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Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast
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The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast are composed of many nations and tribal affiliations, each with distinctive cultural and political identities, but they share certain beliefs, traditions and practices, such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol. The term Northwest Coast or North West Coast is used in anthropology to refer to the groups of Indigenous people residing along the coast of British Columbia, Washington state, parts of Alaska, Oregon, and northern California. The term Pacific Northwest is largely used in the American context.
At one point the region had the highest population density of a region inhabited by Aboriginal peoples in Canada.[1][2][3]
Chief Anotklosh of the Taku Tribe of the Tlingit people, ca. 1913
Three young Chinook men
Contents
1 List of tribes
1.1 Tlingit
1.2 Nisga'a
1.3 Haida
1.4 Tsimshian
1.5 Gitxsan
1.6 Haisla
1.7 Heiltsuk
1.8 Nuxalk
1.9 Wuikinuxv
1.10 Kwakwaka'wakw
1.11 Nuu-chah-nulth
1.12 Makah
1.13 Coast Salish
1.14 Chimakum
1.15 Quileute
1.16 Willapa
1.17 Chinook
1.18 Tillamook
2 History
2.1 European colonization
2.2 Current times
3 Culture
3.1 Potlatch
3.2 Music
3.3 Art
4 Genetics
5 See also
6 Notes
7 External links
List of tribes[edit]
See also: Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau
The Pacific Northwest Coast at one time had the most densely populated areas of indigenous people ever recorded in Canada.[1][2][3] The land and waters provided rich natural resources through cedar and salmon, and highly structured cultures developed from relatively dense populations. Within the Pacific Northwest, many different nations developed, each with their own distinct history, culture, and society. Some cultures in this region were very similar and share certain elements, such as the importance of salmon to their cultures, while others differed. Prior to contact, and for a brief time after colonization, some of these groups regularly conducted war against each other through raids and attacks. Through warfare they gathered captives for slavery.[citation needed]
Tlingit[edit]
Main article: Tlingit
The Tlingit (/ˈklɪŋkɪt/ KLINK-it, /ˈtlɪŋɡɪt/; the latter is considered inaccurate) are one of the furthest north indigenous nations in the Pacific Northwest Coast. Their autonym is Lingít [ɬɪŋkɪ́t], meaning "Human being". The Russian name for them, Koloshi, was derived from an Aleut term for the labret; and the related German name, Koulischen, may be encountered in older historical literature.
The Tlingit are a matrilineal society. They developed a complex hunter-gatherer culture in the temperate rainforest of the Alaska Panhandle and adjoining inland areas of present-day British Columbia and Yukon.
Nisga'a[edit]
Main articles: Nisga'a and Tsetsaut
The Tsetsaut were an Athabaskan people whose territory was at the head of the Portland Canal. Little is known about them. Decimated by raiding and disease, their survivors were absorbed into the Nisga'a. The latter people now hold their former territories as they are now extinct.
Haida[edit]
Main article: Haida people
The Haida people (/ˈhaɪdə/ HY-də) are well known as skilled artisans of wood, metal and design. They have also shown much perseverance and resolve in the area of forest conservation. The vast forests of cedar and spruce where the Haida make their home are on pre-glacial land, which is believed to be almost 14,000 years old.
Haida communities located in Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, and Haida Gwaii (previously referred to as the Queen Charlotte Islands) also share a common border with other indigenous peoples, such as the Tlingit and the Tsimshian. The Haida were also famous for their long-distance raiding and slaving, reaching as far as Mexico.
Tsimshian[edit]
Tsimshian people in 1900
Main article: Tsimshian
The Tsimshian (/ˈsɪmʃiən/ SIM-shee-ən), translated as "People Inside the Skeena River," are indigenous people who live around Terrace and Prince Rupert on the North Coast of British Columbia, and the southernmost corner of Alaska on Annette Island. There are about 10,000 Tsimshian, of which about 1,300 live in Alaska.
Succession in Tsimshian society is matrilineal, and one's place in society was determined by one's clan or phratry (defined as four equal parts). Four main Tsimshian clans form the basic phratry. The Laxsgiik (Eagle Clan) and Ganhada (Raven Clan) form one half. Gispwudwada (Killer Whale Clan) and Laxgibuu (Wolf Clan) form the other half. Prior to European contact, marriage in Tsimshian society could not take place within a half-group, for example between a Wolf and a Killer Whale. It was considered to be incest even if there was no blood relationship. Marriages were only arranged between people from clans in different halves: for example, between a Killer Whale and a Raven or Eagle.
Gitxsan[edit]
Main article: Gitxsan
The Gitxsan or Gitksan, meaning "people of the Skeena River", were known with the Nisga'a as Interior Tsimshian. They speak a closely related language to Nisga'a, though both are related to Coast Tsimshian. This is the English term for Tsimshian spoken on the coast. Although inland, their culture is part of the Northwest Coast culture area, and they share many common characteristics, including the clan system, an advanced art style, and war canoes. They share an historic alliance with the neighbouring Wet'suwet'en, a subgroup of the Dakelh (or Carrier people). Together they waged a battle in the courts against British Columbia known as Delgamuukw v. the Queen, which had to do with land rights.
Haisla[edit]
Main article: Haisla people
The Haisla (also Xa’islak’ala, X̄a’islakʼala, X̌àʼislakʼala, X̣aʼislak’ala) are an indigenous nation living at Kitamaat in the North Coast region of the Canadian province of British Columbia. The name Haisla is derived from the Haisla word x̣àʼisla or x̣àʼisəla, "(those) living at the rivermouth, living downriver".
Heiltsuk[edit]
Main article: Heiltsuk
The Heiltsuk (/ˈhaɪltsʊk/ HYLE-tsuuk)[4] are an indigenous Nation of the Central Coast region of the Canadian province of British Columbia, centred on the island communities of Bella Bella, British Columbia and Klemtu. The Heiltsuk are the descendants of a number of tribal groups who came together in Bella Bella in the 19th century. They generally prefer the autonym Heiltsuk. Anthropology labelled them the Bella Bella, which is how they are more widely known.
Nuxalk[edit]
Main article: Nuxalk
The Nuxalk (pronounced [nuχalk]), also known as the Bella Coola, are an indigenous people of the Central Coast, as well as the furthest north of the Coast Salish cultures. Linguists have classified their Salishan language as independent of both Interior and Coast Salish language groups. It is quite different from that of their coastal neighbours, though it contains a large number of Wakashan loan words. They are believed to have been more connected to Interior Salish peoples, before Athabaskan-speaking groups now inland from them spread southwards, cutting the Nuxalk off from their linguistic relatives.
Wuikinuxv[edit]
Main article: Wuikinuxv
The Wuikinuxv, also known as the Owekeeno or Rivers Inlet people (after their location), speak a parallel language to Heiltsuk, Wuikyala or Oowekyala (they are dialects of a language that has no independent name; linguists refer to it as Heiltsuk-Oweekyala). Together with the Heiltsuk and Haisla, they were once incorrectly known as the Northern Kwakiutl because of their language's close relationship with Kwak'wala. Greatly reduced in numbers today, like other coastal peoples they were master carvers and painters. They had an elaborate ritual and clan system. The focus of their territory was Owikeno Lake, a freshwater fjord above a short stretch of river at the head of Rivers Inlet.
