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European exploration of Africa
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Map of Africa by John Thomson, 1813. Much of the continent is simply labeled "unknown parts". The map still includes Ptolemy's Mountains of the Moon, which have since been credited to ranges varying from the Rwenzori to Kilimanjaro to the peaks of Ethiopia at the head of the Blue Nile.
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Exploration of Africa
Nero expedition
Roman expeditions
The search for the source of the Nile
First Zambesi expedition
Second Zambesi expedition
First trans-Africa exploration
Scramble for Africa
The geography of North Africa has been reasonably well known among Europeans since classical antiquity in Greco-Roman geography. Northwest Africa (the Maghreb) was known as either Libya or Africa, while Egypt was considered part of Asia.
European exploration of Sub-Saharan Africa begins with the Age of Discovery in the 15th century, pioneered by Portugal under Henry the Navigator. The Cape of Good Hope was first reached by Bartolomeu Dias on 12 March 1488, opening the important sea route to India and the Far East, but European exploration of Africa itself remained very limited during the 16th and 17th centuries. The European powers were content to establish trading posts along the coast while they were actively exploring and colonizing the New World. Exploration of the interior of Africa was thus mostly left to the Arab slave traders, who in tandem with the Muslim conquest of the Sudan established far-reaching networks and supported the economy of a number of Sahelian kingdoms during the 15th to 18th centuries.
At the beginning of the 19th century, European knowledge of geography of the interior of Sub-Saharan Africa was still rather limited. Expeditions exploring Southern Africa were made during the 1830s and 1840s, so that around the midpoint of the 19th century and the beginning of the colonial Scramble for Africa, the unexplored parts were now limited to what would turn out to be the Congo Basin and the African Great Lakes. This "Heart of Africa" remained one of the last remaining "blank spots" on world maps of the later 19th century (alongside the Arctic, Antarctic and the interior of the Amazon basin). It was left for 19th-century European explorers (including those searching for the famed sources of the Nile, notably John Hanning Speke, David Livingstone and Henry Morton Stanley, to complete the exploration of Africa by the 1870s. After this, the general geography of Africa was known, but it was left to further expeditions during the 1880s onward, notably those led by Oskar Lenz, to flesh more detail such as the continent's geological makeup.
Contents
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1 Antiquity
2 Arab slave trade
3 Early Portuguese expeditions
4 Early Modern history
4.1 Portuguese
4.2 Dutch
4.3 Other early modern European presence
5 The 19th century
6 List of Africa explorers
6.1 15th century
6.2 15th/16th century
6.3 16th century
6.4 18th century
6.5 19th century
6.6 Early 20th century
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
Antiquity[edit]
Further information: North Africa during the Classical Period
reconstruction of Hecataeus' map of the world
The Phoenicians explored North Africa, establishing a number of colonies, the most prominent of which was Carthage. Carthage itself conducted exploration of West Africa. The first circumnavigation of the African continent was probably made by Phoenician sailors, in an expedition commissioned by Egyptian pharaoh Necho II, in c. 600 BC and took three years. A report of this expedition is provided by Herodotus (4.37). They sailed south, rounded the Cape heading west, made their way north to the Mediterranean and then returned home. He states that they paused each year to sow and harvest grain. Herodotus himself is sceptical of the historicity of this feat, which would have taken place close about 120 years before his birth; however, the reason he gives for disbelieving the story is the sailors' reported claim that when they sailed along the southern coast of Africa, they found the Sun stood to their right, in the north; Herodotus, who was unaware of the spherical shape of the Earth found this impossible to believe. Some commentators took this circumstance as proof that the voyage is historical, but other scholars still dismiss the report as unlikely. [1]
The West African coast was explored by Hanno the Navigator in an expedition in c. 500 BC.[2] The report of this voyage survives in a short Periplus in Greek, which was first cited by Greek authors in the 3rd century BC.[3]:162–3 There is some uncertainty as to how far precisely Hanno reached, he clearly sailed as far as Sierra Leone, and may have continued as far as Guinea or even Gabon.[4]
Africa is named for the Afri people who settled in the area of current-day Tunisia. The Roman province of Africa spanned the Mediterranean coast of what is now Libya, Tunisia and Algeria. The parts of North Africa north of the Sahara were well known in antiquity. Prior to the 2nd century BC, however, Greek geographers were unaware that the land mass then known as Libya expanded south of the Sahara, assuming that the desert bounded on the outer Ocean. Indeed, Alexander the Great, according to Plutarchus' Lives, considered sailing from the mouths of the Indus back to Macedonia passing south of Africa as a shortcut compared to the land route. Even Eratosthenes around 200 BC still assumed an extent of the landmass no further south than the Horn of Africa.
By the Roman imperial period the Horn of Africa was well-known to Mediterranean geographers. The trading post of Rhapta, described as "the last marketplace of Azania," may correspond to the coast of Tanzania. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, dated to the 1st century AD, appears to extend geographical knowledge further south, to Southeast Africa. Ptolemy's world map of the 2nd century is well aware that the African continent extents significantly further south than the Horn of Africa, but has no geographic detail south of the equator (it is unclear whether it is aware of the Gulf of Guinea)[5]
Arab slave trade[edit]
Main articles: Arab slave trade, Islamization of the Sudan region, and Sahelian kingdoms
In the medieval period, the exploration of the interior of the Sahara and the Sahel as well as along the Swahili coast as far as Mozambique was the project of Muslim conquests and slave trade. It was at Mozambique that the Arab "clockwise" and the Portuguese "counter-clockwise" routes of exploration would meet at the end of the 15th century.
