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The White Tiger
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This article is about the 2008 novel by Aravind Adiga. For the 1987 novel by Robert Stuart Nathan, see The White Tiger (Nathan novel). For other uses of White Tiger, see White tiger (disambiguation).
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The White Tiger
Author
Aravind Adiga
Country
India
Language
English
Genre
Picaresque novel
Published
2008 Atlantic Books (UK)
2008 HarperCollins (India)
Media type
Print (hardback)
Pages
318
ISBN
1-4165-6259-1
OCLC
166373034
Dewey Decimal
823/.92 22
LC Class
PR9619.4.A35 W47 2008
The White Tiger is the debut novel by Indian author Aravind Adiga. It was first published in 2008 and won the 40th Man Booker Prize in the same year.[1] The novel provides a darkly humorous perspective of India’s class struggle in a globalized world as told through a retrospective narration from Balram Halwai, a village boy. In detailing Balram's journey first to Delhi, where he works as a chauffeur to a rich landlord, and then to Bangalore, the place to which he flees after killing his master and stealing his money, the novel examines issues of religion, caste, loyalty, corruption and poverty in India.[2] Ultimately, Balram transcends his sweet-maker caste and becomes a successful entrepreneur, establishing his own taxi service. In a nation proudly shedding a history of poverty and underdevelopment, he represents, as he himself says, "tomorrow."
The novel has been well-received, making the New York Times bestseller list in addition to winning the Man Booker Prize.[3] Aravind Adiga, 33 at the time, was the second youngest writer as well as the fourth debut writer to win the prize in 2008.[4] Adiga says his novel "attempt[s] to catch the voice of the men you meet as you travel through India — the voice of the colossal underclass."[5] According to Adiga, the exigence for The White Tiger was to capture the unspoken voice of people from "the Darkness" – the impoverished areas of rural India, and he "wanted to do so without sentimentality or portraying them as mirthless humorless weaklings as they are usually."[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot summary
2 Themes
2.1 Globalization
2.2 Individualism
2.3 Freedom
2.4 Social class/caste
2.5 Critical Analysis
3 References
4 External links
Plot summary[edit]
Balram Halwai narrates his life in a letter, written in seven consecutive nights and addressed to the Chinese Premier, Wen Jiabao. In his letter, Balram explains how he, the son of a rickshaw puller, escaped a life of servitude to become a successful businessman, describing himself as an entrepreneur.
Balram was born in the rural village of Laxmangarh, where he lived with his grandmother, parents, brother and extended family. He is a smart child but is forced to leave school in order to help pay for his cousin's dowry and begins to work in a teashop with his brother in Dhanbad. While working there he begins to learn about India's government and economy from the customers' conversations. Balram describes himself as a bad servant but a good listener and decides to become a driver.
After learning how to drive, Balram finds a job driving Ashok, the son of one of Laxmangarh's landlords. He takes over the job of the main driver, from a small car to a heavy-luxury described Honda City. He stops sending money back to his family and disrespects his grandmother during a trip back to his village. Balram moves to New Delhi with Ashok and his wife Pinky Madam. Throughout their time in Delhi, Balram is exposed to extensive corruption, especially in the government. In Delhi, the contrast between the poor and the wealthy is made even more evident by their proximity to one another.
One night Pinky Madam takes the wheel from Balram, while drunk, hits something in the road and drives away; we are left to assume that she has killed a child. Ashok's family puts pressure on Balram to confess that he had been driving alone. Ashok becomes increasingly involved in bribing government officials for the benefit of the family coal business. Balram then decides that killing Ashok will be the only way to escape India's Rooster Coop. After bludgeoning Ashok with a bottle and stealing a large bribe, Balram moves to Bangalore, where he bribes the police in order to help start his own taxi business. Interestingly, Ashok too is portrayed to be trapped in the metaphorical Rooster Coop: his family controls what he does and society dictates how he acts. Just like Ashok, Balram pays off a family whose son one of his taxi drivers hit and killed. Balram explains that his own family was almost certainly killed by Ashok's relatives as retribution for his murder. At the end of the novel, Balram rationalizes his actions and considers that his freedom is worth the lives of his family and of Ashok. And thus ends the letter to Jiabao, letting the reader think of the dark humour of the tale, as well as the idea of life as a trap introduced by the writer.
Themes[edit]
Globalization[edit]
The White Tiger takes place in a time in which increased technology has led to world globalization, and India is no exception. In the past decade, India has had one of the fastest booming economies. Specifically Americanization in India has played its role in the plot, since it provides an outlet for Balram to alter his caste. To satisfy Pinky’s want for American culture, Ashok, Pinky, and Balram simply move to Gurgaon instead of back to America. Globalization has assisted in the creation of an American atmosphere in India. Ashok justifies this move by explaining "Today it’s the modernest suburb of Delhi. American Express, Microsoft, all the big American companies have offices there. The main road is full of shopping malls—each mall has a cinema inside! So if Pinky Madam missed America, this was the best place to bring her".[6] By blackmailing Ram Persad, the other driver, Balram is promoted and drives Ashok and Pinky to their new home.
