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Political party
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A political party is an organised group of people, often with common views, who come together to contest elections and hold power in government. The party agrees on some proposed policies and programmes, with a view to promoting the collective good or furthering their supporters' interests.
While there is some international commonality in the way political parties are recognized and in how they operate, there are often many differences, and some are significant. Many political parties have an ideological core, but some do not, and many represent ideologies very different from their ideology at the time the party was founded. Many countries, such as Germany and India, have several significant political parties, and some nations have one-party systems, such as China and Cuba. The United States is in practice a two-party system but with many smaller parties also participating and a high degree of autonomy for individual candidates.
Contents
1 Historical dimensions
1.1 Political factions
1.2 Emergence
1.2.1 In United States
1.3 Spread
2 Structure
2.1 Parliamentary parties
3 Regulation
4 Partisan style
4.1 Nonpartisan systems
4.2 Uni-party systems
4.3 Bi-party systems
4.4 Multi-party systems
5 Funding
6 Colors and emblems
6.1 Emblems
6.2 Symbols
7 International organization
8 Types
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Historical dimensions[edit]
Political factions[edit]
Main article: Political faction
The first[citation needed] political factions, cohering around a basic, if fluid, set of principles, emerged from the Exclusion Crisis and Glorious Revolution in late 17th century England.[1] The Whigs supported Protestant constitutional monarchy against absolute rule; the Tories, originating in the Royalist (or "Cavalier") faction of the English Civil War, were conservative royalist supporters of a strong monarchy as a counterbalance to the republican tendencies of Whigs, who were the dominant political faction for most of the first half of the 18th century; the Whigs supported the Hanoverian succession of 1715 against the Jacobite supporters of the deposed Roman Catholic Stuart dynasty, and were able to purge Tory politicians from important government positions after the failed Jacobite rising of 1715. The leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government in the period 1721–1742; his protégé was Henry Pelham (1743–1754).
As the century wore on, the factions slowly began to adopt more coherent political tendencies as the interests of their power bases began to diverge. The Whig party's initial base of support from the great aristocratic families widened to include the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants. As well as championing constitutional monarchy with strict limits on the monarch's power, the Whigs adamantly opposed a Catholic king as a threat to liberty,[2] and believed in extending toleration to nonconformist Protestants, or dissenters. A major influence on the Whigs were the liberal political ideas of John Locke,[3] and the concepts of universal rights employed by Locke and Algernon Sidney.[4]
Although the Tories were out of office for half a century, for most of this period (at first under the leadership of Sir William Wyndham) the Tories retained party cohesion, with occasional hopes of regaining office, particularly at the accession of George II (1727) and the downfall of the ministry of Sir Robert Walpole in 1742. They acted as a united, though unavailing, opposition to Whig corruption and scandals. At times they cooperated with the "Opposition Whigs", Whigs who were in opposition to the Whig government; however, the ideological gap between the Tories and the Opposition Whigs prevented them from coalescing as a single party. They finally regained power with the accession of George III in 1760 under Lord Bute.
Emergence[edit]
When they lost power, the old Whig leadership dissolved into a decade of factional chaos with distinct "Grenvillite", "Bedfordite", "Rockinghamite", and "Chathamite" factions successively in power, and all referring to themselves as "Whigs". Out of this chaos, the first distinctive parties emerged. The first such party was the Rockingham Whigs[5] under the leadership of Charles Watson-Wentworth and the intellectual guidance of the political philosopher Edmund Burke. Burke laid out a philosophy that described the basic framework of the political party as "a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed". As opposed to the instability of the earlier factions, which were often tied to a particular leader and could disintegrate if removed from power, the party was centred around a set of core principles and remained out of power as a united opposition to government.[6]
In A Block for the Wigs (1783), James Gillray caricatured Fox's return to power in a coalition with North. George III is the blockhead in the centre.
A coalition including the Rockingham Whigs, led by the Earl of Shelburne, took power in 1782, only to collapse after Rockingham's death. The new government, led by the radical politician Charles James Fox in coalition with Lord North, was soon brought down and replaced by William Pitt the Younger in 1783. It was now that a genuine two-party system began to emerge, with Pitt leading the new Tories against a reconstituted "Whig" party led by Fox.[7][8]
By the time of this split the Whig party was increasingly influenced by the ideas of Adam Smith, founder of classical liberalism. As Wilson and Reill (2004) note, "Adam Smith's theory melded nicely with the liberal political stance of the Whig Party and its middle-class constituents."[9]
The modern Conservative Party was created out of the 'Pittite' Tories of the early 19th century. In the late 1820s disputes over political reform broke up this grouping. A government led by the Duke of Wellington collapsed amidst dire election results. Following this disaster Robert Peel set about assembling a new coalition of forces. Peel issued the Tamworth Manifesto in 1834 which set out the basic principles of Conservatism – the necessity in specific cases of reform in order to survive, but an opposition to unnecessary change, that could lead to "a perpetual vortex of agitation". Meanwhile, the Whigs, along with free trade Tory followers of Robert Peel, and independent Radicals, formed the Liberal Party under Lord Palmerston in 1859, and transformed into a party of the growing urban middle-class, under the long leadership of William Ewart Gladstone.
