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Cardiac surgery
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Cardiac surgery
Two cardiac surgeons performing coronary artery bypass surgery. Note the use of a steel retractor to forcefully maintain the exposure of the heart.
ICD-9-CM
35-37
MeSH
D006348
OPS-301 code
5-35...5-37
[edit on Wikidata]
Cardiac surgery, or cardiovascular surgery, is surgery on the heart or great vessels performed by cardiac surgeons. It is often used to treat complications of ischemic heart disease (for example, with coronary artery bypass grafting); to correct congenital heart disease; or to treat valvular heart disease from various causes, including endocarditis, rheumatic heart disease, and atherosclerosis. It also includes heart transplantation.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 19th century
1.2 20th century
2 Types of cardiac surgery
2.1 Open heart surgery
2.1.1 Modern beating-heart surgery
2.2 Heart transplant
2.3 Coronary artery bypass grafting
2.4 Minimally invasive surgery
3 Post-surgical procedures
4 Risks
4.1 Risk reduction
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
History[edit]
19th century[edit]
The earliest operations on the pericardium (the sac that surrounds the heart) took place in the 19th century and were performed by Francisco Romero (1801),[1] Dominique Jean Larrey (1810), Henry Dalton (1891), and Daniel Hale Williams (1893).[2] The first surgery on the heart itself was performed by Axel Cappelen on 4 September 1895 at Rikshospitalet in Kristiania, now Oslo. Cappelen ligated a bleeding coronary artery in a 24-year-old man who had been stabbed in the left axilla and was in deep shock upon arrival. Access was through a left thoracotomy. The patient awoke and seemed fine for 24 hours, but became ill with a fever and died three days after the surgery from mediastinitis.[3][4]
The first successful surgery on the heart, without any complications, was performed by Dr. Ludwig Rehn of Frankfurt, Germany, who repaired a stab wound to the right ventricle on 7 September 1896.[5][6]
20th century[edit]
Surgery on the great vessels (e.g., aortic coarctation repair, Blalock-Thomas-Taussig shunt creation, closure of patent ductus arteriosus) became common after the turn of the century. However, operations on the heart valves were unknown until, in 1925, Henry Souttar operated successfully on a young woman with mitral valve stenosis. He made an opening in the appendage of the left atrium and inserted a finger in order to palpate and explore the damaged mitral valve. The patient survived for several years,[7] but Souttar's colleagues considered the procedure unjustified, and he could not continue.[8][9]
Cardiac surgery changed significantly after World War II. In 1947, Thomas Holmes Sellors (1902–1987) of Middlesex Hospital in London operated on a Tetralogy of Fallot patient with pulmonary stenosis and successfully divided the stenosed pulmonary valve. In 1948, Russell Brock, probably unaware of Sellors's work, used a specially designed dilator in three cases of pulmonary stenosis. Later that year, he designed a punch to resect a stenosed infundibulum, which is often associated with Tetralogy of Fallot. Many thousands of these "blind" operations were performed until the introduction of cardiopulmonary bypass made direct surgery on valves possible.[8]
Also in 1948, four surgeons carried out successful operations for mitral valve stenosis resulting from rheumatic fever. Horace Smithy (1914–1948) of Charlotte used a valvulotome to remove a portion of a patient's mitral valve,[10] while three other doctors—Charles Bailey (1910–1993) of Hahnemann University Hospital in Philadelphia; Dwight Harken in Boston; and Russell Brock of Guy's Hospital in London—adopted Souttar's method. All four men began their work independently of one another within a period of a few months. This time, Souttar's technique was widely adopted, with some modifications.[8][9]
The first successful intracardiac correction of a congenital heart defect using hypothermia was performed by Drs. C. Walton Lillehei and F. John Lewis at the University of Minnesota on 2 September 1952. In 1953, Alexander Alexandrovich Vishnevsky conducted the first cardiac surgery under local anesthesia. In 1956, Dr. John Carter Callaghan performed the first documented open heart surgery in Canada.
Alfred Blalock, Helen Taussig and Vivien Thomas performed the first successful pediatric cardiac operation at Johns Hopkins Hospital on November, 29 1944, a total repair of Tetralogy of Fallot in a one-year-old girl.[11]
Types of cardiac surgery[edit]
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Open heart surgery[edit]
Open-heart surgery is any kind of surgery in which a surgeon makes a large incision (cut) in the chest to open the rib cage and operate on the heart. “Open” refers to the chest, not the heart. Depending on the type of surgery, the surgeon also may open the heart. [12]
Dr. Wilfred G. Bigelow of the University of Toronto found that procedures involving opening the patient's heart could be performed better in a bloodless and motionless environment. Therefore, during such surgery, the heart is temporarily stopped, and the patient is placed on cardiopulmonary bypass, meaning a machine pumps their blood and oxygen. Because the machine cannot function the same way as the heart, surgeons try to minimize the time a patient spends on it.[13]
Cardiac surgery at Gemelli Hospital in Rome.
