text:
Null Island
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Null Island
The weather buoy moored at the coordinates of Null Island
Null Island
Geography
Coordinates
0°N 0°E / 0°N 0°E / 0; 0Coordinates: 0°N 0°E / 0°N 0°E / 0; 0
Additional information
This fictional island is a cartographical convenience only
Null Island is a fictional island in the Gulf of Guinea added to the Natural Earth public domain map dataset,[1] located where the equator crosses the prime meridian, at coordinates 0°N 0°E / 0°N 0°E / 0; 0.[2][3][4] Natural Earth describes the entity as a "1 meter square island" with "scale rank 100, indicating it should never be shown in mapping."[1] The name 'Null' refers to the two 0 co-ordinates, both of which are sometimes known as null in mathematics.
The concept and name for Null Island were developed in 2011 or slightly earlier. Since then, numerous web pages have documented this fictional landmass's flag, geography, and history.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Other uses of the coordinates
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
Other uses of the coordinates[edit]
The location is used by mapping systems to trap errors.[3] Such errors arise, for example, where an image artifact is erroneously associated to the location by software which cannot attribute a geo-position, and instead associates a latitude and longitude of "Null,Null" or "0,0".[6]
Other data mapped to the location include activity events from the Strava fitness-tracking app, apparently (as reported in January 2018 by Bellingcat) mapped to the location due to users entering "0,0" coordinates to disguise their real location.[7]
In reality, a weather observation buoy, part of the PIRATA system, is moored near 0,0.[8] The depth at this place is around 4,940 metres (16,210 ft).[9]
See also[edit]
Colonel Bleep, a 1957 cartoon that took place on the fictitious Zero Zero Island, at the same location as Null Island, where earth's equator meets the Greenwich Meridian.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Kurgan, Laura (2013). Close Up at a Distance: Mapping, Technology and Politics. New York: Zone Books. p. 157. ISBN 9781935408284.
Jump up ^ "Null Island". Archived from the original on 1 October 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Natural Earth version 1.3 release notes". 2011-01-31. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Hotz, Robert Lee (14 July 2016). "If You Can't Follow Directions, You'll End Up on Null Island". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 13 July 2016. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
Jump up ^ St. Onge, Tim. "The Geographical Oddity of Null Island". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 12 May 2016. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Null Island is One of the Most Visited Places on Earth. Too Bad It Doesn't Exist". Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Aric, Toler (29 January 2018). "How to Use and Interpret Data from Strava's Activity Map - bellingcat". Bellingcat. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "Station 13010 - Soul". National Data Buoy Center. Archived from the original on 22 August 2014. Retrieved 19 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "Bathymetric Data Viewer". National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
External links[edit]
Satirical website purporting to be that of The Republic of Null Island
This fictional location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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European Union free trade agreements
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
EU Free trade agreements
European Union
Agreement in force
Agreement (in part) provisionally applied
Agreement signed, but not applied
Agreement initialed, not signed
Agreement being negotiated
The European Union has concluded free trade agreements (FTAs)[1] and other agreements with a trade component with many countries worldwide and is negotiating with many others.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Free trade agreements in force
2 Agreements provisionally applied
3 Agreements finalised (negotiations concluded, but not signed)
4 Negotiating
5 Competence
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Free trade agreements in force[edit]
State
Signed
Provisional
Application
In Force
Notes
Relations
Akrotiri and Dhekelia 2003 2004[3] Customs union
Albania 2006 2006[a] 2009[4] SAA Candidate for EU accession
Algeria 2002 2005[5] Euro-mediterranean AA
Andorra 1990 1991[6] Customs union Andorra–EU relations
Bosnia and Herzegovina 2008 2008[a] 2015[7] SAA Potential candidate for EU accession
Chile 2002 2003 2005[8] AA[9]
Egypt 2001 2004[10] Euro-mediterranean AA
