p. 13. ISBN 9781595250247.
^ Jump up to: a b Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1471
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article indulgences
^ Jump up to: a b Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt and company. 1994.
Jump up ^ Indulgentiarum doctrina, chapter 5 and norm 5
^ Jump up to: a b Primer on Indulgences
Jump up ^ Isaiah 1:18, NAB
Jump up ^ 2 Samuel 12:7-12, NAB
Jump up ^ CCC §1472.
^ Jump up to: a b Peters, p.1.
Jump up ^ CCC, 1473
Jump up ^ William Kent, "Indulgences", in Catholic Encyclopedia (New York 1910)
Jump up ^ "Myths about Indulgences". Catholic Answers.
Jump up ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, §§1476–1477
Jump up ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1478
Jump up ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07783a.htm
Jump up ^ Indulgentiarum doctrina, norm 2
Jump up ^ Normae de Indulgentiis, 20
Jump up ^ Normae de Indulgentiis, 4
Jump up ^ CCC, 1479
Jump up ^ Alphonsus de Liguori. "The confidence with which we should pray", Prayer - The Great Means of Salvation and of Perfection
Jump up ^ Pope Paul VI. Indulgentiarum doctrina, January 1, 1967
Jump up ^ The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 2 by Erwin Fahlbusch 2001 ISBN 90-04-11695-8 page 695
Jump up ^ Indulgentiarum doctrina, §11.
Jump up ^ Indulgentiarum doctrina, norm 13
Jump up ^ Enchiridion Indulgentiarum, Aliae concessiones, Proœmium, 2
Jump up ^ Enchiridion Indulgentiarum, Concessiones, I
Jump up ^ Normae de Indulgentiis, Quattuor Concessiones Generaliores
Jump up ^ Aliae concessiones, Proœmium, 7
Jump up ^ Concessiones 30
Jump up ^ Concessiones 7 §1, 1º
Jump up ^ Concessiones 13, 2º
Jump up ^ Concessiones 17 §1, 1º and 23 §1
Jump up ^ Concessiones 4
Jump up ^ Concessiones 5
Jump up ^ "wyd2008.org".
Jump up ^ "World Youth Day 2008, Cairns, Queensland, Australia". Archived from the original on 2007-12-06.
Jump up ^ Concessiones 10
Jump up ^ Concessiones 11
Jump up ^ "The Great Jubilee Indulgence".
Jump up ^ Grant of indulgence on the occasion of the 150th apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary at Lourdes.
Jump up ^ Concessiones 12
Jump up ^ Chapman, John. "St. Cyprian of Carthage." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. 2 November 2016
Jump up ^ Charles Louis Richard, Bibliothèque sacrée (Méquignon, 1823)
Jump up ^ Davies, Oliver, and O'Loughlin, Thomas.Celtic Spirituality, Paulist Press, 1999 ISBN 9780809138944
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Library : The Historical Origin of Indulgences".
Jump up ^ Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article plenary indulgence
Jump up ^ Lea, pp. 88-91
Jump up ^ Kirsch, Johann Peter (1911). "The Reformation". The Catholic Encyclopedia. 12. Transcribed for New Advent by Marie Jutras. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 23 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Shestack, 214
Jump up ^ Fordham.edu
Jump up ^ W.H. Kent (1913). "Indulgences". In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Jump up ^ Soyer, Alexis (1977) [1853]. The Pantropheon or a History of Food and its Preparation in Ancient Times. Wisbech, Cambs.: Paddington Press. p. 172. ISBN 0-448-22976-5.
Jump up ^ Parshall, 58 (quoted), and Shestack, 214 (illustrated in both).
Jump up ^ Schiller, G (1972). Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. II (English trans from German). London: Lund Humphries. pp. 199–200. ISBN 0853313245.
Jump up ^ Thesis 55 of Tetzel's One Hundred and Six Theses. These "Anti-theses" were a reply to Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses and were drawn up by Tetzel’s friend and former Professor, Konrad Wimpina. Theses 55 & 56 (responding to Luther's 27th Theses) read: "For a soul to fly out, is for it to obtain the vision of God, which can be hindered by no interruption, therefore he errs who says that the soul cannot fly out before the coin can jingle in the bottom of the chest." In, The reformation in Germany, Henry Clay Vedder, 1914, Macmillon Company, p. 405. Books.google.com Animam purgatam evolare, est eam visione dei potiri, quod nulla potest intercapedine impediri. Quisquis ergo dicit, non citius posse animam volare, quam in fundo cistae denarius possit tinnire, errat. In: D. Martini Lutheri, Opera Latina: Varii Argumenti, 1865, Henricus Schmidt, ed., Heyder and Zimmer, Frankfurt am Main & Erlangen, vol. 1, p. 300. (Reprinted: Nabu Press, 2010, ISBN 1-142-40551-6 ISBN 9781142405519). Books.google.com See also: Catholic Encyclopedia: Johann Tetzel
