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Essential amino acid
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See also: Protein (nutrient)
An essential amino acid, or indispensable amino acid, is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo (from scratch) by the organism, and thus must be supplied in its diet. The nine amino acids humans cannot synthesize are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine.[1][2]
Six other amino acids are considered conditionally essential in the human diet, meaning their synthesis can be limited under special pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant or individuals in severe catabolic distress.[2] These six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline, and tyrosine. Five amino acids are dispensable in humans, meaning they can be synthesized in sufficient quantities in the body. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and serine.[2]
Contents
1 Essentiality in humans
2 Recommended daily intake
2.1 Relative amino acid composition of protein sources
2.2 Protein per calorie
3 Complete proteins in non-human animals
4 Interchangeability
5 Effects of deficiency
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Essentiality in humans[edit]
Essential
Conditionally essential[3][4]
Non-essential
Histidine (H) Arginine (R) Alanine (A)
Isoleucine (I) Cysteine (C) Aspartic acid (D)
Leucine (L) Glutamine (Q) Asparagine (N)
Lysine (K) Glycine (G) Glutamic acid (E)
Methionine (M) Proline (P) Serine (S)
Phenylalanine (F) Tyrosine (Y) Selenocysteine (U)
Threonine (T) Pyrrolysine* (O)
Tryptophan (W)
Valine (V)
(*) Pyrrolysine, sometimes considered the "22nd amino acid", is not used by humans.[5]
Eukaryotes can synthesize some of the amino acids from other substrates. Consequently, only a subset of the amino acids used in protein synthesis are essential nutrients.
Recommended daily intake[edit]
Main article: Protein (nutrient)
Estimating the daily requirement for the indispensable amino acids has proven to be difficult; these numbers have undergone considerable revision over the last 20 years. The following table lists the WHO and United States recommended daily amounts currently in use for essential amino acids in adult humans, together with their standard one-letter abbreviations.[6][7]
Amino acid(s)
WHO mg per kg body weight
WHO mg per 70 kg
US mg per kg body weight
H Histidine 10 700 14
I Isoleucine 20 1400 19
L Leucine 39 2730 42
K Lysine 30 2100 38
M Methionine
+ C Cysteine
10.4 + 4.1 (15 total) 1050 total 19 total
F Phenylalanine
+ Y Tyrosine
25 (total) 1750 total 33 total
T Threonine 15 1050 20
W Tryptophan 4 280 5
V Valine 26 1820 24
The recommended daily intakes for children aged three years and older is 10% to 20% higher than adult levels and those for infants can be as much as 150% higher in the first year of life. Cysteine (or sulfur-containing amino acids), tyrosine (or aromatic amino acids), and arginine are always required by infants and growing children.[6][8]
Relative amino acid composition of protein sources[edit]
Main article: Protein quality
Various attempts have been made to express the "quality" or "value" of various kinds of protein. Measures include the biological value, net protein utilization, protein efficiency ratio, protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score and complete proteins concept. These concepts are important in the livestock industry, because the relative lack of one or more of the essential amino acids in animal feeds would have a limiting effect on growth and thus on feed conversion ratio. Thus, various feedstuffs may be fed in combination to increase net protein utilization, or a supplement of an individual amino acid (methionine, lysine, threonine, or tryptophan) can be added to the feed.