Faroe Islands 1996 1997[11] Autonomous entity of Denmark Faroe Islands-EU relations
Georgia 2014 2014 2016[12] AA incl DCFTA Georgia–EU relations
Bailiwick of Guernsey 1972 1973[13]
Iceland 1992 1994[14] EEA Negotiating for EU accession
Isle of Man 1972 1973[13] Customs union
Israel 1995 1996[a][15] 2000[16] Euro-Mediterranean AA Israel–EU relations
Bailiwick of Jersey 1972 1973[13] Customs union
Jordan 1997 2002[17] Euro-Mediterranean AA Jordan–EU relations
Kosovo 2015 2016[18] SAA Kosovo–EU relations
Lebanon 2002 2006[19] Euro-Mediterranean AA Lebanon–EU relations
Liechtenstein 1992 1995[14] EEA Liechtenstein–EU relations
Republic of Macedonia 2001 2001[a] 2004[20] SAA Candidate for EU accession
Mexico 1997 2000[21] FTA[22][23] Mexico–EU relations
Moldova 2014 2014 2016[24] AA incl DCFTA Moldova–EU relations
Monaco 1958 Franco-Monegasque Treaty (customs union)
Montenegro 2007 2008[a] 2010[25] SAA Negotiating for EU accession
Morocco 1996 2000[26] Euro-Mediterranean AA Morocco–EU relations
Norway 1992 1994[14] EEA Norway–EU relations
EU's Overseas Countries and Territories 2001 2001[27][28] Association of the OCTs with the EU
Palestinian Authority 1997 1997[29] Euro-Mediterranean AA Palestine–EU relations
San Marino 1991 1992[b] 2002[30] Customs union San Marino–EU relations
Serbia 2008 2010[a] 2013[31] SAA Negotiating for EU accession
South Africa 1999 2000[32] 2004[33] ATDC[c] South Africa–EU relations
South Korea 2010 2011 2015[34] FTA[35] South Korea–EU relations
Switzerland 1972
1999 1973[36]
2002[37] Trade agreement
Bilateral I agreements Switzerland–EU relations
Tunisia 1995 1998[38] Euro-Mediterranean AA
Turkey 1995[d] 1995[39] Customs union Negotiating for EU accession
Ukraine 2014 2016 2017[40][41] AA incl DCFTA Ukraine–EU relations
Agreements provisionally applied[edit]
State
Signed
Provisional
Application
Ratification
Notes
Relations
CARIFORUM States 2008 2008
30 / 43
[42] EPA
Eastern and Southern Africa States
Comoros
Madagascar
Mauritius
Seychelles
Zambia[e]
Zimbabwe 2009 2012
3 / 34
[43] Interim Agreement for establishing a framework for an EPA
Central America
Costa Rica
Guatemala
Honduras
Nicaragua
Panama
El Salvador 2012 2013
28 / 34
[44] AA
Côte d'Ivoire 2009 2016
18 / 29
[45] Stepping Stone EPA
Colombia
Peru 2012[46] 2013
26 / 30
[47] FTA[48]
Cameroon 2009 2014
18 / 29
[49] Interim agreement with a view to an EPA
Pacific States
Fiji
Papua New Guinea 2009 2009 and 2014
2 / 3
[50] Interim Partnership Agreement
South African Development Community members
Botswana
Lesotho
Mozambique
Namibia
South Africa
Swaziland 2016 2016
8 / 35
[51] Economic Partnership Agreement
Ghana 2016 2016[52]
2 / 29
[52] Stepping Stone EPA
Ecuador 2016[53] 2017[54]
8 / 32
[55] Accession to EU-Peru-Colombia Free Trade Agreement[56]
Canada August 2014 21 September 2017[57]
3 / 30
[58] Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement[59]

Agreements finalised (negotiations concluded, but not signed)[edit]
State
Negotiations Concluded
Signed
Provisional
Application
Ratification
Notes
West Africa
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cape Verde
Ivory Coast
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Liberia
Mali
Niger
Nigeria
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Togo
Mauritania 6 February 2014 Partially signed[60] Economic Partnership Agreement[61][62]
Singapore 17 October 2014 No EU-Singapore Free Trade Agreement, a Comprehensive Free Trade Agreement,[63] subject to CJEU Opinion 2/15 (member states also have to sign when arbitration is planned by the treaty, due to national competency)
Vietnam 2 December 2015 No Free Trade Agreement[64]
Eastern African Community members
Burundi
Kenya
Rwanda
Tanzania
Uganda 16 October 2014 Partially signed[65] Economic Partnership Agreement[66]
Negotiating[edit]
Gulf Cooperation Council (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates) since 1990, negotiations are suspended since 2008
Mercosur (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela) since 2000, relaunched in May 2010
India Negotiations initiated in 2007 on EU-India Bilateral Trade and Investment Agreement are stalled as of March 2015.[67][68][69]
ASEAN countries:
Indonesia since September 2016
Malaysia since October 2010
Thailand since March 2013
Philippines since December 2015
Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area negotiations:
Morocco since March 2013
Tunisia since October 2015
Japan (Japan–EU relations) since March 2013
Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) (United States–EU relations) since July 2013
New Zealand since October 2015[70]
Competence[edit]
The European court of Justice has held that that investor-state Arbitration provisions (including a dedicated tribunal planned by some free trade agreements) falls under competency shared between European Union and its member states and that for this reason, their ratification should be approved by each of the EU as well as the 28 states.[71]
