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Red-eared slider
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Red-eared slider
Trachemys scripta elegans (Wied-Neuwied), an 1865 engraving by Karl Bodmer, who accompanied the authority on his expedition
At the Cincinnati Zoo
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Suborder: Cryptodira
Family: Emydidae
Genus: Trachemys
Species: T. scripta
Subspecies: T. s. elegans
Trinomial name
Trachemys scripta elegans
(Wied-Neuwied, 1839)
Synonyms[1]
Emys elegans Wied, 1839
Emys holbrookii Gray, 1844
Emys sanguinolenta Gray, 1856
Trachemys elegans Agassiz, 1857
Clemmys elegans Strauch, 1862
Trachemys holbrooki Gray, 1863 (ex errore)
Trachemys holbrookii Gray, 1869
Trachemys lineata Gray, 1873
Pseudemys elegans Cope, 1875
Chrysemys elegans Boulenger, 1889
Chrysemys scripta var. elegans Boulenger, 1889
Chrysemys palustris elegans Lindholm, 1929
Pseudemys troostii elegans Stejneger & Barbour, 1939
Pseudemys scripta elegans Cagle, 1944
Trachemys scripta elegans Iverson, 1985
Trachemys scripta elagans Fong, Parham & Fu, 2002 (ex errore)
Trachemys scripta elgans Fong, Parham & Fu, 2002 (ex errore)
The red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans), also known as the red-eared terrapin, is a semiaquatic turtle belonging to the family Emydidae. It is a subspecies of the pond slider. It is the most popular pet turtle in the United States and is also popular as a pet in the rest of the world.[2] It has, therefore, become the most commonly traded turtle in the world.[3] It is native to the southern United States and northern Mexico, but has become established in other places because of pet releases, and has become an invasive species in many areas, where it outcompetes native species. The red-eared slider is included in the list of the world's 100 most invasive species[4] published by the IUCN.
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 Taxonomy
3 Description
3.1 Sexual dimorphism
4 Distribution and habitat
5 Behavior
5.1 Hibernation
5.2 Reproduction
6 Red-eared sliders as pets
6.1 Infection risks and United States federal regulations on commercial distribution
6.2 US state law
7 An invasive species in Australia
8 In popular culture
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Name[edit]
Red-eared sliders are popular pets around the world.
Red-eared sliders get their name from the small red stripe around their ears.. The "slider" in their name comes from their ability to slide off rocks and logs and into the water quickly. This species was previously known as Troost's turtle in honor of an American herpetologist; Trachemys scripta troostii is now the scientific name for another subspecies, the Cumberland slider.
Taxonomy[edit]
The red-eared slider belongs to the order Testudines, which contains about 250 turtle species. It is a subspecies of Trachemys scripta. They were previously classified under the name Chrysemys scripta elegans.
The species Trachemys scripta contains three subspecies: T. s. elegans (red-eared slider), T. s. scripta (yellow-bellied slider), and T. s. troostii (Cumberland slider).[5]
Description[edit]
Red-eared slider basking on a floating platform under a sunlamp
Plastron of a young red eared slider turtle
The carapace of this species can reach more than 40 cm (16 in) in length, but the average length ranges from 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in).[6] The females of the species are usually larger than the males. They typically live between 20 and 30 years, although some individuals have lived for more than 40 years.[7] Their life expectancy is shorter when they are kept in captivity.[8] The quality of their living environment has a strong influence on their lifespans and well being.
Female turtle’s foot: Note the short claws.
These turtles are poikilotherms, meaning they are unable to regulate their body temperatures independently; they are completely dependent on the temperature of their environment.[2] For this reason, they need to sunbathe frequently to warm themselves and maintain their body temperatures.
The shell is divided into two sections: the upper or dorsal carapace, and the lower, ventral carapace or plastron.[2] The upper carapace consists of the vertebral scutes, which form the central, elevated portion; pleural scutes that are located around the vertebral scutes; and then the marginal scutes around the edge of the carapace. The rear marginal scutes are notched. The scutes are bony keratinous elements. The carapace is oval and flattened (especially in the male) and has a weak keel that is more pronounced in the young.[9] The color of the carapace changes depending on the age of the turtle. The carapace usually has a dark green background with light and dark, highly variable markings. In young or recently hatched turtles, it is leaf green and gets slightly darker as a turtle gets older, until it is a very dark green, and then turns a shade between brown and olive green. The plastron is always a light yellow with dark, paired, irregular markings in the centre of most scutes. The plastron is highly variable in pattern. The head, legs, and tail are green with fine, irregular, yellow lines. The whole shell is covered in these stripes and markings that aid in camouflaging an individual.
The turtle can retract its head and extremities inside its shell if it feels threatened.
Turtles also have a complete skeletal system, with partially webbed feet that help them to swim and that can be withdrawn inside the carapace along with the head and tail. The red stripe on each side of the head distinguishes the red-eared slider from all other North American species and gives this species its name, as the stripe is located behind the eyes where their (external) ears would be. These stripes may lose their color over time.[8] Some individuals can also have a small mark of the same color on the top of their heads. The red-eared slider does not have a visible outer ear or an external auditory canal; instead, it relies on a middle ear entirely covered by a cartilaginous tympanic disc.[10]
The main internal organs of these reptiles are the lungs, heart, stomach, liver, intestines, and the urinary bladder. A cloaca serves both excretory and reproductive functions.
Sexual dimorphism[edit]
Male red-eared slider: Note the large claws on the front foot
Some dimorphism exists between males and females.[11]
Red-eared slider young look practically identical regardless of their sex, making it difficult to determine their sex. However, there is another method to determine their gender, by inspecting the markings under their carapace. These markings will fade as the turtles age. It is much easier to distinguish the sex of adults, as the shells of mature males are smaller than those of females.[12] Male red-eared sliders reach sexual maturity when their carapaces diameter measure 10 cm (3.9 in) and females reach maturity when their carapaces measure 15 cm. Both male and females reach sexual maturity at five to six years. The male is normally smaller than the female, although this parameter is sometimes difficult to apply as individuals being compared could be of different ages.
Males have longer claws on their front feet than the females; this helps them to hold on to a female during mating and is used during courtship displays.[13] The male's tail is thicker and longer, it has a dark coloured retractable sexual organ known as their penis, inside the tail. Typically, the cloacal opening of the female is at or under the rear edge of the carapace, while the male's opening occurs beyond the edge of the carapace. The male's plastron is slightly concave, while that of the female is completely flat. The male's concave plastron also helps to stabilize the male on the female's carapace during mating.[14] Older males can sometimes have a dark greyish-olive green melanistic coloration, with very subdued markings. The red stripe on the sides of the head may be difficult to see or be absent. The female's appearance is substantially the same throughout her life.