Kwakwaka'wakw[edit]
Kwakwaka'wakw people at a wedding ceremony in 1914
Main article: Kwakwaka'wakw
The Kwakwaka'wakw are an indigenous people, numbering about 5,500, who live in British Columbia on northern Vancouver Island and the mainland. The autonym they prefer is Kwakwaka'wakw. Their indigenous language, part of the Wakashan languages family, is Kwak'wala. The name Kwakwaka'wakw means "speakers of Kwak'wala". The language is now spoken by less than 5% of the population—about 250 people. Today 17 separate tribes make up the Kwakwaka'wakw, who historically spoke the common language of kwak'wala. Some Kwakwaka'wakw groups are now extinct. Kwak'wala is a Northern Wakashan language, a grouping shared with Haisla, Heiltsuk and Oowekyala.
Nuu-chah-nulth[edit]
Main article: Nuu-chah-nulth
The Nuu-chah-nulth (/nuːˈtʃɑːnʊlθ/ noo-CHAH-nuulth; Salish: [nuːt͡ʃaːnˀuɬ]) are indigenous peoples in Canada. Their traditional home is in the Pacific Northwest on the west coast of Vancouver Island. In pre-contact and early post-contact times, the number of nations was much greater, but as in the rest of the region, smallpox and other consequences of contact resulted in the disappearance of some groups, and the absorption of others into neighbouring groups.
They were among the first Pacific peoples north of California to come into contact with Europeans. Competition between Spain and the United Kingdom over control of Nootka Sound led to a bitter international dispute around 1790, which was settled when Spain agreed to abandon its claim of exclusivity to the North Pacific coast, and to pay damages for British ships seized during the dispute. The Nuu-chah-nulth speak a Southern Wakashan language and are closely related to the Makah and Ditidaht.
Makah[edit]
Main article: Makah
The Makah are a Southern Wakashan people and are closely related to the Nuu-chah-nulth. They are also noted as whalers. Their territory is around the northwest tip of the Olympic Peninsula.
Coast Salish[edit]
A Squamish elder woman spinning wool on spindle-whorl, circa 1893
Main article: Coast Salish peoples
The Coast Salish are the largest of the southern groups. They are a loose grouping of many tribes with numerous distinct cultures and languages. Territory claimed by Coast Salish peoples spans from the northern end of the Strait of Georgia, along the east side of Vancouver Island, covering most of southern Vancouver Island, all of the Lower Mainland and Sunshine Coast, all of Puget Sound except (formerly) for the Chemakum territory near Port Townsend, and all of the Olympic Peninsula except that of the Quileute, related to the now-extinct Chemakum. The Strait of Georgia and Puget Sound were officially united as the Salish Sea in 2010.
The Coast Salish cultures differ considerably from those of their northern neighbours. It is one of the few indigenous cultures along the coast with a patrilineal, not matrilineal, culture. They are also one of the few peoples on the coast whose traditional territories coincide with contemporary major metropolitan areas, namely the North Straits Salish-speaking peoples in and around Victoria, the Halkomelem-speaking peoples in and around Vancouver, and the Lushootseed-speaking peoples in and around Seattle. Pre-European contact, the Coast Salish numbered in the tens of thousands, and as such were one of the most populous groups on the northwest coast
Chimakum[edit]
Main article: Chimakum
The Chimakum people were a Chimakuan-speaking people whose traditional territory lay in the area of Port Townsend, Washington. Beset by warfare from surrounding Salish peoples, their last major presence in the region was eradicated by the Suquamish under Chief Seattle in the mid-19th century. Some survivors were absorbed by neighbouring Salish peoples, while some moved to join the Quileute on the southeast side of the Olympic Peninsula.
Quileute[edit]
Main article: Quileute
The Quileute (/ˈkwɪliuːt/) are a Chimakuan-speaking people. Their traditional territory is in the western Olympic Peninsula, around the Quillayute and Hoh Rivers.
Willapa[edit]
Main article: Willapa people
The Willapa are a traditionally Athabaskan-speaking people of southwestern Washington. Their territory was between Willapa Bay (named after them) and the prairie lands around the head of the Chehalis and Cowlitz Rivers. A related people, known as the Clatskanie (/ˈklætskɪnaɪ/) or Tlatskani, lived on the south side of the Columbia River in northwestern Oregon.
Chinook[edit]
Main article: Chinookan peoples
The Chinookan peoples were once one of the most powerful and populous groups of tribes on the southern part of the Northwest Coast. Their territories flank the mouth of the Columbia River and stretch up that river in a narrow band adjacent to that river, as far as Celilo Falls. Their group of dialects are known as Chinookan. It is distinguished from the Chinook Jargon, which was partly based upon it, and is often called "Chinook." Close allies of the Nuu-chah-nulth peoples, they are also a canoe people, and pre-European contact, Chinook Jargon arose as a trading language incorporating both Chinookan and Wakashan vocabulary. The Chinookan peoples practiced slavery, likely learned from the Nuu-chah-nulth as it was more common to the north, and cranial deformation. Those without flattened heads were considered to be beneath or servile to those who had undergone the procedure as infants.
One likely reason for the cultural prominence of the Chinookan peoples was their strategic position along the Columbia River, which acted as a massive trade corridor, as well as near Celilo Falls, the longest continuously-inhabited site in the Americas, used as a fishing site and trading hub for 15,000 years by a wide range of indigenous peoples.
Tillamook[edit]
Main article: Tillamook people
The Tillamook or Nehalem peoples were a Coast Salishan-speaking group of tribes living roughly between Tillamook Head and Cape Meares on the northern Oregon Coast. The term 'Tillamook' itself is in fact an exonym, from the neighboring Chinook-speaking Kathlamet people. Although the Tillamook language was a Coast Salish language, it was somewhat divergent from its more northerly cousins; likewise, the Tillamook culture was substantially different from that of other Coast Salish cultures, apparently influenced by its southern neighbors. They, and their southern neighbors, were less reliant on salmon runs and more reliant on fish trapping in estuaries, hunting, and shellfish gathering.
History[edit]
A Kwakwaka'wakw canoe in 1910.
A canoe awaiting traditional invitation to make landfall by the local S'Klallam people at a beach in Port Angeles, Washington, in 2010. Canoes from several Coast Salish groups arrived for a ceremony commemorating the official naming of the Salish Sea.
The area referred to as the Northwest Coast has a very long history of human occupation, exceptional linguistic diversity, population density and cultural and ceremonial development. Noted by anthropologists for its complexity, there is emerging research that the economies of these people were more complex and intensive than was previously assumed. Many groups have First Generation Stories - family stories that tell of the origin of the group, and often of humans themselves arising in specific locations along the coast.
