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President pro tempore of the United States Senate
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President pro tempore of the United States Senate
Incumbent
Orrin Hatch (R)
since January 6, 2015
Style
Mr. President
(Informal and within the Senate)
The Honorable
(Formal)
Appointer
Elected by the U.S. Senate
Term length
At the pleasure of the Senate, and until another is elected or their term of office as a Senator expires
Constituting instrument
U.S. Constitution
Inaugural holder
John Langdon
April 6, 1789
Formation
March 4, 1789
Succession
Third[1]
Deputy
Any senator, typically a member of the majority party, designated by the President pro tempore
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The President pro tempore of the United States Senate (also president pro tem) is the second-highest-ranking official of the United States Senate. Article One, Section Three of the United States Constitution provides that the Vice President of the United States is, despite not being a U.S. Senator, the President of the Senate, and mandates that the Senate must choose a President pro tempore to act in the Vice President's absence. Unlike the Vice President, the President pro tempore is an elected member of the Senate, able to speak or vote on any issue. Selected by the Senate at large, the President pro tempore has enjoyed many privileges and some limited powers.[2] During the Vice President's absence, the President pro tempore is empowered to preside over Senate sessions. In practice, neither the Vice President nor the President pro tempore usually presides; instead, the duty of presiding officer is rotated among junior U.S. Senators of the majority party to give them experience in parliamentary procedure.[3]
Since 1890, the most senior U.S. Senator in the majority party has generally been chosen to be President pro tempore and holds the office continuously until the election of another. This tradition has been observed without interruption since 1949.[4] Since enactment of the current Presidential Succession Act in 1947, the president pro tempore is third in the line of succession to the presidency, after the vice president and the Speaker of the House of Representatives and ahead of the Secretary of State.[5] The automatic line of succession applies only to the presidency; the office of Vice President remains vacant until an appointment is made as provided in the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution.
The current President pro tempore of the Senate is Utah Republican Orrin Hatch. Elected on January 6, 2015,[6] he is the 90th person to serve in this office. On January 2, 2018, Hatch announced his pending retirement from the Senate, effective January 3, 2019.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Power and responsibilities
2 History
3 Related officials
3.1 Acting president pro tempore
3.1.1 Permanent acting president pro tempore
3.2 Deputy president pro tempore
3.3 President pro tempore emeritus
4 Salary
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Power and responsibilities[edit]
The office of president pro tempore is created by Article I, Section 3 of the Constitution:[8]
The Senate shall choose their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.
John Tyler is the only Senate president pro tempore to also become President of the United States.
Although the position is in some ways analogous to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the powers of the president pro tempore are far more limited. In the Senate, most power rests with party leaders and individual senators, but as the chamber's presiding officer, the president pro tempore is authorized to perform certain duties in the absence of the vice president, including ruling on points of order.[9] Additionally, under the 25th Amendment to the Constitution, the president pro tempore and the speaker are the two authorities to whom declarations must be transmitted that the president is unable to perform the duties of the office, or is able to resume doing so. The president pro tempore is third in the line of presidential succession, following the vice president and the speaker.[5][9] Additional duties include appointment of various congressional officers, certain commissions, advisory boards, and committees and joint supervision of the congressional page school.[9] The president pro tempore is the designated legal recipient of various reports to the Senate, including War Powers Act reports under which he or she, jointly with the speaker, may have the president call Congress back into session. The officeholder is an ex officio member of various boards and commissions. With the secretary and sergeant at arms, the president pro tempore maintains order in Senate portions of the Capitol and Senate buildings.[9][10]
History[edit]
Benjamin Wade came within one vote of being the first president pro tempore to succeed to the presidency after the impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson in 1868
The office of president pro tempore was established by the Constitution of the United States in 1789. The first president pro tempore, John Langdon, was elected on April 6 the same year.[9] Originally, the president pro tempore was appointed on an intermittent basis when the vice president was not present to preside over the Senate. Until the 1960s, it was common practice for the vice president to preside over daily Senate sessions, so the president pro tempore rarely presided unless the vice presidency became vacant.[11] Until 1891, the president pro tempore served only until the return of the vice president to the chair or the adjournment of a session of Congress. Between 1792 and 1886, the president pro tempore was second in the line of presidential succession following the vice president and preceding the speaker, but as is the case today, the president pro tempore would not assume the vice presidency if it became vacant.[11] Before the ratification of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, a vacancy in the vice presidency could be filled only by a regular election. There has never been a legal office of Acting Vice President.