Distribution and habitat[edit]
The red-eared slider originated from the area around the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico, in warm climates in the southeastern United States. Their native areas range from the southeast of Colorado to Virginia and Florida. In nature, they inhabit areas with a source of still, warm water, such as ponds, lakes, swamps, creeks, streams, or slow-flowing rivers. They live in areas of calm water where they are able to leave the water easily by climbing onto rocks or tree trunks so they can warm up in the sun. Individuals are often found sunbathing in a group or even on top of each other. They also require abundant aquatic plants, as these are the adults' main food, although they are omnivores.[15] Turtles in the wild always remain close to water unless they are searching for a new habitat or when females leave the water to lay their eggs.
Owing to their popularity as pets, red-eared sliders have been released or escaped into the wild in many parts of the world.[16] The turtle is considered one of the world’s worst invasive species.[17] Feral populations are now found in Australia, Europe, South Africa, the Caribbean Islands, Israel, Bahrain, the Mariana Islands, Guam, and southeast and far-east Asia.[18][19] In Australia, it is illegal for members of the public to import, keep, trade, or release red-eared sliders, as they are regarded as an invasive species[20] - see below. Their import has been banned by the European Union[21] as well as specific EU member countries.[22] In 2015 Japan announced it was planning to ban the import of red-eared sliders, but it would probably not take effect until 2020.[23] Invasive red-eared sliders cause negative impacts in the ecosystems they occupy because they have certain advantages over the native populations, such as a lower age at maturity, higher fecundity rates, and larger body size, which gives them a competitive advantage at basking and nesting sites, as well as when exploiting food resources.[24] They also transmit diseases and displace the other turtle species with which they compete for food and breeding space.[25]
Behavior[edit]
Red-eared sliders are almost entirely aquatic, but as they are cold-blooded, they leave the water to sunbathe to regulate their temperature.
Play media
Flipping over procedure extending the neck
Hibernation[edit]
Red Eared Sliders do not hibernate, but actually brumate; while they become less active, they do occasionally rise to the surface for food or air. Brumation can occur to varying degrees. In the wild, red-eared sliders brumate over the winter at the bottoms of ponds or shallow lakes. They generally become inactive in October, when temperatures fall below 10 °C (50 °F).[9] During this time, the turtles enter a state of sopor, during which they do not eat or defecate, they remain nearly motionless, and the frequency of their breathing falls. Individuals usually brumate underwater, but they have also been found under banks and rocks, and in hollow stumps. In warmer winter climates, they can become active and come to the surface for basking. When the temperature begins to drop again, however, they quickly return to a brumation state. Sliders generally come up for food in early March to as late as the end of April.
During brumation, T. s. elegans can survive anaerobically for weeks, producing ATP from glycolysis. The turtle's metabolic rate drops dramatically, with heart rate and cardiac output dropping by 80% to minimise energy requirements.[26][27] The lactic acid produced is buffered by minerals in the shell, preventing acidosis.[28] Red-eared sliders kept captive indoors should not brumate.
Red-eared slider sunbathing: Heat absorption is more effective when their limbs are stretched outwards.
Reproduction[edit]
Hatching turtle with its egg tooth
Female laying eggs in a nest she dug out with her hind legs
Courtship and mating activities for red-eared sliders usually occur between March and July, and take place under water. During courtship, the male swims around the female and flutters or vibrates the back side of his long claws on and around her face and head, possibly to direct pheromones towards her.[29] The female swims toward the male and, if she is receptive, sinks to the bottom for mating. If the female is not receptive, she may become aggressive towards the male. Courtship can last 45 minutes, but mating takes only 10 minutes.[25]
A pair of red-eared sliders.
On occasion, a male may appear to be courting another male, and when kept in captivity may also show this behaviour towards other household pets. Between male turtles, it could be a sign of dominance and may preclude a fight. Young turtles may carry out the courtship dance before they reach sexual maturity at five years of age, but they are unable to mate.[30]
After mating, the female spends extra time basking to keep her eggs warm.[30] She may also have a change of diet, eating only certain foods, or not eating as much as she normally would. A female can lay between two and 30 eggs depending on body size and other factors.[18] One female can lay up to five clutches in the same year, and clutches are usually spaced 12 to 36 days apart.[31] The time between mating and egg-laying can be days or weeks. The actual egg fertilization takes place during the egg-laying. This process also permits the laying of fertile eggs the following season, as the sperm can remain viable and available in the female's body in the absence of mating. During the last weeks of gestation, the female spends less time in the water and smells and scratches at the ground, indicating she is searching for a suitable place to lay her eggs. The female excavates a hole, using her hind legs, and lays her eggs in it.[32]
Incubation takes 59 to 112 days.[18] Late-season hatchlings may spend the winter in the nest and emerge when the weather warms in the spring. Just prior to hatching, the egg contains 50% turtle and 50% egg sac. A new hatchling breaks open its egg with its egg tooth, which falls out about an hour after hatching. This egg tooth never grows back. Hatchlings may stay inside their eggshells after hatching for the first day or two. If they are forced to leave the eggshell before they are ready, they will return if possible. When a hatchling decides to leave the shell, it still has a small sac protruding from its plastron. The yolk sac is vital and provides nourishment while visible, and several days later it will have been absorbed into the turtle's belly. The sac must be absorbed, and does not fall off. The split must heal on its own before the turtle is able to swim. The time between the egg hatching and water entry is 21 days.
Damage to or inordinate motion of the protruding egg yolk, enough to allow air into the turtle's body, results in death. This is the main reason for marking the top of turtle eggs if their relocation is required for any reason. An egg turned upside down will eventually terminate the embryo's growth by the sac smothering the embryo. If it manages to reach term, the turtle will try to flip over with the yolk sac, which would allow air into the body cavity and cause death. The other fatal danger is water getting into the body cavity before the sac is absorbed completely and while the opening has not completely healed yet.
The sex of red-eared sliders is determined by the incubation temperature during critical phases of the embryos' development. Only males are produced when eggs are incubated at temperatures of 22–27 °C (72–81 °F), whereas females develop at warmer temperatures.[33] Colder temperatures result in the death of the embryos.
