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Best practice
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A best practice is a method or technique that has been generally accepted as superior to any alternatives because it produces results that are superior to those achieved by other means or because it has become a standard way of doing things, e.g., a standard way of complying with legal or ethical requirements.
Best practices are used to maintain quality as an alternative to mandatory legislated standards and can be based on self-assessment or benchmarking.[1] Best practice is a feature of accredited management standards such as ISO 9000 and ISO 14001.[2]
Some consulting firms specialize in the area of best practice and offer pre-made templates to standardize business process documentation. Sometimes a best practice is not applicable or is inappropriate for a particular organization's needs. A key strategic talent required when applying best practice to organizations is the ability to balance the unique qualities of an organization with the practices that it has in common with others.
Good operating practice is a strategic management term. More specific uses of the term include good agricultural practices, good manufacturing practice, good laboratory practice, good clinical practice and good distribution practice.
Contents
[hide]
1 In public policy
1.1 Develop realistic expectations
1.2 Analyze smart practices
1.3 Observe the practice
1.4 Describe generic vulnerabilities
1.5 But will it work here?
1.6 Back to the eightfold path
1.7 Methodology according to Bretschneider et al.
1.8 Examples
2 Use in health and human services
3 In action
3.1 Clean air financing programs
3.2 Environmental management
3.3 Higher education
3.4 Health and human services
3.5 Charity/nonprofit sector
4 Other domains
5 Critique
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
In public policy[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Best practice is a form of program evaluation in public policy. It is the process of reviewing policy alternatives that have been effective in addressing similar issues in the past and could be applied to a current problem. Determining best practices to address a particular policy problem is a commonly used but little understood tool of analysis because the concept is vague and should therefore be examined with caution. Vagueness stems from the term "best" which is subjective. While some research and evidence must go into determining a practice the "best" it is more helpful to simply determine if a practice has worked exceptionally well and why. Instead of it being "the best", a practice might simply be a smart practice, a good practice, or a promising practice. This allows for a mix and match approach for making recommendations that might encompass pieces of many good practices.
Eugene Bardach provides the following theoretical framework in his book A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis, Eightfold Path (policy analysis) for best practices:
Develop realistic expectations[edit]
Bardach advises the policy analyst to maintain realistic expectations when seeking a best practice in public policy analysis, because the practice may not be solving the problem at all and it may instead produce unfavorable results. Because a practice seems to be tailored to a specific policy problem and also based on solid research, it does not necessarily mean it is creating good results. However, the research can produce thought-provoking concepts on what can and can not work when put into practice.
Analyze smart practices[edit]
In policy analysis, a best practice is a clear and concrete behavior that solves a problem or achieves a goal. Smart practices take advantage of an idle opportunity at a low cost and little risk. Bardach refers to this as finding the free lunches. These are opportunities for creative policy improvements such as cost-based pricing or input substitution that have the possibility to generate public value at a very low cost.
Breaking loose from conventions and challenging assumptions can also be way to take advantage of an idle opportunity. An example of this is the highly controversial practice of the government contracting out a community good or service to nonprofits or the private sector. This challenges the assumption that a community good or service must be financed through taxation and delivered by government employees.
Observe the practice[edit]
The primary mechanism in a smart practice is the ability or the means of achieving a goal in a cost-effective manner. The secondary mechanisms include implementing features, supportive features and optional features. It can be very complicated to separate between the functions in getting the mechanism to work and the features that support those functions.
Bardach recommends when adapting smart practices for another source, it is important to identify the core essence of the practice while allowing flexibility for how it is implemented so it remains sensitive to local conditions. Robust smart practices are adaptable to various conditions, have many operational features, and can employ similar but diverse ways to achieve their goals.
Describe generic vulnerabilities[edit]
In addition to the reasons why a smart practice might succeed, an analyst should describe potential vulnerabilities that could lead a smart practice to fail—these weaknesses are generic vulnerabilities. Two types of vulnerabilities are worth particular attention: 1) poor general management capacity, which makes it more difficult to effectively implement a smart practice, and 2) weaknesses inherent to the practice itself. Policymakers must develop safeguards in order to minimize the risk of generic vulnerabilities.
But will it work here?[edit]
The final step in identifying an appropriate best practice for a policy problem is to ensure that the context from which the practice is derived is comparable to the context in which it will be applied. Risks to implementing the selected best practice in the applied context as well as what support structures can be put in place need to be anticipated in order to maximize the likelihood of success. If utilizing a pilot or demonstration program "best practice" the success of that practice needs to be discounted in order to account for the better than average favorable conditions pilot and demonstration programs usually operate under. These conditions include increased enthusiasm, advantageous political and economic conditions, and less bureaucratic resistance due to the lack of permanency in pilot programs. Finally, when considering implementing a "best practice" on a wide scale one must be aware of the weakest link sites with minimal to no resources and how those sites will be supported in order to create the desired policy outcomes.
Back to the eightfold path[edit]
Excessive optimism about the expected impact of untested smart practices is a common critique. If a current practice is known to be ineffective, implementing a promising alternative after weighing the alternatives may be worth the risk.[3]
Methodology according to Bretschneider et al.[edit]
Bretschneider et al.[4] offers an alternate methodology for Best Practices research . Bretschneider's approach is much more technical than Bardach's, and explores issues of completeness and comparability. He addresses the fact that fully establishing whether a practice is truly a best practice would require assessment in all contexts, while in practice, only example cases are analyzed. Bretschneider also stresses the fact that in order for something to be considered a "best practice" it must be arrived at through a comparative process between methodologies. In order for a BPA (as defined by Bretschneider) to be valid, it must take into account all relevant approaches, since neglecting to do so would lead to inappropriate usage of the term "best." Comparing sample practices may yield a good practice, but may also be altogether unreliable, depending on how the sample was selected.
Examples[edit]
There are many examples of the use of best/smart practice evaluations in Public Policy.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) produces a document called The Clean Energy-Environment Guide to Action.[5] It is designed to share successful state best practices to determine what is most suitable for them to use in generating clean energy policies and programs. The guide includes 16 clean energy policies and programs that offer opportunities for states to save energy, improve air quality, lower greenhouse gas emission and increase economic development.
An example of a successful best practice from the guide is building codes for energy efficiency. This practice is to use building energy codes to set requirements that establish a minimum level of energy efficiency standards for residential and commercial buildings. California Energy Code Title 24 is one "best practice" that is highlighted in this guide. The following points for energy code implementation is to educate and train key audiences, supply the right resources, and to provide budget and staff for the program.