"the Indian history of British Columbia... began at least a hundred centuries before the Province itself was born...." Wilson Duff[5]
On the northwest coast of North America, the mild climate and abundant natural resources made possible the rise of a complex Aboriginal culture. The people who lived in what are today British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon were able to obtain a good living without much effort. They had time and energy to devote to the development of fine arts and crafts and to religious and social ceremonies. {[citation needed]
The indigenous populations were devastated by epidemics of infectious diseases, especially smallpox, brought in by European explorers and traders. Prior to European colonization, various reports from European explorers describe the tribes in the area bearing signs of smallpox. Nathaniel Portlock, a British ship's captain, described as having "expected to have seen a numerous tribe" but instead found "only of three men, three women" as well as the oldest of the men "marked with the small-pox", when referring to the Tlingit people in the North West Coast. Oral traditions of various tribes in the Pacific Northwest also refer to an epidemic of smallpox on the populations.[6] There are many theories to how smallpox arrived in the Pacific Northwest. One theory is that an outbreak in central Mexico in 1779 spread north and infected the Shoshone in 1781, allowing the disease to spread into the lower Columbia River and Georgia Strait via trade between the Flathead, Nez Perce, Walla Walla, and other various tribes.[7] Spanish expeditions to the Northwest Coast from Mexico in 1774, 1775, and 1779 are also attributed to spreading smallpox to the local tribes in the area, with many documented outbreaks correlating to where the Spanish made landfall. Another theory describes the outbreak originating in the Kamchatka Peninsula in 1769 and spreading via Russian explorers to South Alaska and the Aleutians, thus through the Alaska panhandle and down the Pacific Coast.[8]
Due to the native population having no prior exposure to Old World diseases, local tribes may have lost as much as 90% of their population.[9] This depopulation enabled an easier colonization of the Pacific Northwest by European and American migrants.[10]
European colonization[edit]
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008)
Current times[edit]
Since colonization, the political and current context of life for these indigenous peoples varies, especially considering their relationship to Canada and the United States.
In Canada Indigenous people - First Nations - are one of the fastest growing groups with a young and growing population. Significant issues persist as a result of colonial laws and the now infamous Indian Residential School system. Many of the most repressive elements of the Indian Act (federal legislation governing First Nations) were removed in 1951 - and the vote was granted in 1960. The 1951 amendment to the Indian Act lifted the Potlatch ban. Though never fully effective - it had pushed traditional culture underground. Since 1951 ceremonial practices and the potlatch have re-emerged widely along the coast.
One development in recent times is the revival of ocean-going cedar canoes. Beginning in the late 1980s with early Haida and Heiltsuk canoes - the revival spread quickly after the Paddle to Seattle in 1989 and the 1993 'Qatuwas canoe festival in Bella Bella.[11] Many other journeys have taken place to different places along the coast - in voyages that have come to be known as Tribal Journeys.
Culture[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008)
Potlatch[edit]
Main article: Potlatch
The Kwakwaka'wakw continue the practice of potlatch. Illustrated here is Wawadit'la in Thunderbird Park, Victoria, BC, (aka Mungo Martin House) a Kwakwaka'wakw "big house" built by Chief Mungo Martin in 1953. Very wealthy and prominent hosts would have a plankhouse specifically for potlatching and for housing guests.
A potlatch is a highly complex event where people gather in order to commemorate a specific event (such as the raising of a Totem pole or the appointment/election of a new chief). These potlatches would usually be held in competition with one another, providing a forum to display wealth within a tribe.
In the potlatch ceremony the chief would give highly elaborate gifts to visiting peoples in order to establish his power and prestige, and by accepting these gifts the visitors conveyed their approval of the chief. There were also great feasts and displays of conspicuous consumption, such as the burning of articles, or throwing things into the sea, purely as a display of the great wealth of the chief. Groups of dancers put on elaborate dances and ceremonies. These dancers were members of secret "dancing societies". Watching these performances was considered an honor. Potlatches were held for several reasons: the confirmation of a new chief; coming of age; tattooing or piercing ceremonies; initiation into a secret society; marriages; the funeral of a chief; battle victory.
Music[edit]
Among the Indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast, the music varied in function and expression. As some groups have more cultural differences than the rest (like the Coast Salish and the more northern nations), there remains a lot of similarities.
Some instruments used by the indigenous were hand drums made of animal hides, plank drums, log drums, box drums, along with whistlers, wood clappers, and rattles. A great deal of the instruments were used mostly in the potlatch, but also carried over in to other festivities throughout the year.
The songs employed are used with dancing, although it is also for celebration, which at times may not be accompanied by dancing. Most singing is community based. There are some solo parts, often the lead singer would begin in the first line of each round of a song, but not long solos. For some ceremonies, solo songs would be used by men and women without the accompaniment of any person or drum.
Usually slow in tempo and accompanied by a drum. Principal function of music in this area is spiritual; music honors the Earth, Creator, Ancestors, all aspects of the supernatural world. Sacred songs are not often shared with the wider world. Women and men, families own their own songs as property which can be inherited, sold or given as a gift to a prestigious guest at a Feast. Professionals existed for some communities, but music is taught and then rehearsed. For some nations, the tradition was those who made musical errors were punished, usually through shaming. Employing octave singing, but rather than running up and down the scale, it is not uncommon to jump notes and go from bottom to top or top to bottom in a couple of notes. Vocal Rhythmic patterns are often complex and run counter to rigid percussion beats. The tribes would dance in groups in circles.
Art[edit]
Totem poles in Victoria, British Columbia
Main article: Northwest Coast art
The creation of beautiful and practical objects (for all tribal communities) served as a means of transmitting stories, history, wisdom and property from generation to generation. Art provided Indigenous people with a tie to the land by depicting their histories on totem poles the Big (Plank) Houses of the Pacific Northwest coast – the symbols depicted were a constant reminder of their birth places, lineages and nations.
Due to the abundance of natural resources and the affluence of most Northwest tribes, there was plenty of leisure time to create art. Many works of art served practical purposes, such as clothing, tools, weapons of war and hunting, transportation, cooking, and shelter; but others were purely aesthetic.
Pacific Northwest Coast: Spiritualism, the supernatural and the importance of the environment played integral roles in day-to-day life. Therefore, it was not unusual for their worldly goods to be adorned with symbols, crests and totems that represented some important figure(s) from both the seen and unseen worlds.
Often different northern tribes would adorn their possessions with symbols that represented a tribe as a collective (i.e., clan); this would often be a signal of differentiation among tribal groups. Such symbols could be compared to a coat of arms, or running up the flag of a country on a sailing ship, as it approached a harbour.
After the arrival of the Europeans, Indigenous artifacts suddenly became a hot commodity to be collected and placed in museums and other institutions, and many tribal groups were looted of their precious items by over-zealous collectors.
It is only in recent years that many Native organizations have been calling for a return of some of their sacred items, such as masks and regalia, that symbolize their cultural heritage.
