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European colonization of the Americas
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"American settlers" redirects here. For prehistoric settlers of the Americas, see Settlement of the Americas.
"Conquest of America" redirects here. For other uses, see Conquest of America (disambiguation).
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The European colonization of the Americas describes the history of the settlement and establishment of control of the continents of the Americas by various European powers. Starting in either the 10th or 11th century, when West Norse sailors explored and briefly settled on the shores of present-day Canada, according to Icelandic Sagas, violent conflicts with the indigenous population ultimately led to the Norse abandoning those settlements.[1]
Political map of the Americas in 1794
European colonization began in 1492, when a Spanish expedition headed by the Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus sailed west to find a new trade route to the Far East but inadvertently landed in what came to be known to Europeans as the "New World". Running aground on the northern part of Hispaniola on 5 December 1492, which the Taino people had inhabited since the 7th century, the site became the first European settlement in the Americas. European conquest, large-scale exploration and colonization soon followed. Columbus's first two voyages (1492–93) reached the Bahamas and various Caribbean islands, including Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba. In 1498, sailing from Bristol on behalf of England, John Cabot landed on the North American coast, and a year later, Columbus's third voyage reached the South American coast. As the sponsor of Christopher Columbus's voyages, Spain was the first European power to settle and colonize the largest areas, from North America and the Caribbean to the southern tip of South America.
Other powers such as France also founded colonies in the Americas: in eastern North America, a number of Caribbean islands and small coastal parts of South America. Portugal colonized Brazil, tried colonizing the eastern coasts of present-day Canada and settled for extended periods northwest (on the east bank) of the River Plate. The Age of Exploration was the beginning of territorial expansion for several European countries. Europe had been preoccupied with internal wars and was slowly recovering from the loss of population caused by the Black Death; thus the rapid rate at which it grew in wealth and power was unforeseeable in the early 15th century.[2]
Eventually, most of the Western Hemisphere came under the control of European governments, leading to changes to its landscape, population, and plant and animal life. In the 19th century over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas.[3] The post-1492 era is known as the period of the Columbian Exchange, a dramatically widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations (including slaves), ideas and communicable disease between the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres following Columbus's voyages to the Americas.
Contents
[hide]
1 Norse trans-oceanic contact
2 Early conquests, claims and colonies
3 Early state-sponsored colonists
4 The search for riches
5 Religious immigration
6 Forced immigration and enslavement
6.1 Slavery
7 Disease and indigenous population loss
8 Impact of colonial land ownership on long-term development
9 List of European colonies in the Americas
10 Exhibitions and collections
11 See also
12 Notes
13 Bibliography
14 External links
Norse trans-oceanic contact[edit]
Main article: Norse colonization of the Americas
Voyages of the Vikings to America.
Norse journeys to Greenland and Canada are supported by historical and archaeological evidence.[4] A Norse colony in Greenland was established in the late 10th century, and lasted until the mid 15th century, with court and parliament assemblies (þing) taking place at Brattahlíð and a bishop located at Garðar.[5] The remains of a Norse settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada, were discovered in 1960 and were dated to around the year 1000 (carbon dating estimate 990–1050 CE).[6] L'Anse aux Meadows is the only site widely accepted as evidence of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. It was named a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1978.[7] It is also notable for its possible connection with the attempted colony of Vinland, established by Leif Erikson around the same period or, more broadly, with the West Norse colonization of the Americas.[8]
Early conquests, claims and colonies[edit]
Territorial evolution of North America of non-native nation states from 1750 to 2008
Central America & Caribbean sovereignty 1700–present
Early explorations and conquests were made by the Spanish and the Portuguese immediately following their own final reconquest of Iberia in 1492. In the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, ratified by the Pope, these two kingdoms divided the entire non-European world into two areas of exploration and colonization, with a north to south boundary that cut through the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern part of present-day Brazil. Based on this treaty and on early claims by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa, discoverer of the Pacific Ocean in 1513, the Spanish conquered large territories in North, Central and South America.
Amerigo Vespucci awakens "America" in a Stradanus's engraving (circa 1638)
Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés took over the Aztec Kingdom and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire. As a result, by the mid-16th century, the Spanish Crown had gained control of much of western South America, Central America and southern North America, in addition to its earlier Caribbean territories. Over this same timeframe, Portugal claimed lands in North America (Canada) and colonized much of eastern South America, naming it Santa Cruz and Brazil.
Other European nations soon disputed the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas. England and France attempted to plant colonies in the Americas in the 16th century, but these failed. England and France succeeded in establishing permanent colonies in the following century, along with the Dutch Republic. Some of these were on Caribbean islands, which had often already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease, while others were in eastern North America, which had not been colonized by Spain north of Florida.
Early European possessions in North America included Spanish Florida, Spanish New Mexico, the English colonies of Virginia (with its North Atlantic offshoot, Bermuda) and New England, the French colonies of Acadia and Canada, the Swedish colony of New Sweden, and the Dutch New Netherland. In the 18th century, Denmark–Norway revived its former colonies in Greenland, while the Russian Empire gained a foothold in Alaska. Denmark-Norway would later make several claims in the Caribbean, starting in the 1600s.
As more nations gained an interest in the colonization of the Americas, competition for territory became increasingly fierce. Colonists often faced the threat of attacks from neighboring colonies, as well as from indigenous tribes and pirates.
Early state-sponsored colonists[edit]
Juan Ponce de León (Santervás de Campos, Valladolid, Spain)
Further information: Portugal in the Age of Discovery, Spanish colonization of the Americas, and First European colonization wave (15th century–19th century)
The first phase of well-financed European activity in the Americas began with the Atlantic Ocean crossings of Christopher Columbus (1492–1504), sponsored by Spain, whose original attempt was to find a new route to India and China, known as "the Indies". He was followed by other explorers such as John Cabot, who was sponsored by England and reached Newfoundland. Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil and claimed it for Portugal.