Eugene Bardach has a list of smart practice candidates in his book A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis, Eightfold Path (policy analysis). One example is the tutoring program for children in grades 1-3 called Reading One-to-One. The program from Texas includes one on one tutoring with supervision and simple structured instruction in phonemic awareness. Phonemic awareness is one highly regarded predictor of how well a child will learn to read in the first two years of school.[6] The program takes advantage of the fact that many children, especially ESL students, fail in reading because it is very hard for second language students to understand and pronounce sounds in English. The program is easily duplicated at a relatively low cost because of the straight forward teaching materials, systematic methods and administrative oversight.
In September 2013 at the New York State Conference for Mayors and Municipal Officials,[7] successes, ideas and information on best practices were shared among government peers. A best practice that was highlighted at the conference was how Salinas, California is rebuilding their economy by engaging technology companies with their agricultural business in order to grow jobs.[8] Salinas is taking advantage of an idle opportunity. The area already has abundant lettuce fields and now the city is marketing itself as a lab for agricultural technology. This public/private partnership includes a new nonprofit called the Steinbeck Innovation Foundation to increase investment in new technologies to help the area's agricultural industry.
Use in health and human services[edit]
In recent years, public agencies and non-governmental organizations have been exploring and adopting best practices when delivering health and human services. In these settings, the use of the terms "promising practices", "best practices", and "evidence-based practices" is common and often confusing as there is not a general consensus on what constitutes promising practices or best practices. In this context, the use of the terms "best practices" and "evidence-based practices" are often used interchangeably. Evidence-based practices are methods or techniques that have documented outcomes and ability to replicate as key factors.
Despite these challenges, the literature suggests that there is some common use of and criteria for identifying best practices. For example, a general working definition used by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) in referring to a promising practice is defined as one with at least preliminary evidence of effectiveness in small-scale interventions or for which there is potential for generating data that will be useful for making decisions about taking the intervention to scale and generalizing the results to diverse populations and settings.[9]
Since evidence of effectiveness, the potential for taking the intervention to scale and generalizing the results to other populations and settings are key factors for best practices, the manner in which a method or intervention becomes a best practice can take some time and effort. The table below demonstrates the process for a promising practice to achieve the status of research-validated best practice.[10]
Research Validated Best Practice A program, activity or strategy that has the highest degree of proven effectiveness supported by objective and comprehensive research and evaluation.
Field Tested Best Practice A program, activity or strategy that has been shown to work effectively and produce successful outcomes and is supported to some degree by subjective and objective data sources.
Promising Practice A program, activity or strategy that has worked within one organization and shows promise during its early stages for becoming a best practice with long-term sustainable impact. A promising practice must have some objective basis for claiming effectiveness and must have the potential for replication among other organizations.
The National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs and Practices (NREPP) is a searchable online registry of interventions supporting substance abuse prevention and mental health treatment that has been reviewed and rated by independent reviewers.[11] NREPP accepts submissions for interventions that meet minimum requirements to be considered for review. Minimum requirements include (1) demonstration of one or more positive outcomes among individuals, communities, or populations; (2) evidence of these outcomes has been demonstrated in at least one study using an experimental or quasi-experimental design; (3) the results of these studies have been published in a peer-reviewed journal or other professional publication, or documented in a comprehensive evaluation report; and (4) implementation materials, training and support resources, and quality assurance procedures have been developed and are ready for use by the public. NREPP is not an exhaustive list of interventions and inclusion in the registry does not constitute an endorsement.[12]
There is existing controversy about the lack of culturally appropriate evidence-based best practices and the need to utilize a research-based approach to validate interventions. Some communities have deployed practices over a long period of time that has produced positive outcomes as well as a general community consensus to be successful. The California Reducing Disparities Project (CRDP) is working to identify such practices.[13] CRDP intends to improve access, quality of care, and increase positive outcomes for racial, ethnic and cultural communities. These communities have been identified as (1) African American, (2) Asian/Pacific Islanders, (3) Latinos, (4) lesbian, gay, bi-sexual, transgender, questioning, and (5) Native Americans. Strategic Planning Workgroups composed of mental health providers and community members as well as consumers and family members are given the task of identifying new approaches toward reducing disparities. The five Strategic Planning Workgroups work to identify new service delivery approaches defined by multicultural communities for multicultural communities using community-defined evidence to improve outcomes and reduce disparities. Community- defined evidence is defined as “a set of practices that communities have used and determined to yield positive results as determined by community consensus over time and which may or may not have been measured empirically but have reached a level of acceptance by the community.”[14]
In action[edit]
Clean air financing programs[edit]
Financing Clean Air Programs, and example taken from NGA[15]
This is a quick guide put together by the NGA Center for Best Practices. It explores what clean air programs currently exist and how they are being financed. Rather than stating one best practice to tackling clean air, this report creates a table of the different programs, how they are being financed, and in what state. Governors and their staffs can then look for characteristics and solutions that are most realistic and applicable to their situation. The key is to tailor current practices that are in the world to the specific situation you are looking to solve. Best practices are meant to give insight into existing strategies.
Environmental management[edit]
See also: Best management practice for water pollution
The concept of best practice has been employed extensively in environmental management. For example, it has been employed in aquaculture such as recommending low-phosphorus feed ingredients,[16] in forestry to manage riparian buffer zones,[17] in livestock and pasture management to regulate stocking rates,[18] and in particular, best management practices have been important to improving water quality relating to nonpoint source pollution of fertilizers in agriculture[19] as well as the identification and adoption of best practice for controlling salinity.[20] However, in the context of complex environmental problems such as dryland salinity, there are significant challenges in defining what is best in any given context. Best management practice for complex problems is context specific and often contested against a background of imperfect knowledge. In these contexts, it is more useful to think of best management practice as an adaptive learning process rather than a fixed set of rules or guidelines. This approach to best practice focuses on fostering improvements in quality and promoting continuous learning.[21]
Higher education[edit]
STEM Program explanation is taken from Angela Baber's report to the NGA.[22]
The NGA has identified science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) as important skills that need to be developed in community colleges in order to create a strong workforce. Many states are creating or have created STEM Programs to address this issue. In order for these programs to work governors should:
"Engage business to help ensure that community colleges meet regional STEM-skill needs
Use community colleges to support new models of STEM education
Reward community colleges and students for STEM course-completion
Ensure that community colleges support more effective mathematics remediation
Require that community college STEM credits and credentials are transferable."[23]
Health and human services[edit]