Genetics[edit]
Further information: Indigenous Amerindian genetics
Haplogroup Q1a3a is a Y chromosome haplogroup generally associated with the indigenous peoples of the Americas.[12] The Q-M3 mutation appears on the Q lineage roughly 10 to 15 thousand years ago, as the migration throughout the Americas was underway by the early Paleo-Indians.[13] The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however, which are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians along with various mtDNA mutations.[14][15][16] This suggests that the migrant ancestors of the current inhabitants of the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations.[17]
See also[edit]
Indigenous peoples of North America portal
Aboriginal peoples in Canada portal
Aboriginal peoples in Canada
First Nations
History of the west coast of North America
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Maritime Fur Trade
Native Americans in the United States
Tribal Canoe Journeys
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Aboriginal Identity (8), Sex (3) and Age Groups (12) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census-20% Sample Data Click to view table notes, BC Retrieved 2009-10-05.
^ Jump up to: a b Number and percentage of population reporting Aboriginal identity, Canada, provinces and territories, 2006 Retrieved 2009-10-05.
^ Jump up to: a b Percentage of Aboriginal people in the population, Canada, provinces and territories, 2006 Retrieved 2009-10-05.
Jump up ^ Dictionary.com
Jump up ^ Duff, Wilson (1964). The Indian History of British Columbia: Volume 1 The Impact of the White Man. Anthropology in British Columbia Memoir No. 5, 1964. Victoria: Province of British Columbia Department of Recreation and Conservation. p. 7.
Jump up ^ Boyd, Robert (1999). The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence: Introduced Infectious Diseases and Population Decline among Northwest Coast Indians, 1774-1874. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0295978376.
Jump up ^ Harris, Cole (Autumn 1994). "Voices of Disaster: Smallpox around the Strait of Georgia in 1782". Ethnohistory. doi:10.2307/482767. JSTOR 482767.
Jump up ^ Boyd, Robert (1996-01-01). "Commentary on Early Contact-Era Smallpox in the Pacific Northwest". Ethnohistory. 43 (2): 307–328. doi:10.2307/483399. JSTOR 483399.
Jump up ^ Crosby, Alfred W. (1976-01-01). "Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Aboriginal Depopulation in America". The William and Mary Quarterly. 33 (2): 289–299. doi:10.2307/1922166. JSTOR 1922166.
Jump up ^ Scott, Leslie (1928). Indian Diseases as Aids to Pacific Northwest Settlement. Oregon Historical Society. pp. 144–161.
Jump up ^ Neel, David The Great Canoes: Reviving a Northwest Coast Tradition. Douglas & McIntyre. 1995. ISBN 1-55054-185-4
Jump up ^ Fagundes, Nelson J.R.; Ricardo Kanitz; Roberta Eckert; Ana C.S. Valls; Mauricio R. Bogo; Francisco M. Salzano; David Glenn Smith; Wilson A. Silva; Marco A. Zago; Andrea K. Ribeiro-dos-Santos; Sidney E.B. Santos; Maria Luiza Petzl-Erler; Sandro L.Bonatto (2008). "Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas" (pdf). American Journal of Human Genetics. 82 (3): 583–592. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013. PMC 2427228. PMID 18313026. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Genetic Variation and Population Structure in Native Americans". PLoS Genetics. 2007. p. 3(11). Retrieved 2009-11-18.
Jump up ^ Zegura SL, Karafet TM, Zhivotovsky LA, Hammer MF (January 2004). "High-resolution SNPs and microsatellite haplotypes point to a single, recent entry of Native American Y chromosomes into the Americas". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 21 (1): 164–75. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh009. PMID 14595095.
Jump up ^ Ruhlen M (November 1998). "The origin of the Na-Dene". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (23): 13994–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994. PMC 25007. PMID 9811914.
Jump up ^ Juliette Saillard; Peter Forster; Niels Lynnerup; Hans-Jürgen Bandelt; Søren Nørby (2000). "mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos. The Edge of the Beringian Expansion". Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, University of Hamburg, Hamburg. Retrieved 2009-11-22. The relatively lower coalescence time of the entire haplogroup A2 including the shared sub-arctic branches A2b (Siberians and Inuit) and A2a (Eskimos and Na-Dené) is probably due to secondary expansions of haplogroup A2 from the Beringia area, which would have averaged the overall internal variation of haplogroup A2 in North America.
Jump up ^ A. Torroni; T. G. Schurr; C. C. Yang; EJE Szathmary; R. C. Williams; M. S. Schanfield; G. A. Troup; W. C. Knowler; D. N. Lawrence; K. M. Weiss; D. C. Wallace. "Native American Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Indicates That the Amerind and the Nadene Populations Were Founded by Two Independent Migrations". Center for Genetics and Molecular Medicine and Departments of Biochemistry and Anthropology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia. Genetics Society of America. Vol 130, 153–162. Retrieved 2009-11-28. The divergence time for the Nadene portion of the HaeIII np 663 lineage was about 6,000–10,000 years. Hence, the ancestral Nadene migrated from Asia independently and considerably more recently than the progenitors of the Amerinds
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Northwest Coast art.
Anash Interactive — An online destination where users create comics, write stories, watch webisodes, download podcasts, play games, read stories and comics by other members, and find out about the Tlingit people of Canada.
Smithsonian Ocean Portal photo essay: "The Carving of the Raven Spirit Canoe" — works in the Smithsonian Institution collection.
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Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast
Kwakwaka'wakw
Kwagu'ł
Mamalilikala
'Namgis
Ławit'sis
A'wa'et'ala
Da'naxda'xw
Ma'amtagila
Dzawada'enux
Kwikwasut'inux
Gwawa'enux
'Nak'waxda'xw
Gwa'sala
Gusgimukw
Gwat'sinux
T'lat'lasikwala
Laich-kwil-tach
Wiwekam
Coast Salish
K'omoks
Klahoose
Sliammon
Homolco
Snuneymuxw
Shishalh
Squamish
Tsleil-Waututh
Musqueam
Sto:lo
Tsawwassen
Snuneymuxw
Kw’amutsun
Lekwungen (Songhees)
WSANEC
Noxws'a7aq
Lhaq'temish
Klallam
Sʔabš
Sqaĵət
Suiʔaẋbixw
Sduhubš
Skokomish (Twana)
Dkhw'Duw'Absh
Xacuabš
Sduqwalbixw
Sacakałəbš
Suqwabš
Sqwaliʔabš
Bəpubšł
Spuyaləqəlpubšut
Sʔəhiwʔabš
Squaxin
Cowlitz
Quinault
Nuu-chah-nulth
Ahousaht
Ditidaht
Ehattesaht
Hesquiaht
Hupacasath
Huu-ay-aht
Ka;’yu;k’t’h’/Che;k’tles7et’h’
Mowachaht/Muchalaht
Nuchatlaht
Pacheedaht
Tla-o-qui-aht
Toquaht
Tseshaht
Uchucklesaht
Yuu-tluth-aht
Makah
Other nations
Tlingit
Nisga'a
Gitxsan
Haida
Tsimshian
Haisla
Heiltsuk
Wuikinuxv
Nuxálk
Cathlamet
Chinook
Quileute
Chimakum
Clatsop
Multnomah
Klickitat
Tillamook
History
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast&oldid=866053272"
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Functional psychology
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For the use of the term in cognitive science, see Functionalism (philosophy of mind).
