text:
Nickel (Canadian coin)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Nickel
Canada
Value
0.05 CAD
Mass
3.95 g
Diameter
21.2 mm
Thickness
1.76 mm
Edge
smooth (plain)
Composition
94.5% steel,
3.5% Cu,
2% Ni plating
Years of minting
1858–present
Catalog number
–
Obverse
Design
Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada
Designer
Susanna Blunt
Design date
2003
Reverse
Design
Beaver sitting on a rock
Designer
G.E. Kruger Gray
Design date
1937
The Canadian five-cent coin, commonly called a nickel, is a coin worth five cents or one-twentieth of a Canadian dollar. It was patterned on the corresponding coin in the neighbouring United States. It became the smallest-valued coin in the currency upon the discontinuation of the penny in 2013. Due to inflation, the purchasing power of the nickel continues to drop and currently the coin represents less than 0.5% of the country's lowest minimum hourly wage.
The denomination (i.e., the Canadian five-cent piece) had been introduced in 1858 as a small, thin sterling silver coin, that was colloquially known as a "fish scale," not a nickel. The larger base metal version made of nickel, and called a "nickel," was introduced as a Canadian coin in 1922, originally as 99.9% nickel metal. These coins were magnetic, due to the high nickel content. Versions during World War II were minted in copper-zinc, then chrome and nickel-plated steel, and finally returned again to nickel, at the end of the war. A plated steel version was again made 1951–54 during the Korean War. Rising nickel prices eventually caused another switch to cupronickel in 1982 (an alloy similar to the U.S. nickel), but more recently, Canadian nickels are minted in nickel-plated steel, containing a small amount of copper. Due to the aforementioned rise in nickel prices, since 1982, five cent pieces composed of 99.9% nickel, have been slowly removed from circulation to be melted by the Royal Canadian Mint, only cupronickel and modern multi-ply plated steel five cent pieces are considered "Circulation Coins."[1] As a result, pre-1982 five cent pieces are often sought by collectors.
From 1942 to 1963, Canadian five-cent coins were produced in a distinctive 12-sided shape, evocative of the British threepence coin. Originally this was done to distinguish the copper-colored tombac (copper-zinc alloy) coins, from pennies. However, the characteristic shape was retained for another nineteen years after 1944 when this coin was later produced in 99.9% nickel and chrome-plated steel.
The coin is produced by the Royal Canadian Mint at its facility in Winnipeg.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 1921 five-cent coin
2 Types and specifications
3 Commemorative nickels
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Coins of the Canadian dollar § History.
See also: History of Canadian currency
The first ever Canadian five-cent coins were struck by the Royal Mint in London as part of the introductory 1858 coinage of the Province of Canada. The coins were the same size and general composition as the corresponding American coins of the time, so the five-cent coin was based on the half dime. Although the American denomination was introduced as a larger copper-nickel coin in 1866, and the five-cent silver was retired in 1873, the Canadian five-cent coins remained small and silver until 1922.
All Canadian coins (including five-cent coins) were struck in England at the Royal Mint (no mint mark) and the Birmingham Mint (H mint mark) until 1908, when the Ottawa branch of the Royal Mint opened. With the exception of some 1968 dimes struck at the Philadelphia Mint, all Canadian coins since 1908 have been minted in Canada.
Due to a rise in the price of silver, Canadian coinage was debased from sterling silver (925 fine) to 800 fine in 1920. In 1922, silver was removed entirely from the five-cent coin, replacing it with a coin of roughly the same dimensions and mass as the American nickel. However, unlike the American coin, which was 75% copper and 25% nickel, the Canadian coin was pure nickel, as Canada was the world's largest producer of the metal. This coin has since been known almost universally as the nickel.
The five-cent coin of Newfoundland, on the other hand, remained silver until the end of the Newfoundland coinage in 1947.
The nickel's composition has changed several times, most notably during World War II and the Korean War when nickel was redirected to the war effort, where it was essential for armor production. In the latter part of 1942 and throughout 1943, the coins were minted in tombac, an 88% copper-12% zinc alloy that got its name originally from the Indonesian/Javanese word for brass or copper. In 1944 and 1945, and again from mid-1951 to 1954, coins were made of steel which was plated twice, first with nickel and then chromium. The plating was applied before the blanks were struck, so the edges of these coins are dull or even rusted. The composition was returned to pure nickel after both wars. More recently, in 1982, the same copper-nickel alloy used in the American coin was adopted in the Canadian coin, with the ironic result that the nickel then contained less nickel than any other circulating Canadian coin except the cent. Since late in 2000, the nickel is now generally made with plated steel. Since the plating is now done after the blanks are punched, the edges of the modern coins receive the plating. Portions of the 2001 and 2006 issues were struck in cupro-nickel, and can be identified by the lack of the letter "P" under Queen Elizabeth's portrait, and for their non-magnetic quality.
Starting with the 1942 tombac coins, the nickel was made dodecagonal, presumably to help distinguish it from the cent after it tarnished in circulation. Tombac was removed from the nickel in 1944 (to be replaced by steel, as noted during the Korean war) but the coins in Tombac, steel, or 99.9% nickel all remained twelve-sided until 1963.
All of these coins were lighter than the U.S. version, which is minted to be as close as possible to five grams. Canadian 99.9% nickel five-cent coins are nearly half a gram lighter than this, and its present steel coins are a full gram lighter than U.S. "nickels."
1921 five-cent coin[edit]
Five-cent coins dated 1921 are among the rarest and most collectible Canadian circulation coins, known as "The Prince of Canadian Coins." Estimates of the number of specimens known range between 400 and 480. In May 1921 the government of Canada passed an act authorizing the change to the larger nickel coin, and subsequently the majority of the 1921 mint run was melted down.[2] The coin believed to be the finest known specimen (PCGS MS-67) sold for $115,000 U.S (this does not include taxes) in a Heritage auction in January 2010.[3] It was then sold by the Canadian Numismatic Company for $160,000 (this does not include taxes) to a private collector in early 2012.
The only rarer Canadian circulation coin is the 1921 fifty-cent coin, with a population of approximately 75. The 1911 dollar coin is rarer still, with only three examples known (2 are made of silver and 1 is made of lead), but it is a pattern coin that was never released for circulation. One in silver and one in lead are in the Ottawa currency museum. The other silver 1911 $1 is in a private collection since 2003 when it was sold by Heritage auctions for the sum of $690,000 U.S (this does not include taxes). It now has a value of $1.25 million. There are rumors that it will be donated to the Ottawa currency museum once the current owner passes away.
Types and specifications[edit]
Definitive types
Image
Years
Mass[4]
Diameter[4]
Composition[4]
1858–1901 1.16 g 15.5 mm 92.5% silver, 7.5% copper
1902–1910 1.16 g 15.5 mm 92.5% silver, 7.5% copper
1911–1921 1.17 g 15.5 mm 92.5% silver, 7.5% copper (1911–1919)
80% silver, 20% copper (1920–1921)
1922–1936 4.54 g 21.21 mm 99.9% nickel
1937–1942 4.54 g 21.21 mm 99.9% nickel
1942–1945 4.54 g 21.3 mm 88% copper, 12% zinc ("tombac") (1942–1943)
Chrome plated steel (1944–1945)
1946–1952 4.54 g 21.3 mm 99.9% nickel (1946–1951)
Chrome plated steel (1951–1952)
1953–1964 4.54 g 21.3 mm Chrome plated steel (1953–1954)
99.9% nickel (1955–1964)
1965–1981 4.54 g 21.3 mm 99.9% nickel
1982–1989 4.54 g 21.2 mm 75% copper, 25% nickel
1990–2001
(No "P"
on obverse) 4.6 g 21.2 mm 75% copper, 25% nickel
1999–2003
(With "P") 4.6 g 21.2 mm 94.5% steel, 3.5% copper, 2% nickel plating
2003-present 3.9 g 21.2 mm 94.5% steel, 3.5% copper, 2% nickel plating
Commemorative nickels[edit]
Although not strictly a commemorative, the "Victory nickel", struck from 1943 to 1945, was the first non-standard circulating Canadian coin other than commemorative dollars; the reverse features a flaming torch and a large V that stands for both Victory and the coin's denomination. The rim denticles were replaced by the phrase "We win when we work willingly" in Morse Code. This design was re-used in 2005 to commemorate the 60th anniversary of V-E Day.[5] Almost uniquely in the history of Canadian coinage, the reverse was engraved to scale by Thomas Shingles; most coin designs are engraved at a much larger scale and reduced with a pantograph.
In 1951, a special commemorative five-cent piece depicting a nickel refinery was struck to celebrate the 200th anniversary of the metal's initial discovery by Swedish chemist Axel F. Cronstedt. Due to the onset of the Korean War, production of this commemorative was halted to preserve nickel for the war effort, resulting in a second non-commemorative 1951 "nickel" made of plated steel.
In 1967, all the circulating coins received a special reverse for the Canadian Centennial; the nickel featured a rabbit.
In proof sets issued since 1996, the five cent coin is made of sterling silver. Some commemorative five cent coins are also made of sterling silver.
Commemorative types
Image
Year
Theme
Artist
Special notes
1943 Victory (Tombac) Thomas Shingles Intended to stimulate the war effort. The message "We Win When We Work Willingly" is engraved in Morse code on the rim of the coin.
1944–1945 Victory (Steel) Thomas Shingles Intended to stimulate the war effort. The message "We Win When We Work Willingly" is engraved in Morse code on the rim of the coin.
1951 Discovery of Nickel Stephen Trenka 200th anniversary of the discovery of nickel. Features a nickel refinery.
1967 Canadian Centennial Alex Colville Features a hopping rabbit.
1992 Canada 125 125th anniversary of Canadian Confederation.
2002 Golden Jubilee 50th anniversary of Queen Elizabeth II's reign.
2005 Victory Anniversary Thomas Shingles 60th anniversary of the end of World War II. The rim of this edition is smooth. It does not have the denticles the 1943-1945 edition had.
2017 Canada 150 Gerald Gloade 150th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada. Features a beaver influenced by the northeastern woodland Algonkian heritage. The theme of the coin is "Our Passions".
See also[edit]
Big Nickel
Nickel (U.S. coin)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Royal Canadian Mint Act R.S.C., 1985, c. R-9: Section 6 - "Non-circulation Coins" and "Circulation Coins"; Part 1 - "Non-circulation Coins"; Part 2 - "Circulation Coins"
Jump up ^ Haxby, J.A.; R.C. Willey (2003). Coins of Canada (21st ed.). Toronto: Unitrade Press. ISBN 1-894763-09-2.
Jump up ^ [1]
^ Jump up to: a b c Royal Canadian Mint – Designs, Specifications and Mintages of 5-Cent Coins
Jump up ^ World War II Victory Nickel re-issued in Canada.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coins of Canada.
Value of Canadian Nickel
[hide]
v
t
e
Canadian banknotes and coins
Canadian coinage
1¢ (penny)
5¢ (nickel)
10¢ (dime)
25¢ (quarter)
50¢ (50-cent piece)
$1 (Voyageur dollar)
$1 (loonie)
$2 (toonie)
Commemorative coins
Royal Canadian Mint numismatic coins (20th century)
Royal Canadian Mint numismatic coins (2000s)
Royal Canadian Mint numismatic coins (2010s)
Royal Canadian Mint ice hockey coins
Royal Canadian Mint Olympic coins
Royal Canadian Mint RCMP coins
Silver dollar
Gold Maple Leaf
Silver Maple Leaf
Platinum Maple Leaf
Big Maple Leaf
Ottawa Mint sovereign
Canadian banknotes
$5
$10
$20
$50
$100
Commemorative banknotes
Withdrawn banknotes
Canadian banknotes by Series
1935 Series
1937 Series
1954 Series
Scenes of Canada
Birds of Canada
Canadian Journey Series
Frontier Series
Historical currencies of Canada
New France livre
Canadian pound
New Brunswick pound
Newfoundland pound
Nova Scotian pound
Prince Edward Island pound
British Columbia dollar
New Brunswick dollar
Nova Scotian dollar
Prince Edward Island dollar
Newfoundland dollar
Early Canadian banking system
Newfoundland dollar
1¢
5¢
10¢
20¢
25¢
50¢
$2
Coins of the Newfoundland dollar
Organizations and institutions
Bank of Canada
Canadian Bank Note Company
Royal Canadian Numismatic Association
Canadian Numismatic Association medals and awards
Canadian Paper Money Society
Currency Museum
Royal Canadian Mint
Community currencies
Calgary dollar
Toronto dollar
Canadian Tire money
Salt Spring dollar
Pioneer Bonus Bucks
Mac's Dollars (Whitehorse, YT)
Other
Canadian dollar
History of Canadian currency
List of people on coins of Canada
List of foreign countries with coinage struck at the Royal Canadian Mint
Royal Canadian Mint tokens and medallions
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nickel_(Canadian_coin)&oldid=792639404"
Categories:
1858 establishments in Canada
Five-cent coins
Coins of Canada
Nickel
Hidden categories:
Use mdy dates from October 2011
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Français
Edit links
This page was last edited on 27 July 2017, at 18:30.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: caption

