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Marriage law
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"Marital law" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Martial law.
For the social and interpersonal aspects of marriage, see Marriage.
Family law
Family
Marriage and other
equivalent or similar unions and status
Marriage
Types of marriages
Prenuptial agreement
Cohabitation
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Common-law marriage
Civil union
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Validity of marriages
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Divorce
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No-fault divorce
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Parenting plan
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Paternity
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Ward
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Private international law
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(or criminal law)
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v
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e
Marriage law refers to the legal requirements that determine the validity of a marriage, and which vary considerably among countries.
Contents
[hide]
1 Rights and obligations
2 Common law marriage
3 Marriage restrictions
3.1 Marriage age
3.2 Gender restrictions
3.2.1 Europe
3.2.2 Australia
3.2.3 Further religious conflicts
3.3 Kinship restrictions
3.4 Social restrictions
3.4.1 Polygamy
4 State recognition
5 International recognition
6 License
7 Notice
8 Formality
9 Ending a marriage
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Rights and obligations[edit]
See also: Rights and responsibilities of marriages in the United States
A Ketubah in Aramaic, a Jewish marriage-contract outlining the duties of each partner
A marriage, by definition, bestows rights and obligations on the married parties, and sometimes on relatives as well, being the sole mechanism for the creation of affinal ties (in-laws). Over 2.3 million weddings take place in the U.S each year. This means they take a vow of out to be faithful and committed to one another.[1] Historically, many societies have given sets of rights and obligations to husbands that have been very different from the sets of rights and obligations given to wives. In particular, the control of marital property, inheritance rights, and the right to dictate the activities of children of the marriage, have typically been given to male marital partners (for more details see coverture and marital power). However, these practices were curtailed to a great deal in many countries, especially Western countries, in the twentieth century, and more modern statutes tend to define the rights and duties of a spouse without reference to gender. In various marriage laws around the world, however, the husband continues to have authority; for instance the Civil Code of Iran states at Article 1105: "In relations between husband and wife; the position of the head of the family is the exclusive right of the husband".[2]
These rights and obligations vary considerably among legal systems, societies, and groups within a society,[3] and may include:
Giving a husband/wife or his/her family control over some portion of a spouse's labor or property.
Giving a husband/wife responsibility for some portion of a spouse's debts.
Giving a husband/wife visitation rights when his/her spouse is incarcerated or hospitalized.
Giving a husband/wife control over his/her spouse's affairs when the spouse is incapacitated.
Establishing the second legal guardian of a parent's child.
Establishing a joint fund of property for the benefit of children.
Establishing a relationship between the families of the spouses.
Common law marriage[edit]
Main article: Common law marriage
In medieval Europe, marriage came under the jurisdiction of canon law, which recognized as a valid marriage one where the parties stated that they took one another as wife and husband, even in absence of any witnesses.
The Council of Trent (convened 1545–1563) ruled that in the future a marriage was only valid in Roman Catholic countries if it was witnessed by a priest of the Roman Catholic Church or, if obtaining a priest were impractical, by other witnesses. This ruling was not accepted in the newly Protestant nations of Europe, nor by Protestants who lived in Roman Catholic countries or their colonies, nor by Eastern Orthodox Christians.
Common-law marriages were abolished in England and Wales by the Marriage Act 1753. The act required marriages to be performed by a priest of the Church of England, unless the participants in the marriage were Jews or Quakers. The Act applied to Ireland after the Act of Union 1800, but the requirement for a valid marriage to be performed by a Church of England priest created special problems in predominantly Roman Catholic Ireland. The law did not provide an exception. The Act did not apply to Scotland because by the Acts of Union 1707, Scotland retained its own legal system. To get around the requirements of the Marriage Act, such as minimum-age requirements, couples would go to Gretna Green in southern Scotland, to get married under Scottish law. (Such as Lydia Bennet and George Wickham in Pride and Prejudice.[4])
The Marriage Act of 1753 also did not apply to Britain's overseas colonies of the time, so common-law marriages continued to be recognized in the future United States and Canada. In the United States, common-law marriages are still recognized in Alabama, Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Montana, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Utah and the District of Columbia,[5] and in several Canadian provinces.
All countries in Europe have now abolished "marriage by habit and repute", with Scotland being the last to do so in 2006.[6]
Australia has recognised de facto relationships since the Family Law Act of 2009.
Marriage restrictions[edit]
Marriage is an institution that is historically filled with restrictions. From age, to gender, to social status, various restrictions are placed on marriage by communities, religious institutions, legal traditions and states.
Marriage age[edit]
Main article: Marriageable age
The minimum age at which a person is able to lawfully marry, and whether parental or other consents are required, vary from country to country. In the U.S the minimum age is 18 except for Nebraska (19) and Mississippi (21).[7] In England and Wales the general age at which a person may marry is 18, but 16- or 17-year-olds may get married with their parents' or guardians' consent. If they are unable to obtain this, they can gain consent from the courts, which may be granted by the Magistrates' Courts, or the County or High Court family divisions.
Gender restrictions[edit]
See also: Same-sex marriage
Legal, social, and religious restrictions apply in all countries on the genders of the couple.
In response to changing social and political attitudes, some jurisdictions and religious denominations now recognize marriages between people of the same sex. Other jurisdictions have instead "civil unions" or "domestic partnerships", while additional others explicitly prohibit same-sex marriages.
