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Carbon cycle
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For the thermonuclear reaction involving carbon that powers some stars, see CNO cycle. For organic chemical ring-shaped structures, see Cyclic compounds.
This diagram of the fast carbon cycle shows the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans in billions of tons per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions, white indicate stored carbon. Note this diagram does not account for volcanic and tectonic activity, which also sequesters and releases carbon.
The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as limestone. Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle, the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life. It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere, as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks.
The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges (incomes and losses) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop (e.g., atmosphere and biosphere) of the carbon cycle. An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier, and popularized by Humphry Davy.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Global climate
2 Main components
2.1 Atmosphere
2.2 Terrestrial biosphere
2.3 Oceans
2.4 Earth's interior
2.5 Human influence
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
Global climate[edit]
Carbon exists in various forms in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) are partly responsible for the greenhouse effect and among the most important human-contributed greenhouse gases.[2]
In the past two centuries, human activities have altered the global carbon cycle, most significantly in the atmosphere. Although carbon dioxide levels have changed naturally over the past several thousand years, human emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere have created unnatural fluctuations.[2] Changes in the amount of atmospheric CO2 are considerably altering weather patterns and indirectly influencing oceanic chemistry. Current carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere exceed measurements from the last 1,000 years and levels are rising quickly,[3] making it of critical importance to better understand how the carbon cycle works and what its effects are on the global climate.[2]
Main components[edit]
Carbon pools in the major reservoirs on earth.[2]
Pool
Quantity (gigatons)
Atmosphere 720
Oceans (total) 38,400
Total inorganic 37,400
Total organic 1,000
Surface layer 670
Deep layer 36,730
Lithosphere
Sedimentary carbonates > 60,000,000
Kerogens 15,000,000
Terrestrial biosphere (total) 2,000
Living biomass 600 - 1,000
Dead biomass 1,200
Aquatic biosphere 1 - 2
Fossil fuels (total) 4,130
Coal 3,510
Oil 230
Gas 140
Other (peat) 250
The global carbon cycle is now usually divided into the following major reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange:
The atmosphere
The terrestrial biosphere
The oceans, including dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota
The sediments, including fossil fuels, fresh water systems and non-living organic material.
The Earth's interior, carbon from the Earth's mantle and crust. These carbon stores interact with the other components through geological processes
The carbon exchanges between reservoirs occur as the result of various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth.[2] The natural flows of carbon between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial ecosystems, and sediments is fairly balanced, so that carbon levels would be roughly stable without human influence.[4][5]
Atmosphere[edit]
Main article: Atmospheric carbon cycle
Epiphytes on electric wires. This kind of plant takes both CO2 and water from the atmosphere for living and growing.
Carbon in the Earth's atmosphere exists in two main forms: carbon dioxide and methane. Both of these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for the greenhouse effect. Methane produces a larger greenhouse effect per volume as compared to carbon dioxide, but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short-lived than carbon dioxide, making carbon dioxide the more important greenhouse gas of the two.[6]
Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere primarily through photosynthesis and enters the terrestrial and oceanic biospheres. Carbon dioxide also dissolves directly from the atmosphere into bodies of water (oceans, lakes, etc.), as well as dissolving in precipitation as raindrops fall through the atmosphere. When dissolved in water, carbon dioxide reacts with water molecules and forms carbonic acid, which contributes to ocean acidity. It can then be absorbed by rocks through weathering. It also can acidify other surfaces it touches or be washed into the ocean.[7]
Human activities over the past two centuries have significantly increased the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide, both by modifying ecosystems' ability to extract carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and by emitting it directly, e.g., by burning fossil fuels and manufacturing concrete.[2]
Terrestrial biosphere[edit]
A portable soil respiration system measuring soil CO2 flux
Main article: Terrestrial biological carbon cycle
See also: Soil carbon
See also: Carbon sink
The terrestrial biosphere includes the organic carbon in all land-living organisms, both alive and dead, as well as carbon stored in soils. About 500 gigatons of carbon are stored above ground in plants and other living organisms,[4] while soil holds approximately 1,500 gigatons of carbon.[8] Most carbon in the terrestrial biosphere is organic carbon,[9] while about a third of soil carbon is stored in inorganic forms, such as calcium carbonate.[10] Organic carbon is a major component of all organisms living on earth. Autotrophs extract it from the air in the form of carbon dioxide, converting it into organic carbon, while heterotrophs receive carbon by consuming other organisms.
Because carbon uptake in the terrestrial biosphere is dependent on biotic factors, it follows a diurnal and seasonal cycle. In CO2 measurements, this feature is apparent in the Keeling curve. It is strongest in the northern hemisphere, because this hemisphere has more land mass than the southern hemisphere and thus more room for ecosystems to absorb and emit carbon.
Carbon leaves the terrestrial biosphere in several ways and on different time scales. The combustion or respiration of organic carbon releases it rapidly into the atmosphere. It can also be exported into the oceans through rivers or remain sequestered in soils in the form of inert carbon. Carbon stored in soil can remain there for up to thousands of years before being washed into rivers by erosion or released into the atmosphere through soil respiration. Between 1989 and 2008 soil respiration increased by about 0.1% per year.[11] In 2008, the global total of CO2 released from the soil reached roughly 98 billion tonnes, about 10 times more carbon than humans are now putting into the atmosphere each year by burning fossil fuel. There are a few plausible explanations for this trend, but the most likely explanation is that increasing temperatures have increased rates of decomposition of soil organic matter, which has increased the flow of CO2. The length of carbon sequestering in soil is dependent on local climatic conditions and thus changes in the course of climate change. From pre-industrial era to 2010, the terrestrial biosphere represented a net source of atmospheric CO2 prior to 1940, switching subsequently to a net sink.[12]
Oceans[edit]
Main article: Oceanic carbon cycle
Oceans contain the greatest quantity of actively cycled carbon in this world and are second only to the lithosphere in the amount of carbon they store.[2] The oceans' surface layer holds large amounts of dissolved inorganic carbon that is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere. The deep layer's concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is about 15% higher than that of the surface layer.[13] DIC is stored in the deep layer for much longer periods of time.[4] Thermohaline circulation exchanges carbon between these two layers.[2]
Carbon enters the ocean mainly through the dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which is converted into carbonate. It can also enter the oceans through rivers as dissolved organic carbon. It is converted by organisms into organic carbon through photosynthesis and can either be exchanged throughout the food chain or precipitated into the ocean's deeper, more carbon rich layers as dead soft tissue or in shells as calcium carbonate. It circulates in this layer for long periods of time before either being deposited as sediment or, eventually, returned to the surface waters through thermohaline circulation.[4]
Oceanic absorption of CO2 is one of the most important forms of carbon sequestering limiting the human-caused rise of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However, this process is limited by a number of factors. Because the rate of CO2 dissolution in the ocean is dependent on the weathering of rocks and this process takes place slower than current rates of human greenhouse gas emissions, ocean CO2 uptake will decrease in the future.[2] CO2 absorption also makes water more acidic, which affects ocean biosystems. The projected rate of increasing oceanic acidity could slow the biological precipitation of calcium carbonates, thus decreasing the ocean's capacity to absorb carbon dioxide.[14][15]
Earth's interior[edit]
The geologic component of the carbon cycle operates slowly in comparison to the other parts of the global carbon cycle. It is one of the most important determinants of the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, and thus of global temperatures.[16]
Most of the earth's carbon is stored inertly in the earth's lithosphere.[2] Much of the carbon stored in the earth's mantle was stored there when the earth formed.[17] Some of it was deposited in the form of organic carbon from the biosphere.[18] Of the carbon stored in the geosphere, about 80% is limestone and its derivatives, which form from the sedimentation of calcium carbonate stored in the shells of marine organisms. The remaining 20% is stored as kerogens formed through the sedimentation and burial of terrestrial organisms under high heat and pressure. Organic carbon stored in the geosphere can remain there for millions of years.[16]
Carbon can leave the geosphere in several ways. Carbon dioxide is released during the metamorphosis of carbonate rocks when they are subducted into the earth's mantle. This carbon dioxide can be released into the atmosphere and ocean through volcanoes and hotspots.[17] It can also be removed by humans through the direct extraction of kerogens in the form of fossil fuels. After extraction, fossil fuels are burned to release energy, thus emitting the carbon they store into the atmosphere.