Amerigo Vespucci, working for Portugal in voyages from 1497 to 1513, established that Columbus had reached a new set of continents. Cartographers still use a Latinized version of his first name, America, for the two continents. Other explorers included Giovanni da Verrazzano, sponsored by France in 1524; the Portuguese João Vaz Corte-Real in Newfoundland; João Fernandes Lavrador, Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Real and João Álvares Fagundes, in Newfoundland, Greenland, Labrador, and Nova Scotia (from 1498 to 1502, and in 1520); Jacques Cartier (1491–1557), Henry Hudson (1560s–1611), and Samuel de Champlain (1567–1635), who explored the region of Canada he reestablished as New France.
In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and led the first European expedition to see the Pacific Ocean from the west coast of the New World. In an action with enduring historical import, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and all the lands adjoining it for the Spanish Crown. It was 1517 before another expedition, from Cuba, visited Central America, landing on the coast of Yucatán in search of slaves.
Spanish Empire (1598)
These explorations were followed, notably in the case of Spain, by a phase of conquest: The Spaniards, having just finished the Reconquista of Spain from Muslim rule, were the first to colonize the Americas, applying the same model of governing their European holdings to their territories of the New World.
Ten years after Columbus's discovery, the administration of Hispaniola was given to Nicolás de Ovando of the Order of Alcántara, founded during the Reconquista. As in the Iberian Peninsula, the inhabitants of Hispaniola were given new landmasters, while religious orders handled the local administration. Progressively the encomienda system, which granted tribute (access to indigenous labor and taxation) to European settlers, was set in place.
A relatively common misconception is that a small number of conquistadores conquered vast territories, aided only by disease epidemics and their powerful caballeros. In fact, recent archaeological excavations have suggested a vast Spanish-Indian alliance numbering in the hundreds of thousands.[9] Hernán Cortés eventually conquered Mexico with the help of Tlaxcala in 1519–1521, while the conquest of the Incas was carried out by some 40,000 Incan renegades led by Francisco Pizarro in between 1532 and 1535.
Over the 1st century and a half after Columbus's voyages, the native population of the Americas plummeted by an estimated 80% (from around 50 million in 1492 to eight million in 1650[10]), mostly by outbreaks of Old World diseases.
In 1532, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor sent a vice-king to Mexico, Antonio de Mendoza, in order to prevent Cortes' independentist drives, who definitively returned to Spain in 1540. Two years later, Charles V signed the New Laws (which replaced the Laws of Burgos of 1512) prohibiting slavery and the repartimientos, but also claiming as his own all the American lands and all of the indigenous people as his own subjects.
Painting depicting a Castas with his mixed-race daughter and his Mulatta wife by Miguel Cabrera, 1763
When in May 1493, the Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera bull granting the new lands to the Kingdom of Spain, he requested in exchange an evangelization of the people. Thus, during Columbus's second voyage, Benedictine friars accompanied him, along with twelve other priests. As slavery was prohibited between Christians, and could only be imposed in non-Christian prisoners of war or on men already sold as slaves, the debate on Christianization was particularly acute during the 16th century. In 1537, the papal bull Sublimis Deus definitively recognized that Native Americans possessed souls, thus prohibiting their enslavement, without putting an end to the debate. Some claimed that a native who had rebelled and then been captured could be enslaved nonetheless.
Later, the Valladolid debate between the Dominican priest Bartolomé de Las Casas and another Dominican philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda was held, with the former arguing that Native Americans were beings doted with souls, as all other human beings, while the latter argued to the contrary and justified their enslavement.
The process of Christianization was at first violent: when the first Franciscans arrived in Mexico in 1524, they burned the places dedicated to pagan cult, alienating much of the local population.[11] In the 1530s, they began to adapt Christian practices to local customs, including the building of new churches on the sites of ancient places of worship, leading to a mix of Old World Christianity with local religions.[11] The Spanish Roman Catholic Church, needing the natives' labor and cooperation, evangelized in Quechua, Nahuatl, Guaraní and other Native American languages, contributing to the expansion of these indigenous languages and equipping some of them with writing systems. One of the first primitive schools for Native Americans was founded by Fray Pedro de Gante in 1523.
To reward their troops, the Conquistadores often allotted Indian towns to their troops and officers. Black African slaves were introduced to substitute for Native American labor in some locations—including the West Indies, where the indigenous population was nearing extinction on many islands.
During this time, the Portuguese gradually switched from an initial plan of establishing trading posts to extensive colonization of what is now Brazil. They imported millions of slaves to run their plantations. The Portuguese and Spanish royal governments expected to rule these settlements and collect at least 20% of all treasure found (the quinto real collected by the Casa de Contratación), in addition to collecting all the taxes they could. By the late 16th century American silver accounted for one-fifth of Spain's total budget.[12] In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports.[13][14]
The search for riches[edit]
Fur traders in Canada, trading with Indians, 1777
Inspired by the Spanish riches from colonies founded upon the conquest of the Aztecs, Incas, and other large Native American populations in the 16th century, the first Englishmen to settle permanently in America hoped for some of the same rich discoveries when they established their first permanent settlement in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. They were sponsored by common stock companies such as the chartered Virginia Company financed by wealthy Englishmen who exaggerated the economic potential of this new land. The main purpose of this colony was the hope of finding gold.[2]
It took strong leaders, like John Smith, to convince the colonists of Jamestown that searching for gold was not taking care of their immediate needs for food and shelter and the biblical principle that "he who will not work shall not eat" (see 2 Thessalonians 3). The lack of food security leading to extremely high mortality rate was quite distressing and cause for despair among the colonists. To support the Colony, numerous supply missions were organized. Tobacco later became a cash crop, with the work of John Rolfe and others, for export and the sustaining economic driver of Virginia and the neighboring colony of Maryland.