In 1989, Denmark became the first country in the modern era to give same-sex couples the right to formalize their relation as a registered partnership.[8] As of 2015[update], twenty four countries have come to recognize same-sex marriages for civil purposes, namely the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Canada, South Africa, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Iceland, Argentina, Denmark, Brazil, France, Uruguay, New Zealand, United Kingdom, Luxembourg, Finland, Ireland, and the United States.[9] Denmark gave same-sex couples the right to marry in 2013, and this right extends to a right to get married in the Church of Denmark, although individual priests have the right to refuse to perform such marriages.[10] On June 26, 2015, Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the ban on same-sex marriages were de jure unconstitutional, which de facto legalized the same-sex marriage process in the United States.[11]
Europe[edit]
To avoid the use of the term "marriage", some governments provide civil unions, which are open to couples of the same sex, and in some jurisdictions also to those of opposite sexes who do not want to marry, to confer all or a portion of the benefits of married status[citation needed]. Civil unions (and registered/domestic partnerships) are currently recognized and accepted in approximately 30 out of 193 countries worldwide and in some U.S. states[citation needed]. However, in countries where it has been adopted, applications for marriage licenses have far exceeded governmental estimates of demand.[12] Some jurisdictions, such as the nations of Israel, Aruba, and the Netherlands Antilles, as well as the U.S. state of New Mexico recognize same-sex marriages lawfully entered into elsewhere, while not permitting them to be performed locally.[citation needed] In addition to civil authorities, some religious denominations ceremonially perform civil unions and same-sex marriages, and recognize them as essentially equivalent to other marriages. For example, Lutheran churches in Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden and some Lutheran churches of the Evangelical Church in Germany allow blessing ceremonies for same-sex couples, as do Unitarian Universalist churches.[citation needed]
Australia[edit]
In Australia, de facto relationships are legally recognized in many, but not all, ways,[13][14] with some states having registers of de facto relationships, although the federal government has amended existing legislation to specify that only marriages between a man and a woman will be recognized as "marriages".[15] As a result, the Australian Capital Territory's 2006 Bill to give civil unions identical status and processes as registered marriages, was repealed by the federal government before it came into effect.
Further religious conflicts[edit]
These developments have created a political and religious reaction in some countries, including in England, where the Church of England, after long debate, officially banned blessings of gay couples by Church of England clergy,[16] and in the United States, which continues to experience conflicts, based upon religious grounds.
Kinship restrictions[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2008)
See also: Prohibited degree of kinship
Kinship is two people that are related by blood, or adoption such as brother, sister, mother, father, aunt, uncle etc. No European country prohibits marriage between first cousins. The U.S. is the only western country with cousin marriage restrictions.[citation needed] Societies have often placed restrictions on marriage to relatives, though the degree of prohibited relationship varies widely. In most societies, marriage between brothers and sisters has been forbidden, with ancient Egyptian, Hawaiian, and Inca royalty being prominent exceptions. In many societies, marriage between first cousins is preferred, while at the other extreme, the medieval Catholic Church prohibited marriage even between distant cousins. It is estimate the twenty percent of all couples worldwide is first cousins.[citation needed] The marriage laws of all modern countries restrict the relatives a person is allowed to marry, though the degree of prohibited relationship varies widely. In most countries, marriage between brothers and sisters is forbidden. Many countries maintain a standard of required distance (in both consanguinity and affinity) for marriage.
In the United Kingdom, the Deceased Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907 removed the previous prohibition of a man marrying the sister of his deceased wife. In Australia, marriage with an ancestor or descendant is prohibited, as is a marriage between a brother and a sister, whether of whole blood or half-blood and even if the brother or sister has been adopted.
All mainstream religions prohibit some marriages on the basis of the consanguinity (lineal descent) and affinity (kinship by marriage) of the prospective marriage partners, though the standards vary.[citation needed]
Social restrictions[edit]
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In the Indian Hindu community, especially in the Brahmin caste, marrying a person of the same gotra was prohibited, since persons belonging to the same gotra are said to have identical patrilineal descent. In ancient India, when gurukuls existed, the shishyas (pupils) were advised against marrying any of guru's children, as shishyas were also considered the guru's children and it would be considered marriage among siblings. However, there were exceptions, including Arjuna's son Abhimanyu's marriage to Uttra, the dance student of Arjuna in Mahabharata. The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 brought reforms in the area of same-gotra marriages, which were banned prior to the act's passage. Now the Indian constitution allows any consenting adult heterosexual couple (women 18 or older and men 21 or older) from any race, religion, caste, or creed to marry.
Many societies have also adopted other restrictions on whom one can marry, such as prohibitions of marrying persons with the same surname, or persons with the same sacred animal. Anthropologists refer to these sorts of restrictions as exogamy. One example is South Korea's general taboo against a man marrying a woman with the same family name. The most common surname in South Korea is Kim (almost 20%); however, there are several branches (or clans) in the Kim surname. (Korean family names are divided into one or more clans.) Only intra-clan marriages are prohibited, as they are considered one type of endogamy. Thus, many "Kim-Kim" couples can be found.[citation needed]
Societies have also at times required marriage from within a certain group. Anthropologists refer to these restrictions as endogamy. An example of such restrictions would be a requirement to marry someone from the same tribe. Racist laws adopted by some societies in the past—such as Nazi-era Germany, apartheid-era South Africa, and most of the United States in the nineteenth and the first half of the 20th century—and which prohibited marriage between persons of different races could also be considered examples of endogamy. Similarly, in modern Israel only Jews can marry Jews. In the U.S., many laws banning interracial marriage, which were state laws, were gradually repealed between 1948 and 1967. The U.S. Supreme Court declared all such laws unconstitutional in the case of Loving v. Virginia in 1967.[17]
Polygamy[edit]
Main article: Polygamy in law
See also: Forms of nonmonogamy
Polygamy is legal
Legal status unknown
Polygamy is only legal for Muslims
Polygamy is illegal, but practice is not criminalised
Polygamy is illegal and practice criminalised
In India, Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and Eritrea, polygamy is only legal for Muslims.
In Mauritius, polygamous unions have no legal recognition. Muslim men may, however, "marry" up to four women, but they do not have the legal status of wives.