Human influence[edit]
Main article: Global warming
Human activity since the industrial era has changed the balance in the natural carbon cycle. Units are in gigatons.[4]
CO2 in Earth's atmosphere if half of global-warming emissions are not absorbed.[19][20][21][22]
(NASA computer simulation).
Since the industrial revolution, human activity has modified the carbon cycle by changing its components' functions and directly adding carbon to the atmosphere.[2]
The largest human impact on the carbon cycle is through direct emissions from burning fossil fuels, which transfers carbon from the geosphere into the atmosphere. The rest of this increase is caused mostly by changes in land-use, particularly deforestation.
Another direct human impact on the carbon cycle is the chemical process of calcination of limestone for clinker production, which releases CO2.[23] Clinker is an industrial precursor of cement.
Humans also influence the carbon cycle indirectly by changing the terrestrial and oceanic biosphere [24]. Over the past several centuries, direct and indirect human-caused land use and land cover change (LUCC) has led to the loss of biodiversity, which lowers ecosystems' resilience to environmental stresses and decreases their ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. More directly, it often leads to the release of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems into the atmosphere. Deforestation for agricultural purposes removes forests, which hold large amounts of carbon, and replaces them, generally with agricultural or urban areas. Both of these replacement land cover types store comparatively small amounts of carbon, so that the net product of the process is that more carbon stays in the atmosphere.
Other human-caused changes to the environment change ecosystems' productivity and their ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. Air pollution, for example, damages plants and soils, while many agricultural and land use practices lead to higher erosion rates, washing carbon out of soils and decreasing plant productivity.
Humans also affect the oceanic carbon cycle [24]. Current trends in climate change lead to higher ocean temperatures, thus modifying ecosystems[25][26][27]. Also, acid rain and polluted runoff from agriculture and industry change the ocean's chemical composition. Such changes can have dramatic effects on highly sensitive ecosystems such as coral reefs[28][29][30], thus limiting the ocean's ability to absorb carbon from the atmosphere on a regional scale and reducing oceanic biodiversity globally.
Arctic methane emissions indirectly caused by anthropogenic global warming also affect the carbon cycle, and contribute to further warming in what is known as climate change feedback.
On 12 November 2015, NASA scientists reported that human-made carbon dioxide (CO2) continues to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years: currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the atmosphere and is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans.[19][20][21][22]
See also[edit]
Biochar
Calvin cycle
Carbon cycle re-balancing
Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
Carbon footprint
Deficit irrigation
Nitrogen cycle
Ocean acidification
Permafrost carbon cycle
Snowball Earth and the "Slow carbon cycle"
Soil plant atmosphere continuum
Soil regeneration
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Holmes, Richard (2008). "The Age Of Wonder", Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-375-42222-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Falkowski, P.; Scholes, R. J.; Boyle, E.; Canadell, J.; Canfield, D.; Elser, J.; Gruber, N.; Hibbard, K.; Högberg, P.; Linder, S.; MacKenzie, F. T.; Moore b, 3.; Pedersen, T.; Rosenthal, Y.; Seitzinger, S.; Smetacek, V.; Steffen, W. (2000). "The Global Carbon Cycle: A Test of Our Knowledge of Earth as a System". Science. 290 (5490): 291–296. Bibcode:2000Sci...290..291F. PMID 11030643. doi:10.1126/science.290.5490.291.
Jump up ^ Crowley, T. J. (2000). "Causes of Climate Change Over the Past 1000 Years". Science. 289 (5477): 270–277. Bibcode:2000Sci...289..270C. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 10894770. doi:10.1126/science.289.5477.270.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Prentice, I.C. (2001). "The carbon cycle and atmospheric carbon dioxide". Climate change 2001: the scientific basis: contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change / Houghton, J.T. [edit.] Retrieved 31 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "An Introduction to the Global Carbon Cycle" (PDF). University of New Hampshire. 2009. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Forster, P.; Ramawamy, V.; Artaxo, P.; Berntsen, T.; Betts, R.; Fahey, D.W.; Haywood, J.; Lean, J.; Lowe, D.C.; Myhre, G.; Nganga, J.; Prinn, R.; Raga, G.; Schulz, M.; Van Dorland, R. (2007). "Changes in atmospheric constituents and in radiative forcing". Climate Change 2007: the Physical Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Jump up ^ "Many Planets, One Earth // Section 4: Carbon Cycling and Earth's Climate". Many Planets, One Earth. 4. Retrieved 2012-06-24.
Jump up ^ Rice, Charles W. Carbon in Soil: Why and How?[permanent dead link] Geotimes (January 2002). American Geological Institute
Jump up ^ Yousaf, Balal; Liu, Guijian; Wang, Ruwei; Abbas, Qumber; Imtiaz, Muhammad; Liu, Ruijia (2016). "Investigating the biochar effects on C-mineralization and sequestration of carbon in soil compared with conventional amendments using the stable isotope (δ13C) approach". GCB Bioenergy. doi:10.1111/gcbb.12401.
Jump up ^ Lal, Rattan (2008). "Sequestration of atmospheric CO2 in global carbon pools". Energy and Environmental Science. 1: 86–100. doi:10.1039/b809492f.
