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Oak
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Oak
Foliage and acorns of Quercus robur
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fagales
Family: Fagaceae
Genus: Quercus
L.
Species
See List of Quercus species
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus (/ˈkwɜːrkəs/;[1] Latin "oak tree") of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks. The common name "oak" also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus (stone oaks), as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta (silky oaks) and the Casuarinaceae (she-oaks). The genus Quercus is native to the Northern Hemisphere, and includes deciduous and evergreen species extending from cool temperate to tropical latitudes in the Americas, Asia, Europe, and North Africa. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, while Mexico has 160 species of which 109 are endemic. The second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species.[2]
Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species; some have serrated leaves or entire leaves with smooth margins. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring. In spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers (in the form of catkins) and small female flowers.[3] The fruit is a nut called an acorn or oak nut borne in a cup-like structure known as a cupule; each acorn contains one seed (rarely two or three) and takes 6–18 months to mature, depending on their species. The acorns and leaves contain tannic acid,[4] which helps to guard from fungi and insects.[5] The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group and instead are dispersed across the genus.
Contents
[hide]
1 Classification
1.1 Genus Quercus
1.2 Genus Cyclobalanopsis
2 Hybridization
3 Uses
4 Biodiversity and ecology
5 Genetics
6 Diseases and pests
7 Toxicity
8 Cultural significance
8.1 National symbol
8.1.1 Oaks as regional and state symbols
8.1.2 Political use
8.2 Religious
8.3 Historical
8.4 Famous oak trees
9 Historical note on Linnaean species
10 See also
11 References
12 Bibliography
13 External links
Classification
The oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera (sometimes referred to as subgenera) and a number of sections:
Genus Quercus
Oak at Schönderling
See also: List of Quercus species
The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections:
Sect. Quercus (synonyms Lepidobalanus and Leucobalanus), the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short; acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter; the inside of an acorn shell is hairless. The leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur.
Sect. Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long; acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter; the inside of this acorn's shell is hairless. The section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it.
Sect. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long; acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the acorn's shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip.
Sect. Protobalanus, the canyon live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States and northwest Mexico. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip.
Sect. Lobatae (synonym Erythrobalanus), the red oaks of North America, Central America and northern South America. Styles long; acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. The actual nut is encased in a thin, clinging, papery skin. Leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with spiny bristles at the lobe.
Genus Cyclobalanopsis
Old oak tree on the shore of Lake Koluvere, Estonia.
The ring-cupped oaks of eastern and southeastern Asia. Evergreen trees growing 10–40 m (33–131 ft) tall. They are distinct from subgenus Quercus in that they have acorns with distinctive cups bearing concrescent rings of scales; they commonly also have densely clustered acorns, though this does not apply to all of the species. IUCN, ITIS, Encyclopedia of Life and Flora of China treats Cyclobalanopsis as a distinct genus, but some taxonomists consider it a subgenus of Quercus. It contains about 150 species. Species of Cyclobalanopsis are common in the evergreen subtropical laurel forests which extend from southern Japan, southern Korea, and Taiwan across southern China and northern Indochina to the eastern Himalayas, in association with trees of genus Castanopsis and the laurel family (Lauraceae).
Hybridization
A hybrid white oak, possibly Quercus stellata × Q. muhlenbergii
Interspecific hybridization is quite common among oaks but usually between species within the same section only and most common in the white oak group (subgenus Quercus, section Quercus; see List of Quercus species). Inter-section hybrids, except between species of sections Quercus and Mesobalanus, are unknown. Recent systematic studies appear to confirm a high tendency of Quercus species to hybridize because of a combination of factors. White oaks are unable to discriminate against pollination by other species in the same section. Because they are wind pollinated and they have weak internal barriers to hybridization, hybridization produces functional seeds and fertile hybrid offspring.[6] Ecological stresses, especially near habitat margins, can also cause a breakdown of mate recognition as well as a reduction of male function (pollen quantity and quality) in one parent species.[6][7]
Frequent hybridization among oaks has consequences for oak populations around the world; most notably, hybridization has produced large populations of hybrids with copious amounts of introgression, and the evolution of new species.[8] Frequent hybridization and high levels of introgression have caused different species in the same populations to share up to 50% of their genetic information.[9] Having high rates of hybridization and introgression produces genetic data that often does not differentiate between two clearly morphologically distinct species, but instead differentiates populations.[10] Numerous hypotheses have been proposed to explain how oak species are able to remain morphologically and ecologically distinct with such high levels of gene flow, but the phenomenon is still largely a mystery to botanists.
