text:
Anti-mask laws
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German football hooligans with masked faces in a 1990s match.
Anti-mask or anti-masking laws refer to legislative or penal initiatives that seek to stop individuals from concealing their faces, who do so often to go unidentified during a crime.
Contents
[hide]
1 North America
1.1 United States
1.2 Canada
2 Europe
2.1 Austria
2.2 Denmark
2.3 France
2.4 Germany
2.5 Norway
2.6 Russia
2.7 Spain
2.8 Sweden
2.9 Switzerland
2.10 Ukraine
2.11 United Kingdom
3 Asia-Pacific
3.1 Australia
4 See also
5 References
North America[edit]
United States[edit]
In many US states and in the District of Columbia, there are anti-mask laws.[1]
Anti-mask laws date back to the mid-20th century when states and municipalities passed them to stop the violent activities of the Ku Klux Klan, whose members typically wore hoods of white linen to conceal their identities.[2][3]
In the 21st century those laws have been applied to political protesters such as those affiliated with the Occupy Movement or Anonymous – wearing Guy Fawkes masks.[4][5][6][7]
In some areas motorcyclists have been arrested using anti-masking laws.[8]
Canada[edit]
After several high-profile protests, the Canadian Parliament introduced Bill C-309, which bans the wearing of masks during a riot or other unlawful assembly.[9][10] The bill became law on June 19, 2013.[11] Those convicted of it face up to 10 years in prison.[12]
Canada's Criminal code, Section 351(2), also covers "Disguise with Intent", whereby "Every one who, with intent to commit an indictable offence, has his face masked or coloured or is otherwise disguised is guilty of an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years". With some exceptions, an indictable offence in Canada is one that is subject to a fine of greater than $5,000 or imprisonment of more than six months.
in 2017 a Quebec ban on face covering for transition and government services became publicized.
Europe[edit]
Austria[edit]
In Austria since 2002 masking ban on demonstrations under § 9 of the Assembly Law (Versammlungsgesetz). Violation of the ban need not be prosecuted if the mask does not threaten public order and security. Violation of the ban entails, according to § 19a.b of the Law, imprisonment up to six months, repeated offenses one year or a fine.
Denmark[edit]
Wearing masks during assemblies in a public place is illegal in Denmark.[13] The Danish penal code (Straffeloven) § 134 b, which was inserted with effect from 3 June 2000,[14] makes the violation punishable by a fine or up to six months imprisonment. Part 2 of § 134 b further criminalizes the possession of effects which must be viewed as intended to be used for masking in an assembly. The §134 b, part 3, exempts from penalty masking which is done to protect one's face against the weather.
France[edit]
The French ban on face covering is an act of parliament passed by the Senate of France on 14 September 2010, resulting in the ban on the wearing of face-covering headgear, including masks, helmets, balaclava, niqābs and other veils covering the face in public places, except under specified circumstances.
Germany[edit]
Since 1985, according to § 17a Abs. 2 Versammlungsgesetz you may not disguise your identity in public meetings such as demonstrations so the police are able to identify you. This violation can be fined with imprisonment up to one year.[15]
Norway[edit]
According to § 11, part 5 of the police statute (politiloven) from 1995, it is prohibited to be masked during an event taking place in public. Exempted from the prohibition are participants in theatre, masquerade or similar. In accordance with § 30 of the same law; violation is punishable by a fine or up to three months imprisonment.[16]
Russia[edit]
According to the Law № 54-ФЗ
it is prohibited to wear masks and any other means of hiding identity during public events;
the organizer of an event must require all the people taking part not to use any means of hiding identity.
Spain[edit]
According to the November 2013 Citizens' Security Law (Ley mordaza), demonstration protesters who cover their faces may be fined up to €30,000.[17]
Sweden[edit]
According to the Law on the Prohibition of masking in some cases,[18] it is prohibited for participants in the demonstration to fully or partially cover the face in a way that complicates identification. This prohibition applies only if there are disturbances of public order at demonstrations, or if there is an immediate danger of such disturbances. The ban does not apply to the covering of the face for religious reasons. It also does not apply to the extent participants are authorized (under 2 Ch. 7 a § Order Act) to fully or partially cover the face.