From the beginning of Virginia's settlements in 1587 until the 1680s, the main source of labor and a large portion of the immigrants were indentured servants looking for new life in the overseas colonies. During the 17th century, indentured servants constituted three-quarters of all European immigrants to the Chesapeake region. Most of the indentured servants were teenagers from England with poor economic prospects at home. Their fathers signed the papers that gave them free passage to America and an unpaid job until they became of age. They were given food, clothing, housing and taught farming or household skills. American landowners were in need of laborers and were willing to pay for a laborer’s passage to America if they served them for several years. By selling passage for five to seven years worth of work they could then start out on their own in America.[15] Many of the migrants from England died in the first few years.[2]
Economic advantage also prompted the Darien Scheme, an ill-fated venture by the Kingdom of Scotland to settle the Isthmus of Panama in the late 1690s. The Darien Scheme aimed to control trade through that part of the world and thereby promote Scotland into a world trading power. However, it was doomed by poor planning, short provisions, weak leadership, lack of demand for trade goods, and devastating disease.[16] The failure of the Darien Scheme was one of the factors that led the Kingdom of Scotland into the Act of Union 1707 with the Kingdom of England creating the united Kingdom of Great Britain and giving Scotland commercial access to English, now British, colonies.[17]
In the French colonial regions, the focus of economy was on sugar plantations in Caribbean. In Canada the fur trade with the natives was important. About 16,000 French men and women became colonizers. The great majority became subsistence farmers along the St. Lawrence River. With a favorable disease environment and plenty of land and food, their numbers grew exponentially to 65,000 by 1760. Their colony was taken over by Britain in 1760, but social, religious, legal, cultural and economic changes were few in a society that clung tightly to its recently formed traditions.[18][19]
Religious immigration[edit]
Penn's Treaty with the Indians
Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New World, as settlers in the colonies of Portugal and Spain (and later, France) belonged to that faith. English and Dutch colonies, on the other hand, tended to be more religiously diverse. Settlers to these colonies included Anglicans, Dutch Calvinists, English Puritans and other nonconformists, English Catholics, Scottish Presbyterians, French Huguenots, German and Swedish Lutherans, as well as Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, Moravians and Jews of various nationalities.
Many groups of colonists went to the Americas searching for the right to practice their religion without persecution. The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century broke the unity of Western Christendom and led to the formation of numerous new religious sects, which often faced persecution by governmental authorities. In England, many people came to question the organization of the Church of England by the end of the 16th century. One of the primary manifestations of this was the Puritan movement, which sought to "purify" the existing Church of England of its many residual Catholic rites that they believed had no mention in the Bible.
A strong believer in the notion of rule by divine right, Charles I, King of England and Scotland, persecuted religious dissenters. Waves of repression led to the migration of about 20,000 Puritans to New England between 1629 and 1642, where they founded multiple colonies. Later in the century, the new Pennsylvania colony was given to William Penn in settlement of a debt the king owed his father. Its government was set up by William Penn in about 1682 to become primarily a refuge for persecuted English Quakers; but others were welcomed. Baptists, Quakers, German and Swiss Protestants and Anabaptists flocked to Pennsylvania. The lure of cheap land, religious freedom and the right to improve themselves with their own hand was very attractive.[20]
Forced immigration and enslavement[edit]
Main article: Atlantic slave trade
African slaves 17th-century Virginia, 1670.
Slavery was a common practice in the Americas prior to the arrival of Europeans, as different American Indian groups captured and held other tribes' members as slaves.[21] Many of these captives were forced to undergo human sacrifice in Amerindian civilizations such as the Aztecs. In response to some enslavement of natives in the Caribbean during the early years, the Spanish Crown passed a series of laws prohibiting slavery as early as 1512. A new stricter set of laws was passed in 1542, called the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of Indians, or simply New Laws. These were created to prevent the exploitation of the indigenous peoples by the encomenderos or landowners, by strictly limiting their power and dominion.[22] This helped curb Indian slavery considerably, though not completely. Later, with the arrival of other European colonial powers in the New World, the enslavement of native populations increased, as these empires lacked legislation against slavery until decades later. The population of indigenous peoples declined (mostly from European diseases, but also from forced exploitation and atrocities). Later, native workers were replaced by Africans imported through a large commercial slave trade.
By the 18th century, the overwhelming number of black slaves was such that Amerindian slavery was less commonly used. Africans, who were taken aboard slave ships to the Americas, were primarily obtained from their African homelands by coastal tribes who captured and sold them. Europeans traded for slaves with the slave capturers of the local native African tribes in exchange for rum, guns, gunpowder, and other manufactures.
Slavery[edit]
The total slave trade to islands in the Caribbean, Brazil, Mexico and to the United States is estimated to have involved 12 million Africans.[23][24] The vast majority of these slaves went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. At most about 600,000 African slaves were imported into the U.S., or 5% of the 12 million slaves brought across from Africa.[25] Life expectancy was much higher in the U.S. (because of better food, less disease, lighter work loads, and better medical care) so the numbers grew rapidly by excesses of births over deaths, reaching 4 million by the 1860 Census. From 1770 until 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American slaves was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and was nearly twice as rapid as that of England.[26]
Slaves imported to the Thirteen colonies/United States by time period:[27]
1619–1700 – 21,000
1701–1760 – 189,000
1761–1770 – 63,000
1771–1790 – 56,000
1791–1800 – 79,000
1801–1810 – 124,000[28]
1810–1865 – 51,000
Total – 597,000
Disease and indigenous population loss[edit]
See also: Disease in colonial America and Native American disease and epidemics
Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585)
Nahua suffering from smallpox
The European lifestyle included a long history of sharing close quarters with domesticated animals such as cows, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, and various domesticated fowl, from which many diseases originally stemmed. Thus, in contrast to the indigenous people, Europeans had developed a richer endowment of antibodies.[29] The large-scale contact with Europeans after 1492 introduced novel germs to the indigenous people of the Americas.
Epidemics of smallpox (1518, 1521, 1525, 1558, 1589), typhus (1546), influenza (1558), diphtheria (1614) and measles (1618) swept the Americas subsequent to European contact,[30][31] killing between 10 million and 100 million[32] people, up to 95% of the indigenous population of the Americas.[33] The cultural and political instability attending these losses appears to have been of substantial aid in the efforts of various colonists in New England and Massachusetts to acquire control over the great wealth in land and resources of which indigenous societies had customarily made use.[34]
Such diseases yielded human mortality of an unquestionably enormous gravity and scale – and this has profoundly confused efforts to determine its full extent with any true precision. Estimates of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas vary tremendously.