value: b

value: td

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

value: th

attrs: scope style

values:
row
white-space: nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Nickel_(U.S._coin)
mw-redirect
Nickel (U.S. coin)

values:
/wiki/History_of_Canadian_currency
mw-redirect
History of Canadian currency

values:
/wiki/Millesimal_fineness
mw-redirect
Millesimal fineness

values:
/wiki/50_cent_piece_(Canadian_coin)
mw-redirect
50 cent piece (Canadian coin)

values:
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

values: CANADA, QUEEN VICTORIA 1893 SILVER 5 CENTS COIN b - Flickr - woody1778a.jpg

values: CANADA, QUEEN VICTORIA 1893 SILVER 5 CENT COIN a - Flickr - woody1778a.jpg

values: CANADA, EDWARD VII 1906 -5 CENTS a - Flickr - woody1778a.jpg

values: CANADA, EDWARD VII 1906 -5 CENTS b - Flickr - woody1778a.jpg

values: CANADA, GEORGE V 1917-5 CENTS a - Flickr - woody1778a.jpg

values: CANADA, GEORGE V 1917 -5 CENTS b - Flickr - woody1778a.jpg

values: CANADA, FIVE CENTS 1946 -NICKEL a - Flickr - woody1778a.jpg

values: CANADA, FIVE CENTS 1946 -NICKEL b - Flickr - woody1778a.jpg

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Template talk:Canadian currency and coinage

values: col navbox-title 2 background-color:white;

values: background-color:white;;width:1%;-moz-box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #CC0000, inset -1px -1px 0 #CC0000; -webkit-box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #CC0000, inset -1px -1px 0 #CC0000; box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #CC0000, inset -1px -1px 0 #CC0000;

values: text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;background-color:white;;-moz-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 0 0 #CC0000; -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 0 0 #CC0000; box-shadow: inset 0 1px 0 0 #CC0000;

values: Commemorative banknotes of the Canadian dollar

values:
/wiki/Currency_Museum_(Canada)
mw-redirect
Currency Museum (Canada)

values:
/wiki/Pioneer_Petroleum
mw-redirect
Pioneer Petroleum

values: nowraplinks hlist hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:Use mdy dates from October 2011

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Nickel_(Canadian_coin)
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: Pièce de 5 cents de dollar canadien – French

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Nickel_Canadian_coin rootpage-Nickel_Canadian_coin skin-vector action-view