Cardiopulmonary bypass was developed after surgeons realized the limitations of hypothermia in cardiac surgery: Complex intracardiac repairs take time, and the patient needs blood flow to the body (particularly to the brain), as well as heart and lung function. In 1953, Dr. John Heysham Gibbon of Jefferson Medical School in Philadelphia reported the first successful use of extracorporeal circulation by means of an oxygenator, but he abandoned the method after subsequent failures. In 1954, Dr. Lillehei performed a series of successful operations with the controlled cross-circulation technique, in which the patient's mother or father was used as a "heart-lung machine". Dr. John W. Kirklin at the Mayo Clinic was the first to use a Gibbon-type pump-oxygenator.
Nazih Zuhdi performed the first total intentional hemodilution open heart surgery on Terry Gene Nix, age 7, on 25 February 1960 at Mercy Hospital in Oklahoma City. The operation was a success; however, Nix died three years later.[14] In March 1961, Zuhdi, Carey, and Greer performed open heart surgery on a child, age 3 1⁄2, using the total intentional hemodilution machine.
Modern beating-heart surgery[edit]
In the early 1990s, surgeons began to perform off-pump coronary artery bypass, done without cardiopulmonary bypass. In these operations, the heart continues beating during surgery, but is stabilized to provide an almost still work area in which to connect a conduit vessel that bypasses a blockage.The conduit vessel that is often used is the Saphenous vein. This vein is harvested using a technique known as endoscopic vessel harvesting (EVH).
Heart transplant[edit]
In 1945, the Soviet pathologist Nikolai Sinitsyn successfully transplanted a heart from one frog to another frog and from one dog to another dog.
Norman Shumway is widely regarded as the father of human heart transplantation, although the world's first adult heart transplant was performed by a South African cardiac surgeon, Christiaan Barnard, using techniques developed by Shumway and Richard Lower.[15] Barnard performed the first transplant on Louis Washkansky on 3 December 1967 at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town.[15][16] Adrian Kantrowitz performed the first pediatric heart transplant on 6 December 1967 at Maimonides Hospital (now Maimonides Medical Center) in Brooklyn, New York, barely three days later.[15] Shumway performed the first adult heart transplant in the United States on 6 January 1968 at Stanford University Hospital.[15]
Coronary artery bypass grafting[edit]
Coronary artery bypass grafting, also called revascularization, is a common surgical procedure to create an alternative path to deliver blood supply to the heart and body, with the goal of preventing clot formation. This can be done in many ways, and the arteries used can be taken from several areas of the body.[17] Arteries are typically harvested from the chest, arm, or wrist and then attached to a portion of the coronary artery, relieving pressure and limiting clotting factors in that area of the heart.[18]
The procedure is typically performed because of coronary artery disease (CAD), in which a plaque-like substance builds up in the coronary artery, the main pathway carrying oxygen-rich blood to the heart. This can cause a blockage and/or a rupture, which can lead to a heart attack.[18]
Minimally invasive surgery[edit]
As an alternative to open heart surgery, which involves a five- to eight-inch incision in the chest wall, a surgeon may perform an endoscopic procedure by making very small incisions through which a camera and specialized tools are inserted.[19]
In robot-assisted heart surgery, a machine controlled by a cardiac surgeon is used to perform a procedure. The main advantage to this is the size of the incision required: three small holes instead of an incision big enough for the surgeon's hands.[citation needed]
Post-surgical procedures[edit]
As with any surgical procedure, cardiac surgery requires postoperative precautions to avoid complications. Incision care is needed to avoid infection and minimize scarring. Swelling and loss of appetite are common.[20][21]
Recovery from open heart surgery begins with about 48 hours in an intensive care unit, where heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygen levels are closely monitored. Chest tubes are inserted to drain blood around the heart and lungs. After discharge from the hospital, compression socks may be recommended in order to regulate blood flow.[22]
Risks[edit]
The advancement of cardiac surgery and cardiopulmonary bypass techniques has greatly reduced the mortality rates of these procedures. For instance, repairs of congenital heart defects are currently estimated to have 4–6% mortality rates.[23][24]
A major concern with cardiac surgery is neurological damage. Stroke occurs in 2–3% of all people undergoing cardiac surgery, and the rate is higher in patients with other risk factors for stroke.[25] A more subtle complication attributed to cardiopulmonary bypass is postperfusion syndrome, sometimes called "pumphead". The neurocognitive symptoms of postperfusion syndrome were initially thought to be permanent,[26] but turned out to be transient, with no permanent neurological impairment.[27]
In order to assess the performance of surgical units and individual surgeons, a popular risk model has been created called the EuroSCORE. It takes a number of health factors from a patient and, using precalculated logistic regression coefficients, attempts to quantify the probability that they will survive to discharge. Within the United Kingdom, the EuroSCORE was used to give a breakdown of all cardiothoracic surgery centres and to indicate whether the units and their individuals surgeons performed within an acceptable range. The results are available on the Care Quality Commission website.[28]
Another important source of complications are the neuropsychological and psychopathologic changes following open heart surgery. One example is Skumin syndrome, described by Victor Skumin in 1978, which is a "cardioprosthetic psychopathological syndrome"[29] associated with mechanical heart valve implants and characterized by irrational fear, anxiety, depression, sleep disorder, and weakness.[30][31]
Risk reduction[edit]
A 2012 Cochrane systematic review found evidence that preoperative physical therapy reduced postoperative pulmonary complications, such as pneumonia and atelectasis, in patients undergoing elective cardiac surgery.[32] In addition, the researchers found that preoperative physical therapy decreased the length of hospital stay by more than three days on average.[32]
A 2013 Cochrane review showed that both pharmacological and non-pharmacological prevention reduce the risk of atrial fibrillation after an operation and reduced the length of hospital stays. No difference in mortality could be shown.[33]
There is evidence that quitting smoking at least four weeks before surgery may reduce the risk of postoperative complications.[34]
See also[edit]
Cardioplegia
Eagle score
Chest tube
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Aris A. (September 1997). "Francisco Romero the first heart surgeon". Ann. Thorac. Surg. 64 (3): 870–1. doi:10.1016/S0003-4975(97)00760-1. PMID 9307502.