The Fagaceae, or beech family, to which the oaks belong, is a very slow evolving clade compared to other angiosperms,[11][12] and the patterns of hybridization and introgression in Quercus pose a great challenge to the concept of a species since a species is often defined as a group of “actually or potentially interbreeding populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.”[13] By this definition, many species of Quercus would be lumped together according to their geographic and ecological habitat, despite clear distinctions in morphology and, to a large extent, genetic data.
Uses
Heart of oak beams of the frame of Saint-Girons church in Monein, France
Oak wood has a density of about 0.75 g/cm3 (0.43 oz/cu in) creating great strength and hardness. The wood is very resistant to insect and fungal attack because of its high tannin content. It also has very appealing grain markings, particularly when quartersawn. Oak planking was common on high status Viking longships in the 9th and 10th centuries. The wood was hewn from green logs, by axe and wedge, to produce radial planks, similar to quarter-sawn timber. Wide, quarter-sawn boards of oak have been prized since the Middle Ages for use in interior panelling of prestigious buildings such as the debating chamber of the House of Commons in London and in the construction of fine furniture. Oak wood, from Quercus robur and Quercus petraea, was used in Europe for the construction of ships, especially naval men of war,[14] until the 19th century, and was the principal timber used in the construction of European timber-framed buildings. Today oak wood is still commonly used for furniture making and flooring, timber frame buildings, and veneer production. Barrels in which wines, sherry, and spirits such as brandy, Irish whiskey, Scotch whisky and Bourbon whiskey are aged are made from European and American oak. The use of oak in wine can add many different dimensions to wine based on the type and style of the oak. Oak barrels, which may be charred before use, contribute to the colour, taste, and aroma of the contents, imparting a desirable oaky vanillin flavour to these drinks. The great dilemma for wine producers is to choose between French and American oakwoods. French oaks (Quercus robur, Q. petraea) give the wine greater refinement and are chosen for the best wines since they increase the price compared to those aged in American oak wood. American oak contributes greater texture and resistance to ageing, but produces more powerful wine bouquets. Oak wood chips are used for smoking fish, meat, cheeses,[15] and other foods.
Sherry maturing in oak barrels
Japanese oak is used in the making of professional drums from the manufacturer Yamaha Drums. The higher density of oak gives the drum a brighter and louder tone compared to traditional drum materials such as maple and birch. In hill states of India, besides fuelwood and timber, the local people use oak wood for making agricultural implements. The leaves are used as fodder during lean period and bedding for livestock.[16][17]
A cross section of the trunk of a cork oak, Quercus suber
The bark of the cork oak is used to produce wine stoppers (corks). This species grows in the Mediterranean Sea region, with Portugal, Spain, Algeria, and Morocco producing most of the world's supply.
Of the North American oaks, the northern red oak is one of the most prized of the red oak group for lumber, much of which is marketed as red oak regardless of the species of origin. It is not good for outdoor use due to its open capillaries unless the wood is treated. If the wood is properly treated with preservatives, it will not rot as quickly as cured white oak heartwood. The closed cell structure of white oaks prevents them from absorbing preservatives. With northern red oak, one can blow air through an end grain piece 10 inches long to make bubbles come out in a glass of water. These openings give fungus easy access when the finish deteriorates. Shumard oak, a member of the red oak subgenus, provides timber which is described as "mechanically superior" to northern red oak. Cherrybark oak is another type of red oak which provides excellent timber.
The standard for the lumber of the white oak group – all of which is marketed as white oak – is the Quercus alba. White oak is often used to make wine barrels. The wood of the deciduous pedunculate oak and sessile oak accounts for most of the European oak production, but evergreen species, such as Holm oak and cork oak also produce valuable timber.
The bark of the white oak is dried and used in medical preparations. Oak bark is also rich in tannin, and is used by tanners for tanning leather. Acorns are used for making flour or roasted for acorn coffee.
Oak forest in Estonia.
Oak on sandy earth.
Oak forest on the beach in Njivice, Croatia
Oak galls were used for centuries as a main ingredient in iron gall ink, a kind of manuscript ink, harvested at a specific time of year.[citation needed] In Korea, oak bark is used to make shingles for traditional roof construction.
Oak has been listed as one of the 38 substances used to prepare Bach flower remedies,[18] a kind of alternative medicine promoted for its effect on health. However, according to Cancer Research UK, "there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer".[19]
Biodiversity and ecology
Oaks are keystone species in a wide range of habitats from Mediterranean semi-desert to subtropical rainforest. For example, oak trees are important components of hardwood forests, and certain species are particularly known to grow in associations with members of the Ericaceae in oak-heath forests.[20][21] A number of kinds of truffles, including the two well known varieties, the black Périgord truffle[22] and the white Piedmont truffle,[23] have symbiotic relationships with oak trees. The European pied flycatcher is an example of an animal species that often depends upon oak trees.