The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) makes evidence-based recommendations on clinical preventive services. The Task Force recommendations are based on systematic reviews and assessment of the available medical evidence.
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2012)
The San Francisco Public Health Department[24] conducted The Transgender Best Practices Guide project, a best practices document for cultural and service competency in working with transgender clients within HIV/AIDS service- provision settings. Following an intensive literature search and consumer focus group, a Working Group composed of noted community leaders; activists, professionals, and transgender consumers participated in the development of the Best Practices guide. Topics covered by the Best Practices guide include mental health issues; gender identity; hormone use and clinical care practices. The Best Practices guide is currently in production; it will be published and distributed to EMA providers, as well as to select organizations nationwide. In addition, four large-scale EMA provider training will be provided to educate providers on the Best Practices recommendations and standard measures. This is the first national federally funded effort to develop a Best Practices guide for providers who serve the HIV positive transgender community.[25]
Charity/nonprofit sector[edit]
The nonprofit/voluntary sector is generally lacking tools for sharing and accessing best practices. Steps are being taken in some parts of the world, for example in the European Union, where the Europe 2020 Strategy has as a top priority the exchange of good practices and networking (including the nonprofit sector).[26]
An initiative of sharing good practices in terms of human resources (HR) and leadership among European nonprofit organizations was financed by the EU and launched in 2013, called HR Twinning.[27] The platform allows the public to search for good practices and its members the possibility to share their practices, engage in discussions in the forum section and enroll their organization. Membership is free. The project is currently limited to a European audience.
Other domains[edit]
Nearly every industry and professional discipline discusses best practices. Areas of note include information technology development (such as new software,) construction, transportation, business management, sustainable development and various aspects of project management. Best practices also occur in healthcare to deliver high-quality care that promotes best outcomes. Best practices are used within business areas including sales, manufacturing, teaching, computer programming, road construction, health care, insurance, telecommunication and public policy.
Critique[edit]
There are some criticisms of the term "best practice." Eugene Bardach claims that the work necessary to deem and practice the "best" is rarely done. Most of the time, one will find "good" practices or "smart" practices that offer insight into solutions that may or may not work for a given situation.[3]
Michael Quinn Patton jokes in his book about qualitative research and evaluation methods[28] "the only best practice in which I have complete confidence is avoiding the label 'best practice'" and elaborates further
"The allure and seduction of best-practice thinking poisons genuine dialogue about both what we know and the limitations of what we know. [...] That modeling of and nurturing deliberative, inclusive, and, yes, humble dialogue may make a greater contribution to societal welfare than the search for generalizable, "best-practice" findings – conclusions that risk becoming the latest rigid orthodoxies even as they are becoming outdated anyway."[28]
Quinn proposes avoiding asking or entertaining the question "Which is best?" and says that more nuanced questions related to conditions and contexts should be asked instead. He further suggests terms which "tend less toward overgeneralization" like better practices, effective practices, or promising practices.[28]
Scott Ambler challenges the assumptions that there can be a recommended practice that is best in all cases. Instead, he offers an alternative view, "contextual practice," in which the notion of what is "best" will vary with the context.[29] Similarly, Cem Kaner and James Bach provide two scenarios to illustrate the contextual nature of "best practice" in their article.[30] In essence, such critiques are consistent with the contingency theory, which was developed during the 1950s and 1960s.
See also[edit]
Anti-pattern – a commonly followed standard or practice which is in fact far from the best solution
Benchmarking
Best available technology
Best coding practices
Best current practice in engineering and information technology
Best management practice for water pollution
Best of all possible worlds
Business rule
Good clinical data management practice
GxP
Not invented here – conscious rejection of best practices originating elsewhere
Pre-assessment
Reinventing the wheel – solving a problem from scratch without regard to previous solutions by others
Standard of Good Practice
Strategic management
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bogan, C.E. & English, M.J. (1994). Bench marking for Best Practices: Winning Through Innovative Adaptation. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Jump up ^ Nash, Jennifer; Ehrenfeld, John (2010). "Code Green: Business Adopts Voluntary Environmental Standards". Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development. 38: 16. doi:10.1080/00139157.1996.9930973.
^ Jump up to: a b Bardach, Eugene (2011). A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem Solving. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 9781608718429.
Jump up ^ Bretschneider, S., Marc-Aurele, F.J., Jr., and Wu, J. (2005). "Best Practices" Research: A methodological guide for the perplexed, Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory (15)2:307-323.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-13. Retrieved 2013-09-29.
Jump up ^ http://www.colorincolorado.org/article/33830/
Jump up ^ http://www.nycom.org/
Jump up ^ http://blogs.kqed.org/newsfix/2013/09/27/to-create-jobs-a-city-becomes-an-investor/
Jump up ^ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families Program Announcement, 2003.
Jump up ^ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families Program Announcement. Federal Register, Vol. 68, No. 131, July 2003.
Jump up ^ http://nrepp.samhsa.gov
Jump up ^ National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs and Practices. Federal Register/Vol. 76, No. 180/Friday, September 16, 2011/Notices
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20111220092834/http://www.dmh.ca.gov/Multicultural_Services/CRDP.asp
Jump up ^ National Latina/o Psychological Association, Fall/Winter 2008, National Network to Eliminate Disparities in Behavioral Health, SAMHSA, and CMHS, Larke Nahme Huang, Ph.D
Jump up ^ "Clean Energy Financing". NGA Center for Best Practice. Archived from the original on 14 December 2011. Retrieved 22 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Macmillan, J.R., Huddleston, T., Woolley, M., and Fothergill, K., (2003) "Best management practice development to minimize environmental impact from large flow-through trout farms." Aquaculture 226, 91-99
Jump up ^ Broadmeadow, S. and Nisbet, T.R., (2004) "The effects of riparian forest management on the freshwater environment: a literature review of best management practice." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 8, 286-305
Jump up ^ Brannan, K.M., Mostaghimi, S., McClellan, P.W. and Inamdar, S., 2000: "Animal waste BMP impacts on sediment and nutrient losses in runoff from the Owl Run Watershed." Transactions of the ASAE 43, 1155-1166
Jump up ^ Gitau, M.W., Gburek, W.J., and Jarrett, A.R., (2005) "A tool for estimating best management practice effectiveness for phosphorus pollution control." Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 60, 1-10
Jump up ^ Hooper, B.P., 1995: "Adoption of best management practices for dryland salinity: the need for an integrated environmental management approach." Report prepared for the Murray-Darling Basin Commission. Centre for Water Policy Research University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W.
Jump up ^ Measham, T.G., Kelly, G.J. and Smith F.P. (2007) "Best Management Practice for complex problems: a case study of defining BMP for Dryland Salinity." Geographical Research 45 (3) pp. 262-272
Jump up ^ Angela Baber's report to the NGA
Jump up ^ Baber, Angela. "Using Community Colleges to Build a STEM-Skilled Workforce". NGA Center for Best Practices. Retrieved 22 September 2011.
Jump up ^ San Francisco Department of Public Health. Sfdph.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-12. Archived 2014-06-27 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ San Francisco Department of Public Health, Annual Report 2005–2006
Jump up ^ "Europe 2020 Civil Society". European Commission. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Improving nonprofit leadership and HR practices". Asociatia Young Initiative. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Patton, Michael Quinn (2015). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods (4 ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-4129-7212-3.