Ashok is even convinced India is surpassing the USA, "There are so many more things I could do here than in New York now...The way things are changing in India now, this place is going to be like America in ten years".[7] Balram is noticing the rapid growth as well. From the beginning of his story he knows that in order to rise above his caste he should become an entrepreneur. Although his taxi service is not an international business, Balram plans to keep up with the pace of globalization and change his trade when need be. "I‘m always a man who sees ‘tomorrow’ when others see ‘today.’"[8] Balram's recognition of the increasing competition resulting from globalization contributes to his corruption.
Individualism[edit]
Throughout the book, there are references to how Balram is very different from those back in his home environment. He is referred to as the "white tiger"[9] (which also happens to be the title of the book). A white tiger symbolizes power in East Asian cultures,[10] such as in Vietnam. It is also a symbol for freedom and individuality. Balram is seen as different from those he grew up with. He is the one who got out of the "Darkness" and found his way into the "Light".
Freedom[edit]
In an interview with Aravind Adiga, he talked about how "The White Tiger" was a book about a man’s quest for freedom.[11] Balram, the protagonist in the novel, worked his way out of his low social caste (often referred to as "the Darkness") and overcame the social obstacles that limited his family in the past. Climbing up the social ladder, Balram sheds the weights and limits of his past and overcomes the social obstacles that keep him from living life to the fullest that he can. In the book, Balram talks about how he was in a rooster coop and how he broke free from his coop. The novel is somewhat of a memoir of his journey to finding his freedom in India’s modern day capitalist society. Towards the beginning of the novel, Balram cites a poem from the Muslim poet Iqbal where he talks about slaves and says "They remain slaves because they can’t see what is beautiful in this world."[12] Balram sees himself embodying the poem and being the one who sees the world and takes it as he rises through the ranks of society, and in doing so finding his freedom.
Social class/caste[edit]
The book shows a modern day, capitalist Indian society with free market and free business. It also shows how it can create economic division. In India there are not social classes, there are social castes. The novel portrays India’s society as very negative towards the lower social caste.
The novel is based on the disparities of two worlds: darkness, inhabited by poor and underprivileged who cannot even meet their bare minimums; and the lighted world, inhabited by zamindars, politicians, businessmen etc. who shamelessly exploits the ones from darkness, making them even more poor and grows their own grandeur.[13]
Balram refers to it as the "Darkness". When Balram was asked which caste he was from, he knew that it could ultimately cause a biased stance in his employer and determine the future of his employment. There is definitely a big difference seen in Balram’s lower caste from back home and his current higher caste in their lifestyles, habits, and standards of living. This novel is showing how our economic system today creates socioeconomic gaps that create a big division in society. It limits opportunity, social mobility, health, and other rights and pleasures that should be given to all. There is a big difference in the amount of money spread around in society today and this book is alluding to that fact.
Critical Analysis[edit]
Aravind Adiga’s White Tiger tells the story of Balram Halwei. Born in India’s overarching darkness of perpetual servanthood and poverty, Balram seeks a life in the light—a life of freedom and financial prosperity. Balram, a man of many names and of strong conviction, is one of the few who are able to escape the Darkness. Unlike the majority of the poor in India, eternally pent up in the Coop, he is willing to sacrifice his family for his own self gain. His ambition and inner drive propels him to commit murder to achieve freedom. To be one’s own man, one must break free from the darkness and live life being able to choose his own path. When Balram says, “All I wanted was the chance to be a man—and for that, one murder was enough,” he is technically correct. While murdering Ashok will result in the resultant murder of his family, the one murder alone is enough to break free from the Darkness. By murdering Ashok, therefore, Balram becomes his own man, free of the chains of servitude and finally able to control his own destiny.
According to Balram, there are two different types of people in India. There are those in the light—politicians, businessmen, entrepreneurs, to name a few, who prosper financially and sit at the top of society—and there are those in the Darkness, trapped in lives of poverty and subservience. He explains, “Please understand, Your Excellency, that India is two countries in one: an India of Light, and an India of Darkness” (12). To explain this division he uses the metaphor of the Coop: “Go to Old Delhi… Hundred of pale hens and brightly colored roosters, stuffed tightly into wire-mesh cages… They know they are next, yet they cannot rebel. They do not try to get out of the coop. The very same thing is done with humans in this country” (147). The Coop represents life in the Darkness: a life where the “roosters,” or people, cannot choose their own fate, where they live in poverty, where they see their family decimated around them and are unable to intervene, and in which they inevitably will live and die without ever the possibility of escape. Balram’s family is in the Darkness. While they are supposed to be sweetmakers, or Halweis, they live in poverty. His father works tenuously as a rickshaw puller, and his brother works in the local tea shop.
