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Landlocked country
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Landlocked countries: 42 landlocked (green), 2 doubly landlocked (purple)
A landlocked state or landlocked country is a sovereign state entirely enclosed by land, or whose only coastlines lie on closed seas. There are currently 49 such countries, including five partially recognised states. Only two, Bolivia and Paraguay in South America, lie outside Afro-Eurasia (the Old World).
As a rule, being landlocked creates political and economic handicaps that access to the high seas avoids. For this reason, states large and small across history have striven to gain access to open waters, even at great expense in wealth, bloodshed, and political capital.
The economic disadvantages of being landlocked can be alleviated or aggravated depending on degree of development, language barriers, and other considerations. Some historically landlocked countries are quite affluent, such as Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, and Austria, all of which frequently employ neutrality to their political advantage. The majority, however, are classified as Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs).[1] 9 of the 12 countries with the lowest Human Development Indices (HDI) are landlocked.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Significance
1.1 Efforts to avoid being landlocked
1.2 Trade agreements
1.3 Political repercussions
2 By degree
2.1 Landlocked by a single country
2.2 Landlocked by two countries
2.3 Doubly landlocked
3 List of landlocked countries and territories
4 See also
5 References
Significance[edit]
Bolivia's loss of its coastline in the War of the Pacific (1879–1884) remains a major political issue
Historically, being landlocked has been disadvantageous to a country's development. It cuts a nation off from important sea resources such as fishing, and impedes or prevents direct access to seaborne trade, a crucial component of economic and social advance. As such, coastal regions tended to be wealthier and more heavily populated than inland ones. Paul Collier in his book The Bottom Billion argues that being landlocked in a poor geographic neighborhood is one of four major development "traps" by which a country can be held back. In general, he found that when a neighboring country experiences better growth, it tends to spill over into favorable development for the country itself. For landlocked countries, the effect is particularly strong, as they are limited in their trading activity with the rest of the world. He states, "If you are coastal, you serve the world; if you are landlocked, you serve your neighbors."[3] Others have argued that being landlocked may actually be a blessing as it creates a "natural tariff barrier" which protects the country from cheap imports. In some instances, this has led to more robust local food systems.[4][5]
Landlocked developing countries have significantly higher costs of international cargo transportation compared to coastal developing countries (in Asia the ratio is 3:1).[6]
Efforts to avoid being landlocked[edit]
Countries thus have made particular efforts to avoid being landlocked, by acquiring land that reaches the sea:
As result of a 2005 territorial exchange with Ukraine, Moldova received a 600 m-long bank of the Danube River (which is an international waterway), subsequently building its Port of Giurgiulești there.
The International Congo Society, which owned the territory now constituting the Democratic Republic of the Congo, was awarded a narrow piece of land cutting through Angola to connect it to the sea by the Conference of Berlin in 1885.
The Republic of Ragusa once gave the town of Neum to the Ottoman Empire because it did not want to have a land border with Venice; this small municipality was inherited by Bosnia and Herzegovina and now provides limited sea access, splitting the Croatian part of the Adriatic coast in two. Since Bosnia and Herzegovina is a new country, railways and ports have not been built for its need. There is no freight port along its short coastline at Neum, making it effectively landlocked, although there are plans to change this. Instead the port of Ploče in Croatia is used.
After World War I, in the Treaty of Versailles, a part of Germany designated "the Polish corridor" was given to the new Second Polish Republic, for access to the Baltic Sea. This gave Poland a short coastline, but without a large harbour. This was also the pretext for making Danzig (now Gdańsk) with its harbour the Free City of Danzig, to which Poland was given free access. However, the Germans placed obstacles to this free access, especially when it came to military material. In response, the small fishing harbour of Gdynia was soon greatly enlarged.
Until the dissolution of Austria–Hungary in 1918 at the end of World War I, Austrians, Hungarians and that empire's other nationalities had served in that country's navy, but since then, Austria and Hungary have both been landlocked countries.
Trade agreements[edit]
Countries can make agreements on getting free transport of goods through neighbour countries:
The Treaty of Versailles required Germany to offer Czechoslovakia a lease for 99 years of parts of the ports in Hamburg and Stettin, allowing Czechoslovakia sea trade via the Elbe and Oder rivers. Stettin was annexed by Poland after World War II, but Hamburg continued the contract so that part of the port (now called Moldauhafen) may still be used for sea trade by a successor of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic.