Polygamy—being married to more than one spouse—is illegal in many countries. While accepted by some societies, it is far less common than monogamy.[18]
Polygamy is normally not permitted in most western countries, although some recognize bona fide polygamous marriages that were performed in other countries. In North America, only Saskatchewan allows and sanctions polygamous relationships under legal jurisdictional statute.[19] Polygamy is practiced illegally by some groups in the United States and Canada, primarily by certain Mormon fundamentalist sects that separated from the mainstream Latter Day Saints movement after the practice was renounced in 1890.[20]
Many societies, even some with a cultural tradition of polygamy, recognize monogamy as the only valid form of marriage. For example, People's Republic of China shifted from allowing polygamy to supporting only monogamy in the Marriage Act of 1953 after the Communist revolution.[citation needed]
Many African and Islamic societies still allow polygamy.[citation needed] Africa has the highest rate of polygamy in the world.[21] In Senegal, for example, nearly 47 percent of marriages are multiple.[22] In India, only Muslims are allowed to practice polygamy.[23]
State recognition[edit]
In many jurisdictions, a civil marriage may take place as part of the religious marriage ceremony, although they are theoretically distinct. In most American states, a wedding must be officiated by the justice of the peace in order for it to be recognized. However, priests, ministers, rabbis, and many other religious authorities can act as viable agents of the state. In some countries, such as France, Spain, Germany, Turkey, Argentina, Japan and Russia, it is necessary to be married by government authority separately from any religious ceremony, with the state ceremony being the legally binding one. In those cases, the marriage is usually legalized before the ceremony. Some jurisdictions allow civil marriages in circumstances which are notably not allowed by particular religions, such as same-sex marriages or civil unions.
Marriage relationships may also be created by the operation of the law alone, as in common-law marriage, sometimes called "marriage by habit and repute." This is a judicial recognition that two people who have been living as domestic partners are subject to the rights and obligations of a legal marriage, even without formally marrying. However, in the UK at least, common-law marriage has been abolished and there are no rights available unless a couple marries or enters into a civil partnership. In all cases, a married person cannot become eligible for common law timeframe until divorced from any previous spouse.[24]
In some cases couples living together do not wish to be recognised as married, such as when pension or alimony rights are adversely affected, or because of taxation consideration, or because of immigration issues, and for many other reasons. Usually, consent forms the basis of such relationships that are not really marital, with authoritative property laws being inapplicable.
See also: Marriage (conflict)
The status in the eyes of one authority may not be the same as for another. For example, a marriage may be recognised civilly, but not by a church, and vice versa.[citation needed] Normally a marriage entered into in one country will be recognised in other countries.[citation needed] Sometimes, however, a religious ceremony or a marriage entered into in one country is not recognized by another, such as a same-sex marriage.[25]
International recognition[edit]
Some countries give legal recognition to marriages performed in another country under the Hague Convention on Marriages (1978).[26] For this to apply, both the country of marriage and the country where recognition is sought need to be members of this convention.
If the country of marriage is not a member of the Hague Convention on Marriages (1978), then the marriage documents will need to be certified following the Apostille convention. This certification is usually performed in the country of marriage by the embassy of the country whose recognition is sought.
License[edit]
Marriage License from the State of Georgia
A marriage license is a document issued, either by a church or state authority, authorizing a couple to marry. The procedure for obtaining a license varies between jurisdictions and has changed over time.
Notice[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2008)
In many countries there is a requirement to give notice of an impending marriage to the community so that objections to the marriage can be raised. This custom was in place as a mechanism to necessitate the consent of parents as well as the wider community.
Formality[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2008)
"Treasure legal marriage, fight illegal marriage!", a slogan in the village of Xinwupu, Yangxin County, Hubei
While some countries, such as Australia, permit marriages to be held in private and at any location, others, including England, require that the civil ceremony be conducted in a place specially sanctioned by law (e.g., a church or register office), and be open to the public. An exception can be made in the case of marriage by special emergency license, which is normally granted only when one of the parties is terminally ill. Rules about where and when persons can marry vary from place to place. Some regulations require that one of the parties reside in the locality of the registry office.
In the United States, there is no law or religious dictate that says the bride must take the groom's last name. However, approximately 70% of Americans agree that a bride should change her last name.[27][28]
Ending a marriage[edit]
In the United Kingdom, if someone refuses to recognise someone's marriage, then that marriage will be declared null and void. A marriage can also end when one partner dies. In addition, a marriage may also be ended by divorce or annulment. Divorce laws vary significantly by country. The only countries that do not allow divorce are the Philippines and the Vatican City, an ecclesiastical state, which has no procedure for divorce. Countries that have relatively recently legalized divorce are Italy (1970), Portugal (1975), Brazil (1977), Spain (1981), Argentina (1987),[29] Paraguay (1991),[30] Colombia (1991* [31])[30] Ireland (1996), Chile (2004)[32] and Malta (2011).
See also[edit]
Family law
Marriage
Prohibited degree of kinship
Marriage Act 1961 of Australia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.soundvision.com/article/wedding-statistics-in-the-united-states
Jump up ^ http://www.alaviandassociates.com/documents/civilcode.pdf#
Jump up ^ Leach, Edmund (1968). Paul Bonannan and John Middleton, ed. Marriage, Family, and Residence. The Natural History Press. ISBN 1-121-64470-8.
Jump up ^ "What I have to say relates to poor Lydia. An express came at twelve last night, just as we were all gone to bed, from Colonel Forster, to inform us that she was gone off to Scotland with one of his officers; to own the truth, with Wickham!" [1]
Jump up ^ "Marriage Laws of the Fifty States, District of Columbia and Puerto Rico". www.law.cornell.edu. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Family Law (Scotland) Act 2006.
Jump up ^ https://priceonomics.com/at-what-age-do-people-get-married-around-the-world/
Jump up ^ Jon Gunnar Arntzen: homofili Store Norske Leksikon, retrieved 29 March 2013 (in Norwegian)
Jump up ^ "The Freedom to MarryInternationally". Freedom To Marry. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.
Jump up ^ NTB: Historisk lov i Danmark: Nå kan Steen og Stig gifte seg TV2, 7 June 2012 (in Norwegian)
Jump up ^ Halimah Abdullah, Pete Williams. "Landmark: Supreme Court Rules Same-Sex Marriage Legal Nationwide". NBC News. Retrieved 23 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Ford, Richard (2006-12-05). "Gay men are in much more of a hurry to 'wed' their partners". London: Times Online. Retrieved 2006-12-11.
Jump up ^ Law Society of New South Wales - De facto relationships?
Jump up ^ "Same sex couples". Archived from the original on February 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ MARRIAGE AMENDMENT ACT 2004 NO. 126, 2004 - SCHEDULE 1 - Amendment of the Marriage Act 1961
Jump up ^ "House of Bishops issues pastoral statement on Civil Partnerships". Church of England press release. 2005-07-25. Retrieved 2006-12-05.