Functional psychology or functionalism refers to a psychological philosophy that considers mental life and behaviour in terms of active adaptation to the person's environment.[1] As such, it provides the general basis for developing psychological theories not readily testable by controlled experiments or applied psychology.
Functionalism arose in the U.S. in the late 19th century as an alternative to structuralism.[2] While functionalism never became a formal school, it built on structuralism's concern for the anatomy of the mind and led to greater concern over the functions of the mind, and later to behaviourism.[2]
Contents
1 History
2 Contemporary descendants
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (July 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
See also: History of psychology § Early American Psychology
Functionalism [3] was a philosophy opposing the prevailing structuralism of psychology of the late 19th century. Edward Titchener, the main structuralist, gave psychology its first definition as a science of the study of mental experience, of consciousness, to be studied by trained introspection.
William James is considered to be the founder of functional psychology. But he would not consider himself as a functionalist, nor did he truly like the way science divided itself into schools. John Dewey, George Herbert Mead, Harvey A. Carr, and especially James Rowland Angell were the main proponents of functionalism at the University of Chicago. Another group at Columbia, including notably James McKeen Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike, and Robert S. Woodworth, were also considered functionalists and shared some of the opinions of Chicago's professors. Egon Brunswik represents a more recent, but Continental, version. The functionalists retained an emphasis on conscious experience.
Behaviourists also rejected the method of introspection but criticized functionalism because it was not based on controlled experiments and its theories provided little predictive ability.[citation needed] B.F. Skinner was a developer of behaviourism. He did not think that considering how the mind affects behaviour was worthwhile, for he considered behaviour simply as a learned response to an external stimulus. Yet, such behaviourist concepts tend to deny the human capacity for random, unpredictable, sentient decision-making, further blocking the functionalist concept that human behaviour is an active process driven by the individual. Perhaps, a combination of both the functionalist and behaviourist perspectives provides scientists with the most empirical value,[citation needed] but, even so, it remains philosophically (and physiologically) difficult to integrate the two concepts without raising further questions about human behaviour.[citation needed] For instance, consider the interrelationship between three elements: the human environment, the human autonomic nervous system (our fight or flight muscle responses), and the human somatic nervous system (our voluntary muscle control). The behaviourist perspective explains a mixture of both types of muscle behaviour, whereas the functionalist perspective resides mostly in the somatic nervous system. It can be argued that all behavioural origins begin within the nervous system, prompting all scientists of human behaviour to possess basic physiological understandings, something very well understood by the functionalist founder William James.
Contemporary descendants[edit]
Evolutionary psychology is based on the idea that knowledge concerning the function of the psychological phenomena affecting human evolution is necessary for a complete understanding of the human psyche. Even the project of studying the evolutionary functions of consciousness is now an active topic of study. Like evolutionary psychology, James's functionalism was inspired by Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection.[4]
See also[edit]
Functionalism (philosophy of mind)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gary R. VandenBos, ed., APA Dictionary of Psychology (2006). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
^ Jump up to: a b "functionalism." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08 Mar. 2011.
Jump up ^ Functionalism. "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"
Jump up ^ Schacter, Daniel L.; Wegner, Daniel & Gilbert, Daniel. 2007. Psychology. Worth Publishers. pp. 26–7
External links[edit]
Look up functionalism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
"functionalism" – Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Mary Calkins (1906) "A Reconciliation Between Structural And Functional Psychology"
James R. Angell (1907) "The Province of Functional Psychology"
James R. Angell (1906), Psychology: An Introductory Study of the Structure and Function of Human Consciousness
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Functional_psychology&oldid=860073254"
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List of tools for static code analysis
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This is a list of tools for static code analysis.
Contents
[hide]
1 Language
1.1 Multi-language
1.2 .NET
1.3 Ada
1.4 C, C++
1.5 Java
1.6 JavaScript
1.7 Objective-C, Objective-C++
1.8 Opa
1.9 Packaging
1.10 Perl
1.11 PHP
1.12 PL/SQL
1.13 Python
1.14 Ruby
1.14.1 Ruby on Rails
1.15 Transact-SQL
2 Formal methods tools
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Language[edit]
Multi-language[edit]
Axivion Bauhaus Suite – A static code analysis tool suite for Ada, C, C++, C#, and Java code that performs various analyses such as architecture checking, interface analyses, MISRA checking, and clone detection.
CAST Application Intelligence Platform by CAST – Detailed, audience-specific dashboards to measure quality and productivity. Cross-tier, cross-technology analysis of 50+ languages, C, C++, Java, .NET, Oracle, PeopleSoft, SAP, Siebel, Spring, Struts, Hibernate and all major databases.
Checkmarx Checkmarx SAST Static Code Analyser - Identifies vulnerabilities in over 20 languages including C, C#, Apex, Scala, Swift, Python, Ruby, .NET, PHP, Java and Javascript. Integrates with jenkins and other build servers and IDEs like visualStudion and IntelliJ to enable continuous integration.
Cigital SecureAssist - A lightweight IDE plugin that points out common security vulnerabilities in real time as the developer is coding. Supports Java, .NET, and PHP.
Codacy - Static analysis and automated code reviews for Python, Ruby, PHP, Java, JavaScript, Scala, and more. Provides code metrics on code security, duplication, complexity, style, and coverage.
Code Dx - Software application vulnerability correlation and management system that consolidates and normalizes software vulnerabilities detected by multiple static application security testing (SAST) and dynamic application security testing (DAST) tools, as well as the results of manual code reviews. Supports C, C++, C#, Java, JavaScript, JSP, PHP, Python, Rails, Ruby, Scala, VB.NET and XML/XSL. [1]
Compuware Topaz for Program Analysis – A static code analysis for PL/I and COBOL. Produces visual displays of structure charts and logic/data flow and shows dependencies across programs.
ConQAT – Continuous quality assessment toolkit that allows flexible configuration of quality analyses (architecture conformance, clone detection, quality metrics, etc.) and dashboards. Supports Java, C#, C++, JavaScript, ABAP, Ada and many other languages.
Coverity – A static analysis tool for C, C++, C#, Objective-C, Java, Javascript, node.JS, Ruby, PHP, & Python.
DefenseCode ThunderScan – A static source code security analysis tool for C#, Java, PHP, VB.Net, JavaScript, Objective-C, PL/SQL, ASP Classic and Visual Basic.
HP Fortify Software Static Code Analyzer – Helps developers identify software security vulnerabilities in C, C++, Java, JSP, .NET, ASP.NET, classic Active Server Pages (ASP), ColdFusion, PHP, Visual Basic 6, VBScript, JavaScript, PL/SQL, T-SQL, Python, Objective-C and COBOL and configuration files.
GrammaTech CodeSonar – Defect detection (buffer overruns, memory leaks, etc.), concurrency and security checks, architecture visualization and software metrics for C, C++, and Java source code.