Jump up ^ Ambler, Scott. "Questioning "Best Practices" for Software Development". Retrieved 17 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Kaner, Cem. "The Seven Basic Principles of the Context-Driven School". Retrieved 17 November 2011.
External links[edit]
IETF Best Current Practice RFCs List - Internet Engineering Task Force
The National Governors Association Center for Best Practices. "NGA Center for Best Practice"
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Allegory of the Cave
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Plato's Allegory of the Cave by Jan Saenredam, according to Cornelis van Haarlem, 1604, Albertina, Vienna
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The Allegory of the Cave, or Plato's Cave, was presented by the Greek philosopher Plato in his work Republic (514a–520a) to compare "the effect of education (παιδεία) and the lack of it on our nature". It is written as a dialogue between Plato's brother Glaucon and his mentor Socrates, narrated by the latter. The allegory is presented after the analogy of the sun (508b–509c) and the analogy of the divided line (509d–511e). All three are characterized in relation to dialectic at the end of Books VII and VIII (531d–534e).
Plato has Socrates describe a group of people who have lived chained to the wall of a cave all of their lives, facing a blank wall. The people watch shadows projected on the wall from objects passing in front of a fire behind them, and give names to these shadows. The shadows are the prisoners' reality. Socrates explains how the philosopher is like a prisoner who is freed from the cave and comes to understand that the shadows on the wall are not reality at all, for he can perceive the true form of reality rather than the manufactured reality that is the shadows seen by the prisoners. The inmates of this place do not even desire to leave their prison, for they know no better life. The prisoners manage to break their bonds one day, and discover that their reality was not what they thought it was. They discovered the sun, which Plato uses as an analogy for the fire that man cannot see behind. Like the fire that cast light on the walls of the cave, the human condition is forever bound to the impressions that are received through the senses. Even if these interpretations (or, in Kantian terminology, intuitions) are an absurd misrepresentation of reality, we cannot somehow break free from the bonds of our human condition—we cannot free ourselves from phenomenal state just as the prisoners could not free themselves from their chains. If, however, we were to miraculously escape our bondage, we would find a world that we could not understand—the sun is incomprehensible for someone who has never seen it. In other words, we would encounter another "realm", a place incomprehensible because, theoretically, it is the source of a higher reality than the one we have always known; it is the realm of pure Form, pure fact.[1]
Socrates remarks that this allegory can be paired with previous writings, namely the analogy of the sun and the analogy of the divided line.
Contents
1 Terminology
2 Summary
2.1 Imprisonment in the cave
2.2 Departure from the cave
2.3 Return to the cave
3 Symbolism
4 Themes in the allegory appearing elsewhere in Plato's work
5 Scholarly discussion
6 Other scholarly literature
7 Influence
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Terminology[edit]
The allegory of the cave is also called the analogy of the cave, myth of the cave, metaphor of the cave, parable of the cave, and Plato's Cave.[2]
Summary[edit]
"Plato's Cave Allegory" by Markus Maurer
Imprisonment in the cave[edit]
Plato begins by having Socrates ask Glaucon to imagine a cave where people have been imprisoned from birth. These prisoners are chained so that their legs and necks are fixed, forcing them to gaze at the wall in front of them and not look around at the cave, each other, or themselves (514a–b).[3] Behind the prisoners is a fire, and between the fire and the prisoners is a raised walkway with a low wall, behind which people walk carrying objects or puppets "of men and other living things" (514b).[3] The people walk behind the wall so their bodies do not cast shadows for the prisoners to see, but the objects they carry do ("just as puppet showmen have screens in front of them at which they work their puppets" (514a)[3]). The prisoners cannot see any of what is happening behind them, they are only able to see the shadows cast upon the cave wall in front of them. The sounds of the people talking echo off the walls, and the prisoners believe these sounds come from the shadows (514c).[3]
Socrates suggests that the shadows are reality for the prisoners because they have never seen anything else; they do not realize that what they see are shadows of objects in front of a fire, much less that these objects are inspired by real things outside the cave which they do not see (514b-515a).[3]
Departure from the cave[edit]
Allegory of the Cave. Left (From top to bottom): Sun; Natural things; Shadows of natural things; Fire; Artificial objects; Shadows of artificial objects; Allegory level.
Right (From top to bottom): "Good" idea, Ideas, Mathematical objects, Light, Creatures and Objects, Image, Analogy of the Sun, and the Analogy of the Divided Line
Plato then supposes that one prisoner is freed. This prisoner would look around and see the fire. The light would hurt his eyes and make it difficult for him to see the objects casting the shadows. If he were told that what he is seeing is real instead of the other version of reality he sees on the wall, he would not believe it. In his pain, Plato continues, the freed prisoner would turn away and run back to what he is accustomed to (that is, the shadows of the carried objects). He writes "... it would hurt his eyes, and he would escape by turning away to the things which he was able to look at, and these he would believe to be clearer than what was being shown to him."[3]
Plato continues: "Suppose... that someone should drag him... by force, up the rough ascent, the steep way up, and never stop until he could drag him out into the light of the sun."[3] The prisoner would be angry and in pain, and this would only worsen when the radiant light of the sun overwhelms his eyes and blinds him.[3]
"Slowly, his eyes adjust to the light of the sun. First he can only see shadows. Gradually he can see the reflections of people and things in water and then later see the people and things themselves. Eventually, he is able to look at the stars and moon at night until finally he can look upon the sun itself (516a)."[3] Only after he can look straight at the sun "is he able to reason about it" and what it is (516b).[3] (See also Plato's Analogy of the Sun, which occurs near the end of The Republic, Book VI.[4])
Return to the cave[edit]
Plato continues, saying that the freed prisoner would think that the world outside the cave was superior to the world he experienced in the cave; "he would bless himself for the change, and pity [the other prisoners]" and would want to bring his fellow cave dwellers out of the cave and into the sunlight (516c).[3]
The returning prisoner, whose eyes have become accustomed to the sunlight, would be blind when he re-enters the cave, just as he was when he was first exposed to the sun (516e).[3] The prisoners, according to Plato, would infer from the returning man's blindness that the journey out of the cave had harmed him and that they should not undertake a similar journey. Socrates concludes that the prisoners, if they were able, would therefore reach out and kill anyone who attempted to drag them out of the cave (517a).[3]
Symbolism[edit]
The allegory contains many forms of symbolism used to describe the state of the world. The cave is a symbol of the world and the prisoners are those who inhabit the world. The chains that prevent the prisoners from leaving the cave represent ignorance, meaning they interfere with the prisoners seeing the truth. The shadows cast on the walls of the cave represent what people see in the present world. Last, the freed prisoner represents those in society who see the physical world for the illusion that it is.[5][better source needed]
Themes in the allegory appearing elsewhere in Plato's work[edit]
The allegory is probably related to Plato's theory of Forms, according to which the "Forms" (or "Ideas"), and not the material world known to us through sensation, possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality. Only knowledge of the Forms constitutes real knowledge or what Socrates considers "the good".[6] Socrates informs Glaucon that the most excellent people must follow the highest of all studies, which is to behold the Good. Those who have ascended to this highest level, however, must not remain there but must return to the cave and dwell with the prisoners, sharing in their labors and honors.
Plato's Phaedo contains similar imagery to that of the allegory of the Cave; a philosopher recognizes that before philosophy, his soul was "a veritable prisoner fast bound within his body... and that instead of investigating reality of itself and in itself is compelled to peer through the bars of a prison."[7]