Following its 8th-century conquest of North Africa, Arab Muslims ventured into Sub-Saharan Africa first along the Nile Valley towards Nubia, and later also across the Sahara towards West Africa. They were interested in the trans-Saharan trade, especially in slaves. This expansion of Arab and Islamic culture was a gradual process, lasting throughout most of the Middle Ages. The Christian kingdoms of Nubia came under pressure from the 7th century, but they resisted for several centuries. The Kingdom of Makuria and Old Dongola collapsed by the beginning of the 14th century. A significant role in the spread of Islam in Africa was taken by Sufi orders during the 9th to 14th centuries, who spread south along trade routes between North Africa and the sub-Saharan kingdoms of Ghana and Mali. On the West African coast, they set up zawiyas on the shores of the River Niger. The Mali Empire became Islamic following the pilgrimage of Musa I of Mali in 1324. Timbuktu became an important center of Islamic culture south of the Sahara. Alodia, the last remnant of Christian Nubia, was destroyed by the Funj in 1504.
Early Portuguese expeditions[edit]
Further information: History of Portugal (1415–1578), Portuguese discoveries, and Portuguese explorers
Henry the Navigator in 15th century triptych of St. Vincent, by Nuno Gonçalves
Portuguese explorer Prince Henry, known as the Navigator, was the first European to methodically explore Africa and the oceanic route to the Indies. From his residence in the Algarve region of southern Portugal, he directed successive expeditions to circumnavigate Africa and reach India. In 1420, Henry sent an expedition to secure the uninhabited but strategic island of Madeira. In 1425, he tried to secure the Canary Islands as well, but these were already under firm Castilian control. In 1431, another Portuguese expedition reached and annexed the Azores.
Naval charts of 1339 show that the Canary Islands were already known to Europeans. In 1341, Portuguese and Italian explorers prepared a joint expedition. In 1342 the Catalans organized an expedition captained by Francesc Desvalers to the Canary Islands that set sail from Majorca. In 1344, Pope Clement VI named French admiral Luis de la Cerda Prince of Fortune, and sent him to conquer the Canaries. In 1402, Jean de Bethencourt and Gadifer de la Salle sailed to conquer the Canary Islands but found them already plundered by the Castilians. Although they did conquer the isles, Bethencourt's nephew was forced to cede them to Castile in 1418.
In 1455 and 1456 two Italian explorers, Alvise Cadamosto from Venice and Antoniotto Usodimare from Genoa, together with an unnamed Portuguese captain and working for Prince Henry, the Navigator, of Portugal, followed the Gambia river, visiting the land of Senegal, while another Italian sailor from Genoa, Antonio de Noli, also on behalf of Prince Henry, explored the Bijagós islands, and, together with the Portuguese Diogo Gomes, the Cape Verde archipelago. Antonio de Noli, who became the first governor of Cape Verde (and the first European colonial governor in Sub-Saharan Africa), is also considered the discoverer of the First Islands of Cape Verde.[6]
Along the western and eastern coasts of Africa, progress was also steady; Portuguese sailors reached Cape Bojador in 1434 and Cape Blanco in 1441. In 1443, they built a fortress on the island of Arguin, in modern-day Mauritania, trading European wheat and cloth for African gold and slaves. It was the first time that the semi-mythic gold of the Sudan reached Europe without Muslim mediation. Most of the slaves were sent to Madeira, which became, after thorough deforestation, the first European plantation colony. Between 1444 and 1447, the Portuguese explored the coasts of Senegal, Gambia, and Guinea. In 1456, the Venetian captain Alvise Cadamosto, under Portuguese command, explored the islands of Cape Verde. In 1462, two years after Prince Henry's death, Portuguese sailors explored the Bissau islands and named Serra Leoa (Lioness Mountains).
Map of Western Africa by Lázaro Luis (1563). The large castle in West Africa represents the São Jorge da Mina (Elmina castle) fortified factory.
In 1469, Fernão Gomes rented the rights of African exploration for five years. Under his direction, in 1471, the Portuguese reached modern Ghana and settled in A Mina (the mine), later renamed Elmina. They had finally reached a country with an abundance of gold, hence the historical name of "Gold Coast" that Elmina would eventually receive.
In 1472, Fernão do Pó discovered the island that would bear his name for centuries (now Bioko) and an estuary abundant in shrimp (Portuguese: camarão,), giving its name to Cameroon.
Soon after, the equator was crossed by Europeans . Portugal established a base in Sāo Tomé that, after 1485, was settled with criminals. After 1497, expelled Spanish and Portuguese Jews also found a safe haven there.
In 1482, Diogo Cão found the mouth of a large river and learned of the existence of a great kingdom, Kongo. In 1485, he explored the river upstream as well.