Balram’s father implants in him early on this idea of breaking away from the Darkness, and of becoming his own man. He instates in Balram the goal of becoming one of those men who are in the light. He says, “My whole life, I have been treated like a donkey. All I want is that one son of mine—at least one—should live like a man” (26). In the eyes of Balram’s father, a man should live in the light, free from the grueling life of manual labor and servitude. Balram adopts this goal, and devotes his life towards attaining it. Later, Balram uses the metaphor: “There are just two castes: Men with Big Bellies, and Men with Small Bellies. And only two destinies: eat—or get eaten up” (54). Balram has a big belly, filled with the lust of freedom and of riches—the same belly which will eventually propel him to murder Ashok and give up his family for the sake of becoming a man.
In his childhood, Balram recognizes that he is special. When an official comes to evaluate his school, he singles out Balram because he is the only one who can read and write. He sees great potential in the boy: “You, young man, are an intelligent, honest, vivacious fellow in this crowd of thugs and idiots… You need to go to a real school” (30). The rest of the students are cast into the lowly group of “thugs and idiots, because they will forever remain in the darkness. They do not have the ambition, drive or intelligence that is needed to escape—the same characteristics which the inspector sees in Balram.
The inspector knows that Balram exceeds everyone else within the “jungle” of his lowly school and town. He says, “In any jungle, what is the rarest of animals – the creature that comes along only once in a generation? The white tiger” (30). Balram calls himself White Tiger permanently after this event. He fully takes on and embodies the life of a white tiger. In Balram’s opinion, “[Slaves] remain slaves because they can’t see what is beautiful in this world” (34). A “white tiger” can never be a slave, because it can see and pursue beauty. “Beauty,” in this case, is the life of financial prosperity and freedom of choice that Balram yearns for. Amidst the other animals in the darkness, amidst the other children in his school and the rest of India trapped in lives of Darkness, all who are unable to see beauty, and who carry with them small bellies, Balram, the “White Tiger,” knows that he must escape any means possible.
Balram only faints twice in his life. Each time he faints it is because he realizes that the Darkness is inescapable without some form of resistance. He first faints when he sees his mother’s dead body around the Ganges: “Soon she would become part of the black mound… And then I understood: this was the real god of Benaras—this black mud of the Ganga into which everything died, and decomposed, and was reborn from, and died into again. The same would happen to me when I died and they brought me here. Nothing would get liberated here” (15). Balram cannot fathom the prospect of forever remaining in the Darkness. He sees the overwhelming power that being in the Darkness has on the ones in it: that when surrounded by others marked by a lack of ambition, leading lives of destitute servitude, unable to choose the paths of their own lives, one inevitably surrenders to that same life. Balram faints thinking that this could happen to him.
Balram faints for a second time when he goes to the zoo. He sees the White Tiger trapped in the cage and realizes that he sees himself: “[The tiger] was hypnotizing himself by walking like this - that was the way he could tolerate this cage” (237). Balram’s current predicament of servitude serves as his own cage. Balram was “hypnotizing himself” by buying into his life of servitude. He wholeheartedly embraced his master, with whom he treated with great love, to distract himself from the fact that he was living in a life that he and his father wanted so desperately for him to break free of. “All at once, the tiger vanished” (237). When Balram sees himself in that cage, he has an epiphany. Up to this point, he had never seriously considered rebelling against or killing Ashok. But the tiger vanishes from the cage because, at that moment, the caged version of Balram ceased to exist. A changed man, he realizes that he must kill Ashok to become his own man and enter into a life of Light.
After this epiphany, Balram quickly and deliberately frees himself from the Darkness by killing Ashok. Despite the fact that his family may be murdered, Balram commits this act because it will transport him to the life he has dreamed of and therefore make him a man. Balram has so much disdain for him family, since he sees the harsh ways by which they drain the life out of his father, that they no longer remain a relevant part of his life. Therefore, he is justified in sacrificing them, at least in his eyes. His epiphany at the zoo puts in context that life is not worth living if it is lived in the Darkness. After killing Ashok with the glass shards of a broken liquor bottle, he says, “I’ve made it! I’ve broken out of the coop!” (275). In this India of Light and Darkness, Balram is now in the light. By resisting the life of Darkness and by killing Ashok, he now leads a life in which he can choose his own fate. The difference between “this India,” Laxmangarh, and “that India,” Bangalore, is that in “this India” Balram is a free independent man who can finally control his own destiny (262).