Switzerland[edit]
In the cantons of Basel-Stadt (1990), Zurich (1995), Bern (1999), Lucerne (2004), Thurgau (2004), Solothurn (2006) and St. Gallen (2009), there are laws banning use of masks.
Ukraine[edit]
Several days after Berkut riot police clashed with Euromaidan protesters, Verkhovna Rada enacted law 721-VII banning wearing masks, helmets or camouflage clothing by people taking part in a gathering, assembly, demonstration, protest, rally or other mass event. Fines for violating are monetary up to about $400 or administrative arrest up to 15 days.[19] The law was repealed in January 2014.[20][21][22]
United Kingdom[edit]
During the 2011 United Kingdom anti-austerity protests one of the temporary policies discussed in the COBRA meeting was to ban the covering of the face during the riots. Generally only enforced in areas in a riot stage, none were arrested solely for wearing masks, only ordered to take them off. However, many arrested who committed other crimes, such as looting and attacking police officers, were charged with failing to adhere to the mask ban as well as all the other infringements when placed before the court.[citation needed]
For a century, covering or blacking one's face was a criminal act that could lead to the death penalty; the Black Act was repealed in 1823.
Asia-Pacific[edit]
Australia[edit]
While it is not yet illegal to wear masks in public, police, notably in Victoria, have petitioned the state and territory governments to make it illegal unless a person has a valid reason for why they are/should be allowed to wear a mask in public.[23]
Currently under NSW law any person requiring a Justice of The Peace or Lawyer to witness statutory declarations or affidavits will be required to remove all head covers, masks included.[24]
NSW police currently have the power to force a motorist to remove any head covering, masks included, for identification reasons.[25]
See also[edit]
Niqāb and burqa (Muslim women's garments) related regulations
Zentai
References[edit]
Jump up ^ CND: State Codes Related To Wearing Masks
Jump up ^ "UNMASKING THE KLAN". Southern Poverty Law Center. 1999-09-15.
Jump up ^ "New York Penal Law – PEN § 240.35 | FindLaw". Findlaw. Retrieved 2017-01-30.
Jump up ^ Occupy's Halloween Party Might Break D.C.'s Anti-Mask Law Archived 2014-10-18 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Old Anti-Mask Law Foils Wall Street Protestors
Jump up ^ https://www.aclu.org/free-speech/hi-oh-silver-aclu-challenges-michigan-anti-mask-law-behalf-lone-ranger-protesters With a 'Hi-Oh, Silver!' ACLU Challenges Michigan Anti-Mask Law on Behalf of "Lone Ranger" Protesters
Jump up ^ Who Goes There?" – Proposing a Model Anti-Mask Act
Jump up ^ "Bikers Arrested for Wearing Bandanas". Motorcycle Profiling Project. 2016-11-29. Retrieved 2016-11-30.
Jump up ^ Canadian Anti-Masking Bill Imminent
Jump up ^ Police chiefs back anti-mask bill
Jump up ^ Meagan Fitzpatrick, CBC News Wearing a mask at a riot is now a crime http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/story/2013/06/19/pol-mask-bill-royal-assent.html
Jump up ^ Mask ban: Canada's veiled protesters face 10 years' jail
Jump up ^ Name: * (2010-01-23). "Denmark: Police brutalise climate protesters | Green Left Weekly". Greenleft.org.au. Retrieved 2014-02-16.
Jump up ^ LOV nr 440 af 31/05/2000 om ændring af straffeloven(Maskeringsforbud)
Jump up ^ "§ 17a VersG". dejure.org. Retrieved 2014-02-16.
Jump up ^ LOV-1995-08-04-53, Lov om politiet (politiloven). Lovdata.no
Jump up ^ "Spain's anti-protest bill criticized as anti-democratic". Reuters. Retrieved 2014-02-16.
Jump up ^ "Lag (2005:900) om förbud mot maskering i vissa fall". Lagen.nu. 2006-01-01. Retrieved 2014-02-16.
Jump up ^ "Ukrainian News – Parliament Bans Wearing Masks, Helmets, Camouflage Clothing At Mass Rallies". Un.ua. 2014-01-17. Retrieved 2014-02-16.