Jump up ^ Certum est, nummo in cistam tinniente augeri questum et avariciam posse: suffragium autem ecclesie est in arbitrio dei solius (Thesis 28).
Jump up ^ Ludwig von Pastor, The History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages, Ralph Francis Kerr, ed., 1908, B. Herder, St. Louis, Volume 7, pp. 347-348. Books.google.com
Jump up ^ "Part I: A Brief History of Political Cartoons".
Jump up ^ Errant itaque indulgentiarum predicatores ii, qui dicunt per pape indulgentias hominem ab omni pena solvi et salvari (Thesis 21).
Jump up ^ "CT21".
Jump up ^ "CT25".
Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: article Indulgences
Jump up ^ "Myths About Indulgences." Catholic Answers. Retrieved 16 Apr. 2008 Myths about indulgences
Jump up ^ Δοσίθεος Νοταρᾶς, Ἱστορία περὶ τῶν ἐν Ἱεροσολύμοις πατριαρχευσάντων, Bucharest 1715, p. 88
Jump up ^ Indulgences in the History of the Greek Church. Retrieved 11 April 2008.
References[edit]
Lea, Henry Charles, A History of Auricular Confession and Indulgences in the Latin Church, 1896, Lea Bros., Philadelphia, Online at archive.org
Parshall, Peter, in David Landau & Peter Parshall, The Renaissance Print, Yale, 1996, ISBN 0-300-06883-2
Shestack, Alan; Fifteenth century Engravings of Northern Europe; 1967, National Gallery of Art, Washington (Catalogue), LOC 67-29080
Further reading[edit]
Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary (Vatican); Enchiridion of Indulgences: Norms and Grants, trans. by William T. Barry from the Second Rev. Ed. of the Enchiridion indulgentiarum ... with English Supplement; 1969, Catholic Book Publishing Co. N.B.: "Originally published by Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1968." Without ISBN
Peters, Edward. A Modern Guide to Indulgences: Rediscovering This Often Misinterpreted Teaching, Hillenbrand Books, Mundelein, Illinois, 2008 ISBN 978-1-59525-024-7
External links[edit]
Look up indulgence in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Indulgences.
Indulgence sales in the Middle Ages (Confessional Lutheran perspective)
Pope Paul VI: Apostolic Constitution Indulgentiarum Doctrina whereby the Revision of Sacred Indulgences is Promulgated, 1 January 1967
Code of Canon Law (1983) concerning Indulgences
Enchiridion Indulgentiarum, 4th edition, 1999 (Latin) (English translation: Manual of Indulgences, published by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, ISBN 1-57455-474-3)
English translation of Enchiridion Indulgentiarum, 3rd edition (1986)
Pope John Paul II: General Audience talk on indulgences, 29 September 1999
Catechism of the Catholic Church: "Indulgences"
Kent, W. (1913). "Indulgences". In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Enrico dal Covolo: The Historical Origin of Indulgences
Paul S. Czarnota: Indulgences
Myths about Indulgences
Authority control
LCCN: sh85065813
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Army Medical Department (United States)
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Army Medical Department
U.S. Army Medical Department Regimental flag
Active
1775 – present day
Country
United States
Branch
United States Army
Motto(s)
"Experientia et Progressus"
The Army Medical Department of the U.S. Army (AMEDD), formerly the Army Medical Service (AMS), encompasses the Army's six medical Special Branches (or "Corps"). It was established as the "Army Hospital" in July 1775 to coordinate the medical care required by the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. The AMEDD is led by the Surgeon General of the U.S. Army, a lieutenant general.
The AMEDD is the U.S. Army's healthcare organization (as opposed to an Army Command), and is present in the Active Army, the U.S. Army Reserve, and the Army National Guard components. It is headquartered at Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, Texas, which hosts the AMEDD Center and School (AMEDDC&S). Large numbers of AMEDD senior leaders can also be found in the Washington D.C. area, divided between the Pentagon and the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center (WRNMMC).