Jump up ^ Bond-Lamberty, B. & Thomson, A.[1] Nature 464, 579-582 (2010)
Jump up ^ Huang, Junling and McElroy, Michael B. (2012). "The Contemporary and Historical Budget of Atmospheric CO2" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Physics. 90 (8): 707–716. Bibcode:2012CaJPh..90..707H. doi:10.1139/p2012-033. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Sarmiento, J.L.; Gruber, N. (2006). Ocean Biogeochemical Dynamics. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
Jump up ^ Kleypas, J. A.; Buddemeier, R. W.; Archer, D.; Gattuso, J. P.; Langdon, C.; Opdyke, B. N. (1999). "Geochemical Consequences of Increased Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide on Coral Reefs". Science. 284 (5411): 118–120. Bibcode:1999Sci...284..118K. PMID 10102806. doi:10.1126/science.284.5411.118.
Jump up ^ Langdon, C.; Takahashi, T.; Sweeney, C.; Chipman, D.; Goddard, J.; Marubini, F.; Aceves, H.; Barnett, H.; Atkinson, M. J. (2000). "Effect of calcium carbonate saturation state on the calcification rate of an experimental coral reef". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 14 (2): 639. Bibcode:2000GBioC..14..639L. doi:10.1029/1999GB001195.
^ Jump up to: a b NASA. "The Slow Carbon Cycle". Retrieved 2012-06-24.
^ Jump up to: a b The Carbon Cycle and Earth's Climate Information sheet for Columbia University Summer Session 2012 Earth and Environmental Sciences Introduction to Earth Sciences I
Jump up ^ A New Look at the Long-term Carbon Cycle [permanent dead link] Vol. 9, No. 11 November 1999 GSA TODAY A Publication of the Geological Society of America
^ Jump up to: a b Buis, Alan; Ramsayer, Kate; Rasmussen, Carol (12 November 2015). "A Breathing Planet, Off Balance". NASA. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Staff (12 November 2015). "Audio (66:01) - NASA News Conference - Carbon & Climate Telecon". NASA. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b St. Fleur, Nicholas (10 November 2015). "Atmospheric Greenhouse Gas Levels Hit Record, Report Says". New York Times. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Ritter, Karl (9 November 2015). "UK: In 1st, global temps average could be 1 degree C higher". AP News. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
Jump up ^ IPCC (2007) 7.4.5 Minerals in Climate Change 2007: Working Group III: Mitigation of Climate Change,
^ Jump up to: a b Morse, John W.; Mackenzie, Fred T., eds. (1990-01-01). Developments in Sedimentology. Geochemistry of Sedimentary Carbonates. 48. Elsevier. pp. 447–510.
Jump up ^ Laws, Edward A.; Falkowski, Paul G.; Smith, Walker O.; Ducklow, Hugh; McCarthy, James J. (2000-12-01). "Temperature effects on export production in the open ocean". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 14 (4): 1231–1246. ISSN 1944-9224. doi:10.1029/1999GB001229.
Jump up ^ Takahashi, Taro; Sutherland, Stewart C.; Sweeney, Colm; Poisson, Alain; Metzl, Nicolas; Tilbrook, Bronte; Bates, Nicolas; Wanninkhof, Rik; Feely, Richard A. (2002-01-01). "Global sea–air CO2 flux based on climatological surface ocean pCO2, and seasonal biological and temperature effects". Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. The Southern Ocean I: Climatic Changes in the Cycle of Carbon in the Southern Ocean. 49 (9): 1601–1622. doi:10.1016/S0967-0645(02)00003-6.
Jump up ^ Sanford, Eric (1999-03-26). "Regulation of Keystone Predation by Small Changes in Ocean Temperature". Science. 283 (5410): 2095–2097. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 10092235. doi:10.1126/science.283.5410.2095.
Jump up ^ Kleypas, Joan A.; Buddemeier, Robert W.; Archer, David; Gattuso, Jean-Pierre; Langdon, Chris; Opdyke, Bradley N. (1999-04-02). "Geochemical Consequences of Increased Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide on Coral Reefs". Science. 284 (5411): 118–120. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 10102806. doi:10.1126/science.284.5411.118.
Jump up ^ Hughes, T. P.; Baird, A. H.; Bellwood, D. R.; Card, M.; Connolly, S. R.; Folke, C.; Grosberg, R.; Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Jackson, J. B. C. (2003-08-15). "Climate Change, Human Impacts, and the Resilience of Coral Reefs". Science. 301 (5635): 929–933. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 12920289. doi:10.1126/science.1085046.
Jump up ^ Orr, James C.; Fabry, Victoria J.; Aumont, Olivier; Bopp, Laurent; Doney, Scott C.; Feely, Richard A.; Gnanadesikan, Anand; Gruber, Nicolas; Ishida, Akio (2005-09-29). "Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms". Nature. 437 (7059): 681–686. ISSN 0028-0836. doi:10.1038/nature04095.
Further reading[edit]
The Carbon Cycle, updated primer by NASA Earth Observatory, 2011
Appenzeller, Tim (2004). "The case of the missing carbon". National Geographic Magazine. – article about the missing carbon sink
Bolin, Bert; Degens, E. T.; Kempe, S.; Ketner, P. (1979). The global carbon cycle. Chichester ; New York: Published on behalf of the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) by Wiley. ISBN 0-471-99710-2. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
Houghton, R. A. (2005). "The contemporary carbon cycle". In William H Schlesinger (editor). Biogeochemistry. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. pp. 473–513. ISBN 0-08-044642-6. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
Janzen, H. H. (2004). "Carbon cycling in earth systems—a soil science perspective". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 104 (3): 399–417. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2004.01.040.
Millero, Frank J. (2005). Chemical Oceanography (3 ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-2280-4.
Sundquist, Eric; Broecker, Wallace S., eds. (1985). The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric CO2: Natural variations Archean to Present. Geophysical Monographs Series. American Geophysical Union.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to carbon cycle.
Carbon Cycle Science Program – an interagency partnership.
NOAA's Carbon Cycle Greenhouse Gases Group
Global Carbon Project – initiative of the Earth System Science Partnership
UNEP – The present carbon cycle – Climate Change carbon levels and flows
NASA's Orbiting Carbon Observatory
CarboSchools, a European website with many resources to study carbon cycle in secondary schools.
Carbon and Climate, an educational website with a carbon cycle applet for modeling your own projection.