On three occasions during the 19th century, the Senate was without both a president and a president pro tempore:
July 9–11, 1850, following Millard Fillmore's accession to the presidency upon the death of Zachary Taylor, until William R. King was elected president pro tempore;
September 19–October 10, 1881, following Chester Arthur's accession to the presidency upon the death of James A. Garfield, until Thomas F. Bayard was elected president pro tempore;
November 25–December 7, 1885, following the death of Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks, until John Sherman was elected president pro tempore.
President pro tempore Robert Byrd and House Speaker Dennis Hastert presided over a special joint session following the September 11, 2001, attacks. Here President Bush shakes hands with Byrd.
When President Andrew Johnson, who had no vice president, was impeached and tried in 1868, Senate President pro tempore Benjamin Franklin Wade was next in line to the presidency. Wade's radicalism is thought by many historians to be a major reason why the Senate, which did not want to see Wade in the White House, acquitted Johnson.[12] The President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House were removed from the presidential line of succession in 1886. Both were restored to it in 1947, though this time with the president pro tempore following the speaker.[9]
William P. Frye served as President pro tempore from 1896 to 1911 (54th–62nd Congress), a tenure longer than anyone else. He resigned from the position due to ill health a couple of months before his death. Electing his successor proved difficult, as Senate Republicans, then in the majority, were split between progressive and conservative factions, each promoting its own candidate. Likewise, the Democrats proposed their own candidate. As a result of this three-way split, no individual received a majority vote. It took four months for a compromise solution to emerge: Democrat Augustus Bacon would serve for a single day, August 14, 1911, during the vice president's absence. Thereafter, Bacon and four Republicans—Charles Curtis, Jacob Gallinger, Henry Cabot Lodge, and Frank Brandegee—would alternate as president pro tempore for the remainder of the Congress.[9]
In January 1945, the 79th Congress elected Kenneth McKellar, who at the time was the Senator with the longest continuous service, to be President pro tempore. Since then, it has become customary for the majority party's senior member to hold this position. Arthur Vandenberg (in 1947–1949) was the last president pro tempore not to be the senior member of the majority party, aside from the single day accorded Milton Young (in December 1980), who was the retiring senior member of the Republican Party, which would hold the majority in the incoming 97th Congress.[4]
Three presidents pro tempore subsequently became Vice President: John Tyler, William R. King and Charles Curtis. Tyler is the only one to become president (in April 1841, following the death of William Henry Harrison).
Related officials[edit]
Acting president pro tempore[edit]
President pro tempore Carl Hayden seated to the left of House Speaker John W. McCormick during a 1963 speech by President Lyndon B. Johnson to a joint session of Congress.
While the president pro tempore does have other official duties, the holders of the office have, like the vice president, over time ceased presiding over the Senate on a daily basis, owing to the mundane and ceremonial nature of the position.[11] Furthermore, as the president pro tempore is now usually the most senior senator of the majority party, he or she most likely also chairs a major Senate committee and has other significant demands on his or her time. Therefore, the president pro tempore has less time now than in the past to preside daily over the Senate. Instead, junior senators from the majority party are designated acting president pro tempore to preside over the Senate.[13] This allows junior senators to learn proper parliamentary procedure.[3] The acting president pro tempore is usually reappointed daily by the president pro tempore.[14]
Permanent acting president pro tempore[edit]
In June 1963, because of the illness of president pro tempore Carl Hayden, Senator Lee Metcalf was designated permanent acting president pro tempore. No term was imposed on this designation, so Metcalf retained it until he died in office in 1978.[10]
Deputy president pro tempore[edit]
Hubert Humphrey (D-Minnesota) was the first Deputy President pro tempore in 1977–1978
The ceremonial post of deputy president pro tempore was created for Hubert Humphrey, a former vice president, in 1977 following his losing bid to become the Senate majority leader.[15] The Senate resolution creating the position stated that any former president or former vice president serving in the Senate would be entitled to this position, though none has served since Humphrey's death in 1978,[10] and former vice president Walter Mondale, who sought his former Senate seat in Minnesota in 2002, is the only one to have tried. Andrew Johnson is the only former president to have subsequently served in the Senate.