See also[edit]
Business and economics portal
Lists portal
Free trade area
List of free trade agreements
List of bilateral free trade agreements
EU-ACP Economic Partnership Agreements
European Union Association Agreement
EUR.1 movement certificate
United States free trade agreements
Euro-Mediterranean free trade area
Free trade areas in Europe
List of the largest trading partners of the European Union
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Entry into force of Interim Agreement
Jump up ^ Interim Agreement
Jump up ^ Agreement on Trade, Development and Cooperation
Jump up ^ Decision of the EC-Turkey Association Council
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference nsign was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Free trade agreements". European Commission. Retrieved 17 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Agreements". European Commission. Retrieved 17 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Act concerning the conditions of accession of the Czech Republic, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic of Cyprus, the Republic of Latvia, the Republic of Lithuania, the Republic of Hungary, the Republic of Malta, the Republic of Poland, the Republic of Slovenia and the Slovak Republic and the adjustments to the Treaties on which the European Union is founded - Protocol No 3 on the sovereign base areas of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland on Cyprus
Jump up ^ "Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Albania, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreement between the European Community and its Members States, of the one part, and the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Agreement in the form of an Exchange of Letters between the European Economic Community and the Principality of Andorra". Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Agreement establishing an Association between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Chile, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Chile - Trade - European Commission". ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreement between the European Communities and its Member States and the Arab Republic of Egypt". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Agreement between the European Community, of the one part, and the Government of Denmark and the Home Government of the Faroe Islands, of the other part". Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and their Member States, of the one part, and Georgia, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Documents concerning the accession to the European Communities of the Kingdom of Denmark, Ireland, the Kingdom of Norway and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Protocol No 3 on the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man
^ Jump up to: a b c "Agreement on the European Economic Area". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Interim Agreement on trade and trade-related matters between the European Community and the European Coal and Steel Community, of the one part, and the State of Israel, on the other part". Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the State of Israel, of the other part". Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Information relating to the entry into force of the Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community, of the one part, and Kosovo (*), of the other part". Europa.eu. Retrieved 25 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association between the European Community and its Members States, of the one part, and the Republic of Lebanon, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Mexico - Trade - European Commission". ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Economic Partnership, Political Coordination and Cooperation Agreement between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the United Mexican States, of the other part". eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and their Member States, of the one part, and Moldova, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States of the one part, and the Republic of Montenegro, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Agreement details". Council of the European Union. Retrieved 7 August 2013.
Jump up ^ "Council Decision 2013/755/EU of 25 November 2013 on the association of the overseas countries and territories with the European Union". EUR-Lex. 19 December 2013.
Jump up ^ "Council Decision 2001/822/EC of 27 November 2001 on the association of the overseas countries and territories with the European Community". EUR-Lex. 27 November 2001.