The chandelier embodies Balram’s transformation into a man. Literally, it represents the materialistic success which he has encountered in his entrepreneurial ventures as an independent businessman. Figuratively, it sheds light on him, amidst the Darkness still prevalent in the everyday life of India. It represents Balram's escape from the presence of Darkness which used to dominate his life. By killing Ashok, Balram becomes his own man, freeing himself from servitude and entering a life of independence.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Amitav Ghosh, Aravind Adiga in Booker shortlist". Rediff.com. 2008-09-09. Retrieved 2008-09-09.
Jump up ^ Robins, Peter (2008-08-09). "Review: The White Tiger by Aravind Adiga". The Telegraph. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
Jump up ^ The White Tiger: A Novel [Deckle Edge] [Hardcover]. amazon. Amazon.com, Inc. or its affiliates. ASIN 1416562591.
Jump up ^ "Aravind Adiga becomes the fourth debut novelist to win the coveted prize". The Man Booker Prize. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Young, Victoria. "Novel About India Wins Man Booker Prize". Retrieved 8 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Adiga, Aravind (2008). The White Tiger. Free Press. p. 101.
Jump up ^ Adiga, Aravind (2008). The White Tiger. Free Press. p. 77.
Jump up ^ Adiga, Aravind (2008). The White Tiger. Free Press. p. 274.
Jump up ^ The White Tiger. p. 30.
Jump up ^ "Animal Symbolism".
Jump up ^ "YouTube".
Jump up ^ The White Tiger. p. 34.
Jump up ^ "BOOK REVIEW: THE WHITE TIGER BY ARAVIND ADIGA (WINNER OF THE MAN BOOKER PRIZE 2008)". Stories In Moments. Retrieved 22 March 2014.
External links[edit]
Aravind Adiga Official website
Adam Lively, Review in The Sunday Times
David Mattin, Review in The Independent
Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Review in the London Review of Books
Interview with Aravind Adiga in Rediff
Analysis of the novel at Let's talk about Bollywood
The White Tiger – uRead.com
Roy, Pinaki. "Inside Tiger's Jaws: Rereading Aravind Adiga's The White Tiger". Booker Prize Winner Indian English Novels: A Kaleidoscopic Study. Eds. Nawale, A., and V. Bite. Jaipur: Aavishkar Publishers and Distributors, 2011. Pp. 164–78. ISBN 978-81-7910-341-8.
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=90452769
Awards
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text:
Network topology
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Jump to: navigation, search
For the topology of transport networks, see Transport topology.
Network science
Theory
Graph
Complex network
Contagion
Small-world
Scale-free
Community structure
Percolation
Evolution
Controllability
Graph drawing
Social capital
Link analysis
Optimization
Reciprocity
Closure
Homophily
Transitivity
Preferential attachment
Balance theory
Network effect
Social influence
Network types
Informational (computing)
Telecommunication
Transport
Social
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Biological
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Interdependent
Semantic
Spatial
Dependency
Flow
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Component
Cut
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Data structure
Edge
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Adjacency list / matrix
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Types
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Category:Network theory
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v
t
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Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a communication network.[1][2]
Network topology is the topological[3] structure of a network and may be depicted physically or logically. Physical topology is the placement of the various components of a network, including device location and cable installation, while logical topology illustrates how data flows within a network. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, or signal types may differ between two networks, yet their topologies may be identical.
An example is a local area network (LAN). Any given node in the LAN has one or more physical links to other devices in the network; graphically mapping these links results in a geometric shape that can be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Conversely, mapping the data flow between the components determines the logical topology of the network.
Contents
[hide]
1 Topologies
2 Links
2.1 Wired technologies
2.2 Wireless technologies
2.3 Exotic technologies
3 Nodes
3.1 Network interfaces
3.2 Repeaters and hubs
3.3 Bridges
3.4 Switches
3.5 Routers
3.6 Modems
3.7 Firewalls
4 Classification
4.1 Point-to-point
4.2 Bus
4.2.1 Linear bus
4.2.2 Distributed bus
4.3 Star
4.3.1 Extended star
4.3.2 Distributed Star
4.4 Ring
4.5 Mesh
4.5.1 Fully connected network
4.5.2 Partially connected network
4.6 Hybrid
4.7 Daisy chain
5 Centralization
6 Decentralization
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Topologies[edit]
Diagram of different network topologies.
Two basic categories of network topologies exist, physical topologies and logical topologies.[4]
The cabling layout used to link devices is the physical topology of the network. This refers to the layout of cabling, the locations of nodes, and the links between the nodes and the cabling.[1] The physical topology of a network is determined by the capabilities of the network access devices and media, the level of control or fault tolerance desired, and the cost associated with cabling or telecommunications circuits.