George J. Mitchell was elected deputy president pro tempore in 1987, because of the illness of president pro tempore John C. Stennis, similar to Metcalf's earlier designation as permanent acting president pro tempore. The office has remained vacant since 1989 and no senator other than Humphrey and Mitchell has held it since its creation.[10] Mitchell is the only person to have served as deputy president pro tempore who was neither a former president nor former vice president of the United States.
The post is largely honorary and ceremonial, but comes with a salary increase. By statute, the compensation granted to the position holder equals the rate of annual compensation paid to the president pro tempore, majority leader, and minority leader. (See 2 U.S.C. § 6112.)[10]
President pro tempore emeritus[edit]
Patrick Leahy (D-Vermont), former president pro tempore, and current president pro tempore emeritus.
Since 2001, the honorary title of president pro tempore emeritus has been given to a senator of the minority party who has previously served as president pro tempore. The position has been held by Strom Thurmond (R-South Carolina) (2001–2003), Robert Byrd (D-West Virginia) (2003–2007), Ted Stevens (R-Alaska) (2007–2009) and Patrick Leahy (D-Vermont) (2015–present). From 2009 to 2015, no senator met the requirements for the position.
The position was created for Thurmond when the Democratic Party regained a majority in the Senate in June 2001.[16] With the change in party control, Democrat Robert Byrd of West Virginia replaced Thurmond as president pro tempore, reclaiming a position he had previously held from 1989 to 1995 and briefly in January 2001. Thurmond's retirement from the Senate on January 3, 2003, coincided with a change from Democratic to Republican control, making Stevens president pro tempore and Byrd the second president pro tempore emeritus. Byrd returned as president pro tempore, and Stevens became the third president pro tempore emeritus, when the Democrats gained control of the Senate in 2007.[10] While a president pro tempore emeritus has no official duties, he is entitled to an increase in staff[17] and advises party leaders on the functions of the Senate.
The office's accompanying budget increase was removed toward the end of the 113th Congress, shortly before Patrick Leahy was to become the first holder of the title in six years. Quoted in CQ Roll Call, Leahy commented, "[The Republicans] didn't keep their commitment. They want to treat us differently than we treated them, and so they've got that right. It seems kind of petty, but it really doesn't matter to me. I've got plenty of funding, plenty of good staff."[18]
Salary[edit]
The salary of the president pro tempore for 2012 was $193,400, equal to that of the majority leaders and minority leaders of both houses of Congress. If there is a vacancy in the office of vice president, then the salary would be the same as that of the vice president, $230,700.[10]
See also[edit]
List of Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate
Seniority in the United States Senate
Acting Vice President of the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "3 U.S. Code § 19 - Vacancy in offices of both President and Vice President; officers eligible to act".
Jump up ^ Senate Historical Office; With a preface by Senator Robert C. Byrd, President pro tempore (2008). Erickson, Nancy (Secretary of the Senate), ed. Pro Tem: Presidents Pro Tempore of the United States Senate since 1789 (PDF). U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-16-079984-6. Retrieved January 9, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Hillary takes Senate gavel–for an hour". CNN. January 24, 2001. Archived from the original on January 20, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Davis, Christopher M. (December 20, 2012). The President Pro Tempore of the Senate: History and Authority of the Office (Report). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Mount, Steve. "Constitutional Topic: Presidential Line of Succession". USConstitution.net. Steve Mount. Retrieved October 19, 2009.
Jump up ^ Burr, Thomas (January 6, 2015). "Hatch now third in line for presidency as Senate president pro tem". The Salt Lake Tribune.