Jump up ^ Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967).
Jump up ^ Murdock, George Peter (1949). Social Structure. New York: The MacMillan Company. ISBN 0-02-922290-7. See also: Kaingang.
Jump up ^ Saskatchewan Family Property Act
Jump up ^ "Plural Marriage and Families in Early Utah", lds.org.
Jump up ^ "Social and Cultural Issues" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-14. (116 KiB)
Jump up ^ Diouf, Nafi (May 2, 2004). "Polygamy hangs on in Africa". The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel.
Jump up ^ Muslim Marriage Act, 1956
Jump up ^ "Divorce & Separation Law". www.afglaw.co.uk. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Family Policy - Issues Affecting Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Families
Jump up ^ "Convention On Celebration And Recognition Of The Validity Of Marriage". www.legallanguage.com. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "77 Interesting Facts About Weddings". facts.randomhistory.com. Retrieved 20 April 2015. [unreliable source?]
Jump up ^ Bermann, Jillian. "70% Say Brides Should Take Husband's Name". USAToday. August 11, 2009. Accessed: November 29, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Divorce Is Now Legal in Argentina but, So Far, Few Couples Have Taken the Break". Los Angeles Times.
^ Jump up to: a b Sex and the State: Abortion, Divorce, and the Family Under Latin. American Dictatorships and Democracies, by Mala Htun, pp 102
Jump up ^ divorce between 1976-1991 was allowed only for non-Catholics
Jump up ^ "Chile introduces right to divorce". BBC News. November 18, 2004. Retrieved 2013-11-01.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Husband and Wife.
Lord Hardwicke 1754 Marriage Act
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marriage_law&oldid=808552883"
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Robert Ressler
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Robert Kenneth Ressler[1] (February 21, 1937 – May 5, 2013) was an FBI agent and author. He played a significant role in the psychological profiling of violent offenders in the 1970s and is often credited with coining the term "serial killer."[2] After retiring from the FBI, he authored a number of books on serial murders, and often gave lectures on criminology.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Military career
3 FBI career
4 Life after retirement and death
5 Books
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Early life[edit]
Robert Ressler grew up on North Marmora Avenue in Chicago, Illinois and graduated from Schurz High School,[3] Class of 1955. He was the son of Joseph, who worked in security and maintenance at the Chicago Tribune, and Gertrude Ressler.[4] At an early age Robert became interested in killers, as he followed the Tribune's articles on "The Lipstick Killer".[4] Ressler claims that he was more fascinated than afraid of this notorious killer, as other killers fascinated him in his later years with the FBI.[4] Ressler attended two years at a community college before joining the U.S. Army and was stationed in Okinawa.[4] After two years in the army Ressler decided to enroll in the School of criminology and police administration at Michigan State University. He graduated with a bachelor's degree and started graduate work but only finished one semester before going back into the army as an officer, having also completed an ROTC program at Michigan State.[4]
Military career[edit]
Ressler served in the U.S. Army as a provost marshal of a platoon of MPs in Aschaffenburg, as he states in his autobiography "Whoever Fights Monsters." He was in charge of solving such cases as homicides, robberies, and arson.[4] After four years in Germany Ressler decided to leave the position and was reassigned as the Commander of a Criminal Investigation Division (CID) at Fort Sheridan.[4] He then went back to Michigan State to finish his master's in police administration, paid for by the army, in exchange for two more years of service after graduation. After he got his degree, he served a year in Thailand and a year in Fort Sheridan, where he finished out his career with the army as a major, and moved on to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).[4]
FBI career[edit]
Ressler joined the FBI in 1970 and was recruited into the Behavioral Science Unit that deals with drawing up psychological profiles of violent offenders, such as rapists and serial killers, who typically select victims at random.
In the early 1980s, Ressler helped to organize the interviews of thirty-six incarcerated serial killers in order to find parallels between such criminals' backgrounds and motives. He was also instrumental in setting up Vi-CAP (Violent Criminal Apprehension Program). This consists of a centralized computer database of information on unsolved homicides. Information is gathered from local police forces and cross-referenced with other unsolved killings across the United States. Working on the basis that most serial killers claim similar victims with a standard method (modus operandi) it hopes to spot early on when a killer is carrying out crimes in different jurisdictions. This was primarily a response to the appearance of nomadic killers who committed crimes in different areas. So long as the killer kept on the move, the police forces in each state would be unaware that there were multiple victims and would just be investigating a single homicide each, unaware that other police forces had similar crimes. Vi-CAP would help individual police forces determine if they were hunting for the same perpetrator so that they could share and correlate information with one another, increasing their chances of identifying a suspect.
He worked on many cases of serial homicide such as Jeffrey Dahmer, Ted Bundy, Richard Chase and John Joubert.
Life after retirement and death[edit]
Ressler retired from the FBI in 1990 and authored a number of books about serial murder. He actively gave lectures to students and police forces on the subject of criminology and in 1993, was brought in to London to assist in the investigation into the murders committed by Colin Ireland. In 1995, Ressler met South African profiler Micki Pistorius at a conference in Scotland and she invited him to review her investigation of the "ABC Murders", so-called because of their location in the Johannesburg suburbs of Atteridgeville, Boksburg, and Cleveland. A man named David Selepe had died in police custody while being investigated as a suspect for the Cleveland murders, prior to the discovery of the Atteridgeville and Boksburg crimes, and the authorities feared that they had killed an innocent man while the real culprit was still at large. Ressler believed that Selepe was indeed responsible for the Cleveland murders, either alone or with an accomplice, and that the Atteridgeville and Boksburg murders had been committed by the same offender, but that this killer was not involved in the Cleveland murders. He also pointed out that the Atteridgeville-Boksburg murderer was gaining confidence with each killing and would contact the media. As predicted, serial killer Moses Sithole called the South African newspaper The Star to claim responsibility for the Atteridgeville and Boksburg murders, some time after Ressler left the case.[5][6]
Ressler's visit to Ciudad Juárez in Mexico to investigate the still-active femicides occurring there served as inspiration for the character Albert Kessler in Roberto Bolaño's novel 2666.[7]
Ressler died at his home in Spotsylvania County, Virginia on Sunday May 5, 2013, from Parkinson's Disease. He was 76 years old. He is survived by his wife Helen Graszer Ressler, his son Lt. Col. Aaron R. Ressler, daughters Allison R. Tsiumus and Betsy S. Hamlin, 3 grandchildren and 3 step grandchildren.[8]
Books[edit]
Sexual Homicide: Patterns and Motives (with John E. Douglas, Ann Wolbert Burgess) (1988)
Whoever Fights Monsters: My Twenty Years Tracking Serial Killers for the FBI (with Tom Shachtman) (1992)
Justice Is Served (with Tom Shachtman) (1994)
I Have Lived in the Monster (with Tom Shachtman) (1998)
See also[edit]
Biography portal
Crime Classification Manual
FBI method of profiling
Forensic psychology
Investigative psychology
Offender profiling
John E. Douglas
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Illinois, Cook County, Birth Certificate of Robert Kenneth Ressler".