But the Portuguese wanted, above anything else, to find a route to India and kept trying to circumnavigate Africa. In 1485, the expedition of João Afonso d'Aveiros, with the German astronomer Martin of Behaim as part of the crew, explored the Bight of Benin (Kingdom of Benin), returning information about African king Ogane.
In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias and his pilot Pêro de Alenquer, after putting down a mutiny, turned a cape where they were caught by a storm, naming it Cape of Storms. They followed the coast for a while realizing that it kept going eastward with even some tendency to the north. Lacking supplies, they turned around with the conviction that the far end of Africa had finally been reached. Upon their return to Portugal the promising cape was renamed Cape of Good Hope.
Some years later, Christopher Columbus landed in America under rival Castilian command. Pope Alexander VI decreed the Inter caetera bull, dividing the non-Christian parts of the world between the two rival Catholic powers, Spain and Portugal.
Finally, in the years 1497 to 1498, Vasco da Gama, again with Alenquer as pilot, took a direct route to Cape of Good Hope, via St. Helena. He went beyond the farthest point reached by Dias and named the country Natal. Then he sailed northward, making land at Quelimane (Mozambique) and Mombasa, where he found Chinese traders, and Malindi (both in modern Kenya). In this town, he recruited an Arab pilot and set sail directly to Calicut. On August 28, 1498, King Manuel of Portugal informed the Pope of the good news that Portugal had reached India.
Egypt and Venice reacted to this news with hostility; from the Red Sea, they jointly attacked the Portuguese ships that traded with India. The Portuguese defeated these ships near Diu in 1509. The Ottoman Empire's indifferent reaction to Portuguese exploration left Portugal in almost exclusive control of trade through the Indian Ocean. They established many bases along the eastern coast of Africa except for Somalia (See Ajuran-Portuguese wars), The Portuguese also captured Aden in 1513.
One of the ships under command of Diogo Dias arrived at a coast that was not in East Africa. Two years later, a chart already showed an elongated island east of Africa that bore the name Madagascar. But only a century later, between 1613 and 1619, did the Portuguese explore the island in detail. They signed treaties with local chieftains and sent the first missionaries, who found it impossible to make locals believe in Hell, and were eventually expelled.
Early Modern history[edit]
Portuguese[edit]
17th century crucifix, copper alloy, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Portuguese presence in Africa soon interfered with existing Arab trade interests. By 1583, the Portuguese established themselves in Zanzibar and on the Swahili coast. The Kingdom of Congo was converted to Christianity in 1495, its king taking the name of João I. The Portuguese also established their trade interests in the Kingdom of Mutapa in the 16th century, and in 1629 placed a puppet ruler on the throne.
The Portuguese (and later also the Dutch) also became involved in the local slave economy, supporting the state of the Jaggas, who performed slave raids in the Congo.[citation needed]
Queen Nzinga in peace negotiations with the Portuguese governor in Luanda, 1657
They also used the Kongo to weaken the neighbour realm of Ndongo, where Queen Nzinga put a fierce but eventually doomed resistance to Portuguese and Jagga ambitions. Portugal intervened militarily in these conflicts, creating the basis for their colony of Angola. In 1663, after another conflict, the royal crown of Kongo was sent to Lisbon. Nevertheless, a diminished Kongo Kingdom would still exist until 1885, when the last Manicongo, Pedro V, ceded his almost non-existent domain to Portugal.
The Portuguese dealt with the other major state of Southern Africa, the Monomotapa (in modern Zimbabwe), in a similar manner: Portugal intervened in a local war hoping to get abundant mineral riches, imposing a protectorate. But with the authority of the Monomotapa diminished by the foreign presence, anarchy took over. The local miners migrated and even buried the mines to prevent them from falling into Portuguese hands. When in 1693 the neighbouring Cangamires invaded the country, the Portuguese accepted their failure and retreated to the coast.
Dutch[edit]
Beginning in the 17th century, the Netherlands began exploring and colonizing Africa. While the Dutch were waging a long war of independence against Spain, Portugal had temporarily united with Spain, starting in 1580 and ending in 1640. As a result, the growing colonial ambitions of the Netherlands were mostly directed against Portugal.
For this purpose, two Dutch companies were founded: the West Indies Company, with power over all the Atlantic Ocean, and the East Indies Company, with power over the Indian Ocean.
The West India Company conquered Elmina in 1637 and Luanda in 1640. In 1648, they were expelled from Luanda by the Portuguese. Overall the Dutch built 16 forts in different places, including Gorée in Senegal, partly overtaking Portugal as the main slave-trading power.
The Dutch left a lasting impact in South Africa, a region ignored by Portugal that the Dutch eventually decided to use as station in their route to East Asia. Jan van Riebeeck founded Cape Town in 1652, starting the European exploration and colonization of South Africa.
Other early modern European presence[edit]
Map of Fort James (Gambia), the first English possession in Africa
Almost at the same time as the Dutch, other European powers attempted to create their own outposts for the African slave trade.
As early as 1530, English merchant adventurers started trading in West Africa, coming into conflict with Portuguese troops. In 1581, Francis Drake reached the Cape of Good Hope. In 1663, the English built Fort James in Gambia. One year later, another English colonial expedition attempted to settle southern Madagascar, resulting in the death of most of the colonists. The English forts on the West African coast were eventually taken by the Dutch.