Jump up ^ Sullivan, Sean; Scherer, Michael (January 2, 2018). "Republican Sen. Orrin Hatch of Utah will retire, opening door for a Romney candidacy". The Washington Post. Retrieved January 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kathy Gill. "US Senate Organization". About.com. The New York Times Company. Retrieved October 19, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "President Pro Tempore". United States Senate. Retrieved May 2, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Sachs, Richard C. (January 22, 2003). "The President Pro Tempore of the Senate: History and Authority of the Office" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved December 9, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c Richard E. Berg-Andersson (June 7, 2001). "A Brief History of Congressional Leadership". The Green Papers. Retrieved November 17, 2009.
Jump up ^ Smith, Gene (1977). High Crimes and Misdemeanors: The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson. William Morrow & Company. ISBN 0-688-03072-6.
Jump up ^ Gold, Martin B.; Gupta, Dimple. "The Constitutional Option to Change Senate Rules and Procedures: A Majoritarian Means to Over Come the Filibuster*" (PDF). Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy. 28 (1): 211.
Jump up ^ "APPOINTMENT OF A SENATOR TO THE CHAIR - Rules of the Senate - United States Senate Committee on Rules and Administration". Archived from the original on December 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Hubert H. Humphrey". virtualology.com. Evisum Inc. 2000. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
Jump up ^ S.Res. 103, adopted, June 6, 2001. "Thanking and Electing Strom Thurmond President pro tempore emeritus."
Jump up ^ 2 U.S.C. § 32b
Jump up ^ Lesniewski, Niels (December 10, 2014). "Leahy: 'Kind of Petty' Not to Fund Emeritus Office in 'Cromnibus'". CQ Roll Call. Retrieved January 7, 2015.
External links[edit]
"President pro tempore". Official website of the United States Senate. Retrieved November 27, 2008.
Current U.S. presidential line of succession
Preceded by
Speaker of the House of Representatives
Paul Ryan 3rd in line Succeeded by
Secretary of State
TBD
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Presidential line of succession in the United States of America
Vice President (Mike Pence)
Speaker of the House of Representatives (Paul Ryan)
President pro tempore of the Senate (Orrin Hatch)
Secretary of State (John Sullivan[a])
Secretary of the Treasury (Steven Mnuchin)
Secretary of Defense (Jim Mattis)
Attorney General (Jeff Sessions)
Secretary of the Interior (Ryan Zinke)
Secretary of Agriculture (Sonny Perdue)
Secretary of Commerce (Wilbur Ross)
Secretary of Labor (Alex Acosta)
Secretary of Health and Human Services (Alex Azar)
Secretary of Housing and Urban Development (Ben Carson)
Secretary of Transportation (Elaine Chao[b])
Secretary of Energy (Rick Perry)
Secretary of Education (Betsy DeVos)
Secretary of Veterans Affairs (Robert Wilkie)
Secretary of Homeland Security (Kirstjen Nielsen)
Jump up ^ Sullivan serves as the Acting Secretary of State, and is thus ineligible for the presidency. Mike Pompeo has been formally nominated for the position by Donald Trump.
Jump up ^ Although Elaine Chao is the current Secretary of Transportation, she is not a natural-born citizen (acquired U.S. citizenship by naturalization) and thus ineligible for the presidency.
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text:
Swim bladder
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For Fish bladder symbol, see fish bladder.
The swim bladder of a rudd
Internal positioning of the swim bladder of a bleak
S: anterior, S': posterior portion of the air bladder
œ: œsophagus; l: air passage of the air bladder
The swim bladder, gas bladder, fish maw or air bladder is an internal gas-filled organ that contributes to the ability of many bony fish (but not cartilaginous fish[1]) to control their buoyancy, and thus to stay at their current water depth without having to waste energy in swimming.[2] Also, the dorsal position of the swim bladder means the center of mass is below the center of volume, allowing it to act as a stabilizing agent. Additionally, the swim bladder functions as a resonating chamber, to produce or receive sound.