Jump up ^ https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/shadow-boxing/201410/who-coined-serial-killer
Jump up ^ "Sleuth Took A Serial Interest In Gacy". Retrieved 2016-08-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Ressler, Robert (1993). Whoever Fights Monsters. New York: St Martin's Press. pp. 23–30. ISBN 0312950446.
Jump up ^ Pistorius, Micki (2012) Catch me a killer. Penguin UK, 209 pages.
Jump up ^ Murray, William (2009) Serial Killers. Canary Press, 192 pages.
Jump up ^ Marcela Valdes, "Alone Among the Ghosts: Roberto Bolano's '2666'", The Nation, 19 November, 2008
Jump up ^ Author of article Free Lance-Star reporter Pamela Gould, http://www.covenantfuneralservice.com/obituaries/robert-kenneth-ressler/
External links[edit]
Robert Ressler's official site
Robert K Ressler interview at www.sci-fi-online.com
Robert Ressler obituary at Forensic Behavorial Science International
Obituary
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 34525007
LCCN: n87865773
ISNI: 0000 0000 8113 3139
GND: 1052829031
SUDOC: 137120109
BNF: cb12310321z (data)
NDL: 00473678
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Ressler&oldid=822512087"
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HTTPS
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
HTTPS (also called HTTP over Transport Layer Security (TLS),[1] HTTP over SSL,[2] and HTTP Secure[3][4]) is a communications protocol for secure communication over a computer network which is widely used on the Internet. HTTPS consists of communication over Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) within a connection encrypted by Transport Layer Security, or its predecessor, Secure Sockets Layer. The main motivation for HTTPS is authentication of the visited website and protection of the privacy and integrity of the exchanged data.
In its popular deployment on the internet, HTTPS provides authentication of the website and associated web server with which one is communicating, which protects against man-in-the-middle attacks. Additionally, it provides bidirectional encryption of communications between a client and server, which protects against eavesdropping and tampering with or forging the contents of the communication.[5] In practice, this provides a reasonable guarantee that one is communicating with precisely the website that one intended to communicate with (as opposed to an impostor), as well as ensuring that the contents of communications between the user and site cannot be read or forged by any third party.
Historically, HTTPS connections were primarily used for payment transactions on the World Wide Web, e-mail and for sensitive transactions in corporate information systems. In the late 2000s and early 2010s, HTTPS began to see widespread use for protecting page authenticity on all types of websites, securing accounts and keeping user communications, identity and web browsing private.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
1.1 Usage in websites
1.2 Browser integration
2 Security
3 Technical
3.1 Difference from HTTP
3.2 Network layers
3.3 Server setup
3.3.1 Acquiring certificates
3.3.2 Use as access control
3.3.3 In case of compromised secret (private) key
3.4 Limitations
4 History
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Overview[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Transport Layer Security.
Illustration of the networking protocol https and the www letters
The HTTPS uniform resource identifier (URI) scheme has identical syntax to the standard HTTP scheme, aside from its scheme token. However, HTTPS signals the browser to use an added encryption layer of SSL/TLS to protect the traffic. SSL/TLS is especially suited for HTTP, since it can provide some protection even if only one side of the communication is authenticated. This is the case with HTTP transactions over the Internet, where typically only the server is authenticated (by the client examining the server's certificate).
HTTPS creates a secure channel over an insecure network. This ensures reasonable protection from eavesdroppers and man-in-the-middle attacks, provided that adequate cipher suites are used and that the server certificate is verified and trusted.
Because HTTPS piggybacks HTTP entirely on top of TLS, the entirety of the underlying HTTP protocol can be encrypted. This includes the request URL (which particular web page was requested), query parameters, headers, and cookies (which often contain identity information about the user). However, because host (website) addresses and port numbers are necessarily part of the underlying TCP/IP protocols, HTTPS cannot protect their disclosure. In practice this means that even on a correctly configured web server, eavesdroppers can infer the IP address and port number of the web server (sometimes even the domain name e.g. www.example.org, but not the rest of the URL) that one is communicating with, as well as the amount (data transferred) and duration (length of session) of the communication, though not the content of the communication.[5]
Web browsers know how to trust HTTPS websites based on certificate authorities that come pre-installed in their software. Certificate authorities (such as Symantec, Comodo, GoDaddy and GlobalSign) are in this way being trusted by web browser creators to provide valid certificates. Therefore, a user should trust an HTTPS connection to a website if and only if all of the following are true:
The user trusts that the browser software correctly implements HTTPS with correctly pre-installed certificate authorities.
The user trusts the certificate authority to vouch only for legitimate websites.
The website provides a valid certificate, which means it was signed by a trusted authority.
The certificate correctly identifies the website (e.g., when the browser visits "https://example.com", the received certificate is properly for "example.com" and not some other entity).
The user trusts that the protocol's encryption layer (SSL/TLS) is sufficiently secure against eavesdroppers.