Although plants tend to have less protein per weight than animal sources such as eggs or milk, they are nevertheless "complete" in that, as a whole, they contain all of the amino acids essential in human nutrition.[9] The same is true for algae and marine phytoplankton. Eating various plant foods in combination can provide a protein of higher biological value.[10] Certain native combinations of foods, such as corn and beans, soybeans and rice, or red beans and rice, contain the essential amino acids necessary for humans in adequate amounts.[11]
Protein per calorie[edit]
Protein content in foods is often measured in protein per serving rather than protein per calorie. For instance, the USDA lists 6 grams of protein per large whole egg (a 50-gram serving) rather than 84 mg of protein per calorie (71 calories total).[12] For comparison, there are 3 grams of protein in a serving of raw broccoli (91 grams) or 96 mg of protein per calorie (31 calories total). An egg contains twice as much protein per serving, but 12 mg less protein per calorie. The ratio of essential amino acids (the quality of protein) is not taken into account. It can be shown that common vegetable sources contain adequate protein, often more protein per calorie than the standard reference, whole raw egg, while other plant sources, particularly fruits contain less. It is recommended that adult humans obtain 10–35% of their calories as protein, or roughly 11–39 mg of protein per cal per day (22–78 g for 2000 cal).[13] A carrot has 23 mg protein per cal or twice the minimum recommendation, a banana meets the minimum, and an apple is below recommendation.[14]
Complete proteins in non-human animals[edit]
Scientists had known since the early 20th century that rats could not survive on a diet whose only protein source was zein, which comes from maize (corn), but recovered if they were fed casein from cow's milk. This led William Cumming Rose to the discovery of the essential amino acid threonine.[15] Through manipulation of rodent diets, Rose was able to show that ten amino acids are essential for rats: lysine, tryptophan, histidine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, valine, and arginine, in addition to threonine. Rose's later work showed that eight amino acids are essential for adult human beings, with histidine also being essential for infants. Longer term studies established histidine as also essential for adult humans.[16]
Interchangeability[edit]
The distinction between essential and non-essential amino acids is somewhat unclear, as some amino acids can be produced from others. The sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and homocysteine, can be converted into each other but neither can be synthesized de novo in humans. Likewise, cysteine can be made from homocysteine but cannot be synthesized on its own. So, for convenience, sulfur-containing amino acids are sometimes considered a single pool of nutritionally equivalent amino acids as are the aromatic amino acid pair, phenylalanine and tyrosine. Likewise arginine, ornithine, and citrulline, which are interconvertible by the urea cycle, are considered a single group.[citation needed]
Effects of deficiency[edit]
Main article: Protein-energy malnutrition
If one of the essential amino acids is less than needed for an individual the utilization of other amino acids will be hindered and thus protein synthesis will be less than what it usually is, even in the presence of adequate total nitrogen intake.[2]
Protein deficiency has been shown to affect all of the body's organs and many of its systems, including the brain and brain function of infants and young children; the immune system, thus elevating risk of infection; gut mucosal function and permeability, which affects absorption and vulnerability to systemic disease; and kidney function.[2] The physical signs of protein deficiency include edema, failure to thrive in infants and children, poor musculature, dull skin, and thin and fragile hair. Biochemical changes reflecting protein deficiency include low serum albumin and low serum transferrin.[2]
The amino acids that are essential in the human diet were established in a series of experiments led by William Cumming Rose. The experiments involved elemental diets to healthy male graduate students. These diets consisted of cornstarch, sucrose, butterfat without protein, corn oil, inorganic salts, the known vitamins, a large brown "candy" made of liver extract flavored with peppermint oil (to supply any unknown vitamins), and mixtures of highly purified individual amino acids. The main outcome measure was nitrogen balance. Rose noted that the symptoms of nervousness, exhaustion, and dizziness were encountered to a greater or lesser extent whenever human subjects were deprived of an essential amino acid.[17]
Essential amino acid deficiency should be distinguished from protein-energy malnutrition, which can manifest as marasmus or kwashiorkor. Kwashiorkor was once attributed to pure protein deficiency in individuals who were consuming enough calories ("sugar baby syndrome"). However, this theory has been challenged by the finding that there is no difference in the diets of children developing marasmus as opposed to kwashiorkor.[18] Still, for instance in Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) maintained by the USDA, lack of one or more of the essential amino acids is described as protein-energy malnutrition.[2]
See also[edit]
Biological Value (BV)
Edible protein per unit area of land
Essential fatty acid
Essential genes
List of standard amino acids
Low-protein diet
Orthomolecular medicine
Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score
Ketogenic amino acid
Glucogenic amino acid
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Young VR (1994). "Adult amino acid requirements: the case for a major revision in current recommendations" (PDF). J. Nutr. 124 (8 Suppl): 1517S–1523S. PMID 8064412.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements Archived 5 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine.. Institute of Medicine's Food and Nutrition Board. usda.gov
Jump up ^ Fürst P, Stehle P (1 June 2004). "What are the essential elements needed for the determination of amino acid requirements in humans?". Journal of Nutrition. 134 (6 Suppl): 1558S–1565S. PMID 15173430.