Jump up ^ "Euro-Mediterranean Interim Association Agreement on Trade and Cooperation between the European Community, of the one part, and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) for the benefit of the Palestinian Authority of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Agreement on Cooperation and Customs Union between the European Economic Community and the Republic of San Marino". Retrieved 29 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Serbia, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Agreement in the form of an Exchange of Letters between the Community and South Africa, which provides for the provisional application of a portion of the Agreement on Trade, Development and Cooperation between the European Community and its Member States, on the one part, and the Republic of South Africa, on the other part". Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Agreement on Trade, Development and Cooperation between the European Community and its Member States, on the one part, and the Republic of South Africa, on the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Free Trade Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Korea, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "EUR-Lex - L:2011:127:TOC - EN - EUR-Lex". eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Trade agreement details". Council of the European Union. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Agreement between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the Swiss Confederation, of the other, on the Free Movement of Persons". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Tunisia, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Decision No 1/95 of the EC-Turkey Association Council of 22 December 1995 on implementing the final phase of the Customs Union
Jump up ^ "Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and their Member States, of the one part, and Ukraine, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
Jump up ^ http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/documents-publications/treaties-agreements/agreement/?id=2014045
Jump up ^ "Economic Partnership Agreement between the CARIFORUM States, of the one part, and the European Community and its Member States, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Interim Agreement establishing a framework for an Economic Partnership Agreement between the Eastern and Southern Africa States, on the one part, and the European Community and its Member States, on the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Agreement establishing an Association between the European Union and its Member States, on the one hand, and Central America on the other". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Agreement details". Council of the European Union. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ [1] EU signs FTA
Jump up ^ "Trade Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and Colombia and Peru, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ [2] EU FTA agreements with Colombia and Central America became effective August first
Jump up ^ "Agreement details". Council of the European Union. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Agreement details". Council of the European Union. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Agreement details". Council of the European Union. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Agreement details". Council of the European Union. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Ecuador joins EU trade agreement with Colombia and Peru".
Jump up ^ "Notice concerning the provisional application". EUR-Lex. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Agreement details". Council of the European Union. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "EU Trade Policy with the Andean Community".
Jump up ^ "Canada, EU to provisionally apply CETA in September". CBC News. 8 July 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) between Canada, of the one part, and the European Union and its Member States, of the other part". Agreements Database, Council of the European Union.
Jump up ^ "In Focus: EU-Canada Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement".
Jump up ^ https://www.euractiv.com/section/trade-society/opinion/incomplete-and-outdated-why-i-reject-the-eu-ghana-deal/
Jump up ^ http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2009/september/tradoc_144912.pdf
Jump up ^ http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/regions/west-africa/
Jump up ^ http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/countries/singapore/
Jump up ^ http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/countries/vietnam/
Jump up ^ http://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/trade/itemdetail.cfm?item_id=34138&newsletter=230
Jump up ^ http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/regions/eac/
Jump up ^ European Union Seeks Prime Minister Narendra Modi's Intervention to Resume Trade Talks
Jump up ^ EU keen to restart FTA negotiations with India
Jump up ^ EU Keen to Resume Negotiations on Stalled BTIA With India
Jump up ^ New Zealand, EC Trade. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
Jump up ^ http://www.ouest-france.fr/economie/ue-pas-de-traite-commercial-sans-l-accord-des-parlements-nationaux-4994855
External links[edit]
Free Trade Agreements, International affairs, European Commission
Trade Flows, Animated infographics, European Parliamentary Research Service
Articles on EU FTAs, at Agritrade
The Transatlantic Colossus: Global Contributions to Broaden the Debate on the EU-US Free Trade Agreement A collaborative publication with over 20 articles on the global implications of the TAFTA | TTIP
Koeth, Wolfgang (8 December 2014) “The Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Agreements: an Appropriate Response by the EU to the Challenges in its Neighbourhood”?
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Shylock
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the literary character. For other uses, see Shylock (disambiguation).
Shylock After the Trial by John Gilbert (late 19th century)
Shylock is a character in William Shakespeare's play The Merchant of Venice. A Venetian Jewish moneylender, Shylock is the play's principal antagonist. His defeat and conversion to Christianity forms the climax of the story.
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 In the play
3 Historical background
4 Portrayal
4.1 Shylock on stage
5 Other representations
5.1 Notable portrayals
6 Shylock and antisemitism
6.1 Anti-semitic reading
6.2 Sympathetic reading
6.3 Influence on antisemitism
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 Further reading
Name
Shylock is not a Jewish name. However, some scholars believe it probably derives from the biblical name Shalah, which is 'Shelach' (שלח) in Hebrew. Shalah is the grandson of Shem and the father of Eber, biblical progenitor of Hebrew peoples. All the names of Jewish characters in the play derive from minor figures listed in genealogies in the Book of Genesis. It is possible that Shakespeare originally intended the name to be pronounced with a short "i", as rather than a long one. The modern pronunciation has changed because the standard spelling with a "y" signifies to readers a long 'i' pronunciation.[1] Other scholars emphasise that, although the name echoes some Hebrew names, "Shylock" was a common sixteenth-century English name that would have been familiar to Shakespeare's fellow Londoners, and the name is notable for its Saxon origin, meaning "white-haired." The Shylocks of sixteenth-century London included "goldsmiths, mercers, and, most visibly of all, scriveners,"[2] According to prominent scholar Stephen Orgel, a Stanford professor who serves (with A.R. Braunmuller) as general editor of The Pelican Shakespeare series from Penguin.