In United States[edit]
Main article: Political parties in the United States
Although the framers of the 1787 United States Constitution did not anticipate that American political discourse would become partisan, political controversies in the early 1790s over the extent of federal government powers saw the emergence of two proto-political parties: the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party, which were championed by Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, respectively.[10][11] However, a consensus reached on these issues ended party politics in 1816 for nearly a decade, a period commonly known as the Era of Good Feelings.[12]
The splintering of the Democratic-Republican Party in the aftermath of the contentious 1824 presidential election led to the re-emergence of political parties. Two major parties would dominate the political landscape for the next quarter-century: the Democratic Party, led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whig Party, established by Henry Clay from the National Republicans and from other Anti-Jackson groups. When the Whig Party fell apart in the mid-1850s, its position as a major U.S. political party was filled by the Republican Party.
Spread[edit]
Charles Stewart Parnell, leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party
The second half of the 19th century saw the adoption of the party model of politics across Europe. In Germany, France, Austria and elsewhere, the 1848 Revolutions sparked a wave of liberal sentiment and the formation of representative bodies and political parties. The end of the century saw the formation of large socialist parties in Europe, some conforming to the teaching of Karl Marx, others adapting social democracy through the use of reformist and gradualist methods.[13]
At the same time, the political party reached its modern form, with a membership disciplined through the use of a party whip and the implementation of efficient structures of control. The Home Rule League Party, campaigning for Home Rule for Ireland in the British Parliament was fundamentally changed by the great Irish political leader Charles Stewart Parnell in the 1880s. In 1882, he changed his party's name to the Irish Parliamentary Party and created a well-organized grass roots structure, introducing membership to replace "ad hoc" informal groupings. He created a new selection procedure to ensure the professional selection of party candidates committed to taking their seats, and in 1884 he imposed a firm 'party pledge' which obliged MPs to vote as a bloc in parliament on all occasions. The creation of a strict party whip and a formal party structure was unique at the time. His party's efficient structure and control contrasted with the loose rules and flexible informality found in the main British parties; they soon came to model themselves on the Parnellite model.
Structure[edit]
A political party is typically led by a party leader (the most powerful member and spokesperson representing the party), a party secretary (who maintains the daily work and records of party meetings), party treasurer (who is responsible for membership dues) and party chair (who forms strategies for recruiting and retaining party members, and also chairs party meetings). Most of the above positions are also members of the party executive, the leading organization which sets policy for the entire party at the national level. The structure is far more decentralized in the United States because of the separation of powers, federalism and the multiplicity of economic interests and religious sects. Even state parties are decentralized as county and other local committees are largely independent of state central committees. The national party leader in the U.S. will be the president, if the party holds that office, or a prominent member of Congress in opposition (although a big-state governor may aspire to that role). Officially, each party has a chairman for its national committee who is a prominent spokesman, organizer and fund-raiser, but without the status of prominent elected office holders.
In parliamentary democracies, on a regular, periodic basis, party conferences are held to elect party officers, although snap leadership elections can be called if enough members opt for such. Party conferences are also held in order to affirm party values for members in the coming year. American parties also meet regularly and, again, are more subordinate to elected political leaders.
Depending on the demographic spread of the party membership, party members form local or regional party committees in order to help candidates run for local or regional offices in government. These local party branches reflect the officer positions at the national level.
It is also customary for political party members to form wings for current or prospective party members, most of which fall into the following two categories:
identity-based: including youth wings, women's wings, ethnic minority wings, LGBT wings, etc.
position-based: including wings for candidates, mayors, governors, professionals, students, etc. The formation of these wings may have become routine but their existence is more of an indication of differences of opinion, intra-party rivalry, the influence of interest groups, or attempts to wield influence for one's state or region.
These are useful for party outreach, training and employment. Many young aspiring politicians seek these roles and jobs as stepping stones to their political careers in legislative or executive offices.
The internal structure of political parties has to be democratic in some countries. In Germany Art. 21 Abs. 1 Satz 3 GG establishes a command of inner-party democracy.[14]
Parliamentary parties[edit]
When the party is represented by members in the lower house of parliament, the party leader simultaneously serves as the leader of the parliamentary group of that full party representation; depending on a minimum number of seats held, Westminster-based parties typically allow for leaders to form frontbench teams of senior fellow members of the parliamentary group to serve as critics of aspects of government policy. When a party becomes the largest party not part of the Government, the party's parliamentary group forms the Official Opposition, with Official Opposition frontbench team members often forming the Official Opposition Shadow cabinet. When a party achieves enough seats in an election to form a majority, the party's frontbench becomes the Cabinet of government ministers. They are all elected members.There are members who attend party without promotion
Regulation[edit]
The freedom to form, declare membership in, or campaign for candidates from a political party is considered a measurement of a state's adherence to liberal democracy as a political value. Regulation of parties may run from a crackdown on or repression of all opposition parties, a norm for authoritarian governments, to the repression of certain parties which hold or promote ideals which run counter to the general ideology of the state's incumbents (or possess membership by-laws which are legally unenforceable).
Furthermore, in the case of far-right, far-left and regionalism parties in the national parliaments of much of the European Union, mainstream political parties may form an informal cordon sanitaire which applies a policy of non-cooperation towards those "Outsider Parties" present in the legislature which are viewed as 'anti-system' or otherwise unacceptable for government. Cordons sanitaire, however, have been increasingly abandoned over the past two decades in multi-party democracies as the pressure to construct broad coalitions in order to win elections – along with the increased willingness of outsider parties themselves to participate in government – has led to many such parties entering electoral and government coalitions.[15]
Starting in the second half of the 20th century, modern democracies have introduced rules for the flow of funds through party coffers, e.g. the Canada Election Act 1976, the PPRA in the U.K. or the FECA in the U.S. Such political finance regimes stipulate a variety of regulations for the transparency of fundraising and expenditure, limit or ban specific kinds of activity and provide public subsidies for party activity, including campaigning.