The Danube is an international waterway, and thus landlocked Austria, Hungary, Moldova, Serbia, and Slovakia have secure access to the Black Sea (the same access is given to inland parts of Germany and Croatia, though Germany and Croatia are not landlocked). However, oceangoing ships cannot use the Danube, so cargo must be transloaded anyway, and many overseas imports into Austria and Hungary use land transport from Atlantic and Mediterranean ports. A similar situation exists for the Rhine river where Switzerland has boat access, but not oceangoing ships. Luxembourg has such through the Moselle, but Liechtenstein has no boat access, even though it is located along the Rhine, as the Rhine is not navigable that far upstream.
The Mekong is an international waterway so that landlocked Laos has access to the South China Sea (since Laos became independent from French Indochina). However, it is not navigable due to the Khone Phapheng Falls.
Free ports allow transshipment to short-distance ships or river vessels.
The TIR Treaty allows sealed road transport without customs checks and charges, mostly in Europe.
Political repercussions[edit]
Losing access to the sea is generally a great blow to a nation, politically, militarily, and economically. The following are examples of countries becoming landlocked.
The independence of Eritrea, brought about by successful separatist movements, has caused Ethiopia to become landlocked.
Montenegro's decision to abandon the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro caused the federal unit of Serbia to become a landlocked independent state.
Bolivia lost its coastline to Chile in the War of the Pacific and accepted it in treaties signed in 1884 and 1904. The last treaty gives port storage facilities and special treatment for the transit of goods from and to Bolivia through Chilean ports and territory. Peru and Argentina have also given special treatment for the transit of goods. A fluvial Bolivian Navy, which did not exist at the time of the War of the Pacific, was created later and both train and operates in Lake Titicaca and rivers. The Bolivian people annually celebrate a patriotic "Dia del Mar" (Day of the Sea) to remember its territorial loss, which included both the coastal city of Antofagasta and what has proven to be one of the most significant and lucrative copper deposits in the world. Early in the 21st century, the selection of the route of gas pipes from Bolivia to the sea fueled popular uprisings, as people were against the option of laying the pipes through Chilean territory.
Austria and Hungary also lost their access to the sea as a consequence of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and the Treaty of Trianon (1920) respectively. Previously, although Croatia had a limited constitutional autonomy within the Kingdom of Hungary, the City of Fiume/Rijeka on the Croatian coast was governed directly from Budapest by an appointed governor as a corpus separatum, to provide Hungary with its only international port in the periods 1779–1813, 1822–1848 and 1868–1918.
By 1801, the Nizam's dominion of Hyderabad State assumed the shape it is now remembered for: that of a landlocked princely state with territories in central Deccan, bounded on all sides by British India, whereas 150 years earlier it had had a considerable coastline on the Bay of Bengal which was annexed by the British.[7]
It is possible that one of the causes of the Paraguayan War was Paraguay's lack of direct ocean access (although this is disputed; see the linked article).
When the Entente Powers divided the former Ottoman Empire under the Treaty of Sèvres at the close of World War I, Armenia was promised part of the Trebizond vilayet (roughly corresponding to the modern Trabzon and Rize provinces in Turkey). This would have given Armenia access to the Black Sea. However, the Sèvres treaty collapsed with the Turkish War of Independence and was superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne, which firmly established Turkish rule over the area.
In 2011, South Sudan broke off from Sudan, causing the former to become landlocked. There still remains conflict over the oil fields in South Sudan between the two countries.
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea now gives a landlocked country a right of access to and from the sea without taxation of traffic through transit states. The United Nations has a programme of action to assist landlocked developing countries,[8] and the current responsible Undersecretary-General is Anwarul Karim Chowdhury.
Some countries have a long coastline, but much of it may not be readily usable for trade and commerce. For instance, in its early history, Russia's only ports were on the Arctic Ocean and frozen shut for much of the year. The wish to gain control of a warm-water port was a major motivator of Russian expansion towards the Baltic Sea, Black Sea and Pacific Ocean. On the other hand, some landlocked countries can have access to the ocean along wide navigable rivers. For instance, Paraguay (and Bolivia to a lesser extent) have access to the ocean by the Paraguay and Parana rivers.
Several countries have coastlines on landlocked seas, such as the Caspian and the Dead. Since these seas are in effect lakes without access to wider seaborne trade, countries such as Kazakhstan are still considered landlocked. Although the Caspian Sea is connected to the Black Sea via the man-made Volga–Don Canal, large oceangoing ships are unable to traverse it.