Many species of oaks are under threat of extinction in the wild, largely due to land use changes, livestock grazing and unsustainable harvesting. For example, over the past 200 years, large areas of oak forest in the highlands of Mexico, Central America and the northern Andes have been cleared for coffee plantations and cattle ranching. There is a continuing threat to these forests from exploitation for timber, fuelwood and charcoal.[24] In the USA, entire oak ecosystems have declined due to a combination of factors still imperfectly known, but thought to include fire suppression, increased consumption of acorns by growing mammal populations, herbivory of seedlings, and introduced pests.[25] In a recent survey, 78 wild oak species have been identified as being in danger of extinction, from a global total of over 500 species.[26] The proportion under threat may be much higher in reality, as there is insufficient information about over 300 species, making it near impossible to form any judgement of their status.
In the Himalayan region of India, oak forests are being invaded by pine forests due to the increase in temperature. The associated species of pine forest may cross frontiers and become new elements of the oak forests.[27]
In eastern North America, rare species of oak trees include scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii), and post oak (Quercus stellata).[28]
The mature trees shed varying numbers of acorns annually. Scientists suggest that shedding excess numbers allows the oaks to satiate nut gathering species, improving the chances of germination. Every four to ten years, certain oak populations will synchronize to produce almost no acorns at all, only to rain them down excessively the following year, known as a "mast" year. The year preceding the mast year is thought to starve off the mammal populations feeding on the supply, thereby increasing the effectiveness of the overproduction in the mast year that follows.[29][30] This is necessary to the survival of any given oak species, as only one in 10,000 acorns results in an eventual tree.[31]
Genetics
Beginning November 1, 2011, a project began to sequence the entire oak genome. The goal of the project is to create a high resolution sequence of the Quercus robur genome, and to study genetic diversity by comparison of the genomes of different species.[32] Current research has compiled genomic data from many different sources and techniques to create a genome map with 89% coverage of the genome. The project is still in the process of annotating this genome.[33]
Diseases and pests
See also: List of Lepidoptera that feed on oaks
Oak powdery mildew on pedunculate oak
Sudden oak death (Phytophthora ramorum) is a water mould that can kill oaks within just a few weeks. Oak wilt, caused by the fungus Ceratocystis fagacearum (a fungus closely related to Dutch elm disease), is also a lethal disease of some oaks, particularly the red oaks (the white oaks can be infected but generally live longer). Other dangers include wood-boring beetles, as well as root rot in older trees which may not be apparent on the outside, often being discovered only when the trees come down in a strong gale. Oak apples are galls on oaks made by the gall wasp. The female kermes scale causes galls to grow on kermes oak. Oaks are used as food plants by the larvae of Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species such as the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, which can defoliate oak and other broadleaved tree species in North America.[34]
A considerable number of galls are found on oak leaves, buds, flowers, roots, etc. Examples are oak artichoke gall, oak marble gall, oak apple gall, knopper gall, and spangle gall.
A number of species of fungus cause powdery mildew on oak species. In Europe the species Erysiphe alphitoides is the most common cause.[35]
A new and yet little understood disease of mature oaks, acute oak decline, has been reported in parts of the UK since 2009.[36]
Oak processionary moth (Thaumetopoea processionea) has become a serious threat in the UK since 2006. The caterpillars of this species defoliate the trees, and are hazardous to human health; their bodies are covered with poisonous hairs which can cause rashes and respiratory problems.[37]
In California, oaks are affected by the fungal disease Foamy bark canker.
Toxicity
The leaves and acorns of the oak tree are poisonous to cattle, horses, sheep, and goats in large amounts due to the toxin tannic acid, and cause kidney damage and gastroenteritis. Symptoms of poisoning include lack of appetite, depression, constipation, diarrhea (which may contain blood), blood in urine, and colic. The exception to livestock and oak toxicity is the domestic pig, which may be fed entirely on acorns in the right conditions, and has traditionally been pastured in oak woodlands (such as the Spanish dehesa and the English system of pannage) for hundreds of years.
Acorns are also edible to humans, after leaching of the tannins.[38]
Cultural significance
Oak branches on the coat of arms of Estonia
National symbol
The oak is a common symbol of strength and endurance and has been chosen as the national tree of many countries. Already an ancient Germanic symbol (in the form of the Donar Oak, for instance), certainly since the early nineteenth century, it stands for the nation of Germany and oak branches are thus displayed on some German coins, both of the former Deutsche Mark and the current Euro currency.[39] In 2004 the Arbor Day Foundation[40] held a vote for the official National Tree of the United States of America. In November 2004, the United States Congress passed legislation designating the oak as America's National Tree.[41]
Other countries have also designated the oak as their national tree including Bulgaria, Cyprus (Golden Oak), England, Estonia, France, Germany, Moldova, Jordan, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Serbia, and Wales.[42]
Oaks as regional and state symbols