In 1626, the French Compagnie de l'Occident was created. This company expelled the Dutch from Senegal, making it the first French domain in Africa.
France also set her eyes on Madagascar, the island that had been used since 1527 as a stop in travels to India. In 1642, the French East India Company founded a settlement in southern Madagascar called Fort Dauphin. The commercial results of this settlement were scarce and, again, most of the settlers died. One of the survivors, Etienne de Flacourt, published a History of the Great Island of Madagascar and Relations, which was for a long time the main European source of information about the island. Further settlement attempts had no more success but, in 1667, François Martin led the first expedition to the Malgasy heartland, reaching Lake Alaotra. In 1665, France officially claimed Madagascar, under the name of Île Dauphine. However, little colonial activity would take place in Madagascar until the 19th century.
In 1657, Swedish merchants founded Cape Coast in modern Ghana, but were soon displaced by Denmark-Norway, founding Fort Christiansborg near modern-day Accra.
In 1677, King Frederick William I of Prussia sent an expedition to the western coast of Africa. The commander of the expedition, Captain Blonk, signed agreements with the chieftains of the Gold Coast. There, the Prussians built a fort named Gross Friederichsburg and restored the abandoned Portuguese fort of Arguin. But in 1720, the king decided to sell these bases to the Netherlands for 7,000 ducats and 12 slaves, six of them chained with pure gold chains.
The British expressed their interest by the formation in 1788 of The Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa. The individuals who formed this club were inspired in part by the Scotsman James Bruce, who had ventured to Ethiopia in 1769 and reached the source of the Blue Nile.
Overall, European exploration of Africa in the 17th and 18th centuries was very limited. Instead they were focused on the slave trade, which only required coastal bases and items to trade. The real exploration of the African interior would start well into the 19th century.
The 19th century[edit]
See also: Colonisation of Africa, Scramble for Africa, and Timeline of European exploration § 19th century
Routes of European explorers in Africa to 1853
Although the Napoleonic Wars distracted the attention of Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless exercised great influence on the future of the continent, both in Egypt and South Africa. The occupation of Egypt (1798–1803), first by France and then by Great Britain, resulted in an effort by the Ottoman Empire to regain direct control over that country. In 1811, Mehemet Ali established an almost independent state, and from 1820 onward established Egyptian rule over the eastern Sudan. In South Africa, the struggle with Napoleon caused the United Kingdom to take possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape. In 1814, Cape Colony, which had been continuously occupied by British troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown.
Meanwhile, considerable changes had been made in other parts of the continent. The occupation of Algiers by France in 1830 put an end to the piracy of the Barbary states. Egyptian authority continued to expand southward, with the consequent additions to knowledge of the Nile. The city of Zanzibar, on the island of that name, rapidly attained importance. Accounts of a vast inland sea, and the discovery of the snow-clad mountains of Kilimanjaro in 1840–1848, stimulated the desire for further knowledge about Africa in Europe.
In the mid-19th century, Protestant missions were carrying on active missionary work on the Guinea coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions. Missionaries visited little-known regions and peoples, and in many instances became explorers and pioneers of trade and empire. David Livingstone, a Scottish missionary, had been engaged since 1840 in work north of the Orange River. In 1849, Livingstone crossed the Kalahari Desert from south to north and reached Lake Ngami. Between 1851 and 1856, he traversed the continent from west to east, discovering the great waterways of the upper Zambezi River. In November 1855, Livingstone became the first European to see the famous Victoria Falls, named after the Queen of the United Kingdom. From 1858 to 1864, the lower Zambezi, the Shire River and Lake Nyasa were explored by Livingstone. Nyasa had been first reached by the confidential slave of António da Silva Porto, a Portuguese trader established at Bié in Angola, who crossed Africa during 1853–1856 from Benguella to the mouth of the Rovuma. A prime goal for explorers was to locate the source of the River Nile. Expeditions by Burton and Speke (1857–1858) and Speke and Grant (1863) located Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria. It was eventually proved to be the latter from which the Nile flowed.
Henry Morton Stanley, who had in 1871 succeeded in finding and succouring Livingstone (originating the famous line "Dr. Livingstone, I presume"), started again for Zanzibar in 1874. In one of the most memorable of all exploring expeditions in Africa, Stanley circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza (Lake Victoria) and Lake Tanganyika. Striking farther inland to the Lualaba, he followed that river down to the Atlantic Ocean—which he reached in August 1877—and proved it to be the Congo.
In 1895, the British South Africa Company hired the American scout Frederick Russell Burnham to look for minerals and ways to improve river navigation in the central and southern Africa region. Burnham oversaw and led the Northern Territories British South Africa Exploration Company expedition that first established that major copper deposits existed north of the Zambezi in North-Eastern Rhodesia. Along the Kafue River, Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in the United States, and he encountered native peoples wearing copper bracelets.[7] Copper rapidly became the primary export of Central Africa and it remains essential to the economy even today.