text:
Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Contemporary illustration of the 1868 Washita Massacre by the 7th Cavalry against Black Kettle's band of Cheyennes, during the American Indian Wars. Violence and conflict with colonists were also important causes of the decline of certain indigenous American populations since the 16th century.
The population figures for indigenous peoples in the Americas before the 1492 voyage of Christopher Columbus have proven difficult to establish. Scholars rely on archaeological data and written records from settlers from Europe. Most scholars writing at the end of the 19th century estimated that the pre-Columbian population was as low as 10 million; by the end of the 20th century most scholars gravitated to a middle estimate of around 50 million, with some historians arguing for an estimate of 100 million or more.[1] Contact with the Europeans led to the European colonization of the Americas, in which millions of immigrants from Europe eventually settled in the Americas.
The population of African and Eurasian peoples in the Americas grew steadily, while the indigenous population plummeted. Eurasian diseases such as influenza, bubonic plague and pneumonic plagues, yellow fever, smallpox, and malaria devastated the Native Americans, who did not have immunity to them. Conflict and outright warfare with Western European newcomers and other American tribes further reduced populations and disrupted traditional societies. The extent and causes of the decline have long been a subject of academic debate, along with its characterization as a genocide.[2]
Contents
1 Population overview
2 Pre-Columbian Americas
3 Depopulation from disease
3.1 Virulence and mortality
3.2 Disease
3.3 Vaccination
4 Other causes of depopulation
4.1 War and violence
4.2 Exploitation
4.3 Massacres
4.4 Displacement and disruption
4.5 Formal apology from the United States government
5 See also
6 References
6.1 Notes
6.2 Bibliography
7 Further reading
8 External links
Population overview[edit]
Given the fragmentary nature of the evidence, even semi-accurate pre-Columbian population figures are impossible to obtain. Scholars have varied widely on the estimated size of the indigenous populations prior to colonization and on the effects of European contact.[3] Estimates are made by extrapolations from small bits of data. In 1976, geographer William Denevan used the existing estimates to derive a "consensus count" of about 54 million people. Nonetheless, more recent estimates still range widely.[4]
Using an estimate of approximately 37 million people in Mexico, Central and South America in 1492 (including 6 million in the Aztec Empire, 5-10 million in the Mayan States, 11 million in what is now Brazil, and 12 million in the Inca Empire), the lowest estimates give a death toll due from disease of 90% by the end of the 17th century (nine million people in 1650).[5] Latin America would match its 15th-century population early in the 19th century; it numbered 17 million in 1800, 30 million in 1850, 61 million in 1900, 105 million in 1930, 218 million in 1960, 361 million in 1980, and 563 million in 2005.[5] In the last three decades of the 16th century, the population of present-day Mexico dropped to about one million people.[5] The Maya population is today estimated at six million, which is about the same as at the end of the 15th century, according to some estimates.[5] In what is now Brazil, the indigenous population declined from a pre-Columbian high of an estimated four million to some 300,000.
While it is difficult to determine exactly how many Natives lived in North America before Columbus,[6] estimates range from a low of 2.1 million[7] to 7 million[8] people to a high of 18 million.[9]
The aboriginal population of Canada during the late 15th century is estimated to have been between 200,000[10] and two million,[11] with a figure of 500,000 currently accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health.[12] Repeated outbreaks of Old World infectious diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity), were the main cause of depopulation. This combined with other factors such as dispossession from European/Canadian settlements and numerous violent conflicts resulted in a forty- to eighty-percent aboriginal population decrease after contact.[10] For example, during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot (Huron), who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in what became Canada. They were reduced to fewer than 10,000 people.[13]
Historian David Henige has argued that many population figures are the result of arbitrary formulas selectively applied to numbers from unreliable historical sources. He believes this is a weakness unrecognized by several contributors to the field, and insists there is not sufficient evidence to produce population numbers that have any real meaning. He characterizes the modern trend of high estimates as "pseudo-scientific number-crunching." Henige does not advocate a low population estimate, but argues that the scanty and unreliable nature of the evidence renders broad estimates inevitably suspect, saying "high counters" (as he calls them) have been particularly flagrant in their misuse of sources.[14] Many population studies acknowledge the inherent difficulties in producing reliable statistics, given the scarcity of hard data.[citation needed]
The population debate has often had ideological underpinnings.[15] Low estimates were sometimes reflective of European notions of cultural and racial superiority. Historian Francis Jennings argued, "Scholarly wisdom long held that Indians were so inferior in mind and works that they could not possibly have created or sustained large populations."[16]
The indigenous population of the Americas in 1492 was not necessarily at a high point and may actually have been in decline in some areas. Indigenous populations in most areas of the Americas reached a low point by the early 20th century. In most cases, populations have since begun to climb.[17]
Pre-Columbian Americas[edit]
Main article: Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
See also: Y-DNA haplogroups in indigenous peoples of the Americas
Genetic diversity and population structure in the American land mass using DNA micro-satellite markers (genotype) sampled from North, Central, and South America have been analyzed against similar data available from other indigenous populations worldwide.[18][19] The Amerindian populations show a lower genetic diversity than populations from other continental regions.[19] Observed is both a decreasing genetic diversity as geographic distance from the Bering Strait occurs and a decreasing genetic similarity to Siberian populations from Alaska (genetic entry point).[18][19] Also observed is evidence of a higher level of diversity and lower level of population structure in western South America compared to eastern South America.[18][19] A relative lack of differentiation between Mesoamerican and Andean populations is a scenario that implies coastal routes were easier than inland routes for migrating peoples (Paleo-Indians) to traverse.[18] The overall pattern that is emerging suggests that the Americas were recently colonized by a small number of individuals (effective size of about 70-250), and then they grew by a factor of 10 over 800 – 1000 years.[20][21] The data also show that there have been genetic exchanges between Asia, the Arctic and Greenland since the initial peopling of the Americas.[21][22] A new study in early 2018 suggests that the effective population size of the original founding population of Native Americans was about 250 people.[23][24]
Depopulation from disease[edit]
See also: Influx of disease in the Caribbean, Native American disease and epidemics, and History of smallpox § Epidemics in the Americas
Sixteenth-century Aztec drawings of victims of smallpox (above) and measles (below)
Graph demonstrating the population collapse in Central Mexico brought on by successive epidemics in the early colonial period.
According to Noble David Cook, a community of scholars have recently, albeit slowly, "been quietly accumulating piece by piece data on early epidemics in the Americas and their relation to subjugation of native peoples." They now believe that widespread epidemic disease, to which the natives had no prior exposure or resistance, was the primary cause of the massive population decline of the Native Americans.[25] Earlier explanations for the population decline of the American natives include the European immigrants' accounts of the brutal practices of the Spanish conquistadores, as recorded by the Spaniards themselves. This was applied through the encomienda, which was a system ostensibly set up to protect people from warring tribes as well as to teach them the Spanish language and the Catholic religion, but in practice was tantamount to serfdom and slavery.[26] The most notable account was that of the Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas, whose writings vividly depict Spanish atrocities committed in particular against the Taínos. It took five years for the Taíno rebellion to be quelled by both the Real Audiencia—through diplomatic sabotage, and through the Indian auxiliaries fighting with the Spanish.[27] After Emperor Charles V personally eradicated the notion of the encomienda system as a use for slave labour, there were not enough Spanish to have caused such a large population decline.[28][not in citation given][29] The second European explanation was a perceived divine approval, in which God removed the natives as part of His "divine plan" to make way for a new Christian civilization. Many Native Americans viewed their troubles in terms of religious or supernatural causes within their own belief systems.[30]
Soon after Europeans and enslaved Africans arrived in the New World, bringing with them the infectious diseases of Europe and Africa, observers noted immense numbers of indigenous Americans began to die from these diseases. One reason this death toll was overlooked is that once introduced, the diseases raced ahead of European immigration in many areas. Disease killed a sizable portion of the populations before European written records were made. After the epidemics had already killed massive numbers of natives, many newer European immigrants assumed that there had always been relatively few indigenous peoples. The scope of the epidemics over the years was tremendous, killing millions of people—possibly in excess of 90% of the population in the hardest hit areas—and creating one of "the greatest human catastrophe in history, far exceeding even the disaster of the Black Death of medieval Europe",[25] which had killed up to one-third of the people in Europe and Asia between 1347 and 1351.
One of the most devastating diseases was smallpox, but other deadly diseases included typhus, measles, influenza, bubonic plague, cholera, malaria, tuberculosis, mumps, yellow fever and pertussis, which were chronic in Eurasia.[31]