HTTPS is especially important over insecure networks (such as public Wi-Fi access points), as anyone on the same local network can packet-sniff and discover sensitive information not protected by HTTPS. Additionally, many free to use and paid WLAN networks engage in packet injection in order to serve their own ads on webpages. However, this can be exploited maliciously in many ways, such as injecting malware onto webpages and stealing users' private information.[6]
HTTPS is also very important for connections over the Tor anonymity network, as malicious Tor nodes can damage or alter the contents passing through them in an insecure fashion and inject malware into the connection. This is one reason why the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Tor project started the development of HTTPS Everywhere,[5] which is included in the Tor Browser Bundle.[7]
As more information is revealed about global mass surveillance and criminals stealing personal information, the use of HTTPS security on all websites is becoming increasingly important regardless of the type of Internet connection being used.[8][9] While metadata about individual pages that a user visits is not sensitive, when combined, they can reveal a lot about the user and compromise the user's privacy.[10][11][12]
Deploying HTTPS also allows the use of HTTP/2 (or its predecessor, the now-deprecated protocol SPDY), that are new generations of HTTP, designed to reduce page load times and latency.
It is recommended to use HTTP Strict Transport Security (HSTS) with HTTPS to protect users from man-in-the-middle attacks, especially SSL stripping.[12][13]
HTTPS should not be confused with the little-used Secure HTTP (S-HTTP) specified in RFC 2660.
HTTPS as default dynamics in top 1M sites
Usage in websites[edit]
As of June 2017[update], 21.7% of Alexa top 1,000,000 websites use HTTPS as default,[14] 43.1% of the Internet's 141,387 most popular websites have a secure implementation of HTTPS,[15] and 45% of page loads (measured by Firefox Telemetry) use HTTPS.[16]
According to Mozilla since January 2017 more than half of the Web traffic is encrypted.[17][18]
Browser integration[edit]
Most browsers display a warning if they receive an invalid certificate. Older browsers, when connecting to a site with an invalid certificate, would present the user with a dialog box asking whether they wanted to continue. Newer browsers display a warning across the entire window. Newer browsers also prominently display the site's security information in the address bar. Extended validation certificates turn the address bar green in newer browsers. Most browsers also display a warning to the user when visiting a site that contains a mixture of encrypted and unencrypted content.
Comparison between different kinds of SSL/TLS certificates
(Using Firefox as an example)
Many web browsers, including Firefox (shown here), use the address bar to tell the user that their connection is secure, often by coloring the background.
When accessing a site only with a common certificate, the address bar of Firefox turns green. For some other browsers, a "lock" sign may appear.
Most web browsers alert the user when visiting sites that have invalid security certificates.
Firefox uses HTTPS for Google searches as of version 14,[19] to "shield our users from network infrastructure that may be gathering data about the users or modifying/censoring their search results".[20]
The Electronic Frontier Foundation, opining that "In an ideal world, every web request could be defaulted to HTTPS", has provided an add-on called HTTPS Everywhere for Mozilla Firefox that enables HTTPS by default for hundreds of frequently used websites. A beta version of this plugin is also available for Google Chrome and Chromium.[21][22]
Security[edit]
Main article: Transport Layer Security § Security
The security of HTTPS is that of the underlying TLS, which typically uses long-term public and private keys to generate a short-term session key, which is then used to encrypt the data flow between client and server. X.509 certificates are used to authenticate the server (and sometimes the client as well). As a consequence, certificate authorities and public key certificates are necessary to verify the relation between the certificate and its owner, as well as to generate, sign, and administer the validity of certificates. While this can be more beneficial than verifying the identities via a web of trust, the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures drew attention to certificate authorities as a potential weak point allowing man-in-the-middle attacks.[23][24] An important property in this context is forward secrecy, which ensures that encrypted communications recorded in the past cannot be retrieved and decrypted should long-term secret keys or passwords be compromised in the future. Not all web servers provide forward secrecy.[25][needs update]
A site must be completely hosted over HTTPS, without having part of its contents loaded over HTTP – for example, having scripts loaded insecurely – or the user will be vulnerable to some attacks and surveillance. Also having only a certain page that contains sensitive information (such as a log-in page) of a website loaded over HTTPS, while having the rest of the website loaded over plain HTTP, will expose the user to attacks. On a site that has sensitive information somewhere on it, every time that site is accessed with HTTP instead of HTTPS, the user and the session will get exposed. Similarly, cookies on a site served through HTTPS have to have the secure attribute enabled.[12]
Technical[edit]
Difference from HTTP[edit]
HTTPS URLs begin with "https://" and use port 443 by default, whereas HTTP URLs begin with "http://" and use port 80 by default.
HTTP is not encrypted and is vulnerable to man-in-the-middle and eavesdropping attacks, which can let attackers gain access to website accounts and sensitive information, and modify webpages to inject malware or advertisements. HTTPS is designed to withstand such attacks and is considered secure against them (with the exception of older, deprecated versions of SSL).
Network layers[edit]
HTTP operates at the highest layer of the TCP/IP model, the Application layer; as does the TLS security protocol (operating as a lower sublayer of the same layer), which encrypts an HTTP message prior to transmission and decrypts a message upon arrival. Strictly speaking, HTTPS is not a separate protocol, but refers to use of ordinary HTTP over an encrypted SSL/TLS connection.
Everything in the HTTPS message is encrypted, including the headers, and the request/response load. With the exception of the possible CCA cryptographic attack described in the limitations section below, the attacker can only know that a connection is taking place between the two parties and their domain names and IP addresses.
Server setup[edit]
To prepare a web server to accept HTTPS connections, the administrator must create a public key certificate for the web server. This certificate must be signed by a trusted certificate authority for the web browser to accept it without warning. The authority certifies that the certificate holder is the operator of the web server that presents it. Web browsers are generally distributed with a list of signing certificates of major certificate authorities so that they can verify certificates signed by them.
Acquiring certificates[edit]
Authoritatively signed certificates may be free[26][27] or cost between 8 USD[28] and 70 USD[29] per year (in 2012–2014).
Organizations may also run their own certificate authority, particularly if they are responsible for setting up browsers to access their own sites (for example, sites on a company intranet, or major universities). They can easily add copies of their own signing certificate to the trusted certificates distributed with the browser.