Red-eared sliders as pets[edit]
T. s. elegans
Red-eared slider turtles are the world’s most commonly traded reptile, due to their relatively low price, small size and easy maintenance.[34][35] As with other turtles, tortoises, and box turtles, individuals that survive their first year or two can be expected to live generally around 30 years. But they are an infection risk, and when they mature they can inflict painful bites, which results in many being dumped into the wild with negative ecological, social and economic impacts. [36]
Infection risks and United States federal regulations on commercial distribution[edit]
A line of basking red-eared sliders faces an inquisitive mallard.
Reptiles are asymptomatic (meaning they suffer no adverse side effects) carriers of bacteria of the genus Salmonella.[37] This has given rise to justifiable concerns given the many instances of infection of humans caused by the handling of turtles,[38] which has led to restrictions in the sale of red-eared sliders in the USA. A 1975 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulation bans the sale (for general commercial and public use) of both turtle eggs and turtles with a carapace length of less than 4 in (10 cm). This regulation comes under the Public Health Service Act, and is enforced by the FDA in cooperation with state and local health jurisdictions. The ban was enacted because of the public health impact of turtle-associated salmonellosis. Turtles and turtle eggs found to be offered for sale in violation of this provision are subject to destruction in accordance with FDA procedures. A fine of up to $1,001 and/or imprisonment for up to one year is the penalty for those who refuse to comply with a valid final demand for destruction of such turtles or their eggs.[39] Many stores and flea markets still sell small turtles due to an exception in the FDA regulation which allows turtles under 4 in (10 cm) to be sold "for bona fide scientific, educational, or exhibition purposes, other than use as pets."[40] As with many other animals and inanimate objects, the risk of Salmonella exposure can be reduced by following basic rules of cleanliness. Small children must be taught to wash their hands immediately after they finish playing with the turtle, feeding it, or changing its water.
US state law[edit]
Some states have other laws and regulations regarding possession of red-eared sliders because they can be an invasive species where they are not native and have been introduced through the pet trade. Now, it is illegal in Florida to sell any wild-type red-eared slider, as they interbreed with the local yellow-bellied slider population — Trachemys scripta scripta is another subspecies of pond sliders, and hybrids typically combine the markings of the two subspecies. However, unusual color varieties such as albino and pastel red-eared sliders, which are derived from captive breeding, are still allowed for sale.[41]
Male red-eared slider in an outdoor pond with goldfish and koi
An invasive species in Australia[edit]
In Australia, breeding populations have been found in New South Wales and Queensland, and individual turtles have been found in the wild in Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory and Western Australia.[42]
Red-eared slider turtles are considered a significant threat to native turtle species - they mature more quickly, grow larger, produce more offspring and are more aggressive.[43] Numerous studies provide evidence that red-eared slider turtles can out-compete native turtles for food and nesting and basking sites.[44] Because red-eared slider turtles eat plants as well as animals, they could also have a negative impact on a range of native aquatic species, including rare frogs.[45] There is also a significant risk that red-eared slider turtles will transfer diseases and parasites to native reptile species. There is evidence that a malaria-like parasite was spread to two wild turtle populations in Lane Cove River, Sydney.[46]
Social and economic costs are also likely to be substantial. The Queensland government has invested close to $1 million AUD in eradication programs to date.[47] As outlined in the foregoing section, the turtle may also have significant public health costs due to the impacts of turtle-associated salmonella on human health. Outbreaks in multiple states and fatalities in children, associated with handling salmonella-infected turtles, have been recorded in the USA.[48] Salmonella can also spread to humans when turtles contaminate drinking water.[49]
There have been varying degrees of action by state governments to date, ranging from ongoing eradication efforts by the Queensland government to very little action by the government of New South Wales.[50] Experts have ranked the species as high priority for management in Australia and are calling for a national prevention and eradication strategy, including a concerted education and compliance program to stop the illegal trade, possession and release of slider turtles.[51]
In popular culture[edit]
Within the second volume of the Tales of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, the popular comic book heroes were revealed as specimens of the red-eared slider. The popularity of the Turtles led to a craze for keeping them as pets in Great Britain, and subsequent ecological havoc as turtles were accidentally or deliberately released into the wild.[52]
See also[edit]
Yellow-eared slider
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
Rachel M. Bowden: "A Modified Yolk Biopsy Technique improves survivorship of turtle eggs". Cal State East Bay Press Sep./Oct. 2009, ISSN 1522-2152 pp. 611–615 (online copy, p. 216, at Google Books)
Carl H. Ernst, Jeffrey E. Lovich: Turtles of the United States and Canada. Johns Hopkins University Press 2009, ISBN 978-0-8018-9121-2, pp. 444–470 (online copy, p. 444, at Google Books)
James H. Harding: Amphibians and Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region. University of Michigan Press 1997, ISBN 0-472-06628-5, pp. 216–220 (online copy, p. 216, at Google Books)
John B. Jensen, Carlos D. Camp, Whit Gibbons: Amphibians and Reptiles of Georgia. University of Georgia Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-8203-3111-9, pp. 500–502 (online copy, p. 500, at Google Books)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Trachemys_scripta_elegans.
Discovery Channel's Animal Planet: Red-eared slider
Exotic pets: Information on aquatic turtles & tortoises including a few articles specific to red-eared sliders
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Family Emydidae (pond turtles)
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Suborder: Cryptodira
Superfamily: Testudinoidea
Family: Emydidae
Genus
Species of the subfamily Deirochelyinae
Chrysemys
Painted turtle
Deirochelys
Chicken turtle
Graptemys
Alabama map turtle
Barbour's map turtle
Black-knobbed map turtle
Cagle's map turtle
Escambia map turtle
False map turtle
Northern map turtle
Ouachita map turtle
Pascagoula map turtle
Pearl River map turtle
Ringed map turtle
Texas map turtle
Yellow-blotched map turtle
Malaclemys
Diamondback terrapin
Pseudemys
Alabama red-bellied cooter
Northern red-bellied cooter
Florida red-bellied cooter
Peninsula cooter
Rio Grande cooter
River cooter
Texas river cooter
Trachemys
Big Bend slider
Baja California slider
Central Antillean slider
Colombian slider
Cuatro Cienegas slider
Cuban slider
D'Orbigny's slider
Hispaniolan slider
Jamaican slider
Maranhão slider
Meso-American slider
Nicaraguan slider
Ornate slider
Pond slider
Yaqui slider
Species of the subfamily Emydinae
Clemmys
Spotted turtle
Emys
Blanding's turtle
European pond turtle
Sicilian pond turtle
Western pond turtle
Glyptemys
Bog turtle
Wood turtle
Terrapene
Coahuilan box turtle
Common box turtle
Ornate box turtle
Spotted box turtle
Phylogenetic arrangement based on turtles of the world 2011 update: annotated checklist.