Jump up ^ "Pioneers in Academic Surgery". U.S. National Library of Medicine.
Jump up ^ Westaby, Stephen; Bosher, Cecil. Landmarks in Cardiac Surgery. ISBN 1-899066-54-3.
Jump up ^ Baksaas ST; Solberg S (January 2003). "Verdens første hjerteoperasjon". Tidsskr Nor Lægeforen. 123 (2): 202–4.
Jump up ^ Absolon KB, Naficy MA (2002). First successful cardiac operation in a human, 1896: a documentation: the life, the times, and the work of Ludwig Rehn (1849–1930). Rockville, MD : Kabel, 2002
Jump up ^ Johnson SL (1970). History of Cardiac Surgery, 1896–1955. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. p. 5.
Jump up ^ Dictionary of National Biography – Henry Souttar (2004–08)
^ Jump up to: a b c Harold Ellis (2000) A History of Surgery, page 223+
^ Jump up to: a b Lawrence H Cohn (2007), Cardiac Surgery in the Adult, page 6+
Jump up ^ "About Horace G. Smithy, MD". Medical University of South Carolina. Retrieved 2017-05-05.
Jump up ^ To Heal the Heart of a Child: Helen Taussig, M.D. Joyce Baldwin, Walker and Company New York,1992
Jump up ^ http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/heart-surgery/
Jump up ^ http://www.texasheart.org/HIC/Topics/Proced/
Jump up ^ Warren, Cliff, Dr. Nazih Zuhdi – His Scientific Work Made All Paths Lead to Oklahoma City, in Distinctly Oklahoma, November, 2007, p. 30–33
^ Jump up to: a b c d McRae, D. (2007). Every Second Counts. Berkley.
Jump up ^ "Memories of the Heart". Doylestown, Pennsylvania: Daily Intelligencer. November 29, 1987. p. A–18.
Jump up ^ "What Is Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting? - NHLBI, NIH". www.nhlbi.nih.gov. Retrieved 2016-07-08.
^ Jump up to: a b https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/surgery/cardiac/procedures/open-heart.aspx
Jump up ^ Open heart surgery: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. (2016, February 2). Retrieved February 15, 2016, from https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002950.htm
Jump up ^ "Heart Surgery | Incision Care". my.clevelandclinic.org. Retrieved 2016-07-08.
Jump up ^ "What to Expect After Heart Surgery" (PDF). sts.org. Retrieved 8 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "What To Expect After Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting - NHLBI, NIH". www.nhlbi.nih.gov. Retrieved 2016-07-08.
Jump up ^ Stark J; Gallivan S; Lovegrove J; et al. (March 2000). "Mortality rates after surgery for congenital heart defects in children and surgeons' performance". Lancet. 355 (9208): 1004–7. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)90001-1. PMID 10768449.
Jump up ^ Klitzner TS; Lee M; Rodriguez S; Chang RK (May 2006). "Sex-related disparity in surgical mortality among pediatric patients". Congenit Heart Dis. 1 (3): 77–88. doi:10.1111/j.1747-0803.2006.00013.x. PMID 18377550.
Jump up ^ Naylor AR, Bown MJ (2011). "Stroke after cardiac surgery and its association with asymptomatic carotid disease: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis". Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 41 (5): 607–24. doi:10.1016/j.ejvs.2011.02.016. PMID 21396854.
Jump up ^ Newman M; Kirchner J; Phillips-Bute B; Gaver V; Grocott H; et al. (2001). "Longitudinal assessment of neurocognitive function after coronary-artery bypass surgery". N Engl J Med. 344 (6): 395–402. doi:10.1056/NEJM200102083440601. PMID 11172175.