IBM Security AppScan (formerly known as IBM Rational AppScan) Source Edition – Analyzes source code to identify security vulnerabilities while integrating security testing with software development processes and systems. Supports C, C++, .NET, Java, JSP, JavaScript, ColdFusion, Classic ASP, PHP, Perl, Visual Basic 6, PL/SQL, T-SQL, and COBOL
Facebook Infer – A tool for Java C, C++, and Objective-C. Targets null pointer problems, leaks, concurrency issues and API usage for Facebook's mobile apps. Available as open source on github.
Flexera Flexnet Code Insight - Software Composition Analysis (SCA) product used to discover Open Source and Commercial dependencies in a software project. Discovers known vulnerabilities (CVEs, etc.) and Open Source license compliance issues
Imagix 4D – Identifies problems in variable use, task interaction and concurrency, especially in embedded applications, as part of an overall system for understanding, improving and documenting C, C++ and Java code.
Kiuwan – Software Analytics end-to-end platform for static code analysis and automated code review. It covers defect detection, application security & IT Risk Management, with enhanced life cycle and application governance features. Support for over 20 languages, including Objective-C, Java, JSP, JavaScript, PHP, C, C++, ABAP, COBOL, JCL, C#, PL/SQL, Transact-SQL, SQL, Visual Basic, Visual Basic .NET, Android (operating system).
Klocwork – Provides security vulnerability, standards compliance (MISRA, ISO 26262 and others), defect detection and build-over-build trend analysis for C, C++, C# and Java.
Kuscos - Kuscos is a software intelligence platform that provides a range of analysis tools and reports and delivers key information regarding source code modules and team members. Supported languages are Java, JavaScript, C#, VB.Net, VB, Cobol, PL/SQL, Powerbuilder, Delphi and Informix-4GL.
LDRA Testbed – A software analysis and testing tool suite for C, C++, Ada83, Ada95 and Assembler (Intel, Freescale, Texas Instruments).
MALPAS – A software static analysis toolset for a variety of languages including Ada, C, Pascal and Assembler (Intel, PowerPC and Motorola). Used primarily for safety critical applications in Nuclear and Aerospace industries.
Moose – Moose started as a software analysis platform with many tools to manipulate, assess or visualize software. It can evolve to a more generic data analysis platform. Supported languages are C, C++, Java, Smalltalk, .NET, more may be added.
Parasoft – Provides static analysis (pattern-based, flow-based, in-line, metrics) for C, C++, Java, .NET (C#, VB.NET, etc.), JSP, JavaScript, XML, and other languages. Through a Development Testing Platform, static code analysis functionality is integrated with unit testing, peer code review, runtime error detection and traceability.
Copy/Paste Detector (CPD) – PMDs duplicate code detection for (e.g.) Java, JSP, C, C++, ColdFusion, PHP and JavaScript[2] code.
Polyspace – Uses abstract interpretation to detect and prove the absence of certain run time errors in source code for C, C++, and Ada
Pretty Diff - A language-specific code comparison tool that features language-specific analysis reporting in addition to language-specific minification and beautification algorithms.
Protecode – Analyzes the composition of software source code and binary files, searches for open source and third party code and their associated licensing obligations. Can also detect security vulnerabilities.
PVS-Studio – A software analysis tool for C, C++, C++11, C++/CX (Component Extensions), C#.
Q-Analysis - Scans source code and binaries in the cloud to identify security flaws. It also scans server configuration files for security flaws. Languages included, GoLang, Python, Perl, PHP, C/C++, Javascript, Java, C# and it will also look for backdoors in software. Has found flaws in mod security and apache.
Rogue Wave Software OpenLogic – Scans source code and binaries to identify open source code and licenses, manages open source policies and approvals, reports security vulnerabilities, and provides open source technical support.
Semmle – Supports C, C++, C#, Java, JavaScript, Objective-C, Python and Scala.
SideCI – Static code analysis based automated code review tool for Ruby, Python, PHP, JavaScript, CoffeeScript and Go. Checks style, quality, dependencies, security and bugs.
Silverthread – Provides design quality and technical health solutions for software code
SnappyTick (SAST) - Snappy Tick is Static application security tool, It help to identify the Vulnerability in Source code,supports widely used languages for desktop, web and mobile applications.
SofCheck Inspector – Static detection of logic errors, race conditions, and redundant code for Ada and Java; automatically extracts pre-postconditions from code.
Sonargraph – Supports Java, C# and C/C++ with a focus on dependency analysis, automated architecture check, metrics and the ability to add custom metrics and code-checkers.
SonarQube – A continuous inspection engine to manage the technical debt: unit tests, complexity, duplication, design, comments, coding standards and potential problems. Supports languages: ABAP, Android (Java), C, C++, CSS, Objective-C, COBOL, C#, Flex, Forms, Groovy, Java, JavaScript, Natural, PHP, PL/SQL, Swift, Visual Basic 6, Web, XML, Python.
Sotoarc-Sotograph – Architecture and quality in-depth analysis and monitoring for C, C++, C#, Java, ABAP.
SourceMeter - A platform-independent, command-line static source code analyzer for Java, C, C++, RPG IV (AS/400) and Python.
SQuORE is a multi-purpose and multi-language monitoring tool[3] for software projects.
Understand – A multi-platform tool for code analysis and comprehension of large code bases. Supported languages include Ada, Cobol, Ansi C, K&R C, Ansi C++, C#, FORTRAN, Java, Jovial, Pascal, PL/M, Python, VHDL, Objective C, Objective C++, HTML, PHP, JavaScript, and XML.
Veracode – Finds security flaws in application binaries and bytecode without requiring source. Supported languages include C, C++, .NET (C#, C++/CLI, VB.NET, ASP.NET), Java, JSP, ColdFusion, PHP, Ruby on Rails, JavaScript (including Node.js), Python, Objective-C, Swift, Active Server Pages, Visual Basic 6, COBOL, and IBM RPG, including mobile applications on the Android and iOS platforms and written in JavaScript cross platform frameworks.[4]
Yasca – Yet Another Source Code Analyzer, a plugin-based framework to scan arbitrary file types, with plugins for C, C++, Java, JavaScript, ASP, PHP, HTML-CSS, ColdFusion, COBOL, and other file types. It integrates with other scanners, including FindBugs, PMD, and Pixy.
Application Analyzer - MasterCraft (TCS product) – Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) MasterCraft is a brand of IT Process Automation and Management software tools from Tata Consultancy Services Limited. Application Analyzer is a static code analyzer which supports COBOL, RPG, PL/I, Java, Javascript, .NET, VB,
.NET[edit]
.NET Compiler Platform (Codename Roslyn) – Open-source compiler framework for C# and Visual Basic .NET developed by Microsoft .NET. Provides an API for analyzing and manipulating syntax.
CodeIt.Right – Combines static code analysis and automatic refactoring to best practices which allows automatic correction of code errors and violations; supports C# and VB.NET.
CodeRush – A plugin for Visual Studio which alerts users to violations of best practices.
FxCop – Free static analysis for Microsoft .NET programs that compiles to CIL. Standalone and integrated in some Microsoft Visual Studio editions; by Microsoft.
