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Isabella II of Spain
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"Isabella II" redirects here. For other monarchs, see Queen Isabella. For the ship, see Spanish cruiser Isabel II.
Isabella II
Queen of Spain more...
Reign
29 September 1833 – 30 September 1868
Proclamation
23 July 1843
Abdication
25 June 1870
Predecessor
Ferdinand VII
Successor
Amadeo I
Regents
See list[show]
Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies
(1833–1840)
Baldomero Espartero
(1840–1843)
Prime Ministers
See list[show]
Francisco Martínez de la Rosa
José María Queipo de Llano
Miguel Ricardo de Álava
Juan Álvarez Mendizábal
Francisco Javier de Istúriz
José María Calatrava
Eusebio Bardají Azara
Narciso Heredia
Bernardino Fernández de Velasco
Evaristo Pérez de Castro
Antonio González y González
Valentín Ferraz
Modesto Cortázar
Vicente Sancho
Baldomero Espartero
Joaquín María Ferrer
José Ramón Rodil y Campillo
Joaquín María López
Álvaro Gómez Becerra
Salustiano Olózaga
Luis González Bravo
Ramón María Narváez
Manuel Pando Fernández de Pinedo
Carlos Martínez de Irujo y McKean
Joaquín Francisco Pacheco
Florencio García Goyena
José de Salamanca y Mayol
Serafín María de Sotto
Juan Bravo Murillo
Federico Roncali
Francisco Lersundi Hormaechea
Luis José Sartorius
Fernando Fernández de Córdova
Ángel de Saavedra
Leopoldo O'Donnell
Francisco Armero Peñaranda
Lorenzo Arrazola
Alejandro Mon y Menéndez
José Gutiérrez de la Concha
Born
10 October 1830
Madrid, Spain
Died
9 April 1904(1904-04-09) (aged 73)
Paris, French Third Republic
Burial
El Escorial
Spouse
Infante Francis, Duke of Cádiz (m. 1846; d. 1902)
Issue
Isabel, Princess of Asturias
Alfonso XII of Spain
Infanta María del Pilar
Infanta María de la Paz
Infanta Eulalia
Full name
María Isabel Luisa de Borbón y Borbón-Dos Sicilias
House
Bourbon
Father
Ferdinand VII of Spain
Mother
Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies
Religion
Roman Catholicism
Signature
Isabella II (Spanish: Isabel; 10 October 1830 – 9 April 1904) was Queen of Spain from 1833 until 1868. She came to the throne as a toddler, but her succession was disputed by the Carlists, whose refusal to recognize a female sovereign led to the Carlist Wars. After a troubled reign, she was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1868, and formally abdicated in 1870. Her son, Alfonso XII, became king in 1874.
Contents
1 Birth and regency
2 Marriage
3 Reign as an adult
4 Exile and abdication
5 Titles, styles and honours
5.1 Titles
5.2 Styles
5.3 Honours
5.3.1 National honours
5.3.2 Foreign honours
6 Honorific eponyms
7 Ancestry
8 Film portrayal
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Birth and regency[edit]
Isabella II as a child. She is depicted wearing the sash of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa.
Isabella was born in Madrid in 1830, the eldest daughter of King Ferdinand VII of Spain, and of his fourth wife and niece, Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies. Queen Maria Christina became regent on 29 September 1833, when her three-year-old daughter Isabella was proclaimed sovereign on the death of the king.
Isabella succeeded to the throne because Ferdinand VII had induced the Cortes Generales to help him set aside the Salic law, introduced by the Bourbons in the early 18th century, and to reestablish the older succession law of Spain. The first pretender to the throne, Ferdinand's brother Infante Carlos, Count of Molina, fought seven years during the minority of Isabella to dispute her title. Carlos' and his descendants' supporters were known as Carlists, and the fight over the succession was the subject of a number of Carlist Wars in the 19th century.
Isabella's reign was maintained only through the support of the army. The Cortes and the Moderate Liberals and Progressives reestablished constitutional and parliamentary government, dissolved the religious orders and confiscated their property (including that of the Society of Jesus), and tried to restore order to Spain's finances. After the Carlist war, the regent, Maria Christina, resigned to make way for Baldomero Espartero, Prince of Vergara, the most successful and most popular Isabelline general. Espartero, a Progressive, remained regent for only two years.
Baldomero Espartero was turned out in 1843 by a military and political pronunciamiento led by Generals Leopoldo O'Donnell and Ramón María Narváez. They formed a cabinet, presided over by Joaquín María López y López. This government induced the Cortes to declare Isabella of age at 13.
Marriage[edit]
Queen Isabella II of Spain with her daughter Isabella by Franz Xavier Winterhalter, 1852
Main article: Affair of the Spanish Marriages
Three years later, on 10 October 1846, the Moderate Party (or Castilian Conservatives) made their sixteen-year-old queen marry her double-first cousin Francisco de Asís de Borbón (1822–1902), the same day that her younger sister, infanta Luisa Fernanda, married Antoine d'Orléans, Duke of Montpensier.
Isabella II with her three youngest daughters Pilar, Paz, and Eulalia
The marriages suited France and Louis Philippe, King of the French, who as a result bitterly quarrelled with Britain.[1] However, the marriages were not happy; persistent rumour had it that few if any of Isabella's children were fathered by her king-consort, rumoured to be a homosexual. The Carlist party asserted that the heir-apparent to the throne, who later became Alfonso XII, had been fathered by a captain of the guard, Enrique Puigmoltó y Mayans.[2]
Isabella had nine children, but only five reached adulthood:
Ferdinand (1850)
Isabel (1851–1931), Princess of Asturias, who married her mother's and father's first cousin Prince Gaetan, Count of Girgenti.