Jump up ^ Van Dijk D; Jansen E; Hijman R; Nierich A; Diephuis J; et al. (2002). "Cognitive outcome after off-pump and on-pump coronary artery bypass graft surgery: a randomized trial". JAMA. 287 (11): 1405–12. doi:10.1001/jama.287.11.1405. PMID 11903027.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-11-05. Retrieved 2011-10-21. CQC website for heart surgery outcomes in the UK for 3 years ending March 2009
Jump up ^ Bendet, Ya. A.; Morozov, S. M.; Skumin, V. A. (1980). "Psychological aspects of the rehabilitation of patients after the surgical treatment of heart defects" Psikhologicheskie aspekty reabilitatsii bol'nykh posle khirurgicheskogo lecheniia porokov serdtsa [Psychological aspects of the rehabilitation of patients after the surgical treatment of heart defects]. Kardiologiia. 20 (6): 45–51. OCLC 114137678. PMID 7392405. Archived from the original on 2018-01-02.
Jump up ^ Skumin, V. A. (1982). Nepsikhoticheskie narusheniia psikhiki u bol'nykh s priobretennymi porokami serdtsa do i posle operatsii (obzor) [Nonpsychotic mental disorders in patients with acquired heart defects before and after surgery (review)]. Zhurnal nevropatologii i psikhiatrii imeni S.S. Korsakova. 82: 130–5. OCLC 112979417. PMID 6758444. Archived from the original on 2018-01-02.
Jump up ^ Ruzza, Andrea. "Nonpsychotic mental disorder after open heart surgery" Asian Cardiovascular and Thoracic Annals (2013)
^ Jump up to: a b Hulzebos, EHJ; Smit Y; Helders PPJM; van Meeteren NLU (14 November 2012). "Preoperative physical therapy for elective cardiac surgery patients". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (11). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010118.pub2. Retrieved 27 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Arsenault, Kyle A; Yusuf, Arif M; Crystal, Eugene; Healey, Jeff S; Morillo, Carlos A; Nair, Girish M; Whitlock, Richard P (2013-01-31). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd003611.pub3.
Jump up ^ Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG). "Complications after surgery: Can quitting smoking before surgery reduce the risks?". Informed Health Online. IQWiG (Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care). Retrieved 27 June 2013.
Further reading[edit]
Cohn, Lawrence H.; Edmunds, Jr, L. Henry, eds. (2003). Cardiac surgery in the adult. New York: McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division. ISBN 0-07-139129-0. Archived from the original on 2016-06-14.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cardiac surgery.
Overview at American Heart Association
"Congenital Heart Disease Surgical Corrective Procedures", a list of surgical procedures at learningradiology.com
"Cardiac Surgery in Adult", Specialised doctors at Narayahahealth.org
What to expect before, during and after heart surgery from Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center (Seattle)
MedlinePlus Encyclopedia Minimally invasive heart surgery
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Surgery and other procedures involving the heart (ICD-9-CM V3 35–37+89.4+99.6, ICD-10-PCS 02)
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text:
Visual cliff
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The visual cliff apparatus was created by psychologists Eleanor J. Gibson and Richard D. Walk at Cornell University to investigate depth perception in human and animal species. This apparatus allowed them to experimentally adjust the optical and tactical stimuli associated with a simulated cliff while protecting the subjects from injury.[1] The visual cliff consists of a sheet of Plexiglas that covers a cloth with a high-contrast checkerboard pattern. On one side the cloth is placed immediately beneath the Plexiglas, and on the other, it is dropped about 4 feet below. Since the Plexiglas supports the weight of the infant this is a visual cliff rather than a drop off.[1] Using a visual cliff apparatus, Gibson and Walk examined possible perceptual differences at crawling age between human infants born preterm and human infants born at term without documented visual or motor impairments.[2]
Contents
1 The original visual cliff study
2 Human infants studies
2.1 Preterm infants
2.2 Prelocomotor infants
2.3 Maternal signaling
3 The study in different species
3.1 Rats
3.2 Cats
3.3 Turtles
3.4 Cows
3.5 Chicks
3.6 Lambs
4 Criticisms
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
The original visual cliff study[edit]
Gibson and Walk (1960)[1] hypothesized that depth perception is inherent as opposed to a learned process. To test this, they placed 36 infants, 6 to 14 months of age, on the shallow side of the visual cliff apparatus. Once the infant was placed on the opaque end of the platform, the caregivers (typically a parent) stood on the other side of the transparent plexiglas, calling out for them to come or holding some sort of enticing stimulus such as a toy so that the infant would be motivated to crawl across towards them. It was assumed if the child was reluctant to crawl to their caregiver, he or she was able to perceive depth, believing that the transparent space was an actual cliff.[3] The researchers found that 27 of the infants crawled over to their mother on the "deep" side without any problems.[4] A few of the infants crawled but were extremely hesitant. Some infants refused to crawl because they were confused about the perceived drop between them and their mothers. The infants knew the glass was solid by patting it, but still did not cross. In this experiment, all of the babies relied on their vision in order to navigate across the apparatus. This shows that when healthy infants are able to crawl, they can perceive depth.[1] However, results do not indicate that avoidance of cliffs and fear of heights is innate.[1]
Human infants studies[edit]
Preterm infants[edit]
Sixteen infants born at term and sixteen born preterm were encouraged to crawl to their caregivers on a modified visual cliff. Successful trials, crossing time, duration of visual attention, duration of tactile exploration, motor strategies, and avoidance behaviors were analyzed. A significant surface effect was found, with longer crossing times and longer durations of visual attention and tactile exploration in the condition with the visual appearance of a deep cliff. Although the two groups of infants did not differ on any of the timed measurements, infants born at term demonstrated a larger number of motor strategies and avoidance behaviors by simple tally. This study indicates that infants born at term and those born preterm can perceive a visual cliff and change their responses accordingly.[2]
Prelocomotor infants[edit]
Another study measured the cardiac responses of human infants younger than crawling age on the visual cliff. This study found that the infants exhibited distress less frequently when they were placed on the shallow side of the apparatus in contrast to when they were placed on the deep side. This means that prelocomotor infants can discriminate between the two sides of the cliff.[5]
Maternal signaling[edit]
James F Sorce et al. tested [6] to see how maternal emotional signaling affected the behaviors of 1-year-olds on the visual cliff. To do this they placed the infants on the shallow side of the visual cliff apparatus and had their mothers on the other side of the visual cliff eliciting different emotional facial expressions. When the mothers posed joy or interest most of the babies crossed the deep side but if the mothers posed fear or anger, most of the babies did not cross the apparatus.