Jump up ^ Reeds PJ (1 July 2000). "Dispensable and indispensable amino acids for humans". J. Nutr. 130 (7): 1835S–40S. PMID 10867060.
Jump up ^ Richard Cammack. "Newsletter 2009, Biochemical Nomenclature Committee of IUPAC and NC-IUBMB".
^ Jump up to: a b FAO/WHO/UNU (2007). "PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID REQUIREMENTS IN HUMAN NUTRITION" (PDF). WHO Press. , page 150
Jump up ^ Institute of Medicine (2002). "Protein and Amino Acids". Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrates, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. pp. 589–768.
Jump up ^ Imura K, Okada A (1998). "Amino acid metabolism in pediatric patients". Nutrition. 14 (1): 143–8. doi:10.1016/S0899-9007(97)00230-X. PMID 9437700.
Jump up ^ McDougall J. Plant foods have a complete amino acid composition. Circulation. 2002;105(25):e197
Jump up ^ Woolf, P. J.; Fu, L. L.; Basu, A. (2011). Haslam, Niall James, ed. "VProtein: Identifying Optimal Amino Acid Complements from Plant-Based Foods". PLoS ONE. 6 (4): e18836. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018836. PMC 3081312. PMID 21526128.
Jump up ^ Essential Amino Acids. phy-astr.gsu.edu: "Tillery points out that a number of popular ethnic foods involve such a combination, so that in a single dish, one might hope to get the ten essential amino acids. Mexican corn and beans, Japanese rice and soybeans, and Cajun red beans and rice are examples of such fortuitous combinations."
Jump up ^ SDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference (Release 21 ed.). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2008.
Jump up ^ "Web MD Protein: Are You Getting Enough?". webmd.com. 2014-09-05. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
Jump up ^ "USDA National Nutrient Database". USDA.gov. 2015-03-31. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
Jump up ^ Rose WC, Haines WJ, Warner DT, Johnson JE (1951). "The amino acid requirements of man. II. The role of threonine and histidine". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 188 (1): 49–58. PMID 14814112.
Jump up ^ Kopple JD, Swendseid ME (May 1975). "Evidence that histidine is an essential amino acid in normal and chronically uremic man". J Clin Invest. 55 (5): 881–891. doi:10.1172/JCI108016. PMC 301830. PMID 1123426.
Jump up ^ Rose, WC; Haines, WJ; Warner, DT (1951). "The amino acid requirements of man. III. The role of isoleucine; additional evidence concerning histidine" (PDF). J Biol Chem. 193 (2): 605–612. PMID 14907749. Retrieved 15 Dec 2012.
Jump up ^ Ahmed T, Rahman S, Cravioto A (2009). "Oedematous malnutrition". The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 130 (5): 651–4. PMID 20090122.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Essential amino acids.
Amino acid content of some vegetarian foods at veganhealth.org.
Amino Acid Profiles of Some Common Feeds at Virginia Tech.
Molecular Expressions: The Amino Acid Collection at Florida State University. Features detailed information and crystal photographs of each amino acid.
vProtein, an online software tool to analyze the essential amino acid profiles of single and pairs of plant based foods based on human requirements.