There also exists a peer-to-peer certificate authority, CACert. However, it is not included in the trusted root certificates of many popular browsers (e.g. Firefox, Chrome, Internet Explorer), which may cause warning messages to be displayed to end users.
Let's Encrypt, launched in April 2016,[30] provides free and automated SSL/TLS certificates to websites.[31] According to the Electronic Frontier Foundation, "Let's Encrypt" will make switching from HTTP to HTTPS "as easy as issuing one command, or clicking one button."[32]
Use as access control[edit]
The system can also be used for client authentication in order to limit access to a web server to authorized users. To do this, the site administrator typically creates a certificate for each user, a certificate that is loaded into their browser. Normally, that contains the name and e-mail address of the authorized user and is automatically checked by the server on each reconnect to verify the user's identity, potentially without even entering a password.
In case of compromised secret (private) key[edit]
An important property in this context is perfect forward secrecy (PFS). Possessing one of the long-term asymmetric secret keys used to establish an HTTPS session should not make it easier to derive the short-term session key to then decrypt the conversation, even at a later time. Diffie–Hellman key exchange (DHE) and Elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman key exchange (ECDHE) are in 2013 the only ones known to have that property. Only 30% of Firefox, Opera, and Chromium Browser sessions use it, and nearly 0% of Apple's Safari and Microsoft Internet Explorer sessions.[25] Among the larger internet providers, only Google supports PFS since 2011 (State of September 2013).[citation needed]
A certificate may be revoked before it expires, for example because the secrecy of the private key has been compromised. Newer versions of popular browsers such as Firefox,[33] Opera,[34] and Internet Explorer on Windows Vista[35] implement the Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP) to verify that this is not the case. The browser sends the certificate's serial number to the certificate authority or its delegate via OCSP and the authority responds, telling the browser whether the certificate is still valid.[36]
Limitations[edit]
SSL/TLS comes in two options, simple and mutual. The mutual version is more secure, but requires the user to install a personal client certificate into their web browser in order to authenticate themselves.[37]
Whether the strategy is simple or mutual, the level of protection strongly depends on the correctness of the implementation of the web browser and the server software and the actual cryptographic algorithms supported.
SSL/TLS does not prevent the entire site from being indexed using a web crawler, and in some cases the URI of the encrypted resource can be inferred by knowing only the intercepted request/response size.[38] This allows an attacker to have access to the plaintext (the publicly available static content), and the encrypted text (the encrypted version of the static content), permitting a cryptographic attack.
Because TLS operates below HTTP and has no knowledge of higher-level protocols, TLS servers can only strictly present one certificate for a particular IP/port combination.[39] In the past, this meant that it was not feasible to use name-based virtual hosting with HTTPS. A solution called Server Name Indication (SNI) exists, which sends the hostname to the server before encrypting the connection, although many very old browsers do not support this extension. Support for SNI is available since Firefox 2, Opera 8, Safari 2.1, Google Chrome 6, and Internet Explorer 7 on Windows Vista.[40][41][42]
From an architectural point of view:
An SSL/TLS connection is managed by the first front machine that initiates the TLS connection. If, for any reasons (routing, traffic optimization, etc.), this front machine is not the application server and it has to decipher data, solutions have to be found to propagate user authentication information or certificate to the application server, which needs to know who is going to be connected.
For SSL/TLS with mutual authentication, the SSL/TLS session is managed by the first server that initiates the connection. In situations where encryption has to be propagated along chained servers, session timeOut management becomes extremely tricky to implement.
With mutual SSL/TLS, security is maximal, but on the client-side, there is no way to properly end the SSL/TLS connection and disconnect the user except by waiting for the server session to expire or closing all related client applications.
A sophisticated type of man-in-the-middle attack called SSL stripping was presented at the Blackhat Conference 2009. This type of attack defeats the security provided by HTTPS by changing the https: link into an http: link, taking advantage of the fact that few Internet users actually type "https" into their browser interface: they get to a secure site by clicking on a link, and thus are fooled into thinking that they are using HTTPS when in fact they are using HTTP. The attacker then communicates in clear with the client.[43] This prompted the development of a countermeasure in HTTP called HTTP Strict Transport Security.
HTTPS has been shown vulnerable to a range of traffic analysis attacks. Traffic analysis attacks are a type of side-channel attack that relies on variations in the timing and size of traffic in order to infer properties about the encrypted traffic itself. Traffic analysis is possible because SSL/TLS encryption changes the contents of traffic, but has minimal impact on the size and timing of traffic. In May 2010, a research paper by researchers from Microsoft Research and Indiana University discovered that detailed sensitive user data can be inferred from side channels such as packet sizes. More specifically, the researchers found that an eavesdropper can infer the illnesses/medications/surgeries of the user, his/her family income and investment secrets, despite HTTPS protection in several high-profile, top-of-the-line web applications in healthcare, taxation, investment and web search.[44] Although this work demonstrated vulnerability of HTTPS to traffic analysis, the approach presented by the authors required manual analysis and focused specifically on web applications protected by HTTPS.
In June 2014, a team of researchers at UC Berkeley and Intel led by Brad Miller demonstrated a generalized approach to HTTPS traffic analysis based on machine learning.[45][46] The researchers demonstrated that the attack applied to a range of websites, including Mayo Clinic, Planned Parenthood and YouTube.[47] The attack assumes that the attacker is able to visit the same webpages as the victim to gather Network traffic which serves as training data. The attacker is then able to identify similarities in the packet sizes and orderings between the victim traffic and the training data traffic which frequently allow the attacker to infer the exact page the victim is visiting. For example, this attack could be used to determine whether a user browsing the Planned Parenthood website is looking for information about preventative health screening or an abortion. Note that the attack can not be used to discover user specific values embedded in a webpage. For example, many banks offer web interfaces which allow users to view account balances. While the attacker would be able to discover that the user was viewing an account balance page, they would be unable to learn the user's exact account balance or account number.
History[edit]
Netscape Communications created HTTPS in 1994 for its Netscape Navigator web browser.[48] Originally, HTTPS was used with the SSL protocol. As SSL evolved into Transport Layer Security (TLS), HTTPS was formally specified by RFC 2818 in May 2000.