The oak is the emblem of County Londonderry in Northern Ireland, as a vast amount of the county was covered in forests of the tree until relatively recently. The name of the county comes from the city of Derry, which originally in Irish was known as Doire meaning oak.
The Irish County Kildare derives its name from the town of Kildare which originally in Irish was Cill Dara meaning the Church of the Oak or Oak Church.
Iowa designated the oak as its official state tree in 1961; and the White Oak is the state tree of Connecticut, Illinois and Maryland. The Northern Red Oak is the provincial tree of Prince Edward Island, as well as the state tree of New Jersey. The Live Oak is the state tree of Georgia, USA.
The oak is a national symbol from the Basque Country, specially in the province of Biscay.
The coat-of-arms of Vest-Agder, Norway, and Blekinge, Sweden, features oak trees.
The coat-of-arms of the municipality Eigersund, Norway features an oak leaf.
Oak leaves are traditionally an important part of German Army regalia.[citation needed] The Nazi party used the traditional German eagle, standing atop of a swastika inside a wreath of oak leaves. It is also known as the Iron Eagle. During the Third Reich of Nazi Germany, oak leaves were used for military valor decoration on the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross. They also symbolize rank in the United States Armed Forces. A gold oak leaf indicates an O-4 (Major or Lt. Commander), whereas a silver oak leaf indicates an O-5 (Lt. Colonel or Commander). Arrangements of oak leaves, acorns and sprigs indicate different branches of the United States Navy Staff corps officers.[43] Oak leaves are embroidered onto the covers (hats) worn by field grade officers and flag officers in the United States armed services.
If a member of the United States Army or Air Force earns multiple awards of the same medal, then instead of wearing a ribbon or medal for each award, he or she wears one metal representation of an "oak leaf cluster" attached to the appropriate ribbon for each subsequent award.[44]
Political use
The oak tree is used as a symbol by a number of political parties. It is the symbol of Toryism (on account of the Royal Oak) and the Conservative Party in the United Kingdom,[45] and formerly of the Progressive Democrats in Ireland[46] and the Democrats of the Left in Italy. In the cultural arena, the oakleaf is the symbol of the National Trust (UK), The Woodland Trust, and The Royal Oak Foundation.[43]
Religious
Grīdnieku ancient oak in Rumbas parish, Latvia, girth 8.27m, 2015
In Greek mythology, the oak is the tree sacred to Zeus, king of the gods. In Zeus's oracle in Dodona, Epirus, the sacred oak was the centerpiece of the precinct, and the priests would divine the pronouncements of the god by interpreting the rustling of the oak's leaves.[47]
In Baltic and Slavic mythology, the oak is the sacred tree of Latvian Pērkons, Lithuanian Perkūnas, Prussian Perkūns and Slavic Perun,[48] the god of thunder and one of the most important deities in the Baltic and Slavic pantheons.
In Celtic polytheism, the name of the oak tree was part of the Proto-Celtic word for 'druid': *derwo-weyd- > *druwid- ; however, Proto-Celtic *derwo- (and *dru-) can also be adjectives for 'strong' and 'firm', so Ranko Matasovic interprets that *druwid- may mean 'strong knowledge'. As in other Indo-European faiths, Taranis, being a thunder god, was associated with the oak tree.[49] The Indo-Europeans worshiped the oak and connected it with a thunder or lightning god; "tree" and drus may also be cognate with "Druid," the Celtic priest to whom the oak was sacred. There has even been a study that shows that oaks are more likely to be struck by lightning than any other tree of the same height.[50]
In Norse mythology, the oak was sacred to the thunder god, Thor. Thor's Oak was a sacred tree of the Germanic Chatti tribe.
In the Bible, the oak tree at Shechem is the site where Jacob buries the foreign gods of his people (Gen. 35:4) . In addition, Joshua erects a stone under an oak tree as the first covenant of the Lord (Josh. 24.25–7). In Isaiah 61, the prophet refers to the Israelites as "Oaks of Righteousness." Absalom's long hair (2 Samuel 18:9) gets caught in an oak tree, and allows Joab to kill him.
The badnjak is central tradition in Serbian Orthodox Church Christmas celebration where young and straight oak, is ceremonially felled early on the morning of Christmas Eve.
In some traditions of Wicca, the Oak King is one of the two faces of the Sun God. He is born on Yule and rules from Ostara to Mabon.[citation needed]
Historical
Several singular oak trees, such as the Royal Oak in Britain and the Charter Oak in the United States, are of great historical or cultural importance; for a list of important oaks, see Individual oak trees.
"The Proscribed Royalist, 1651", a famous painting by John Everett Millais, depicted a Royalist fleeing from Cromwell's forces and hidden in an oak. Millais painted the picture in Hayes, Kent, from a local oak tree that became known as the Millais Oak.[51][52]
Approximately 50 km west of Toronto, Canada is the town of Oakville, ON, famous for its history as a shipbuilding port on Lake Ontario.[clarification needed]
The city of Raleigh, N.C., is known as "The City of Oaks."
The Jurupa Oak tree – a clonal colony of Quercus palmeria or Palmer’s oak found in Riverside County, California – is an estimated 13,000 years old.[53]
Large groups of very old oak trees are rare[why?]. One of the oldest groups of oak trees, found in Poland, is about 480 years old, which was assessed by dendrochronological methods.[54]
In the Roman Republic, a crown of oak leaves was given to those who had saved the life of a citizen in battle; it was called the "civic oak crown".[50]
Famous oak trees
Main article: List of notable trees
Tamme-Lauri oak is the thickest and oldest tree in Estonia.
The Big Oak, by Gustave Courbet (1843).
The Emancipation Oak is designated one of the 10 Great Trees of the World by the National Geographic Society and is part of the National Historic Landmark district of Hampton University.