By degree[edit]
Landlocked countries may be bordered by a single country having access to the high seas, two or more such countries, or be surrounded by other landlocked countries, making a country doubly landlocked.
Landlocked by a single country[edit]
Three countries are landlocked by a single country (enclaved countries) :
Lesotho, a state surrounded by South Africa.
San Marino, a state surrounded by Italy.
Vatican City, a state forming part of Rome, thus surrounded by Italy.
Landlocked by two countries[edit]
Seven landlocked countries are surrounded by only two mutually bordering neighbors (semi-enclaved countries):
Andorra (between France and Spain)
Bhutan (between India and China)
Liechtenstein (one of the "doubly landlocked" countries, between Switzerland and Austria)
Moldova (between Ukraine and Romania)
Mongolia (between Russia and China)
Nepal (between India and China)
Swaziland (between South Africa and Mozambique)
To this group could be added two de facto states with no or limited international recognition:
South Ossetia (between Russia and Georgia)
Transnistria (between Ukraine and Moldova)
Doubly landlocked[edit]
A country is "doubly landlocked" or "double-landlocked" when it is surrounded entirely by one or more landlocked countries (requiring the crossing of at least two national borders to reach a coastline).[9][10]
Liechtenstein in Central Europe, surrounded by Switzerland and Austria.[11]
Uzbekistan in Central Asia, surrounded by Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.[12]
There were no doubly landlocked countries in recent times from the unification of Germany in 1871 until the end of World War I. Liechtenstein bordered the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which had an Adriatic coastline, and Uzbekistan was then part of the Russian Empire, which had both ocean and sea access.
With the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918 and creation of an independent, landlocked Austria, Liechtenstein became the sole doubly landlocked country until 1938. In the Nazi Anschluss that year Austria was absorbed into the Third Reich, which possessed a border on the Baltic Sea and the North Sea. After World War II, Austria regained its independence and Liechtenstein once again became doubly landlocked.
Uzbekistan, which had been absorbed by the new Soviet Union upon the toppling of the Russian throne in 1917, gained its independence with the dissolution of the U.S.S.R. in 1991 and became the second doubly landlocked country.
However, Uzbekistan's doubly landlocked status depends on the Caspian Sea's status dispute: some countries, especially Iran and Turkmenistan, claim that the Caspian Sea should be considered as a real sea (mainly because this way they would have larger oil and gas fields), which would make Uzbekistan only a simple landlocked country because its neighbours Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan have access to the Caspian Sea.
List of landlocked countries and territories[edit]
Country
Area (km2)
Population
Cluster
Surrounding countries
Count
Afghanistan 652,230 33,369,945 Central Asia Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, China, Pakistan 6
Andorra 468 84,082 (none) France, Spain 2
Armenia[e] 29,743 3,254,300 Caucasia Iran, Turkey, Georgia, Azerbaijan 4
Austria 83,871 8,572,895 Central Europe Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Italy, Liechtenstein, Switzerland 8
Azerbaijan[a] 86,600 8,997,401 Caucasia Russia, Georgia, Armenia, Iran, Turkey 4
Belarus 207,600 9,484,300 (none) Poland, Lithuania, Russia, Ukraine, Latvia 5
Bhutan 38,394 691,141 (none) India, China 2
Bolivia 1,098,581 10,907,778 South America Peru, Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay 5
Botswana 582,000 1,990,876 Southern Africa Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa 4
Burkina Faso 274,222 15,746,232 Central Africa Mali, Niger, Benin, Togo, Ghana, Ivory Coast 6
Burundi 27,834 10,557,259 Central Africa Rwanda, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of the Congo 3
Central African Republic 622,984 4,422,000 Central Africa Chad, Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sudan, South Sudan 6
Chad 1,284,000 13,670,084 Central Africa Libya, Niger, Sudan, Central African Republic, Nigeria, Cameroon 6
Czech Republic 78,867 10,674,947 Central Europe Austria, Germany, Poland, Slovakia 4
Ethiopia 1,104,300 101,853,268 Central Africa Djibouti, Eritrea, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan 6
Hungary 93,028 10,005,000 Central Europe Austria, Croatia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine 7
Kazakhstan[a] 2,724,900 16,372,000 Central Asia China, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan 5
Kosovo[c] 10,908 1,804,838 Central Europe Albania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia 4
Kyrgyzstan 199,951 5,482,000 Central Asia China, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan 4