In the play
Shylock is a Jew who lends money to his Christian rival Antonio, setting the security at a pound of Antonio's flesh. When a bankrupt Antonio defaults on the loan, Shylock demands the pound of flesh. This decision is fuelled by his sense of revenge, for Antonio had previously insulted, physically assaulted and spat on him in the Rialto (stock exchange of Venice) dozens of times, defiled the "sacred" Jewish religion and had also inflicted massive financial losses on him. Meanwhile, Shylock's daughter, Jessica, falls in love with Antonio's friend Lorenzo and converts to Christianity, leaves Shylock's house and steals vast riches from him, which adds to Shylock's rage and hardens his resolve for revenge. In the end – due to the efforts of Antonio's well-wisher, Portia – Shylock is charged with attempted murder of a Christian, carrying a possible death penalty, and Antonio is freed without punishment. Shylock is then ordered to surrender half of his wealth and property to the state and the other half to Antonio. However, as an act of "mercy", Antonio modifies the verdict, asking Shylock to hand over only one-half of his wealth – to him (Antonio) for his own as well as Lorenzo's need – provided that he keeps two promises. First, Shylock has to sign an agreement bequeathing all his remaining property to Lorenzo and Jessica, which is to become effective after his demise, and second, he is to immediately convert to Christianity. Shylock is forced to agree to these terms, and he exits citing illness.
Historical background
In Shakespeare's time, no Jews had been legally present in England for several hundred years (since the Edict of Expulsion in 1290). However, stereotypes of Jews as money lenders remained from the Middle Ages. Historically, money lending had been a fairly common occupation among Jews, in part because Christians were not permitted to practise usury, then considered to mean charging interest of any kind on loans, and Jews were excluded from other fields of work.[3] At the same time, most Christian kings forbade Jews to own land for farming or to serve in the government, and craft guilds usually refused to admit Jews as artisans.[4] Thus money lending was one of the few occupations still open to Jews.
Hyam Maccoby argues that the play is based on medieval morality plays, in which the Virgin Mary (here represented by Portia) argues for the forgiveness of human souls, as against the implacable accusations of the Devil (Shylock).
Portrayal
Shylock on stage
Henry Irving as Shylock in a late 19th century performance
Jacob Adler and others report that the tradition of playing Shylock sympathetically began in the first half of the 19th century with Edmund Kean.[5] Previously the role had been played "by a comedian as a repulsive clown or, alternatively, as a monster of unrelieved evil." Kean's Shylock established his reputation as an actor.[6]
Since Kean's time, many other actors who have played the role have chosen a sympathetic approach to the character. Edwin Booth was a notable exception, playing him as a simple villain, although his father Junius Brutus Booth had portrayed the character sympathetically. Henry Irving's portrayal of an aristocratic, proud Shylock (first seen at the Lyceum in 1879, with Portia played by Ellen Terry) has been called "the summit of his career".[7] Jacob Adler was the most notable of the early 20th century actors in this role, speaking in Yiddish in an otherwise English-language production.[8]
Kean and Irving presented a Shylock justified in wanting his revenge. Adler's Shylock evolved over the years he played the role, first as a stock Shakespearean villain, then as a man whose better nature was overcome by a desire for revenge, and finally as a man who operated not from revenge but from pride. In a 1902 interview with Theater magazine, Adler pointed out that Shylock is a wealthy man, "rich enough to forgo the interest on three thousand ducats" and that Antonio is "far from the chivalrous gentleman he is made to appear. He has insulted the Jew and spat on him, yet he comes with hypocritical politeness to borrow money of him." Shylock's fatal flaw is to depend on the law, but "would he not walk out of that courtroom head erect, the very apotheosis of defiant hatred and scorn?"[9]
Some modern productions explore the justification of Shylock's thirst for vengeance. For instance, in the 2004 film adaptation directed by Michael Radford and starring Al Pacino as Shylock, the film begins with text and a montage of how the Jewish community is abused by the Christian population of the city. One of the last shots of the film also highlights that, as a convert, Shylock would have been cast out of the Jewish community in Venice, no longer allowed to live in the ghetto. But he would likely not have been fully accepted by the Christians, as they would remember his Jewish birth. Another interpretation of Shylock and a vision of how "must he be acted" appears at the conclusion of the autobiography of Alexander Granach, a noted Jewish stage and film actor in Weimar Germany (and later in Hollywood and on Broadway).[10]
Other representations
Elmore Leonard's book Get Shorty was later made into the movie Get Shorty starring John Travolta, wherein Travolta's character Ernest "Chilli" Palmer is a shylock, or loan shark. Throughout the movie Travolta pitches an idea for a movie about an actual shylock.