The Ivenack Oak which is one of the largest trees in Europe is located in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany, and is approximately 800 years old.[55]
The Bowthorpe Oak, located in Bourne, Lincolnshire, is thought to be 1,000 years old. It was featured in the Guinness Book of World Records and was filmed for a TV documentary for its astonishing longevity.[55]
The Minchenden (or Chandos) Oak, in Southgate, London, is said to be the largest oak tree in England (already 27 feet or 8.2 meters in girth in the nineteenth century), and is perhaps 800 years old.[56]
The Seven Sisters Oak is the largest certified southern live oak tree. Located in Mandeville, Louisiana, it is estimated to be up to 1,500 years old with a trunk that measures 38 ft (11.6 meters).[57][58]
The Major Oak is an 800 to 1000-year-old tree located in Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. According to folklore, it was used by Robin Hood for shelter.
Friendship Oak is a 500-year-old southern live oak located in Long Beach, Mississippi.
The Crouch Oak is believed to have originated in the 11th Century and is located in Addlestone, Surrey. It is an important symbol of the town with many local businesses adopting its name. It used to mark the boundary of Windsor Great Park. Legend says that Queen Elizabeth I stopped by it and had a picnic.
The Angel Oak is a southern live oak located in Angel Oak Park on John's Island near Charleston, South Carolina. The Angel Oak is estimated to be in excess of 400–500 years old, stands 66.5 ft (20.3 m) tall, and measures 28 ft (8.5 m) in circumference.
The Kaiser's Oak, located at the village of Gommecourt in Artois, France, named in honour of Kaiser Wilhelm II, symbolically marked from late 1914 to April 1917 the furthest point in the West of the German Imperial Army during World War One.
The Wye Oak in Maryland was the United States' largest white oak tree before it blew down in a storm in 2002, at an estimated age of 460 years.
Historical note on Linnaean species
Linnaeus described only five species of oak from eastern North America, based on general leaf form. These were white oak, Quercus alba; chestnut oak, Q. montana; red oak, Q. rubra; willow oak Q. phellos; and water oak, Q. nigra. Because he was dealing with confusing leaf forms, the Q. montana and Q. rubra specimens actually included mixed foliage of more than one species.
See also
List of Quercus species
References
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Jump up ^ Lorimer, C.G. (2003) Editorial: The decline of oak forests Archived 17 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine.. American Institute of Biological Sciences.
Jump up ^ Oldfield, S. & Eastwood, A. (2007) The Red List of Oaks Flora & Fauna International (FFI) and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) ISBN 978-1-903703-25-0
Jump up ^ Kala, C.P. (2012). Biodiversity, communities and climate change. Teri Publications, New Delhi, ISBN 817993442X.
Jump up ^ Carpenter, Paul (1990). Plants in the Landscape. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 73. ISBN 0716718081.
Jump up ^ "Up to your ankles in acorns? Here's why". The Mercury News. 13 October 2007. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "What's causing an abundance of acorns this year?". The Mercury News. 6 October 2016. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Waymer, Jim (3 December 2016). "That's nuts:Acorn onslaught hits Florida". Florida Today. Melbourne, Florida. pp. 1A, 11A. Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Quercus Portal". Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Plomion, C., Aury, J.-M., Amselem, J., Alaeitabar, T., Barbe, V., Belser, C., Bergès, H., Bodénès, C., Boudet, N., Boury, C., Canaguier, A., Couloux, A., Da Silva, C., Duplessis, S., Ehrenmann, F., Estrada-Mairey, B., Fouteau, S., Francillonne, N., Gaspin, C., Guichard, C., Klopp, C., Labadie, K., Lalanne, C., Le Clainche, I., Leplé, J.-C., Le Provost, G., Leroy, T., Lesur, I., Martin, F., Mercier, J., Michotey, C., Murat, F., Salin, F., Steinbach, D., Faivre-Rampant, P., Wincker, P., Salse, J., Quesneville, H. and Kremer, A. (2016), Decoding the oak genome: public release of sequence data, assembly, annotation and publication strategies. Mol Ecol Resour, 16: 254–265. doi:10.1111/1755-0998.12425
Jump up ^ "Trees: Oak Insects and Diseases: Gypsy Moth". TreeHelp.com. Archived from the original on 7 July 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Mougou, A.; Dutech, C.; Desprez-Loustau, M. -L. (2008). "New insights into the identity and origin of the causal agent of oak powdery mildew in Europe". Forest Pathology. 38 (4): 275. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0329.2008.00544.x.
Jump up ^ Kinver, Mark (28 April 2010). "Oak disease 'threatens landscape'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 29 April 2010. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Invasion of toxic moths". The Northern Echo. July 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bainbridge, D. A. (12–14 November 1986), Use of acorns for food in California: past, present and future, San Luis Obispo, CA.: Symposium on Multiple-use Management of California's Hardwoods, archived from the original on 27 October 2010
Jump up ^ Schierz, Kai Uwe (2004). "Von Bonifatius bis Beuys, oder: Vom Umgang mit heiligen Eichen". In Hardy Eidam; Marina Moritz; Gerd-Rainer Riedel; Kai-Uwe Schierz. Bonifatius: Heidenopfer, Christuskreuz, Eichenkult (in German). Stadtverwaltung Erfurt. pp. 139–45.
Jump up ^ "Trees – Arbor Day Foundation". Arborday.org. Archived from the original on 28 April 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Oak Trees". arborday.org. Archived from the original on 9 January 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Oak as a Symbol". Venables Oak. Archived from the original on 5 May 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Political or Symbolic". Extended Definition: oak. Archived from the original on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Army Regulation 670-1 | Wear of appurtenances | Section 29.12 Page 278". ar670.com. Archived from the original on 22 January 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2018. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ Pickles, Eric. "The Conservative Party". Conservatives.com. Archived from the original on 29 April 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Coalition Government 1989 To 1992. progressivedemocrats.ie