Laos 236,800 6,320,000 (none) Myanmar, China, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand 5
Lesotho[d] 30,355 2,067,000 (none) South Africa 1
Liechtenstein 160 35,789 Central Europe Switzerland, Austria 2
Luxembourg 2,586 502,202 (none) Belgium, Germany, France 3
Macedonia (F.Y.R.O.M.) 25,713 2,114,550 Central Europe Kosovo, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania 5
Malawi 118,484 15,028,757 Southern Africa Zambia, Tanzania, Mozambique 3
Mali 1,240,192 14,517,176 Central Africa Algeria, Niger, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Guinea, Senegal, Mauritania 7
Moldova 33,846 3,559,500 (Eastern Europe) Romania, Ukraine 2
Mongolia 1,566,500 2,892,876 (none) China, Russia 2
Artsakh[c] 11,458 146,600 Caucasia Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran 3
Nepal 147,181 26,494,504 (none) China, India 2
Niger 1,267,000 15,306,252 Central Africa Libya, Chad, Nigeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali, Algeria 7
Paraguay 406,752 6,349,000 South America Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia 3
Rwanda 26,338 10,746,311 Central Africa Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo 4
San Marino[d] 61 31,716 (none) Italy 1
Serbia 88,361 7,306,677 Central Europe Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania (via Kosovo and Metohija[c]) 8
Slovakia 49,035 5,429,763 Central Europe Austria, Czech Republic, Poland, Ukraine, Hungary 5
South Ossetia[c] 3,900 72,000 (none) Georgia, Russia 2
South Sudan 619,745 8,260,490 Central Africa Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic 6
Swaziland 17,364 1,185,000 (none) Mozambique, South Africa 2
Switzerland 41,284 7,785,600 Central Europe France, Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, Italy 5
Tajikistan 143,100 7,349,145 Central Asia Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, China 4
Transnistria[c] 4,163 505,153 (Eastern Europe) Moldova, Ukraine 2
Turkmenistan[a] 488,100 5,110,000 Central Asia Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Iran 4
Uganda 241,038 40,322,768 Central Africa Kenya, South Sudan, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Tanzania 5
Uzbekistan 449,100 32,606,007 Central Asia Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan 5
Vatican City[d] 0.44 826 (none) Italy 1
West Bank[b][c] 5,655 2,862,485 (none) Israel, Jordan 2
Zambia 752,612 12,935,000 Southern Africa Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Angola 8
Zimbabwe 390,757 12,521,000 Southern Africa South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique 4
Total
14,776,228 475,818,737
Percentage of World
11.4% 6.9%
a Has a coastline on the saltwater Caspian Sea
b Has a coastline on the saltwater Dead Sea
c Disputed region with limited international recognition
d Landlocked by just one country
e Not fully recognized
They can be grouped in contiguous groups as follows:[13]
Central Asian cluster (6): Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
Central European cluster (9): Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Kosovo (partially recognized), Liechtenstein, Macedonia, Serbia, Slovakia and Switzerland
West, Central and East African cluster (10): Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Ethiopia, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, South Sudan, Uganda
South African cluster (4): Botswana, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe
Caucasian cluster (3): Armenia, Azerbaijan, Artsakh (unrecognized)
South American cluster (2): Bolivia, Paraguay
If Transnistria is included then Moldova and Transnistria form their own cluster, listed in parentheses in the table.
If it were not for the 40 km of coastline at Muanda, DR Congo would join the two African clusters into one, making them the biggest contiguous group in the world. Also, the Central Asian and Caucasian clusters can be considered contiguous, joined by the landlocked Caspian Sea. Mongolia is almost part of this cluster too, being separated from Kazakhstan by only 30 km, across Russian or Chinese territory.
There are the following "single" landlocked countries (each of them borders no other landlocked country):
Africa (2): Lesotho, Swaziland
Asia (5): Bhutan, Laos, Mongolia, Nepal, West Bank (partially recognized)
Europe (6): Andorra, Belarus, Luxembourg, Moldova (if Transnistria is excluded), San Marino, and the State of the Vatican City
Caucasus (1): South Ossetia (partially recognized)
If the Caucasian countries and Kazakhstan are counted as part of Europe, then Europe has the most landlocked countries, at 20. If these transcontinental countries are included in Asia, then Africa has the most, at 16. Depending on the status of the three transcontinental countries, Asia has between 9 and 15, while South America has only 2. North America and Australia are the only continents with no landlocked countries (not including Antarctica, which has no countries).
