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Territories of the United States
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This article is about the individual political entities currently or formerly called "United States territories". For the historical territories which became U.S. states, see Organized incorporated territories of the United States. For the various forms of U.S. jurisdiction, see United States territory. For maps of historical evolution, see Territorial evolution of the United States.
Territories of the United States
Flag
The 50 states and the Federal District
Commonwealth (see footnote)
Incorporated unorganized territory
Unincorporated organized territory
Unincorporated unorganized territory
Largest settlement
San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States
Languages
English, Spanish, Hawaiian, Chamorro, Carolinian, Samoan
Demonym
American
Territories
16 territories[show]
American Samoa
Bajo Nuevo Bank
Baker Island
Howland Island
Guam
Jarvis Island
Johnston Atoll
Kingman Reef
Midway Islands
Navassa Island
Northern Mariana Islands
Palmyra Atoll
Puerto Rico
Serranilla Bank
U.S. Virgin Islands
Wake Island
Leaders
• Head of state
Donald Trump
• Governors
List of current territorial governors
Area
• Total
22,294.19 km2 (8,607.83 sq mi)
Population
• Estimate
4,065,516
Currency
United States Dollar
Date format
mm/dd/yyyy (AD)
^ "The term 'Commonwealth' does not describe or provide for any specific political status or relationship. It has, for example, been applied to both states and territories. When used in connection with areas under U.S. sovereignty that are not states, the term broadly describes an area that is self-governing under a constitution of its adoption and whose right of self-government will not be unilaterally withdrawn by Congress."[1]
Example of one of the interim political divisions of the United States (as they were from 1868 to 1876, including nine organized territories and two unorganized territories).
Administrative divisions
of the United States
First level
State
Federal district
Territory (Commonwealth)
Indian reservation (List) / Hawaiian home land / Alaska Native tribal entity / Pueblo / Off-reservation trust land
Second level
County / Parish / Borough
Unorganized Borough / Census area / Villages / District (USVI) / District (AS)
Consolidated city-county
Independent city
Municipality
Unorganized atoll
State-recognized tribes
Third level
Cities, towns, and villages
Civil township
Coterminous municipality
Survey township
Barrio
Chapter
Fourth level
Ward
Other areas
Protected areas (Conservation district, National Monument, National parks)
Congressional district
Homeowner association
Associated state
Military base
Federal enclave
Unincorporated area
Ghost town
v
t
e
View of San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Protestant Cay in Christiansted, U.S. Virgin Islands.
Tumon Beach in Guam.
Mount Tapochau in the Northern Mariana Islands.
Afono village in American Samoa.
The Wake Island Lagoon in Wake Island.
A red-footed booby in the Palmyra Atoll.
Territories of the United States are sub-national administrative divisions directly overseen by the United States (U.S.) federal government. Unlike U.S. states and Indian tribes that have sovereignty alongside the federal government, only one territory has sovereignty. The territories are classified by whether they are "incorporated" (i.e., part of the U.S. proper) and whether they have an "organized" government through an Organic Act passed by the U.S. Congress.[2]
The U.S. has sixteen territories in the Caribbean Sea, the south Pacific Ocean, and the western portion of the north Pacific Ocean. Five of them are permanently inhabited and are classified as unincorporated territories. The other eleven are small islands, atolls, and reefs with no native or permanent population. Of those eleven, only one is classified as an incorporated territory.
Historically, territories were created to govern newly acquired land. Most territories eventually attained statehood. Other territories administered by the U.S. eventually became independent countries, such as the Philippines, Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau.[citation needed]
Many organized incorporated territories of the United States existed from 1789 to 1959. The first were the Northwest and the Southwest territories and the last were the Alaska Territory and the Hawaii Territory. Thirty-one of these territories applied for and were granted statehood. In the process of organizing and promoting territories to statehood, some areas of a territory lacking sufficient development and population densities were temporarily orphaned from parts of a larger territory when residents voted on whether to petition Congress for statehood. For example, when a portion of the Missouri Territory became the state of Missouri, the remaining portion of the territory, consisting of all the states of Iowa, Nebraska, South Dakota, and North Dakota, most of Kansas, Wyoming, and Montana, and parts of Colorado and Minnesota, effectively became an unorganized territory.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Existing territories and their legal status
1.1 Permanently inhabited territories
1.2 Uninhabited territories
2 Incorporated and unincorporated territories
2.1 Express or implied?
2.2 U.S. Supreme Court decisions about particular territories
2.2.1 Alaska Territory
2.2.2 Florida Territory
2.2.3 Southwest Territory
2.2.4 Louisiana Territory
3 Organized territory
4 Classification of current U.S. territories
4.1 Incorporated organized territories
4.2 Incorporated unorganized territories
4.3 Unincorporated organized territories
4.4 Unincorporated unorganized territories
4.5 Extraterritorial jurisdiction
4.6 Associated states
5 Classification of former U.S. territories and administered areas
5.1 Former incorporated organized territories of the United States
5.2 Former unincorporated territories of the United States (incomplete)
5.3 Former unincorporated territories of the United States under military government
5.4 Areas formerly administered by the United States
5.5 Other zones
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Existing territories and their legal status[edit]
Territories have always been a part of the U.S.[3] According to federal law, the term "United States", when used in a geographical sense, means "the continental United States, Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the United States Virgin Islands".[4] Since political union with the Northern Mariana Islands in 1986, they too are treated as a part of the U.S.[4] An executive order adopted in 2007 includes American Samoa in the U.S. "geographical extent" as reflected in U.S. Department of State documents.[5]
Permanently inhabited territories[edit]
The U.S. has five territories that are permanently inhabited: Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands in the Caribbean Sea; Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands in the Marianas archipelago in the western North Pacific Ocean; and American Samoa in the South Pacific Ocean.
Approximately 4 million people in these territories are U.S. citizens. American Samoa has about 32,000 non-citizen U.S. nationals.[6] Under U.S. law, among the territories, "only persons born in American Samoa and Swains Island are non-citizen U.S. nationals."[7] American Samoans are under the protection of the U.S., with the ability to travel to the U.S. without a visa.[7]
Each of these territories is an organized, self-governing territory with three branches of government, a locally elected governor, and a territorial legislature.