This transfer of disease between the Old and New Worlds was later studied as part of what has been labeled the "Columbian Exchange".
The epidemics had very different effects in different regions of the Americas. The most vulnerable groups were those with a relatively small population and few built-up immunities. Many island-based groups were annihilated. The Caribs and Arawaks of the Caribbean nearly ceased to exist, as did the Beothuks of Newfoundland. While disease raged swiftly through the densely populated empires of Mesoamerica, the more scattered populations of North America saw a slower spread.[citation needed]
Virulence and mortality[edit]
Viral and bacterial diseases that kill victims before the illnesses spread to others tend to flare up and then die out. A more resilient disease would establish an equilibrium; if its victims lived beyond infection, the disease would spread further. The evolutionary process selects against quick lethality, with the most immediately fatal diseases being the most short-lived.[citation needed] A similar evolutionary pressure acts upon victim populations, as those lacking genetic resistance to common diseases die and do not leave descendants, whereas those who are resistant procreate and pass resistant genes to their offspring. For example, in the first fifty years of the sixteenth century, an unusually strong strain[clarification needed] of syphilis killed a high proportion of infected Europeans within a few months; over time, however, the disease has become much less virulent.[citation needed]
Thus both infectious diseases and populations tend to evolve towards an equilibrium in which the common diseases are non-symptomatic, mild or manageably chronic.[citation needed] When a population that has been relatively isolated is exposed to new diseases, it has no resistance to the new diseases (the population is "biologically naive"). These people die at a much higher rate, resulting in what is known as a "virgin soil" epidemic. Before the European arrival, the Americas had been isolated from the Eurasian-African landmass. The peoples of the Old World had had thousands of years for their populations to accommodate to their common diseases.
The fact that all members of an immunologically naive population are exposed to a new disease simultaneously increases the fatalities.[citation needed] In populations where the disease is endemic, generations of individuals acquired immunity; most adults had exposure to the disease at a young age. Because they were resistant to reinfection, they are able to care for individuals who caught the disease for the first time, including the next generation of children. With proper care, many of these "childhood diseases" are often survivable. In a naive population, all age groups are affected at once, leaving few or no healthy caregivers to nurse the sick. With no resistant individuals healthy enough to tend to the ill, a disease may have higher fatalities.
The natives of the Americas were faced with several new diseases at once creating a situation where some who successfully resisted one disease might die from another. Multiple simultaneous infections (e.g., smallpox and typhus at the same time) or in close succession (e.g., smallpox in an individual who was still weak from a recent bout of typhus) are more deadly than just the sum of the individual diseases. In this scenario, death rates can also be elevated by combinations of new and familiar diseases: smallpox in combination with American strains of yaws, for example.
Other contributing factors:
Native American medical treatments such as sweat baths and cold water immersion (practiced in some areas) weakened some patients and probably increased mortality rates.[32]
Europeans brought many diseases with them because they had many more domesticated animals than the Native Americans. Domestication usually means close and frequent contact between animals and people, which allows diseases of domestic animals to migrate into the human population when the necessary mutations occur.[33]
The Eurasian landmass extends many thousands of miles along an east–west axis. Climate zones also extend for thousands of miles, which facilitated the spread of agriculture, domestication of animals, and the diseases associated with domestication. The Americas extend mainly north and south, which, according to the environmental determinist theory popularized by Jared Diamond in Guns, Germs, and Steel, meant that it was much harder for cultivated plant species, domesticated animals, and diseases to migrate.
Disease[edit]
When Old World diseases were first carried to the Americas at the end of the fifteenth century, they spread throughout the southern and northern hemispheres, leaving the indigenous populations in near ruins.[31][34] No evidence has been discovered that the earliest Spanish colonists and missionaries deliberately attempted to infect the American natives, and some effort was actually made to limit the devastating effects of disease before it killed off what remained of their forced slave labor under their encomienda system.[31][34] The cattle introduced by the Spanish contaminated various water reserves which Native Americans dug in the fields to accumulate rain water. In response, the Franciscans and Dominicans created public fountains and aqueducts to guarantee access to drinking water.[5] But when the Franciscans lost their privileges in 1572, many of these fountains were not guarded any more and deliberate well poisoning may have happened.[5] Although no proof of such poisoning has been found, some historians believe the decrease of the population correlates with the end of religious orders' control of the water.[5]
In the centuries that followed, accusations and discussions of biological warfare were common. Well-documented accounts of incidents involving both threats and acts of deliberate infection are very rare, but may have occurred more frequently than scholars have previously acknowledged.[35][36] Many of the instances likely went unreported, and it is possible that documents relating to such acts were deliberately destroyed,[36] or sanitized.[37][38] By the middle of the 18th century, colonists had the knowledge and technology to attempt biological warfare with the smallpox virus. They well understood the concept of quarantine, and that contact with the sick could infect the healthy with smallpox, and those who survived the illness would not be infected again. Whether the threats were carried out, or how effective individual attempts were, is uncertain.[31][36][37]
One such threat was delivered by fur trader James McDougall, who is quoted as saying to a gathering of local chiefs, "You know the smallpox. Listen: I am the smallpox chief. In this bottle I have it confined. All I have to do is to pull the cork, send it forth among you, and you are dead men. But this is for my enemies and not my friends."[39] Likewise, another fur trader threatened Pawnee Indians that if they didn't agree to certain conditions, "he would let the smallpox out of a bottle and destroy them." The Reverend Isaac McCoy was quoted in his History of Baptist Indian Missions as saying that the white men had deliberately spread smallpox among the Indians of the southwest, including the Pawnee tribe, and the havoc it made was reported to General Clark and the Secretary of War.[39][40] Artist and writer George Catlin observed that Native Americans were also suspicious of vaccination, "They see white men urging the operation so earnestly they decide that it must be some new mode or trick of the pale face by which they hope to gain some new advantage over them."[41] So great was the distrust of the settlers that the Mandan chief Four Bears denounced the white man, whom he had previously treated as brothers, for deliberately bringing the disease to his people.[42][43][44]
During the Seven Years' War, British militia took blankets from their smallpox hospital and gave them as gifts to two neutral Lenape Indian dignitaries during a peace settlement negotiation, according to the entry in the Captain's ledger, "To convey the Smallpox to the Indians".[37][45][46] In the following weeks, the high commander of the British forces in North America conspired with his Colonel to "Extirpate this Execreble Race" of Native Americans, writing, "Could it not be contrived to send the small pox among the disaffected tribes of Indians? We must on this occasion use every stratagem in our power to reduce them." His Colonel agreed to try.[36][45] On the deliberate communication of smallpox to Native Americans during the 1836–40 epidemic, historian Ann F. Ramenofsky in 1987 wrote, "Variola Major can be transmitted through contaminated articles such as clothing or blankets. In the nineteenth century, the U. S. Army sent contaminated blankets to Native Americans, especially Plains groups, to control the Indian problem."[47] While specific responsibility for the 1836–40 smallpox epidemic remains in question, scholars have asserted that the Great Plains epidemic was "started among the tribes of the upper Missouri River by failure to quarantine steam boats on the river",[39] and Captain Pratt of the St. Peter "was guilty of contributing to the deaths of thousands of innocent people. The law calls his offense criminal negligence. Yet in light of all the deaths, the almost complete annihilation of the Mandans, and the terrible suffering the region endured, the label criminal negligence is benign, hardly befitting an action that had such horrendous consequences."[43] Well into the 20th century, deliberate infection attacks continued as Brazilian settlers and miners transported infections intentionally to the native groups whose lands they coveted."[34]
Vaccination[edit]
After Edward Jenner's 1796 demonstration that the smallpox vaccination worked, the technique became better known and smallpox became less deadly in the United States and elsewhere. Many colonists and natives were vaccinated, although, in some cases, officials tried to vaccinate natives only to discover that the disease was too widespread to stop. At other times, trade demands led to broken quarantines. In other cases, natives refused vaccination because of suspicion of whites. The first international healthcare expedition in history was the Balmis expedition which had the aim of vaccinating indigenous peoples against smallpox all along the Spanish Empire in 1803. In 1831, government officials vaccinated the Yankton Sioux at Sioux Agency. The Santee Sioux refused vaccination and many died.[15]
Other causes of depopulation[edit]
War and violence[edit]
Main articles: Spanish colonization of the Americas, American Indian Wars, Arauco War, Chichimeca War, and Conquest of the Desert
Storming of the Teocalli by Cortez and His Troops by Emanuel Leutze