See also[edit]
Geography portal
Convention on Transit Trade of Land-locked States
Declaration recognising the Right to a Flag of States having no Sea-coast
Enclave and exclave
Landlocked parcel, real estate plots with no legal access to a public roadway
List of countries and territories by land and maritime borders
List of countries that border only one other country
Navies of landlocked countries
List of landlocked U.S. states
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Paudel, R. C. (2012). "Landlockedness and Economic Growth: New Evidence". Growth and Export Performance of Developing Countries: Is Landlockedness Destiny? (PDF). Canberra, Australia: Australian National University. pp. 13–72.
Jump up ^ Faye, M. L.; McArthur, J. W.; Sachs, J. D.; Snow, T. (2004). "The Challenges Facing Landlocked Developing Countries". Journal of Human Development. 5 (1): 31–68 [pp. 31–32]. doi:10.1080/14649880310001660201.
Jump up ^ Collier, Paul (2007). The Bottom Billion. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 56, 57. ISBN 978-0-19-537338-7.
Jump up ^ Moseley, W. G.; Carney, J.; Becker, L. (2010). "Neoliberal Policy, Rural Livelihoods and Urban Food Security in West Africa: A Comparative Study of The Gambia, Côte d'Ivoire and Mali". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 107 (13): 5774–5779. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.5774M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0905717107.
Jump up ^ Moseley, W. G. (2011). "Lessons from the 2008 Global Food Crisis: Agro-Food Dynamics in Mali". Development in Practice. 21 (4–5): 604–612.
Jump up ^ United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2010). Review of Maritime Transport, 2010 (PDF). New York and Geneva: United Nations. p. 160. ISBN 978-92-1-112810-9. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Chopra, P. N.; Puri, B. N.; Das, M. N. A Comprehensive History of India. 3. p. 298.
Jump up ^ UN Report Archived 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Dempsey Morais, Caitlin. "Landlocked Countries". Geolounge. Retrieved November 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Landlocked Countries". About.com. Retrieved November 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ "IGU regional conference on environment and quality of life in central Europe". GeoJournal. 28 (4). 1992. doi:10.1007/BF00273120.
Jump up ^ CIA World Factbook Uzbekistan
Jump up ^ MacKellar, Landis; Wörgötter, Andreas; Wörz, Julia. "Economic Development Problems of Landlocked Countries" (PDF). Wien Institute for Advanced Studies. p. 12.
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Lead paint
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Lead paint or lead-based paint is paint containing lead. As pigment, lead(II) chromate (PbCrO4, "chrome yellow"), Lead(II,IV) oxide, (Pb3O4, "red lead"), and lead(II) carbonate (PbCO3, "white lead") are the most common forms. Lead is added to paint to speed up drying, increase durability, maintain a fresh appearance, and resist moisture that causes corrosion. It is one of the main health and environmental hazards associated with paint. In some countries, lead continues to be added to paint intended for domestic use,[1] whereas countries such as the U.S. and the U.K. have regulations prohibiting this, although lead paint may still be found in older properties painted prior to the introduction of such regulations. Although lead has been banned from household paints in the United States since 1978, paint used in road markings may still contain it. Alternatives such as water-based, lead-free traffic paint are readily available, and many states and federal agencies have changed their purchasing contracts to buy these instead.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Toxicity
3 Regulation
4 Lead paint in art
4.1 Oil paints
4.2 Water-based paints
5 Substitutes
5.1 Titanium
5.2 Zinc
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
History[edit]
Lead white was being produced during the 4th century BC; the process is described by Pliny the Elder, Vitruvius and the ancient Greek author Theophrastus.