In contrast, logical topology is the way that the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices. A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology. For example, the original twisted pair Ethernet using repeater hubs was a logical bus topology carried on a physical star topology. Token ring is a logical ring topology, but is wired as a physical star from the media access unit. Logical topologies are often closely associated with media access control methods and protocols. Some networks are able to dynamically change their logical topology through configuration changes to their routers and switches.
Links[edit]
Further information: data transmission
The transmission media (often referred to in the literature as the physical media) used to link devices to form a computer network include electrical cable (Ethernet, HomePNA, power line communication, G.hn), optical fiber (fiber-optic communication), and radio waves (wireless networking). In the OSI model, these are defined at layers 1 and 2 — the physical layer and the data link layer.
A widely adopted family of transmission media used in local area network (LAN) technology is collectively known as Ethernet. The media and protocol standards that enable communication between networked devices over Ethernet are defined by IEEE 802.3. Ethernet transmits data over both copper and fiber cables. Wireless LAN standards (e.g. those defined by IEEE 802.11) use radio waves, or others use infrared signals as a transmission medium. Power line communication uses a building's power cabling to transmit data.
Wired technologies[edit]
Fiber optic cables are used to transmit light from one computer/network node to another
The orders of the following wired technologies are, roughly, from slowest to fastest transmission speed.
Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-sites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire surrounded by an insulating layer (typically a flexible material with a high dielectric constant), which itself is surrounded by a conductive layer. The insulation helps minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits per second to more than 500 million bits per second.
ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home wiring (coaxial cable, phone lines and power lines) to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network
Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for all telecommunication. Twisted-pair cabling consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary telephone wires consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs. Computer network cabling (wired Ethernet as defined by IEEE 802.3) consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 10 billion bits per second. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). Each form comes in several category ratings, designed for use in various scenarios.
2007 map showing submarine optical fiber telecommunication cables around the world.
An optical fiber is a glass fiber. It carries pulses of light that represent data. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are very low transmission loss and immunity from electrical interference. Optical fibers can simultaneously carry multiple wavelengths of light, which greatly increases the rate that data can be sent, and helps enable data rates of up to trillions of bits per second. Optic fibers can be used for long runs of cable carrying very high data rates, and are used for undersea cables to interconnect continents.
Price is a main factor distinguishing wired- and wireless-technology options in a business. Wireless options command a price premium that can make purchasing wired computers, printers and other devices a financial benefit. Before making the decision to purchase hard-wired technology products, a review of the restrictions and limitations of the selections is necessary. Business and employee needs may override any cost considerations.[5]
Wireless technologies[edit]
Computers are very often connected to networks using wireless links
Main article: Wireless network
Terrestrial microwave – Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 48 km (30 mi) apart.
Communications satellites – Satellites communicate via microwave radio waves, which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.
Cellular and PCS systems use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area.
Radio and spread spectrum technologies – Wireless local area networks use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. IEEE 802.11 defines a common flavor of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology known as Wifi.
Free-space optical communication uses visible or invisible light for communications. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices.
Exotic technologies[edit]
There have been various attempts at transporting data over exotic media:
IP over Avian Carriers was a humorous April fool's Request for Comments, issued as RFC 1149. It was implemented in real life in 2001.[6]
Extending the Internet to interplanetary dimensions via radio waves, the Interplanetary Internet.[7]
Both cases have a large round-trip delay time, which gives slow two-way communication, but doesn't prevent sending large amounts of information.
Nodes[edit]
Main article: Node (networking)
Apart from any physical transmission media there may be, networks comprise additional basic system building blocks, such as network interface controllers (NICs), repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, modems, and firewalls. Any particular piece of equipment will frequently contain multiple building blocks and perform multiple functions.
Network interfaces[edit]
An ATM network interface in the form of an accessory card. A lot of network interfaces are built-in.
A network interface controller (NIC) is computer hardware that provides a computer with the ability to access the transmission media, and has the ability to process low-level network information. For example, the NIC may have a connector for accepting a cable, or an aerial for wireless transmission and reception, and the associated circuitry.
The NIC responds to traffic addressed to a network address for either the NIC or the computer as a whole.
In Ethernet networks, each network interface controller has a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address—usually stored in the controller's permanent memory. To avoid address conflicts between network devices, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) maintains and administers MAC address uniqueness. The size of an Ethernet MAC address is six octets. The three most significant octets are reserved to identify NIC manufacturers. These manufacturers, using only their assigned prefixes, uniquely assign the three least-significant octets of every Ethernet interface they produce.
Repeaters and hubs[edit]
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise and regenerates it. The signal is retransmitted at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. With fiber optics, repeaters can be tens or even hundreds of kilometers apart.
A repeater with multiple ports is known as an Ethernet hub. Repeaters work on the physical layer of the OSI model. Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay that affects network performance and may affect proper function. As a result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row, e.g., the Ethernet 5-4-3 rule.