María Cristina (1854)
Alfonso XII (1857–1885)
María de la Concepcion (1859–1861)
María del Pilar (1861–1879)
María de la Paz (1862–1946), who married her cousin Prince Ludwig Ferdinand of Bavaria.
Francisco de Asís (1863)
Eulalia de Asís de la Piedad (1864–1958), who married her cousin Infante Antonio, Duke of Galliera.
The couple was rather caustically described by an English contemporary thus:
… The Queen is large in stature, but rather what might be called bulky than stately. There is no dignity either in her face or figure, and the graces of majesty are altogether wanting. The countenance is cold and expressionless, with traces of an unchastened, unrefined, and impulsive character, and the indifference it betrays is not redeemed by any regularity or beauty of feature.
The King Consort is much smaller in figure than his royal two-thirds, and certainly is not a type that could be admired for its manly qualifications; but we have to remember that in Spain aristocratic birth is designated rather by a diminutive stature and sickly complexion than by those attributes of height, muscular power, open expression, and florid hue, which in England constitute the ideal of ‘race.’[3]
Reign as an adult[edit]
Main article: Reign of Isabella II of Spain
Spanish-Moroccan War in 1859
Isabella ruled directly from 1843 to 1868, a period marked by palace intrigues, back-stairs and antechamber influences, barracks conspiracies, and military pronunciamientos to further the ends of the political parties; Moderados ruled from 1846 to 1854, Progressives from 1854 to 1856, and Unión Liberals from 1856 to 1863. Moderados and Unión Liberals quickly succeeded each other to keep out the Progressives, thus sowing the seeds for the Revolution of 1868.[4]
Queen Isabella II often interfered in politics. She showed favour to her reactionary generals and statesmen and to the Church and religious orders. Spain fought two wars during her reign: the war against Morocco in 1859, which ended in a treaty advantageous for Spain and cession of some Moroccan territory, and the fruitless Chincha Islands War (1864-1866) against Peru and Chile. Her reign saw tensions with the United States over the Amistad affair and over the war in the Pacific; independence revolts in Cuba and Puerto Rico; and some progress in public works, especially railways, and a slight improvement in commerce and finance. By virtue of a royal decree, she opened Iloilo in the Philippines to world trade on September 29, 1855, mainly to export sugar and other products to America, Australia and Europe. [5][6]
Exile and abdication[edit]
Main article: Glorious Revolution (Spain)
Isabella II of Spain in exile in Paris
At the end of September 1868, the defeat of Isabella's forces at the Battle of Alcolea led to her deposition and exile to France. The revolt against Isabella played out in the battle is known as the Glorious Revolution. In 1870, the provisional government replaced Isabella with Amadeo I, second son of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, after much deliberation. Amadeo's abdication under pressure in 1873 led to the period of the First Spanish Republic (1873-74).
Isabella's exile helped cause the Franco-Prussian War, as Napoleon III could not accept the possibility that a German whose candidacy was supported by Prussia, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, might replace Isabella, a dynast of the Spanish Bourbons and great-great-granddaughter of the French-born Philip V of Spain. Napoleon III's loss in the war led to his deposition and the permanent end of monarchical government in France.
The First Spanish Republic collapsed in December 1874. Already on 25 June 1870, Isabella had been induced to abdicate in Paris in favour of her son, Alfonso XII, a move that aided the cause of the Restoration in 1874. After the collapse of the Republic, Alfonso was placed on the throne.
A Statue of Isabella II in front of Puerta Isabel in Intramuros, Manila
Isabella had left her husband in March 1874 and continued to live in France after the Restoration surrounded by a small circle of retainers with the Marqués de Alta Villa as her secretary. On the occasion of one of her visits to Madrid during the reign of Alfonso XII, she began to intrigue with politicians in the capital and was peremptorily requested to go abroad again. She lived in Paris for the rest of her life, residing at the Palacio Castilla. She seldom travelled abroad except for a few visits to Spain. During her exile, she grew closer to her husband, with whom she maintained an ambiguous friendship until his death in 1902. Her last days were marked by the marital problems of her youngest daughter, Eulalia. She died on 10 April 1904 and is entombed in El Escorial.