The traditional method making the pigment was called the stack process. Hundreds or thousands of earthenware pots containing vinegar and lead were embedded in a layer of either tan bark or cow feces. The pots were designed so that the vinegar and lead were in separate compartments, but the lead was in contact with the vapor of the vinegar. The lead was usually coiled into a spiral, and placed on a ledge inside the pot. The pot was loosely covered with a grid of lead, which allowed the carbon dioxide formed by the fermentation of the tan bark or the dung to circulate in the pot. Each layer of pots was covered by a new layer of tan, then another layer of pots. the heat created by the fermentation, acetic acid vapor and carbon dioxide within the stack did their work, and within a month the lead coils were covered with a crust of white lead. This crust was separated from the lead, washed and ground for pigment. This was an extremely dangerous process for the workmen. Medieval texts warned of the danger of "apoplexy, epilepsy, and paralysis" from working with lead white.[2]
Despite the risks, the pigment was very popular with artists because of its density and opacity; a small amount could cover a large surface. It was widely used by artists until the 19th century, when it was replaced by zinc white and titanium white.[3]
The dangers of lead paint were considered well-established by the beginning of the 20th century. In the July 1904 edition of its monthly publication, Sherwin-Williams reported the dangers of paint containing lead, noting that a French expert had deemed lead paint "poisonous in a large degree, both for the workmen and for the inhabitants of a house painted with lead colors."[4] As early as 1886, German health laws prohibited women and children from working in factories processing lead paint and lead sugar.[5]
Toxicity[edit]
Further information: Lead poisoning
Lead paint is hazardous. It can cause nervous system damage, stunted growth, kidney damage, and delayed development.[6] It is dangerous to children because it tastes sweet, therefore encouraging children to put lead chips and toys with lead dust in their mouths. Lead paint is dangerous to adults and can cause reproductive problems in men or women. Decreases in sperm production in men have been noted. Lead is considered a possible and likely carcinogen. High levels may result in death.
Regulation[edit]
The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (May 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The European Union has passed a directive controlling lead paint use.
In Canada, regulations were first enacted under the Hazardous Products Act in 1976 that limited lead content of paints and other liquid coatings on furniture, household products, children's products, and exterior and interior surfaces of any building frequented by children to 0.5% by weight.[7] New regulations on surface coating materials, which came into force in 2005, further limit lead to its background level for both interior and exterior paints sold to consumers. Canadian paint manufacturers have been conforming to this background level in their interior and exterior consumer paints since 1991.[8] Nevertheless, a Canadian company, Dominion Colour Corporation, is "the largest manufacturer of lead-based paint pigments in the world" and has faced public criticism for obtaining permission from the European Chemicals Agency to continue to export lead chromate paints from its Dutch subsidiary to countries where its uses are not tightly regulated.[9]
The United States' Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) banned lead paint in 1977 in residential properties and public buildings (16 CFR 1303), along with toys and furniture containing lead paint. The cited reason was "to reduce the risk of lead poisoning in children who may ingest paint chips or peelings."[10] For manufacturers, the CPSC instituted the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008, which changed the cap on lead content in paint from 0.06% to 0.009% starting August 14, 2009.
In April 2010 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency required that all renovators working in homes built before 1978 and disturbing more than six square feet of lead paint inside the home or 20 square feet outside the home be certified. EPA's Lead Renovation, Repair and Painting Rule (RRP Rule) lowers the risk of lead contamination from home renovation activities. It requires that firms performing renovation, repair, and painting projects that disturb lead-based paint in homes, child care facilities and pre-schools (any child occupied facility) built before 1978 be certified by EPA and use certified renovators who are trained by EPA-approved training providers to follow lead-safe work practices.[11]
Lead paint is not prohibited in India. A 2015 study found that over 31% of household paints in India had lead concentration above 10,000 parts per million (ppm), which far exceeds the BIS standard of 90 ppm for lead in paint.[12]
Lead paint in art[edit]
Oil paints[edit]
In art, white lead paint is known as "flake white" or "Cremnitz white". It is valued for the ease of handling and resilience the lead confers to oil paints. Lead white paint dries relatively quickly to form a strong, flexible paint film. Lead-based white is one of the oldest manufactured pigments. It was the only white pigment available to artists in appreciable quantities until the twentieth century, when zinc-white and titanium-white became available.[13] Industrially produced lead white, the typical pigment from the 19th century until its ban, was thought to be inferior to traditionally fabricated forms, which had larger "flake" particles that conferred ease of handling.
Titanium and zinc whites are far less toxic than lead white and have largely supplanted it in most fine arts applications. Safety regulations have also made lead white more expensive and difficult to obtain in some regions, such as the EU. However, lead white oil paints are still produced and in use by artists who prefer their unique handling, mixing, and structural qualities.[13]
Flake white has various drawbacks, including a tendency to become transparent over time. It also blackens in the presence of certain atmospheric pollutants, although this can be reversed.