The swim bladder is evolutionarily homologous to the lungs. Charles Darwin remarked upon this in On the Origin of Species.[3] Darwin reasoned that the lung in air-breathing vertebrates had derived from a more primitive swim bladder, but scientists now believe that the swim bladder derived from a more primitive lung.[citation needed]
In the embryonic stages, some species, such as redlip blenny,[4] have lost the swim bladder again, mostly bottom dwellers like the weather fish. Other fish like the Opah and the Pomfret use their pectoral fins to swim and balance the weight of the head to keep a horizontal position. The normally bottom dwelling sea robin can use their pectoral fins to produce lift while swimming.
The gas/tissue interface at the swim bladder produces a strong reflection of sound, which is used in sonar equipment to find fish.
Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks and rays, do not have swim bladders. Some of them can control their depth only by swimming (using dynamic lift); others store fats or oils with density less than that of seawater to produce a neutral or near neutral buoyancy, which does not change with depth.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure and function
2 Evolution
3 Deep scattering layer
4 Human uses
5 Swim bladder disease
6 Risk of injury
7 Similar structures in other organisms
8 Gallery
9 References
10 Further references
Structure and function[edit]
Swim bladder from a bony (teleost) fish
How gas is pumped into the swim bladder using counter-current exchange.
The swim bladder normally consists of two gas-filled sacs located in the dorsal portion of the fish, although in a few primitive species, there is only a single sac. It has flexible walls that contract or expand according to the ambient pressure. The walls of the bladder contain very few blood vessels and are lined with guanine crystals, which make them impermeable to gases. By adjusting the gas pressurising organ using the gas gland or oval window the fish can obtain neutral buoyancy and ascend and descend to a large range of depths. Due to the dorsal position it gives the fish lateral stability.
In physostomous swim bladders, a connection is retained between the swim bladder and the gut, the pneumatic duct, allowing the fish to fill up the swim bladder by "gulping" air. Excess gas can be removed in a similar manner.
In more derived varieties of fish (the physoclisti) the connection to the digestive tract is lost. In early life stages, these fish must rise to the surface to fill up their swim bladders; in later stages, the pneumatic duct disappears, and the gas gland has to introduce gas (usually oxygen) to the bladder to increase its volume and thus increase buoyancy. In order to introduce gas into the bladder, the gas gland excretes lactic acid and produces carbon dioxide. The resulting acidity causes the hemoglobin of the blood to lose its oxygen (Root effect) which then diffuses partly into the swim bladder. The blood flowing back to the body first enters a rete mirabile where virtually all the excess carbon dioxide and oxygen produced in the gas gland diffuses back to the arteries supplying the gas gland. Thus a very high gas pressure of oxygen can be obtained, which can even account for the presence of gas in the swim bladders of deep sea fish like the eel, requiring a pressure of hundreds of bars.[5] Elsewhere, at a similar structure known as the oval window, the bladder is in contact with blood and the oxygen can diffuse back out again. Together with oxygen, other gases are salted out[clarification needed] in the swim bladder which accounts for the high pressures of other gases as well.[6]
The combination of gases in the bladder varies. In shallow water fish, the ratios closely approximate that of the atmosphere, while deep sea fish tend to have higher percentages of oxygen. For instance, the eel Synaphobranchus has been observed to have 75.1% oxygen, 20.5% nitrogen, 3.1% carbon dioxide, and 0.4% argon in its swim bladder.
Physoclist swim bladders have one important disadvantage: they prohibit fast rising, as the bladder would burst. Physostomes can "burp" out gas, though this complicates the process of re-submergence.