Hubs and repeaters in LANs have been mostly obsoleted by modern switches.
Bridges[edit]
A network bridge connects and filters traffic between two network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model to form a single network. This breaks the network's collision domain but maintains a unified broadcast domain. Network segmentation breaks down a large, congested network into an aggregation of smaller, more efficient networks.
Bridges come in three basic types:
Local bridges: Directly connect LANs
Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced with routers.
Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote devices to LANs.
Switches[edit]
A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (frames) between ports based on the destination MAC address in each frame.[8] A switch is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the physical ports involved in the communication rather than all ports connected. It can be thought of as a multi-port bridge.[9] It learns to associate physical ports to MAC addresses by examining the source addresses of received frames. If an unknown destination is targeted, the switch broadcasts to all ports but the source. Switches normally have numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading additional switches.
Multi-layer switches are capable of routing based on layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels. The term switch is often used loosely to include devices such as routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic based on load or based on application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier).
Routers[edit]
A typical home or small office router showing the ADSL telephone line and Ethernet network cable connections
A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing the routing information included in the packet or datagram (Internet protocol information from layer 3). The routing information is often processed in conjunction with the routing table (or forwarding table). A router uses its routing table to determine where to forward packets. A destination in a routing table can include a "null" interface, also known as the "black hole" interface because data can go into it, however, no further processing is done for said data, i.e. the packets are dropped.
Modems[edit]
Modems (MOdulator-DEModulator) are used to connect network nodes via wire not originally designed for digital network traffic, or for wireless. To do this one or more carrier signals are modulated by the digital signal to produce an analog signal that can be tailored to give the required properties for transmission. Modems are commonly used for telephone lines, using a Digital Subscriber Line technology.
Firewalls[edit]
A firewall is a network device for controlling network security and access rules. Firewalls are typically configured to reject access requests from unrecognized sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in cyber attacks.
Classification[edit]
The study of network topology recognizes eight basic topologies: point-to-point, bus, star, ring or circular, mesh, tree, hybrid, or daisy chain.[10]
Point-to-point[edit]
Main article: Point-to-point (telecommunications)
The simplest topology with a dedicated link between two endpoints. Easiest to understand, of the variations of point-to-point topology, is a point-to-point communications channel that appears, to the user, to be permanently associated with the two endpoints. A child's tin can telephone is one example of a physical dedicated channel.
Using circuit-switching or packet-switching technologies, a point-to-point circuit can be set up dynamically and dropped when no longer needed. Switched point-to-point topologies are the basic model of conventional telephony.
The value of a permanent point-to-point network is unimpeded communications between the two endpoints. The value of an on-demand point-to-point connection is proportional to the number of potential pairs of subscribers and has been expressed as Metcalfe's Law.
Bus[edit]
Bus network topology
Main article: Bus network
In local area networks where bus topology is used, each node is connected to a single cable, by the help of interface connectors. This central cable is the backbone of the network and is known as the bus (thus the name). A signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the intended recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data matches the machine address, the data is accepted. Because the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is rather inexpensive to implement when compared to other topologies. However, the low cost of implementing the technology is offset by the high cost of managing the network. Additionally, because only one cable is utilized, it can be the single point of failure. In this topology data being transferred may be accessed by any workstation.
Linear bus[edit]
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network that are connected to a common transmission medium which has exactly two endpoints (this is the 'bus', which is also commonly referred to as the backbone, or trunk) – all data that is transmitted in between nodes in the network is transmitted over this common transmission medium and is able to be received by all nodes in the network simultaneously.[1]
Note: When the electrical signal reaches the end of the bus, the signal is reflected back down the line, causing unwanted interference. As a solution, the two endpoints of the bus are normally terminated with a device called a terminator that prevents this reflection.
Distributed bus[edit]
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission medium which has more than two endpoints that are created by adding branches to the main section of the transmission medium – the physical distributed bus topology functions in exactly the same fashion as the physical linear bus topology (i.e., all nodes share a common transmission medium).
Star[edit]
Main article: Star network
Star network topology
In local area networks with a star topology, each network host is connected to a central hub with a point-to-point connection. So it can be said that every computer is indirectly connected to every other node with the help of the hub. In Star topology, every node (computer workstation or any other peripheral) is connected to a central node called hub, router or switch. The switch is the server and the peripherals are the clients. The network does not necessarily have to resemble a star to be classified as a star network, but all of the nodes on the network must be connected to one central device. All traffic that traverses the network passes through the central hub. The hub acts as a signal repeater. The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star topology is that the hub represents a single point of failure. Since all peripheral communication must flow through the central hub, the aggregate central bandwidth forms a network bottleneck for large clusters.