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Encoded (proteinogenic) amino acids
General topics
Protein
Peptide
Genetic code
By properties
Aliphatic
Branched-chain amino acids (Valine
Isoleucine
Leucine)
Methionine
Alanine
Proline
Glycine
Aromatic
Phenylalanine
Tyrosine
Tryptophan
Histidine
Polar, uncharged
Asparagine
Glutamine
Serine
Threonine
Positive charge (pKa)
Lysine (≈10.8)
Arginine (≈12.5)
Histidine (≈6.1)
Negative charge (pKa)
Aspartic acid (≈3.9)
Glutamic acid (≈4.1)
Cysteine (≈8.3)
Tyrosine (≈10.1)
Amino acids types: Encoded (proteins)
Essential
Non-proteinogenic
Ketogenic
Glucogenic
Imino acids
D-amino acids
Dehydroamino acids
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text:
History of New York City (prehistory–1664)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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History of New York City
Lenape and New Netherland, to 1664
New Amsterdam
British and Revolution, 1665–1783
Federal and early American, 1784–1854
Tammany and Consolidation, 1855–1897
(Civil War, 1861–1865)
Early 20th century, 1898–1945
Post–World War II, 1946–1977
Modern and post-9/11, 1978–
See also
Timelines: NYC • Bronx • Brooklyn • Queens • Staten Island
Category
v
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The history of New York City has been influenced by the prehistoric geological formation during the last glacial period of the territory that is today New York City. The area was long inhabited by the Lenape; after initial European exploration in the 16th century, the Dutch established New Amsterdam in 1626. In 1664, the English conquered the area and renamed it New York.
Contents
[hide]
1 Human prehistory
2 Dutch settlement
3 Arrival of the English
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Human prehistory[edit]
Archaeological excavations indicate that the first humans settled the area as early as 9,000 years ago. The area was abandoned, however, possibly because the warming climate of the region lead to the local extinction of many larger game species upon which the early inhabitants depended for food.
A second wave of inhabitants entered the region approximately 3,000 years ago and left behind more advanced hunting implements such as bows and arrows. The remains of approximately 8,000 such early encampments have been found throughout the city. The region has probably remained continually inhabited from that time.
By the time of the arrival of Europeans, the Lenape were cultivating fields of vegetation through the slash and burn technique.[1][2][3][4][5][6] This extended the productive life of planted fields. They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bays of the area,[7] and, in southern New Jersey, harvested clams year-round.[8] The success of these methods allowed the tribe to maintain a larger population than nomadic hunter-gatherers could support. Scholars have estimated that at the time of European settlement, there may have been about 15,000 Lenape total in approximately 80 settlement sites around much of the New York City area, alone.[9]:5-6 In 1524 Lenape in canoes met Giovanni da Verrazzano, the first European explorer to enter New York Harbor, who called the area New Angoulême to honor his patron, King Francis I of France.[10]
Dutch settlement[edit]
Main article: New Amsterdam
In 1613, the Dutch established a trading post on the western shore of Manhattan Island. Jan Rodrigues was the first documented non-Native American to live on Manhattan Island.[11]
In 1614 the New Netherland company was established, and consequently they settled a second fur trading post in what is today Albany, called Fort Nassau. It was not until 1623, however, that the Dutch interests in the area were other than commercial, and under the auspices of the newly formed Dutch West India Company they built Fort Amsterdam in 1624, a crude fortification that stood on the location of the present Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House on Bowling Green. The fort was designed mainly to protect the company's trading operations further upriver from attack by other European powers. Within a year, a small settlement, called New Amsterdam had grown around the fort, with a population that included mostly the garrison of company troops, as well as a contingent of Walloon, French and Flemish huguenot families who were brought in primarily to farm the nearby land of lower Manhattan and supply the company operations with food. Sarah Rapalje (b.1625) was the first European born in the future New York City. Later in 1626, Peter Minuit purchased Manhattan Island and Staten Island from native people in exchange for trade goods.[12]
The Dutch took heavy advantage of the Native American reliance on wampum as a trading medium by exchanging cheap European-made metal tools for beaver pelts. By using such tools, the natives greatly increased the rate of production of wampum, debasing its value for trade. Lenape men abandoned hunting and fishing for food in favor of beaver trapping. Moreover, the Dutch began manufacturing their own wampum with superior tools in order to further dominate the trading network among themselves and the natives (a practice undertaken by the settlers in New England as well). As a result of this increase, beavers were largely trapped out in the Five Boroughs within two decades, leaving the Lenape largely dependent on the Dutch. As a result, the native population declined drastically throughout the 17th century through a combination of disease, starvation, and outward migration.
As the beaver trade shifted to Upstate New York, New Amsterdam became an increasingly important trading hub for the coast of North America. Since New Netherland was a trading operation and not viewed as colonization enterprise for transplanting Dutch culture, the directors of New Netherland were largely unconcerned with the ethnic and racial balance of the community. The economic activity brought in a wide variety of ethnic groups to the fledgling city during the 17th century, including Spanish, Jews, and Africans, some of them as slaves.