Each also elects a non-voting member or, in the case of Puerto Rico a non-voting resident commissioner, to the U.S. House of Representatives.[8][9] They "possess the same powers as other members of the House, except that they may not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives."[10] They participate in debate, are assigned offices and money for staff, and appoint constituents from their territories to the Army, Navy and Marine Corps, Air Force, and Merchant Marine service academies.[10] They can vote in committee on all legislation presented to the House of Representatives. They are included in their party count for each committee, and they are equal to senators on conference committees. Depending on the congress, they may also vote on the floor in the House Committee of the Whole.[11] As of January 2017, the members of Congress from these territories were: Gregorio Sablan for the Northern Mariana Islands, Madeleine Bordallo for Guam, Amata Coleman Radewagen for American Samoa, Jenniffer González for Puerto Rico, and Stacey Plaskett for the U.S. Virgin Islands.[12]
Every four years, U.S. political parties nominate their presidential candidates at conventions, which include delegates from these territories.[13] The U.S. citizens living in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, however, cannot vote in the general election for president of the U.S.
These territories pay some U.S. taxes and are under the protection of U.S. courts.
The capitals of these territories are Pago Pago in American Samoa; Hagåtña in Guam; Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands; San Juan in Puerto Rico; and, Charlotte Amalie in the U.S. Virgin Islands.[14]
Uninhabited territories[edit]
The U.S. has eleven territories with no native or permanent population. They are small islands, atolls, and reefs spread across the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean: Palmyra Atoll, Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, the Midway Islands, Bajo Nuevo Bank, Navassa Island, Serranilla Bank, and Wake Island. Palmyra Atoll (formally, the United States Territory of Palmyra Island[15]) is the only incorporated U.S. territory, a status it has maintained since the Territory of Hawaii became a state in 1959.
The status of Navassa Island, Wake Island, Serranilla Bank, and Bajo Nuevo Bank are disputed by Colombia, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, and the Marshall Islands.[16][17]
Incorporated and unincorporated territories[edit]
Main article: Insular Cases
The U.S. Congress decides whether a territory is incorporated or unincorporated. The entire U.S. constitution applies to each incorporated territory, including its local government and all of its inhabitants, in the same manner as it applies to the local governments and residents of a state. Incorporated territories are considered an integral part of the U.S., not mere possessions.[18]
From 1901 to 1905, the U.S. Supreme Court in a series of cases known as the Insular Cases held that the constitution extended by its own force to U.S. territories. The Court in these cases, however, also established the doctrine of territorial incorporation, under which the constitution applies fully to incorporated territories, such as the territories of Alaska and Hawaii, and applies partially in the unincorporated territories of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.[19][20]
The U.S. had no unincorporated territories (also called "overseas possessions" or "insular areas") until 1856. In that year, the U.S. Congress enacted the Guano Islands Act, which authorised the president to take possession of unclaimed islands to mine guano. Under this law, the U.S. has taken control of and claimed rights in many islands, atolls, etc., especially in the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, most of which have since been abandoned. The U.S. also has acquired territories since 1856 under other circumstances, such as under the Treaty of Paris (1898) that ended the Spanish–American War. The U.S. Supreme Court considered the constitutional position of these unincorporated territories in Balzac v. People of Porto Rico, where the Court said the following about a U.S. court in Puerto Rico:[21]:312
The United States District Court is not a true United States court established under article 3 of the Constitution to administer the judicial power of the United States.... It is created ... by the sovereign congressional faculty, granted under article 4, 3, of that instrument, of making all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory belonging to the United States. The resemblance of its jurisdiction to that of true United States courts, in offering an opportunity to nonresidents of resorting to a tribunal not subject to local influence, does not change its character as a mere territorial court.
In Glidden Company v. Zdanok, the U.S. Supreme Court cited the Balzac case and said with regard to courts in unincorporated territories, "Upon like considerations, Article III has been viewed as inapplicable to courts created in unincorporated territories outside the mainland ... and to the consular courts established by concessions from foreign countries...."[22]:547
The U.S. Supreme Court has recognized two ways in which incorporation could be made: "incorporation is not to be assumed without express declaration, or an implication so strong as to exclude any other view."[citation needed]
Express or implied?[edit]
In the Balzac case, the Court defined the meaning of "implied":[21]:306
Had Congress intended to take the important step of changing the treaty status of Puerto Rico by incorporating it into the Union, it is reasonable to suppose that it would have done so by the plain declaration, and would not have left it to mere inference. Before the question became acute at the close of the Spanish War, the distinction between acquisition and incorporation was not regarded as important, or at least it was not fully understood and had not aroused great controversy. Before that, the purpose of Congress might well be a matter of mere inference from various legislative acts; but in these latter days, incorporation is not to be assumed without express declaration, or an implication so strong as to exclude any other view.
U.S. Supreme Court decisions about particular territories[edit]
The U.S. Supreme Court in Rassmussen v. U.S. first quoted from Article III of the 1867 treaty for the purchase of Alaska and then said, "'The inhabitants of the ceded territory ... shall be admitted to the enjoyment of all the rights, advantages, and immunities of citizens of the United States....' This declaration, although somewhat changed in phraseology, is the equivalent ... of the formula, employed from the beginning to express the purpose to incorporate acquired territory into the United States, especially in the absence of other provisions showing an intention to the contrary."[23]:522
The act of incorporation is on the people of the territory, not on the territory per se, by extending the privileges and immunities clause of the constitution to them.[citation needed]
Alaska Territory[edit]
The Rassmussen case arose out of a criminal conviction by a six-person jury in Alaska under a federal law allowing this procedure there. The Court held that Alaska had been incorporated into the U.S. because of the treaty of cession with Russia.[24] In addition, the Congressional implication was so strong as to exclude any other view:[23]:523
That Congress, shortly following the adoption of the treaty with Russia, clearly contemplated the incorporation of Alaska into the United States as a part thereof, we think plainly results from the act of July 20, 1868, concerning internal revenue taxation ... and the act of July 27, 1868 ... extending the laws of the United States relating to customs, commerce, and navigation over Alaska, and establishing a collection district therein. ... And this is fortified by subsequent action of Congress, which it is unnecessary to refer to.