Explorers were also active in other parts of the continent. Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan were traversed in many directions between 1860 and 1875 by Georg Schweinfurth and Gustav Nachtigal.[8] These travellers not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, but obtained invaluable information concerning the people, languages and natural history of the countries in which they sojourned. Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one that confirmed Greek legends of the existence beyond Egypt of a "pygmy race". But the first western discoverer of the pygmies of Central Africa was Paul Du Chaillu, who found them in the Ogowe district of the west coast in 1865, five years before Schweinfurth's first meeting with them. Du Chaillu had previously, through journeys in the Gabon region between 1855 and 1859, made popular in Europe the knowledge of the existence of the gorilla, whose existence was thought to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of Aristotle.
List of Africa explorers[edit]
This article contains embedded lists that may be poorly defined, unverified or indiscriminate. Please help to clean it up to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Where appropriate, incorporate items into the main body of the article. (October 2014)
15th century[edit]
Diogo Cão
Diogo de Azambuja
Bartolomeu Dias
Pêro de Alenquer
João Infante
João Grego
Álvaro Martins
Pêro Dias
Gil Eanes
Nuno Tristão
Antão Gonçalves
Dinis Dias
Álvaro Fernandes
Pêro de Sintra
Fernão do Pó
Alvise Cadamosto (Venetian born)
António de Noli (Genoese born)
Diogo Gomes
Álvaro Caminha
João de Santarém
Pedro Escobar
Duarte Pacheco Pereira
Lopes Gonçalves (and Atlantic Ocean)
15th/16th century[edit]
Vasco da Gama (and discovered sea route to India)
Diogo Dias (and Indian Ocean, discovered Madagascar)
Pêro da Covilhã (15th/16th century diplomat and explorer in Ethiopia)
Pedro Álvares Cabral (discovered Brazil, explored India along the African coast)
Sancho de Tovar and Vicente Pegado among others (also among the first Europeans ever to contemplate and to describe the ruins of Great Zimbabwe, then referred to by the Portuguese as Monomotapa).
16th century[edit]
Paulo Dias de Novais
António Fernandes (he travalled to Monomotapa and beyond, exploring most of the present day Zimbabwe and possibly northeastern South Africa)[9]
Lourenço Marques (trader and explorer in East Africa)
Francisco Álvares (missionary and explorer in Ethiopia)
Gonçalo da Silveira (jesuit missionary, travalled up the Zambezi River to the capital of the Monomotapa which appears to have been the N'Pande kraal, close by the M'Zingesi River, a southern tributary of the Zambezi)
18th century[edit]
Francisco de Lacerda (explorer in Zambia)
19th century[edit]
Heinrich Barth approaching Timbuktu in 1853
Hermenegildo Capelo and Roberto Ivens in 1883
Heinrich Barth
Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza (Italian born)
Johann Ludwig Burckhardt
Frederick Russell Burnham (1861-1947), an American explorer of south, west, central, and east Africa.
Richard Francis Burton (1821–1890) (African Great Lakes)
René Caillié
Hermenegildo Capelo
Roberto Ivens
Candido José da Costa Cardoso (visited Lake Malawi [also known as Lake Nyasa or Lake Niassa] in 1846)
Paul Du Chaillu
Hugh Clapperton (1788–1827), explored west and central Africa
'Victor de Compiègne'
Dixon Denham (1786–1828), explored west central Africa.
James Frederic Elton (1840–1877)
Emil Holub
Ignatius Knoblecher (1819–1858), explored the White Nile basin
Alexander Gordon Laing (1793–1826)
Richard Lemon Lander (1804–1834)
Oskar Lenz (1848–1925), expeditions in 1879-80 (trans-Sahara) and 1885-87 (Congo)
David Livingstone (1813–1873)
Emin Pasha Relief Expedition
Frederick Lugard (1858–1945)
Serpa Pinto (soldier and colonizer of Africa)
António da Silva Porto
Arthur Henry Neumann (1850-1907)
Mungo Park (explorer) (1771–1806)
Georg Schweinfurth (Latvian born)
Frederick Courtney Selous (1851-1917)
Henry Morton Stanley (1841–1904) (Welsh born)
William Edgar Geil (1 October 1865, Doylestown, Pennsylvania – 11 April 1925, Venice)
John Hanning Speke (1827–1864) (discovered the source of the Nile)
James Hingston Tuckey (1776–1816) (Irish born)
Early 20th century[edit]
Jan Czekanowski
William Edgar Geil
Kazimierz Nowak
See also[edit]
Saharan explorers
Cartography of Africa
Age of Discovery
List of European expeditions to Egypt (de)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Alan B. Lloyd, Herodotus, Book II (1975, 1988 Leiden). Lloyd, Alan B. (1977). "Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 63: 142–155. JSTOR 3856314. Alan Lloyd suggests that the Greeks at this time understood that anyone going south far enough and then turning west would have the sun on their right but found it unbelievable that Africa reached so far south. He suggests that "It is extremely unlikely that an Egyptian king would, or could, have acted as Necho is depicted as doing" and that the story might have been triggered by the failure of Sataspes attempt to circumnavigate Africa under Xerxes the Great. See also Jona Lendering, The circumnavigation of Africa, Livius.
Jump up ^ The Periplus of Hanno; a voyage of discovery down the west African coast (1912)
Jump up ^ Harden, Donald (1971) [1962]. The Phoenicians. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-021375-9.