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History of the Boston Braves
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Charles Radbourn (standing, far left) giving the finger to the cameraman, the first known photograph of the gesture (1886)[1]
The Atlanta Braves, a current Major League Baseball franchise, originated in Boston, Massachusetts. This article details the history of the Boston Braves, from 1871 to 1952, after which they moved to Milwaukee to become the Milwaukee Braves, and then eventually to Atlanta, to become the Atlanta Braves. The Boston Franchise played at South End Grounds from 1871 to 1914 and at Braves Field from 1915 to 1952. Braves Field is now Nickerson Field of Boston University. The franchise, from Boston to Milwaukee to Atlanta, is the oldest continuous professional baseball franchise.[2]
Contents
1 History
2 1914: Miracle
3 1915–1935: Losing years
4 Babe Ruth to Boston Braves
5 1936–1941: The Bees
6 1948: National League champions
7 Sam Jethroe
8 Move to Milwaukee and after
9 Notable Boston Braves
10 References
History[edit]
The Cincinnati Red Stockings in 1868, one year before they turned professional.
The Cincinnati Red Stockings, established in 1869 as the first openly all-professional baseball team, voted to dissolve after the 1870 season. Player-manager Harry Wright then went to Boston, Massachusetts—at the invitation of Boston Red Stockings founder Ivers Whitney Adams—with brother George and two other Cincinnati players, to form the nucleus of the Boston Red Stockings, a charter member of the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players. The original Boston Red Stockings team and its successors can lay claim to being the oldest continuously playing team in American professional sports.[3] (The only other team that has been organized as long, the Chicago Cubs, did not play for the two years following the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.) Two young players hired away from the Forest City club of Rockford, Illinois, turned out to be the biggest stars during the NAPBBP years: pitcher Al Spalding (founder of Spalding sporting goods) and second baseman Ross Barnes.
The 1888 Boston Beaneaters team
Led by the Wright brothers, Barnes, and Spalding, the Red Stockings dominated the National Association, winning four of that league's five championships. The team became one of the National League's charter franchises in 1876, sometimes called the "Red Caps" (as a new Cincinnati Red Stockings club was another charter member). Boston came to be called the Beaneaters by sportswriters in 1883, while retaining red as the team color.
King Kelly cigarette card (Goodwin & Company, 1888)
Although somewhat stripped of talent in the National League's inaugural year, Boston bounced back to win the 1877 and 1878 pennants. The Red Caps/Beaneaters were one of the league's dominant teams during the 19th century, winning a total of eight pennants. For most of that time, their manager was Frank Selee, the first manager not to double as a player as well. The 1898 team finished 102-47, a club record for wins that would stand for almost a century.
The team was decimated when the American League's new Boston entry set up shop in 1901. Many of the Beaneaters' stars jumped to the new team, which offered contracts that the Beaneaters' owners didn't even bother to match. They only managed one winning season from 1900 to 1913, and lost 100 or more games six times. In 1907, the Beaneaters (temporarily) eliminated the last bit of red from their stockings because their manager thought the red dye could cause wounds to become infected (as noted in The Sporting News Baseball Guide during the 1940s when each team's entry had a history of its nickname(s). See details in History of baseball team nicknames). The American League club's owner, Charles Taylor, wasted little time in changing his team's name to the Red Sox in place of the generic "Americans".
When George and John Dovey acquired the club in 1907, the team earned the sobriquet Doves; when purchased by William Hepburn Russell in 1911 punning reporters tried out Rustlers. However, clever monikers did nothing to change the National League club's luck. The team adopted an official name, the Braves, for the first time in 1912. Their owner, James Gaffney, was a member of New York City's political machine, Tammany Hall, which used an Indian chief as their symbol.
1914: Miracle[edit]
Main article: 1914 Boston Braves season
The team that won their first World Series in 1914
Two years later, the Braves put together one of the most memorable seasons in baseball history. After a dismal 4-18 start, the Braves seemed to be on pace for a last place finish. On July 4, 1914, the Braves lost both games of a doubleheader to the Brooklyn Dodgers. The consecutive losses put their record at 26-40 and the Braves were in last place, 15 games behind the league-leading New York Giants, who had won the previous three league pennants. After a day off, the Braves started to put together a hot streak, and from July 6 through September 5, the Braves won 41 games against only 12 losses. [1] On September 7 and 8, the Braves took 2 of 3 from the New York Giants and moved into first place. The Braves tore through September and early October, closing with 25 wins against 6 losses, while the Giants went 16-16. [2] They are the only team to win a pennant after being in last place on the Fourth of July. They were in last place as late as July 18, but were close to the pack, moving into fourth on July 21 and second place on August 12.
Despite their amazing comeback, the Braves entered the World Series as a heavy underdog to Connie Mack's Philadelphia A's. Nevertheless, the Braves swept the Athletics—the first unqualified sweep in the young history of the modern World Series (the 1907 Series had one tied game)--to win the world championship. Meanwhile, former Chicago Cubs infielder Johnny Evers, in his second season with the Braves, won the Chalmers Award.
The Braves played the World Series (as well as the last few weeks of the 1914 regular season) at Fenway Park, since their normal home, the South End Grounds, was too small. However, the Braves' success inspired owner Gaffney to build a modern park, Braves Field, which opened in August 1915. It was the largest park in the majors at the time, with 40,000 seats and also a very spacious outfield. The park was novel for its time; public transportation brought fans right into the park.
Fenway Park on October 12, 1914, for the third game of the 1914 World Series
1915–1935: Losing years[edit]
Rogers Hornsby (1928)
After contending for most of 1915 and 1916, the Braves only twice posted winning records from 1917 to 1932. The lone highlight of those years came when Giants' attorney Emil Fuchs bought the team in 1923 to bring his longtime friend, pitching great Christy Mathewson, back into the game. Although original plans called for Mathewson to be the principal owner, he had never recovered from tuberculosis that he'd contracted after being gassed during World War I. By the end of the 1923 season, it was obvious Mathewson couldn't continue even in a reduced role, and he turned over the presidency to Fuchs. (Mathewson died two years later). In 1928, the Braves traded for Hall of Famer Rogers Hornsby who had a very productive year in his only season with Boston. He batted .387 to win his seventh and final batting championship.
Fuchs was committed to building a winner, but the damage from the years prior to his arrival took some time to overcome. The Braves finally managed to compete in 1933 and 1934 under manager Bill McKechnie, but Fuchs' revenue was severely depleted due to the Great Depression.