In his concurring opinion, Justice Brown expressed the same thought:[23]:533-4
Apparently, acceptance of the territory is insufficient in the opinion of the court in this case, since the result that Alaska is incorporated into the United States is reached, not through the treaty with Russia, or through the establishment of a civil government there, but from the act ... extending the laws of the United States relating to the customs, commerce, and navigation over Alaska, and establishing a collection district there. Certain other acts are cited, notably the judiciary act ... making it the duty of this court to assign ... the several territories of the United States to particular Circuits.
Florida Territory[edit]
In Dorr v. U.S., the U.S. Supreme Court quoted Chief Justice Marshall from an earlier case as follows:[25]:141-2
"The 6th article of the treaty of cession contains the following provision: 'The inhabitants of the territories which His Catholic Majesty cedes the United States by this treaty shall be incorporated in the Union of the United States as soon as may be consistent with the principles of the Federal Constitution, and admitted to the enjoyment of the privileges, rights, and immunities of the citizens of the United States.' ... This treaty is the law of the land, and admits the inhabitants of Florida to the enjoyment of the privileges, rights, and immunities of the citizens of the United States. It is unnecessary to inquire whether this is not their condition, independent of stipulation. They do not, however, participate in political power; they do not share in the government till Florida shall become a state. In the meantime Florida continues to be a territory of the United States, governed by virtue of that clause in the Constitution which empowers Congress "to make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States.'"
In Downes v. Bidwell, the Court said, "The same construction was adhered to in the treaty with Spain for the purchase of Florida ... the 6th article of which provided that the inhabitants should 'be incorporated into the Union of the United States, as soon as may be consistent with the principles of the Federal Constitution.'"[26]:256
Southwest Territory[edit]
In the Downes case, the first mention of incorporation is made in the following paragraph by Justice Brown:[26]:321-2
In view of this it cannot, it seems to me, be doubted that the United States continued to be composed of states and territories, all forming an integral part thereof and incorporated therein, as was the case prior to the adoption of the Constitution. Subsequently, the territory now embraced in the state of Tennessee was ceded to the United States by the state of North Carolina. In order to insure the rights of the native inhabitants, it was expressly stipulated that the inhabitants of the ceded territory should enjoy all the rights, privileges, benefits, and advantages set forth in the ordinance 'of the late Congress for the government of the western territory of the United States.
Louisiana Territory[edit]
First U.S. stamp to commemorate a territory and depict a map (1904)
In the Downes case, the Court said:[26]:252
Owing to a new war between England and France being upon the point of breaking out, there was need for haste in the negotiations, and Mr. Livingston took the responsibility of disobeying his (Mr. Jefferson's) instructions, and, probably owing to the insistence of Bonaparte, consented to the 3d article of the treaty (with France to acquire the territory of Louisiana), which provided that 'the inhabitants of the ceded territory shall be incorporated in the Union of the United States, and admitted as soon as possible, according to the principles of the Federal Constitution, to the enjoyment of all the rights, advantages, and immunities of citizens of the United States; and in the meantime they shall be maintained and protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty, property, and the religion which they profess.' [8 Stat. at L. 202.] This evidently committed the government to the ultimate, but not to the immediate, admission of Louisiana as a state....
The U.S. Supreme Court is unanimous in its interpretation that the extension of the privileges and immunities clause of the U.S. Constitution to the inhabitants of a territory in effect produces the incorporation of that territory. The net effect of incorporation is that the territory becomes an integral part of the geographical boundaries of the U.S. and cannot, from then on, be separated. The whole body of the U.S. Constitution is extended to the inhabitants of that territory, except for those provisions that relate to its federal character.
Moreso, the needful rules and regulations of the territorial clause must yield to the Constitution and the inherent constraints imposed on it in dealing with the privileges and immunities of the inhabitants of the incorporated territory.
Notice must be taken that incorporation of a territory takes place through the incorporation of its inhabitants, not of the territory per se. As such, those inhabitants receive the full impact of the U.S. Constitution, except for those provisions that deal specifically with the federal character of the Union.[citation needed]
Organized territory[edit]
Lands under the sovereignty of the federal government (but not part of any state) that were given a measure of self-rule by the Congress through an Organic Act subject to the Congress' plenary powers under the territorial clause of Article IV, sec. 3, of the U.S. Constitution.[27]
Classification of current U.S. territories[edit]
See also: Insular area and List of U.S. colonial possessions
Incorporated organized territories[edit]
Main article: Organized incorporated territories of the United States
No incorporated organized territory has existed since 1959, with the last two being the territories of Alaska and Hawaii, both of which achieved statehood in that year.
Incorporated unorganized territories[edit]
Many incorporated unorganized territories became incorporated organized territories or states. For example, when the eastern part of the incorporated organized territory called Minnesota became the state of Minnesota in 1858, the western part became part of an unorganized territory. Later, that became a part of the Dakota Territory, out of which two states and some parts of other states were created. California was part of an unorganized territory when it became a state.
Name
Location
Area
Population
Capital
Note
Palmyra Atoll Polynesia & North Pacific 0000012 !12 km2 (5 sq mi) 20 As of 2007, partly privately owned by The Nature Conservancy with much of the rest owned by the federal government and managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.[28][29] It is an archipelago of about 50 small islands with about 1.56 sq mi (4.0 km2) of land area, lying about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) south of Oahu, Hawaii. The atoll was acquired by the U.S. through the annexation of the Republic of Hawaii in 1898. When the Territory of Hawaii was incorporated on April 30, 1900, Palmyra Atoll was incorporated as part of that territory. When the State of Hawaii was admitted to the Union in 1959, however, the Act of Congress explicitly separated Palmyra Atoll from the newly federated state. Palmyra remained an incorporated territory, but received no new organized government.[30]
There are also territories that have the status of being incorporated but that are not organized:
U.S. coastal waters out to 12 nautical miles (14 mi; 22 km) offshore (except state waters extend a minimum of 3 nautical miles (3.5 mi; 5.6 km) offshore).
Unincorporated organized territories[edit]
Main article: Unincorporated territories of the United States
Name
Location
Area
Population
Capital
Note
Guam Micronesia & North Pacific 0000543 !543 km2 (210 sq mi) 159,358 Hagåtña Territory since 1898, Guam is the home of Naval Base Guam and Andersen Air Force Base.