Others have argued that significant variations in population size over pre-Columbian history are reason to view higher-end estimates with caution. Such estimates may reflect historical population maxima, while indigenous populations may have been at a level somewhat below these maxima or in a moment of decline in the period just prior to contact with Europeans. Indigenous populations hit their ultimate lows in most areas of the Americas in the early 20th century; in a number of cases, growth has returned.[35]
Impact of colonial land ownership on long-term development[edit]
Geographic differences between the colonies played a large determinant in the types of political and economic systems that later developed. In their paper on institutions and long-run growth, economists Daron Acemoğlu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson argue that certain natural endowments gave rise to distinct colonial policies promoting either smallholder or coerced labor production.[36] Densely settled populations, for example, were more easily exploitable and profitable as slave labor. In these regions, landowning elites were economically incentivized to develop forced labor arrangements such as the Peru mit'a system or Argentinian latifundias without regard for democratic norms. French and British colonial leaders, conversely, were incentivized to develop capitalist markets, property rights, and democratic institutions in response to natural environments that supported smallholder production over forced labor.
James Mahoney, a professor at Northwestern University, proposes that colonial policy choices made at critical junctures regarding land ownership in coffee-rich Central America fostered enduring path dependent institutions.[37] Coffee economies in Guatemala and El Salvador, for example, were centralized around large plantations that operated under coercive labor systems. By the 19th century, their political structures were largely authoritarian and militarized. In Colombia and Costa Rica, conversely, liberal reforms were enacted at critical junctures to expand commercial agriculture, and they ultimately raised the bargaining power of the middle class. Both nations eventually developed more democratic and egalitarian institutions than their highly concentrated landowning counterparts.
List of European colonies in the Americas[edit]
Spanish
Cuba (until 1898)
New Granada (1717–1819)
Captaincy General of Venezuela
New Spain (1535–1821)
Nueva Extremadura
Nueva Galicia
Nuevo Reino de León
Nuevo Santander
Nueva Vizcaya
Las Californias
Santa Fe de Nuevo México
Viceroyalty of Peru (1542–1824)
Captaincy General of Chile
Puerto Rico (1493–1898)
Rio de la Plata (1776–1814)
Hispaniola (1493-1865); the island currently comprising Haiti and the Dominican Republic, under Spanish rule in whole or in part from 1492-1865.
English and (after 1707) British
Further information: List of Hudson's Bay Company trading posts
British America (1607– 1783)
Thirteen Colonies (1607–1783)
Rupert's Land (1670–1870)
British Columbia (1793–1871)
British North America (1783– 1907)
British West Indies
Belize
Courland
New Courland (Tobago) (1654–1689)
Danish
Danish West Indies (1754–1917)
Greenland (1814–present)
Dutch
New Netherland (1609–1667)
Essequibo (1616–1815)
Dutch Virgin Islands (1625–1680)
Berbice (1627–1815)
New Walcheren (1628–1677)
Dutch Brazil (1630–1654)
Pomeroon (1650–1689)
Cayenne (1658–1664)
Demerara (1745–1815)
Suriname (1667–1954) (After independence still within the Kingdom Of The Netherlands until 1975)
Curaçao and Dependencies (1634–1954) (Aruba and Curaçao are still in the Kingdom Of The Netherlands, Bonaire; 1634–present)
Sint Eustatius and Dependencies (1636–1954) (Sint Maarten is still in the Kingdom Of The Netherlands, Sint Eustatius and Saba; 1636–present)
French
Further information: List of French forts in North America
New France (1604–1763)
Acadia (1604–1713)
Canada (1608–1763)
Louisiana (1699–1763, 1800–1803)
Newfoundland (1662–1713)
Île Royale (1713–1763)
French Guiana (1763–present)
French West Indies
Saint-Domingue (1659–1804, now Haiti)
Tobago
Virgin Islands
France Antarctique (1555–1567)
Equinoctial France (1612–1615)
Knights of Malta
Saint Barthélemy (1651–1665)
Saint Christopher (1651–1665)
Saint Croix (1651–1665)
Saint Martin (1651–1665)
Norwegian
See also: List of possessions of Norway
Greenland (986–1814)
Vinland, known as Newfoundland (Partly in the 11th century)
Dano-Norwegian West Indies (1754–1814)
Sverdrup Islands (1898–1930)
Erik the Red's Land (1931–1933)
Portuguese
Colonial Brazil (1500–1815) became a Kingdom, United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.
Terra do Labrador (1499/1500–?) Claimed region (sporadically settled).
Land of the Corte-Real, also known as Terra Nova dos Bacalhaus (Land of Codfish) – Terra Nova (Newfoundland) (1501–?) Claimed region (sporadically settled).
Portugal Cove-St. Philip's (1501–1696)
Nova Scotia (1519?–1520s?) Claimed region (sporadically settled).
Barbados (1536–1620)
Colonia do Sacramento (1680-1705/1714-1762/1763-1777 (1811–1817))
Cisplatina (1811–1822, now Uruguay)
French Guiana (1809–1817)
Russian
Russian America (Alaska) (1799–1867)
Scottish
Nova Scotia (1622–1632)
Darien Scheme on the Isthmus of Panama (1698–1700)
Stuarts Town, Carolina (1684–1686)
Swedish
New Sweden (1638–1655)
Saint Barthélemy (1785–1878)
Guadeloupe (1813–1814)
Exhibitions and collections[edit]
In 2007, the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History and the Virginia Historical Society (VHS) co-organized a traveling exhibition to recount the strategic alliances and violent conflict between European empires (English, Spanish, French) and the Native people living in North America. The exhibition was presented in three languages and with multiple perspectives. Artifacts on display included rare surviving Native and European artifacts, maps, documents, and ceremonial objects from museums and royal collections on both sides of the Atlantic. The exhibition opened in Richmond, Virginia on March 17, 2007, and closed at the Smithsonian International Gallery on October 31, 2009.
The related online exhibition explores the international origins of the societies of Canada and the United States and commemorates the 400th anniversary of three lasting settlements in Jamestown (1607), Québec (1608), and Santa Fe (1609). The site is accessible in three languages.[38]
See also[edit]
Martín de Argüelles
Atlantic world
Bandeirantes
Chronology of the colonization of North America
Colonial history of the United States
Colonialism
Columbian Exchange
Conquistador
Hernán Cortés
European colonization of the Southern United States
Former colonies and territories in Canada
History of the west coast of North America
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Influx of disease in the Caribbean
Imperialism
List of North American cities founded in chronological order
Norse colonization of the Americas
Francisco Pizarro
Population history of American indigenous peoples
Portuguese Empire
Romanus Pontifex and Inter caetera
Settler colonialism
Spanish conquest of Yucatán
Spanish Empire
Thirteen Colonies, which became the United States in 1776
Timeline of the European colonization of North America
Timeline of imperialism#Colonization of North America
Treaty of Alcáçovas
Treaty of Tordesillas
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Pálsson, Hermann (1965). The Vinland sagas: the Norse discovery f America. Penguin Classics. p. 28. ISBN 0-14-044154-9. Retrieved 2010-04-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c Taylor, Alan (2001). American Colonies. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 9780142002100.