The swim bladder in some species, mainly fresh water fishes (Common carp, catfish, bowfin) is interconnected with the inner ear of the fish. They are connected by four bones called the Weberian ossicles from the Weberian apparatus. These bones can carry the vibrations to the Saccule and the Lagena (anatomy). They are suited for detecting sound and vibrations due to its low density in comparison to the density of the fish's body tissues. This increases the ability of sound detection.[7] The swim bladder can radiate the pressure of sound which help increase its sensitivity and expand its hearing. In some deep sea fishes like the Antimora, the swim bladder maybe also connected to the Macula of saccule in order for the inner ear to receive a sensation from the sound pressure.[8] In red-bellied piranha, the swimbladder may play an important role in sound production as a resonator. The sounds created by piranhas are generated through rapid contractions of the sonic muscles and is associated with the swimbladder.[9]
Evolution[edit]
The West African lungfish possesses a lung homologous to swim bladders
The illustration of the swim bladder in fishes ... shows us clearly the highly important fact that an organ originally constructed for one purpose, namely, flotation, may be converted into one for a widely different purpose, namely, respiration. The swim bladder has, also, been worked in as an accessory to the auditory organs of certain fishes. All physiologists admit that the swimbladder is homologous, or “ideally similar” in position and structure with the lungs of the higher vertebrate animals: hence there is no reason to doubt that the swim bladder has actually been converted into lungs, or an organ used exclusively for respiration. According to this view it may be inferred that all vertebrate animals with true lungs are descended by ordinary generation from an ancient and unknown prototype, which was furnished with a floating apparatus or swim bladder.
Charles Darwin, 1859[3]
Swim bladders are evolutionarily closely related (i.e., homologous) to lungs. Traditional wisdom has long held that the first lungs, simple sacs connected to the gut that allowed the organism to gulp air under oxygen-poor conditions, evolved into the lungs of today's terrestrial vertebrates and some fish (e.g., lungfish, gar, and bichir) and into the swim bladders of the ray-finned fish. In 1997, Farmer proposed that lungs evolved to supply the heart with oxygen. In fish, blood circulates from the gills to the skeletal muscle, and only then to the heart. During intense exercise, the oxygen in the blood gets used by the skeletal muscle before the blood reaches the heart. Primitive lungs gave an advantage by supplying the heart with oxygenated blood via the cardiac shunt. This theory is robustly supported by the fossil record, the ecology of extant air-breathing fishes, and the physiology of extant fishes.[10] In embryonal development, both lung and swim bladder originate as an outpocketing from the gut; in the case of swim bladders, this connection to the gut continues to exist as the pneumatic duct in the more "primitive" ray-finned fish, and is lost in some of the more derived teleost orders. There are no animals which have both lungs and a swim bladder.
The cartilaginous fish (e.g., sharks and rays) split from the other fishes about 420 million years ago, and lack both lungs and swim bladders, suggesting that these structures evolved after that split.[10] Correspondingly, these fish also have both heterocercal and stiff, wing-like pectoral fins which provide the necessary lift needed due to the lack of swim bladders. Teleost fish with swim bladders have neutral buoyancy, and have no need for this lift.[11]
Deep scattering layer[edit]
Main article: Deep scattering layer
Most mesopelagic fishes are small filter feeders which ascend at night using their swimbladders to feed in the nutrient rich waters of the epipelagic zone. During the day, they return to the dark, cold, oxygen deficient waters of the mesopelagic where they are relatively safe from predators. Lanternfish account for as much as 65 percent of all deep sea fish biomass and are largely responsible for the deep scattering layer of the world's oceans.
Sonar operators, using the newly developed sonar technology during World War II, were puzzled by what appeared to be a false sea floor 300–500 metres deep at day, and less deep at night. This turned out to be due to millions of marine organisms, most particularly small mesopelagic fish, with swimbladders that reflected the sonar. These organisms migrate up into shallower water at dusk to feed on plankton. The layer is deeper when the moon is out, and can become shallower when clouds obscure the moon.[12]
Most mesopelagic fish make daily vertical migrations, moving at night into the epipelagic zone, often following similar migrations of zooplankton, and returning to the depths for safety during the day.[13][14] These vertical migrations often occur over large vertical distances, and are undertaken with the assistance of a swim bladder. The swim bladder is inflated when the fish wants to move up, and, given the high pressures in the mesoplegic zone, this requires significant energy. As the fish ascends, the pressure in the swimbladder must adjust to prevent it from bursting. When the fish wants to return to the depths, the swimbladder is deflated.[15] Some mesopelagic fishes make daily migrations through the thermocline, where the temperature changes between 10 and 20 °C, thus displaying considerable tolerance for temperature change.