Babe Ruth to Boston Braves[edit]
Looking for a way to get more fans and more money, Fuchs worked out a deal with the New York Yankees to acquire Babe Ruth, who had, coincidentally, started his career with the Red Sox. Fuchs named Ruth vice president and assistant manager of the Braves, and promised him a share of team profits. He was also to be consulted on all player transactions. Fuchs even suggested that Ruth, who had long had his heart set on managing, could take over as manager once McKechnie stepped down—perhaps as early as 1936.[4]
At first, it looked like Ruth was the final piece the team needed in 1935. On opening day, he had a hand in all of the Braves' runs in a 4-2 win over the Giants. However, that proved to be the highest the Braves were over .500 all year. Events went downhill quickly. A 4–20 May ended any realistic chance of contention. Ruth's deterioration mirrored that of the team. While his high living of previous years had begun catching up with him a year earlier, his conditioning rapidly declined in the first month of 1935. While he was still able to hit at first, he could do little else. He could no longer run, and his fielding was so terrible that three of the Braves' pitchers threatened to go on strike if Ruth were in the lineup. Ruth soon discovered that he was vice president and assistant manager in name only, and Fuchs' promise of a share of team profits was hot air. In fact, Ruth discovered that Fuchs expected him to invest some of his money in the team.[4]
Seeing a franchise in complete disarray, Ruth retired on June 1--only six days after he clouted, in what remains one of the most memorable afternoons in baseball history, what turned out to be the last three home runs of his career. He'd wanted to quit as early as May 12, but Fuchs wanted him to hang on so he could play in every National League park.[4] By this time, the Braves were 9-27, their season all but over. They ultimately finished 38-115, easily the worst season in franchise history. Their .248 winning percentage is the third-worst in baseball history, and the second-worst in National League history (behind only the 1899 Cleveland Spiders).
1936–1941: The Bees[edit]
Insolvent like his team, Fuchs was forced to give up control of the Braves in August 1935,[4] and the new owners tried to change the team's image by renaming it the Boston Bees. This did little to change the team's fortunes. After five uneven years, a new owner, construction magnate Lou Perini, changed the nickname back to the Braves.
1948: National League champions[edit]
Warren Spahn (1952)
In 1948, the team won the pennant, behind the pitching of Warren Spahn and Johnny Sain, who won 39 games between them. The remainder of the rotation was so thin that in September, Boston Post writer Gerald Hern wrote this poem about the pair:
First we'll use Spahn
then we'll use Sain
Then an off day
followed by rain
Back will come Spahn
followed by Sain
And followed
we hope
by two days of rain.
The poem received such a wide audience that the sentiment, usually now paraphrased as "Spahn, Sain, then pray for rain" or "Spahn, Sain and two days of rain", entered the baseball vocabulary. Ironically, in the 1948 season, the Braves actually had a better record in games that Spahn and Sain did not start than in games they did. (Other sources include pitcher Vern Bickford in the verse.)
The Braves lost the 1948 World Series in six games to the Indians (who had beaten the Red Sox in a one-game playoff to spoil an all-Boston World Series). This turned out to be the Braves' last hurrah in Boston.
Sam Jethroe[edit]
Acquired earlier by trade from the Brooklyn Dodgers, on April 18, 1950, Sam "Jet" Jethroe was added to the Boston Braves roster. The Dodgers had another young CF in Duke Snider rising in their system, resulting in the trade to the Braves.[5] Going on to be named National League Rookie of the Year at age 32, Jethroe broke the color barrier with Boston. In 1950, Jethroe hit .273 with 100 runs, 18 home runs and 58 RBI. His 35 stolen bases led the National League, a feat he would duplicate in 1951. While in Boston, Jethroe was roommates with Chuck Cooper, of the Boston Celtics who was the first African-American player drafted by a National Basketball Association team.[5] A former Negro League star and military veteran, Jethroe remains the oldest player to have won Rookie of the Year honors.[6][7]
Move to Milwaukee and after[edit]
With the rise of Ted Williams for the Red Sox, it became clear the Braves were no longer Boston's #1 team.
Amid four mediocre seasons after 1948, attendance steadily dwindled, even though Braves Field had the reputation of being more family friendly than Fenway.
For a half century, the major leagues had not had a single franchise relocation.[8] The Braves played their last home game in Boston on September 21, 1952, losing to the Brooklyn Dodgers 8–2 on before 8,822 at Braves Field; the home attendance for the 1952 season was under 282,000.[8]
On March 13, 1953, owner Lou Perini said that he would seek permission from the National League to move the Braves to Milwaukee.[9] After the franchise’s long history in Boston, the day became known as “Black Friday” in the city as fans mourned the team’s exit after eight decades. Perini, however, pointed to dwindling attendance as the main reason for the relocation. He also announced that he had recently bought out his original partners. He announced Milwaukee as that is where the Braves had their top farm club, the Brewers. Milwaukee had long been a possible target for relocation. Bill Veeck had tried to move his St. Louis Browns there earlier the same year (Milwaukee was the original home of that franchise), but his proposal had been voted down by the other American League owners.
Going into spring training in 1953, it appeared that the Braves would play another year in the Hub of New England. During a game against the New York Yankees on March 18th, the sale was announced final and that the team would move to Milwaukee, immediately.[10][11] The All-Star Game had been scheduled for Braves Field; it was moved to Crosley Field, hosted by the Cincinnati Reds.[11]
After the Braves moved to Milwaukee in 1953, the Braves Field site was sold to Boston University and reconstructed as Nickerson Field, the home of many Boston University teams. The Braves Field scoreboard was sold to the Kansas City A's and used at Municipal Stadium; the A's moved to Oakland after the 1967 season.[12]
Notable Boston Braves[edit]
Earl Averill Boston Braves (1941), HOF (1975)
Dave Bancroft Boston Braves (1924–27), HOF (1971)
Alvin Dark Boston Braves (1946–49), ROY (1948)
Bob Elliott (baseball) Boston Braves (1947-51), NL MVP (1947)
Johnny Evers Boston Braves (1914–17, 1929), HOF (1946)
Hank Gowdy Boston Braves (1911-1917, 1919-1923 and 1929-1930)
Burleigh Grimes Boston Braves (1930), HOF (1964)
Billy Herman Boston Braves (1946), HOF (1975)
Rogers Hornsby Boston Braves (1928), HOF (1942)
Sam Jethroe Boston Braves (1950–52) ROY (1950)
Ernie Lombardi Boston Braves (1942), HOF(1986)
Al López Boston Bees (1936–40), HOF (1977)
Bill McKechnie Boston Braves (1913, Manager 1930-37), HOF (1962)
Rabbit Maranville Boston Braves (1912–20, 1929–35), HOF (1954)e
Eddie Mathews Boston/Milwaukee/Atlanta Braves (1952–66),HOF (1978)
Christy Mathewson Owner/Executive, Boston Braves (1922–25), HOF as Player (1936)
Rube Marquard Boston Braves (1922–25), HOF (1971)
Joe Medwick Boston Braves (1945), HOF (1968)
Al Simmons Boston Braves (1939), HOF (1953)
George Sisler Boston Braves (1928–30), HOF (1939)
Billy Southworth Boston Braves (1921–23, Manager 1946-49, 1950–51), HOF (2008)
Warren Spahn Boston Braves Boston/Milwaukee Braves (1942, 1946–64), HOF (1973)
Casey Stengel Boston Braves (1924–25,Manager 1938-43), HOF (1966)
Babe Ruth Boston Braves (1935), HOF(1936)
Ed Walsh Boston Braves (1917), HOF (1946)
Lloyd Waner Boston Braves (1941), HOF (1967)
Paul Waner Boston Braves (1941–42), HOF (1952)
[13]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Achorn, p. 24
Jump up ^ "BRAVES FIELD". www.ballparksofbaseball.com. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Atlantabraves.com History
^ Jump up to: a b c d Neyer, Rob (2006). Rob Neyer's Big Book of Baseball Blunders. New York: Fireside. ISBN 0-7432-8491-7.