On the contrary, in the absence of depth, most of the babies crossed regardless of the mother’s facial expressions. This suggests that babies look to their mother’s emotional expressions for advice most often when they are uncertain about the situation.[7]
The study in different species[edit]
The visual cliff was not only tested on human infants, it was applied to other species as well. A few of these species included rats, cats, turtles, cows, and chickens.
Rats[edit]
Rats do not depend upon visual cues like some of the other species tested. Their nocturnal habits lead them to seek food largely by smell. When moving about in the dark, they respond to tactual cues from their stiff whiskers (vibrissae) located on the snout. Hooded rats tested on the visual cliff show little preference for either side of the visual cliff apparatus as long as they could feel the glass with their vibrissae. When placed upon the glass over the deep side, they move about as if there was no cliff.[8]
Cats[edit]
Cats, like rats, are nocturnal animals, sensitive to tactual cues from their vibrissae. But the cat, as a predator, must rely more on its sight. Kittens were observed to have excellent depth-discrimination. At four weeks, the earliest age that a kitten can skillfully move about, they preferred the shallow side of the cliff. When placed on the glass over the deep side, they either freeze or circle backward until they reach the shallow side of the cliff.[8]
Turtles[edit]
The late Robert M. Yerkes of Harvard University found in 1904 that aquatic turtles have somewhat worse depth-discrimination than land turtles. On the visual cliff one might expect an aquatic turtle to respond to the reflections from the glass as it might to water and prefer the deep side for this reason. They showed no such preference; 76% of the aquatic turtles crawled onto the shallow side. The large percentage that choose the deep side suggests either that this turtle has worse depth-discrimination than other animals, or that its natural habitat gives it less occasions to "fear" a fall.[8]
Cows[edit]
The ability for cows to perceive a visual cliff was tested by NA Arnold et al. Twelve dairy heifers were exposed to a visual cliff in the form of a milking pit while walking through a milking facility. Over this five-day experiment the heifers’ heart rates were measured along with the number of times they stopped throughout the milking facility. Dairy heifers in the experimental group were exposed to a visual cliff while dairy heifers in the control group were not. The experimental group was found to have significantly higher heart rates and stop more frequently than the heifers in the control group. Depth exposure did not have any effect on cortisol levels or the ease of handling of the animals. These findings provide evidence of both depth perception and acute fear of heights in cows. This may lead to a reorganization of the way milking factories function.[9]
Chicks[edit]
Two-day-old chicks responded to the visual cliff when tested by PR Green et al. As the depth of the visual cliff below the chicks was increased, the latency for the chick to move towards the incentive, another chick on the far side of the apparatus, was increased while the speed at which they moved decreased. On the other hand, chicks that were given the same incentive to jump over a visible edge, onto the deep side of the apparatus, were less inclined to move at all depths. This illustrates that the absolute depth of a surface and the relative depth of an edge affect behavior differently in chicks.
Lambs[edit]
Lambs are able to stand and learn to walk almost as soon as they are born. Just like chicks, they were able to be tested as soon as they could stand. They did not make one error when tested on the visual cliff. When placed on the deep side of the glass, they would become scared and they would tense up and be afraid to move. However, when they were moved to the shallow side they would relax and jump onto the visually shallow surface.[1] This showed that visual sense, instead of the ability of the animal to feel the stableness of the glass, was in control.