Jump up ^ Frazer, James George (1922). The Golden Bough. Chapter XV: The Worship of the Oak. Archived 21 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Ąžuolas paprastasis". Zolininkas.lt (in Lithuanian). 21 February 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Taylor, John W. (September 1979). "Tree Worship" Archived 17 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine., Mankind Quarterly, pp. 79–142.
^ Jump up to: a b Oak. A Dictionary of Literary Symbols. Cambridge.
Jump up ^ Millais, J.G. (1899) Life and Letters of Sir John Everett Millais, vol. 1, p. 166, London : Methuen.
Jump up ^ Arborecology, containing a photograph of the Millais oak Archived 28 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine.. arborecology.co.uk
Jump up ^ Yong, Ed. "The 13,000-year old tree that survives by cloning itself". www.nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Ufnalski K. The oldest groups of oak trees in Poland. Proceedings of EuroDendro 2008 "The long history of wood utilization" News of Forest History Nr. V (39)/2008:83–84
^ Jump up to: a b Bermosa, Nobert. "Famous Oak Trees in the World". Archived from the original on 17 August 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Geograph:: Minchenden Oak, Garden of Remembrance,... (C) Christine Matthews". Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Seven Sisters Oak Archived 11 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine.. americanforests.org
Jump up ^ "Seven Sisters Oak". 100 Oaks Project. 4 December 2009. Archived from the original on 19 July 2012.
Bibliography
Byfield, Liz (1990) An oak tree, Collins book bus, London : Collins Educational, ISBN 0-00-313526-8
Philips, Roger. Trees of North America and Europe, Random House, Inc., New York ISBN 0-394-50259-0, 1979.
Logan, William B. (2005) Oak : the frame of civilization, New York ; London : W.W. Norton, ISBN 0-393-04773-3
Paterson, R.T. (1993) Use of trees by livestock, 5: Quercus, Chatham : Natural Resources Institute, ISBN 0-85954-365-X
Royston, Angela (2000) Life cycle of an oak tree, Heinemann first library, Oxford : Heinemann Library, ISBN 0-431-08391-6
Savage, Stephen (1994) Oak tree, Observing nature series, Hove : Wayland, ISBN 0-7502-1196-2
Tansley, Arthur G., Sir (1952) Oaks and oak woods, Field study books, London : Methuen.
Żukow-Karczewski, Marek (1988) Dąb – król polskich drzew (Oak – the king of the Polish trees), AURA (A Monthly for the protection and shaping of human environment), 9, 20–21.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quercus.
Wikispecies has information related to Quercus
Flora of China – Cyclobalanopsis
Oak diseases
Flora Europaea: Quercus
Oaks from Bialowieza Forest
Common Oaks of Florida
Oaks of the world
The Global Trees Campaign The Red List of Oaks and Global Survey of Threatened Quercus
Latvia – the land of oaks
Janka Hardness Scale – The Janka Hardness Scale for many Exotic and Domestic species
Eichhorn, Markus (May 2010). "Oak – A Very English Tree". Test Tube. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
[show]
v
t
e
Sources of tannins
Sources of
condensed tannins
Areca catechu seed
arecatannins
Broad bean
Vicia faba
Grape
Vitis vinifera
Mimosa bark
Acacia mollissima
Myrtan or black marlock
Eucalyptus redunca
Quebracho wood
Sources of
hydrolysable tannins
Chestnut wood
Dhawa
Anogeissus latifolia
Myrobalan fruit
Terminalia chebula
Oak bark
Oak wood
Valonia oak
Quercus macrolepis
Sumac
Tanner's sumach leaves - Rhus coriaria or Chinese gall on Rhus chinensis
Tara pod
Tara spinosa
Other sources
by organ
Barks
General : Tanbark
Acacias (most notably Acacia pycnantha and Acacia decurrens)
Alder
Alnus sp
Avaram
Senna auriculata
Babul
Acacia nilotica
Birch
Betula sp
Button mangrove
Conocarpus erectus
Hemlock
Tsuga sp
Larch
Larix sp
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Pine
Pinus sp
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Urunday
Myracrodruon urundeuva
Willow
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Leaves
Badan
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Redoul
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Roots
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Garouille
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Sea lavender
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Woods
Cutch
Senegalia catechu
Fruit
Divi-divi pod
Libidibia coriaria
Sant pod
Acacia nilotica
Teri pod
Moullava digyna
Galls
Gall oak
Quercus lusitanica
Quercus infectoria
Whole plant
Prosopis sp. bark and wood
Prosopis humilis
Prosopis nigra
Tanoak
Notholithocarpus
Tizra heartwood and root
Rhus pentaphylla
Undetermined organ
Anadenanthera colubrina (vilca)
[show]
v
t
e
National symbols of the United States
Symbols
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"National Emblem"
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"Yankee Doodle"
"You're a Grand Old Flag"
"When Johnny Comes Marching Home"
Mottos
In God We Trust
E Pluribus Unum
Novus ordo seclorum
Annuit cœptis
Landmarks
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Liberty Bell
Mount Rushmore
National Mall
West Potomac Park
[show]
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e
Woodworking
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Category
WikiProject
Commons
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q12004
APDB: 194255
EoL: 32233
EPPO: 1QUEG
FNA: 127839
FoC: 127839
Fossilworks: 54594
GBIF: 2877951
GRIN: 10203
iNaturalist: 47851
IPNI: 13507-1
ITIS: 19276
NCBI: 3511
PLANTS: QUERC
Tropicos: 40021776
VASCAN: 1609
Authority control
LCCN: sh85093565
GND: 4151140-2
BNF: cb12089056w (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oak&oldid=828177595"
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Oak (disambiguation)