St. John Ervine's play The Lady of Belmont (1924) is a sequel to The Merchant of Venice where the characters meet again some years later. All of the marriages that ended The Merchant of Venice are unhappy, Antonio is an obsessive bore reminiscing about his escape from death, but Shylock, freed from religious prejudice, is richer than before and a close friend and confidante of the Doge.
Arnold Wesker's play The Merchant (1977) dramatises the same plot from Shylock's point of view. In this retelling, Shylock and Antonio are friends bound by a mutual love of books and culture and a disdain for the anti-Semitism of the Christian community's laws. They make the bond in defiant mockery of the Christian establishment, never anticipating that the bond might become forfeit. When it does, the play argues, Shylock must carry through on the letter of the law or jeopardise the scant legal security of the entire Jewish community. He is, therefore, quite as grateful as Antonio when Portia, as in Shakespeare's play, shows the legal way out. The play received its American premiere on 16 November 1977 at New York's Plymouth Theatre with Joseph Leon as Shylock, Marian Seldes as Shylock's sister Rivka and Roberta Maxwell as Portia. This production had a challenging history in previews on the road. The Broadway star Zero Mostel, who was initially cast as Shylock, died after the play's opening night in Philadelphia. The play's author, Arnold Wesker, wrote a book chronicling the out-of-town tribulations that beset the play and Mostel's death called The Birth of Shylock and the Death of Zero Mostel.
The award-winning monologue Shylock (1996) by Canadian playwright Mark Leiren-Young, focuses on a Jewish actor named Jon Davies, who is featured as Shylock in a production of The Merchant of Venice.[11] Jon addresses his audience at a "talk back" session, after the play is closed abruptly due to controversy over the play's alleged antisemitism. Davies is portrayed both in and out of character, presenting and stripping down the layers between character and actor. Composed in one 80-minute act, it premiered at Bard on the Beach on 5 August 1996, where it was directed by John Juliani and starred popular Canadian radio host, David Berner. Its American debut was in 1998 at Philadelphia's Walnut Street Theatre where it was directed by Deborah Block, starred William Leach and was "Barrymore Recommended". It has since been produced at theatres, Shakespeare Festivals and Fringes throughout Canada and the US (including the San Diego Repertory Theatre where it was staged opposite a controversial production of The Merchant of Venice), was translated for a production in Denmark and has been staged twice by the original actor, Berner, in Venice.
Notable portrayals
1911 Italian-French film.
Notable actors who have portrayed Shylock include Richard Burbage in the 16th century, Charles Macklin in 1741, Edmund Kean in 1814, William Charles Macready in 1840, Edwin Booth in 1861, Henry Irving in 1880, George Arliss in 1928, and John Gielgud in 1937. Under Nazi rule in 1943, the Vienna Burgtheater presented a notoriously extreme production of The Merchant of Venice with Werner Krauss as an evil Shylock.
After World War II, productions were sometimes featured on TV and in film as well as on stage. Laurence Olivier at the Royal National Theatre in 1972 and on TV in 1973, Patrick Stewart in 1965 at the Theatre Royal, Bristol and 1978. In addition, Stewart developed a one-man show Shylock: Shakespeare's Alien and produced it while acting in the role in 1987 and 2001. Al Pacino acted as Shylock in a 2004 feature film version as well as in Central Park in 2010. F. Murray Abraham played this character at the Royal Shakespeare Company in 2006. In 2015 and 2016, David Serero plays Shylock in New York at the Center for Jewish History.[12] Jonathan Pryce played the role in the Globe theatre in the summer of 2015. This was followed by a touring production in 2016. Pryce's daughter performs the role of Jessica (Shylock's daughter) in the production.