NDepend – Simplifies managing a complex .NET code base by analyzing and visualizing code dependencies, by defining design rules, by doing impact analysis, and by comparing different versions of the code. Integrates into Visual Studio.
Parasoft dotTEST – A static analysis, unit testing, and code review plugin for Visual Studio; works with languages for Microsoft .NET Framework and .NET Compact Framework, including C#, VB.NET, ASP.NET and Managed C++.
Sonargraph – Supports C#, Java and C/C++ with a focus on dependency analysis, automated architecture check, metrics and the ability to add custom metrics and code-checkers.
StyleCop – Analyzes C# source code to enforce a set of style and consistency rules. It can be run from inside of Microsoft Visual Studio or integrated into an MSBuild project.
Ada[edit]
SPARK Toolset - Verification tools for SPARK 2014 – a subset of Ada 2012 that leverages Ada's support for contracts. Designed to offer soundness, depth, modularity and efficiency of verification.
AdaControl – A tool to control occurrences of various entities or programming patterns in Ada code, used for checking coding standards, enforcement of safety related rules, and support for various manual inspections.
CodePeer – An advanced static analysis tool that detects potential run-time logic errors in Ada programs.
Fluctuat – Abstract interpreter for the validation of numerical properties of programs.
LDRA Testbed – A software analysis and testing tool suite for Ada83/95.
Polyspace – Uses abstract interpretation to detect and prove the absence of certain run time errors in source code.
SofCheck Inspector – (Bought by AdaCore) Static detection of logic errors, race conditions, and redundant code for Ada; automatically extracts pre-postconditions from code.
C, C++[edit]
AdLint is an open source and free source code static analyzer for ANSI C89 / ISO C90 and partly ISO C99.
Astrée – finds all potential runtime errors and data races by abstract interpretation, can prove their absence, and can prove functional assertions; tailored towards safety-critical C code (e.g. avionics and automotive). Includes MISRA checker.
Axivion Bauhaus Suite – A static code analysis tool suite that performs various analyses such as architecture checking, interface analyses, MISRA checking, and clone detection.
BLAST – (Berkeley Lazy Abstraction Software verification Tool) – An open-source software model checker for C programs based on lazy abstraction (follow-on project is CPAchecker.[5]).
C-STAT - A C and C++ static analysis tool which is an optional add-on to IAR Systems Embedded Workbench IDE for embedded microcontroller designs. C-STAT provides checking to MISRA standards as well as Common Weakness Enumeration (CWE) and CERT C/C++. There is also a complementary tool called C-RUN which provides live runtime analysis of code as well.
Cevelop – A C++ IDE that extends Eclipse CDT with many new static code analysis and refactoring plug-ins, for example to make code const-correct.
Cppcheck – Open-source tool that checks for several types of errors, including use of STL.
cpplint – An open-source tool that checks for compliance with Google's style guide for C++ coding.
Clang – An open-source compiler that includes a static analyzer.
Coccinelle – An open-source source code pattern matching and transformation.
Coverity – A static analysis tool for C/C++.
Cppdepend – Simplifies managing a complex C/C++ code base by analyzing and visualizing code dependencies, by defining design rules, by doing impact analysis, and comparing different versions of the code.
ECLAIR – A platform for the automatic analysis, verification, testing and transformation of C and C++ programs.
Eclipse (software) – An open-source IDE that includes a static code analyzer.
Fluctuat – Abstract interpreter for the validation of numerical properties of programs.
Frama-C – An open-source static analysis framework for C.
Goanna – A software analysis tool for C/C++.
GrammaTech – A static program analysis tool for C/C++, originally developed by Tim Teitelbaum at Cornell University.
Infer – Developed by an engineering team at Facebook with open-source contributers. Targets null pointer and other memory problems. Available as open source on github.
Klocwork Static Code Analysis – A static analysis tool for C/C++.
Lint – The original static code analyzer for C.
LDRA Testbed – A software analysis and testing tool suite for C/C++.
Parasoft C/C++test – A C/C++ tool that does static analysis, unit testing, code review, and runtime error detection; plugins available for Visual Studio and Eclipse-based IDEs.
PC-Lint – A software analysis tool for C with partial support for C++2011.
Polyspace – Uses abstract interpretation to detect and prove the absence of run time errors, Dead Code in source code as well as used to check all MISRA (2004, 2012) rules (directives, non directives).
PRQA QA·C and QA·C++ – Deep static analysis of C/C++ for quality assurance and guideline/coding standard enforcement with MISRA support.
SLAM project – a project of Microsoft Research for checking that software satisfies critical behavioral properties of the interfaces it uses.
Sparse – An open-source tool designed to find faults in the Linux kernel.
Splint – An open-source evolved version of Lint, for C.
Visual Studio – An IDE that provides static code analysis for C/C++ both in the editor environment and from the compiler command line.
Java[edit]
Tool
latest
release
Free software
Duplicate
code
Notes
Checkstyle
2017-02-04 Yes; LGPL No Besides some static code analysis, it can be used to show violations of a configured coding standard. Duplicate code detection was removed[6] from Checkstyles.
Coverity
No; Proprietary Coverity is a static analysis and Static Application Security
Testing (SAST) platform that finds critical defects and security weaknesses in code as it’s written before they become vulnerabilities, crashes, or maintenance headaches.
FindBugs
2015-03-06 Yes; LGPL Based on Jakarta BCEL from the University of Maryland.
Infer
Yes; BSD with additio-
nal patent clause Developed by an engineering team at Facebook with open-source contributers. Targets null pointer exceptions, leaks, and thread safety issues
IntelliJ IDEA
2017-03-21 Yes; ASL 2 Yes A leading Java IDE
JArchitect
2015-10-31 No; Proprietary Simplifies managing a complex code base by analyzing and visualizing code dependencies, defining design rules, doing impact analysis, and by comparing different versions of the code.
Jtest
2016-12-05 No; Proprietary Yes Testing and static code analysis product by Parasoft.
LDRA Testbed
No; Proprietary Analysis and testing tool suite
PMD
2017-07-01 Yes; BSD, ASL 2, LGPL Yes A static ruleset based source code analyzer that identifies potential problems.
Eclipse
2017-03-23 Yes; EPL No Cross-platform IDE with own set of several hundred code inspections available for analyzing code on-the-fly in the editor and bulk analysis of the whole project.
SemmleCode
No; Proprietary Object oriented code queries for static program analysis.
Sonargraph
2017 No; Proprietary Yes (formerly SonarJ) Monitors conformance of code to intended architecture, also computes a wide range of software metrics. Plugins for Eclipse, IntelliJ, Maven, Gradle, Jenkins and SonarQube.
Sonargraph-Explorer
2017 Yes; Proprietary No Free feature limited variant of Sonargraph with a focus on dependency visualization and metrics.
Soot
Yes; LGPL A language manipulation and optimization framework consisting of intermediate languages.
Spoon
Yes; CeCILL-C No Library to write your own static analyses and architectural rule checkers for Java. Can be integrated in Maven and Gradle.