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Pedunculate oak

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Dentate leaf

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Style (botany)

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Chinkapin oak

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Evolution (biology)

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Biological species concept

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British House of Commons

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Barrel (storage)

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Aging barrel

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Stopper (plug)

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Northern red oak

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Shumard oak

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Cherrybark oak

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Wine barrel

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Sessile oak

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Sudden oak death

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Water mould

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Kermes (genus)

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Oak artichoke gall

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Oak marble gall

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Knopper gall

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Neurotus quercus-baccarum

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Oak Processionary

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Equine colic

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Dehesa (pastoral management)

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National tree

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List of U.S. state trees

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Northern Red Oak

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The Woodland Trust

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The Royal Oak Foundation

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Slavic mythology

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Thor's Oak

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Sacred tree

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Royal Oak (tree)

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Hayes, Kent

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Oakville, ON

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Raleigh, N.C.

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Ivenack Oak

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Southern live oak

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John's Island

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German Imperial Army

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World War One

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Chestnut oak

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text:
Nasal cavity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Nasal Cavity
Head and neck.
Conducting passages
Details
Part of
Nose
Identifiers
Latin
cavum nasi; cavitas nasi
MeSH
D009296
TA
A06.1.02.001
FMA
54378
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The nasal cavity (nasal fossa, or nasal passage) is a large air filled space above and behind the nose in the middle of the face. Each cavity is the continuation of one of the two nostrils.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Segments
1.2 Blood supply
1.3 Nerve supply
2 Function
3 Clinical significance
4 Additional images
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Structure[edit]
The term "nasal cavity" can refer to each of the two sides of the nose or to the two sides combined.
The lateral wall of each nasal cavity mainly consists of the maxilla. However, there is a deficiency that is compensated by the perpendicular plate of the palatine bone, the medial pterygoid plate, the labyrinth of ethmoid and the inferior concha. The paranasal sinuses are connected to the nasal cavity through small orifices called ostia. Most of these ostia communicate with the nose through the lateral nasal wall, via a semi-lunar depression in it known as the infundibulum. The infundibulum is bound laterally by a projection known as the uncinate process.
The roof of each nasal cavity is formed in its upper third to one half by the nasal bone and more inferiorly by the junctions of the upper lateral cartilage and nasal septum. Connective tissue and skin cover the bony and cartilaginous components of the dorsum of the nose.
The floor of the nasal cavities, which also form the roof of the mouth, is made up by the bones of the hard palate: the horizontal plate of the palatine bone posteriorly and the palatine process of the maxilla anteriorly. To the front of the nasal cavity is the nasal vestibule and external opening, while the back blends, via the choanae, into the nasopharynx.
The nasal cavity is divided in two by a vertical fin called the nasal septum. On the sides of the nasal cavity are three horizontal outgrowths called nasal conchae (singular "concha") or turbinates. These turbinates disrupt the airflow, directing air toward the olfactory epithelium on the surface of the turbinates and the septum. The vomeronasal organ is located at the back of the septum and has a role in pheromone detection.
Segments[edit]
The nasal cavity is divided into two segments: the respiratory segment and the olfactory segment.
The respiratory segment comprises most of each nasal fossa and is lined with ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium (also called respiratory epithelium). The conchae, or turbinates, are located in this region. The turbinates have a very vascularized lamina propria (erectile tissue) allowing the venous plexuses of their mucosa to engorge with blood, restricting airflow and causing air to be directed to the other side of the nose, which acts in concert by shunting blood out of its turbinates. This cycle occurs approximately every two and a half hours.