Subspecies and the extinct (Gyremys sectabilis) are not included.
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Extant turtle taxonomy
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Subclass: Anapsida
Order: Chelonii or Testudines
Suborder
Superfamily
Family
Subfamily
Genus
Cryptodira
Chelydridae
Chelydra
Macrochelys
Chelonioidea
Cheloniidae
Carettinae
Caretta
Lepidochelys
Cheloniinae
Chelonia
Eretmochelys
Natator
Dermochelyidae
Dermochelys
Kinosternoidea
Dermatemydidae
Dermatemys
Kinosternidae
Kinosterninae
Kinosternon
Sternotherus
Staurotypinae
Claudius
Staurotypus
Testudinoidea
Emydidae
Deirochelyinae
Chrysemys
Deirochelys
Graptemys
Malaclemys
Pseudemys
Trachemys
Emydinae
Clemmys
Emys
Glyptemys
Terrapene
Geoemydidae
Geoemydinae
Batagur
Cuora
Cyclemys
Geoclemys
Geoemyda
Hardella
Heosemys
Leucocephalon
Malayemys
Mauremys
Melanochelys
Morenia
Notochelys
Orlitia
Pangshura
Sacalia
Siebenrockiella
Vijayachelys
Rhinoclemmydinae
Rhinoclemmys
Platysternidae
Platysternon
Testudinidae
Aldabrachelys
Astrochelys
Chelonoidis
Chersina
Cylindraspis
Geochelone
Gopherus
Homopus
Indotestudo
Kinixys
Malacochersus
Manouria
Psammobates
Pyxis
Stigmochelys
Testudo
Trionychia
Carettochelyidae
Carettochelys
Trionychidae
Cyclanorbinae
Cyclanorbis
Cycloderma
Lissemys
Trionychinae
Amyda
Apalone
Chitra
Dogania
Nilssonia
Palea
Pelochelys
Pelodiscus
Rafetus
Trionyx
Pleurodira
Chelidae
Chelinae
Acanthochelys
Chelus
Mesoclemmys
Phrynops
Platemys
Rhinemys
Chelodininae
Chelodina
Elseya
Elusor
Emydura
Flaviemys
Myuchelys
Pseudemydura
Rheodytes
Hydromedusinae
Hydromedusa
Pelomedusidae
Pelomedusa
Pelusios
Podocnemididae
Erymnochelys
Peltocephalus
Podocnemis
Phylogenetic arrangement based on turtles of the world 2012 update: annotated checklist. Extinct turtles not included.
Portal Book See also List of Testudines families
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Illuminated manuscript
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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In the strictest definition of illuminated manuscript, only manuscripts with gold or silver, like this miniature of Christ in Majesty from the Aberdeen Bestiary (folio 4v), would be considered illuminated.
The decoration of this page from a French Book of Hours, c. 1400, includes a miniature, initials and borders
An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented with such decoration as initials, borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations. In the strictest definition, the term refers only to manuscripts decorated with gold or silver; but in both common usage and modern scholarship, the term refers to any decorated or illustrated manuscript from Western traditions. Comparable Far Eastern and Mesoamerican works are described as painted. Islamic manuscripts may be referred to as illuminated, illustrated or painted, though using essentially the same techniques as Western works. This article covers the technical, social and economic history of the subject; for an art-historical account, see miniature.
The earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period 400 to 600, produced in the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire. The significance of these works lies not only in their inherent artistic and historical value, but also in the maintenance of a link of literacy offered by non-illuminated texts. Had it not been for the monastic scribes of Late Antiquity, most literature of Greece and Rome would have perished in Europe. As it was, the patterns of textual survivals were shaped by their usefulness to the severely constricted literate group of Christians. Illumination of manuscripts, as a way of aggrandizing ancient documents, aided their preservation and informative value in an era when new ruling classes were no longer literate, at least in the language used in the manuscripts.
The majority of surviving manuscripts are from the Middle Ages, although many survive from the Renaissance, along with a very limited number from Late Antiquity. The majority of these manuscripts are of a religious nature. However, especially from the 13th century onward, an increasing number of secular texts were illuminated. Most illuminated manuscripts were created as codices, which had superseded scrolls. A very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on papyrus, which does not last nearly as long as vellum or parchment. Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written on parchment (most commonly of calf, sheep, or goat skin), but most manuscripts important enough to illuminate were written on the best quality of parchment, called vellum.
Beginning in the Late Middle Ages, manuscripts began to be produced on paper.[1] Very early printed books were sometimes produced with spaces left for rubrics and miniatures, or were given illuminated initials, or decorations in the margin, but the introduction of printing rapidly led to the decline of illumination. Illuminated manuscripts continued to be produced in the early 16th century, but in much smaller numbers, mostly for the very wealthy. Manuscripts are among the most common items to survive from the Middle Ages; many thousands survive. They are also the best surviving specimens of medieval painting, and the best preserved. Indeed, for many areas and time periods, they are the only surviving examples of painting.
Contents
1 History
2 Techniques
2.1 Text
2.2 The process of illumination
2.3 Use of color in illuminated manuscripts
2.4 Paints
2.5 Gilding
3 Patrons of illumination
4 Gallery
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
7.1 Images (mostly)
7.2 Resources
7.3 Modern
History[edit]
Main article: History of miniature (illuminated manuscript)
Art historians classify illuminated manuscripts into their historic periods and types, including (but not limited to) Late Antique, Insular, Carolingian manuscripts, Ottonian manuscripts, Romanesque manuscripts, Gothic manuscripts, and Renaissance manuscripts. There are a few examples from later periods. The type of book that was most often heavily and richly illuminated, sometimes known as a "display book", varied between periods. In the first millennium, these were most likely to be Gospel Books, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells. The Romanesque period saw the creation of many huge illuminated complete Bibles – one in Sweden requires three librarians to lift it. Many Psalters were also heavily illuminated in both this and the Gothic period. Single cards or posters of vellum, leather or paper were in wider circulation with short stories or legends on them about the lives of saints, chivalry knights or other mythological figures, even criminal, social or miraculous occurrences; popular events much freely used by story tellers and itinerant actors to support their plays. Finally, the Book of Hours, very commonly the personal devotional book of a wealthy layperson, was often richly illuminated in the Gothic period. Other books, both liturgical and not, continued to be illuminated at all periods. The Byzantine world also continued to produce manuscripts in its own style, versions of which spread to other Orthodox and Eastern Christian areas. See Medieval art for other regions, periods and types. Reusing parchments by scraping the surface and reusing them was a common practice; the traces often left behind of the original text are known as palimpsests.