See also[edit]
Bullrun (decryption program) – a secret anti-encryption program run by the U.S. National Security Agency
Computer security
curl-loader
Diameter protocol
HTTPsec
Moxie Marlinspike
Opportunistic encryption
Stunnel
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Network Working Group (May 2000). "HTTP Over TLS". The Internet Engineering Task Force. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Enabling HTTP Over SSL". Adobe Systems Incorporated. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Secure your site with HTTPS". Google Support. Google, Inc. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "What is HTTPS?". Comodo CA Limited. Retrieved February 27, 2015. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is the secure version of HTTP [...]
^ Jump up to: a b c "HTTPS Everywhere FAQ". Retrieved 3 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Hotel Wifi JavaScript Injection". Retrieved 24 July 2012.
Jump up ^ The Tor Project, Inc. "Tor". torproject.org.
Jump up ^ Konigsburg, Eitan; Pant, Rajiv; Kvochko, Elena (November 13, 2014). "Embracing HTTPS". The New York Times. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Gallagher, Kevin (September 12, 2014). "Fifteen Months After the NSA Revelations, Why Aren’t More News Organizations Using HTTPS?". Freedom of the Press Foundation. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "HTTPS as a ranking signal". Google Webmaster Central Blog. Google Inc. August 6, 2014. Retrieved February 27, 2015. You can make your site secure with HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) [...]
Jump up ^ Grigorik, Ilya; Far, Pierre (June 26, 2014). "Google I/O 2014 - HTTPS Everywhere". Google Developers. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "How to Deploy HTTPS Correctly". Retrieved 13 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "HTTP Strict Transport Security". Mozilla Developer Network.
Jump up ^ "HTTPS usage statistics on top websites". statoperator.com. Retrieved 2016-06-28.
Jump up ^ "SSL Pulse". Trustworthy Internet Movement. 2015-10-03. Retrieved 2015-10-19.
Jump up ^ Aas, Josh (22 June 2016). "Progress Towards 100% HTTPS, June 2016". Lets Encrypt. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "We're Halfway to Encrypting the Entire Web". Electronic Frontier Foundation. 21 February 2017. Retrieved 3 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Finley, Klint. "Half the Web Is Now Encrypted. That Makes Everyone Safer". WIRED. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Firefox 14.0.1 Release Notes". Retrieved 24 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Firefox Rolling Out HTTPS Google search". Retrieved 24 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Peter Eckersley: Encrypt the Web with the HTTPS Everywhere Firefox Extension EFF blog, 17 June 2010
Jump up ^ HTTPS Everywhere EFF projects
Jump up ^ Law Enforcement Appliance Subverts SSL, Wired, 2010-04-03.
Jump up ^ New Research Suggests That Governments May Fake SSL Certificates, EFF, 2010-03-24.
^ Jump up to: a b SSL: Intercepted today, decrypted tomorrow, Netcraft, 2013-06-25.
Jump up ^ "Free SSL Certificates from a Free Certificate Authority". sslshopper.com. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
Jump up ^ Justin Fielding (2006-07-16). "Secure Outlook Web Access with (free) SSL: Part 1". TechRepublic. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
Jump up ^ "Namecheap.com SSL Services". namecheap. Retrieved 30 Jan 2012.
Jump up ^ "Secure Site Pro with SSL Certificate". Retrieved August 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Catalin Cimpanu. "Let's Encrypt Launched Today, Currently Protects 3.8 Million Domains". Softpedia News. Retrieved April 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kerner, Sean Michael (November 18, 2014). "Let's Encrypt Effort Aims to Improve Internet Security". eWeek.com. Quinstreet Enterprise. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Eckersley, Peter (November 18, 2014). "Launching in 2015: A Certificate Authority to Encrypt the Entire Web". Electronic Frontier Foundation. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Mozilla Firefox Privacy Policy". Mozilla Foundation. 27 April 2009. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Opera 8 launched on FTP". Softpedia. 19 April 2005. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Lawrence, Eric (31 January 2006). "HTTPS Security Improvements in Internet Explorer 7". MSDN. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Myers, M; Ankney, R; Malpani, A; Galperin, S; Adams, C (June 1999). "Online Certificate Status Protocol – OCSP". Internet Engineering Task Force. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Manage client certificates on Chrome devices - Chrome for business and education Help". support.google.com. Retrieved 2016-10-13.
Jump up ^ Pusep, Stanislaw (31 July 2008). "The Pirate Bay un-SSL". Retrieved 6 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: FAQ". apache.org.
Jump up ^ Lawrence, Eric (22 October 2005). "Upcoming HTTPS Improvements in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2". Microsoft. Retrieved 12 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Server Name Indication (SNI)". inside aebrahim's head.
Jump up ^ Pierre, Julien. "Browser support for TLS server name indication" (2001-12-19). Bugzilla. Mozilla Foundation. Retrieved 2010-12-15.
Jump up ^ "sslstrip". Retrieved 2011-11-26.
Jump up ^ Shuo Chen; Rui Wang; XiaoFeng Wang; Kehuan Zhang (May 2010). "Side-Channel Leaks in Web Applications: a Reality Today, a Challenge Tomorrow" (PDF). IEEE Symposium on Security & Privacy 2010.
Jump up ^ "Statistical Tricks Extract Sensitive Data from Encrypted Communications". MIT Technology Review. 2014-06-19.
Jump up ^ "Researchers Use Big Data to Get Around Encryption". The Wall Street Journal. 2014-06-23.
Jump up ^ Brad Miller; Ling Huang; Anthony D. Joseph; J.D. Tygar. "I Know Why You Went to the Clinic: Risks and Realization of HTTPS Traffic Analysis" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Walls, Colin (2005). Embedded software. Newnes. p. 344. ISBN 0-7506-7954-9.
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sr
sr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values: Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure – Swedish

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values: பாதுகாப்பான மீயுரை பரிமாற்ற நெறிமுறை – Tamil

values: เอชทีทีพีเอส – Thai

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Ukrainian
uk
uk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Cantonese
zh-yue
zh-yue
interlanguage-link-target

values: 超文本传输安全协议 – Chinese

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-HTTPS rootpage-HTTPS skin-vector action-view