Scholarly discussion[edit]
Scholars debate the possible interpretations of the allegory of the Cave, either looking at it from an epistemological standpoint – one based on the study of how Plato believes we come to know things – or through a political (Politeia) lens.[6] Much of the scholarship on the allegory falls between these two perspectives, with some completely independent of either. The epistemological view and the political view, fathered by Richard Lewis Nettleship and A.S. Ferguson respectively, tend to be discussed most frequently.[6] Nettleship interprets the allegory of the cave as representative of our innate intellectual incapacity, in order to contrast our lesser understanding with that of the philosopher, as well as an allegory about people who are unable or unwilling to seek truth and wisdom.[8] Ferguson, on the other hand, bases his interpretation of the allegory on the claim that the cave is an allegory of human nature and that it symbolizes the opposition between the philosopher and the corruption of the prevailing political condition.[7][8]
Cleavages have emerged within these respective camps of thought, however. Much of the modern scholarly debate surrounding the allegory has emerged from Martin Heidegger's exploration of the allegory, and philosophy as a whole, through the lens of human freedom in his book The Essence of Human Freedom: An Introduction to Philosophy and The Essence of Truth: On Plato's Cave Allegory and Theaetetus.[9] In response, Hannah Arendt, an advocate of the political interpretation of the allegory, suggests that through the allegory, Plato “wanted to apply his own theory of ideas to politics”.[10] Conversely, Heidegger argues that the essence of truth is a way of being and not an object.[11] Arendt criticized Heidegger’s interpretation of the allegory, noting that “Heidegger…is off base in using the cave simile to interpret and “criticize” Plato’s theory of ideas”.[10]
Other scholarly literature[edit]
The following is a list of supplementary scholarly literature on the Allegory of the Cave that includes articles from epistemological, political, alternative, and independent viewpoints on the allegory:
Alan Kim: Shades of Truth: Phenomenological Perspectives on the Allegory of the Cave
Gabriel Zamosc: The Political Significance of Plato's Allegory of the Cave
Dimitra Mitta: Reading Platonic Myths from a Ritualistic Point of View: Gyges' Ring and the Cave Allegory
William McNiell: The Essence of Human Freedom: An Introduction to Philosophy and the Essence of Truth: On Plato's Cave Allegory and Thaetetus
Maureen Eckert: Cinematic Spelunking Inside Plato's Cave
Boaz Tsabar: "Poverty and Resourcefulness": On the Formative Significance of Eros in Educational Practice
J. Malcolm: The Cave Revisited
N. R. Murphy: The 'Simile of Light' in Plato's Republic
Influence[edit]
The themes and imagery of Plato's cave have appeared throughout Western thought and culture. Some examples include:
Evolutionary biologist Jeremy Griffith's book A Species In Denial includes the chapter Deciphering Plato’s Cave Allegory.[12]
The films The Conformist, The Matrix, Dark City, The Truman Show and City of Ember model Plato's Allegory of the Cave.[13][14]
The Cave by José Saramago culminates in the discovery of Plato's Cave underneath the Center, "an immense complex fusing the functions of an office tower, a shopping mall and a condominium."[15]
Emma Donoghue acknowledges the influence of Plato's Allegory of the Cave on her novel Room.[16]
Ray Bradbury's novel Fahrenheit 451 explores the themes of reality and perception also explored in Plato's Allegory of the Cave and Bradbury even references Plato's work in the novel.[17][18]
José Carlos Somoza's novel The Athenian Murders is presented as a murder mystery but features many references to Plato's philosophy including the allegory of the cave.[19]
Novelist James Reich argues Nicholas Ray's film Rebel Without a Cause, starring James Dean, Natalie Wood, and Sal Mineo as John "Plato" Crawford is influenced by and enacts aspects of the allegory of the cave.[20]
The 2013 movie After the Dark also features a scene which references Plato's Cave.
See also[edit]
Archetype
Analogy of the Sun
Analogy of the Divided Line
Intelligibility (philosophy)
The Form of the Good
Nous – Noumenon
Plato's Republic in popular culture
Phaneron
Allegorical interpretations of Plato
Flatland
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ferguson, A. S. "Plato's Simile of Light. (Part II.) The Allegory of the Cave (Continued)". The Classical Quarterly 16, no. 1 (1922): 15–28. JSTOR 636164.
Jump up ^ The various English names of this allegory were often traditionally capitalized as if they were the names of a chapter in Plato's text, which is not correct, or according to an older style that capitalized all (famous) allegories and theories and even concepts. Wikipedia's manual of style does not follow this older practice, and neither do many modern publications in reliable sources nor, for example, the Encyclopædia Britannica and the Columbia Encyclopedia.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Plato. Rouse, W.H.D., ed. The Republic Book VII. Penguin Group Inc. pp. 365–401.
Jump up ^ Jowett, B. (ed.) (1941). Plato's The Republic. New York: The Modern Library. OCLC 964319.
Jump up ^ Haymond, Bryce (November 28, 2005). "A Modern Worldview from Plato's Cave" (PDF). Temple Study – via Templestudy.com. Symbolism As mentioned, the allegory of the cave is an analogy used to clarify Socrates' theory of Form and the state of the world. In the allegory, there are many forms of symbolism used to describe the state of the world. The cave is a symbol of the world and the prisoners are those who inhabit the world. The chains that prevent the prisoners from leaving the cave represent ignorance, meaning they interfere with the prisoners seeing the truth. The shadows cast on the walls of the cave represent what people see in the present world. Last, the freed prisoner represents those in society who see the physical world for the illusion that is it.
Jump up ^ Watt, Stephen (1997), "Introduction: The Theory of Forms (Books 5–7)", Plato: Republic, London: Wordsworth Editions, pp. xiv–xvi, ISBN 1-85326-483-0
Jump up ^ Elliott, R. K. (1967). "Socrates and Plato's Cave". Kant-Studien. 58 (2): 138.
Jump up ^ Hall, Dale. "INTERPRETING PLATO'S CAVE AS AN ALLEGORY OF THE HUMAN CONDITION." Apeiron: A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science 14, no. 2 (1980): 74-86. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40913453.
Jump up ^ McNiell, William. "Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews." The Essence of Human Freedom: An Introduction to Philosophy and The Essence of Truth: On Plato's Cave Allegory and Theaetetus // Reviews // Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews // University of Notre Dame. Accessed December 09, 2016. http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/23227/.
^ Jump up to: a b Abensour, Miguel. Against the Sovereignty of Philosophy over Politics: Arendt's Reading of Plato's Cave Allegory Social Research; Winter 2007; 74, 4; ProQuest Social Sciences Premium Collection pg. 955
Jump up ^ Powell, Sally. "Discovering the Unhidden: Heidegger's Interpretation of Plato's Allegory of the Cave and Its Implications for Psychotherapy." Existential Analysis 22, no. 1 (January 2011). Accessed December 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Griffith, Jeremy (2003). A Species in Denial. Sydney: WTM Publishing & Communications. p. 83. ISBN 1-74129-000-7.
Jump up ^ The Matrix and Philosophy: Welcome to the Desert of the Real by William Irwin. Open Court Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0-8126-9501-1. "Written for those fans of the film who are already philosophers."
Jump up ^ "Prisoners of Plato in The Conformist". YouTube. Retrieved 2018-05-31.
Jump up ^ Keates, Jonathan. "Shadows on the Wall". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 November 2002.
Jump up ^ "Q & A with Emma Donoghue – Spoiler-friendly Discussion of Room (showing 1–50 of 55)". www.goodreads.com. Retrieved 2016-01-30.
Jump up ^ "Parallels between Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 69 and Plato's 'Allegory of the Cave'". [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Bradbury, Ray (1953). Fahrenheit 451. The Random House Publishing Group. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-758-77616-7.
Jump up ^ Somoza, Jose Carlos (2003). The Athenian Murders. ABACUS. ISBN 978-0349116181.
Jump up ^ "Plato's Cave: Rebel Without a Cause and Platonic Allegory – OUTSIDER ACADEMY". Retrieved 2017-06-25. [permanent dead link]
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Allegory of the Cave
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Republic/Book VII
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Allegory of the cave.
Allegory of the Cave at PhilPapers
Ted-ed: Plato's Allegory of the Cave
Animated interpretation of Plato's Allegory of the Cave
Plato: The Republic at Project Gutenberg
Plato: The Allegory of the Cave, from The Republic at University of Washington – Faculty
Plato: Book VII of The Republic, Allegory of the Cave at Shippensburg University