Titles, styles and honours[edit]
Titles[edit]
10 October 1830 – 29 September 1833: Her Royal Highness The Princess of Asturias
29 September 1833 – 25 June 1870: Her Most Catholic Majesty The Queen of Spain
25 June 1870 – 10 April 1904: Her Majesty Queen Isabella II of Spain
Styles[edit]
The underage Queen Isabella II was known by the centuries-old feudal, symbolic, long title that included both extant and extinct titles and claims:
Isabel II by the Grace of God, Queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, of the Two Sicilies, of Jerusalem, of Navarre, of Granada, of Toledo, of Valencia, of Galicia, of Majorca, of Seville, of Sardinia, of Córdoba, of Corsica, of Murcia, of Menorca, of Jaén, the Algarves, Algeciras, Gibraltar, the Canary Islands, of the East and West Indies, Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea; Archduchess of Austria; Duchess of Burgundy, Brabant, Milan and Aspurg; Countess of Flanders, Tirol and Barcelona; Lady of Biscay and Molina
In 1837, Spanish legislation produced a constitutional monarchy and a new format of the title was used for Isabel:
By the grace of God and the Constitution of the Spanish monarchy, Queen Isabel II of the Spains
Honours[edit]
National honours[edit]
Spain: Former 16th Sovereign and 847th Knight with Collar of the Royal Spanish Order of the Golden Fleece[7][8][9][10][11]
Spain: Former Sovereign Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Charles III[8][9][12][13][14][15][16]
Spain: Former 4th Sovereign, Former 5th Grand Mistress and 562nd Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa[8][9][17][18]
Spain: Former Sovereign Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic[19][20]
Spain: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Civil Order of Alfonso X
Spain: Former Sovereign Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Royal Military Order of St. Hermenegild[21][22]
Spain: Former Sovereign Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit, 1st Class[21]
Spain: Former Sovereign Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Naval Merit, 1st Class[21]
Spain: Former Sovereign Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Military Order of St. Ferdinand[8][21][23]
Spain: Former Sovereign Knight of the Royal Military Order of Calatrava
Spain: Former Sovereign Knight of the Royal Military Order of Santiago
Spain: Former Sovereign Knight of the Royal Military Order of Alcántara
Spain: Former Sovereign Knight of the Royal Military Order of Montesa
Foreign honours[edit]
Austria: Knight Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary[24][25][26]
Austria: Dame of the Order of the Starry Cross, 1st Class[9][24][27][28]
Brazil: Knight Grand Cordon of the Imperial and Royal Order of Christ[24]
Brazil: Knight Grand Cordon with Collar of the Imperial and Royal Order of the Southern Cross[24]
France
Bourbon-French Royal Family: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Holy Spirit
Bourbon-French Royal Family: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Royal Order of Saint Michael
French Imperial Family: Knight Grand Cordon with Collar of the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honour[24]
Germany
Bavaria: Knight Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of Saint Hubert[24]
Bavaria: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Theresa[24]
Bavaria: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Elizabeth[24]
Saxony: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Rue Crown[24][29]
Saxony: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Sidonia[24]
Saxony: Dame of the Order of Maria-Anna, Special Class[24]
Greece: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer[24]
Italy: Knight Grand Collar of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation[9]
Italy: Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Italy: Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the Crown of Italy
Vatican
Holy See: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Supreme Order of Christ[24]
Two Sicilies: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Saint Januarius[30]
Two Sicilies: Bailiff Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Two Sicilian Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George
Mexican Imperial Family: Knight Grand Cordon with Collar of the Imperial Order of Guadalupe[24]
Mexican Imperial Family: Dame Grand Cordon of the Imperial Order of Saint Charles[24]
Monaco: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint-Charles[24][31]
Portugal: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa[24][32][33]
Portugal: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the Tower and Sword[9][24][32]
Portugal: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Isabel[9][24][32]
Honorific eponyms[edit]
Philippines:
Cavite: Bridge of Isabel II
Isabela (province)
Manila: El Banco Español Filipino de Isabel II former name of the current Bank of the Philippine Islands.
Ancestry[edit]
showAncestors of Isabella II of Spain
16. Philip V of Spain
8. Charles III of Spain
17. Elisabeth Farnese
4. Charles IV of Spain
18. Augustus III of Poland
9. Maria Amalia of Saxony
19. Maria Josepha of Austria
2. Ferdinand VII of Spain
20. Philip V of Spain (= 16)
10. Philip, Duke of Parma
21. Elisabeth Farnese (= 17)
5. Maria Luisa of Parma
22. Louis XV of France
11. Louise Élisabeth of France
23. Marie Leszczyńska
1. Isabella II of Spain
24. Charles III of Spain (= 8)
12. Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies
25. Maria Amalia of Saxony (= 9)
6. Francis I of the Two Sicilies
26. Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor
13. Maria Carolina of Austria
27. Maria Theresa of Austria
3. Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies
28. Charles III of Spain (= 8, 24)
14. Charles IV of Spain (= 4)
29. Maria Amalia of Saxony (= 9, 25)
7. Maria Isabella of Spain
30. Philip, Duke of Parma (= 10)
15. Maria Luisa of Parma (= 5)
31. Louise Élisabeth of France (= 11)
Film portrayal[edit]
In the 1997 film Amistad, she was played by Anna Paquin, and is depicted as a spoiled 11-year-old girl.
See also[edit]
Carl Schurz, who was U.S. ambassador to Spain for a brief time at the beginning of Lincoln's presidency, in his Reminiscences (New York, McClure's Publ. Co., 1907, Volume II, Chapter VI) describes Isabel II and her court.
Isabela province in the Philippines.
Mid-19th-century Spain
Spain under the Restoration
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jasper Ridley, Lord Palmerston (1970) pp 308-15.
Jump up ^ Juan Sisinio Pérez Garzón, Isabel II: Los Espejos de la Reina (2004)
Jump up ^ Mrs. Wm. Pitt Byrne, Cosas De España, Illustrative of Spain and the Spaniards as they are, Volume II, Page 7, Alexander Strahan, Publisher, London and New York, 1866.
Jump up ^ F.H. Gribble, The tragedy of Isabella, II (1913).
Jump up ^ Demy Sonza. "The Port of Iloilo: 1855 - 2005". Graciano Lopez-Jaena Life and Works and Iloilo History Online Resource. Dr. Graciano Lopez-Jaena (DGLJ) Foundation, Inc. Archived from the original on 2016-01-19. .
Jump up ^ Henry Funtecha. "Iloilo's position under colonial rule". thenewstoday.info. Archived from the original on July 21, 2006. .