Criticisms[edit]
One of the criticisms of the visual cliff study was whether the research in the study really supported the hypothesis that depth perception was innate in humans. One issue was about the glass over the deep part of the visual cliff. By covering up the deep side with glass the researchers enabled the babies to feel the solidity of the glass before they would cross over. This response was repeated over and over again in tests.[10] Another criticism has to do with the experience of the infant. Infants who learned to crawl before 6.5 months of age had crossed the glass, but the ones that learned to crawl after 6.5 months of age avoided crossing the glass. This helps support the hypothesis that experience does influence avoidance of the glass, rather than just being innate.[11]
See also[edit]
Depth perception
Developmental psychology
Psychology
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Gibson, E.J.; Walk, R.D. (April 1960). "Visual Cliff". Scientific American. 202 (4): 64. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0460-64. copy
^ Jump up to: a b Lin, Yuan-Shan; Rielly, Marie; Mercer, Vicki S. (2010). "Responses to a Modified Visual Cliff by Pre-Walking Infants Born Preterm and at Term". Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics. 30 (1): 66–78. doi:10.3109/01942630903291170.
Jump up ^ Cherry, Kendra. What Is a Visual Cliff? psychology.about.com.
Jump up ^ Watch Out For The Visual Cliff. The Neuron (29 March 2009).
Jump up ^ Campos, J. J., Langer, A., & Krowitz, A. (1970). "Cardiac Responses on the Visual Cliff in Prelocomotor Human Infants". Science. 170 (3954): 196–7. doi:10.1126/science.170.3954.196. PMID 5456616. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ maternal emotional signaling
Jump up ^ Gibson, E. J., Walk, R. D., & Tighe, T. J. (1957). "Behavior of Light- and Dark-Reared Rats on a Visual Cliff". Science. 126 (3263): 80. doi:10.1126/science.126.3263.80-a. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Fantz, R.L. (1961). "The origin of form perception". Scientific American. 204 (5): 66–72. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0561-66.
Jump up ^ Arnold, N. A., Ng, K. T., Jongman, E. C., & Hemsworth, P. H. (2007). "Responses of dairy heifers to the visual cliff formed by a herringbone milking pit: evidence of fear of heights in cows (Bos taurus)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 121 (4): 440–6. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.121.4.440. PMID 18085928. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ [1] Adolph, K. E., & Kretch, K. S., Infants on the Edge: Beyond the Visual Cliff, Adobe PowerPoint
Jump up ^ [2] Nancy Rader, Mary Bausano and John E. Richards, On the Nature of the Visual Cliff Avoidance Response in Human Infants, Adobe PowerPoint
External links[edit]
Visual Cliff Video
[3]
[4]
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Sprung rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Half rhyme, also known as "sprung rhyme".
Sprung rhythm is a poetic rhythm designed to imitate the rhythm of natural speech. It is constructed from feet in which the first syllable is stressed and may be followed by a variable number of unstressed syllables.[1] The British poet Gerard Manley Hopkins said he discovered this previously unnamed poetic rhythm in the natural patterns of English in folk songs, spoken poetry, Shakespeare, Milton, et al. He used diacritical marks on syllables to indicate which should be stressed in cases "where the reader might be in doubt which syllable should have the stress" (acute, e.g. shéer) and which syllables should be pronounced but not stressed (grave, e.g., gleanèd).
Some critics believe he merely coined a name for poems with mixed, irregular feet, like free verse. However, while sprung rhythm allows for an indeterminate number of syllables to a foot, Hopkins was very careful to keep the number of feet per line consistent across each individual work, a trait that free verse does not share. Sprung rhythm may be classed as a form of accentual verse, due to its being stress-timed, rather than syllable-timed,[2] and while sprung rhythm did not become a popular literary form, Hopkins's advocacy did assist in a revival of accentual verse more generally.[3]
Contents
1 Example
2 Scansion
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
Example[edit]

The Windhover

To Christ our Lord

I caught this morning morning's minion, king-
dom of daylight's dauphin, dapple-dawn-drawn Falcon, in his riding
Of the rolling level underneath him steady air, and striding
High there, how he rung upon the rein of a wimpling wing
In his ecstasy! then off, off forth on swing,
As a skate's heel sweeps smooth on a bow-bend: the hurl and gliding
Rebuffed the big wind. My heart in hiding
Stirred for a bird, – the achieve of, the mastery of the thing!

Brute beauty and valour and act, oh, air, pride, plume, here
Buckle! AND the fire that breaks from thee then, a billion
Times told lovelier, more dangerous, O my chevalier!

No wonder of it: shéer plód makes plough down sillion
Shine, and blue-bleak embers, ah my dear,
Fall, gall themselves, and gash gold-vermilion.

—Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844–1889)
Scansion[edit]
Since Hopkins considers that feet always begin in a stressed syllable in sprung rhythm, for a scansion it is enough to specify which syllables are stressed. One proposed scansion [4] of this poem is
I cáught this mórning mórning's mínion, kíng-
dom of dáylight's dáuphin, dapple-dáwn-drawn Fálcon, in his ríding
Of the rólling level úndernéath him steady áir, and stríding
Hígh there, how he rúng upon the réin of a wímpling wíng
In his écstasy! then óff, óff fórth on swíng,
As a skáte's heel sweeps smóoth on a bów-bend: the húrl and glíding
Rebúffed the bíg wínd. My héart in híding
Stírred for a bírd, – the achíeve of, the mástery of the thíng!

Brute béauty and válour and áct, oh, air, príde, plume, hére
Buckle! ÁND the fíre that bréaks from thee thén, a bíllion
Tímes told lóvelier, more dángerous, Ó my chevalíer!