Water-based paints[edit]
Lead is not a traditional pigment in water mediums, as zinc is superior for works on paper, as is calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) for frescos. Lead-based paints, when used on paper, often cause the work to become discolored after long periods of time; the paint's lead carbonate reacts with hydrogen sulfide in the air and with acids, which often come from fingerprints.[14]
Substitutes[edit]
Titanium[edit]
Paint manufacturers have replaced white lead with a less toxic substitute, titanium white (based on the pigment titanium dioxide), which was first used in paints in the 19th century. Titanium dioxide is considered safe enough to use as a food coloring and in toothpaste. It is also a common ingredient in sunscreen. When used in paints today, it is often coated with silicon or aluminum oxides for durability. Titanium white has far greater opacity and tinting strength than lead white, and it can easily overpower most other pigments if not mixed carefully. Titanium white has been criticized for leading to "chalkiness" in mixtures, and for allegedly decreasing the permanence of organic pigments mixed with it due to its high refractive index.
Zinc[edit]
Zinc white is less opaque and weaker in tinting strength than either titanium white or lead white. It is commonly used to lighten mixtures subtly while maintaining transparency. Although zinc white is the standard white in watercolors, its structural soundness in oils has been debated. Zinc white dries slowly and creates a relatively inflexible paint film. Critics of the pigment argue that its use leads to excessive cracking and delamination, even when used sparingly.[15]
See also[edit]
Environmental issues with paint
Lead-based paint in the United Kingdom
Lead-based paint in the United States
Lead tetroxide
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Lead-laden paint still widely sold around the world". Reuters. 25 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Daniel V. Thompson, The Materials and Techniques of Medieval Painting, p. 90-91.
Jump up ^ Philip Ball (2000), Bright Earth, Art and the Invention of Colour, pg. 99.
Jump up ^ Guenther, Richard (1904-02-24). "Dangers of White Lead". Hathitrust. Sherwin Williams Co. Retrieved 2014-10-31.
Jump up ^ Ayaß, Wolfgang, ed. (1999-01-01). Quellensammlung zur Geschichte der deutschen Sozialpolitik 1867 bis 1914, II. Abteilung: Von der kaiserlichen Sozialbotschaft bis zu den Februarerlassen Wilhelms II. (1881-1890), 3. Band: Arbeiterschutz [Collection of Original Texts on the History of German Social Policy from 1867 through 1914, 2nd Series: from the Imperial Social Message Through the February Decrees of Wilhelm II (1881-1890), 3rd volume: Worker protection] (in German). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. ISBN 3-534-13440-0. , sections 26 & 121
Jump up ^ Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (August 2007). "ToxFAQs™ for Lead". Center for Disease Control.
Jump up ^ Some Commonly Asked Questions About Lead and Human Health, Health Canada
Jump up ^ "Lead and Health". Health Canada. Retrieved 3 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Fowler, Jennifer (1 December 2015). "Toronto company's lead-based products a danger to world health, critics say". CBC News. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Office of Information and Public Affairs (2 September 1977). "CPSC Announces Final Ban On Lead-Containing Paint". U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission.
Jump up ^ "U.S. EPA Renovation, Repair and Painting Program".
Jump up ^ "Over 31 percent paints have alarming levels of lead: study". Press Trust of India. 9 June 2015. Retrieved 18 April 2016 – via The Indian Express.
^ Jump up to: a b Mayer, Ralph (1991). The artist's handbook of materials and techniques (5. ed., rev. and updated ed.). New York City: Viking. ISBN 0670837016.
Jump up ^ Claire L. Hoevel (1985). "A Study of the Discoloration Products Found in White Lead Paint". The American Institute for Conservation: Book and Paper Group Annual. 4.
Jump up ^ "Zinc White – Problems in Oil Paint?". Natural Pigments LLC.
Bibliography[edit]
Rutherford J. Gettens; Hermann Kühn; W. T. Chase (1967). "Identification of the Materials of Paintings: Lead White". Studies in Conservation. 12 (4): 125–139. JSTOR 1505410.
Ball, Philip (2001). Bright Earth- Art and the Invention of Colour. Penguin Group. ISBN 9782754105033.
Gifford, Donald G (2010). Suing the Tobacco and Lead Pigment Industries: Government Litigation as Public Health Prescription. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-11714-7.
Thomson, Daniel (1956). The Materials and Techniques of Medieval Painting. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-20327-1.
External links[edit]
EPA guide to lead safety
National Pollutant Inventory (Australia) – Lead and lead compounds fact sheet
National Survey of Lead and Allergens in Housing
Annotated bibliography of works on paint and color
Myths concerning lead paint
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