Extended star[edit]
A type of network topology in which a network that is based upon the physical star topology has one or more repeaters between the central node and the peripheral or 'spoke' nodes, the repeaters being used to extend the maximum transmission distance of the point-to-point links between the central node and the peripheral nodes beyond that which is supported by the transmitter power of the central node or beyond that which is supported by the standard upon which the physical layer of the physical star network is based.
If the repeaters in a network that is based upon the physical extended star topology are replaced with hubs or switches, then a hybrid network topology is created that is referred to as a physical hierarchical star topology, although some texts make no distinction between the two topologies.
Distributed Star[edit]
A type of network topology that is composed of individual networks that are based upon the physical star topology connected in a linear fashion – i.e., 'daisy-chained' – with no central or top level connection point (e.g., two or more 'stacked' hubs, along with their associated star connected nodes or 'spokes').
Ring[edit]
Main article: Ring network
Ring network topology
A ring topology is a bus topology in a closed loop. Data travels around the ring in one direction. When one node sends data to another, the data passes through each intermediate node on the ring until it reaches its destination. The intermediate nodes repeat (re transmit) the data to keep the signal strong.[4] Every node is a peer; there is no hierarchical relationship of clients and servers. If one node is unable to re transmit data, it severs communication between the nodes before and after it in the bus.
Advantages:
When the load on the network increases, its performance is better than bus topology.
There is no need of network server to control the connectivity between workstations.
Disadvantages:
Aggregate network bandwidth is bottlenecked by the weakest link between two nodes.
Mesh[edit]
Main article: Mesh networking
The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and including all the endpoints, is approximated by Reed's Law.
Fully connected network[edit]
Fully connected mesh topology
In a fully connected network, all nodes are interconnected. (In graph theory this is called a complete graph.) The simplest fully connected network is a two-node network. A fully connected network doesn't need to use packet switching or broadcasting. However, since the number of connections grows quadratically with the number of nodes: This kind of topology does not trip and affect other nodes in the network
c = n ( n − 1 ) 2 . {\displaystyle c={\frac {n(n-1)}{2}}.\,}
This makes it impractical for large networks.
Partially connected network[edit]
Partially connected mesh topology
In a partially connected network, certain nodes are connected to exactly one other node; but some nodes are connected to two or more other nodes with a point-to-point link. This makes it possible to make use of some of the redundancy of mesh topology that is physically fully connected, without the expense and complexity required for a connection between every node in the network.
Hybrid[edit]
Hybrid networks combine two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For example, a tree network (or star-bus network) is a hybrid topology in which star networks are interconnected via bus networks.[11][12] However, a tree network connected to another tree network is still topologically a tree network, not a distinct network type. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected.
A star-ring network consists of two or more ring networks connected using a multistation access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.
Snowflake topology is a star network of star networks.[citation needed]
Two other hybrid network types are hybrid mesh and hierarchical star.[11]
Daisy chain[edit]
Except for star-based networks, the easiest way to add more computers into a network is by daisy-chaining, or connecting each computer in series to the next. If a message is intended for a computer partway down the line, each system bounces it along in sequence until it reaches the destination. A daisy-chained network can take two basic forms: linear and ring.
A linear topology puts a two-way link between one computer and the next. However, this was expensive in the early days of computing, since each computer (except for the ones at each end) required two receivers and two transmitters.
By connecting the computers at each end, a ring topology can be formed. An advantage of the ring is that the number of transmitters and receivers can be cut in half, since a message will eventually loop all of the way around. When a node sends a message, the message is processed by each computer in the ring. If the ring breaks at a particular link then the transmission can be sent via the reverse path thereby ensuring that all nodes are always connected in the case of a single failure.
Centralization[edit]
The star topology reduces the probability of a network failure by connecting all of the peripheral nodes (computers, etc.) to a central node. When the physical star topology is applied to a logical bus network such as Ethernet, this central node (traditionally a hub) rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, sometimes including the originating node. All peripheral nodes may thus communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node only. The failure of a transmission line linking any peripheral node to the central node will result in the isolation of that peripheral node from all others, but the remaining peripheral nodes will be unaffected. However, the disadvantage is that the failure of the central node will cause the failure of all of the peripheral nodes.
If the central node is passive, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an echo of its own transmission, delayed by the two-way round trip transmission time (i.e. to and from the central node) plus any delay generated in the central node. An active star network has an active central node that usually has the means to prevent echo-related problems.
A tree topology (a.k.a. hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a collection of star networks arranged in a hierarchy. This tree has individual peripheral nodes (e.g. leaves) which are required to transmit to and receive from one other node only and are not required to act as repeaters or regenerators. Unlike the star network, the functionality of the central node may be distributed.