The Academy of Health Sciences, within the AMEDDC&S, provides training to the officers and enlisted service members of the AMEDD. As a result of BRAC 2005, enlisted medical training was transferred to the new Medical Education and Training Campus, consolidating the majority of military-enlisted medical training in Fort Sam Houston.[1][2]
The current Surgeon General of the U.S. Army and U.S. Army Medical Command (MEDCOM) commander is LTG Nadja West.
Contents
1 History
2 Heraldry
2.1 Coat of arms
2.2 Regimental insignia (crest)
2.3 Branch (corps) insignia
3 Medical special branches
3.1 Medical Corps (MC)
3.2 Nurse Corps (AN)
3.3 Dental Corps (DC)
3.4 Veterinary Corps (VC)
3.5 Medical Service Corps (MS)
3.6 Medical Specialist Corps (SP)
4 Enlisted Medical Career Management Fields (CMFs)
5 Museum
6 Badges
7 See also
8 References
8.1 Citations
8.2 Further reading
9 External links
History[edit]
Both the AMEDD and the Army Medical Corps trace their origins back to July 27, 1775, when the Continental Congress established the "Army Hospital", which was at that time overseen by the "Director General and Chief Physician". Congress provided an Army medical organization only in times of war or emergency until 1818, at which point it created a permanent "Medical Department". The Army Nurse Corps originated in 1901, the Dental Corps began in 1911, the Veterinary Corps in 1916; the Medical Service Corps emerged in 1917; and the Army Medical Specialist Corps came into existence in 1947.[3]
The Army Organization Act of 1950 renamed the Medical Department the "Army Medical Service" (AMS) and on June 4, 1968, the AMS was renamed the Army Medical Department (AMEDD).
Heraldry[edit]
Coat of arms[edit]
Main article: Army Medical Department regimental coat of arms
A regimental coat of arms was devised for the Medical Department, and was most likely first used in 1818. The 20 white stars on a blue background and the red and white stripes represent the U.S. flag of 1818. The green staff entwined with a green serpent combined two symbols: the rod of Asclepius from classical mythology, symbolic of medicine and healing; and the color green associated with the Medical Corps during the last half of the 19th century. The colors Argent (silver/white) and Gules (red) are those associated with the flag of the United States. The rooster is associated with the ancient Greek and Roman god of healing and medicine, Aesculapius. The Ancient Greeks believed that the rooster’s crowing at dawn drove away the evil disease spreading demons from the temples so that it could be a place of healing. The torse (twisted rope) below the rooster shows alternating blue and silver colors which were the colors of the Army in 1818. The Latin motto Experientia et Progressus, (Experience and Progress), is meant to convey the steady and unfailing progress of the Army Medical Department since 1775.
Regimental insignia (crest)[edit]
The AMEDD Regimental Insignia
The design of the AMEDD regimental insignia (crest) is derived from the regimental coat of arms. It is one of the US Army’s 14 regimental corps insignias. These insignias are worn over the right breast pocket on the Army Service Uniform (ASU) and signify the service member’s branch of service. The "new" AMEDD insignia was approved on 27 October 2014.
Branch (corps) insignia[edit]
See also: Rod of Asclepius and Caduceus as a symbol of medicine
In 1851, "a caduceus embroidered in yellow silk on a half chevron of emerald green silk" was first authorized and worn by hospital stewards of the Medical Department. The caduceus in its present form was approved in 1902. Today, the AMEDD branch corps insignia is a gold color medal caduceus, 1 inch in height. With the exception of the Medical Corps, each Corps is identified by a black enamel letter (or letters) centered on the caduceus indicative of the specific branch. The insignia for Medical Service Corps is silver. Rooted in classical mythology and associated with the Greek god Hermes, the US Army's long-standing use of the caduceus has made it a well known emblem of physicians and medical skill throughout the world. (Purists, however, often assert that the rod of Asclepius, with its single serpent, is the more proper medical emblem.)
Medical special branches[edit]
There are currently six special officer branches (corps) in the AMEDD.
Medical Corps (MC)[edit]
Main article: Medical Corps (United States Army)