^ Jump up to: a b "Unheralded Jethroe broke barriers with Braves". MLB.com. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/news/2001/jul/17/guardianobituaries.sport
Jump up ^ https://www.baseball-reference.com/players/j/jethrsa01.shtml
^ Jump up to: a b Hand, Jack (March 19, 1953). "Transfer of Braves to Milwaukee viewed as first in series of future changes". Youngstown Vindicator. (Ohio). Associated Press. p. 38.
Jump up ^ Larson, Lloyd (March 14, 1953). "Big league ball here this year!". Milwaukee Sentinel. p. 1, part 1.
Jump up ^ "Boston Braves go to Milwaukee". Pittsburgh Press. United Press. March 18, 1953. p. 1.
^ Jump up to: a b Thisted, Red (March 19, 1953). "We're home of the Braves!". Milwaukee Sentinel. p. 1, part 1.
Jump up ^ Lowry, Philip (2006). Green Cathedrals. Walker & Company. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-8027-1608-8
Jump up ^ http://atlanta.braves.mlb.com/atl/history/hall_of_famers.jsp
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text:
Turn on red
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In countries where one drives on the left, replace "right turn" with "left turn" and vice versa.
For left turn on red in right-side-drive countries, and right turn on red in left-side-drive countries, see #Left turn on red in countries with right hand traffic (turning across traffic) below.
French sign indicating to cyclists that they may treat the red light as a yield if turning right.
"No right turns on red light" sign in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
Turning right on red is forbidden in New York City unless this sign or similar is posted.[1]
In the United States outside New York City, right turns are permitted on red (except for school buses and trucks carrying hazardous materials) unless there is a "No Turn on Red" or a "Right Turn Signal" light indicating the same and controlling the right turn.
"Right turn on red" traffic light in Belgrade, Serbia, right turn only after passing pedestrians and traffic oncoming from left.
A turn on red is a principle of law permitting vehicles at a traffic light showing a red signal to turn into the direction of traffic nearer to them (almost always after a complete stop) when the way is clear, without having to wait for a green signal. It is intended to allow traffic to resume moving, with minimal risk provided that proper caution is observed.
It is commonly known as a right turn on red (or simply right on red) in countries that drive on the right side of the road, or a left turn on red in countries which drive on the left side of the road.
Contents
[hide]
1 North America
2 Central America
3 South America
4 Europe
5 Asia
6 Oceania
7 Pedestrian safety
8 Left turn on red in countries with right hand traffic (turning across traffic)
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
North America[edit]
Right turns on red are permitted in many regions of North America. While Western states have allowed it for more than 50 years;[citation needed] eastern states amended their traffic laws to allow it in the 1970s as a fuel-saving measure in response to motor fuel shortages in 1973. The Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 required in §362(c)(5) that in order for a state to receive federal assistance in developing mandated conservation programs, they must permit right turns on red lights.[2] All 50 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, and Puerto Rico have allowed right turns on red since 1980, except where prohibited by a sign or where right turns are controlled by dedicated traffic lights. (On January 1, 1980, Massachusetts became the last US state to allow right turns on red.[3]) The few exceptions include New York City,[4] where right turns on red are prohibited, unless a sign indicates otherwise.
In some states, such as New York,[5] North Carolina, and California, a right turn on red is prohibited when a red arrow is displayed.
At intersections where U-turns are permitted and controlled by a U-turn arrow from the left-most lane, motorists turning right on red onto the same road must yield to those making U-turns before turning, as the motorists making U-turns have the right of way and a collision could easily occur. At intersections where U-turns are prohibited in the same fashion, a green right turn arrow will sometimes appear with the red light for those turning right onto the road, allowing only traffic turning right to proceed without having to stop or yield to other vehicles or pedestrians. Some states such as California have "No U-Turn" signs posted at these intersections because of the green right turn arrow.
Most Caribbean countries with right-hand traffic, such as the Dominican Republic, allow right turn on red unless a sign prohibits it. Some vehicles, such as those carrying hazardous materials and school buses, are not allowed to turn on red under any circumstance and must wait for a green light or arrow.[citation needed]
During 1982–1992, approximately 84 fatal crashes per year occurred in the U.S. where a vehicle was turning right at intersections where right turn on red was permitted.[citation needed] As of 1992, right turn on red is governed federally by 42 U.S.C. § 6322(c) ("Each proposed State energy conservation plan to be eligible for Federal assistance under this part shall include: ...(5) a traffic law or regulation which, to the maximum extent practicable consistent with safety, permits the operator of a motor vehicle to turn such vehicle right at a red stop light after stopping, and to turn such vehicle left from a one-way street onto a one-way street at a red light after stopping."). All turns on red are forbidden in New York City unless a sign is posted permitting it.[6]
Through most of Canada, a driver may turn right at a red light after coming to a complete stop unless a sign indicates otherwise. In the province of Quebec, turning right on a red was illegal until a pilot study carried out in 2003 showed that the right turn on red manoeuvre did not result in significantly more accidents. Subsequent to the study, the Province of Quebec now allows right turns on red except where prohibited by a sign. However, like in New York City, it remains illegal to turn right on a red anywhere on the Island of Montreal.[7] Motorists are reminded of this by large signs posted at the entrance to all bridges.
In Mexico, right turns on red are generally allowed unless a sign indicates otherwise.[8] Mexico City has implemented a new transit law which prohibits right turns and motorists can be issued a citation for noncompliance.[9]
Central America[edit]
In Costa Rica, right turns on red are allowed in general, but a sign can forbid them.
South America[edit]
Chilean right turn on red permitted sign
In Chile, right turns on red are only allowed when a sign permitting it is shown.
In Paraguay, right turns on red are allowed in some towns.
In Argentina, Brazil, Peru and Uruguay, right turns on red are not allowed.