The olfactory segment is lined with a specialized type of pseudostratified columnar epithelium, known as olfactory epithelium, which contains receptors for the sense of the smell. This segment is located in and beneath the mucosa of the roof of each nasal cavity and the medial side of each middle turbinate. Histological sections appear yellowish-brown due to the presence of lipofuscin pigments. Olfactory mucosal cell types include bipolar neurons, supporting (sustentacular) cells, basal cells, and Bowman's glands. The axons of the bipolar neurons form the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve I) which enters the brain through the cribiform plate. Bowman's glands are serous glands in the lamina propria, whose secretions trap and dissolve odoriferous substances.
Blood supply[edit]
There is a rich blood supply to the nasal cavity. In some animals, such as dogs, the capillary beds flowing through the nasal cavity help cool the blood flow to the brain.
Blood supply comes from branches of both the internal and external carotid artery, including branches of the facial artery and maxillary artery. The named arteries of the nose are:[1]
Sphenopalatine and Greater palatine arteries, branches of the maxillary artery.
Anterior ethmoidal artery and posterior ethmoidal artery, branches of the ophthalmic artery
Septal Branches of the superior labial artery, a branch of the facial artery, which supplies the vestibule of the nasal cavity.
Nerve supply[edit]
Innervation of the nasal cavity responsible for the sense of smell is via the olfactory nerve, which sends microscopic fibers from the olfactory bulb through the cribriform plate to reach the top of the nasal cavity.
General sensory innervation is by branches of the trigeminal nerve (V1 & V2):
Nasociliary nerve (V1)
Nasopalatine nerve (V2)
Posterior nasal branches of Maxillary nerve (V2)
There are two passages in the nasal cavity, not to be confused with nostrils.The entire nasal cavity is innervated by autonomic fibers. Sympathetic innervation to the blood vessels of the mucosa causes them to constrict, while the control of secretion by the mucous glands is carried on postganglionic parasympathetic nerve fibers originating from the facial nerve.
Function[edit]
The two nasal cavities condition the air to be received by the other areas of the respiratory tract. Owing to the large surface area provided by the nasal conchae (also known as turbinates), the air passing through the nasal cavity is warmed or cooled to within 1 degree of body temperature. In addition, the air is humidified, and dust and other particulate matter is removed by vibrissae, short, thick hairs, present in the vestibule. The entire mucosa of the nasal fossae is covered by a blanket of mucus, which lies superficial to the microscopic cilia and also filters inspired air. The cilia of the respiratory epithelium move the secreted mucus and particulate matter posteriorly towards the pharynx where it passes into the esophagus and is digested in the stomach. The nasal cavity also houses the sense of smell and contributes greatly to taste sensation through its posterior communication with the mouth via the choanae.
Clinical significance[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2011)
Diseases of the nasal cavity include viral, bacterial and fungal infections, nasal cavity tumors, both benign and much more often malignant, as well as inflammations of the nasal mucosa. Many problems can affect the nose, including:
Deviated septum - a shifting of the wall that divides the nasal cavity into halves
Nasal polyps - soft growths that develop on the lining of the nose or sinuses
Nosebleeds
Rhinitis - inflammation of the nose and sinuses sometimes caused by allergies. The main symptom is a runny nose.
Nasal fractures, also known as a broken nose
Common cold
Additional images[edit]
Nasal cavity
Nasal cavity
Nose and nasal cavities
Normal Nose CT Front cross section
Coronal section of nasal cavities.
Anatomy of the nasal cavity
The skull from the front.
Left orbicularis oculi, seen from behind.
Lateral wall of nasal cavity.
Lateral wall of nasal cavity. (Conchae removed to reveal openings in wall.)
Medial wall (septum) of nasal cavity.
Nerves of the wall of the nasal cavity
Nasal cavity
See also[edit]
Nasal irrigation
Danger triangle of the face
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Moore, Keith L; Dalley, Arthur F. (1999). Clinically Oriented Anatomy. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
External links[edit]
Look up nasal cavity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
lesson9 at The Anatomy Lesson by Wesley Norman (Georgetown University)
Gross anatomy dissection of the nasal cavity, video [1] and [2]
[hide]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the human nose
External nose
Ala of nose
nasal cartilages
of the septum
Greater alar
Lesser alar
Lateral nasal
Accessory nasal
Vomeronasal
Nasal cavity
Openings
Nasal vestibule
Nostril
Posterior nasal apertures
Lateral wall
Nasal conchae: Supreme nasal concha
Superior nasal concha
Middle nasal concha
Inferior nasal concha
Nasal meatus: (Supreme
superior
middle
inferior)
Sphenoethmoidal recess
Ethmoid bulla
Agger nasi
Ethmoidal infundibulum
Semilunar hiatus
Maxillary hiatus
Medial wall
Nasal septum
Vomeronasal organ
Mucous membrane
Olfactory mucosa
Paranasal sinuses
Maxillary sinus
Sphenoidal sinuses
Frontal sinus
Ethmoid sinus
Naso-pharynx
Pharyngeal opening of auditory tube
Salpingopharyngeal fold
Salpingopalatine fold
Torus tubarius
Pharyngeal tonsil
Pharyngeal recess
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nasal_cavity&oldid=840374805"
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Paranasal sinus

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Bowman's glands

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Cribiform plate

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Sense of smell

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Mucous glands

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Body temperature

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Human pharynx

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Deviated septum

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Nasal polyps

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Broken nose

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http://www.wesnorman.com/lesson9.htm

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Cartilage of the septum

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Supreme nasal concha

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Salpingopharyngeal fold

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Salpingopalatine fold

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