The Medical Corps consists of commissioned medical officers who are physicians (Doctors of Medicine and Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine) who have completed at least one year of post-graduate training (internship) or have been promoted from O-1 to O-3 following completion of medical school through USUHS or the HPSP.
The MC traces its origins to 27 July 1775, when the Continental Congress created “a Hospital”, essentially a Medical Department and corps of physicians, for the Continental Army. Medical officers in the United States Army were authorized uniforms only in 1816 and were accorded military rank only in 1847. Congress made the designation of "Medical Corps" official in 1908, although the term had long been in use informally among the AMEDD's regular physicians. Today, members of the MC work around the world at all echelons of the Army. The Chief of the MC is a major general, whereas the senior Army Medical Department officer is the Surgeon General (a lieutenant general).
Military physicians serve in one of several general career fields. The three main fields are operational field, clinical field, and research field.
Operational Medicine is the field of Army medicine that provides medical support to the soldier and his/her Chain of Command. Many operational physicians serve as Division, Brigade and Battalion level surgeons (the word "surgeon" is used to identify a physician that is assigned to a unit as a primary care provider and not necessarily as a General Surgeon). These physicians are either assigned through the "PROFIS" system or through permanent assignment (PCS). Deployments with units to combat theaters are for the duration of a deployment and the jobs are mostly filled by primary care physicians. A PROFIS provider can expect to be deployed away from their family for a total of 16 months (1 month before deployment, 12 months in theater, and 3 months for "stabilization" after return to the assigned units home station). This means that primary care physicians are deployed for longer periods than most "specialist physicians". A specialist (i.e. General Surgeon, Pulmonologist, Cardiologist, Trauma Surgeon, Rheumatologist) are usually deployed for 6 months. Operational Physicians should expect that more than 60% of their time will be spent in administrative roles and non-patient care. 40% of the operational providers time is spent caring for soldiers or supervising unit Physician Assistants (PA). With the recent Brigade Combat Team (BCT) restructuring, the demand for operational surgeons have increased. It is possible that the low retention rates of Captains and junior Major rank Physicians in the primary care fields are due to the discrepancies in deployment length and deployment frequency between primary care and specialty physicians.
Clinical Medicine is the field of Army medicine in which a physician in uniform performs similar functions to a physician in the civilian arena. These physicians are assigned to a PROFIS unit in one of the various Army MEDCEN (Medical Centers) and MEDDAC (Medical and Dental facilities). Primary care physicians usually deploy to fill battalion level surgeon positions. Medical specialists deploy to support CSH (combat support hospitals)
Research Medicine is filled by a minority of military physicians. Most of these research physicians are based in larger Army Medical Centers[4] and the research institutes.
Nurse Corps (AN)[edit]
Main article: Nurse Corps (United States Army)
The Army Nurse Corps became a permanent corps of the Medical Department under the Army Reorganization Act (31 Stat. 753) passed by Congress on 2 February 1901.[5] Its motto is "EMBRACE THE PAST – ENGAGE THE PRESENT – ENVISION THE FUTURE" and its mission statement declares "All actions and tasks must lead and work toward promoting the wellness of Warriors and their families, supporting the delivery of Warrior and family healthcare, and all those entrusted to our care and ultimately, positioning the Army Nurse Corps as a force multiplier for the future of military medicine."
Dental Corps (DC)[edit]
See also: United States Army Dental Command
The Dental Corps (DC) consists of commissioned officers holding the Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) degree or Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD) degree. The chief of the Dental Corps is a major general. Enlisted soldiers may be assigned as dental assistants, although their collar insignia lacks the 'D' and is the same as that worn by medics. Army Dental Corps Officers may train further in the following advanced training programs after Dental School:
Advanced Education in General Dentistry
Comprehensive Dentistry (2 year AEGD)
Endodontics
Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
Pediatric Dentistry
Periodontics
Prosthodontics
Public Health Dentistry
Oral Pathology
The US Army currently offers fellowship training in the following areas for Dental Corps Officers (applicants must have already completed a recognized specialty training program):
Oral-facial pain
Maxillofacial prosthodontics
Healthcare Administration
Dental informatics
The following ADA recognized specialties are not represented in the US Army Dental Corps:
Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology
The chief of the Army Dental Corps is Major General Thomas R. "Rob" Tempel, Jr. His father, Major General Thomas R. Tempel, Sr. served as Chief of the Army Dental Corps from 1990-1994.[6]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2009)
Veterinary Corps (VC)[edit]
Main article: Veterinary Corps (United States Army)
The U.S. Army Veterinary Corps was established by an Act of Congress on 3 June 1916. Recognition of the need for veterinary expertise had been evolving since 1776 when General Washington directed that a "regiment of horse with a farrier" be raised. It has evolved to include sanitary food inspectors and animal healthcare specialists.
The Veterinary Corps consists of commissioned doctors of veterinary medicine. Warrant officers are the core of its food inspection service. Enlisted personnel can serve as food inspection specialists and veterinary technicians; enlisted personnel's collar insignia lacks the 'V' and is the same as that worn by medics.
The Chief of the Veterinary Corps is Brigadier General Erik H Torring, III.
Medical Service Corps (MS)[edit]
The Medical Service Corps consists of commissioned and warrant officers. Members are required to hold at least a bachelor's degree before receiving a commission. The MSC has the greatest range of duties performed by personnel. These may include administrative and support duties such as healthcare administrators, health services officers in operational units, healthcare comptrollers, healthcare informatics officers, patient administrators, health service human resource managers, health physicists, toxicologists, sanitary engineers, medical operations and plans officers, medical logisticians, health services maintenance technicians, and medical evacuation pilots. MSC officers serve in clinical support roles as clinical laboratory science officers, environmental science officers, pharmacists and preventive medicine officers. Medical Service Corps officers serve as commanders of field medical units in garrison and combat environments, and provide healthcare to patients as psychologists (PhD, PsyD), social workers (MSW with state license), optometrists, pharmacist, podiatrists, and audiologists. The Medical Service Corps also functions as a transitional branch, encompassing commissioned medical, dental, and veterinary students who have not completed their training through the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences (USUHS) or the Health Professions Scholarship Program (HPSP).
Medical Service Corps officers are drawn from the various Army commissioning sources (USMA, ROTC, and the federal and state Officer Candidate Schools) following a branch-immaterial curriculum. Since a primary function of the Medical Service Corps is to manage combat health support activities,[7] its officers hold general command authority and can compete for company and field grade command of medical support formations and detachments, as well as logistics and aviation commands along with officers of the "Army competitive category" branches (infantry, ordnance, quartermaster, etc.). In contrast, Medical Corps, Veterinary Corps and Dental Corps officers are limited to command billets specific to their respective corps (e.g. AMEDD Immaterial commands for Medical, Nurse, and Medical Specialist Corps officers; branch specific commands for Medical, Dental, and Veterinary Corps officers).[8]
The Chief of the Medical Service Corps is Major General Patrick D. Sargent.
Medical Specialist Corps (SP)[edit]