Europe[edit]
German Right turn on red permission sign
In the European Union member states in general, it is illegal to turn on a red light, unless it is indicated otherwise, for example by a green arrow on a red light, a flashing amber arrow with a red light or a permanent green board next to the red light.[citation needed]
In Poland, right turns on red are permitted, only if an additional green arrow light (apart from the main signal light) is present and lit. However, the regulations require drivers to stop completely, as their paths intersect with other vehicles or pedestrians in at least one direction. Green arrow light can be also directed left (the same regulations apply).[10]
In Germany, right turns on red are only permitted, after a complete stop, when a specific sign is present. This rule was first introduced in 1978 in East Germany and was originally supposed to become obsolete together with the East German highway code by the end of 1990, following German reunification. However, authorities were unable to remove the signs in time, and public opinion caused them to leave the regulation unchanged, even extending its scope to the former areas of West Germany in 1994. By 1999, there were 300 turn-on-red intersections in West Germany while East Germany featured 2,500; the numbers in West Germany have risen considerably since then, though, and as of 2002 a total of 5,000 turn-on-red intersections were counted, with 48% in West Germany.
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2014)
In Russia, turns on red are prohibited unless a separate arrow-shaped green light allows it; drivers must give way to any vehicle coming from a different direction. When the arrow is not lit, turns in the arrow direction are prohibited.[11]
French Right turn (or others) on red permission sign
In the Netherlands, bicycles are occasionally allowed to turn right on a red light (assuming that the design of the junction is such that the light is even applicable to right turning cyclists, which it often is not in the Netherlands). Wherever this is the case, a sign "rechtsaf voor fietsers vrij" (right turn free for cyclists) or "rechtsaf voor (brom)fietsers vrij" (right turn free for cyclists and mopeds) is present.
In France a right turn on red without stopping is allowed when a separate arrow-shaped amber light flashes, but drivers do not have priority. They must check if any pedestrians are crossing before turning and must give way to vehicles coming from other directions.[12][citation needed]. In France it is allowed to turn right on red for cyclists if a sign tell so.
In Belgium, road signs that allow cyclists to turn right on a red light have been added to traffic law in 2012.[13] Such roads signs have been placed on intersections in the Brussels Capital Region.[14]
Like in the Netherlands, Belgium and France have a road sign that allows cyclists to turn right on a red light. The French and Belgian signs consist of a yield sign with a yellow bike and arow inside. Such signs are placed under traffic lights.[15]
Sign allowing cyclists to turn right on red in France and Belgium.
In the United Kingdom, which drives on the left, left turn on red is prohibited, but at some junctions there is a separate left arrow-shaped green "filter" light which, when lit, allows left-hand turns but conflicting traffic will always have a red signal.[16] Other non conflicting traffic movements may have their own left or right arrow-shaped green light. Sometimes there are specific lanes without signals for turning left, separated from the through traffic signalled traffic by traffic islands, but give way signs are installed.
In the Republic of Ireland, which drives on the left, left turns on red are prohibited.
In Lithuania, drivers are allowed to turn right on red when a specific sign with green arrow is present. However, on 10 November 2014, traffic rules were changed so that the specific sign with green arrow is valid until 31 December 2019. Until that time all specific signs with green arrows in Lithuania will be eliminated. Changes were made because of road safety reasons.[17]
In Czech republic and Slovakia right turns on red are allowed only when there is a lit green arrow present (called S 5 in Czech republic and S 10 in Slovakia). Also in this case the car turning on red must give way to ongoing traffic, to pedestrians and other road users. (According to Czech law §70 of decree 30/2001 of Law Codex; and Slovak law §9, part 3g, decree 9/2009 of Law Codex)
In Romania, right turns on red are prohibited, except when there is a small green flashing light with a right turn arrow.
In Bulgaria, right turns on red are prohibited.
In Spain, right turns on red are allowed only if there's either a flashing amber or lit green arrow-shaped traffic light. Flashing amber arrow allows turning without priority (turn must be done exercising caution, giving way to any other vehicles and pedestrians that may cross the path), while a lit green arrow grants priority. If just a regular set of traffic lights is present (no light arrows), then turning on red is prohibited.
In Iceland, right turns on red are prohibited.
Asia[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2012)
Singapore "Left Turn On Red" sign
As in the United Kingdom, left turn on red is always prohibited in Hong Kong. At some junctions, however, there may be separate sets of signals for left turns, or specific lanes for turning left separating from the through traffic by traffic islands and give way signs are installed. One such example is at the junction of Queen's Road East and Morrison Hill Road.
In China, a right turn on red is generally permitted, unless there is a red arrow pointing to the right. However, certain cities such as Shantou prohibited right turn on red.
In India, which drives on the left, a "free left turn" is generally prohibited.[18][19][20] However, some cities specifically permit turning left on a red signal.[21][22] An explicit green or blinking orange left signal also permits a turn on red, which usually means that conflicting traffic is not permitted to enter the same road.[23]
In Japan, which drives on the left, the only left turn allowed requires a green left arrow along with the red light.
In Singapore, which drives on the left, left turn on red is allowed only when the "Left Turn On Red" sign is displayed at the traffic junction. The driver will have to stop at the red light first and give way to pedestrians and oncoming vehicles from their right before turning.[24]
In Taiwan, right turn on red is always prohibited, except when there is a green arrow along with the red light.
In Thailand, which drives on the left, left turn on red is allowed unless a sign prohibits it.
In Saudi Arabia, right turn on red is generally permitted, unless there is a dedicated slip lane for right turn.
Oceania[edit]
Australian "left turn on red" sign at traffic lights
In Australia, which drives on the left, left turns on red are not permitted unless a sign indicating otherwise exists at the intersection. At such intersections, a sign generally reads "left turn on red permitted after stopping," meaning a vehicle can make a left turn only after coming to a complete stop first and giving way to approaching traffic and any crossing pedestrians or cyclists.[25][26]
Such signs are only in limited locations in the states of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia as well as the Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory and are banned in other states.[27] In South Australia, there were just 6 such intersections allowing turns on red in the entire state as of 2016.[28] There are conflicting views on the policy of left turns on red, with supporters pointing to lower vehicle emission and time savings, while opponents cite safety concerns.[28][29]
In New Zealand, which drives on the left, left turns on red are not permitted. However, some intersections have a special lane passing to the left of the traffic light that then joins on to the main road with a give way sign, effectively allowing a left turn on red.
Pedestrian safety[edit]
Turns on red are especially problematic for pedestrians due to drivers looking left for traffic on red light and not noticing a pedestrian waiting to cross the street to the driver's right. This may lead to a "right hook" collision when the driver and pedestrian both enter the intersection. Right on red reduces perceived safety for pedestrians and hence walkability. Suburbanization and car oriented development of the west has been a driving force behind right turn on red[citation needed], although in some downtown core areas even in Western US right on red is explicitly prohibited with signs.