As in the conventional star network, individual nodes may thus still be isolated from the network by a single-point failure of a transmission path to the node. If a link connecting a leaf fails, that leaf is isolated; if a connection to a non-leaf node fails, an entire section of the network becomes isolated from the rest.
To alleviate the amount of network traffic that comes from broadcasting all signals to all nodes, more advanced central nodes were developed that are able to keep track of the identities of the nodes that are connected to the network. These network switches will "learn" the layout of the network by "listening" on each port during normal data transmission, examining the data packets and recording the address/identifier of each connected node and which port it is connected to in a lookup table held in memory. This lookup table then allows future transmissions to be forwarded to the intended destination only.
Decentralization[edit]
In a partially connected mesh topology, there are at least two nodes with two or more paths between them to provide redundant paths in case the link providing one of the paths fails. Decentralization is often used to compensate for the single-point-failure disadvantage that is present when using a single device as a central node (e.g., in star and tree networks). A special kind of mesh, limiting the number of hops between two nodes, is a hypercube. The number of arbitrary forks in mesh networks makes them more difficult to design and implement, but their decentralized nature makes them very useful. In 2012 the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) published the Shortest Path Bridging protocol to ease configuration tasks and allows all paths to be active which increases bandwidth and redundancy between all devices.[13][14][15][16][17]
This is similar in some ways to a grid network, where a linear or ring topology is used to connect systems in multiple directions. A multidimensional ring has a toroidal topology, for instance.
A fully connected network, complete topology, or full mesh topology is a network topology in which there is a direct link between all pairs of nodes. In a fully connected network with n nodes, there are n(n-1)/2 direct links. Networks designed with this topology are usually very expensive to set up, but provide a high degree of reliability due to the multiple paths for data that are provided by the large number of redundant links between nodes. This topology is mostly seen in military applications.
See also[edit]
Broadcast communication network
Computer network diagram
Internet topology
Network simulation
Relay network
Rhizome (philosophy)
Scale-free network
Shared mesh
Switched communication network
Switched mesh
Tree structure
Butterfly network
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Groth, David; Toby Skandier (2005). Network+ Study Guide, Fourth Edition. Sybex, Inc. ISBN 0-7821-4406-3.
Jump up ^ ATIS committee PRQC. "mesh topology". ATIS Telecom Glossary 2007. Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
Jump up ^ Chiang, Mung; Yang, Michael (2004). "Towards Network X-ities From a Topological Point of View: Evolvability and Scalability" (PDF). Proc. 42nd Allerton Conference.
^ Jump up to: a b Inc, S., (2002) . Networking Complete. Third Edition. San Francisco: Sybex
Jump up ^ [1], The Disadvantages of Wired Technology, Laura Acevedo, Demand Media.
Jump up ^ "Bergen Linux User Group's CPIP Implementation". Blug.linux.no. Retrieved 2014-03-01.
Jump up ^ A. Hooke (September 2000), Interplanetary Internet (PDF), Third Annual International Symposium on Advanced Radio Technologies, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-13, retrieved 2011-11-12
Jump up ^ "Define switch". WWW.Wikipedia.com. Retrieved April 8, 2008.
Jump up ^ "What bridge devices and bridging do for computer networks".
Jump up ^ Bicsi, B. (2002). Network Design Basics for Cabling Professionals. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 9780071782968.
^ Jump up to: a b Sosinsky, Barrie A. (2009). "Network Basics". Networking Bible. Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-470-43131-3. OCLC 359673774. Retrieved 2016-03-26.
Jump up ^ Bradley, Ray. Understanding Computer Science (for Advanced Level): The Study Guide. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-7487-6147-0. OCLC 47869750. Retrieved 2016-03-26.
Jump up ^ "Avaya Extends the Automated Campus to End the Network Waiting Game". Avaya. 1 April 2014. Retrieved 18 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Peter Ashwood-Smith (24 February 2011). "Shortest Path Bridging IEEE 802.1aq Overview" (PDF). Huawei. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Jim Duffy (11 May 2012). "Largest Illinois healthcare system uproots Cisco to build $40M private cloud". PC Advisor. Retrieved 11 May 2012. Shortest Path Bridging will replace Spanning Tree in the Ethernet fabric.
Jump up ^ "IEEE Approves New IEEE 802.1aq Shortest Path Bridging Standard". Tech Power Up. 7 May 2012. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
Jump up ^ D. Fedyk, Ed.,; P. Ashwood-Smith, Ed.,; D. Allan, A. Bragg,; P. Unbehagen (April 2012). "IS-IS Extensions Supporting IEEE 802.1aq". IETF. Retrieved 12 May 2012. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Topology (Network).
Tetrahedron Core Network: Application of a tetrahedral structure to create a resilient partial-mesh 3-dimensional campus backbone data network
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