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Leaning Tower of Pisa
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Leaning Tower of Pisa
Torre pendente di Pisa
Leaning Tower of Pisa
Basic information
Location
Pisa, Italy
Geographic coordinates
43°43′23″N 10°23′47″E / 43.72306°N 10.39639°E / 43.72306; 10.39639Coordinates: 43°43′23″N 10°23′47″E / 43.72306°N 10.39639°E / 43.72306; 10.39639
Affiliation
Roman Catholic
Country
Italy
Website
www.opapisa.it
Architectural description
Architect(s)
Bonanno Pisano
Architectural style
Romanesque
Groundbreaking
1173
Completed
1372
Specifications
Height (max)
55.86 metres (183.3 ft)
Materials
marble
stone
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Part of
Piazza del Duomo, Pisa
Criteria
Cultural: i, ii, iv, vi
Reference
395
Inscription
1987 (11th Session)
The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italian: Torre pendente di Pisa) or simply the Tower of Pisa (Torre di Pisa [ˈtorre di ˈpiːza]) is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower, of the cathedral of the Italian city of Pisa, known worldwide for its unintended tilt. The tower is situated behind the Pisa Cathedral and is the third oldest structure in the city's Cathedral Square (Piazza del Duomo), after the cathedral and the Pisa Baptistry.
The tower's tilt began during construction in the 12th century, caused by an inadequate foundation on ground too soft on one side to properly support the structure's weight. The tilt increased in the decades before the structure was completed in the 14th century. It gradually increased until the structure was stabilized (and the tilt partially corrected) by efforts in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
The height of the tower is 55.86 metres (183.27 feet) from the ground on the low side and 56.67 metres (185.93 feet) on the high side. The width of the walls at the base is 2.44 m (8 ft 0.06 in). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 metric tons (16,000 short tons).[1] The tower has 296 or 294 steps; the seventh floor has two fewer steps on the north-facing staircase. Prior to restoration work performed between 1990 and 2001, the tower leaned at an angle of 5.5 degrees,[2][3][4] but the tower now leans at about 3.99 degrees.[5] This means the top of the tower is displaced horizontally 3.9 metres (12 ft 10 in) from the centre.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Architect
2 Construction
2.1 Timeline
2.2 Builders
3 History following construction
4 Alternative candidates
5 Technical information
6 Gallery
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Architect
There has been controversy about the real identity of the architect of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. For many years, the design was attributed to Guglielmo and Bonanno Pisano,[7] a well-known 12th-century resident artist of Pisa, famous for his bronze casting, particularly in the Pisa Duomo. Pisano left Pisa in 1185 for Monreale, Sicily, only to come back and die in his home town. A piece of cast bearing his name was discovered at the foot of the tower in 1820, but this may be related to the bronze door in the façade of the cathedral that was destroyed in 1595. A 2001 study[8] seems to indicate Diotisalvi was the original architect, due to the time of construction and affinity with other Diotisalvi works, notably the bell tower of San Nicola and the Baptistery, both in Pisa.
Construction
The Pisa Baptistery (in the foreground), the Pisa Cathedral (in the middleground), and the Leaning Tower of Pisa (in the background)
Leaning Tower of Pisa in 2004
Leaning Tower of Pisa
Construction of the tower occurred in three stages over 199 years. Work on the ground floor of the white marble campanile began on August 14, 1173 during a period of military success and prosperity. This ground floor is a blind arcade articulated by engaged columns with classical Corinthian capitals.[citation needed]
The tower began to sink after construction had progressed to the second floor in 1178. This was due to a mere three-metre foundation, set in weak, unstable subsoil, a design that was flawed from the beginning. Construction was subsequently halted for almost a century, because the Republic of Pisa was almost continually engaged in battles with Genoa, Lucca, and Florence. This allowed time for the underlying soil to settle. Otherwise, the tower would almost certainly have toppled.[citation needed] In 1198, clocks were temporarily installed on the third floor of the unfinished construction.[citation needed]
In 1272, construction resumed under Giovanni di Simone, architect of the Camposanto. In an effort to compensate for the tilt, the engineers built upper floors with one side taller than the other. Because of this, the tower is curved.[9] Construction was halted again in 1284 when the Pisans were defeated by the Genoans in the Battle of Meloria.[citation needed]
The seventh floor was completed in 1319. The bell-chamber was finally added in 1372. It was built by Tommaso di Andrea Pisano, who succeeded in harmonizing the Gothic elements of the bell-chamber with the Romanesque style of the tower.[10] There are seven bells, one for each note of the musical major scale. The largest one was installed in 1655.[citation needed]
After a phase (1990–2001) of structural strengthening,[11] the tower is currently undergoing gradual surface restoration, in order to repair visible damage, mostly corrosion and blackening. These are particularly pronounced due to the tower's age and its exposure to wind and rain.[12]
Timeline
On January 5, 1172, Donna Berta di Bernardo, a widow and resident of the house of dell'Opera di Santa Maria, bequeathed sixty soldi to the Opera Campanilis petrarum Sancte Marie. The sum was then used toward the purchase of a few stones which still form the base of the bell tower.[13]
On August 9, 1173, the foundations of the tower were laid.
Nearly four centuries later Giorgio Vasari wrote: "Guglielmo, according to what is being said, in [this] year 1174 with Bonanno as sculptor, laid the foundations of the bell tower of the cathedral in Pisa."
On December 27, 1233, the worker Benenato, son of Gerardo Bottici, oversaw the continuation of the construction of the bell tower.[14]
On February 23, 1260, Guido Speziale, son of Giovanni, a worker on the cathedral Santa Maria Maggiore, was elected to oversee the building of the tower.[15]
On April 12, 1264, the master builder Giovanni di Simone and 23 workers went to the mountains close to Pisa to cut marble. The cut stones were given to Rainaldo Speziale, worker of St. Francesco.[16]
Giorgio Vasari indicated that Tommaso di Andrea Pisano was the designer of the belfry[17] between 1360 and 1370.
Builders
One possible known builder of Pisa Tower was Gerardo di Gerardo. His name appears as a witness to the above legacy of Berta di Bernardo as "Master Gerardo", and as a worker whose name was Gerardo.[citation needed]
A more probable builder was Diotisalvi, because of the construction period and the structure's affinities with other buildings in Pisa, but he usually signed his works, and there is no signature by him in the bell tower.[citation needed]
Giovanni di Simone was known to be heavily involved in the completion of the tower, under the direction of Giovanni Pisano, who at the time was master builder of the Opera di Santa Maria Maggiore. Di Simone could be the same Giovanni Pisano who completed the belfry tower.[citation needed]
History following construction
Plaque in memory of Galileo Galilei's experiments
Galileo Galilei is said to have dropped two cannonballs of different masses from the tower to demonstrate that their speed of descent was independent of their mass. However, the only primary source for this is the biography Racconto istorico della vita di Galileo Galilei (Historical Account of the Life of Galileo Galilei), written by Galileo's secretary Vincenzo Viviani and published in 1717, long after Viviani's death.[18][19]
During World War II, the Allies suspected that the Germans were using the tower as an observation post. A U.S. Army sergeant sent to confirm the presence of German troops in the tower was impressed by the beauty of the cathedral and its campanile, and thus refrained from ordering an artillery strike, sparing it from destruction.[20][21]
Lead counterweights, 1998
Numerous efforts have been made to restore the tower to a vertical orientation or at least keep it from falling over. Most of these efforts failed; some worsened the tilt. On February 27, 1964, the government of Italy requested aid in preventing the tower from toppling. It was, however, considered important to retain the current tilt, due to the role that this element played in promoting the tourism industry of Pisa.[22]
A multinational task force of engineers, mathematicians, and historians gathered on the Azores islands to discuss stabilisation methods. It was found that the tilt was increasing in combination with the softer foundations on the lower side. Many methods were proposed to stabilise the tower, including the addition of 800 tonnes of lead counterweights to the raised end of the base.[23]