The Muslim World and in particular the Iberian Peninsula, with their traditions of literacy uninterrupted by the Middle Ages, were instrumental in delivering ancient classic works to the growing intellectual circles and universities of Western Europe all through the 12th century, as books were produced there in large numbers and on paper for the first time in Europe, and with them full treatises on the sciences, especially astrology and medicine where illumination was required to have profuse and accurate representations with the text.
The Gothic period, which generally saw an increase in the production of these beautiful artifacts, also saw more secular works such as chronicles and works of literature illuminated. Wealthy people began to build up personal libraries; Philip the Bold probably had the largest personal library of his time in the mid-15th century, is estimated to have had about 600 illuminated manuscripts, whilst a number of his friends and relations had several dozen.
Illuminated manuscripts housed in the 16th-century Ethiopian Orthodox church of Ura Kidane Mehret, Zege Peninsula, Lake Tana, Ethiopia
Up to the 12th century, most manuscripts were produced in monasteries in order to add to the library or after receiving a commission from a wealthy patron. Larger monasteries often contained separate areas for the monks who specialized in the production of manuscripts called a scriptorium. Within the walls of a scriptorium were individualized areas where a monk could sit and work on a manuscript without being disturbed by his fellow brethren. If no scriptorium was available, then “separate little rooms were assigned to book copying; they were situated in such a way that each scribe had to himself a window open to the cloister walk.”[2] The separation of these monks from the rest of the cloister indicates just how revered these monks were within their society.
By the 14th century, the cloisters of monks writing in the scriptorium had almost fully given way to commercial urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome and the Netherlands.[3] While the process of creating an illuminated manuscript did not change, the move from monasteries to commercial settings was a radical step. Demand for manuscripts grew to an extent that the Monastic libraries were unable to meet with the demand, and began employing secular scribes and illuminators.[4] These individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in certain instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered the monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the day. In reality, illuminators were often well known and acclaimed and many of their identities have survived.[5]
First, the manuscript was “sent to the rubricator, who added (in red or other colors) the titles, headlines, the initials of chapters and sections, the notes and so on; and then – if the book was to be illustrated – it was sent to the illuminator.”[2] In the case of manuscripts that were sold commercially, the writing would “undoubtedly have been discussed initially between the patron and the scribe (or the scribe’s agent,) but by the time that the written gathering were sent off to the illuminator there was no longer any scope for innovation.”[6]
Techniques[edit]
The author of a manuscript at his writing desk. 14th Century
Illumination was a complex and frequently costly process. It was usually reserved for special books: an altar Bible, for example. Wealthy people often had richly illuminated "books of hours" made, which set down prayers appropriate for various times in the liturgical day.
In the early Middle Ages, most books were produced in monasteries, whether for their own use, for presentation, or for a commission. However, commercial scriptoria grew up in large cities, especially Paris, and in Italy and the Netherlands, and by the late 14th century there was a significant industry producing manuscripts, including agents who would take long-distance commissions, with details of the heraldry of the buyer and the saints of personal interest to him (for the calendar of a Book of hours). By the end of the period, many of the painters were women, perhaps especially in Paris.
Text[edit]
In the making of an illuminated manuscript, the text was usually written first. Sheets of parchment or vellum, animal hides specially prepared for writing, were cut down to the appropriate size. After the general layout of the page was planned (e.g., initial capital, borders), the page was lightly ruled with a pointed stick, and the scribe went to work with ink-pot and either sharpened quill feather or reed pen.
The script depended on local customs and tastes. The sturdy Roman letters of the early Middle Ages gradually gave way to scripts such as Uncial and half-Uncial, especially in the British Isles, where distinctive scripts such as insular majuscule and insular minuscule developed. Stocky, richly textured blackletter was first seen around the 13th century and was particularly popular in the later Middle Ages. Palaeography is the study of historical handwritten scripts, and codicology the related study of other physical aspects of manuscript codexes.
One of the most important features in the production of an illuminated manuscript is the amount of time that was spent in the pre-production stages outlining the work. Prior to the days of such careful planning, “A typical black-letter page of these Gothic years would show a page in which the lettering was cramped and crowded into a format dominated by huge ornamented capitals that descended from uncial forms or by illustrations.”[7] To prevent such poorly made manuscripts and illuminations from occurring a script was typically supplied first, “and blank spaces were left for the decoration. This pre-supposes very careful planning by the scribe even before he put pen to parchment.” If the scribe and the illuminator were separate labors the planning period allowed for adequate space to be given to each individual.
The process of illumination[edit]
A common process of manuscripts illumination from the creation of the quire to the binding
ILLUMINATION EXECUTION
I. Graphite powder dots create the outline II. Silverpoint drawings are sketched III. Illustration is retraced with ink IV. The surface is prepared for the application of gold leaf V. Gold leaf is laid down VI. Gold leaf is burnished to make it glossy and reflective VII. Decorative impressions are made to adhere the leaf VIII. Base colors are applied IX. Darker tones are used to give volume X. Further details are drawn XI. Lighter colors are used to add particulars XII. Ink borders are traced to finalize the illumination
A 13th-century manuscript illumination, the earliest known depiction of Thomas Becket's assassination
The following steps outline the detailed labor involved to create the illuminations of one page of a manuscript:
Silverpoint drawing of the design were executed
Burnished gold dots applied
The application of modulating colors
Continuation of the previous three steps in addition to the outlining of marginal figures
The penning of a rinceaux appearing in the border of a page
The final step, the marginal figures are painted[8]
The illumination and decoration was normally planned at the inception of the work, and space reserved for it. However, the text was usually written before illumination began. In the Early Medieval period the text and illumination were often done by the same people, normally monks, but by the High Middle Ages the roles were typically separated, except for routine initials and flourishes, and by at least the 14th century there were secular workshops producing manuscripts, and by the beginning of the 15th century these were producing most of the best work, and were commissioned even by monasteries. When the text was complete, the illustrator set to work. Complex designs were planned out beforehand, probably on wax tablets, the sketch pad of the era. The design was then traced or drawn onto the vellum (possibly with the aid of pinpricks or other markings, as in the case of the Lindisfarne Gospels). Many incomplete manuscripts survive from most periods, giving us a good idea of working methods.