Partisan style[edit]
Partisan style varies according to each jurisdiction, depending on how many parties there are, and how much influence each individual party has.
Nonpartisan systems[edit]
In a nonpartisan system, no official political parties exist, sometimes reflecting legal restrictions on political parties. In nonpartisan elections, each candidate is eligible for office on his or her own merits. In nonpartisan legislatures, there are no typically formal party alignments within the legislature. The administration of George Washington and the first few sessions of the United States Congress were nonpartisan. Washington also warned against political parties during his Farewell Address.[16] In the United States, the unicameral legislature of Nebraska is nonpartisan but is elected and often votes on informal party lines. In Canada, the territorial legislatures of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut are nonpartisan. In New Zealand, Tokelau has a nonpartisan parliament. Many city and county governments in the United States and Canada are nonpartisan. Nonpartisan elections and modes of governance are common outside of state institutions.[17] Unless there are legal prohibitions against political parties, factions within nonpartisan systems often evolve into political parties.
Uni-party systems[edit]
In one-party systems, one political party is legally allowed to hold effective power. Although minor parties may sometimes be allowed, they are legally required to accept the leadership of the dominant party. This party may not always be identical to the government, although sometimes positions within the party may in fact be more important than positions within the government. North Korea and China are examples; others can be found in Fascist states, such as Nazi Germany between 1934 and 1945. The one-party system is thus often equated with dictatorships and tyranny.
In dominant-party systems, opposition parties are allowed, and there may be even a deeply established democratic tradition, but other parties are widely considered to have no real chance of gaining power. Sometimes, political, social and economic circumstances, and public opinion are the reason for others parties' failure. Sometimes, typically in countries with less of an established democratic tradition, it is possible the dominant party will remain in power by using patronage and sometimes by voting fraud. In the latter case, the definition between dominant and one-party system becomes rather blurred. Examples of dominant party systems include the People's Action Party in Singapore, the African National Congress in South Africa, the Cambodian People's Party in Cambodia, the Liberal Democratic Party in Japan, and the National Liberation Front in Algeria. One-party dominant system also existed in Mexico with the Institutional Revolutionary Party until the 1990s, in the southern United States with the Democratic Party from the late 19th century until the 1970s, in Indonesia with the Golkar from the early 1970s until 1998.
Bi-party systems[edit]
Two-party systems are states such as Honduras, Jamaica, Malta, Ghana and the United States in which there are two political parties dominant to such an extent that electoral success under the banner of any other party is almost impossible. One right wing coalition party and one left wing coalition party is the most common ideological breakdown in such a system but in two-party states political parties are traditionally catch all parties which are ideologically broad and inclusive.
The United States has become essentially a two-party system, since a conservative (such as the Republican Party) and liberal (such as the Democratic Party) party has usually been the status quo within American politics. The first parties were called Federalist and Republican, followed by a brief period of Republican dominance before a split occurred between National Republicans and Democratic Republicans. The former became the Whig Party and the latter became the Democratic Party. The Whigs survived only for two decades before they split over the spread of slavery, those opposed becoming members of the new Republican Party, as did anti-slavery members of the Democratic Party. Third parties (such as the Libertarian Party) often receive little support and are very rarely the victors in elections. Despite this, there have been several examples of third parties siphoning votes from major parties that were expected to win (such as Theodore Roosevelt in the election of 1912 and George Wallace in the election of 1968). As third party movements have learned, the Electoral College's requirement of a nationally distributed majority makes it difficult for third parties to succeed. Thus, such parties rarely win many electoral votes, although their popular support within a state may tip it toward one party or the other. Wallace had weak support outside the South. More generally, parties with a broad base of support across regions or among economic and other interest groups, have a great chance of winning the necessary plurality in the U.S.'s largely single-member district, winner-take-all elections. The tremendous land area and large population of the country are formidable challenges to political parties with a narrow appeal.
The UK political system, while technically a multi-party system, has functioned generally as a two-party (sometimes called a "two-and-a-half party") system; since the 1920s the two largest political parties have been the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Before the Labour Party rose in British politics the Liberal Party was the other major political party along with the Conservatives. Though coalition and minority governments have been an occasional feature of parliamentary politics, the first-past-the-post electoral system used for general elections tends to maintain the dominance of these two parties, though each has in the past century relied upon a third party to deliver a working majority in Parliament.[18] (A plurality voting system usually leads to a two-party system, a relationship described by Maurice Duverger and known as Duverger's Law.[19]) There are also numerous other parties that hold or have held a number of seats in Parliament.
Multi-party systems[edit]
A poster for the European Parliament election 2004 in Italy, showing party lists
Multi-party systems are systems in which more than two parties are represented and elected to public office.
Australia, Canada, Nepal, Pakistan, India, Ireland, United Kingdom and Norway are examples of countries with two strong parties and additional smaller parties that have also obtained representation. The smaller or "third" parties may hold the balance of power in a parliamentary system, and thus may be invited to form a part of a coalition government together with one of the larger parties, or may provide a supply and confidence agreement to the government; or may instead act independently from the dominant parties.
More commonly, in cases where there are three or more parties, no one party is likely to gain power alone, and parties have to work with each other to form coalition governments. This is almost always the case in Germany on national and state level, and in most constituencies at the communal level. Furthermore, since the forming of the Republic of Iceland there has never been a government not led by a coalition, usually involving the Independence Party or the Progressive Party. A similar situation exists in the Republic of Ireland, where no one party has held power on its own since 1989. Since then, numerous coalition governments have been formed. These coalitions have been led exclusively by either Fianna Fáil or Fine Gael.