While epidemic disease was a leading factor of the population decline of the American indigenous peoples after 1492, there were other contributing factors, all of them related to European contact and colonization. One of these factors was warfare. According to demographer Russell Thornton, although many lives were lost in wars over the centuries, and war sometimes contributed to the near extinction of certain tribes, warfare and death by other violent means was a comparatively minor cause of overall native population decline.[48]
From the U.S. Bureau of the Census in 1894: "The Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the given... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate..."[49]
There is some disagreement among scholars about how widespread warfare was in pre-Columbian America,[50] but there is general agreement that war became deadlier after the arrival of the Europeans and their firearms. The South or Central American infrastructure allowed for thousands of European conquistadors and tens of thousands of their Indian auxiliaries to attack the dominant indigenous civilization. Empires such as the Incas depended on a highly centralized administration for the distribution of resources. Disruption caused by the war and the colonization hampered the traditional economy, and possibly led to shortages of food and materials.[51] The Arauco War, Chichimeca War, Red Cloud's War, Seminole Wars, War of 1812, Pontiac's Rebellion, Beaver Wars, French-Indian War, American Civil War, American Revolution, Modoc War, Oka Crisis, Battle of Cut Knife, all represented either pyrrhic victories by colonial forces, outright defeat, military stalemates, or further alliance-politics.[52] Across the western hemisphere, war with various Native American civilizations constituted alliances based out of both necessity or economic prosperity and, resulted in mass-scale intertribal warfare.[53] European colonization in the North American continent also contributed to a number of wars between Native Americans, who fought over which of them should have first access to new technology and weaponry—like in the Beaver Wars.[54]
Exploitation[edit]
Main article: European enslavement of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Some Spaniards objected to the encomienda system, notably Bartolomé de las Casas, who insisted that the Indians were humans with souls and rights. Due to many revolts and military encounters, Emperor Charles V helped relieve the strain on both the Indian laborers and the Spanish vanguards probing the Caribana for military and diplomatic purposes.[55] Later on New Laws were promulgated in Spain in 1542 to protect isolated natives, but the abuses in the Americas were never entirely or permanently abolished. The Spanish also employed the pre-Columbian draft system called the mita,[56] and treated their subjects as something between slaves and serfs. Serfs stayed to work the land; slaves were exported to the mines, where large numbers of them died. In other areas the Spaniards replaced the ruling Aztecs and Incas and divided the conquered lands among themselves ruling as the new feudal lords with often, but unsuccessful lobbying to the viceroys of the Spanish crown to pay Tlaxcalan war demnities. The infamous Bandeirantes from São Paulo, adventurers mostly of mixed Portuguese and native ancestry, penetrated steadily westward in their search for Indian slaves. Serfdom existed as such in parts of Latin America well into the 19th century, past independence.[citation needed]
Massacres[edit]
This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (July 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: List of Indian massacres
Friar Bartolomé de las Casas and Antonius Flávio Chesta (Tony Chesta) and other dissenting Spaniards from the colonial period described the manner in which the natives were treated by colonials. This has helped to create an image of the Spanish conquistadores as cruel in the extreme.[citation needed]
Great revenues were drawn from Hispaniola so the advent of losing manpower[clarification needed] didn't benefit the Spanish crown. At best, the reinforcement of vanguards sent by the Council of the Indies to explore the Caribana country and gather information on alliances or hostilities was the main goal of the local viceroys and their adelantados.[57] Although mass killings and atrocities were not a significant factor in native depopulation, no mainstream scholar dismisses the sometimes humiliating circumstances now believed to be precipitated by civil disorder as well as Spanish cruelty.[58][59]
The Taínos in the Antilles (Some believe 80% of the population disappeared in thirty years).[5] In 1518–1519 a devastating smallpox epidemic killed most of the region's indigenous population.[60]
The Pequot War in early New England.
In mid-19th century Argentina, post-independence leaders Juan Manuel de Rosas and Julio Argentino Roca engaged in what they presented as a "Conquest of the Desert" against the natives of the Argentinian interior, leaving over 1,300 indigenous dead.[61][62]
While some California tribes were settled on reservations, others were hunted down and massacred by 19th century American settlers. It is estimated that at least some 4,500 people of the Population of Native California suffered violent deaths between 1849 and 1870.[63][64]
See also: California Genocide and Round Valley Settler Massacres of 1856-1859
Displacement and disruption[edit]
Main articles: Indian removal and Trail of Tears
Even more consequential than warfare or mistreatment on indigenous populations was the geographic displacement of Native American tribes. The increased European population due to immigration and high birth rates of Native European settlers put pressure on native tribes to relocate and alter their traditional ways of life. Displacement of native peoples living traditionally often resulted in increased infant mortality and often higher death rates which steadily lowered their populations for some time.[citation needed] In the United States, for example, the relocations of Native Americans resulting from the policies of Indian removal and the reservation system created a disruption which resulted in fewer live births and a short term population decline.
The populations of many Native American peoples were reduced by the common practice of intermarrying with Europeans.[65] Although many Indian cultures that once thrived are extinct today, their descendants exist today in some of the bloodlines of the current inhabitants of the Americas.
Formal apology from the United States government[edit]
See also: Bureau of Indian Affairs
On 8 September 2000, the head of the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) formally apologized for the agency's participation in the "ethnic cleansing" of Western tribes.[66][67][68]
See also[edit]
Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal
Aboriginal peoples in Canada portal
Indigenous peoples of North America portal
List of Indian massacres
List of Indian reserves in Canada by population
Amazonas before the Inca Empire
Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Conquest of the Desert
First Nations
Genocides in the Americas
Guatemalan genocide
Handbook of South American Indians
Population of Canada
Population of Native California
Selknam genocide
Smallpox epidemics in the Americas
Trail of Tears
Uncontacted peoples
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Taylor, Alan (2002). American colonies; Volume 1 of The Penguin history of the United States, History of the United States Series. Penguin. p. 40. ISBN 9780142002100. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ David E. Stannard (1993-11-18). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.
Jump up ^ Michael R. Haines; Richard H. Steckel (2000). A Population History of North America. Cambridge University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-521-49666-7.
Jump up ^ 20th century estimates in Thornton, p. 22; Denevan's consensus count; recent lower estimates. Archived 28 October 2004 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "La catastrophe démographique" (The Demographic Catastrophe"), L'Histoire n°322, July–August 2007, p. 17.
Jump up ^ "Microchronology and Demographic Evidence Relating to the Size of Pre-Columbian North American Indian Populations". Science 16 June 1995: Vol. 268. no. 5217, pp. 1601–04 doi:10.1126/science.268.5217.1601.
Jump up ^ Ubelaker, Douglas H. (1976-11-01). "Prehistoric New World population size: Historical review and current appraisal of North American estimates". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 45 (3): 661–65. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330450332. ISSN 1096-8644.
Jump up ^ Thornton, Russell (1990). American Indian holocaust and survival: a population history since 1492. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 26–32. ISBN 0-8061-2220-X.
Jump up ^ Dobyns, Henry (1983). Their Number Become Thinned: Native American Dynamics in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Northcott, Herbert C; Wilson, Donna M (2008). Dying and Death in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 978-1-55111-873-4. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Thornton, Russell (2000). "Population history of Native North Americans". In Michael R. Haines, Richard Hall Steckel. A population history of North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0-521-49666-7. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Bailey, Garrick Alan (2008). Handbook of North American Indians: Indians in contemporary society. Government Printing Office. p. 285. ISBN 0-16-080388-8. Retrieved 14 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Robertson, Ronald G (2001). Rotting face : smallpox and the American Indian. Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Press. pp. 107–08. ISBN 0-87004-419-2.
Jump up ^ Henige, p. 182.
^ Jump up to: a b Krech III, Shepard (1999). The ecological Indian: myth and history (1 ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. pp. 81–84. ISBN 0-393-04755-5.
Jump up ^ Jennings 1993, p. 83
Jump up ^ Thornton, pp. xvii, 36.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Wang S; Lewis CM; Jakobsson M; Ramachandran S; Ray N; Bedoya G; Rojas W; Parra MV; Molina JA; Gallo C; Mazzotti G; Poletti G; Hill K; Hurtado AM; Labuda D; Klitz W; Barrantes R; Bortolini MC; Salzano FM; Petzl-Erler ML; Tsuneto LT; Llop E; Rothhammer F; Excoffier L; Feldman MW; Rosenberg NA; Ruiz-Linares A. (2007). "Genetic Variation and Population Structure in Native Americans". PLoS Genet. 3 (11): e185. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0030185. PMC 2082466  . PMID 18039031.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Joint match probabilities for Y chromosomal and autosomal markers" (PDF). Forensic Science International. 2008. pp. 174, 234–238. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 July 2010. Retrieved 3 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Wells, Spencer; Read, Mark (2002). The Journey of Man - A Genetic Odyssey (Digitised online by Google books). Random House. pp. 138–140. ISBN 0-8129-7146-9. Retrieved 21 November 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Hey J (2005). "On the number of New World founders: a population genetic portrait of the peopling of the Americas". PLoS Biol. 3 (6): e193. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030193. PMC 1131883  . PMID 15898833. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Wade, Nicholas (2010). "Ancient Man In Greenland Has Genome Decoded". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 January 2010.