Squale
2011-05-26 Yes; LGPL A platform to manage software quality
SourceMeter
2016-02-01 No; Proprietary Yes A platform-independent, command-line static source code analyzer.
ThreadSafe
2014-03-28 No; Proprietary A static analysis tool focused on finding concurrency bugs.
JavaScript[edit]
DeepScan – A static code analyzer for JavaScript, TypeScript and React. Targets runtime errors and quality issues rather than coding conventions. Available for free for open source projects on GitHub.
ESLint –A modern, pluggable linting utility for JavaScript
Google's Closure Compiler – JavaScript optimizer that rewrites code to be faster and smaller, and checks use of native JavaScript functions.
JSHint – A community driven fork of JSLint.
JSLint – JavaScript syntax checker and validator.
Objective-C, Objective-C++[edit]
Clang – The free Clang project includes a static analyzer. As of version 3.2, this analyzer is included in Xcode.[7]
Infer – Developed by an engineering team at Facebook with open-source contributers. Targets null pointers, leaks, API usage and other lint checks. Available as open source on github.
Opa[edit]
Opa includes its own static analyzer. As the language is intended for web application development, the strongly statically typed compiler checks the validity of high-level types for web data, and prevents by default many vulnerabilities such as XSS attacks and database code injections.
Packaging[edit]
Lintian – Checks Debian software packages for common inconsistencies and errors.
Rpmlint – Checks for common problems in rpm packages.
Perl[edit]
Perl::Critic – A tool to help enforce common Perl best practices. Most best practices are based on Damian Conway's Perl Best Practices book.
PerlTidy – Program that acts as a syntax checker and tester/enforcer for coding practices in Perl.
Padre – An IDE for Perl that also provides static code analysis to check for common beginner errors.
PHP[edit]
PHPMD – PHP Mess Detector.
RIPS – A static code analyzer and audit framework for vulnerabilities in PHP applications.
Phlint - PHP Linter, Code Analyzer and Tester
PL/SQL[edit]
TOAD - A PL/SQL development environment with a Code xPert component that reports on general code efficiency as well as specific programming issues.
Visual Expert - A PL/SQL code analysis tool [8] that reports on programming issues and helps understand and maintain complex code (Impact Analysis, Source Code documentation, Call trees, CRUD matrix, etc.).
Python[edit]
Bandit[1] – AST-based static analyzer from OpenStack Security Group, with a focus on security alerts
PyCharm – Cross-platform Python IDE with code inspections available for analyzing code on-the-fly in the editor and bulk analysis of the whole project.
Pychecker[2] – similar to Pylint
Pyflakes[3] – fast AST-based static analyzer
Pylint – Static code analyzer. Quite stringent; includes many stylistic warnings as well.
Ruby[edit]
Flay – Checks for structural similarities and detects code duplication.
Flog – Detects complex classes and methods using ABC metrics.
Reek – Checks for higher level code smells.
RuboCop – Style checker based on the community driven Ruby Style Guide.
Ruby on Rails[edit]
Bullet – Checks for N+1 queries slowing down database access.
Brakeman – Detects and warns about common security vulnerabilities.
Transact-SQL[edit]
Visual Expert - A SQLServer code analysis tool [9] that reports on programming issues and helps understand and maintain complex code (Impact Analysis, Source Code documentation, Call trees, CRUD matrix, etc.).
Formal methods tools[edit]
Tools that use sound, i.e. over-approximating a rigorous model, formal methods approach to static analysis (e.g., using static program assertions). Sound methods contain no false negatives for bug-free programs, at least with regards to the idealized mathematical model they are based on (there is no "unconditional" soundness). Note that there is no guarantee they will report all bugs for buggy programs, they will report at least one.
Astrée – finds all potential runtime errors by abstract interpretation, can prove the absence of runtime errors and can prove functional assertions; tailored towards safety-critical C code (e.g. avionics).
CodePeer – Statically determines and documents pre- and post-conditions for Ada subprograms; statically checks preconditions at all call sites.
ECLAIR – Uses formal methods-based static code analysis techniques such as abstract interpretation and model checking combined with constraint satisfaction techniques to detect or prove the absence of certain run time errors in source code.
ESC/Java and ESC/Java2 – Based on Java Modeling Language, an enriched version of Java.
Frama-C – An open-source static analysis framework for C.
KeY – analysis platform for Java based on theorem proving with specifications in the Java Modeling Language; can generate test cases as counterexamples; stand-alone GUI or Eclipse integration
MALPAS – A formal methods tool that uses directed graphs and regular algebra to prove that software under analysis correctly meets its mathematical specification.
Polyspace – Uses abstract interpretation, a formal methods based technique,[10] to detect and prove the absence of certain run time errors in source code for C/C++, and Ada
SPARK Toolset including the SPARK Examiner – Based on the SPARK language, a subset of Ada.
See also[edit]
Software Testing portal
Automated code review
Best Coding Practices
Dynamic code analysis
Software metrics
Integrated development environment (IDE) and Comparison of integrated development environments. IDEs will usually come with built-in support for static code analysis, or with an option to integrate such support. Eclipse offers such integration mechanism for most different types of extensions (plug-ins).
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Supported Application Security Testing Tools and Languages". codedx.com. Retrieved Apr 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "PMD - Browse /pmd/5.0.0 at SourceForge.net". Retrieved Dec 9, 2012.
Jump up ^ Baldassari, Boris (2012). "SQuORE: a new approach to software project assessment", International Conference on Software and Systems Engineering and their Applications, Nov. 2012, Paris, France.
Jump up ^ "White Box Testing/Binary Static Analysis (SAST)". Veracode.com. Retrieved 2016-12-08.
Jump up ^ "CPAchecker". 2015-02-08.
Jump up ^ https://github.com/checkstyle/checkstyle/issues/523
Jump up ^ "Static Analysis in Xcode". Apple. Retrieved 2009-09-03.
Jump up ^ "Visual Expert for Oracle - PL/SQL Code Analyzer". www.visual-expert.com. 2017-08-24.
Jump up ^ "Visual Expert for SQL Server - Transact SQL Code Analyzer". www.visual-expert.com. 2017-08-24.
Jump up ^ Cousot, Patrick (2007). "The Role of Abstract Interpretation in Formal Methods" (PDF). IEEE International Conference on Software Engineering and Formal Methods. Retrieved 2010-11-08.
External links[edit]
The Web Application Security Consortium's Static Code Analysis Tool List
Java Static Checkers at DMOZ
List of Java static code analysis plugins for Eclipse
List of static source code analysis tools for C
SAMATE-Source Code Security Analyzers
SATE – Static Analysis Tool Exposition
"A Comparison of Bug Finding Tools for Java", by Nick Rutar, Christian Almazan, and Jeff Foster, University of Maryland. Compares Bandera, ESC/Java 2, FindBugs, JLint, and PMD.
"Mini-review of Java Bug Finders", by Rick Jelliffe, O'Reilly Media.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_tools_for_static_code_analysis&oldid=804506099"
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