Jump up ^ "Some taking Hanno to the Cameroons, or even Gabon, while others say he stopped at Sierre Leone." (Harden 1971, p. 169).
Jump up ^ The limit of Ptolemy's knowledge in the west is Cape Spartel (35° 48′ N); while he does assume that the coast eventually retreats in a "Great Gulf of the Western Ocean", this is not likely based on any knowledge of the Gulf of Guinea. Eric Anderson Walker, The Cambridge history of the British Empire, Volume 7, Part 1, 1963, p. 66. In the east, Ptolemy is aware of the Red Sea (Sinus Arabicus) and the protrusion of the Horn of Africa, describing the gulf south of the Horn of Africa as Sinus Barbaricus.
Jump up ^ Astengo C, Balla M., Brigati I., Ferrada de Noli M., Gomes L., Hall T., Pires V., Rosetti C. Da Noli a Capo Verde. Antonio de Noli e l'inizio delle scoperte del Nuovo Mondo. Marco Sabatelli Editore. Savona, 2013. ISBN 9788888449821 [4]
Jump up ^ Burnham, Frederick Russell (1899). "Northern Rhodesia". In Wills, Walter H. Bulawayo Up-to-date; Being a General Sketch of Rhodesia. Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co. pp. 177–180.
Jump up ^ "Sahara and Sudan: The Results of Six Years Travel in Africa". World Digital Library. 1879–1889. Retrieved 2013-10-02.
Jump up ^ [1]
Bibliography[edit]
Michael Crowder, The Story of Nigeria, Faber and Faber, London, 1978 (1962)
Basil Davidson, The African Past, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1966 (1964)
Donald Harden, The Phoenicians, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1971 (1962)
Herodotus, transl. Aubrey de Selincourt, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1968 (1954)
Historia Universal Siglo XXI. Africa: desde la prehistoria hasta los años sesenta. Pierre Bertaux, 1972. Siglo XXI Editores S.A. ISBN 84-323-0069-1
Vincent B. Khapoya, The African Experience, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1998 (1994)
Louise Levanthes, When China Ruled the Seas, Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford, 1994
Kevin Shillington, History of Africa, St Martin's Press, New York, 1995 (1989)
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Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the shared career and activities of two American actresses. For the individuals, see Mary-Kate Olsen and Ashley Olsen.
Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen
Ashley (left) and Mary-Kate (right) at the 2011 Tribeca Film Festival
Born
Mary-Kate Olsen
Ashley Olsen
(1986-06-13) June 13, 1986 (age 32)
Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Occupation
Fashion designers
actresses
Years active
Ashley:
1987–2004 (actress)
Mary-Kate:
1987–2012 (actress)
Both:
2004–present (fashion designers)
Mary-Kate Olsen and Ashley Olsen (born June 13, 1986), also known as the Olsen twins collectively, are American fashion designers and former child actresses. The dizygotic twins made their acting debut as infants playing Michelle Tanner on the television series Full House. At the age of six, Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen began starring together in TV, film, and video projects, which continued to their teenage years. Through their company Dualstar, the Olsens joined the ranks of the wealthiest women in the entertainment industry at a young age.
Contents
1 Life and career
1.1 Childhood and acting career
1.2 Fashion career
2 Filmography
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
Life and career
Childhood and acting career
The twins were born in Sherman Oaks, California, to David "Dave" Olsen[1] (b. 1953) and Jarnette "Jarnie" (née Jones;[2] b. 1954). They are dizygotic twins.[3] They have an elder brother, Trent, and a younger sister, actress Elizabeth, as well as a half-sister, Courtney Taylor, and a half-brother, Jake.[4] The twins' parents divorced in 1995; Taylor and Jake are from their father's second marriage to McKenzie.[5] The Olsen twins have English and Norwegian ancestry.[6]
In 1987, at the age of six months, the twins were cast in the role of Michelle Tanner on the ABC sitcom Full House. They began filming at nine months old. In order to comply with child labor laws that set strict limits on how long a child actor may work, the sisters took turns playing the role. The Olsens continued to portray Michelle throughout the show's run, which concluded in 1995.
In 1992, Mary-Kate and Ashley shared the role of Michelle Tanner when they guest-starred on the Full House crossover episode of Hangin' with Mr. Cooper. While starring on Full House, the Olsens also began appearing (as separate characters) in films for video and television. The first such film, To Grandmother's House We Go, debuted in 1992 and featured cameos from several other Full House actors. In 1993, the Olsens established the company Dualstar, which would produce the twins' subsequent films and videos, including 1993's Double, Double, Toil and Trouble and 1994's How the West Was Fun. A series of musical mystery videos called The Adventures of Mary-Kate & Ashley premiered in 1994 and continued through 1997.
In 1995, following the end of Full House, the Olsens made their feature film debut in It Takes Two, co-starring Steve Guttenberg and Kirstie Alley. In the same year, they introduced a second video series, You're Invited to Mary-Kate & Ashley's..., which continued to release new entries until 2000.