Northern Mariana Islands Micronesia & North Pacific 0000463 !463.63 km2 (179 sq mi) 53,467 Saipan Commonwealth since 1978; formerly a United Nations Trust Territory under the administration of the U.S.
Puerto Rico Caribbean & North Atlantic 0009104 !9,104 km2 (3,515 sq mi) 3,667,084 San Juan Unincorporated territory since 1898, a commonwealth since 1952. In November 2008, a U.S. District Court judge ruled that a sequence of Congressional actions have had the cumulative effect of changing Puerto Rico's status from "unincorporated" to "incorporated."[31] However, the issue has not finished making its way through the court system;[32] and the U.S. government still refers to Puerto Rico as unincorporated.[33] See the Puerto Rico section in the article, Organized incorporated territories of the United States, and also the article, Political status of Puerto Rico.
United States Virgin Islands Caribbean & North Atlantic 000346.36 !346.36 km2 (134 sq mi) 106,405 Charlotte Amalie Purchased by the U.S. from Denmark in 1917.
Unincorporated unorganized territories[edit]
Main article: Unincorporated territories of the United States
Name
Location
Area
Population
Capital
Note
American Samoa Polynesia & South Pacific 0000197.1 !197.1 km2 (76.1 sq mi) 55,519 Pago Pago Territory since 1898. Locally self-governing under a constitution last revised in 1967.[35]
Baker Island[a] North Pacific Ocean 00002.1 !2.1 km2 (0.81 sq mi) 0 Claimed under the Guano Islands Act on October 28, 1856.[36][37] Formally annexed on May 13, 1936, and placed under the jurisdiction of the United States Department of the Interior.[38]
Howland Island[a] North Pacific Ocean 00004.5 !4.5 km2 (1.7 sq mi) 0 Claimed under the Guano Islands Act on December 3, 1858.[36][37] Formally annexed on May 13, 1936, and placed under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of the Interior.[38]
Jarvis Island[a] Polynesia & south Pacific Ocean 00004.75 !4.75 km2 (1.83 sq mi) 0 Claimed under the Guano Islands Act on October 28, 1856.[36][37] Formally annexed on May 13, 1936, and placed under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of the Interior.[38]
Johnston Atoll[a] North Pacific Ocean 00002.67 !2.67 km2 (1.03 sq mi) 40 Last used by the U.S. Department of Defense in 2004
Kingman Reef[a] Polynesia & north Pacific Ocean 000018 !18 km2 (6.9 sq mi) 0 Claimed under the Guano Islands Act on February 8, 1860.[36][37] Formally annexed on May 10, 1922, and placed under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of the Navy on December 29, 1934.[39]
Wake Island[a] Micronesia & north Pacific Ocean 00007.4 !7.4 km2 (2.9 sq mi) 188 Territory since 1898; host to the Wake Island Airfield administered by the U.S. Air Force; claimed by the Marshall Islands.[40]
Midway Atoll North Pacific Ocean 00006.2 !6.2 km2 (2.4 sq mi) 4 Territory since 1859; primarily a wildlife refuge inhabited only by civilian contractors; previously under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of the Navy.
Navassa Island Caribbean Sea & north Atlantic Ocean 00005.4 !5.4 km2 (2.1 sq mi) 0 Territory since 1857. Claimed by Haiti.
Serranilla Bank Caribbean Sea & north Atlantic Ocean 0000350 !350 km2 (140 sq mi) 0 Administered by Colombia; site of a naval garrison. Claimed by the U.S (since 1879 under the Guano Islands Act), Honduras, and Jamaica. A claim by Nicaragua was resolved in 2012 in favor of Colombia by the International Court of Justice, although the U.S. was not a party to that case and does not recognize the jurisdiction of the ICJ.[41]
Bajo Nuevo Bank Caribbean Sea & north Atlantic Ocean 0000110 !110 km2 (42 sq mi) 0 Administered by Colombia. Claimed by the U.S. (under the Guano Islands Act) and Jamaica. A claim by Nicaragua was resolved in 2012 in favor of Colombia by the International Court of Justice, although the U.S. was not a party to that case and does not recognize the jurisdiction of the ICJ.[41]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f These six territories, together with Palmyra Atoll, comprise the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.
Extraterritorial jurisdiction[edit]
The U.S. exercises some degree of extraterritorial jurisdiction in overseas areas, such as:
Guantanamo Bay Naval Base (since 1903): A 45 square miles (120 km2) land area along Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, to which the U.S. claims to hold a perpetual lease.[42] The Cuban government does not recognize this claim and has refused to accept any payment since 1959. The lease amount is US$2,000 in gold per year.[43]
American research stations in Antarctica: Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, McMurdo Station, and Palmer Station are under U.S. jurisdiction but are held without sovereignty per the Antarctic Treaty.
Certain other parcels in foreign countries held by lease, such as military bases, depending on the terms of a lease, treaty, or status of forces agreement with the host country.
Associated states[edit]
Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau gained independence under the Compact of Free Association (COFA), which gives the U.S. full authority over aid and defense in exchange for continuing access to U.S. health care, government services such as the Federal Communications Commission and the U.S. Postal Service, and the right for COFA citizens to work freely in the U.S. and vice versa.[citation needed]
The United States exercises a high degree of control in defense, funding, and government services in:
Federated States of Micronesia (since 1986)
Marshall Islands (since 1986)
Palau (since 1994)
Classification of former U.S. territories and administered areas[edit]
Former incorporated organized territories of the United States[edit]
See Organized incorporated territories of the United States for a complete list.
Former unincorporated territories of the United States (incomplete)[edit]
The Corn Islands (1914–1971): leased for 99 years under the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty. However, returned to Nicaragua upon the abrogation of the treaty in 1970.
The Line Islands (?–1979): disputed claim with the United Kingdom. U.S. claim to most of the islands was ceded to Kiribati upon its independence in 1979. The U.S. retained Kingman Reef, Palmyra Atoll, and Jarvis Island.
Panama Canal Zone (1903–1979): sovereignty returned to Panama under the Torrijos-Carter Treaties of 1978. U.S. retained a military base there and control of the canal until December 31, 1999.