At all times, most manuscripts did not have images in them. In the early Middle Ages, manuscripts tend to either be display books with very full illumination, or manuscripts for study with at most a few decorated initials and flourishes. By the Romanesque period many more manuscripts had decorated or historiated initials, and manuscripts essentially for study often contained some images, often not in color. This trend intensified in the Gothic period, when most manuscripts had at least decorative flourishes in places, and a much larger proportion had images of some sort. Display books of the Gothic period in particular had very elaborate decorated borders of foliate patterns, often with small drolleries. A Gothic page might contain several areas and types of decoration: a miniature in a frame, a historiated initial beginning a passage of text, and a border with drolleries. Often different artists worked on the different parts of the decoration.
Use of color in illuminated manuscripts[edit]
While the use of gold is by far one of the most captivating features of illuminated manuscripts, the bold use of varying colors provided multiple layers of dimension to the illumination. From a religious perspective, "the diverse colors wherewith the book is illustrated, not unworthily represent the multiple grace of heavenly wisdom."[2] While religious authors view themselves as instilling a part of God's vast glory on the work, many illustrations can be linked to "the history of the texts that were required to be illustrated and the needs and tastes of the readers of those manuscripts."[9] Color brought the images on the page to life and captivated the readers. Without color the impact of the image would have been completely lost.
Paints[edit]
The medieval artist's palette was broad; a partial list of pigments is given below. In addition, unlikely-sounding substances such as urine and earwax were used to prepare pigments.[10]
Color
Source(s)
Red
Insect-based colors, including:
Carmine, also known as cochineal, where carminic acid from the Dactylopius coccus insect is mixed with an aluminum salt to produce the dye;
Crimson, also known as kermes, extracted from the insect Kermes vermilio; and
Lac, a scarlet resinous secretion of a number of species of insects.
Chemical- and mineral-based colors, including:
Red lead, chemically lead tetroxide, Pb3O4, found in nature as the mineral minium, or made by heating white lead;
Vermilion, chemically mercury sulfide, HgS, and found in nature as the mineral cinnabar;
Rust, chemically hydrated ferric oxide, Fe2O3·n H2O, or iron oxide-rich earth compounds.
Yellow
Plant-based colors, such as:
Weld, processed from the Reseda luteola plant;
Turmeric, from the Curcuma longa plant; and
Saffron, rarely due to cost, from the Crocus sativus.
Mineral-based colors, including:
Ochre, an earth pigment that occurs as the mineral limonite; and
Orpiment, chemically arsenic trisulfide, As2S3.
Green
Verdigris, chemically cupric acetate, Cu(OAc)2·(H2O)2, made historically by boiling copper plates in vinegar;
Malachite, a mineral found in nature, chemically basic copper carbonate, Cu2CO3·(OH)2; and
China green, a plant-based pigment extracted from buckthorn (Rhamnus tinctoria, R. utilis) berries.
Blue
Plant-based substances such as:
Woad, produced from the leaves of the plant Isatis tinctoria;
Indigo, derived from the plant Indigofera tinctoria; and
Turnsole, also known as folium, a dyestuff prepared from the plant Crozophora tinctoria.
Chemical- and mineral-based colors, including:
Ultramarine, made from the minerals lapis lazuli or azurite; and
Smalt, now known as cobalt blue.
White
White lead, chemically basic lead carbonate, 2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2, and historically made by corroding sheets of lead with vinegar, and covering that with decaying matter, such as dung, to provide the necessary carbon dioxide for the chemical reaction; and
Chalk, chemically calcium carbonate, CaCO3.
Black
Carbon, from sources such as lampblack, charcoal, or burnt bones or ivory;
Sepia, from the ink produced by the cuttlefish, usually for an escape mechanism; and
Iron gall ink, where in medieval times iron nails would be boiled in vinegar; the resulting compound would then be mixed with an extract of oak apple (oak galls).
Gold
Gold leaf, gold hammered extremely thin, or gold powder, bound in gum arabic or egg; the latter is called shell gold.
Silver
Silver, either silver leaf or powdered, as with gold; and
Tin leaf, also as with gold.
Gilding[edit]
The 11th-century Tyniec Sacramentary was written with gold on a purple background. National Library of Poland, Warsaw.
An illuminated manuscript is not considered illuminated unless one or many illuminations contained gold foil or was brushed with gold specks, a process known as burnishing. The inclusion of gold on an illumination alludes to many different possibilities for the text. If the text is of religious nature the gold is a sign of exalting the text. In the early centuries of Christianity, “Gospel manuscripts were sometimes written entirely in gold.”[11] Aside from adding flashy decoration to the text, scribes during the time considered themselves to be praising God with their use of gold. In one particular instance, “The life of Christ executed on gold backgrounds with much greater richness in the midst of innumerable scenes of the chase, tourneys, games and grotesque subjects.”[12] Furthermore, gold was used if a patron who had commissioned a book to be written wished to display the vastness of his riches. Eventually, the addition of gold to manuscripts became so frequent, “that its value as a barometer of status with the manuscript was degraded.”[13] During this time period the price of gold had become so cheap that its inclusion in an illuminated manuscript accounted for only a tenth of the cost of production.[14] By adding richness and depth to the manuscript, the use of gold in illuminations created pieces of art that are still valued today.
The application of gold leaf or dust to an illumination is a very detailed process that only the most skilled illuminators can undertake and successfully achieve. The first detail an illuminator considered when dealing with gold was whether to use gold leaf or specks of gold that could be applied with a brush. When working with gold leaf the pieces would be hammered and thinned until they were “thinner than the thinnest paper.”[14] The use of this type of leaf allowed for numerous areas of the text to be outlined in gold. There were several ways of applying gold to an illumination one of the most popular included mixing the gold with stag’s glue and then “pour it into water and dissolve it with your finger.”[15] Once the gold was soft and malleable in the water it was ready to be applied to the page. Illuminators had to be very careful when applying gold leaf to the manuscript for fear ruining the color already placed in the illumination. Gold leaf is able to "adhere to any pigment which had already been laid, ruining the design, and secondly the action of burnishing it is vigorous and runs the risk of smudging any painting already around it." The careless implementing of gold could ruin the labor already placed in the illumination and thus cause the entire folio to be discarded.
Patrons of illumination[edit]
Monasteries produced manuscripts for their own use; heavily illuminated ones tended to be reserved for liturgical use in the early period, while the monastery library held plainer texts. In the early period manuscripts were often commissioned by rulers for their own personal use or as diplomatic gifts, and many old manuscripts continued to be given in this way, even into the Early Modern period. Especially after the book of hours became popular, wealthy individuals commissioned works as a sign of status within the community, sometimes including donor portraits or heraldry: "In a scene from the New Testament, Christ would be shown larger than an apostle, who would be bigger than a mere bystander in the picture, while the humble donor of the painting or the artist himself might appear as a tiny figure in the corner."[9][16][17] The calendar was also personalized, recording the feast days of local or family saints. By the end of the Middle Ages many manuscripts were produced for distribution through a network of agents, and blank spaces might be reserved for the appropriate heraldry to be added locally by the buyer.