Jump up ^ "Wearing the Golden Fleece Necklet".
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Isabella wearing some Orders" (JPG). Upload.wikimedia.org. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Isabella wearing the honours" (JPG). Upload.wikimedia.org. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Image: madrazo1.jpg, (554 × 800 px)". 3.bp.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2015-09-23.
Jump up ^ "Isabelle II d Espagne en amzone - Equitation monte en amazone". eroschevauxpassion.over-blog.com. Retrieved 2015-09-23.
Jump up ^ "Photographic image" (JPG). C2.staticflickr.com. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Photographic image" (JPG). C7.alamy.com. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Photographic image" (JPG). C4.staticflickr.com. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Photographic image" (JPG). 40.media.tumblr.com. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-09-20. Retrieved 2016-04-06.
Jump up ^ "Photographic image" (JPG). C7.alamy.com. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Photographic image" (JPG). C7.alamy.com. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Isabella depicted wearing the order". C7.alamy.com. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Photographic image" (JPEG). Gogmsite.net. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Isabella wearing her military Orders" (JPG). c7.alamy.com. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Photographic image" (JPG). Cult.gva.es. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Queen Isabel (Isabella) II of Spain and her family". forum.alexanderpalace.org. Retrieved 2015-09-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s , VV. AA., Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, Tomo CLXXVI, Cuaderno I, 1979, Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid, España, páginas = 211 & 220, español, 6 de junio de 2010 Information Containing the Orders and Decorations received by Isabella II of her European tour after her coming of age to reign as Queen
Jump up ^ "Photographic image" (JPEG). Ggomsite.net. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Image: Isabel-II_1858.jpg, (456 × 800 px)". 3.bp.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2015-09-23.
Jump up ^ "Photographic image". Almendron.com. Archived from the original (JPG) on 2017-01-27. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Image: isabel_ii_de_espac3b1a.jpg, (800 × 1290 px)". Hipnosnews.files.wordpress.com. Retrieved 2015-09-23.
Jump up ^ "Photographic image" (JPG). Upload.wikimedia.org. Retrieved 2017-05-23. <
Jump up ^ "GENEALOGY OF THE ROYAL HOUSE OF SPAIN". Chivalricorders.org. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Photographic image" (JPG). media.cervantesvirtual.com. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Isabella wearing the Portuguese orders on one sash" (JPG). Gogmsite.com. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Photographic image" (PNG). Gogmsite.net. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Isabella II.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Isabella II of Spain.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Isabella II". Encyclopædia Britannica. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 859–860.
Further reading[edit]
Barton, Simon. A History of Spain (2009) excerpt and text search
Carr, Raymond, ed. Spain: A History (2001) excerpt and text search
Esdaile, Charles J. Spain in the Liberal Age: From Constitution to Civil War, 1808–1939 (2000) excerpt and text search
Gribble, Francis Henry. The tragedy of Isabella, II (1913) online.
External links[edit]
Works by or about Isabella II of Spain at Internet Archive
Isabella II of Spain
House of Bourbon
Cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty
Born: 10 October 1830 Died: 10 April 1904
Regnal titles
Preceded by
Ferdinand VII Queen of Spain
1833–1868 Vacant
Bourbon dynasty deposed
Title next held by
Amadeo
Spanish nobility
Vacant
Title last held by
Ferdinand (VII) Princess of Asturias
1830–1833 Succeeded by
Isabella
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Infantas of Spain
Generations indicate descent from Carlos I, under whom the crowns of Castile and Aragon were united, forming the Kingdom of Spain.
1st generation
María, Holy Roman Empress
Joanna, Princess of Portugal
2nd generation
Isabel Clara Eugenia, Duchess of Brabant
Catalina Micaela, Duchess of Savoy
Infanta María
3rd generation
Ana, Queen of France
Infanta María
María Ana, Holy Roman Empress
Infanta Margarita Francisca
4th generation
Infanta María Margarita
Infanta Margarita María
Infanta María Eugenia
Infanta Isabel María
Infanta María Ana
María Teresa, Queen of France
Margarita Teresa, Holy Roman Empress
Infanta María Ambrosia
5th generation
None
6th generation
None
7th generation
Mariana Victoria, Queen of Portugal
María Teresa Rafaela, Dauphine of France
María Antonia Fernanda, Queen of Sardinia
8th generation
Isabella, Archduchess of Austria
Infanta María Isabel Antonia
Infanta María Josefa Antonia
Infanta María Isabel Ana
Infanta María Josefa
María Luisa, Holy Roman Empress
Infanta María Teresa Antonia
Infanta María Ana
9th generation
Carlota Joaquina, Queen of Portugal
Infanta María Luisa Carlota
María Amalia, Infanta Antonio Pascual of Spain
María Luisa, Queen of Etruria and Duchess of Lucca
Infanta María Isabel, Queen of the Two Sicilies
Infanta María Teresa
Infanta María Carolina*
10th generation
Isabel II
Infanta Luisa Fernanda, Duchess of Montpensier
Isabel, Countess Ignaz Gurowski*
Infanta Luisa, Duchess of Sessa*
Infanta Josefina, Mrs. José Guëll*
María Cristina, Infanta Sebastian of Portugal and Spain*
Amalia Filipina, Princess Adalbert of Bavaria*
María Luisa Carlota, Hereditary Princess of Saxony*
11th generation
Isabel, Princess of Asturias and Countess of Girgenti
Infanta María Cristina
Infanta María de la Concepción