Jump up ^ The University of Kansas, DNA sequences suggest 250 people made up original Native American founding population (2018/05/01)
Jump up ^ Nelson J.R. Fagundes, et al., "How strong was the bottleneck associated to the peopling of the Americas? New insights from multilocus sequence data", 41(1) Genetics and Molecular Biology (2018). http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1415-47572018000200206&lng=en&tlng=en
^ Jump up to: a b Cook, Noble David. Born To Die; Cambridge University Press ;1998; pp. 1–14.
Jump up ^ Junius P. Rodriguez (2007). Encyclopedia of slave resistance and rebellion. 1. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-313-33272-2. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Anghiera Pietro Martire D' (July 2009). De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. BiblioLife. p. 199. ISBN 978-1-113-14760-8. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
Jump up ^ David M. Traboulay (1994). Columbus and Las Casas: the conquest and Christianization of America, 1492–1566. University Press of America. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-8191-9642-2. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Anghiera Pietro Martire D' (July 2009). De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. BiblioLife. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-113-14760-8. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Guilmet, George M; Boyd, Robert T; Whited, David L; Thompson, Nile (1991). "The Legacy of Introduced Disease: The Southern Coast Salish". American Indian Culture and Research Journal. 15 (4): 1–32. doi:10.17953/aicr.15.4.133g8x7135072136.
^ Jump up to: a b c d The First Horseman: Disease in Human History; John Aberth; Pearson-Prentice Hall (2007); pp. 47–75(51)
Jump up ^ Cook, p. 208; Thornton, p. 47.
Jump up ^ Jared Diamond (1997). Guns, germs, and steel: the fates of human societies. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 357. ISBN 978-0-393-03891-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cook; pp. 205–16
Jump up ^ Empire of Fortune; Francis Jennings; W. W. Norton & Company; 1988; pp. 200, 447–48
^ Jump up to: a b c d Fenn, Elizabeth A. Biological Warfare in Eighteenth-Century North America: Beyond Jeffery Amherst Archived 3 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine.; The Journal of American History, Vol. 86, No. 4, March, 2000
^ Jump up to: a b c The Tainted Gift; Barbara Alice Mann; ABC-CLIO; 2009; pp. 1–18
Jump up ^ Cherokee Medicine, Colonial Germs: An Indigenous Nation's Fight Against Smallpox, 1518–1824; Paul Kelton; University of Oklahoma Press; 2015; pp. 102–05
^ Jump up to: a b c The Effect of Smallpox on the Destiny of the Amerindian; Esther Wagner Stearn, Allen Edwin Stearn; University of Minnesota; 1945; pp. 13–20, 73–94, 97
Jump up ^ Chardon's Journal at Fort Clark, 1834–1839; Annie Heloise Abel; Books for Libraries Press; 1932; pp. 319, 394
Jump up ^ Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History; Donald R. Hopkins; University of Chicago Press; 1983; pp. 270–71
Jump up ^ Robert Blaisdell ed., Great Speeches by Native Americans, p. 116.
^ Jump up to: a b Rotting Face: Smallpox and the American Indian; R. G. Robertson; Caxton Press; 2001 pp. 80–83; 298–312
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present; George C. Kohn; pp. 252–53
^ Jump up to: a b Pontiac and the Indian Uprising; Peckham, Howard H.; University of Chicago Press; 1947; pp. 170, 226–27
Jump up ^ Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766; Anderson, Fred; New York: Knopf; 2000; pp. 541–42, 809 n11; ISBN 0-375-40642-5
Jump up ^ Vectors of Death: The Archaeology of European Contact; University of New Mexico Press; 1987; pp. 147–48
Jump up ^ War not a major cause : Thornton, pp. 47–49.
Jump up ^ Report on Indians taxed and Indians not taxed in the United States (except Alaska). U.S. Government Printing Office. 1994 [1894]. p. 637.
Jump up ^ W. D. Rubinstein (2004). Genocide: A History. Pearson Education. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-582-50601-5.
Jump up ^ Cartwright, Mark (Oct 2015). "Inca Government". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Knights of Vatican. Retrieved 19 July 2017. Eventually 40,000 Incas would govern some 10 million subjects speaking over 30 different languages. Consequently, the centralised Inca government, employing a vast network of administrators, governed over a patchwork empire which, in practice, touched local populations to varying degrees.
Jump up ^ Woo, Grace Li Xiu (Feb 2005). "Canada's Forgotten Founders: The Modern Signifance of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Application for Membership in the League of Nations". The University of Warwick. The University of Warwick: Electronic Law Journal. Retrieved 17 July 2017. Following Article 1 of the Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, it is now considered that a 'state' must have a permanent population, a defined territory, a government and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. As a division of the British Empire, Canada's international relations were handled by Britain when the League of Nations was founded and it did not meet these criteria. The Haudenosaunee Confederacy did.
Jump up ^ W. D. Rubinstein (2012). Indian Conquistadors: Indigenous Allies in the Conquest of Mesoamerica. University of Oklahoma Press; Reprint edition. p. 1. ISBN 0806143258.
Jump up ^ Increased deadliness of warfare, see for example Hanson, ch. 6. See also flower war.
Jump up ^ David M. Traboulay (1994). Columbus and Las Casas: the conquest and Christianization of America, 1492–1566. University Press of America. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-8191-9642-2. Retrieved 11 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Bolivia – Ethnic Groups.
Jump up ^ Anghiera Pietro Martire D' (July 2009). De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. BiblioLife. p. 395. ISBN 978-1-113-14760-8. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Anghiera Pietro Martire D' (July 2009). De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. BiblioLife. p. 198. ISBN 978-1-113-14760-8. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Jay O. Sanders. "The Great Inca Rebellion". Retrieved 30 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Kohn, George C. (2008). Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present. Infobase Publishing. p. 160. ISBN 0-8160-6935-2.
Jump up ^ Cook, p. 212.
Jump up ^ Carlos A. Floria and César A. García Belsunce, 1971. Historia de los Argentinos I and II; ISBN 84-599-5081-6.
Jump up ^ Minorities During the Gold Rush. Archived 4 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ For example, The Oxford Companion to American Military History (Oxford University Press, 1999) states that "if Euro-Americans committed genocide anywhere on the continent against Native Americans, it was in California."
Jump up ^ Indian Mixed-Blood.
Jump up ^ "An apology from the BIA". tahtonka (Global Culture, Exploring the Humanities of Humans). 2000. Retrieved 21 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Kevin Gover (2006) [Sep 8, 2000]. Video of Kevin Gover’s speech, "Never Again" (Sept. 8, 2000), a formal apology to Native Americans, on behalf of the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs (video). U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, analog to digital conversion by Harkirat Chawia, Michigan State University, presented by Christopher Buck, Michigan State University.
Jump up ^ Buck, Christopher (2006). ""Never Again"; Kevin Gover's Apology for the Bureau of Indian Affairs" (PDF). Wicazo SA Review. 21 (1 (Spring)): 97–126. JSTOR 4140301. Retrieved Oct 12, 2015.
Bibliography[edit]
Books
Cappel, Constance (2007). The smallpox genocide of the Odawa tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: the history of a Native American people. Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 0-7734-5220-6.
Noble David Cook (1998). Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650. ISBN 978-0-521-62208-0.
Victor Davis Hanson (2002-08-27). Carnage and culture: landmark battles in the rise of Western power. Anchor Books. ISBN 0-385-50052-1.
David P. Henige (1998). Numbers from Nowhere: The American Indian Contact Population Debate. Norman : University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3044-6.
Jennings, Francis (1993). The Founders of America: How Indians discovered the land, pioneered in it, and created great classical civilizations, how they were plunged into a Dark Age by invasion and conquest, and how they are reviving. New York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-03373-2.
Charles C. Mann (2005-08-09). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf. ISBN 9781400040063.
Ramenofsky, Ann (1988). Vectors of Death: The Archaeology of European Contact. Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-0997-6.
Royal, Robert. 1492 and All That: Political Manipulations of History. Washington, D.C.: Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1992.
Shoemaker, Nancy (1999). American Indian population recovery in the twentieth century. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1919-X.
David E. Stannard (1993-11-18). American Holocaust:The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.
Stearn, E. Wagner and Allen E. Stearn. The Effect of Smallpox on the Destiny of the Amerindian. Boston: Humphries, 1945.
Thornton, Russel (1987). American Indian Holocaust and Survival: ˜a Œpopulation History Since 1492. Norman : University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2074-4.
Online sources
Lewy, Guenter. "Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide?", History News Network, originally published in Commentary.
Lord, Lewis. How many people were here before Columbus? at the Wayback Machine (archived 22 September 2006), 10 August 1997.
Rummel, R.J. Death by Government, Chapter 3: Pre-Twentieth Century Democide
Stutz, Bruce. Megadeath in Mexico Discover, 21 February 2006.
White, Matthew. "The Annihilation of the Native Americans". Amateur website, but reports data from scholarly sources.
Jeffrey Amherst and Smallpox Blankets "Lord Jeffrey Amherst's letters discussing germ warfare against American Indians" Retrieved February 2007
Further reading[edit]
Cameron, Catherine M., Paul Kelton, and Alan C. Swedlund (eds.) (2015). Beyond Germs: Native Depopulation in North America. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.
Brian M. Fagan (2005-05-20). Ancient North America: The Archaeology of a Continent. ISBN 978-0-500-28532-9.