Political change is often easier with a coalition government than in one-party or two-party dominant systems.[dubious – discuss] If factions in a two-party system are in fundamental disagreement on policy goals, or even principles, they can be slow to make policy changes, which appears to be the case now in the U.S. with power split between Democrats and Republicans. Still coalition governments struggle, sometimes for years, to change policy and often fail altogether, post World War II France and Italy being prime examples. When one party in a two-party system controls all elective branches, however, policy changes can be both swift and significant. Democrats Woodrow Wilson, Franklin Roosevelt and Lyndon Johnson were beneficiaries of such fortuitous circumstances, as were Republicans as far removed in time as Abraham Lincoln and Ronald Reagan. Barack Obama briefly had such an advantage between 2009 and 2011. As of 2017, President Donald Trump currently enjoys Republican control of both the house and senate.
Funding[edit]
Main articles: Political party funding and Political finance
Political parties are funded by contributions from
party members and other individuals,
organizations, which share their political ideas (e.g. trade union affiliation fees) or which could benefit from their activities (e.g. corporate donations) or
governmental or public funding.[20]
Political parties, still called factions by some, especially those in the governmental apparatus, are lobbied vigorously by organizations, businesses and special interest groups such as trade unions. Money and gifts-in-kind to a party, or its leading members, may be offered as incentives. Such donations are the traditional source of funding for all right-of-centre cadre parties. Starting in the late 19th century these parties were opposed by the newly founded left-of-centre workers' parties. They started a new party type, the mass membership party, and a new source of political fundraising, membership dues.
From the second half of the 20th century on parties which continued to rely on donations or membership subscriptions ran into mounting problems. Along with the increased scrutiny of donations there has been a long-term decline in party memberships in most western democracies which itself places more strains on funding. For example, in the United Kingdom and Australia membership of the two main parties in 2006 is less than an 1/8 of what it was in 1950, despite significant increases in population over that period.
In some parties, such as the post-communist parties of France and Italy or the Sinn Féin party and the Socialist Party, elected representatives (i.e. incumbents) take only the average industrial wage from their salary as a representative, while the rest goes into party coffers. Although these examples may be rare nowadays, "rent-seeking" continues to be a feature of many political parties around the world.[21]
In the United Kingdom, it has been alleged that peerages have been awarded to contributors to party funds, the benefactors becoming members of the House of Lords and thus being in a position to participate in legislating. Famously, Lloyd George was found to have been selling peerages. To prevent such corruption in the future, Parliament passed the Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act 1925 into law. Thus the outright sale of peerages and similar honours became a criminal act. However, some benefactors are alleged to have attempted to circumvent this by cloaking their contributions as loans, giving rise to the 'Cash for Peerages' scandal.
Such activities as well as assumed "influence peddling" have given rise to demands that the scale of donations should be capped. As the costs of electioneering escalate, so the demands made on party funds increase. In the UK some politicians are advocating that parties should be funded by the state; a proposition that promises to give rise to interesting debate in a country that was the first to regulate campaign expenses (in 1883).
In many other democracies such subsidies for party activity (in general or just for campaign purposes) have been introduced decades ago. Public financing for parties and/ or candidates (during election times and beyond) has several permutations and is increasingly common. Germany, Sweden, Israel, Canada, Australia, Austria and Spain are cases in point. More recently among others France, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands and Poland have followed suit.[22]
There are two broad categories of public funding, direct, which entails a monetary transfer to a party, and indirect, which includes broadcasting time on state media, use of the mail service or supplies. According to the Comparative Data from the ACE Electoral Knowledge Network, out of a sample of over 180 nations, 25% of nations provide no direct or indirect public funding, 58% provide direct public funding and 60% of nations provide indirect public funding.[23] Some countries provide both direct and indirect public funding to political parties. Funding may be equal for all parties or depend on the results of previous elections or the number of candidates participating in an election.[24] Frequently parties rely on a mix of private and public funding and are required to disclose their finances to the Election management body.[25]
In fledgling democracies funding can also be provided by foreign aid. International donors provide financing to political parties in developing countries as a means to promote democracy and good governance. Support can be purely financial or otherwise. Frequently it is provided as capacity development activities including the development of party manifestos, party constitutions and campaigning skills.[21] Developing links between ideologically linked parties is another common feature of international support for a party.[21] Sometimes this can be perceived as directly supporting the political aims of a political party, such as the support of the US government to the Georgian party behind the Rose Revolution. Other donors work on a more neutral basis, where multiple donors provide grants in countries accessible by all parties for various aims defined by the recipients.[21] There have been calls by leading development think-tanks, such as the Overseas Development Institute, to increase support to political parties as part of developing the capacity to deal with the demands of interest-driven donors to improve governance.[21]
Colors and emblems[edit]
Main articles: Political colour and List of political party symbols
Generally speaking, over the world, political parties associate themselves with colors, primarily for identification, especially for voter recognition during elections.
• Conservative parties generally use blue.[26]
• Pink sometimes signifies moderate socialist.
• Yellow is often used for liberalism or libertarianism.
• Red often signifies social democratic, socialist or communist parties.[citation needed]
• Green is the color for green parties, Islamist parties, Nordic agrarian parties and Irish republican parties.
• Orange is sometimes a color of nationalism, such as in the Netherlands, in Israel with the Orange Camp or with Ulster Loyalists in Northern Ireland; it is also a color of reform such as in Ukraine.
• In the past, purple was considered the color of royalty, but today it is sometimes used for feminist parties.
• Black is generally associated with fascist parties, going back to Benito Mussolini's blackshirts, but also with Anarchism. Similarly, brown is sometimes associated with Nazism, going back to the Nazi Party's tan-uniformed storm troopers.