Jump up ^ David Eltis Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic slave trade
Jump up ^ T. Douglas Price (2015). Ancient Scandinavia: An Archaeological History from the First Humans to the Vikings. Oxford University Press. p. 321. ISBN 978-0-19-023198-9.
Jump up ^ S. A. Wurm; Peter Mühlhäusler; Darrell T. Tyron (1996). Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas. Walter de Gruyter. p. 1048. ISBN 978-3-11-013417-9.
Jump up ^ Linda S. Cordell; Kent Lightfoot; Francis McManamon; George Milner (30 December 2008). Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 82–. ISBN 978-0-313-02189-3.
Jump up ^ John Logan Allen (2007). North American Exploration. U of Nebraska Press. p. 27. ISBN 0-8032-1015-9.
Jump up ^ Axel Kristinsson (2010). Expansions: Competition and Conquest in Europe Since the Bronze Age. ReykjavíkurAkademían. p. 216. ISBN 978-9979-9922-1-9.
Jump up ^ "1536 Inca Rebellion unearthed | Peruvian Travel Trends". Ferturperu.info. 2009-09-22. Retrieved 2010-06-30.
Jump up ^ "La catastrophe démographique" (The Demographic Catastrophe) in L'Histoire n°322, July–August 2007, p. 17
^ Jump up to: a b "Espagnols-Indiens: le choc des civilisations", in L'Histoire n°322, July–August 2007, pp. 14–21 (interview with Christian Duverger, teacher at the EHESS)
Jump up ^ Conquest in the Americas. Archived from the original on 2009-10-31.
Jump up ^ "The Columbian Mosaic in Colonial America" by James Axtell Archived March 17, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "The Spanish Colonial System, 1550–1800. Population Development". Archived from the original on February 4, 2009. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Barker, Deanna (10 March 2004). "Indentured Servitude in Colonial America". National Association for Interpretation, Cultural Interpretation and Living History Section. Archived from the original on October 24, 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
Jump up ^ John Prebble, Darien: the Scottish Dream of Empire (2000)
Jump up ^ Brocklehurst, "The Banker who Led Scotland to Disaster".
Jump up ^ W. J. Eccles, The Canadian Frontier, 1534–1760 (1969)
Jump up ^ Leslie Choquette, Frenchmen into peasants: modernity and tradition in the peopling of French Canada (1997)
Jump up ^ John Chester Miller (1966). The First Frontier: Life in Colonial America. University Press of America. p. 80. ISBN 9780819149770.
Jump up ^ "Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
Jump up ^ García Icazbalceta, Joaquín "Colección de documentos para la historia de México" "Leyes y ordenanzas" (Dada en la ciudad de Barcelona, a veinte días del mes de Noviembre, año del nacimiento de nuestro Salvador Jesucristo de mill e quinientos e cuarenta y dos años) y addenda 4 de junio de 1543; 26 de junio de 1543; 26 de mayo de 1544 text on Internet Cervantes Virtual
Jump up ^ Ronald Segal (1995). The Black Diaspora: Five Centuries of the Black Experience Outside Africa. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 4. ISBN 0-374-11396-3. It is now estimated that 11,863,000 slaves were shipped across the Atlantic. [Note in original: Paul E. Lovejoy, "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature," in Journal of African History 30 (1989), p. 368.] ... It is widely conceded that further revisions are more likely to be upward than downward.
Jump up ^ "Quick guide: The slave trade". bbc.co.uk. March 15, 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-23.
Jump up ^ Stephen D. Behrendt, David Richardson, and David Eltis, W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African-American Research, Harvard University. Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". Stephen Behrendt (1999). "Transatlantic Slave Trade". Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York: Basic Civitas Books. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
Jump up ^ Michael Tadman, "The Demographic Cost of Sugar: Debates on Slave Societies and Natural Increase in the Americas," The American Historical Review Dec. 2000 105:5 online Archived November 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Source: Miller and Smith, eds. Dictionary of American Slavery (1988) p. 678
Jump up ^ Includes 10,000 to Spanish Louisiana before 1803.
Jump up ^ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 163. ISBN 9781107507180.
Jump up ^ American Indian Epidemics Archived February 14, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
Jump up ^ Mann, Charles C. (2005). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf. pp. 106–09. ISBN 1-4000-3205-9.
Jump up ^ "The Story Of... Smallpox". Pbs.org. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
Jump up ^ 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus (ISBN 1-4000-4006-X), Charles C. Mann, Knopf, 2005.
Jump up ^ Thornton, pp. xvii, 36.
Jump up ^ Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson, “Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long-Run Growth,” Handbook of Economic Growth 1: 385-472. 2005.
Jump up ^ James Mahoney, “Path-Dependent Explanations of Regime Change: Central America in Comparative Perspective.” Studies in Comparative International Development, 2001.
Jump up ^ "Jamestown, Québec, Santa Fe: Three North American Beginnings". National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
Bibliography[edit]
Bailyn, Bernard, ed. Atlantic History: Concept and Contours (Harvard UP, 2005)
Bannon, John Francis. History of the Americas (2 vols. 1952), older textbook
Bolton, Herbert E. "The Epic of Greater America," American Historical Review 38, no. 3 (April 1933): 448–74 in JSTOR
Davis, Harold E. The Americas in History (1953), older textbook
Egerton, Douglas R. et al. The Atlantic World: A History, 1400–1888 (2007)
Eltis, David. The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (2000).
Hinderaker, Eric; Horn, Rebecca. "Territorial Crossings: Histories and Historiographies of the Early Americas," William and Mary Quarterly, (2010) 67#3 pp. 395–432 in JSTOR
Lockhart, James, and Stuart B. Schwartz. Early Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil (1983).