Displaying the amazing detail and richness of a text, the addition of illumination was never an afterthought. The inclusion of illumination is twofold, it added value to the work, but more importantly it provides pictures for the illiterate members of society to "make the reading seem more vivid and perhaps more credible.”[18]
Gallery[edit]
The illuminated letter P in the Malmesbury Bible. The script is blackletter, also known as Gothic script.
Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, in a medieval illuminated manuscript.
A monk-cellarer tasting wine from a barrel while filling a jug. From Li Livres dou Santé by Aldobrandino of Siena (France, late 13th century).
The Book of Dimma, an 8th-century Irish pocket Gospel Book.
Georgian Adysh Gospels, 897
Jewish Illuminated manuscript of the Haggadah for Passover (14th century).
The Pentecost, from an illuminated Catholic liturgical manuscript, c.1310-1320.
The marriage of Girart to Bertha from the Roman de Girart de Roussillon, c. 1450
An illuminated capital letter P in a Bible of 1407, Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England
Armenian manuscript of 1053. Work of Johannes.
15th century Flemish illumination depicting Alexander the Great’s third victory over Darius
Founders' and benefactors' book of Tewkesbury Abbey, early 16th century
The Rochefoucauld Grail, about 1315
Battle of Ménfő, in the Hungarian Chronicon Pictum of 1360
Ethiopian, Illuminated Manuscript, 18th century, Princeton University Art Museum
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The untypically early 11th century Missal of Silos is from Spain, near to Muslim paper manufacturing centres in Al-Andaluz. Textual manuscripts on paper become increasingly common, but the more expensive parchment was mostly used for illuminated manuscripts until the end of the period.
^ Jump up to: a b c Putnam A.M., Geo. Haven. Books and Their Makers During The Middle Ages. Vol. 1. New York: Hillary House, 1962. Print.
Jump up ^ De Hamel, 45
Jump up ^ De Hamel, 57
Jump up ^ De Hamel, 65
Jump up ^ De Hamel, Christopher. Medieval Craftsmen: Scribes and Illuminations. Buffalo: University of Toronto, 1992. p. 60.
Jump up ^ Anderson, Donald M. The Art of Written Forms: The Theory and Practice of Calligraphy. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc, 1969. Print.
Jump up ^ Calkins, Robert G. "Stages of Execution: Procedures of Illumination as Revealed in an Unfinished Book of Hours." International Center of Medieval Art 17.1 (1978): 61–70. JSTOR.org. Web. 17 April 2010. <https://www.jstor.org/stable/766713>
^ Jump up to: a b "Manuscript." http://arts.jrank.org/pages/9716/Manuscript.html. Web. 17 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Iberian manuscripts (pigments) Archived 29 March 2003 at Archive.is
Jump up ^ De Hamel, Christopher. The British Library Guide to Manuscript Illumination: History and Techniques. Toronto: University of Toronto, 2001. Print,52.
Jump up ^ Brehier, Louis. “Illuminated Manuscripts.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol.9. New York: Robert Appelton Company, 1910. 17 April 2010 http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09620a.htm
Jump up ^ De Hamel, Christopher. Medieval Craftsmen: Scribes and Illuminations. Buffalo: University of Toronto, 1992. Print,49.
^ Jump up to: a b Brehier, Louis. “Illuminated Manuscripts.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol.9. New York: Robert Appelton Company, 1910. 17 April 2010 http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09620a.htm, page 45.
Jump up ^ Blondheim, D.S. "An Old Portuguese Work on Manuscript Illumination." The Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series 19.2 (1928): 97–135. JSTOR. Web. 17 April 2010. <https://www.jstor.org/stable/1451766>.
Jump up ^ Hamel, Christopher de (29 December 2001). The British Library Guide to Manuscript Illumination: History and Techniques (1 ed.). University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. p. 20. ISBN 0-8020-8173-8.
Jump up ^ "Heraldry". Glossary for Illuminated Manuscripts. British Library. n.d. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Jones, Susan. "Manuscript Illumination in Northern Europe". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/manu/hd_manu.htm (October 2002)
Further reading[edit]
Bland, David. A History of Book Illustration: The Illuminated Manuscript and the Printed Book (London: Faber & Faber, 1958)
Coleman, Joyce, Mark Cruse, and Kathryn A. Smith, eds. The Social Life of Illumination: Manuscripts, Images, and Communities in the Late Middle Ages (Series: Medieval Texts and Cultures in Northern Europe, vol. 21. Turnhout: Brepols Publishing, 2013). xxiv + 552 pp online review
De Hamel, Christopher. A History of Illuminated Manuscript (Phaidon, 1986)
De Hamel, Christopher. Medieval Craftsmen: Scribes and Illuminations. Buffalo: University of Toronto, 1992.
Lazaris, Stavros. "L’illustration des disciplines médicales dans l’Antiquité : hypothèses, enjeux, nouvelles interprétations", in: La Collezione di testi chirurgici di Niceta (Firenze, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Plut. 74.7). Tradizione medica classica a Bisanzio, M. Bernabò (ed.), Roma, 2010, p. 99–109 [1].
Lazaris, Stavros. "L’image paradigmatique: des Schémas anatomiques d’Aristote au De materia medica de Dioscoride", Pallas, 93 (2013), p. 131-164 [2].
Lazaris, Stavros. "Art et science vétérinaire à Byzance: Formes et fonctions de l’image hippiatrique". Turnhout: Brepols, 2010 [3]
Morgan, Nigel J., Stella Panayotova, and Martine Meuwese. Illuminated Manuscripts in Cambridge: A Catalogue of Western Book Illumination in the Fitzwilliam Museum and the Cambridge Colleges (London : Harvey Miller Publishers in conjunction with the Modern Humanities Association. 1999– )
Rudy, K.M. Piety in Pieces: How Medieval Readers Customized their Manuscripts (Open Book Publishers, 2016)
Wieck, Roger. "Folia Fugitiva: The Pursui of the Illuminated Manuscript Leaf". The Journal of the Walters Art Gallery, Vol. 54, 1996.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Illuminated manuscripts.