Infanta María del Pilar
María de la Paz, Princess Ludwig Ferdinand of Bavaria
Infanta Eulalia, Duchess of Galliera
Infanta María Isabel, Countess of Paris*
Infanta María Amalia of Orléans*
Infanta María Cristina of Orléans*
Infanta María de la Regla of Orléans*
Maria de las Mercedes, Queen of Spain*
12th generation
Mercedes, Princess of Asturias and Princess Carlos of Bourbon-Two-Sicilies
María Teresa, Princess Ferdinand of Bavaria
13th generation
Beatriz, Princess of Citivella-Cesi
Infanta María Cristina, Countess Marone
Isabel Alfonsa, Countess Jan Kanty Zamoyski*
Maria de las Mercedes, Princess Irakli Bagration of Mukhrani *
Infanta Pilar of Bavaria*
14th generation
Infanta Pilar, Duchess of Badajoz and Dowager Viscountess of La Torre
Infanta Margarita, Duchess of Soria and Hernani
15th generation
Infanta Elena, Duchess of Lugo
Infanta Cristina
16th generation
Leonor, Princess of Asturias
Infanta Sofía
*title granted by Royal Decree
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Isabella (1470–78)
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Michael (1498–1500)
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Ferdinand (1571–78)
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Philip Prospero (1657–1661)
Charles (1661–1665)
Louis (1709–24)
Ferdinand (1724–46)
Charles (1759–88)
Ferdinand (1788–1808)
Isabella (1830–33)
Isabella (1851–57)
Alfonso (1857–68)
Emanuele Filiberto (1871–73)
Isabella (1875–80)
Mercedes (1881–1904)
Alfonso (1907–38)
Felipe (1977–2014)
Leonor (2014– )
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WorldCat Identities
BNE: XX879513
BNF: cb120667707 (data)
GND: 119560119
ISNI: 0000 0001 2142 592X
LCCN: n79065868
SUDOC: 088342700
ULAN: 500038704
VIAF: 87748802
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text:
Axial tilt
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Obliquity" redirects here. For the book, see Obliquity (book).
In astronomy, axial tilt, also known as obliquity, is the angle between an object's rotational axis and its orbital axis, or, equivalently, the angle between its equatorial plane and orbital plane.[1] It differs from orbital inclination.
At an obliquity of zero, the two axes point in the same direction; i.e., the rotational axis is perpendicular to the orbital plane. Earth's obliquity oscillates between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees[2] on a 41,000-year cycle; the earth's mean obliquity is currently 23°26′12.8″ (or 23.4369°) and decreasing.
Over the course of an orbit, the obliquity usually does not change considerably, and the orientation of the axis remains the same relative to the background stars. This causes one pole to be directed more toward the Sun on one side of the orbit, and the other pole on the other side—the cause of the seasons on the Earth.
Contents
[hide]
1 Standards
2 Earth
2.1 History
2.2 Seasons
2.3 Oscillation
2.3.1 Short term
2.3.2 Long term
3 Solar System bodies
4 Extrasolar planets
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Standards[edit]
The positive pole of a planet is defined by the right-hand rule: if the fingers of the right hand are curled in the direction of the rotation then the thumb points to the positive pole. The axial tilt is defined as the angle between the direction of the positive pole and the normal to the orbital plane. The angles for Earth, Uranus and Venus are approximately 23°, 97°, and 177° respectively.
There are two standard methods of specifying tilt. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines the north pole of a planet as that which lies on Earth's north side of the invariable plane of the Solar System;[3] under this system, Venus is tilted 3° and spins retrograde, opposite that of most of the other planets.[4][5]
The IAU also uses the right-hand rule to define a positive pole[6] for the purpose of determining orientation. Using this convention, Venus is tilted 177° ("upside down").
Earth[edit]
Earth's axial tilt (obliquity) is currently about 23.4°.
Earth's orbital plane is known as the ecliptic plane, and Earth's tilt is known to astronomers as the obliquity of the ecliptic, being the angle between the ecliptic and the celestial equator on the celestial sphere.[7] It is denoted by the Greek letter ε.
Earth currently has an axial tilt of about 23.4°.[8] This value remains about the same relative to a stationary orbital plane throughout the cycles of axial precession.[9] But the ecliptic (i.e., Earth's orbit) moves due to planetary perturbations, and the obliquity of the ecliptic is not a fixed quantity. At present, it is decreasing at a rate of about 47″ per century (see details in Short term below).
History[edit]
Earth's obliquity may have been reasonably accurately measured as early as 1100 BC in India and China.[10] The ancient Greeks had good measurements of the obliquity since about 350 BC, when Pytheas of Marseilles measured the shadow of a gnomon at the summer solstice.[11] About 830 AD, the Caliph Al-Mamun of Baghdad directed his astronomers to measure the obliquity, and the result was used in the Arab world for many years.[12] In 1437, Ulugh Beg determined the Earth's axial tilt as 23°30′17″ (23.5047°).[13]
It was widely believed, during the Middle Ages, that both precession and Earth's obliquity oscillated around a mean value, with a period of 672 years, an idea known as trepidation of the equinoxes. Perhaps the first to realize this was incorrect (during historic time) was Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth century[14] and the first to realize that the obliquity is decreasing at a relatively constant rate was Fracastoro in 1538.[15] The first accurate, modern, western observations of the obliquity were probably those of Tycho Brahe from Denmark, about 1584,[16] although observations by several others, including al-Ma'mun, al-Tusi,[17] Purbach, Regiomontanus, and Walther, could have provided similar information.