Color associations are useful for mnemonics when voter illiteracy is significant.[citation needed] Another case where they are used is when it is not desirable to make rigorous links to parties, particularly when coalitions and alliances are formed between political parties and other organizations, for example: Red Tory, "Purple" (Red-Blue) alliances, Red-green alliances, Blue-green alliances, Traffic light coalitions, Pan-green coalitions, and Pan-blue coalitions.
Political color schemes in the United States diverge from international norms. Since 2000, red has become associated with the right-wing Republican Party and blue with the left-wing Democratic Party. However, unlike political color schemes of other countries, the parties did not choose those colors; they were used in news coverage of 2000 election results and ensuing legal battle and caught on in popular usage. Prior to the 2000 election the media typically alternated which color represented which party each presidential election cycle. The color scheme happened to get inordinate attention that year, so the cycle was stopped lest it cause confusion the following election.[27]
Emblems[edit]
The emblem of socialist parties is often a red rose held in a fist. Communist parties often use a hammer to represent the worker, a sickle to represent the farmer, or both a hammer and a sickle to refer to both at the same time.
The emblem of Nazism, the swastika or "hakenkreuz", has been adopted as a near-universal symbol for almost any organized white supremacist group, even though it dates from more ancient times.
Symbols[edit]
Symbols can be very important when the overall electorate is illiterate. In the Kenyan constitutional referendum, 2005, supporters of the constitution used the banana as their symbol, while the "no" used an orange.[citation needed]
International organization[edit]
During the 19th and 20th century, many national political parties organized themselves into international organizations along similar policy lines. Notable examples are The Universal Party, International Workingmen's Association (also called the First International), the Socialist International (also called the Second International), the Communist International (also called the Third International), and the Fourth International, as organizations of working class parties, or the Liberal International (yellow), Hizb ut-Tahrir, Christian Democratic International and the International Democrat Union (blue). Organized in Italy in 1945, the International Communist Party, since 1974 headquartered in Florence has sections in six countries.[citation needed] Worldwide green parties have recently established the Global Greens. The Universal Party, The Socialist International, the Liberal International, and the International Democrat Union are all based in London. Some administrations (e.g. Hong Kong) outlaw formal linkages between local and foreign political organizations, effectively outlawing international political parties.
Types[edit]
French political scientist Maurice Duverger drew a distinction between cadre parties and mass parties. Cadre parties were political elites that were concerned with contesting elections and restricted the influence of outsiders, who were only required to assist in election campaigns. Mass parties tried to recruit new members who were a source of party income and were often expected to spread party ideology as well as assist in elections. Socialist parties are examples of mass parties, while the British Conservative Party and the German Christian Democratic Union are examples of hybrid parties. In the United States, where both major parties were cadre parties, the introduction of primaries and other reforms has transformed them so that power is held by activists who compete over influence and nomination of candidates.[28]
Klaus von Beyme categorized European parties into nine families, which described most parties. He was able to arrange seven of them from left to right: communist, socialist, green, liberal, Christian democratic, conservative and libertarian. The position of two other types, agrarian and regional/ethnic parties varied.[29]
See also[edit]
Politics portal
Elite party
Index of politics articles
List of political parties
List of ruling political parties by country
Particracy (a political regime dominated by one or more parties)
Party class
Party line (politics)
UCLA School of Political Parties
References[edit]
Jump up ^ J. R. Jones, The First Whigs. The Politics of the Exclusion Crisis. 1678–1683 (Oxford University Press, 1961), p. 4.
Jump up ^ Hamowy, Ronald (2008). "Whiggism". The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 542–43. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n328. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
Jump up ^ Richard Ashcraft and M. M. Goldsmith, "Locke, Revolution Principles, and the Formation of Whig Ideology", Historical Journal, Dec 1983, Vol. 26 Issue 4, pp. 773–800
Jump up ^ Melinda S. Zook, "The Restoration Remembered: The First Whigs and the Making of their History", Seventeenth Century, Autumn 2002, Vol. 17 Issue 2, pp. 213–34
Jump up ^ Robert Lloyd Kelley (1990). The Transatlantic Persuasion: The Liberal-Democratic Mind in the Age of Gladstone. Transaction Publishers. p. 83.
Jump up ^ "ConHome op-ed: the USA, Radical Conservatism and Edmund Burke".
Jump up ^ "The History of Political Parties in England (1678–1914)".
Jump up ^ Parliamentary History, xxiv, 213, 222, cited in Foord, His Majesty's Opposition, 1714–1830, p. 441
Jump up ^ Ellen Wilson and Peter Reill, Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment (2004), p. 298
Jump up ^ Richard Hofstadter, The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States, 1780–1840 (1970)
Jump up ^ William Nisbet Chambers, ed. The First Party System (1972)
Jump up ^ Stephen Minicucci, Internal Improvements and the Union, 1790–1860, Studies in American Political Development (2004), 18: pp. 160–85, (2004), Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/S0898588X04000094
Jump up ^ Busky, Donald F. (2000), Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey, Westport, Connecticut, USA: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., p. 8, The Frankfurt Declaration of the Socialist International, which almost all social democratic parties are members of, declares the goal of the development of democratic socialism
Jump up ^ Cf. Brettschneider, Nutzen der ökonomischen Theorie der Politik für eine Konkretisierung des Gebotes innerparteilicher Demokratie
Jump up ^ McDonnell, Duncan and Newell, James (2011) 'Outsider Parties'.
Jump up ^ Redding 2004
Jump up ^ Abizadeh 2005.