Charles C. Mann (2005-08-09). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf. ISBN 9781400040063.
William Hardy McNeill (1998). Plagues and peoples. Anchor. ISBN 978-0-385-12122-4.
Michael Sletcher, 'North American Indians', in Will Kaufman and Heidi Macpherson, eds., Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, (2 vols., Oxford, 2005).
Cappel, Constance (2007). The smallpox genocide of the Odawa tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: the history of a Native American people. Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 0-7734-5220-6.
External links[edit]
Aboriginal peoples populations - Statistics Canada
Article by Russell Thornton on American Indian population history in North America
Article by Alan Rinding on Brazil's Indians
Colonial Brazil: Portuguese, Tupi, etc
Indigenous Genocide in the Brazilian Amazon
The theft of Native Americans' land, in one animated map
Indian land cession by years
Pope Francis apologises for Catholic crimes against indigenous peoples during the colonisation of the Americas (2015)
show
Links to related articles
show
v
t
e
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Pre-history
Paleo-Indians
Pre-Columbian era
Classification
Archaeology
Genetics
Mythology/Religion
Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas
List of deities
Native American religion
Mesoamerican mythology
Mesoamerican religion
European
colonization
European colonization
Population history
Columbian exchange
Modern groups
by country
North America
Canada
Costa Rica
Dominica
El Salvador
Greenland
Jamaica
Mexico
Panama
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
South America
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Related topics
Indigenous American studies
Indigenous languages
Indigenous movements
Indigenous art
Artists
Writers
Category
Portal
show
v
t
e
Cultural areas of indigenous North Americans
Arctic
California
Eastern Woodlands
Northeastern Woodlands
Southeastern Woodlands
Great Basin
Mexico
Aridoamerica
Mesoamerica
Caribbean
Northwest Coast
Interior Plains
Plateau
Southwest
Subarctic
show
v
t
e
Pre-Columbian civilizations and cultures
Americas
Paleo-Indians
Genetic history
Archaeology of the Americas
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
North America
North American pre-Columbian cultures
Caddoan Mississippian
Chichimeca
Hopewell tradition
Coles Creek
Fremont
Marksville
Mississippian
Mogollon
Plaquemine
Plum Bayou
Poverty Point
Troyville
Weeden Island
Mesoamerica
Mesoamerican pre-Columbian chronology
Capacha
Chalcatzingo
Cholula
Coclé
Epi-Olmec
Huastec
Izapa
Mezcala
Mixtec
Olmec
Pipil
Quelepa
Shaft tomb tradition
Teuchitlan
Purépecha
Teotihuacan
Tlatilco
Tlaxcaltec
Toltec
Totonac
Veracruz
Xochipala
Zapotec
South America
Andean civilizations
South American Indigenous people
El Abra
Cañaris
Chachapoya
Chancay
Chavín
Chimú
Chinchorro
Cultural periods of Peru
Hydraulic culture of mounds (Bolivia)
Las Vegas
Lima
La Tolita (Tumaco)
Manteño-Guancavilca
Mapuche
Moche
Mollo
Nariño
Nazca
Norte Chico
Quimbaya
San Agustín
Shuar
Sican
Taíno
Tairona
Tiwanaku
Tierradentro
Valdivia
Wankarani
Wari
Zenú
Aztec
Maya
Muisca
Inca
Language
Nahuatl Mayan languages Muysccubun Quechua
Writing
Script Script Numerals Quipu
Religion
Religion Religion Religion Religion
Mythology
Mythology Mythology Mythology Mythology
Calendar
Calendar Calendar Calendar
Society
Society Society Economy (Women) Society
Infrastructure
Chinampas Architecture Architecture
Agriculture Architecture (road system)
Agriculture
History
History History History Inca history
Neo-Inca State
People
Moctezuma I
Moctezuma II
Cuitláhuac
Cuauhtémoc
K'inich Janaab' Pakal
Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil
Jasaw Chan K'awiil I Nemequene
Quemuenchatocha
Tisquesusa
Tundama
Zoratama Manco Cápac
Pachacuti
Atahualpa
Manco Inca Yupanqui
Túpac Amaru
Conquest
Spanish conquest
(Hernán Cortés) Spanish conquest
Spanish conquest of Yucatán
(Francisco de Montejo)
Spanish conquest of Guatemala
(Pedro de Alvarado) Spanish conquest
(Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada)
(Hernán Pérez de Quesada)
(List of conquistadors) Spanish conquest
(Francisco Pizarro)
See also
Aztecs
Portal:Indigenous peoples of North America
Portal:Mesoamerica
Columbian Exchange
Mesoamerican writing systems
Native American cuisine
Native American pottery
Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Pre‑Columbian art
Painting in the Americas before European colonization
show
v
t
e
Pre-Columbian North America
Periods
Lithic
Archaic
Formative
Classic
Post-Classic
Archaeological
cultures
Adena
Alachua
Ancient Beringian
Ancient Pueblo (Anasazi)
Baytown
Belle Glade
Buttermilk Creek Complex
Caborn-Welborn
Calf Creek
Caloosahatchee
Clovis
Coles Creek
Comondú
Deptford
Folsom
Fort Ancient
Fort Walton
Fremont
Glacial Kame
Glades
Hohokam
Hopewell
List of Hopewell sites
La Jolla
Las Palmas
Leon-Jefferson
Mississippian
List of Mississippian sites
Mogollon
Monongahela
Old Cordilleran
Oneota
Paleo-Arctic
Paleo-Indians
Patayan
Plano
Plaquemine
Poverty Point
Red Ocher
Santa Rosa-Swift Creek
St. Johns
Steed-Kisker
Tchefuncte
Tocobaga
Troyville
Archaeological
sites
Angel Mounds
Anzick Clovis burial
Bandelier National Monument
Blue Spring Shelter
The Bluff Point Stoneworks
Cahokia
Candelaria Cave
Casa Grande
Chaco Canyon
Coso Rock Art District
Crystal River Archaeological State Park
Cuarenta Casas
Cueva de la Olla
Eaker
El Fin del Mundo
El Vallecito
Effigy Mounds National Monument
Etowah Indian Mounds
Eva
Folsom Site
Fort Ancient
Fort Center
Fort Juelson
Four Mounds Site
Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument
Glenwood
Grimes Point
Holly Bluff Site
Hopewell Culture National Historical Park
Huápoca
Kimball Village
Kincaid Mounds
Kolomoki Mounds
Lake Jackson Mounds
L'Anse aux Meadows
Marksville
Marmes Rockshelter
Meadowcroft Rockshelter
Mesa Verde
Moaning Cavern
Moorehead Circle
Morrison Mounds
Moundville
Mummy Cave
Nodena Site
Ocmulgee National Monument
Old Stone Fort
Orwell Site
Paquime
Parkin Park
Pinson Mounds
Portsmouth Earthworks
Poverty Point
Pueblo Bonito
Recapture Canyon
Rock Eagle
Rock Hawk
Russell Cave National Monument
Salmon Ruins
Serpent Mound
Sierra de San Francisco
Spiro Mounds
SunWatch
Taos Pueblo
Toltec Mounds
Town Creek Indian Mound
Turkey River Mounds
Upward Sun River site
Velda Mound
West Oak Forest Earthlodge
Winterville
Wupatki National Monument
Human
remains
Anzick-1
Arlington Springs Man
Buhl Woman
Kennewick Man
La Brea Woman
Leanderthal Lady
Minnesota Woman
Spirit Cave mummy
Miscellaneous
Aridoamerica
Black drink
Ceremonial pipe
Chunkey
Clovis point
Container Revolution
Eastern Agricultural Complex
Eden point
Effigy mound
Falcon dancer
Folsom point
Green Corn Ceremony
Horned Serpent
Kiva
Medicine wheel
Metallurgy
Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing
Mound Builders
N.A.G.P.R.A.
Norse colonization of North America
Oasisamerica
Piasa
Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
Stickball
Three Sisters agriculture
Thunderbird
Underwater panther
Water glyphs
Related
Genetic history
Portal of Indigenous peoples of North America
Pre-Columbian era
show
v
t
e
History of the Americas
History
North America
Mesoamerica
Central America
Caribbean
Latin America
South America
Andean South America
Genetics
Settlement
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous population
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
Discovery
Exploration
European colonization
Spanish colonization
French colonization
Portuguese colonization
British colonization
Columbian Exchange
Decolonization
Societies
Paleo-Indians
Pre-Columbian era
Aztec
Maya
Muisca
Inca
Related
Maps
Culture
Geography
Indigenous languages
Epidemics
Slavery
Lists
Pre-Columbian cultures
Indigenous peoples
Oldest churches
Population
Conflicts
North America
South America
Chronology
Archaeology of the Americas
North America by period
North American timelines
Mesoamerica by period
Mesoamerica timeline
Era: By period
By region
Three-age system
Ancient history
Pre-Columbian era
Classical Antiquity
Middle Ages
Modern history
Future
show
v
t
e
Genocide topics
Genocides
(list by death toll)
Dzungar Mongols (1750s)
Circassian genocide (1860s)
Selk'nam genocide (1890s–1900s)
Herero and Namaqua (1904–1907)
Greek (1914–1923)
Assyrian (1914–1925)
Armenian (1915–1923)
Holodomor (1932–1933)
The Holocaust (1941–1945)
Porajmos (1941–1944)
Serbian (1941–1945)
Aardakh (1944–1948)
Bangladesh (1971)
East Timor (1974–1999)
Cambodian (1975–1979)
Guatemalan Maya (1981–1983)
Kurds in Iraq (1986–1989)
Partition of India (1947)
Polish genocide(s) in the USSR
Great Purge Era (1937–1938
Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)
Katyn massacre (1940)
Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia (1943–1944)
Burundian genocides (1972 & 1993)
Rwandan genocide (1994)
Bosnian genocide (1992–1995)
Srebrenica massacre (1995)
ISIL Genocides (2014–)
Yazidis
Shias
Christians
Terms
Democide
Autogenocide
Politicide
Classicide
Eliticide
Policide
Ethnocide
Cultural genocide
Gendercide
Genocidal massacre
Utilitarian genocide
Genocide of indigenous peoples
Methods
Genocidal rape
Extermination camp
Killing Fields
Death marches
Death squads
Genocide denial
The Holocaust
trivialization
Armenian
Bosnian
Rwandan
Holodomor
Cambodian
Issues
Definitions
Genocide law
Prevention
Effects on young survivors
Notable figures
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Eichmann
Ante Pavelić
Benito Mussolini
Heinrich Himmler
Reinhard Heydrich
Talaat Pasha
Enver Pasha
Djemal Pasha
Stepan Bandera
Joseph Stalin
Nikolai Yezhov
Pol Pot
Hirohito
Omar al-Bashir
Augustin Bizimungu
Slobodan Milošević
Radovan Karadžić
Ratko Mladić
Lothar von Trotha
Efraín Ríos Montt
Saddam Hussein
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Population_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas&oldid=853434492"
Categories:
History of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Native American history
Colonization history of the United States
Native American genocide
Racism
Controversies
Human rights abuses in the United States
Discrimination
Persecution
Ethnic cleansing in the Americas
Demographic history by country or region
Christianity and violence
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Use dmy dates from October 2013
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015
All articles with failed verification
Articles with failed verification from March 2016
Articles with unsourced statements from December 2015
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2015
Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009
Articles lacking reliable references from July 2014
All articles lacking reliable references
Articles with unsourced statements from December 2014
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2013
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Azərbaycanca
Беларуская
Čeština
Español
Français
Italiano
Português
Русский
Türkçe
Edit links
This page was last edited on 4 August 2018, at 19:34 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: p