The following year, the Olsens appeared in an episode of All My Children.[7] In 1997, they appeared once again as guest stars in an episode of Sister Sister. Also, in 1998, the twins returned to series television with another ABC sitcom, Two of a Kind, co-starring Christopher Sieber as their characters' widowed father. The series lasted only one season but aired in reruns on cable for several years afterward. 1998 also saw the release of Billboard Dad, the first of a new string of direct-to-video films starring the Olsens. The final such film, The Challenge, debuted in 2003.
In 2000, the Olsens appeared in an episode of 7th Heaven as bad girls Sue and Carol Murphy.[8] The following year, the sisters starred in two new series: So Little Time, a live-action sitcom on Fox Family (later ABC Family); and Mary-Kate and Ashley in Action!, an animated series airing Saturday mornings on ABC. Both shows were canceled after one season, although Mary-Kate received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination for her performance on So Little Time.
In early 2004, Mary-Kate and Ashley had a cameo voice role in an episode of The Simpsons as the readers of Marge's book-on-tape, The Harpooned Heart.[9] Also in 2004, the twins starred in a second feature film, New York Minute. It would be their last film together, as well as Ashley's last acting role. Mary-Kate has continued to appear in film and television.
Mary-Kate and Ashley had a fan club until 2000, "Mary-Kate & Ashley's Fun Club", where fans would pay to receive Mary-Kate and Ashley collectibles and photos. Each subscription included an issue of Our Funzine, Mary-Kate and Ashley's fan club magazine, exclusively available through the club, and a collectibles catalog, where one could purchase T-shirts, posters, baseball caps, key rings, school folders, postcards, and various other items. Subscribers would also receive "surprise gifts" (usually key rings, book excerpts, or back issues of the Funzine), lyric sheets to Mary-Kate and Ashley's songs, a school folder, a membership card, a full-sized poster, two black and white photos (one of each girl), and a color photo with reprint autographs. The club was advertised at the beginning of Mary-Kate and Ashley movies until 1998.[10]
Mary-Kate and Ashley were popular figures in the preteen market during the late 1990s and early 2000s. Their names and likenesses extended, not only to movies and videos, but to clothes, shoes, purses, hats, books, CDs and cassette tapes, fragrances and makeup, magazines, video and board games, dolls, posters, calendars, and even telephones and CD players—with a market share made up mostly of the tween demographic. Mattel produced various sets of Mary-Kate and Ashley fashion dolls from 2000 to 2005, along with separate outfits and accessory packs.
The sisters became co-presidents of Dualstar on their 18th birthday in 2004. Upon taking control of the company, Mary-Kate and Ashley made moves to secure the future of the company by releasing products that appealed to the teen market, including home decoration and fragrances.[11] The Dualstar brand has been sold in more than 3,000 stores in the United States and over 5,300 stores worldwide.[12] The Olsens have appeared on the Forbes "Celebrity 100" list since 2002; in 2007, Forbes ranked them (collectively) as the eleventh-richest women in entertainment, with an estimated net worth of US $100 million.[13]
Fashion career
As the sisters have matured, they expressed greater interest in their fashion choices, with The New York Times declaring Mary-Kate a fashion icon for pioneering her signature (and now popular among celebrities and fans alike) "homeless" look.[14] The style sometimes referred to by fashion journalists as "ashcan" or "bohemian-bourgeois",[15] is similar to the boho-chic style popularized in Britain by Kate Moss and Sienna Miller. The look consists of oversized sunglasses, boots, loose sweaters, and flowing skirts, with an aesthetic of mixing high-end and low-end pieces.[15] The twins were tapped as the faces of upscale fashion line Badgley Mischka in 2006.[16]
The Olsens had a clothing line for girls ages 4–14 in Wal-Mart stores across North America, as well as a beauty line called "Mary-Kate and Ashley: Real fashion for real girls". In 2004, they made news by signing a pledge to allow full maternity leave to all the workers that sew their line of clothing in Bangladesh. The National Labor Committee, which organized the pledge, praised the twins for their commitment to worker rights.[17]
The Olsens have also launched their own couture fashion label, The Row, named after Savile Row in London.[18] In 2007, they launched Elizabeth & James, a contemporary collection inspired by many of their unique vintage finds and pieces in their personal wardrobes. They have also released a women's clothing line for J.C. Penney, called Olsenboye, and a T-shirt line called "StyleMint".[19] In 2008, the sisters published the book Influence, a compilation of interviews with many of the most prominent people in the field of fashion. In August 2013, the twins launched a new fashion line in Oslo, Norway.[20] The Olsens were first named Womenswear Designer of the Year by the Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) for The Row in 2012. They received the award again in 2015.[21][22] The CFDA also named the Olsens Accessories Designer of the Year in 2014 for their work with The Row.[23]
Filmography
This filmography is of the twins as a duo. See Mary-Kate Olsen for other productions in which she has appeared.