Jump up ^ "General Election results through time, 1945–2001". BBC News. Retrieved 19 May 2006.
Jump up ^ Duverger 1954
Jump up ^ See Heard, Alexander, 'Political financing'. In: Sills, David I. (ed.) International Emcyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 12. New York: Free Press – Macmillan, 1968, pp. 235–41; Paltiel, Khayyam Z., 'Campaign finance – contrasting practices and reforms'. In: Butler, David et al. (eds.), Democracy at the polls – a comparative study of competitive national elections. Washington, D.C.: AEI, 1981, pp. 138–72; Paltiel, Khayyam Z., 'Political finance'. In: Bogdanor, Vernon (ed.), The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Institutions. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1987, pp. 454–56; 'Party finance', in: Kurian, George T. et al. (eds.) The encyclopedia of political science. vol 4, Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2011, pp. 1187–89.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Foresti and Wild 2010. Support to political parties: a missing piece of the governance puzzle. London: Overseas Development Institute
Jump up ^ For details you may want to consult specific articles on Campaign finance in the United States, Federal political financing in Canada, Party finance in Germany, Political donations in Australia, Political finance, Political funding in Japan, Political funding in the United Kingdom.
Jump up ^ ACEproject.org ACE Electoral Knowledge Network: Comparative Data: Political Parties and Candidates
Jump up ^ ACEproject.org ACE Electoral Knowledge Network: Comparative Data: Political Parties and Candidates
Jump up ^ ACEproject.org ACE Encyclopaedia: Public funding of political parties
Jump up ^ Why is the Conservative Party Blue, BBC, 20 April 2006
Jump up ^ Farhi, Paul (2 November 2004), "Elephants Are Red, Donkeys Are Blue", Washington Post
Jump up ^ Ware, Political parties, pp. 65–67
Jump up ^ Ware, Political parties, p. 22
External links[edit]
U.S. Party Platforms from 1840 to 2004 at The American Presidency Project: UC Santa Barbara
Political resources on the net
Political Party Paradox by Elmer G. Wiens
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List of Presidents of India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Rashtrapati Bhavan
official residence of the
President of India
Ram Nath Kovind, the current President of India
The President of India is the head of state of India and the commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces. The President is referred to as the first citizen of India.[1][2] Although vested with these powers by the Constitution of India, the position is largely a ceremonial one and executive powers are de facto exercised by the Prime Minister.[3]
The President is elected by the Electoral College composed of elected members of the parliament houses, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, and also members of the Vidhan Sabha, the state legislative assemblies.[2] Presidents may remain in office for a tenure of five years, as stated by article 56, part V, of the Constitution of India. In the case where a President's term of office is terminated early or during the absence of the President, the Vice President assumes office. By article 70 of part V, the parliament may decide how to discharge the functions of the President where this is not possible, or in any other unexpected contingency.[2]

Representation of Presidents by party of candidacy
Independent (29.6%)
Indian National Congress (41.2%)
Bharatiya Janata Party (5.8%)
Janata Party (5.8%)
Acting (17.6%)

There have been 14 Presidents of India since the post was established when India was declared as a republic with the adoption of the Indian constitution in 1950.[4] Apart from these fourteen, three Acting Presidents have also been in office for short periods of time. Varahagiri Venkata Giri became the Acting President in 1969 after Zakir Husain, died in office. Giri was elected President a few months later. He remains the only person to have held office both as a President and Acting President.[5] Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, is the only person to have held office for two terms.[6]
Presidents by state of birth[7]
Seven Presidents have been members of a political party before being elected. Six of these were active party members of the Indian National Congress. The Janata Party has had one member, Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, who later became President. Two Presidents, Zakir Husain and Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, have died in office. Their Vice-Presidents served as Acting Presidents until a new President was elected. Following Zakir Husain's death, two acting Presidents held office until the new President, V. V. Giri, was elected. When Giri resigned to take part in the presidential elections, he was succeeded by Mohammad Hidayatullah as acting President.[8] The 12th President, Pratibha Patil, is the first woman to serve as President of India, elected in 2007.[9]
On 25 July 2017, Ram Nath Kovind took office as the 14th President of India.[10][11]
Contents
[hide]
1 Presidents
2 See also
3 References
3.1 General
3.2 Specific
4 External links
Presidents
This list is numbered based on Presidents elected after winning an Indian Presidential election. The terms of Varahagiri Venkata Giri, Mohammad Hidayatullah, and Basappa Danappa Jatti, who served as Acting President, are therefore not numbered or counted as actual terms in office. The President of India does not represent any political party. The colours used in the table indicate the following:
Colour key
Acting President of India
President was an Independent candidate
President was an candidate of Indian National Congress (INC)
President was an candidate of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
President was an candidate of the Janata Party (JP)
№
Name
(birth–death)
Photograph
Elected
Took office
Left office
Term
(in months)
Vice President
Candidate of[12]
Notes
1
Rajendra Prasad
(1884–1963) 1952
1957 26 January 1950 12 May 1962 120 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Indian National Congress Prasad, from Bihar, was the first President of independent India and also the longest-serving President, as the only president to serve two terms in office.[6][13][14] He was also a freedom fighter during the Indian independence movement.[15]