No wónder of it: shéer plód makes plóugh down síllion
Shíne, and blúe-bleak émbers, áh my déar,
Fall, gáll themsélves, and gásh góld-vermílion.

Authorities disagree about the scansion. The scansion of this poem is also discussed in [5]. Although they don't give a complete scansion, their proposal differs in the 10th and 14th lines.
See also[edit]
Grail Psalms
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Sprung Rhythm in Hopkins", Britannica Online
Jump up ^ In the classic mode: the achievement of Robert Bridges, by Donald Elwin Stanford, 1978, pp. 81–92; see p. 81 for "Sprung rhythm … is a special kind of accentual verse"
Jump up ^ "Accentual verse", Dana Gioia
Jump up ^ Kiparsky, Paul. Sprung Rhythm in Phonetics and Phonology, Volume 1: Rhythm and Meter, edited by Paul Kiparsky and Gilbert Youmans, Academic Press, 1989
Jump up ^ Gardner, W. H. and Mackenzie, N.H. The Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins, Oxford University Press, Fourth edition, 1967.
References[edit]
Schneider, E. W. (June 1965). "Sprung Rhythm: A Chapter in the Evolution of Nineteenth-Century Verse". PMLA. 80 (3): 237–253. doi:10.2307/461271.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sprung_rhythm&oldid=859009537"
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Turn the Page (Bob Seger song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Turn the Page"
Single by Bob Seger & The Silver Bullet Band
from the album Back in '72, Live Bullet
Released
1973 (original)
1976 (live)
Recorded
1972 (original), September 1975 (live version)
Cobo Hall, Detroit, Michigan
Genre
Rock
soul
Length
5:11
5:06 (live)
Label
Capitol
Songwriter(s)
Bob Seger
Producer(s)
Punch Andrews
Bob Seger
"Turn the Page" is a song originally released by Bob Seger in 1973 on his Back in '72 album. Though never released as a single, Seger's live version of the song on the 1976 Live Bullet album became a mainstay of album-oriented rock radio stations, and still gets significant airplay to this day on classic rock stations.
Contents
1 Inspiration
2 Instrumentation
3 Jon English cover
4 Metallica cover
5 Influences
6 Awards
7 References
8 External links
Inspiration[edit]
"Turn the Page" is about the emotional and social ups and downs of a rock musician's life on the road. Seger wrote it in 1972 while touring with Teegarden & Van Winkle. Drummer David Teegarden (of Teegarden & Van Winkle and later the Silver Bullet Band) recalls:
We had been playing somewhere in the Midwest, or the northern reaches, on our way to North or South Dakota. [Guitarist] Mike Bruce was with us. We'd been traveling all night from the Detroit area to make this gig, driving in this blinding snowstorm. It was probably 3 in the morning. Mike decided it was time to get gas. He was slowing down to exit the interstate and spied a truck stop. We all had very long hair back then – it was the hippie era – but Skip, Mike and Bob had all stuffed their hair up in their hats. You had to be careful out on the road like that, because you'd get ostracized. When I walked in, there was this gauntlet of truckers making comments – "Is that a girl or man?" I was seething; those guys were laughing their asses off, a big funny joke. That next night, after we played our gig – I think it was Mitchell, S.D. – Seger says, "Hey, I've been working on this song for a bit, I've got this new line for it. He played it on acoustic guitar, and there was that line: "Oh, the same old cliches / 'Is that a woman or a man?' " It was "Turn the Page."[1]
Tom Weschler, then road manager for Seger, remembers the same incident:
"Turn the Page," Bob's great road song, came along in '72, while we were driving home from a gig. I think we were in Dubuque, Iowa, in winter and stopped at a restaurant. We stood out when we entered a store or a gas station or a restaurant en masse. At this restaurant it was particularly bright inside, so there weren't any dark corners to hide in. All these local guys were looking at us like, "What are these guys? Is that a woman or a man?" – just like in the song. ... That was one incident, but there were so many others on the road that led Seger to write that song.[2]
Instrumentation[edit]
Both Seger's studio and live versions of "Turn the Page" feature a mellotron and a saxophone part played by founding Silver Bullet member Alto Reed. Tom Weschler allegedly helped inspire Reed to create the opening melody. During recording, Weschler told Reed: "Alto, think about it like this: You're in New York City, on the Bowery. It's 3 a.m. You're under a streetlamp. There's a light mist coming down. You're all by yourself. Show me what that sounds like." With that, Reed played the opening melody to "Turn the Page".[2]
Jon English cover[edit]
Australian singer Jon English released a version of the song in 1974 as the lead single from his second studio album, It's All a Game. The song peaked at number 20 on the Kent Music Report.[3]
Metallica cover[edit]
"Turn the Page"
Single by Metallica
from the album Garage Inc.