Seasons[edit]
Main article: Season
Earth's axis remains tilted in the same direction with reference to the background stars throughout a year (regardless of where it is in its orbit). This means that one pole (and the associated hemisphere of Earth) will be directed away from the Sun at one side of the orbit, and half an orbit later (half a year later) this pole will be directed towards the Sun. This is the cause of Earth's seasons. Summer occurs in the Northern hemisphere when the north pole is directed toward the Sun. Variations in Earth's axial tilt can influence the seasons and is likely a factor in long-term climate change (also see Milankovitch cycles).
Relationship between Earth's axial tilt (ε) to the tropical and polar circles
Oscillation[edit]
Short term[edit]
Obliquity of the ecliptic for 20,000 years, from Laskar (1986). The red point represents the year 2000.
The exact angular value of the obliquity is found by observation of the motions of Earth and planets over many years. Astronomers produce new fundamental ephemerides as the accuracy of observation improves and as the understanding of the dynamics increases, and from these ephemerides various astronomical values, including the obliquity, are derived.
Annual almanacs are published listing the derived values and methods of use. Until 1983, the Astronomical Almanac's angular value of the mean obliquity for any date was calculated based on the work of Newcomb, who analyzed positions of the planets until about 1895:
ε = 23° 27′ 8.26″ − 46.845″ T − 0.0059″ T2 + 6997181000000000000♠0.00181″ T3
where ε is the obliquity and T is tropical centuries from B1900.0 to the date in question.[18]
From 1984, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's DE series of computer-generated ephemerides took over as the fundamental ephemeris of the Astronomical Almanac. Obliquity based on DE200, which analyzed observations from 1911 to 1979, was calculated:
ε = 23° 26′ 21.45″ − 46.815″ T − 0.0006″ T2 + 6997181000000000000♠0.00181″ T3
where hereafter T is Julian centuries from J2000.0.[19]
JPL's fundamental ephemerides have been continually updated. For instance, the Astronomical Almanac for 2010 specifies:[8]
ε = 23° 26′ 21.406″ − 7001468367689999999♠46.836769″ T − 6996183100000000000♠0.0001831″ T2 + 6997200339999999999♠0.00200340″ T3 − 5.76″ × 10−7 T4 − 4.34″ × 10−8 T5
These expressions for the obliquity are intended for high precision over a relatively short time span, perhaps ± several centuries.[20] J. Laskar computed an expression to order T10 good to 0.02″ over 1000 years and several arcseconds over 10,000 years.
ε = 23° 26′ 21.448″ − 4680.93″ t − 1.55″ t2 + 1999.25″ t3 − 51.38″ t4 − 249.67″ t5 − 39.05″ t6 + 7.12″ t7 + 27.87″ t8 + 5.79″ t9 + 2.45″ t10
where here t is multiples of 10,000 Julian years from J2000.0.[21]
These expressions are for the so-called mean obliquity, that is, the obliquity free from short-term variations. Periodic motions of the Moon and of Earth in its orbit cause much smaller (9.2 arcseconds) short-period (about 18.6 years) oscillations of the rotation axis of Earth, known as nutation, which add a periodic component to Earth's obliquity.[22][23] The true or instantaneous obliquity includes this nutation.[24]
Long term[edit]
Main article: Formation and evolution of the Solar System
Using numerical methods to simulate Solar System behavior, long-term changes in Earth's orbit, and hence its obliquity, have been investigated over a period of several million years. For the past 5 million years, Earth's obliquity has varied between 22° 2′ 33″ and 24° 30′ 16″, with a mean period of 41,040 years. This cycle is a combination of precession and the largest term in the motion of the ecliptic. For the next 1 million years, the cycle will carry the obliquity between 22° 13′ 44″ and 24° 20′ 50″.[25]
The Moon has a stabilizing effect on Earth's obliquity. Frequency map analysis conducted in 1993 suggested that, in the absence of the Moon, the obliquity can change rapidly due to orbital resonances and chaotic behavior of the Solar System, reaching as high as 90° in as little as a few million years (also see Orbit of the Moon).[26][27] However, more recent numerical simulations[28] made in 2011 indicated that even in the absence of the Moon, Earth's obliquity might not be quite so unstable; varying only by about 20–25°. To resolve this contradiction, diffusion rate of obliquity has been calculated, and it was found that it takes more than billions of years for Earth's obliquity to reach near 90°.[29] The Moon's stabilizing effect will continue for less than 2 billion years. As the Moon continues to recede from Earth due to tidal acceleration, resonances may occur which will cause large oscillations of the obliquity.[30]
Long-term obliquity of the ecliptic. Left: for the past 5 million years; note that the obliquity varies only from about 22.0° to 24.5°. Right: for the next 1 million years; note the approx. 41,000-year period of variation. In both graphs, the red point represents the year 1850. (Source: Berger, 1976).