Sampling via deep trawling indicates that lanternfish account for as much as 65% of all deep sea fish biomass.[16] Indeed, lanternfish are among the most widely distributed, populous, and diverse of all vertebrates, playing an important ecological role as prey for larger organisms. The estimated global biomass of lanternfish is 550–660 million metric tonnes, several times the entire world fisheries catch. Lanternfish also account for much of the biomass responsible for the deep scattering layer of the world's oceans. Sonar reflects off the millions of lanternfish swim bladders, giving the appearance of a false bottom.[17]
Human uses[edit]
In some Asian cultures, the swim bladders of certain large fishes are considered a food delicacy. In China they are known as fish maw, 花膠/鱼鳔,[18] and are served in soups or stews.
The vanity price of a vanishing kind of maw is behind the imminent extinction of the vaquita, the world's smallest dolphin breed. Only found in Mexico's Gulf of California, the once numerous vaquita now number less than 60 in total. Vaquita die in gillnets[19] set to catch totoaba (the world's largest drum fish). Totoaba are being hunted to extinction for its maw, which can sell for as much $10,000 per kilogram.
Swim bladders are also used in the food industry as a source of collagen. They can be made into a strong, water-resistant glue, or used to make isinglass for the clarification of beer.[citation needed] In earlier times they were used to make condoms.[20]
Swim bladder disease[edit]
Swim bladder disease is a common ailment in aquarium fish. A fish with swim bladder disorder can float nose down tail up, or can float to the top or sink to the bottom of the aquarium.[21]
Risk of injury[edit]
Many anthropogenic activities, like pile driving or even Seismic wave, that could result from climate change or natural causes, can create high-intensity sound waves that cause a certain amount of damage to fish that possess a gas bladder. Physostomes can release air in order to decrease the tension in the gas bladder that may cause internal injuries to other vital organs. While physoclisti can't expel air fast enough, making it more difficult to avoid any major injuries.[22] Some of the commonly seen injuries included ruptured gas bladder and renal Haemorrhage. These mostly affect the overall health of the fish and didn't affect their mortality rate.[22] Investigators used the High-Intensity-Controlled Impedance Fluid Filled (HICI-FT), a stainless-steel wave tube with a electromagnetic shaker. It simulates high-energy sound waves in aquatic far-field, plane-wave acoustic conditions.[23][24]
Similar structures in other organisms[edit]
Siphonophores have a special swim bladder that allows the jellyfish-like colonies to float along the surface of the water while their tentacles trail below. This organ is unrelated to the one in fish.[25]
Gallery[edit]
Swim bladder display in a Malacca shopping mall
Fish maw soup
Swim bladder disease has resulted in this female ryukin goldfish floating upside down
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/actinopterygii/actinomm.html
Jump up ^ "Fish". Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe 1999. Microsoft. 1999.
^ Jump up to: a b Darwin, Charles (1859) Origin of Species Page 190, reprinted 1872 by D. Appleton.
Jump up ^ Nursall, J. R. (1989). "Buoyancy is provided by lipids of larval redlip blennies, Ophioblennius atlanticus". Copeia. 3: 614–621. doi:10.2307/1445488.
Jump up ^ Pelster B (December 2001). "The generation of hyperbaric oxygen tensions in fish". News Physiol. Sci. 16 (6): 287–91. PMID 11719607.
Jump up ^ "Secretion Of Nitrogen Into The Swimbladder Of Fish. Ii. Molecular Mechanism. Secretion Of Noble Gases". Biolbull.org. 1981-12-01. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
Jump up ^ Kardong, Kenneth. Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution. New York: McGraw-Hill Education. p. 701. ISBN 9780073524238.
Jump up ^ Deng, Xiaohong; Wagner, Hans-Joachim; Popper, Arthur N. (2011-01-01). "The inner ear and its coupling to the swim bladder in the deep-sea fish Antimora rostrata (Teleostei: Moridae)". Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 58 (1): 27–37. doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2010.11.001. PMC 3082141  . PMID 21532967.