Merriman, Roger Bigelow. The Rise of The Spanish Empire in the Old World and in the New (4 vol. 1934)
Morison, Samuel Eliot. The European Discovery of America: The northern voyages, A.D. 500–1600 (1971)
Morison, Samuel Eliot. The European Discovery of America: The southern voyages, 1492–1616 (1971)
Parry, J. H. The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration, and Settlement, 1450–1650 (1982)
Sarson, Steven, and Jack P. Greene, eds. The American Colonies and the British Empire, 1607–1783 (8 vol, 2010); primary sources
Sobecki, Sebastian. "New World Discovery". Oxford Handbooks Online (2015). doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935338.013.141
Starkey, Armstrong (1998). European-Native American Warfare, 1675–1815. University of Oklahoma Press ISBN 978-0-8061-3075-0
Vickers, Daniel, ed. A Companion to Colonial America (2003)
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: European colonization of the Americas
“The Political Force of Images,” Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520-1820.
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values: Kolonisasi Eropa di Amerika – Indonesian

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I'm Not Ashamed
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
I'm Not Ashamed
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Brian Baugh
Produced by
Brad Allen
Nise Davies
Chuck Howard
Martin Michael
Screenplay by
Bodie Thoene
Robin Hanley
Philipa Booyens
Kari Redmond
Based on
The Journals of Rachel Joy Scott
by Rachel Scott
Starring
Masey McLain
Ben Davies
Sadie Robertson
David Errigo Jr.
Mark Daugherty
Cory Chapman
Taylor Kalupa
Ben VanderMey
Jennifer O'Neill
Cameron McKendry
Music by
Timothy Williams
Cinematography
John Matysiak
Edited by
Chris Witt
Production
company
Visible Pictures
Distributed by
Pure Flix Entertainment
Release date
October 21, 2016 (2016-10-21)
Running time
112 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$1.5 million[2]
Box office
$2.1 million[3]
I'm Not Ashamed is a 2016 biographical drama film based on the journals of Rachel Scott, the first victim of the 1999 Columbine High School massacre in Columbine, Colorado. Scott is the main protagonist, and the story of both gunmen who committed the shooting, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, is intertwined with Scott's.[4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Controversy
4 Box office
5 Reception
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
In Littleton, Colorado, a young Rachel Joy Scott, witnesses her father leave her family in the middle of the night. Her mother then struggles financially, and encourages her kids to pray for financial help. Rachel begins to become more spiritual in embracing her Christian faith.
During her sophomore year at Columbine high school, Rachel becomes rebellious and begins sneaking out to hang out with her friends, Maddison, Gabby, and Linda. During the summer, Rachel's mother sends her to her cousins in Louisiana, where her spirituality grows. The next year, on the first day on school, Rachel witnesses the jocks picking on Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold. Eric then threatens to kill them.
Later on in the year, Rachel begins to get involved with the head on the drama club, Alex Dickerson, and during a rehearsal, the two kiss. Later on, at a breakthrough meeting, Rachel meets Nathan Ballard, a homeless kid whose mother is a heroine addict. With Rachel's help, Nathan is able to be put up at another kid's house. Nathan is grateful.
One day, Rachel's stepfather, Lary, finds a beer bottle from a party in the car, and Rachel loses her right to the car, becoming rebellious again. At the first performence of the school play, Nathan arrives and begins to fight with Alex, embarrassing Rachel. At a party that night, Rachel discovers Alex cheating on her with Maddison. Rachel then begins to be bullied more often by others, and even tries to commit suicide at one point. However, with Nathan's encouragement, Rachel turns back to her faith, and inspires other Christian students to not give up hope, despite being bullied. Meanwhile, Dylan and Eric plan their revenge on the school.
One day, Rachel tries to help Linda with family issues, but Linda says that she'll never help anyone. At prom, Linda reconciles with Rachel, revealing that she has issues her mother. Not long after, Alex tries to reconcile with Rachel, but she declines his apology.
On April 20, 1999, Rachel reconciles with Maddison, and the two make plans to hang out the next day. At lunch, Rachel has an emotional conversation with fellow student, Richard Castaldo, about family issues. Rachel calms him by saying that everything happens for a reason. Just then, Eric and Dylan come out of the parking lot, and begin shooting at Rachel and Richard. Richard is knocked unconscious, while Rachel struggles to get away. Eric and Dylan corner her, and Eric asks her if she still believes in God, and when Rachel tells him that she does, he kills her. The assailants then storm the school, killing 13 others; 12 students, and 1 teacher. Eric and Dylan then take their own lives.
All of Rachel's friends pay tribute to her after the shooting. At Rachel's funeral, Nathan gives a eulogy, stating that he always loved her.
Sometime after, Rachel's mother finds a note on a dresser in their house, that Rachel had written years before. The note states that she will one day help millions of people.
The film closes with text saying Rachel's story inspired millions and offers contact information.