The Army Medical Specialist Corps consists of commissioned officers. Members hold professional degrees and serve as clinical dietitians, physical therapists, occupational therapists, and physician assistants. Members of the SP serve all around the world and at all echelons of the Army. The Chief of the SP Corps is COL John E. Balser.
Enlisted Medical Career Management Fields (CMFs)[edit]
There are currently 24 Military Occupational Specialties (MOSs) for enlisted medical soldiers:
68A Biomedical Equipment Specialist
68B Orthopedic Specialist
68C Practical Nursing Specialist
68D Operating Room Specialist
68E Dental Specialist
68F Physical Therapy Specialist
68G Patient Administration Specialist
68H Optical Laboratory Specialist
68J Medical Logistics Specialist
68K Medical Laboratory Specialist
68L Occupational Therapy Specialist
68M Nutrition Care Specialist
68N Cardiovascular Specialist
68P Radiology Specialist
68Q Pharmacy Specialist
68R Veterinary Food Inspection Specialist
68S Preventive Medicine Specialist
68T Animal Care Specialist
68U Ear, Nose, and Throat (ENT) Specialist
68V Respiratory Specialist
68W Combat Medic Specialist
68X Behavioral Health Specialist
68Y Eye Specialist
68Z Chief Medical NCO
In addition, outside the AMEDD, is the Special Forces Medical Sergeant (18D).
Museum[edit]
Main article: United States Army Medical Department Museum
Badges[edit]
Combat Medical Badge
Expert Field Medical Badge
Flight Surgeon Badge
See also[edit]
United States Army Medical Department Museum
United States Army Medical Command (MEDCOM)
Order of Military Medical Merit (O2M3)
Surgeon General of the United States Army (TSG)
68W (91W) (medic; U.S. Army)
List of General Officers of the United States Army Medical Department in World War II
List of ships of the United States Army#Hospital ships
United States Army Ambulance Service (World War I)
Battlefield medicine
Combat Support Hospital (CSH)
Field hospital
Mobile Army Surgical Hospital (MASH)
Military medicine
U.S. Navy Dental Corps
U.S. Air Force Dental Corps
U.S. Navy Medical Corps
U.S. Air Force Medical Corps
U.S. Navy Medical Service Corps
U.S. Air Force Biomedical Sciences Corps
U.S. Air Force Medical Service Corps
U.S. Navy Nurse Corps
U.S. Air Force Nurse Corps
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ "Fort Sam Houston" (PDF). United States Air Force. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2014. Retrieved 13 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "Fort Sam Houston". GlobalSecurity.org. 21 August 2005. Archived from the original on 13 March 2011. Retrieved 13 February 2011.
Jump up ^ AMEDD Corps History Archived 2 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. Office of Medical History. U.S. Army Medical Department (AMEDD). Retrieved 2011-08-26.
Jump up ^ Army Medical Department (AMEDD), "Training, history, education, FAQ"; Available from www.amedd.army.mil/
Jump up ^ Carolyn M. Feller; Debora R. Cox, eds. (2000). Highlights in the history of the Army nurse corps. CMH Pub 85-1 (Revised and Expanded ed.). Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History. p. 103.
Jump up ^ Dr. Valencia L. Dunbar (5 June 2014). "The Tempel Legacy: Approaching a Century of Service to Army Medicine". The Official Homepage of the United States Army. United States Army. Archived from the original on 21 April 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Medical Service Corps". medicalservicecorps.amedd.army.mil. Archived from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
Jump up ^ AR 600-20, Army Command Policy
Further reading[edit]
Ashburn, Percy M. (1929), A History of the Medical Department of the United States Army, Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Bayne-Jones, Stanhope (1968), The Evolution of Preventive Medicine in the United States Army, 1607–1939, Washington, D.C.: Office of the Surgeon General.
Gillett, Mary C. (1981), The Army Medical Department, 1775–1818, Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History, United States Army. (Series: Army Historical Series)
Gillett, Mary C. (1987), The Army Medical Department, 1818–1865, Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army. (Series: Army Historical Series)
Gillett, Mary C. (1995), The Army Medical Department, 1865–1917, Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army. (Series: Army Historical Series)
Gillett, Mary C. (2009), The Army Medical Department, 1917–1941, Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army. (Series: Army Historical Series)