Jump up ^ Onuki, A; Ohmori Y.; Somiya H. (January 2006). "Spinal Nerve Innervation to the Sonic Muscle and Sonic Motor Nucleus in Red Piranha, Pygocentrus nattereri (Characiformes, Ostariophysi)". Brain, Behavior, and Evolution. 67: 11–122. doi:10.1159/000089185. Retrieved 3 October 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Farmer, Colleen (1997). "Did lungs and the intracardiac shunt evolve to oxygenate the heart in vertebrates" (PDF). Paleobiology.
Jump up ^ Kardong, KV (1998) Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution2nd edition, illustrated, revised. Published by WCB/McGraw-Hill, p. 12 ISBN 0-697-28654-1
Jump up ^ Ryan P "Deep-sea creatures: The mesopelagic zone" Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Updated 21 September 2007.
Jump up ^ Moyle, Peter B.; Cech, Joseph J. (2004). Fishes : an introduction to ichthyology (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall. p. 585. ISBN 9780131008472.
Jump up ^ Bone, Quentin; Moore, Richard H. (2008). "Chapter 2.3. Marine habitats. Mesopelagic fishes". Biology of fishes (3rd ed.). New York: Taylor & Francis. p. 38. ISBN 9780203885222.
Jump up ^ Douglas EL, Friedl WA and Pickwell GV (1976) "Fishes in oxygen-minimum zones: blood oxygenation characteristics" Science, 191 (4230) 957–959.
Jump up ^ Hulley, P. Alexander (1998). Paxton, J.R.; Eschmeyer, W.N., eds. Encyclopedia of Fishes. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 127–128. ISBN 0-12-547665-5.
Jump up ^ R. Cornejo; R. Koppelmann & T. Sutton. "Deep-sea fish diversity and ecology in the benthic boundary layer".
Jump up ^ Teresa M. (2009) A Tradition of Soup: Flavors from China's Pearl River Delta Page 70, North Atlantic Books. ISBN 9781556437656.
Jump up ^ "'Extinction Is Imminent': New report from Vaquita Recovery Team (CIRVA) is released". IUCN SSC - Cetacean Specialist Group. 2016-06-06. Retrieved 2017-01-25.
Jump up ^ Huxley, Julian (1957) "Material of early contraceptive sheaths." British Medical Journal, 1 (5018): 581–582.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Erik L. and Richard E. Hess (2006) Fancy Goldfish: A Complete Guide to Care and Collecting, Weatherhill, Shambhala Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-8348-0448-4
^ Jump up to: a b Halvorsen, Michele B.; Casper, Brandon M.; Matthews, Frazer; Carlson, Thomas J.; Popper, Arthur N. (2012-12-07). "Effects of exposure to pile-driving sounds on the lake sturgeon, Nile tilapia and hogchoker". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 279 (1748): 4705–4714. doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.1544. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 3497083  . PMID 23055066.
Jump up ^ Halvorsen, Michele B.; Casper, Brandon M.; Woodley, Christa M.; Carlson, Thomas J.; Popper, Arthur N. (2012-06-20). "Threshold for Onset of Injury in Chinook Salmon from Exposure to Impulsive Pile Driving Sounds". PLOS ONE. 7 (6): e38968. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038968. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3380060  . PMID 22745695.
Jump up ^ Popper, Arthur N.; Hawkins, Anthony (2012-01-26). The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9781441973115.
Jump up ^ Clark, F. E.; C. E. Lane (1961). "Composition of float gases of Physalia physalis". Fed. Proc. 107: 673–674. doi:10.3181/00379727-107-26724.
Further references[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Swim bladder.
Bond, Carl E. (1996) Biology of Fishes, 2nd ed., Saunders, pp. 283–290.
Pelster, Bernd (1997) "Buoyancy at depth" In: WS Hoar, DJ Randall and AP Farrell (Eds) Deep-Sea Fishes, pages 195–237, Academic Press. ISBN 9780080585406.
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