B-side
"Bleeding Me"/"Stone Cold Crazy"/"The Wait"
Released
November 16, 1998
Format
CD single
Recorded
September–October 1998
Genre
Heavy metal, country rock, alternative rock
Length
6:06
Label
Elektra
Songwriter(s)
Bob Seger
Producer(s)
Bob Rock
Metallica singles chronology
"Fuel"
(1998) "Turn the Page"
(1998) "Whiskey in the Jar"
(1999)
"Fuel"
(1998) "Turn the Page"
(1998) "Whiskey in the Jar"
(1999)
Music video
"Turn the Page" on YouTube
Of the many cover versions that have been recorded, the most popular might be that of Metallica who released it as the first single from their 1998 Garage Inc. album, reaching number 1 on the Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart for 11 consecutive weeks, the highest number of weeks Metallica has ever spent at the top; drummer Lars Ulrich had heard the original song while driving across the Golden Gate Bridge and later commented that he thought it "had James Hetfield all over it".[4] Metallica's rendition is taken at much the same tempo as Seger's, but with a heavier feel; the saxophone part is replaced by a high slide guitar line from Kirk Hammett. The accompanying music video explores a day in the life not of musicians, but a mother (played by Ginger Lynn) who is a sex worker; that is, she works as a stripper by day, and a prostitute by night. MTV refused to air the video due to nudity and a scene depicting sexual assault between the mother and a client.[5] The video was directed by Jonas Åkerlund.[6]
Influences[edit]
Jon Bon Jovi has claimed that the song was a big influence on him and Richie Sambora when they were writing their 1986 song "Wanted Dead or Alive."[7]
The 1995 Bruce Springsteen song "Youngstown" uses a very similar tune.[citation needed]
Awards[edit]
In 2014, Seger performed the song on CMT Crossroads with country singer Jason Aldean. The video of the performance won the CMT Music Award for Performance Video of the Year.[8]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Brian McCollum (March 14, 2004). "A definitive oral history of Seger's early years". Detroit Free Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Weschler, Tom, and Gary Graff. Travelin Man: on the road and behind the scenes with Bob Seger. Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University Press, 2009.
Jump up ^ Kent, David (1993). Australian Chart Book 1970–1992. St Ives, NSW: Australian Chart Book. ISBN 0-646-11917-6.
Jump up ^ http://www.encycmet.com/songs/sgtpage.shtml
Jump up ^ "Ginger Lynn". IMDb.
Jump up ^ Armstrong, Chuck. "Metallica, 'Turn the Page' – Official Music Video". Ultimate Metallica. Retrieved December 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ Video: Jon Bon Jovi talks with Richie Sambora and the audience about Bob Seger on YouTube
Jump up ^ "2015 CMT Music Awards: The Winners". CMT.com. June 11, 2015.
External links[edit]
"Reason to Rock" review
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
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Related articles
Discography
Gibson/Miller Band
Book
show
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Jon English
Discography
Studio albums
Wine Dark Sea (1973)
It's All a Game (1974)
Hollywood Seven (1976)
Minutes To Midnight (1977)
Words Are Not Enough (1978)
Calm Before the Storm (1980)
In Roads (1981)
Jokers and Queens (with Marcia Hines) (1982)
Some People... (with The Foster Brothers) (1982)
Dark Horses (1987)
Live albums
Beating the Boards (1982)
The Rock Show (2012)
Soundtracks & Cast recordings
Jesus Christ Superstar (1972)
Ned Kelly (1974)
Against the Wind (1978)
Street Hero (1984)
Paris (1990)
The Pirates of Penzance (1994)
Buskers and Angels (2000)
Compilation albums
English History (1979)
Modern English: 16 Great Hits (1983)
The Best of Jon English (1993)
English History II (2001)
Mot Alle Vindar – Six Ribbons (2007)
Legends – Jon English (2008)
Six Ribbons - The Ultimate Collection (2011)
History (2016)
Singles
"Handbags and Gladrags"
"Close Every Door"
"Turn the Page"
"Lovin' Arms"
"Hollywood Seven"
"Behind Blue Eyes"
"Six Ribbons"
"Get Your Love Right"
"Hot Town"
"Straight from the Heart"
"Josephine (Too Many Secrets)"
"Stand By Me"
Film, TV & Theare
Jesus Christ Superstar (1972)
Matlock Police (1975)
Against the Wind (1978)
Touch and Go (1980)
All Together Now (1991–93)
The Pirates of Penzance (1994)
The Mikado (1996)
HMS Pinafore (1997)
Walk the Talk (2000)
Time Trackers (2007)
Awards
Logie Awards of 1979
Best New Talent
Countdown Awards of 1979
Most Popular Male Performer
Green Room Awards of 1983
Male Actor in a Leading Role
Mo Awards of 1983–85
Entertainer of the Year
ARIA Music Awards of 1991
Best Soundtrack
Related articles
Sebastian Hardie
"You're Not Alone (Australian Olympians song)"
Countdown Spectacular (2006)
show
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"Fade to Black"
"For Whom the Bell Tolls"
"Don't Tread on Me"
"Ain't My Bitch"
"Bleeding Me"
"Better than You"
"My Apocalypse"
"Cyanide"
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Other songs
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"The Unforgiven III"
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