Hume, Edgar Erskine (1943), Victories of Army Medicine: Scientific Accomplishments of the Medical Department of the United States Army, Philadelphia: Lippincott.
McPherson, Darrell G. The Role of the Army Medical Service in the Dominican Republic. Washington D.C.: Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army. – full text
Tobey, James A. (1927), The Medical Department of the Army: Its History, Activities and Organization, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press; Reprint: New York: AMS Press, 1974.
Vuic, Kara Dixon. Officer, Nurse, Woman: The Army Nurse Corps in the Vietnam War (Johns Hopkins University Press; 2010) 320 pages; Draws on more than 100 interviews
Wintermute, Bobby A. Public Health and the U.S. Military: A History of the Army Medical Department, 1818-1917 (Routledge, 2011) 283 pp. ISBN 978-0-415-88170-8
This article also contains information that originally came from US Government publications and websites and is in the public domain.
External links[edit]
Office of Medical History
U.S. Army Medical Department official webpage (on U.S. Army official website). Retrieved 2009-12-05.
U.S. Army Medical Corps official webpage (on U.S. Army official website). Retrieved 2009-12-05.
U.S. Army Nurse Corps official webpage (on U.S. Army official website). Retrieved 2009-12-05.
Army Nurse Corps History
Army Nurse Corps history and WWII women's uniforms in color (WAC, WAVES, ANC, NNC, USMCWR, PHS, SPARS, ARC and WASP)
U.S. Army Veterinary Corps History
WW2 U.S. Medical Research Centre
US Army Nurse Corps Collection
Digital Military Medicine Collections of the U.S. Army Academy of Health Sciences, Stimson Library
LTG Schoomaker's blog
That Men Might Live!: The Story of the Medical Service in WWII
The short film Big Picture: The Army Medical Service Corps is available for free download at the Internet Archive
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values: 47th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 48th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 75th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

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/wiki/115th_Combat_Support_Hospital
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115th Combat Support Hospital

values: 212th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 228th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 256th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 325th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 328th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 345th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 349th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 352d Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 396th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 399th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 405th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 452th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 801th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

values: 865th Combat Support Hospital (page does not exist)

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/wiki/Forward_Surgical_Team
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Forward Surgical Team

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/wiki/AMEDD_Center_%26_School
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AMEDD Center & School

values: United States Army School of Aviation Medicine (page does not exist)

values: United States Army Medical Department Captains Career Course

values: United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases

values: United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense

values: United States Army Institute of Surgical Research (page does not exist)

values: United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine

values: United States Army Center for Environmental Health Research (page does not exist)

values: Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences

values: United States Army Medical Research Unit- Europe (USAMRU-E) (page does not exist)

values: United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya

values: List of former United States Army medical units

values: Medical Communications for Combat Casualty Care

values: United States Army Medical Information Technology Center (page does not exist)

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