Cast[edit]
Masey McLain as Rachel Scott
Nola Fulk as Young Rachel
Ben Davies as Nathan Ballard (based on Mark Bodiford-Pettit)
David Errigo Jr. as Eric Harris
Cory Chapman as Dylan Klebold
Justin Cone as Sean
Cameron McKendry as Alex Dickerson
Taylor Kalupa as Gabby
Mark Daugherty as Kevin
Jennifer O'Neill as Linda
Derick Von Tagen as Craig Scott
Isaac Lovoy as Mike Scott
Sadie Robertson as Charity
Korie Robertson as Aunt Bea
Bella Robertson as Anna
Jaci Velasquez as Mrs. Diaz
Controversy[edit]
The producers of the film accused YouTube of an anti-Christian bias for blocking the official trailer of I'm Not Ashamed for 11 months.[6][7] Reportedly, the video sharing site had repeatedly removed the trailer for the movie without offering any valid explanation.[8]
At least one author and some sections of the media[9] question the actual circumstances surrounding Rachel Scott's final moments.[10] However, according to some sources, the final and fatal wound Rachel received was inflicted after Eric Harris approached her as she and Richard Castaldo lay wounded; he lifted Rachel's head by her hair, before asking whether she believed in the existence of the Lord, to which she replied, "You know I do." In response, Harris replied, "Well, go be with Him", before shooting Rachel in the temple.[11] Richard Castaldo, the student shot directly alongside Rachel and who only survived the attack by feigning death before falling into unconsciousness, later recalled hearing Rachel weeping as she curled into a ball upon the grass, before hearing a final gunshot as Harris and Klebold approached them.[12]
Box office[edit]
The film opened in 505 theaters on October 21, 2016, and played at 516 theaters in its widest release.[3] Its lifetime box-office take was $2,082,980.[3]
Reception[edit]
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 22%, based on 9 reviews, with an average rating of 4.2/10.[13] On Metacritic, the film received a score of 31 out of 100, based on 6 reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews."[14]
The Guardian rated the film 2 stars out of 5, with their justification being: "To use the senseless death of a school shooting victim to promote one's warped political agenda is, to use a trendy term, deplorable."[15] The A.V. Club gave it a D+, stating their belief the film is "just another vehicle for a series of scenes in which devout characters remind each other that God has it all under control" and that "the political implications are very unsavory".[16] The Los Angeles Times gave a mixed review, noting that while there was "...a refreshing lack of moralizing here, and a welcome emphasis on accepting people for who they are," they felt that "the forced ironies of having infamous teen mass-murderers interact with the heroine feels more than a little exploitative." [17]
Among positive reviews, Plugged In Online, a site owned by Focus on the Family (a conservative Christian foundation), said "Rachel Joy Scott's story is a moving example of the difference just one committed Christian can make in the lives of people around her." [18] Forbes magazine said, "...with its pro-compassion message and likable lead, I'm Not Ashamed is a faith-based movie worthy of some praise."[19]
See also[edit]
Cassie Bernall
Columbine (book)
Rachel's Tears (book)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "AMC Theatres: I'm Not Ashamed". AMC Theatres. Retrieved August 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ Strowbridge, C.S. "2016 Preview: October". The Numbers. Retrieved 23 October 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c I'm Not Ashamed - Box Office Mojo
Jump up ^ Washington Times.com
Jump up ^ CNS News.com
Jump up ^ http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/filmmakers-accuse-youtube-anti-christian-934108
Jump up ^ http://www.foxnews.com/entertainment/2016/09/30/youtube-blocked-trailer-for-christian-movie-im-not-ashamed-for-months-films-co-writer-says.html
Jump up ^ "YouTube Blocked Trailer for Christian Movie 'I'm Not Ashamed' for Months, lm Execs Say". Fox News Entertainment. October 3, 2016. Retrieved October 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ http://www.thewrap.com/im-not-ashamed-director-on-why-he-chose-to-tell-this-story-video/
Jump up ^ The Martyrs of Columbine: Faith and the Politics of Tragedy pp. 141-142
Jump up ^ "Craig Scott; Columbine Massacre Survivor, Revisits the High School and Remembers his Murdered Sister Rachel Scott". Huffington Post. April 10, 2013. Retrieved September 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Through the Eyes of Survivors". denverpost.com. 2015-06-13. Retrieved 2016-12-13.
Jump up ^ "I'm Not Ashamed (2016)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved November 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ "I'm Not Ashamed (2016)". Metacritic. Retrieved November 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Hoffman, Jordan (October 21, 2016). "I'm Not Ashamed review - Faith-based drama exploits Columbine tragedy". The A.V. Club. Retrieved 2 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Rizov, Vadim (October 21, 2016). "I'm Not Ashamed blames Columbine on Darwin". The A.V. Club. Retrieved 2 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Murray, Noel (October 21, 2016). "Columbine setting inevitably casts a shadow over 'I'm Not Ashamed'". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 28 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Holz, Adam. "I'm Not Ashamed". Plugged In. Retrieved 28 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Luke (October 23, 2016). "'I'm Not Ashamed' To Like Some Aspects Of This Faith-Based Columbine Movie". Forbes. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
External links[edit]
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Positive liberty
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v
t
e
Positive liberty is the possession of the capacity to act upon one's free will, as opposed to negative liberty, which is freedom from external restraint on one's actions.[1] A concept of positive liberty may also include freedom from internal constraints.[2]
The concepts of structure and agency are central to the concept of positive liberty because in order to be free, a person should be free from inhibitions of the social structure in carrying out their free will. Structurally, classism, sexism, ageism and racism can inhibit a person's freedom. As positive liberty is primarily concerned with the possession of sociological agency, it is enhanced by the ability of citizens to participate in government and have their voices, interests, and concerns recognized and acted upon.