Television and Film
Year(s)
Title
Mary-Kate's role
Ashley's role
Notes
1987–1995 Full House Michelle Tanner (shared role) 191 episodes
1992 Hangin' with Mr. Cooper Michelle Tanner (shared role) Episode: "Hangin' With Michelle" (1.02)
1992 To Grandmother's House We Go Sarah Thompson Julie Thompson TV movie
1993 Our First Video Herself Herself Direct-to-video release
1993 Double, Double, Toil and Trouble Kelly Farmer & Young Aunt Sophia Lynn Farmer & Young Aunt Agatha TV movie
1994 How the West Was Fun Jessica Martin Suzy Martin TV movie
1994 The Little Rascals Twin #2 Twin #1 Cameo role
1994–1997 The Adventures of Mary-Kate & Ashley Herself Herself Video series, 11 videos
1995 It Takes Two Amanda Lemmon Alyssa Callaway
1995–2000 You're Invited to Mary-Kate & Ashley's... Herself Herself Video series, 10 videos
1997 Sister, Sister Herself Herself Episode: "Slime Party" (4.21)
1997 Our Music Video Herself Herself Direct-to-video release
1998 Billboard Dad Tess Tyler Emily Tyler
1998 All My Children Herself Herself 1 episode, October 29, 1998
1998–1999 Two of a Kind Mary-Kate Burke Ashley Burke 1 season
1999 Passport to Paris Melanie "Mel" Porter Allyson "Ally" Porter
1999 Switching Goals Sam Stanton Emma Stanton TV movie
2000 7th Heaven Carol Murphy Sue Murphy Episode: "Gossip" (5.08)
2000 Our Lips Are Sealed Maddie Parker Abby Parker
2001 Mary-Kate & Ashley's Fashion Forward Herself Herself Direct-to-video release
2001 Winning London Chloe Lawrence Riley Lawrence
2001–2002 So Little Time Riley Carlson Chloe Carlson 1 season
2001 Holiday in the Sun Madison Stewart Alex Stewart
2001–2002 Mary-Kate and Ashley in Action! Misty (voice) Amber (voice) Animated series, 1 season
2002 Getting There Kylie Hunter Taylor Hunter
2002 When in Rome Charli Hunter Leila Hunter
2003 The Challenge Shane Dalton Elizabeth "Lizzie" Dalton
2003 Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle Future Angel (shared role) Uncredited cameo
2004 The Simpsons Herself (voice) Herself (voice) Episode: "Diatribe of a Mad Housewife" (15.10)
2004 New York Minute Roxanne "Roxy" Ryan Jane Ryan Main roles
See also
List of twins
References
Jump up ^ "Olsen Twins Dad Broke - Dakota Fanning Sports Wish from Mom and Dad". National Ledger. June 27, 2010. Retrieved July 5, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Elizabeth Chase Olsen, Born 02/16/1989 in California". CaliforniaBirthIndex.org. February 16, 1989. Retrieved October 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Ginia Bellafante (October 24, 2008). "No Labels for the Twins but Their Own". New York Times.
Jump up ^ Rozen, Leah (October 11, 2011). "Elizabeth Olsen in 'Martha Marcy May Marlene'". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen Biography". Bio. A+E Networks. Archived from the original on May 31, 2010. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
Jump up ^ Mobile Marketing Gets Cool Archived April 20, 2013, at Archive-It. eventmarketer.com. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ Fanpop, Inc. "1998 - All My Children - Mary-Kate & Ashley Olsen Image (20279438) - Fanpop fanclubs". Fanpop.com. Retrieved October 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "7th Heaven with the Olsen Twins - Part 1". YouTube. January 11, 2007. Retrieved October 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Caroline Stanley (July 22, 2010). "Can a Simpsons Cameo Change Your Public Image? – Flavorwire". Flavorwire.com. Retrieved October 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Fun Club Stuff". mary-kateandashleyimages.com. Retrieved October 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Hopkins, Jim (May 6, 2005). "Olsens face growing pains". USA Today.
Jump up ^ "Dualstar Press Kit" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 30, 2008. Retrieved October 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Goldman, Lea and Kiri Blakeley. In Pictures: The Richest 20 Women In Entertainment. January 17, 2007.
Jump up ^ Hall, Sarah. "Olsen Pad Up for Grabs." (Dead link) March 29, 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b La Ferla, Ruth. "Mary-Kate: Fashion Star." March 6, 2007.
Jump up ^ Hall, Sarah. Olsen Twins Strike a Pose. February 15, 2006.
Jump up ^ Grossberg, Josh. "Mary-Kate, Ashley: No Sweat." December 9, 2004.
Jump up ^ "Ashley and Mary-Kate's sisterly bond." Times of India. August 11, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen Launch New T-Shirts". Contactmusic.com. July 1, 2011. Retrieved October 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen bring their twin power to Norway". dailymail.co.uk. August 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ "CFDA 2015 Winners". cfda.com June 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Row Wins CFDA Womenswear Designer of the Year Once Again". fashionista.com June 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ "And the 2014 CFDA Fashion Awards Winners are…". cfda.com June 3, 2014.
Further reading
Olsen, Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen, with Damon Romine. Mary-Kate and Ashley: Our Story: Mary-Kate & Ashley Olsen's Official Biography. HarperEntertainment 2000. ISBN 0-06-107569-8.
Tracy, Kathleen. Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen. Mitchell Lane Publishers, 2003. ISBN 1-58415-256-7.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen
Dualstar Entertainment Group Corporate Website
Ashley Olsen on IMDb
Mary-Kate Olsen on IMDb
Mary-Kate Olsen & Ashley Fuller Olsen at the Fashion Model Directory
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