Shylock and antisemitism
Shylock and Jessica by Maurycy Gottlieb
Since Shakespeare's time, the character's name has become a synonym for loan shark, and as a verb to shylock means to lend money at exorbitant rates. In addition, the phrase "pound of flesh" has also entered the lexicon as slang for a particularly onerous or unpleasant obligation.
Anti-semitic reading
English society in the Elizabethan era has been described as antisemitic.[13] English Jews had been expelled in 1290; Jews were not allowed to settle in the country until the rule of Oliver Cromwell. In the 16th and early 17th centuries, Jews were often presented on the Elizabethan stage in hideous caricature, with hooked noses and bright red wigs. They were usually depicted as avaricious usurers; an example is Christopher Marlowe's play The Jew of Malta, which features a comically wicked Jewish villain called Barabas. They were usually characterised as evil, deceptive, and greedy.
During the 1600s in Venice and in other places, Jews were required to wear a red hat at all times in public to ensure that they were easily identified. If they did not comply with this rule, they could face the death penalty. In Venice, Jews had to live in a ghetto protected by Christians which was probably for their own safety. The Jews were expected to pay their guards.[14]
Shakespeare's play reflected the anti-semitic tradition. The title page of the Quarto indicates that the play was sometimes known as The Jew of Venice in its day, which suggests that it was seen as similar to Marlowe's The Jew of Malta. One interpretation of the play's structure is that Shakespeare meant to contrast the mercy of the main Christian characters with the vengeful Shylock, who lacks the religious grace to comprehend mercy. Similarly, it is possible that Shakespeare meant Shylock's forced conversion to Christianity to be a "happy ending" for the character, as it 'redeems' Shylock both from his unbelief and his specific sin of wanting to kill Antonio. This reading of the play would certainly fit with the anti-semitic trends present in Elizabethan England.
Sympathetic reading
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Shylock and Portia (1835) by Thomas Sully
Many modern readers and audiences have read the play as a plea for tolerance, with Shylock as a sympathetic character. Shylock's 'trial' at the end of the play is a mockery of justice, with Portia acting as a judge when she has no real right to do so. Shakespeare does not question Shylock's intentions, but that the very people who berated Shylock for being dishonest have resorted to trickery in order to win. Shakespeare gives Shylock one of his most eloquent speeches:
Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions; fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, heal'd by the same means, warm'd and cool'd by the same winter and summer as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like you in the rest, we will resemble you in that. If a Jew wrong a Christian, what is his humility? Revenge. If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me, I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction.
—  Act III, scene I
Alexander Granach, who played Shylock in Germany in the 1920s, writes,
[H]ow does it happen that Shylock's defense becomes an accusation? ... The answer must be a perfectly simple one. God and Shakespeare did not create beings of paper, they gave them flesh and blood! Even if the poet did not know Shylock and did not like him, the justice of his genius took the part of his black obstacle [Shylock, the obstacle to the plans of the young lovers] and, out of its prodigal and endless wealth, gave Shylock human greatness and spiritual strength and a great loneliness—things that turn Antonio's gay, singing, sponging, money-borrowing, girl-stealing, marriage-contriving circle into petty idlers and sneak thieves.[15]
Influence on antisemitism
Antisemites have used the play to support their views throughout its history. The 1619 edition has a subtitle of "With the Extreme Cruelty of Shylock the Jew…" The Nazis used Shylock for their propaganda.[16] Shortly after Kristallnacht in 1938, the German radio had broadcast a production of The Merchant of Venice to reinforce stereotypes. Productions of the play followed in Lübeck (1938), Berlin (1940), and elsewhere within Nazi-occupied territory.[17]
The depiction of Jews in the literature of England and other English-speaking countries throughout the centuries was influenced by the character of Shylock from The Merchant of Venice and similar stereotypes. With slight variations much of English literature up until the 20th century depicts the Jew as "a monied, cruel, lecherous, avaricious outsider tolerated only because of his golden hoard".[18]
References
Jump up ^ Jay L. Halio ;llmcn.,c;, The Merchant of Venice, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1994, p.23/
Jump up ^ quoted from Shylock is Shakespeare by Kenneth Gross, 2006, University of Chicago Press.