Although Isaiah Berlin's essay "Two Concepts of Liberty" (1958) is typically acknowledged as the first to explicitly draw the distinction between positive and negative liberty, Frankfurt School psychoanalyst and Marxist humanistic philosopher Erich Fromm drew a similar distinction between negative and positive freedom in The Fear of Freedom (1941), predating Berlin's essay by more than a decade.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Examples
3 Various thinkers
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
Overview[edit]
The word liberty can refer to many things, but Isaiah Berlin recognized two main types of liberty. Berlin described a statement such as "I am slave to no man" as one of Negative Liberty, that is, freedom from another individual's direct interference. He contrasted this with a Positive Freedom statement such as "I am my own master", which lays claim to a freedom to choose one's own pursuits in life.[2]
Charles Taylor sees Negative Freedom as an "opportunity-concept": one possesses Negative Freedom if one is not enslaved by external forces, and has equal access to a society's resources (regardless of how one decides to spend their time). Positive Freedom, says Taylor, is an "exercise-concept": possessing it might mean that one is not internally constrained; one must be able to act according to their highest self – according to reason.[2] Suppose a rich and powerful actor is also a drug addict. This actor may possess a great deal of Negative Liberty, but very little Positive Liberty according to Taylor. By Taylor's definitions, Positive Freedom entails being in a mature state of decision making, free of internal or external restraints (e.g. weakness, fear, ignorance, etc.).[2]
Examples[edit]
In a description of positive liberty from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
Put in the simplest terms, one might say that a democratic society is a free society because it is a self-determined society, and that a member of that society is free to the extent that he or she participates in its democratic process. But there are also individualist applications of the concept of positive freedom. For example, it is sometimes said that a government should aim actively to create the conditions necessary for individuals to be self-sufficient or to achieve self-realization.[3]
In "Recovering the Social Contract", Ron Replogle made a metaphor that is helpful in understanding positive liberty. "Surely, it is no assault on my dignity as a person if you take my car keys, against my will, when I have had too much to drink. There is nothing paradoxical about making an agreement beforehand providing for paternalistic supervision in circumstances when our competence is open to doubt."[4] In this sense, positive liberty is the adherence to a set of rules agreed upon by all parties involved. Should the rules be altered, all parties involved must agree upon the changes. Therefore, positive liberty is a contractarian philosophy.[citation needed]
However, Isaiah Berlin opposed any suggestion that paternalism and positive liberty could be equivalent.[5] He stated that positive liberty could only apply when the withdrawal of liberty from an individual was in pursuit of a choice that individual himself/herself made, not a general principle of society or any other person's opinion. In the case where a person removes a driver's car keys against their will because they have had too much to drink, this constitutes positive freedom only if the driver has made, of their own free will, an earlier decision not to drive drunk. Thus, by removing the keys, the other person facilitates this decision and ensures that it will be upheld in the face of paradoxical behaviour (i.e., drinking) by the driver. For the remover to remove the keys in the absence of such an expressed intent by the driver, because the remover feels that the driver ought not to drive drunk, is paternalism, and not positive freedom by Berlin's definition.[5]
Erich Fromm sees the distinction between the two types of freedom emerging alongside humanity's evolution away from the instinctual activity that characterizes lower animal forms. This aspect of freedom, he argues, "is here used not in its positive sense of 'freedom to' but in its negative sense of 'freedom from', namely freedom from instinctual determination of his actions."[6] For Fromm, freedom from animal instinct implicitly implies that survival now hinges on the necessity of charting one's own course. He relates this distinction to the biblical story of man's expulsion from Eden:
Acting against God's orders means freeing himself from coercion, emerging from the unconscious existence of prehuman life to the level of man. Acting against the command of authority, committing a sin, is in its positive human aspect the first act of freedom. [...] he is free from the bondage of paradise, but he is not free to govern himself, to realize his individuality.[7]
Positive freedom, Fromm maintains, comes through the actualization of individuality in balance with the separation from the whole: a "solidarity with all men", united not by instinctual or predetermined ties, but on the basis of a freedom founded on reason.[8]
Various thinkers[edit]
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's theory of freedom, according to which individual freedom is achieved through participation in the process whereby one's community exercises collective control over its own affairs in accordance with the 'General Will'.[3] Some interpret the Social Contract to suggest that Rousseau believed that liberty was the power of individual citizens to act in the government to bring about changes; this is essentially the power for self-governance and democracy.[citation needed] Rousseau himself said, "the mere impulse to appetite is slavery, while obedience to law we prescribe ourselves is liberty."[9] For Rousseau, the passage from the state of nature to the civil state substitutes justice for instinct gives his actions the morality they had formerly lacked.[10]
However, this is only one interpretation of Rousseau's work. This view is not really describing the General Will in terms of its more modern interpretations. Rather, it is describing more the 'Will of All' (in Rousseau's terminology). The Will of All contrasts to the General Will in that the prior comprises the composite desires and appetites of those who make up society and the latter the reasoned, objective opinions and beliefs of those who see themselves as part of a nation and of a group of men. A law cannot be said to be of the General Will unless it is general in its origins and applications. Particular wills cannot be homogeneous in the way which the General Will requires. However, this does not mean that Rousseau's liberty is incompatible with positive liberty. Rather, we have to remove the implication that positive liberty requires collective control over affairs which is derived from the conscious and expressed decisions of men. The task which Rousseau gives 'the Lawgiver' in the Social Contract is that of deciphering the General Will from the mass of particular wills. If the Lawgiver, whatever form this may take, is able to do so, then the individuals who comprise a society have truly participated (via their real, reasoned and tempered will) in the collective control of their own affairs. As the extract above says, government by the Will of All is slavery. Rousseau's usual solution to how the Lawgiver may be able to do this is cultural homogeneity on the one hand and physically small states on the other. These two themes recur within Rousseau's works often with the view to homogenising inharmonious particular wills.
According to G. F. W. Hegel, "Freedom is the fundamental character of the will [...] That which is free is the will. Will without freedom is an empty word."[11] He also claimed that "duty is not a restriction on freedom, but only on freedom in the abstract" and that "duty is the attainment of our essence, the winning of positive freedom.[12]
See also[edit]
Mutual liberty
Negative and positive rights
Real freedom
Rule according to higher law
The Trap (TV documentary series)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Berlin, Isaiah. Four Essays on Liberty. 1969.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Taylor, C. What's Wrong with Negative Liberty, 1985. Law and Morality. 3rd ed. Ed. David Dyzenhaus, Sophia Reibetanz Moreau and Arthur Ripstein. Toronto: U of Toronto P, 2008. 359–368. Print.
^ Jump up to: a b Carter, Ian. "Positive and Negative Liberty". In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Jump up ^ Replogle, Ron. Recovering the Social Contract. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. (1989). p. 164.
^ Jump up to: a b "Open Learning – OpenLearn". Openlearn.open.ac.uk. Retrieved 2014-04-28.
Jump up ^ Erich Fromm, The Fear of Freedom (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1966), p. 26.
Jump up ^ Erich Fromm, The Fear of Freedom, pp. 27–28.
Jump up ^ Erich Fromm, The Fear of Freedom, p. 29.
Jump up ^ Rousseau as quoted by Replogle, Ron. Recovering the Social Contract. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. (1989), p. 105.
Jump up ^ Michael Rosen, Jonathan Wolff, Catriona McKinnon (eds.), Political Thought, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 63.
Jump up ^ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. Science of Logic (1812), tr. A.V. Miller (Humanity Books, 1989), p. 146.
Jump up ^ George Klosko, History of Political Theory: An Introduction: Volume II: Modern (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, 2013, p. 465: "we should note that Hegel's realization of the distance between his own and the traditional liberal conception of freedom, which he calls "abstract freedom," is clear in his embrace of positive freedom [in PR §149A]".
Further reading[edit]
Machan, Tibor (2008). "Positive Liberty". In Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 383–85. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n236. ISBN 978-1412965804. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
Nicholas Dent, Rousseau, Routledge, 2005.
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