Images (mostly)[edit]
Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts Digitized illuminated manuscripts from the Dutch Royal Library
Museum of the Book, The Hague. Thematic introduction, with many examples illustrated
Project from Cambridge University – colored numbers are links to good images from various collections; good for finding images of specific subjects quickly
Illuminated Manuscripts in the J. Paul Getty Museum – Los Angeles
Portal to manuscripts in French public collections huge databases, in French
Illuminating the Manuscript Leaves Digitized illuminated manuscripts from the University of Louisville Libraries
[4] Digitized illuminated manuscript from Kathrine Zipista
Medieval and Renaissance manuscripts, including lavishly decorated Books of Hours, Vulgates, and Medicinal Texts, 12 – 17th century, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries
Illuminated Manuscripts digital collection from the Ball State University Digital Media Repository
Spanish Chant Manuscript – A collection of Spanish illuminated manuscripts from the UBC Library Digital Collections
Digitized Illuminated Manuscripts – Complete sets of high-resolution archival images of entire manuscripts from the collection of the Walters Art Museum
Manuscripts of Lichfield Cathedral – Digital facsimile of the St Chad Gospels, 2010. Includes the ability to overlay images captured with 13 different bands of light, historical images (starting in 1887), multispectral visualizations, sixteen interactive 3D renderings, and sixteen interactive RTI renderings for revealing dry-point writing. University of Oklahoma
Historical Image Overlays – See how an illuminated manuscript ages
Resources[edit]
UCLA Library Special Collections collection of Medieval and Renaissance manuscripts
Digital Scriptorium
British Library, catalogue of illuminated manuscripts
Collection of illuminated manuscripts. From the Koninklijke Bibliotheek and Museum Meermanno-Westreenianum in The Hague.
On-line demonstration of the production of an illuminated manuscript from the Fitzwilliam, Cambridge
On-line demonstration of the production of an illuminated manuscript from the BNF, Paris. Text in French, but mostly visual.
Nancy Ross, Resources for English Illuminated Manuscripts.
British Library, Glossary of Manuscript Terms, adapted from Michelle Brown, Understanding Illuminated Manuscripts: A Guide to Technical Terms (1994), ISBN 0-89236-217-0
Herbert, J. A. (1911), Illuminated Manuscripts, online book.
Illuminated Manuscripts', Book by John W. Bradley, from Project Gutenberg
CORSAIR. Thousands of digital images from the Morgan Library's renowned collection of medieval and Renaissance manuscripts
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Illuminated Manuscripts". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Diringer, David. The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental. New York: Dover Publications, Inc, 1982. Print.
Greenia, George D. "The Politics of Piety: Manuscript Illumination and Narration in the Cantigas of De Santa Maria." Hispanic Review 61.3 (1993): 325–44. JSTOR. Web. 17 April 2010. <https://www.jstor.org/stable/475069>.
3D for Presenting Illuminated Manuscripts – Explains 3D modeling for the 8th-century illuminated St Chad Gospels
ABC of Medieval Manuscripts Sandra Hindman, AbeBooks.com
Beginner's Guide to Medieval Manuscripts[permanent dead link] Sandra Hindman, AbeBooks.com
Modern[edit]
The Saint John's Bible: an illuminated Bible project
Ellen Frank Illumination Arts Foundation: the art of illumination
Illumination Documentary produced by Full Focus About St John’s Abby Illuminated Bible Project
Making Manuscripts video by the Getty Museum
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Bob's your uncle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Bob's your uncle (disambiguation).
...And Bob's your uncle is an expression of unknown origin, that means "and there it is" or "and there you have it." It is commonly used in Great Britain and Commonwealth countries. Typically, someone says it to conclude a set of simple instructions or when a result is reached. The meaning is similar to that of the French expression "et voilà!"
"Bob's your uncle" is an exclamation that is used when "everything is all right" and the simple means of obtaining the successful result is explained. For example: "left over right; right over left, and Bob's your uncle – a reef knot." Sometimes the phrase is followed with "and Nellie's your aunt" or "and Fanny's your aunt." It is sometimes elaborately phrased Robert is your mother's brother or similar for comic effect.
Origin[edit]
A. J. Langguth and others have suggested that the expression arose after Conservative Prime Minister Robert "Bob" Cecil appointed his nephew Arthur Balfour as Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1887, an act which was apparently both surprising and unpopular. Whatever other qualifications Balfour might have had, "Bob's your uncle" was seen as the conclusive one.[1] Regardless of the origin, the meaning has become acknowledging, announcing, or explaining a result or outcome that is achieved more easily than might be imagined.[2][3]
It is suggested in Shantaram by Gregory David Roberts that Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts was known as Uncle Bobs and that the phrase referred to him. [4]
See also[edit]
All Sir Garnet
Nepotism
References[edit]
Look up Bob's your uncle in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Jump up ^ Langguth, A. J. (1981). Saki: Life of Hector Hugh Munro.
Jump up ^ Trahair, R. C. S. (1994). From Aristotelian to Reaganomics: A Dictionary of Eponyms With Biographies in the Social Science. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 72. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Bernstein, Jonathan (2006). Knickers in a Twist: A Dictionary of British Slang. Canongate U.S. p. 65. Retrieved 4 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Shantaram https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5JaxSJlpGmAC&pg=PT446&lpg=PT446&dq=shantaram+bob%27s+your+uncle&source=bl&ots=z_Lg_8ZlBQ&sig=D6VNb6c98gOVWZNXxfPTOO_iE0s&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr-j52e_VAhUsLsAKHersAdMQ6AEIXTAJ#v=onepage&q=shantaram%20bob's%20your%20uncle&f=false
Further reading[edit]
Turner-Lord, Jann (1992). Bob's your uncle: a dictionary of slang for British mystery fans. Fithian Press. p. 62. 9781564740229.
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Blank (solution)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs attention from an expert on the subject. Please add a reason or a talk parameter to this template to explain the issue with the article.
When placing this tag, consider associating this request with a WikiProject. (September 2012)
A blank solution is a solution containing little to no analyte of interest,[1] usually used to calibrate instruments such as a colorimeter. According to the EPA, the "primary purpose of blanks is to trace sources of artificially introduced contamination."[2] Different types of blanks are used to identify the source of contamination in the sample. The types of blanks include equipment blank, field blank, trip blank, method blank, and instrument blank.[3]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Glossary – Blank solution". European Virtual Institute for Speciation Analysis.
Jump up ^ "Quality Control Tools: Blanks" (PDF). EPA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-13. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
Jump up ^ Coleman, D.; Vanatta, L. (29 October 2010). "Statistics in Analytical Chemistry: Part 40—Blanks". American Laboratory. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
This article about analytical chemistry is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blank_(solution)&oldid=791670545"
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