Solar System bodies[edit]
All four of the innermost, rocky planets of the Solar System may have had large variations of their obliquity in the past. Since obliquity is the angle between the axis of rotation and the direction perpendicular to the orbital plane, it changes as the orbital plane changes due to the influence of other planets. But the axis of rotation can also move (axial precession), due to torque exerted by the sun on a planet's equatorial bulge. Like Earth, all of the rocky planets show axial precession. If the precession rate were very fast the obliquity would actually remain fairly constant even as the orbital plane changes.[31] The rate varies due to tidal dissipation and core-mantle interaction, among other things. When a planet's precession rate approaches certain values, orbital resonances may cause large changes in obliquity. The amplitude of the contribution having one of the resonant rates is divided by the difference between the resonant rate and the precession rate, so it becomes large when the two are similar.[31] Mercury and Venus have most likely been stabilized by the tidal dissipation of the Sun. Earth was stabilized by the Moon, as mentioned above, but before its capture, Earth, too, could have passed through times of instability. Mars's obliquity is quite variable over millions of years and may be in a chaotic state; it varies as much as 0° to 60° over some millions of years, depending on perturbations of the planets.[26][32] Some authors dispute that Mars's obliquity is chaotic, and show that tidal dissipation and viscous core-mantle coupling are adequate for it to have reached a fully damped state, similar to Mercury and Venus.[4][33] The occasional shifts in the axial tilt of Mars have been suggested as an explanation for the appearance and disappearance of rivers and lakes over the course of the existence of Mars. A shift could cause a burst of methane into the atmosphere, causing warming, but then the methane would be destroyed and the climate would become arid again.[34][35]
The obliquities of the outer planets are considered relatively stable.
Axis and rotation of selected Solar System bodies
Body
NASA, J2000.0[36]
IAU, 0 January 2010, 0h TT[37]
Axial tilt
(degrees)
North Pole
Rotation
(hours)
Axial tilt
(degrees)
North Pole
Rotation
(deg/day)
R.A. (degrees)
Dec. (degrees)
R.A. (degrees)
Dec. (degrees)
Sun 7.25 286.13 63.87 609.12B 7.25A 286.15 63.89 14.18
Mercury 0.03 281.01 61.42 1407.6 0.01 281.01 61.45 6.14
Venus 2.64 272.76 67.16 –5832.6 2.64 272.76 67.16 −1.48
Earth 23.44 0.00 90.00 23.93 23.44 undef. 90.00 360.99
Moon 6.68 — — 655.73 1.54C 270.00 66.54 13.18
Mars 25.19 317.68 52.89 24.62 25.19 317.67 52.88 350.89
Jupiter 3.13 268.05 64.49 9.93D 3.12 268.06 64.50 870.54D
Saturn 26.73 40.60 83.54 10.66D 26.73 40.59 83.54 810.79D
Uranus 82.23 257.43 –15.10 –17.24D 82.23 257.31 −15.18 −501.16D
Neptune 28.32 299.36 43.46 16.11D 28.33 299.40 42.95 536.31D
PlutoE 57.47 (312.99) (6.16) –153.29 60.41 312.99 6.16 −56.36
A with respect to the ecliptic of 1850
B at 16° latitude; the Sun's rotation varies with latitude
C with respect to the ecliptic; the Moon's orbit is inclined 5.16° to the ecliptic
D from the origin of the radio emissions; the visible clouds generally rotate at different rate
E NASA lists the coordinates of Pluto's positive pole; values in (parentheses) have been reinterpreted to correspond to the north/negative pole.
Extrasolar planets[edit]
Further information: Exoplanet § Rotation and axial tilt
The stellar obliquity ψs, i.e. the axial tilt of a star with respect to the orbital plane of one of its planets, has been determined for only a few systems. But for 49 stars as of today, the sky-projected spin-orbit misalignment λ has been observed,[38] which serves as a lower limit to ψs. Most of these measurements rely on the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect. So far, it has not been possible to constrain the obliquity of an extrasolar planet. But the rotational flattening of the planet and the entourage of moons and/or rings, which are traceable with high-precision photometry, e.g. by the space-based Kepler spacecraft, could provide access to ψp in the near future.
Astrophysicists have applied tidal theories to predict the obliquity of extrasolar planets. It has been shown that the obliquities of exoplanets in the habitable zone around low-mass stars tend to be eroded in less than 109 years,[39][40] which means that they would not have seasons as Earth has.
See also[edit]
Solar System portal
Climate change
Milankovitch cycles
Polar motion
Rotation around a fixed axis
True polar wander
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "Earth Is tilted". www.timeanddate.com. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Explanatory Supplement 1992, p. 384
^ Jump up to: a b Correia, Alexandre C. M.; Laskar, Jacques; de Surgy, Olivier Néron (May 2003). "Long-term evolution of the spin of Venus I. theory" (PDF). Icarus. 163 (1): 1–23. Bibcode:2003Icar..163....1C. doi:10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00042-3.
Jump up ^ Correia, A. C. M.; Laskar, J. (2003). "Long-term evolution of the spin of Venus: II. numerical simulations" (PDF). Icarus. 163 (1): 24–45. Bibcode:2003Icar..163...24C. doi:10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00043-5.
Jump up ^ "Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006". springer.com. Retrieved 26 February 2016.
Jump up ^ U.S. Naval Observatory Nautical Almanac Office; U.K. Hydrographic Office; H.M. Nautical Almanac Office (2008). The Astronomical Almanac for the Year 2010. US Government Printing Office. p. M11. ISBN 978-0-7077-4082-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Astronomical Almanac 2010, p. B52
Jump up ^ Chauvenet, William (1906). A Manual of Spherical and Practical Astronomy. 1. J. B. Lippincott. pp. 604–605.
Jump up ^ Wittmann, A. (1979). "The Obliquity of the Ecliptic". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 73: 129–131. Bibcode:1979A&A....73..129W.
Jump up ^ Gore, J. E. (1907). Astronomical Essays Historical and Descriptive. p. 61.
Jump up ^ Marmery, J. V. (1895). Progress of Science. p. 33.