Left turn on red in countries with right hand traffic (turning across traffic)[edit]
Left turns on red for US states
Left turns on red from one-way and two-way streets into one-way streets permitted
Left turns on red from one-way streets into one-way streets permitted
State prohibits left turns on red
In the U.S., 36 states and Puerto Rico allow left turns on red only if both the origin and destination streets are one way. (See South Carolina law Section 56-5-970 C3,[30] for example.)
Five other states, namely Alaska, Idaho, Michigan, Oregon and Washington, allow left turns on red onto a one-way street even from a two-way street.[31][32][33][34][35]
The following states and territories ban left turns on red: South Dakota (unless permitted by local ordinance), Connecticut, Maine, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Rhode Island, the District of Columbia, and Guam.[citation needed] New York City also prohibits left turn on red lights, unless a sign indicates otherwise.[36]
In Canada, left turn on red light from a one-way road into a one-way road is permitted except in some areas of Quebec, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. Left turn on red light from a two-way road into a one-way road is permitted in British Columbia[37] but only if the driver turns onto the closest lane and yields to pedestrians and cross traffic.
See also[edit]
Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Driver's Manual" (PDF). New York State Department of Motor Vehicles. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-10-09.
Jump up ^ "Energy Policy and Conservation Act". govtrack.us.
Jump up ^ Rabinovitz, Jonathan D (1979-12-04). "Right-On-Red Comes to Boston". The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved 2017-07-01.
Jump up ^ "Right Turn on Red" (PDF). Sustainable Streets Index. New York City Department of Transportation. 2009.
Jump up ^ "Chapter 4: Traffic Control". Online Driver's Manual and Study Guide. New York State Department of Motor Vehicles.
Jump up ^ "Right Turn on Red" (PDF). nyc.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
Jump up ^ "Transports Québec : Right Turn on Red". mtq.gouv.qc.ca. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16.
Jump up ^ Estado de Mexico Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Adiós a la vuelta continua y multas por usar el teléfono, así el nuevo Reglamento de Tránsito del DF - Animal Político". Retrieved 28 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Rozporządzenie Ministrów Infrastruktury oraz Spraw Wewnętrznych i Administracji z dnia 31 lipca 2002 r. w sprawie znaków i sygnałów drogowych Archived March 30, 2016, at the Wayback Machine., § 96.1. and 96.3.
Jump up ^ Правила дорожного движения Российской Федерации Archived November 13, 2016, at the Wayback Machine., п.6.3
Jump up ^ Arrêté du 24 novembre 1967 relatif à la signalisation des routes et des autoroutes - Article 7 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-04-12. Retrieved 2015-10-02. , Legifrance, accessdate=02 October 2015
Jump up ^ "Wet tot wijziging van artikel 6.3 van het koninklijk besluit van 1 december 1975 houdende algemeen reglement op de politie van het wegverkeer en van het gebruik van de openbare weg teneinde te voorzien in een afwijking op het algemene voorrangsbeginsel voor de verkeerslichten, in geval van verkeersborden die voorrang verlenen aan de fietsers".
Jump up ^ "Brussel plaatst 100 extra borden waar fietser door het rood mogen rijden". Het Laatste Nieuws. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Trotignon, Jean-Michel. "Tourne à droite au feu rouge: il manque juste le panneau" (PDF). Vélocité. Fédération française des Usagers de la Bicyclette. Retrieved 16 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Highway Code: Using the road (rule 177)". Retrieved 26 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Changes of Lithuanian Traffic rules on 3rd October 2014 - valid from 10th October 2014 (Lithuanian) http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_l?p_id=484529&p_tr2=2[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Why are there no free-left turns in Bangalore? - Quora". www.quora.com. Retrieved 2016-11-04.
Jump up ^ Adhiraj Joglekar (2007-05-08), Driving in India: At Red Lights There are no Free Left Turns, retrieved 2016-11-04
Jump up ^ "Common Traffic Rules". India Study Channel. 2009-08-30. Retrieved 2016-11-04.
Jump up ^ Ramu, Marri (2015-12-26). "For a change, it’s a hassle-free ride". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2016-11-05.
Jump up ^ "Chandigarh traffic police, promoting road safety, traffic safety, India road signs & rules, safe responsible driving, first aid India.". www.chandigarhtrafficpolice.org. Retrieved 2016-11-05.
Jump up ^ "Did govt change the "No Free Left" Rule, off late - Team-BHP". Team-BHP.com. Retrieved 2016-11-05.
Jump up ^ Left Turn On Red Scheme, Singapore Archived June 10, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. ONE Motoring, Land Transport Authority Singapore 2011-08-27
Jump up ^ "Traffic lights and road markings - Safety & Rules". Roads and Maritime Services. Archived from the original on 14 October 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "Left Turn on Red project". Brisbane City Council. Archived from the original on 14 October 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Fuller, Peta (19 October 2013). "Left turns at red lights to be allowed in new traffic trial". news.com.au. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Call to allow left-hand turns on red lights in SA". ABC News. 24 July 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Acott, Kent (27 April 2014). "Turn left on red possible solution". The West Australian. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "South Carolina Code of Laws (Unannotated): Current through the end of the 2010 Session". South Carolina Legislature Online. Office of Legislative Printing, Information & Technology Systems. November 5, 2011. Archived from the original on November 5, 2011. S.C. Code Section 56-5-970(C)(3). Except when a sign is in place prohibiting a turn, vehicular traffic facing any steady red signal may cautiously enter the intersection to turn right or to turn left from a one-way street into a one-way street after stopping as required by item (1) or (2). Such vehicular traffic shall yield the right-of-way to pedestrians lawfully within an adjacent crosswalk and to other traffic lawfully using the intersection.
Jump up ^ "DOC Frame Page". Legis.state.ak.us. Retrieved 2016-10-28.
Jump up ^ "Florida Motor Vehicles Code Section 316.075 - State Uniform Traffic Control - Traffic control signal devices. - Florida Attorney Resources - Florida Laws". law.onecle.com. Archived from the original on 2008-10-10.
Jump up ^ Offices, Legislative. "Idaho State Legislature". Retrieved 28 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "Michigan Legislature - Section 257.612". Retrieved 28 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "RCW 46.61.055: Traffic control signal legend.". Retrieved 28 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "The place in New York City where you can turn left on red". Retrieved 28 October 2016.
Jump up ^ BC Motor Vehicle Act Archived September 20, 2016, at the Wayback Machine., Section 129
External links[edit]
The Safety Impact Of Right Turn On Red: Report To Congress, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Traffic Tech
Sarkar, van Houten, and Moffatt, Using License Manuals To Increase Awareness About Pedestrian Hazards at Intersections[dead link], Transportation Research Record 1674.
Traffic Light Signals and Red Light Cameras: Turning on Red Light (US), by Justin JIH.
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