2
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
(1888–1975) 1962 13 May 1962 13 May 1967 60 Zakir Husain Independent Radhakrishnan was a prominent philosopher and writer and also held the position of vice-chancellor of the Andhra University and Banaras Hindu University.[16] He received the Bharat Ratna award in 1954 before becoming the President.[17] He was the first President from South India.[18]
3
Zakir Husain
(1897–1969)
–
1967 13 May 1967 3 May 1969 24 Varahagiri Venkata Giri Independent Husain was vice-chancellor of the Aligarh Muslim University and a recipient of Padma Vibhushan and Bharat Ratna.[19] He died in office, the first to do so. He was also the shortest-serving President. He was also the first Muslim President.[20]
–
Varahagiri Venkata Giri*
(1894–1980)
–
– 3 May 1969 20 July 1969 3 – – He was elected Vice President of India in 1967. Following the death of President Zakir Husain, Giri was appointed as Acting President.[21] He resigned after a few months to take part in the presidential elections.[8]
–
Mohammad Hidayatullah*
(1905–1992)
–
– 20 July 1969 24 August 1969 1 – – Hidayatullah served as the Chief Justice of India and was also a recipient of the Order of the British Empire.[22] He served as Acting President until the election of Giri as the President of India.[23]
4
Varahagiri Venkata Giri
(1894–1980)
–
1969 24 August 1969 24 August 1974 60 Gopal Swarup Pathak Independent Giri was the first person to have served as both an acting president and president of India. He was a recipient of the Bharat Ratna, and served as Indian Minister of Labour and High Commissioner to Ceylon (Sri Lanka).[24]
5
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
(1905–1977) 1974 24 August 1974 11 February 1977 36 Gopal Swarup Pathak (1974)
Basappa Danappa Jatti (1974–1977)
Indian National Congress Ahmed served as a Minister before being elected as president. He died in 1977 before his term of office ended, and was the second Indian president to die in office.[25] He was also president during Emergency.[26]
–
Basappa Danappa Jatti*
(1912–2002)
–
– 11 February 1977 25 July 1977 6 – – Jatti was the vice president of India during Ahmed's term of office, and was sworn in as Acting President upon Ahmed's death. He earlier served as the Chief Minister for the State of Mysore State.[25][27]
6
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
(1913–1996) 1977 25 July 1977 25 July 1982 60 Basappa Danappa Jatti (1977–1979)
Mohammad Hidayatullah (1979–1982)
Janata Party Reddy was the first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh. Reddy was the only Member of Parliament from the Janata Party to get elected from Andhra Pradesh.[28] He was unanimously elected Speaker of the Lok Sabha on 26 March 1977 and relinquished this office on 13 July 1977 to become the 6th President of India.[23]
7
Zail Singh
(1916–1994) 1982 25 July 1982 25 July 1987 60 Mohammad Hidayatullah (1982–1984)
Ramaswamy Venkataraman (1984–1987)
Indian National Congress In March 1972, Singh assumed the position of Chief Minister of Punjab, and in 1980, he became Union Home Minister. He was also secretary general to Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) from 1983 to 1986[29]
8
Ramaswamy Venkataraman
(1910–2009) 1987 25 July 1987 25 July 1992 60 Shankar Dayal Sharma Indian National Congress In 1942, Venkataraman was jailed by the British for his involvement in the Indian independence movement.[30] After his release, he was elected to independent India’s Provisional Parliament as a member of the Congress Party in 1950 and eventually joined the central government, where he first served as Minister of Finance and Industry and later as Minister of Defence.[31]
9
Shankar Dayal Sharma
(1918–1999) 1992 25 July 1992 25 July 1997 60 Kocheril Raman Narayanan Indian National Congress Sharma was Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh, and the Indian Minister for Communications. He also served as the Governor of Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Maharashtra.[32]
10
Kocheril Raman Narayanan
(1920–2005) 1997 25 July 1997 25 July 2002 60 Krishan Kant Independent Narayanan served as India's ambassador to Thailand, Turkey, China and United States of America. He received doctorates in Science and Law and was also a chancellor in several universities.[33] He was also the vice-chancellor of Jawaharlal Nehru University.[34] He was the first Dalit President.[35]
11
Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam
(1931–2015) 2002 25 July 2002 25 July 2007 60 Krishan Kant (2002)
Bhairon Singh Shekhawat (2002–2007)
Independent Kalam was an educator and engineer who played a leading role in the development of India's ballistic missile and nuclear weapons programs.[36] He also received the Bharat Ratna. Kalam died following a heart attack while delivering a speech in Shillong.[37][38][39]
12
Pratibha Patil
(1934–) 2007 25 July 2007 25 July 2012 60 Mohammad Hamid Ansari Indian National Congress Patil was the first woman to become the President of India. She was also the first female governor of Rajasthan.[40][41]
13
Pranab Mukherjee
(1935–) 2012 25 July 2012 25 July 2017 60 Mohammad Hamid Ansari Indian National Congress Mukherjee held various posts in the cabinet ministry for the Government of India such as Finance Minister, Foreign Minister, Defence Minister and Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission.[42]
14
Ram Nath Kovind
(1945–) 2017 25 July 2017 Incumbent
–
Venkaiah Naidu Bharatiya Janata Party Kovind was governor of Bihar from 2015 to 2017 and a Member of Parliament from 1994 to 2006. He is the second Dalit president (after K. R. Narayanan) and is the first President from the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and is an active member of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) since his youth.[43]
Other Symbols
-Died in office
-Did not complete assigned term
*-Acting President
Timeline
See also
President of India
Vice-President of India
List of Vice-Presidents of India
List of Prime Ministers of India
References
General
"Former Presidents". President’s Secretariat. Retrieved 29 November 2008.
"List of Presidents/Vice Presidents". Election Commission of India. Retrieved 29 November 2008.