The Philippine Islands (1898–1935), the Commonwealth of the Philippines (1935–46): granted full independence on July 4, 1946.
Phoenix Islands (?–1979): disputed claim with the United Kingdom. U.S. claim ceded to Kiribati upon its independence in 1979. Baker Island and Howland Island, which could be considered part of this group, are retained by the U.S.
Quita Sueño Bank (1869–1981): claimed under Guano Islands Act. Claim abandoned on September 7, 1981, by treaty.
Roncador Bank (1856–1981): claimed under Guano Islands Act. Ceded to Colombia on September 7, 1981, by treaty.
Serrana Bank (1874?–1981): claimed under Guano Islands Act. Ceded to Colombia on September 7, 1981, by treaty.
Swan Islands (1863–1972): claimed under Guano Islands Act. Ceded to Honduras in 1972, by treaty.
Former unincorporated territories of the United States under military government[edit]
Puerto Rico (April 11, 1899 – May 1, 1900): civil government operations began
Philippines (August 14, 1898[44] – July 4, 1901): civil government operations began
Guam (April 11, 1899 – July 1, 1950): civil government operations began
Areas formerly administered by the United States[edit]
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Cuba (April 11, 1899 – May 20, 1902): sovereignty recognized as the independent Republic of Cuba.
Philippines (August 14, 1898 – July 4, 1946): sovereignty recognized as the Republic of the Philippines.
Veracruz: occupied by the United States from April 21, 1914 to November 23, 1914, consequential to the Tampico Affair following the Mexican Revolution of 1910–1929.
Haiti: occupied by the United States from 1915 to 1934 and later under the authority of the United Nations from 1999 to the 2000s.
Dominican Republic occupied by the United States from 1916 to 1924 and again from 1965 to 1966.
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (1947–1986): liberated in World War II, included the "Compact of Free Association" nations (the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of Palau) and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
Ryukyu Islands including Okinawa (U.S. occupation: 1952–1972, after World War II): returned to Japan under the Agreement Between the United States of America and Japan concerning the Ryukyu Islands and the Daito Islands.[45]
Nanpo Islands (1945–1968): Occupied after World War II, Returned to Japanese control by mutual agreement.
Marcus Island (or Minamitorishima) (1945–1968): Occupied during World War II, returned to Japan by mutual agreement.
Falkland Islands (1831–1832): Brief landing party and raid by the U.S. Navy warship USS Lexington. Now administered as a British Overseas Territory by the United Kingdom and claimed by Argentina.
Other zones[edit]
United States occupation of Greenland (1941–1945)[46]
United States occupation of Iceland during World War II (1941–1946),[46] retained a military base until 2006.
American Occupation Zones in Allied-occupied Austria and Vienna (1945–1955)
American Occupation Zone in West Berlin (1945–1990)
American Occupation Zones of the Allied Occupation Zones in Germany (1945–1949)
Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories in full force in Allied-controlled sections of Italy from Invasion of Sicily in July 1943 until the armistice with Italy in September 1943. AMGOT continued in newly liberated areas of Italy until the end of World War II. Also existed in combat zones of Allied nations such as France.
Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954) The U.S. co-administered a portion of the Free Territory between the Kingdom of Italy and the former Kingdom of Yugoslavia after World War II along with the United Kingdom.
Occupation of Japan (1945–1952) after World War II.
U.S. participation in the Occupation of the Rhineland (Germany) (1918–1921)
South Korea (U.S. occupation of the south of the 38th parallel north in Korea in 1945–1948). The region is slightly different from the current practical boundary of the Republic of Korea (South Korea) since the ceasefire of the Korean War. See also Division of Korea.
Coalition Provisional Authority Iraq (2003–2004)
Green zone Iraq (March 20, 2003 – December 31, 2008)[47]
Clipperton Island (1944–1945), occupied territory; returned to France on October 23, 1945.
Grenada invasion and occupation (1983)
See also[edit]
Enabling act (United States)
Extreme points of the United States
Hawaiian Organic Act
Historic regions of the United States
Organic Acts of 1845–46
Political divisions of the United States
Political status of Puerto Rico
Territories of the United States on stamps
United States Minor Outlying Islands
United States territory
Unorganized territories
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Definition of Terms - 1120 Acquisition of U.S. Nationality in U.S. Territories and Possessions" (PDF). U.S. Department of State Foreign Affairs Manual Volume 7- Consular Affairs. U.S. Department of State.
Jump up ^ "Definitions of Insular Area Political Organizations". U.S. Department of the Interior.
Jump up ^ Bartholomew H. Sparrow (2005). Sanford Levinson; Bartholomew H. Sparrow, eds. The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion, 1803–1898. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 232. ISBN 0-7425-4984-4. Retrieved December 2, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b 7 FAM 1112. State Department Foreign Affairs Manual (FAM) 7-Consular Affairs. Viewed January 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ Executive Order 13423 Sec. 9. (l). "The "United States" when used in a geographical sense, means the fifty states, the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands, and associated territorial waters and airspace."
Jump up ^ Nativity by Place of Birth and Citizenship Status, United States Census, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b 7 FAM 1111(b). State Department Foreign Affairs Manual (FAM) 7-Consular Affairs. However, as reported in Samoa lawsuit, Newsweek, July 13, 2012. viewed December 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ U.S. General Accounting Office, U.S. Insular Areas: Application of the U.S. Constitution, November 1997, pp. 8, 14, 27, viewed September 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ U.S. Department of State, Common Core Document of the United States of America, report to the United Nations Committee on Human Rights, December 30, 2011, sec. 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, viewed September 3, 2015. American Samoa, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands appear on the United Nations' list of non-self-governing territories, viewed September 3, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b House Learn webpage. Viewed January 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Application of the U.S. Constitution, GAO Report, U.S. Insular Areas, November 1997, (p. 26–28).
Jump up ^ [1] viewed August 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ The Green Papers, 2016 Presidential primaries, caucuses and conventions, viewed September 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ U.S. State Department, Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty. The chart, under "Sovereignty", lists five places under U.S. sovereignty that are administered by a local "Administrative Center" with "Short form names": American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, U.S.
Jump up ^ Act of Admission, § 2, Pub. L. No. 86-3, 73 Stat. 4 (March 18, 1959).