Jump up ^ Ferguson 2009, p. 36.
Jump up ^ Baron, Salo, Kahan, Arcadius; et al., Economic History of the Jews, Nachum Gross (Ed.), Schocken Books, 1975, p. 257
Jump up ^ Adler erroneously dates this from 1847 (at which time Kean was already dead); the Cambridge Student Guide to The Merchant of Venice dates Kean's performance to a more likely 1814.
Jump up ^ Adler 1999, 341.
Jump up ^ Wells and Dobson, p. 290.
Jump up ^ Adler 1999, 342–44.
Jump up ^ Adler 1999, 344–350
Jump up ^ Granach 1945; 2010, 275–279.
Jump up ^ Charlesbois, Gaetan. "Shylock". Canadian Theatre Encyclopedia. 18 June 2010. Retrieved 19 January 2013
Jump up ^ BWW News Desk. "David Serero to Star in THE MERCHANT OF VENICE at the Center for Jewish History This June". BroadwayWorld.com.
Jump up ^ Philipe Burrin, Nazi Anti-Semitism: From Prejudice to Holocaust. The New Press, 2005, ISBN 1-56584-969-8, p. 17.
It was not until the twelfth century that in northern Europe (England, Germany, and France), a region until then peripheral but at this point expanding fast, a form of Judeophobia developed that was considerably more violent because of a new dimension of imagined behaviors, including accusations that Jews engaged in ritual murder, profanation of the host, and the poisoning of wells. With the prejudices of the day against Jews, atheists and non-Christians in general, Jews found it hard to fit in with society. Some say that these attitudes provided the foundations of anti-semitism in the 20th century."
Jump up ^ "Venice, Italy Jewish History Tour – Jewish Virtual Library". jewishvirtuallibrary.org.
Jump up ^ Granach 1945, 2010: 276–77
Jump up ^ Gross, John (4 April 1993). "THEATER; Shylock and Nazi Propaganda". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Lecture by James Shapiro: "Shakespeare and the Jews"
Jump up ^ David Mirsky, "The Fictive Jew in the Literature of England 1890–1920, in the Samuel K. Mirsky Memorial Volume.
Bibliography
Adler, Jacob, A Life on the Stage: A Memoir, translated and with commentary by Lulla Rosenfeld, Knopf, New York, 1999, ISBN 0-679-41351-0.
Ferguson, Niall (2009). The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 9780143116172.
Granach, Alexander, "There Goes an Actor," tr. Willard Trask, Doubleday, Doran, Garden City, NY, 1945. Also Granach, Alexander, "From the Shtetl to the Stage: The Odyssey of a Wandering Actor," with new Introduction by Herbert S., Lewis, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, NJ, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4128-1347-1.
Smith, Rob: Cambridge Student Guide to The Merchant of Venice. ISBN 0-521-00816-6.
Further reading
Look up shylock in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
James Shapiro, Shakespeare and the Jews. Columbia University Press: 1997. ISBN 0-231-10345-X.
S.L. Lee, "The Original of Shylock," The Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. CCXLVI, January/June 1880.
John Gross, Shylock: A Legend and Its Legacy. Touchstone: 1994. ISBN 0-671-88386-0.
Kenneth Gross, Shylock Is Shakespeare. University of Chicago Press: 2006. ISBN 0-226-30977-0.
Joseph Shatzmiller, Shylock Reconsidered: Jews, Moneylending, and Medieval Society. University of California Press: 1990. ISBN 0-520-06635-9.
Martin Yaffe, Shylock and the Jewish Question. Johns Hopkins University Press: 1997. ISBN 0-8018-5648-5.
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William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice
Characters
Shylock
Antonio
Portia
Jessica
Sources
The Jew of Malta
On screen
1914
1916
1923
Shylock (1941)
1961
1969
1980 (TV)
2004
One Man Band (unfinished)
Adaptations
Le marchand de Venise (1935, opera)
Shylock (1987, musical)
The Merchant of Venice (1982, opera)
Derivative works
Serenade to Music (1938)
Shylock (1996)
Yasser (2001)
The Maori Merchant of Venice (2002)
Related
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