The tower and the neighbouring cathedral, baptistery, and cemetery are included in the Piazza del Duomo UNESCO World Heritage Site, which was declared in 1987.[24]
The tower was closed to the public on January 7, 1990, after more than two decades of stabilisation studies and spurred by the abrupt collapse of the Civic Tower of Pavia in 1989. The bells were removed to relieve some weight, and cables were cinched around the third level and anchored several hundred meters away. Apartments and houses in the path of the tower were vacated for safety. The solution chosen to prevent the collapse of the tower was to slightly straighten it to a safer angle by removing 38 cubic metres (1,342 cubic feet) of soil from underneath the raised end. The tower was straightened by 45 centimetres (17.7 inches), returning to its 1838 position. After a decade of corrective reconstruction and stabilization efforts, the tower was reopened to the public on December 15, 2001 and was declared stable for at least another 300 years.[23] In total, 70 metric tons (77 short tons) of earth were removed.[25]
In May 2008, engineers announced that the tower had been stabilized such that it had stopped moving for the first time in its history. They stated that it would be stable for at least 200 years.[25]
Alternative candidates
Two German churches have challenged the tower's status as the world's most lop-sided building: the 15th-century square Leaning Tower of Suurhusen and the 14th-century bell tower in the town of Bad Frankenhausen.[26] Guinness World Records measured the Pisa and Suurhusen towers, finding the former's tilt to be 3.97 degrees.[27] In June 2010, Guinness World Records certified the Capital Gate building in Abu Dhabi, UAE as the "World's Furthest Leaning Man-made Tower".[28] The Capital Gate tower has an 18-degree slope, almost five times more than the Pisa Tower; however the Capital Gate tower has been deliberately engineered to slant. The Leaning Tower of Wanaka in New Zealand, also deliberately built, leans at 53 degrees to the ground.[29]
Technical information
An elevation image of the Leaning Tower of Pisa cut with laser scan data from a University of Ferrara/CyArk research partnership, with source image accurate down to 5 mm (0.2 in). This elevation shows the interesting quandary facing the campanile. The circular shape and great height (currently 55.86 m (183 ft 3.21 in) on the lowest side and 56.67 m (185 ft 11.10 in) m on the highest) of the campanile were unusual for their time, and the crowning belfry is stylistically distinct from the rest of the construction. This belfry incorporates a 14 cm (5.5 in) correction for the inclined axis below. The siting of the campanile within the Piazza del Duomo diverges from the axial alignment of the cathedral and baptistery of the Piazza del Duomo
Elevation of Piazza del Duomo: about 2 metres (6 feet, DMS)
Height from the ground floor: 55.863 metres (183 ft 3 in), 8 stories
Height from the foundation floor: 58.36 m (191 ft 5.64 in)
Outer diameter of base: 15.484 metres (50 ft 9.6 in)
Inner diameter of base: 7.368 metres (24 ft 2.1 in)
Angle of slant: 3.97 degrees[27] or 3.9 metres (12 ft 10 in) from the vertical[30]
Weight: 14,700 metric tons (16,200 short tons)
Thickness of walls at the base: 2.44 metres (8 ft 0 in)
Total number of bells: 7, tuned to musical scale, clockwise
1st bell: L'Assunta, cast in 1654 by Giovanni Pietro Orlandi, weight 3,620 kg (7,981 lb)
2nd bell: Il Crocifisso, cast in 1572 by Vincenzo Possenti, weight 2,462 kg (5,428 lb)
3rd bell: San Ranieri, cast in 1719–1721 by Giovanni Andrea Moreni, weight 1,448 kg (3,192 lb)
4th bell: La Terza (1st small one), cast in 1473, weight 300 kg (661 lb)
5th bell: La Pasquereccia or La Giustizia, cast in 1262 by Lotteringo, weight 1,014 kg (2,235 lb)
6th bell: Il Vespruccio (2nd small one), cast in the 14th century and again in 1501 by Nicola di Jacopo, weight 1,000 kg (2,205 lb)
7th bell: Dal Pozzo, cast in 1606 and again in 2004, weight 652 kg (1,437 lb)[31]
Number of steps to the top: 296[32]
About the 5th bell: The name Pasquareccia comes from Easter, because it used to ring on Easter day. However, this bell is older than the bell-chamber itself, and comes from the tower Vergata in Palazzo Pretorio in Pisa, where it was called La Giustizia (The Justice). The bell was tolled to announce executions of criminals and traitors, including Count Ugolino in 1289.[33] A new bell was installed in the bell tower at the end of the 18th century to replace the broken Pasquareccia.
Gallery
View looking up
Entrance door to the bell tower
External loggia
Inner staircase from sixth to seventh floor
Inner staircase from seventh to eighth (the top) floor
View from the top
Assunta bell
Pasquareccia bell
View, looking down from the top
A popular photo opportunity with tourists is to pose as if one was either holding up or pushing over the tower
See also
Leaning Temple of Huma – Only leaning temple in the world
List of leaning towers
Leaning Tower of Niles, a replica of the Tower of Pisa
Leaning Tower of Zaragoza, was a famous European leaning tower
Great Mosque of al-Nuri (Mosul), an ancient leaning tower that stood until 2017
Machang, Kelantan – home to another leaning tower
Round tower (disambiguation), for other types of round towers
The Greyfriars Tower – the remains of a Franciscan monastery in King's Lynn, nicknamed "The Leaning Tower of Lynn"
Torre delle Milizie, a tilting medieval tower in Rome
Tour de Pise, a rock dome in Antarctica, was named after this tower
References
Jump up ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa Facts". Leaning Tower of Pisa. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Europe | Saving the Leaning Tower". BBC News. December 15, 2001. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Tower of Pisa". Archidose.org. June 17, 2001. Archived from the original on June 26, 2009. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa (tower, Pisa, Italy) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "E la Torre di Pisa non oscilla più". Scienze.TV. May 28, 2008. Archived from the original on May 24, 2012. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ tan(3.99 degrees) * (55.86 m + 56.70 m)/2 = 3.9 m
Jump up ^ Controversy about the identity of the architect Archived August 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Pierotti, Piero. (2001). Deotisalvi – L'architetto pisano del secolo d'oro. Pisa: Pacini Editore
Jump up ^ McLain, Bill (1999). Do Fish Drink Water?. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. pp. 291–292. ISBN 0-688-16512-5.
Jump up ^ G. Barsali (1999), Pisa. History and masterpieces, Bonechi, p. 18, ISBN 8872041880
Jump up ^ A profile of an engineer employed to straighten the tower Ingenia, March 2005
Jump up ^ Restoration work is mentioned at the official website of the square
Jump up ^ Capitular Record Offices of Pisa, parchment n. 248
Jump up ^ Public Record Offices of Pisa, Opera della Primaziale, December 27, 1234
Jump up ^ Public Record Offices of Pisa, Opera della Primaziale, February 23, 1260
Jump up ^ Public Record Offices of Pisa, Roncioni, April 12, 1265.
Jump up ^ Giorgio Vasari, Jean Paul Richter (1855), Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, H. G. Bohn, p. 153
Jump up ^ "Sci Tech : Science history: setting the record straight". The Hindu. June 30, 2005. Retrieved May 5, 2009.
Jump up ^ Vincenzo Viviani on museo galileo
Jump up ^ Shrady, Nicholas (2003): Tilt: a skewed history of the Tower of Pisa
Jump up ^ "Why I spared the Leaning Tower of Pisa". The Guardian. January 12, 2000. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Securing the Lean In Tower of Pisa". The New York Times. November 1, 1987.
^ Jump up to: a b "Tipping the Balance". TIME Magazine. June 25, 2001.
Jump up ^ "Piazza del Duomo, Pisa". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Duff, Mark (May 28, 2008). "Europe | Pisa's leaning tower 'stabilised'". BBC News. Retrieved May 5, 2009.
Jump up ^ Sunday Telegraph no 2,406- July 22, 2007
^ Jump up to: a b "German steeple beats Leaning Tower of Pisa into Guinness book". The Raw Story. Archived from the original on May 4, 2009. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Not so fast, Pisa! UAE lays claim to world's furthest leaning tower". CNN news. June 7, 2010. Retrieved June 6, 2010.
Jump up ^ 'Leaning and tumbling towers' on Puzzling World website, viewed 2011-07-30
Jump up ^ tan(3.97 degrees) * (55.86m + 56.70m)/2 = 3.9m
Jump up ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa: 1920's Photo of Dal Pozzo". www.endex.com. Archived from the original on April 18, 2010. Retrieved August 9, 2010.
Jump up ^ Davies, Andrew (2005). The Children's Visual World Atlas. Sydney, Australia: The Fog Press. ISBN 1-74089-317-4.
Jump up ^ "Torre pendente" (in Italian). Lucca turismo. Retrieved March 19, 2008.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leaning Tower (Pisa).
Opera della Primaziale Pisana — official site
Piazza dei Miracoli digital media archive (Creative Commons-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from a University of Ferrara/CyArk research partnership, includes 3D scan data from Leaning Tower.
Leaning Tower of Pisa at Structurae
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values: برج بيزا المائل – Arabic