Jump up ^ U.S. General Accounting Office Report, U.S. Insular Areas: application of the U.S. Constitution, November 1997, p. 1, 6, 39n. viewed April 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ U.S. State Department, Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty Chart, under "Sovereignty", lists nine places under U.S. sovereignty thar are administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior: Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, the Midway Islands, Navassa Island, Palmyra Atoll, and Wake Island.
Jump up ^ "Definitions of insular area political organizations". Office of Insular Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved September 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Consejo de Salud Playa de Ponce v. Johnny Rullan, Secretary of Health of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, pages 6–7" (PDF). United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico. Retrieved February 4, 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Insular Cases: The Establishment of a Regime of Political Apartheid (2007) Juan R. Torruella" (PDF). Retrieved February 5, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Balzac v. People of Porto Rico". U.S. Supreme Court. April 10, 1922. Retrieved October 4, 2017 – via FindLaw.
Jump up ^ "Glidden Company v. Zdanok". U.S. Supreme Court. June 25, 1962. Retrieved October 4, 2017 – via FindLaw.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Rassmussen v. U.S". U.S. Supreme Court. April 10, 1905. Retrieved October 4, 2017 – via FindLaw.
Jump up ^ Juan R. Torruella (2007). "The Insular Cases: The Establishment of a Regime of Political Apartheid" (PDF). pp. 318–319. Retrieved February 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Dorr v. U.S". U.S. Supreme Court. May 31, 1904. Retrieved October 4, 2017 – via FindLaw.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Downes v. Bidwell". U.S. Supreme Court. May 27, 1901. Retrieved October 4, 2017 – via FindLaw.
Jump up ^ U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3, cl. 2 ("The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States...").
Jump up ^ "AUSTRALIA-OCEANIA :: UNITED STATES PACIFIC ISLAND WILDLIFE REFUGES (TERRITORIES OF THE US)". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Jump up ^ "DOI Office of Insular Affairs (OIA) - Palmyra Atoll". 31 October 2007.
Jump up ^ "Palmyra Atoll". U.S. Department of the Interior Office of Insular Affairs. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Consejo de Salud Playa Ponce v. Johnny Rullan, p.28: "The Congressional incorporation of Puerto Rico throughout the past century has extended the entire Constitution to the island ...."
Jump up ^ Hon. Gustavo A. Gelpi, "The Insular Cases: A Comparative Historical Study of Puerto Rico, Hawai'i, and the Philippines", The Federal Lawyer, March/April 2011. http://www.aspira.org/files/legal_opinion_on_pr_insular_cases.pdf p. 25: "In light of the [Supreme Court] ruling in Boumediene, in the future the Supreme Court will be called upon to reexamine the Insular Cases doctrine as applied to Puerto Rico and other U.S. territories."
Jump up ^ accessed 26 January 2013: "Puerto Rico is a self-governing, unincorporated territory of the United States located in the Caribbean".
Jump up ^ IBP USA (2009), SAMOA American Country Study Guide: Strategic Information and Developments, Int'l Business Publications, pp. 49–64, ISBN 978-1-4387-4187-1, retrieved 2011-10-20
Jump up ^ The revised constitution was approved on June 2, 1967 by Stewart L. Udall, then U.S. Secretary of the Interior, under authority granted on June 29, 1951. It became effective on July 1, 1967.[34]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Moore, John Bassett (1906). "A Digest of International Law as Embodied in Diplomatic Discussions, Treaties and Other International Agreements, International Awards, the Decisions of Municipal Courts, and the Writings of Jurists and Especially in Documents, Published and Unpublished, Issued by Presidents and Secretaries of State of the United States, the Opinions of the Attorneys-General, and the Decisions of Courts, Federal and State". Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 566–580.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Acquisition Process of Insular Areas". United States Department of the Interior Office of Insular Affairs. Retrieved July 15, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Exec. Order No. 7368 (May 13, 1936; in English) President of the United States
Jump up ^ "Kingman Reef". Office of Insular Affairs. Retrieved July 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Wake Island". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
^ Jump up to: a b International Court of Justice (2012). "Territorial and maritime dispute (Nicaragua vs Colombia)" (PDF). Retrieved 29 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Agreement Between the United States and Cuba for the Lease of Lands for Coaling and Naval stations". The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. February 23, 1903. Retrieved 2 April 2008.
Jump up ^ Michael Ratner; Ellen Ray (2004). Guantanamo: What the World Should Know. Chelsea Green Publishing. p. xiv;. ISBN 978-1-931498-64-7.
Jump up ^ Zaide, Sonia M. (1994). The Philippines: A Unique Nation. All-Nations Publishing Co., Inc. p. 279. ISBN 9716420714. Retrieved October 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ Okinawa Reversion Agreement – 1971, The Contemporary Okinawa Website. Accessed 5 June 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Committee, America First (1 January 1990). "In Danger Undaunted: The Anti-interventionist Movement of 1940-1941 as Revealed in the Papers of the America First Committee". Hoover Institution Press. p. 331 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Campbell Robertson; Stephen Farrell (December 31, 2008), Green Zone, Heart of U.S. Occupation, Reverts to Iraqi Control, The New York Times
External links[edit]
FindLaw: Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244 (1901) regarding the distinction between incorporated and unincorporated territories
FindLaw: People of Puerto Rico v. Shell Co., 302 U.S. 253 (1937) regarding application of U.S. law to organized but unincorporated territories
FindLaw: United States v. Standard Oil Company, 404 U.S. 558 (1972) regarding application of U.S. law to unorganized unincorporated territories
Television Stations in U.S. Territories
Unincorporated Territory
Office of Insular Affairs
Application of the U.S. Constitution in U.S. Insular Areas
Department of the Interior Definitions of Insular Area Political Organizations
United States District Court decision addressing the distinction between Incorporated vs Unincorporated territories
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Wind instrument
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Charles Gounod's Petite Symphonie pour neuf instruments à vent
(Little Symphony for Nine Wind Instruments)
I. Adagio, allegro
II: Andante cantabile
III: Scherzo (Allegro moderato)
IV: Finale (Allegretto)
Performed by the Soni Ventorum Wind Quintet.
Problems playing these files? See media help.