Stadt Huys
The Dutch origins can still be seen in many names in New York City, such as Coney Island (from "Konijnen Eiland" – Dutch for "Rabbit Island"), Bowery from bouwerij (modern Dutch boerderij = "farm"), Brooklyn (from Breukelen), Harlem from Haarlem (formalized in 1658 as Nieuw Haarlem), Greenwich Village (from Greenwijck, meaning "pine wood quarter"), Flushing (from Vlissingen) and Staten Island (from "Staaten Eylandt").
Willem Kieft became director general in 1638 but five years later was embroiled in Kieft's War against the Native Americans.[13] The Pavonia Massacre, across the Hudson River in present-day Jersey City resulted in the death of eighty natives in February 1643. Following the massacre, eleven Algonquian tribes joined forces and nearly defeated the Dutch. Holland sent additional forces to the aid of Kieft, which took part in the overwhelming defeat of the Native Americans, leading to a peace treaty on August 29, 1645, to end the war.[14]
Manhattan Island was in some measure self-selected as a future metropolis by its extraordinary natural harbor formed by New York Bay (actually the drowned lower river valley of the Hudson River, enclosed by glacial moraines), the East River (actually a tidal strait) and the Hudson River, all of which are confluent at the southern tip, from which all later development spread. Also of prime importance was the presence of deep fresh water aquifers near the southern tip, especially the Collect Pond, and an unusually varied geography ranging from marshland to large outcrops of Manhattan schist, a hard metamorphic rock that is ideal for foundations of large buildings.
The Fall of New Amsterdam
Arrival of the English[edit]
In 1664, English ships entered Gravesend Bay in modern Brooklyn, and troops marched to capture the ferry across the East River to the city, with minimal resistance: the governor at the time, Peter Stuyvesant, was unpopular with the residents of the city. Articles of Capitulation 1664 were drawn up, the Dutch West India Company's colors were struck on September 8, 1664, and the soldiers of the garrison marched to the East River for the trip home to the Netherlands. The date of 1664 appeared on New York City's corporate seal until 1975, when the date was changed to 1625 to reflect the year of Dutch incorporation as a city and to incidentally allow New York to celebrate its 350th anniversary just 11 years after its 300th.
The English renamed the colony New York, after the king's brother James, Duke of York and on June 12, 1665, appointed Thomas Willett the first of the mayors of New York. The city grew northward, remaining the largest and most important city in the colony of New York.
See also[edit]
History of New York City (1665–1783)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Stevenson W. Fletcher, Pennsylvania Agriculture and Country Life 1640–1840 (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1950), 2, 35–37, 63–65, 124.
Jump up ^ Day, Gordon M. “The Indian as an Ecological Factor in the Northeastern Forests.” Ecology, Vol. 34, #2 (April): 329–346. New England and New York Areas 1580–1800. Notes that the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe in New Jersey and the Massachuset tribe in Massachusetts used fire in ecosystems.1953
Jump up ^ Russell, Emily W.B. Vegetational Change in Northern New Jersey Since 1500 A.D.: A Palynological, Vegetational and Historical Synthesis Ph.D. dissertation. New Brunswick, PA: Rutgers University. Author notes on page 8 that Indians often augmented lightning fires. 1979
Jump up ^ Russell, Emily W.B. "Indian Set Fires in the Forests of the Northeastern United States." Ecology, Vol. 64, #1 (Feb): 78 88. 1983a Author found no strong evidence that Indians purposely burned large areas, but they did burn small areas near their habitation sites. Noted that the Lenna Lenape Tribe used fire.
Jump up ^ A Brief Description of New York, Formerly Called New Netherlands with the Places Thereunto Adjoining, Likewise a Brief Relation of the Customs of the Indians There, New York, NY: William Gowans. 1670. Reprinted in 1937 by the Facsimile Text Society, Columbia University Press, New York. Notes that the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe in New Jersey used fire in ecosystems.