values: পিসা টাওয়ার – Bangla

values: Пізанская вежа – Belarusian

values: Пізанская вежа – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values: Наклонена кула в Пиза – Bulgarian

values: པེའུ་ས་མཚོད་རྟེན་གསེག་མ། – Tibetan

values: ޕީސާގެ ޓަވަރު – Divehi

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Pisa torn – Estonian
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values: Κεκλιμένος Πύργος της Πίζας – Greek

values: برج کج پیزا – Persian

values: પીઝાનો ઢળતો મિનારો – Gujarati

values: 피사의 사탑 – Korean

values: Պիզայի աշտարակ – Armenian

values: पीसा की मीनार – Hindi

values: Пизæйы мæсыг – Ossetic

values: מגדל פיזה – Hebrew

values: პიზის კოშკი – Georgian

values: Пиза мұнарасы – Kazakh

values: Крива кула во Пиза – Macedonian

values: പിസയിലെ ചരിഞ്ഞ ഗോപുരം – Malayalam

values: पिसाचा कलता मनोरा – Marathi

values: ပီဆာမျှော်စင် – Burmese

values: पिसाको लेनिङ टावर – Nepali

values: Det skeive tårnet i Pisa – Norwegian Nynorsk

values: ਪੀਸਾ ਦੀ ਮੀਨਾਰ – Punjabi

values: Пизанская башня – Russian

values: پيزا ٽاور – Sindhi

values: Криви торањ у Пизи – Serbian

values: பீசாவின் சாய்ந்த கோபுரம் – Tamil

values: పీసా టవర్ – Telugu

values: หอเอนเมืองปิซา – Thai

values: Пізанська вежа – Ukrainian

values: پیسا ٹاور – Urdu

values: Piizi Kuduyuu Sɔsɔʋ (Tour de Pise) – Kabiye

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