Specific
Jump up ^ "President Ram Nath Kovind is Indias first citizen. Your chances begin only at Number 27". indiatoday.com. Times of India. Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Constitution of India". Ministry of Law and Justice of India. Archived from the original (.doc) on 5 February 2009. Retrieved 4 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "India gets first woman president since independence". BBC News. 25 July 2007. Archived from the original on 15 February 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "1950: India becomes a republic". BBC News. 26 January 1950. Archived from the original on 17 January 2008. Retrieved 6 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "NDA vs Oppn: India might to witness tightest presidential poll since 1969". Hindustan Times. 26 April 2017. Archived from the original on 29 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Harish Khare (6 December 2006). "Selecting the next Rashtrapati". The Hindu. India. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "Infographic: Which states India's Presidents have hailed from – Times of India". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 4 December 2017. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Shekhar Iyer (25 June 2007). "Shekhawat will not resign to contest poll". Hindustan Times. India. Archived from the original on 11 January 2009. Retrieved 4 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "First female president for India". BBC News. 21 July 2007. Archived from the original on 1 February 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2008.
Jump up ^ Hebbar, Nistula (20 July 2017). "Ram Nath Kovind enters Rashtrapati Bhavan with big win". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 20 July 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Desk, The Hindu Net (25 July 2017). "Ram Nath Kovind takes oath as President, Rajya Sabha discusses farmers' crisis – top stories for today". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "List of Presidents of India since India became republic | My India". www.mapsofindia.com. Archived from the original on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Rajendra Prasad". The Hindu. India. 7 May 1952. Archived from the original on 11 January 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "Republic Day". Time. 6 February 1950. Archived from the original on 14 January 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "Rajendra Prasad's birth anniversary celebrated". The Hindu. India. 10 December 2006. Archived from the original on 13 February 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
Jump up ^ Ramachandra Guha (15 April 2006). "Why Amartya Sen should become the next president of India". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 28 February 2007. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "Dr S. Radhakrishnan". The Sunday Tribune. 30 January 2000. Archived from the original on 3 February 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "Commemorative Volume on S.Radhakrishnan" (PDF). rajyasabha.nic.in. Rajya sabha. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Zakir Husain,". Vice President's Secretariat. Archived from the original on 24 September 2008. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "7 leaders who died while in office". India Today. Archived from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Shekhawat need not compare himself to Giri: Shashi Bhushan". The Hindu. India. 12 July 2007. Archived from the original on 12 October 2008. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "Hidayatullah, Shri M". Vice President's Secretariat. Archived from the original on 28 July 2014. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Ramakrishnan, T. (24 July 2012). "The twice Acting-President". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 12 August 2016. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Giri, Shri Varahagiri Venkata". Vice President's Secretariat. Archived from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "Gallery of Indian Presidents". Press Information Bureau of the Government of India. Archived from the original on 10 December 2008. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "Emergency: The Dark Age of Indian democracy". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 4 November 2017. Retrieved 25 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jatti, Shri Basappa Danappa". Vice President's Secretariat. Archived from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
Jump up ^ Bhargava, G.S. "Making of the Prez – Congress chief selects PM as well as President". The Tribune. India. Archived from the original on 17 April 2009. Retrieved 6 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Wolpert, Stanley A. (1999). India. University of California Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-520-22172-7. Retrieved 3 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Hazarika, Sanjoy (17 July 1987). "Man in the News; India's Mild New President: Ramaswamy Venkataraman". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "Venkataraman, Shri R". Vice President's Secretariat. Archived from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 6 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Navtej Sarna (27 December 1999). "Former President Shankar Dayal Sharma passes away". Embassy of India, Washington D.C. Archived from the original on 8 August 2008. Retrieved 6 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Narayanan, Shri K, R". Vice President's Secretariat. Archived from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 6 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "The BJP's aim was to get rid of me". Confederation of Human Rights Organizations. Archived from the original on 12 October 2008. Retrieved 6 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "Can Ram Nath Kovind, second Dalit President, follow in the footsteps of first Dalit President K R Narayanan?". India Today. Archived from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Ramana, M. V.; Reddy, C. Rammanohar (2002). Prisoners of the Nuclear Dream. New Delhi: Orient Longman. p. 169. ISBN 978-81-250-2477-4. Archived from the original on 21 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Tyagi, Kavita; Misra, Padma (23 May 2011). Basic Technical Communication. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 124. ISBN 978-81-203-4238-5. Archived from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "'Kalam was real people's President'". Hindustan Times. Indo-Asian News Service. 24 July 2007. Archived from the original on 11 May 2009. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Perappadan, Bindu Shajan (14 April 2007). "The people's President does it again". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 25 January 2012. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Emily Wax (22 July 2007). "Female President Elected in India". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 20 August 2011. Retrieved 2 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Pratibha Patil is Rajasthan's first woman governor". Express India. 8 November 2008. Archived from the original on 14 January 2009. Retrieved 6 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Archived version of bio data of Pranab Mukherjee in Lok Sabha". india.gov.in. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2017. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ "PresidentofIndia". Presidents Secretariat. Government of India. Archived from the original on 9 September 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
External links
Official website of the President of India
Rediff.com – Presidents of India
The Hindu – A presidential poll in the coalition age
Zee News: Former Presidents
[show]
v
t
e
Presidents of India (List)
Rajendra Prasad
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
Zakir Hussain
V. V. Giri (acting)
Mohammad Hidayatullah (acting)
V. V. Giri
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
B. D. Jatti (acting)
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
Zail Singh
R. Venkataraman
Shankar Dayal Sharma
K. R. Narayanan
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
Pratibha Patil
Pranab Mukherjee
Ram Nath Kovind
[show]
v
t
e
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