value: img

values: 1857 engraving of a sick Native American being cared for by an indigenous healer

attrs: href class

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Washita_Massacre
mw-redirect
Washita Massacre

attrs: href title

attrs: class style

values:
/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Africa
mw-redirect
Ethnic groups of Africa

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/Aboriginal_peoples_in_Canada
mw-redirect
Aboriginal peoples in Canada

values:
/wiki/Infectious_diseases
mw-redirect
Infectious diseases

values: Former colonies and territories in Canada

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2015)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Racial_superiority
mw-redirect
Racial superiority

values: Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas

values: Y-DNA haplogroups in indigenous peoples of the Americas

values: Prehistoric migration and settlement of the Americas from Asia

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Catholic_religion
mw-redirect
Catholic religion

values:
/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_people
mw-redirect
Taíno people

values: The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (March 2016)

values:
/wiki/Columbian_Exchange
mw-redirect
Columbian Exchange

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)

values: what does this mean. There appears to only be one type of spirochete that causes this. Not documented is "two types" of syphilis (August 2015)

values:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Childhood_diseases
mw-redirect
Childhood diseases

values:
/wiki/Pawnee_Indians
mw-redirect
Pawnee Indians

values:
/wiki/Yankton_Sioux
mw-redirect
Yankton Sioux

values: Edit section: Other causes of depopulation

values:
/wiki/Pontiac%27s_Rebellion
mw-redirect
Pontiac's Rebellion

values:
/wiki/French-Indian_War
mw-redirect
French-Indian War

values: Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas

values:
/wiki/Mita_(Inca)
mw-redirect
Mita (Inca)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2009)

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources

values: sounds very original research (December 2014)

values: "through war?" NATIVE manpower? Shouldn't it state that? (May 2013)

values: Round Valley Settler Massacres of 1856-1859

values: Edit section: Displacement and disruption

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2014)

values: Edit section: Formal apology from the United States government

values: Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: Portal:Indigenous peoples of North America

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values: List of Indian reserves in Canada by population

values: Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas

values:
/wiki/Selknam_genocide
mw-redirect
Selknam genocide

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330450332

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1096-8644

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.0030185

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18039031

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0030193

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15898833

values:
nofollow
http://www.ancient.eu/Inca_Government/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://countrystudies.us/bolivia/29.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.tahtonka.com/apology.html

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/4140301

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://hnn.us/articles/7302.html

values: Template:Indigenous peoples of the Americas

values: Template talk:Indigenous peoples of the Americas

values:
navbox-image
5
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas

values: List of Indigenous peoples of North America (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Jamaica
mw-redirect
Indigenous peoples of Jamaica

values: List of Indigenous peoples of South America

values: Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas

values: List of indigenous artists of the Americas

values: List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas

values: Category:Indigenous peoples of the Americas

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values: Template:Cultural areas of indigenous North Americans

values: Template talk:Cultural areas of indigenous North Americans

values: Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands

values: Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands

values: Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands

values: Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast

values: Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau

values:
navbox-image
1
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values: background: #FEEFD6;background: #FFDEAD;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;

values:
col
navbox-title
2
background: #FEEFD6;background: #FFDEAD

values:
row
navbox-group
background: #FEEFD6;width:10em

values: List of archaeological periods (North America)

values: background: #FEEFD6;;background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;

values:
col
navbox-list navbox-even
background: #FEEFD6;

values:
navbox-abovebelow
2
background: #FEEFD6;

values: Ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas

values: Painting in the Americas before European colonization

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: Template talk:Pre-Columbian North America

values: Motif S.E.C.C. crossincircle HRoe 2008.jpg

values:
;Periods
:_Lithic
:_Archaic
:_Formative
:_Classic
:_Post-Classic

values: S.E.C.C. hero twins 3 HRoe 2007-transparent.png

values: Hopewell Culture National Historical Park

values: Lake Jackson Mounds Archaeological State Park

values: Rock Paintings of Sierra de San Francisco

values: Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act

values:
/wiki/History_of_Mesoamerica
mw-redirect
History of Mesoamerica

values:
navbox-image
6
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories

values:
/wiki/Discoverer_of_the_Americas
mw-redirect
Discoverer of the Americas

values: Category:Maps of the history of the Americas

values:
/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas
mw-redirect
Slavery in the Americas

values: List of the oldest churches in the Americas (page does not exist)

values: List of countries in the Americas by population

values: Category:Timelines of North American history

values: List of archaeological periods (Mesoamerica)

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values:
/wiki/World_War_II_persecution_of_Serbs
mw-redirect
World War II persecution of Serbs

values:
/wiki/Al-Anfal_campaign
mw-redirect
Al-Anfal campaign

values: Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946)

values: Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia

values:
/wiki/Definitions_of_politicide
mw-redirect
Definitions of politicide

values: Category:History of indigenous peoples of the Americas

values: Category:Colonization history of the United States

values: Category:Human rights abuses in the United States

values: Category:Ethnic cleansing in the Americas

values: Category:Demographic history by country or region

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Use dmy dates from October 2013

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015

values: Category:All articles with failed verification

values: Category:Articles with failed verification from March 2016

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2015

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2015

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009

values: Category:Articles lacking reliable references from July 2014

values: Category:All articles lacking reliable references

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2014

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2013

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: Генацыд індзейцаў – Belarusian

values: Demografická historie amerických indiánů – Czech

values: Catástrofe demográfica en América tras la llegada de los europeos – Spanish

values: Histoire démographique des Amérindiens – French

values: Genocidio dei nativi americani – Italian

values: História demográfica dos povos indígenas das Américas – Portuguese

values: Индейская демографическая катастрофа – Russian

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Population_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas rootpage-Population_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas skin-vector action-view