Jump up ^ Sédillot, L.P.E.A. (1853). Prolégomènes des tables astronomiques d'OlougBeg: Traduction et commentaire. Paris: Firmin Didot Frères. pp. 87 & 253.
Jump up ^ Saliba, George (1994). A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. p. 235.
Jump up ^ Dreyer, J. L. E. (1890). Tycho Brahe. p. 355.
Jump up ^ Dreyer (1890), p. 123
Jump up ^ Sayili, Aydin (1981). The Observatory in Islam. p. 78.
Jump up ^ U.S. Naval Observatory Nautical Almanac Office; H.M. Nautical Almanac Office (1961). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris and the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. H.M. Stationery Office. Section 2B.
Jump up ^ U.S. Naval Observatory; H.M. Nautical Almanac Office (1989). The Astronomical Almanac for the Year 1990. US Government Printing Office. p. B18. ISBN 0-11-886934-5.
Jump up ^ Newcomb, Simon (1906). A Compendium of Spherical Astronomy. MacMillan. pp. 226–227.
Jump up ^ See table 8 and eq. 35 in Laskar, J. (1986). "Secular Terms of Classical Planetary Theories Using the Results of General Relativity". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 157: 59–70. Bibcode:1986A&A...157...59L. and erratum to article Laskar, J. (1986). "Errratum: Secular terms of classical planetary theories using the results of general theory". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 164: 437. Bibcode:1986A&A...164..437L. Units in article are arcseconds, which may be more convenient.
Jump up ^ Explanatory Supplement (1961), sec. 2C
Jump up ^ "Basics of Space Flight, Chapter 2". Jet Propulsion Laboratory/NASA. 29 October 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Meeus, Jean (1991). "Chapter 21". Astronomical Algorithms. Willmann-Bell. ISBN 0-943396-35-2.
Jump up ^ Berger, A.L. (1976). "Obliquity and Precession for the Last 5000000 Years". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 51: 127–135. Bibcode:1976A&A....51..127B.
^ Jump up to: a b Laskar, J.; Robutel, P. (1993). "The Chaotic Obliquity of the Planets" (PDF). Nature. 361 (6413): 608–612. Bibcode:1993Natur.361..608L. doi:10.1038/361608a0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Laskar, J.; Joutel, F.; Robutel, P. (1993). "Stabilization of the Earth's Obliquity by the Moon" (PDF). Nature. 361 (6413): 615–617. Bibcode:1993Natur.361..615L. doi:10.1038/361615a0.
Jump up ^ Lissauer, J.J.; Barnes, J.W.; Chambers, J.E. (2011). "Obliquity variations of a moonless Earth" (PDF). Icarus. 217: 77–87. Bibcode:2012Icar..217...77L. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.10.013.
Jump up ^ Li, Gongjie; Batygin, Konstantin (20 July 2014). "On the Spin-axis Dynamics of a Moonless Earth". Astrophysical Journal. 790: 69–76. arXiv:1404.7505  . Bibcode:2014ApJ...790...69L. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/790/1/69.
Jump up ^ Ward, W.R. (1982). "Comments on the Long-Term Stability of the Earth's Obliquity". Icarus. 50: 444–448. Bibcode:1982Icar...50..444W. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(82)90134-8.
^ Jump up to: a b William Ward (20 July 1973). "Large-Scale Variations in the Obliquity of Mars". Science. Bibcode:1973Sci...181..260W. doi:10.1126/science.181.4096.260.
Jump up ^ Touma, J.; Wisdom, J. (1993). "The Chaotic Obliquity of Mars" (PDF). Science. 259 (5099): 1294–1297. Bibcode:1993Sci...259.1294T. doi:10.1126/science.259.5099.1294. PMID 17732249.
Jump up ^ Correia, Alexandre C.M; Laskar, Jacques (2009). "Mercury's capture into the 3/2 spin-orbit resonance including the effect of core-mantle friction". Icarus. 201 (1): 1–11. arXiv:0901.1843  . Bibcode:2009Icar..201....1C. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.12.034.
Jump up ^ Rebecca Boyle (7 October 2017). "Methane burps on young Mars helped it keep its liquid water". New Scientist.
Jump up ^ Edwin Kite; et al. (2 October 2017). "Methane bursts as a trigger for intermittent lake-forming climates on post-Noachian Mars". Nature Geoscience. Bibcode:2017NatGe..10..737K. doi:10.1038/ngeo3033. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Planetary Fact Sheets, at http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov
Jump up ^ Astronomical Almanac 2010, pp. B52, C3, D2, E3, E55
Jump up ^ Heller, R. "Holt-Rossiter-McLaughlin Encyclopaedia". René Heller. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Heller, R.; Leconte, J.; Barnes, R. (2011). "Tidal obliquity evolution of potentially habitable planets". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 528: A27. arXiv:1101.2156  . Bibcode:2011A&A...528A..27H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201015809.
Jump up ^ Heller, R.; Leconte, J.; Barnes, R. (2011). "Habitability of Extrasolar Planets and Tidal Spin Evolution". Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres. 41: 37. arXiv:1108.4347  . Bibcode:2011OLEB..tmp...37H. doi:10.1007/s11084-011-9252-3.
External links[edit]
National Space Science Data Center
Seidelmann, P. Kenneth; Archinal, Brent A.; A'Hearn, Michael F.; et al. (2007). "Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 98 (3): 155–180. Bibcode:2007CeMDA..98..155S. doi:10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y.
Obliquity of the Ecliptic Calculator
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