Jump up ^ Smithsonian Institution—Handbook of North American Indians series: Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 15—Northeast. Bruce G. Trigger (volume editor). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. 1978 References to Indian burning for the Eastern Algonquians, Virginia Algonquians, Northern Iroquois, Huron, Mahican, and Delaware Tribes and peoples.
Jump up ^ Mark Kurlansky, 2006[page needed]
Jump up ^ Dreibelbis, 1978[page needed]
Jump up ^ Burrows, Edwin G.; Wallace, Mike (1998). Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199729104.
Jump up ^ Koussa, Nicolas (12 April 2016). "Quand New York s’appelait Angoulême : une conférence le 21 avril" (in French). French Morning. Retrieved 12 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Paumgarten, Nick (2009-08-31). "Useless Beauty: What is to be done with Governors Island?". The New Yorker (LXXXV, No 26 ed.). p. 56. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Letter of Pieter Schaghen (not Peter Schaghen) from Dutch National Archive, The Hague, with transcription
Jump up ^ "Journal of New Netherland 1647. Written in the Years 1641, 1642, 1643, 1644, 1645, and 1646". World Digital Library. 1641–1647. Retrieved 2013-08-01.
Jump up ^ Ellis, Edward Robb (1966). The Epic of New York City. Old Town Books. pp. 37–40.
References[edit]
Bridenbaugh, Carl. Cities in the Wilderness-The First Century of Urban Life in America 1625-1742 (1938) online edition
Morison, Samuel Eliot (1972) [1965]. "From the Hudson to the James 1626–1675: 1. New Netherland and New York". The Oxford History of the American People: Prehistory to 1789. New York: New American Library.
Hunter, Douglas (2009). Half Moon: Henry Hudson and the Voyage That Redrew the Map of the New World. New York: Bloomsbury Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-1-59691-680-7. HENRY HUDSON'S PRECISE WHEREABOUTS in his first week in the vicinity of present-day New York have long caused debate and disagreement. A major challenge in deciphering the events of the Half Moon voyage is the fact that the geographic tableau has changed enormously in four centuries
Further reading[edit]
Jackson, Kenneth T. and David S. Dunbar, eds. Empire City: New York Through the Centuries (2005), 1015 pages of excerpts excerpt
Stokes, I.N. Phelps. The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498-1909 compiled from original sources and illustrated by photo-intaglio reproductions of important maps plans views and documents in public and private collections (6 vols., 1915–28). A highly detailed, heavily illustrated chronology of Manhattan and New York City. see The Iconography of Manhattan Island All volumes are on line free at:
I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 1. 1915 v. 1. The period of discovery (1524-1609); the Dutch period (1609-1664). The English period (1664-1763). The Revolutionary period (1763-1783). Period of adjustment and reconstruction; New York as the state and federal capital (1783-1811)
I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 2. 1916 v. 2. Cartography: an essay on the development of knowledge regarding the geography of the east coast of North America; Manhattan Island and its environs on early maps and charts / by F.C. Wieder and I.N. Phelps Stokes. The Manatus maps. The Castello plan. The Dutch grants. Early New York newspapers (1725-1811). Plan of Manhattan Island in 1908
I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 3. 1918 v. 3. The War of 1812 (1812-1815). Period of invention, prosperity, and progress (1815-1841). Period of industrial and educational development (1842-1860). The Civil War (1861-1865); period of political and social development (1865-1876). The modern city and island (1876-1909)
I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 4. 1922; v. 4. The period of discovery (565-1626); the Dutch period (1626-1664). The English period (1664-1763). The Revolutionary period, part I (1763-1776)
I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 5. 1926; v. 5. The Revolutionary period, part II (1776-1783). Period of adjustment and reconstruction New York as the state and federal capital (1783-1811). The War of 1812 (1812-1815) ; period of invention, prosperity, and progress (1815-1841). Period of industrial and educational development (1842-1860). The Civil War (1861-1865) ; Period of political and social development (1865-1876). The modern city and island (1876-1909)
I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 6. 1928; v. 6. Chronology: addenda. Original grants and farms. Bibliography. Index.
External links[edit]
New York and its origins. Legend and Reality (about the Walloon contributions to the founding of New York City)
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