Erke, wind instrument of Argentina
A wind instrument is a musical instrument that contains some type of resonator (usually a tube), in which a column of air is set into vibration by the player blowing into (or over) a mouthpiece set at or near the end of the resonator. The pitch of the vibration is determined by the length of the tube and by manual modifications of the effective length of the vibrating column of air. In the case of some wind instruments, sound is produced by blowing through a reed; others require buzzing into a metal mouthpiece.
Contents
[hide]
1 Methods for obtaining different notes
2 Types of wind instruments
3 Physics of sound production
4 Parts
5 Breath pressure
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Methods for obtaining different notes[edit]
Using different air columns for different tones, such as in the pan flute.
Changing the length of the vibrating air column by changing the length of the tube through engaging valves (see rotary valve, piston valve) which route the air through additional tubing, thereby increasing overall tube length, lowering the fundamental pitch. This method is used on nearly all brass instruments.
Changing the length of the vibrating air column by lengthening and/or shortening the tube using a sliding mechanism. This method is used on the trombone and the slide whistle.
Changing the frequency of vibration through opening or closing holes in the side of the tube. This can be done by covering the holes with fingers or pressing a key which then closes the hole. This method is used in nearly all woodwind instruments.
Making the column of air vibrate at different harmonics without changing the length of the column of air (see natural horn and harmonic series).
Almost all wind instruments use the last method, often in combination with one of the others, to extend their register.
Types of wind instruments[edit]
Wind instruments are typically grouped into two families:[1]
Brass instruments (horns, trumpets, trombones, euphoniums, and tubas)
Woodwind instruments (recorders, flutes, oboes, clarinets, saxophones, and bassoons)
Although brass instruments were originally made of brass and woodwind instruments have traditionally been made of wood, the material used to make the body of the instrument is not always a reliable guide to its family type. A more accurate way to determine whether an instrument is brass or woodwind is to examine how the player produces sound.
In brass instruments, the player's lips vibrate, causing the air within the instrument to vibrate.
In woodwind instruments the player either:
causes a reed to vibrate, which agitates the column of air (as in a clarinet, oboe or duduk)
blows over a fipple, across an open hole against an edge (as in a recorder or ocarina), or
blows across the edge of an open hole (as in a flute).
For example, the saxophone is typically made of brass, but is classified as a woodwind instrument because it produces sound with a vibrating reed.
On the other hand, the didgeridoo, the wooden cornett (not to be confused with the cornet, which is made of brass) and the serpent are all made of wood (or plastic tubing, in the case of modern serpents), and the olifant made from ivory, but all of them belong to the family of brass instruments because the vibrating is done by the player's lips.
In the Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification, wind instruments are classed as aerophones.
Physics of sound production[edit]
Sound production in all wind instruments depends on the entry of air into a flow-control valve attached to a resonant chamber (resonator). The resonator is typically a long cylindrical or conical tube, open at the far end. A pulse of high pressure from the valve will travel down the tube at the speed of sound. It will be reflected from the open end as a return pulse of low pressure. Under suitable conditions, the valve will reflect the pulse back, with increased energy, until a standing wave forms in the tube.
Reed instruments such as the clarinet or oboe have a flexible reed or reeds at the mouthpiece, forming a pressure-controlled valve. An increase in pressure inside the chamber will decrease the pressure differential across the reed; the reed will open more, increasing the flow of air.[2][3]The increased flow of air will increase the internal pressure further, so a pulse of high pressure arriving at the mouthpiece will reflect as a higher-pressure pulse back down the tube. Standing waves inside the tube will be odd multiples of a quarter-wavelength,[4] with a pressure anti-node at the mouthpiece, and a pressure node at the open end. The reed vibrates at a rate determined by the resonator.
For Lip Reed (brass) instruments, the player controls the tension in their lips so that they vibrate under the influence of the air flow through them.[5][6] They adjust the vibration so that the lips are most closed, and the air flow is lowest, when a low-pressure pulse arrives at the mouthpiece, to reflect a low-pressure pulse back down the tube. Standing waves inside the tube will be odd multiples of a quarter-wavelength, with a pressure anti-node at the mouthpiece, and a pressure node at the open end.
For Air Reed (flute and fipple-flute) instruments, the thin grazing air sheet (planar jet) flowing across an opening (mouth) in the pipe interacts with a sharp edge (labium) to generate sound.[7] The jet is generated by the player, when blowing through a thin slit (flue). For recorders and flue organ pipes this slit is manufactured by the instrument maker and has a fixed geometry. In a transverse flute or a pan flute the slit is formed by the musician between his lips.
Due to acoustic oscillation of the pipe the air in the pipe is alternatively compressed and expanded.[8] This results in an alternating flow of air into and out of the pipe through the pipe mouth. The interaction of this transversal acoustic flow with the planar air jet induces at the flue exit (origin of the jet) a localised perturbation of the velocity profile of the jet. This perturbation is strongly amplified by the intrinsic instability of the jet as the fluid travels towards the labium. This results into a global transversal motion of the jet at the labium.
The amplification of perturbations of a jet by its intrinsic instability can be observed when looking at a plume of cigaret smoke. Any small amplitude motion of the hand holding the cigaret results into an oscillation of the plume increasing with distance upwards and eventually a chaotic motion (turbulence). The same jet oscillation can be triggered by gentle air flow in the room, which can be verified by waving with the other hand.
The oscillation of the jet around the labium results into a fluctuating force of the airflow on the labium. Following the third law of Newton the labium exerts an opposite reaction force on the flow. One can demonstrate that this reaction force is the source of sound that drives the acoustic oscillation of the pipe.
A quantitative demonstration of the nature of this type of sound source has been provided by Alan Powell[9] when studying a planar jet interacting with a sharp edge in the absence of pipe (so called edgetone). The sound radiated from the edgetone can be predicted from a measurement of the unsteady force induced by the jet flow on the sharp edge (labium). The sound production by the reaction of the wall to an unsteady force of the flow around an object is also producing the aeolian sound of a cylinder placed normal to an air-flow (singing wire phenomenon). In all these cases (flute, edgetone, aeolian tone...) the sound production does not involve a vibration of the wall. Hence the material in which the flute is made is not relevant for the principle of the sound production. There is no essential difference between a golden or a silver flute.[10]
The sound production in a flute can be described by a lumped element model in which the pipe acts as an acoustic swing (mass-spring system, resonator) that preferentially oscillates at a so-called natural frequency. The instability of the jet acts as an amplifier transferring energy from the steady jet flow at the flue exit to the oscillating flow around the labium. The pipe forms with the jet a feedback loop. These two elements are coupled at the flue exit and at the labium. At the flue exit the transversal acoustic flow of the pipe perturbs the jet. At the labium the jet oscillation results in a generation of acoustic waves, which maintain the pipe oscillation.
The acoustic flow in the pipe can for a steady oscillation be described in terms of standing waves. These waves have a pressure node at the mouth opening and another pressure node at the opposite open pipe termination. Standing waves inside such an open-open tube will be multiples of a half-wavelength.[4]
To a rough approximation, a tube of about 40 cm. will exhibit resonances near the following points:
For a reed or lip-reed instrument: 220 Hz (A3), 660 Hz (E5), 1100 Hz (C#6).
For an air-reed instrument: 440 Hz (A4), 880 Hz (A5), 1320 Hz (E6).
In practice, however, obtaining a range of musically useful tones from a wind instrument depends to a great extent on careful instrument design, and playing technique.
The frequency of the vibrational modes depends on the speed of sound in air, which varies with air density. A change in temperature, and only to a much smaller degree also a change in humidity, influences the air density and thus the speed of sound, and therefore affects the tuning of wind instruments. The effect of thermal expansion of a wind instrument, even of a brass instrument, is negligible compared to the thermal effect on the air.
Parts[edit]
The bell of a B-flat clarinet
The bell of a wind instrument is the round, flared opening opposite the mouthpiece. It is found on horns, trumpets and many other kinds of instruments. On brass instruments, the acoustical coupling from the bore to the outside air occurs at the bell for all notes, and the shape of the bell optimizes this coupling. On woodwinds, most notes vent at the uppermost open tone holes; only the lowest notes of each register vent fully or partly at the bell, and the bell's function in this case is to improve the consistency in tone between these notes and the others.
Breath pressure[edit]
Playing some wind instruments, in particular those involving high breath pressure resistance, produce increases in intraocular pressure, which has been linked to glaucoma as a potential health risk. One 2011 study focused on brass and woodwind instruments observed "temporary and sometimes dramatic elevations and fluctuations in IOP".[11] Another study found that the magnitude of increase in intraocular pressure correlates with the intraoral resistance associated with the instrument, and linked intermittent elevation of intraocular pressure from playing high-resistance wind instruments to incidence of visual field loss.[12] The range of intraoral pressure involved in various classes of ethnic wind instruments, such as Native American flutes, has been shown to be generally lower than Western classical wind instruments.[13]
See also[edit]
Concert band
Shorthand for orchestra instrumentation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Baines, Anthony (1961). Musical Instruments Through the Ages. Harmondsworth: Pelican.
Jump up ^ Benade, Arthur H. (1990). Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics. New York: Dover. p. 491.
Jump up ^ Wolfe, Joe. "Clarinet Acoustics: an Introduction". University of New South Wales. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
^ Jump up to: a b Wolfe, Joe. "Open vs. Closed Pipes". University of New South Wales. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
Jump up ^ Benade, Arthur H. (1990). Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics. p. 391.
Jump up ^ Wolfe, Joe. "Brass Instrument (Lip Reed) Acoustics: an Introduction". University of New South Wales. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
Jump up ^ Fabre, Benoit; Gilbert, Joel; Hirschberg, Avraham; Pelorson, Xavier (2012). "Aeroacoustics of Musical Instruments". Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. 44: 1–25. doi:10.1146/annurev-fluid-120710-101031.
Jump up ^ Wolfe, Joe. "Flute Acoustics: an Introduction". University of New South Wales. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
Jump up ^ Powell, Alan (1961). "On the Edgetone". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 33 (4): 395–409. doi:10.1121/1.1908677.
Jump up ^ Coltman, John W. (1971). "Effect of material on flute tone quality". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 49 (2B): 520–523. doi:10.1121/1.1912381.
Jump up ^ Gunnar Schmidtmann; Susanne Jahnke; Egbert J. Seidel; Wolfgang Sickenberger; Hans-Jürgen Grein (2011). "Intraocular Pressure Fluctuations in Professional Brass and Woodwind Musicians During Common Playing Conditions". Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 249 (6): 895–901. doi:10.1007/s00417-010-1600-x.
Jump up ^ J. S. Schuman; E. C. Massicotte; S. Connolly; E. Hertzmark; B. Mukherji; M. Z. Kunen (January 2000). "Increased Intraocular Pressure and Visual Field Defects in High Resistance Wind Instrument Players". Ophthalmology. 107 (1): 127–133. doi:10.1016/s0161-6420(99)00015-9. PMID 10647731.
Jump up ^ Clinton F. Goss (August 2013). "Intraoral Pressure in Ethnic Wind Instruments" (PDF). arXiv:1308.5214  . Retrieved 22 Aug 2013. Lay summary.
Further reading[edit]
Wind Instrument Summary CDs are: "Microsoft Musical Instruments" ( now out of production but sometimes available on Amazon ), and "Tuneful Tubes?" ( http://sites.google.com/site/tunefultubes )
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wind instruments.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Wind instruments.
[show]
v
t
e
4. Aerophones/Wind instruments
41.
Free
411. Displacement
Sword blade
Whipcracking
412. Interruptive
412.1. Idiophonic
412.11. Concussion
412.12. Percussion
412.13. Free reed
412.14. Band/ribbon
412.2. Non-idiophonic
412.21 Rotating
412.22 Whirling
413. Plosive
Ghatam
Udu
42.
Non-
free
421. Flute
421.1. Non-fipple
421.11. End-blown
421.12. Side-blown
421.13. Vessel
421.2. Fipple
421.21. External
421.22. Internal
422. Reed
422.1. Double reed
422.11. Single
422.12. Multiple
422.2. Single reed
422.21. Single
422.22. Multiple
422.3. Free reed
422.31. Single
422.32. Multiple
423. Brass
423.1 Natural
423.11. Conch
423.12. Tubular
423.2 Chromatic
423.21. Keyed
423.22. Slide
423.23. Valved
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