Jump up ^ "Верховная Рада отменила "скандальные" законы – В Украине". MIGnews.com.ua. 2014-01-28. Retrieved 2014-02-16.
Jump up ^ https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/29/world/europe/ukraine-prime-minister-resign.html?_r=0
Jump up ^ Flanagan, Ed (2014-01-28). "Ukraine anti-protest laws repealed; PM resigns – World News". Worldnews.nbcnews.com. Retrieved 2014-02-16.
Jump up ^ "Wearing a mask while protesting may soon be illegal following violent brawl". 2016-04-04. Retrieved 2017-01-23.
Jump up ^ "Veils to be removed under identity law". 2012-03-04. Retrieved 2017-01-23.
Jump up ^ Corderoy, Amy. "Police given broad powers to remove facial coverings". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2017-01-23.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anti-mask_laws&oldid=808527966"
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Footspeed
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Sprinting is a sport that requires development of footspeed
Footspeed, or sprint speed, is the maximum speed at which a human can run. It is affected by many factors, varies greatly throughout the population, and is important in athletics and many sports, such as association football, rugby, American football, track and field, hockey, baseball and basketball.
Contents
[hide]
1 Factors in speed
2 Limits of speed
3 See also
4 Notes
Factors in speed[edit]
The key determinant of footspeed in sprinting is the predominance of one distinct type of muscle fibre over another, specifically the ratio of fast-twitch muscles to slow-twitch muscles in a sprinter's physical makeup. Though fast-twitch muscles produce no more energy than slow-twitch muscles when they contract, they do so more rapidly through a process of anaerobic metabolism, though at the cost of inferior efficiency over longer periods of firing.[1] The average human has an almost-equal ratio of fast-twitch to slow-twitch fibers, but top sprinters may have as much as 80% fast-twitch fibers, while top long-distance runners may have only 20%.[1] This ratio is believed to have genetic origins, though some assert that it can be adjusted by muscle training.[2] "Speed camps" and "Speed Training Manuals", which purport to provide fractional increases in maximum footspeed, are popular among budding professional athletes, and some sources estimate that 17% to 19% of speed can be trained.[2]
Though good running form is useful in increasing speed, fast and slow runners have been shown to move their legs at nearly the same rate – it is the force exerted by the leg on the ground that separates fast sprinters from slow.[3] Top short-distance runners exert as much as four times their body weight in pressure on the running surface. For this reason, muscle mass in the legs, relative to total body weight, is a key factor in maximizing footspeed.[3]
Limits of speed[edit]
The record was 44.72 km/h (27.8 mph), seen during the final 100 meters sprint of the World Championships in Berlin on 16 August 2009 by Usain Bolt.[4] (Bolt's average speed over the course of this race was 37.58 km/h or 23.35 mph.)[5] Maximum human sprint speed is strikingly slower than that of many animals. Compared to other land animals, humans are exceptionally capable of endurance, but incapable of great speed.[6] For example, cheetahs can attain short bursts of speed well over 100 km/h (62 mph),[7] the American quarter horse has topped 88 km/h (55 mph),[8] greyhounds can reach 70 km/h (43 mph), and the Mongolian wild ass has been measured at 64 km/h (40 mph).[9] Even the domestic cat may reach 48 km/h (30 mph).[9]
See also[edit]
Walking speed, the normal pace humans walk.
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Quinn, Elizabeth. "Fast and Slow Twitch Muscle Fibers", About.com, retrieved November 26, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Ziegler, Mark (18 April 2005). "The NFL treats 40-yard dash times as sacred. But if those numbers are true, many players are faster than Olympic gold medalists and their clockings should be eyed with a dash of doubt". Union-Tribune San Diego. Retrieved 26 February 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Herper, Matthew. "What's The Human Speed Limit?", Forbes.com, May 14, 2004, retrieved November 26, 2007.
Jump up ^ International Association of Athletics Federations Biomechanical Research Project: Berlin 2009 (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-05-14, retrieved 2017-04-09
Jump up ^ How Fast Is Usain Bolt? Engineering Sport
Jump up ^ "Humans hot, sweaty, natural-born runners", Physorg.com, April 16, 2007, retrieved November 27, 2007.
Jump up ^ Kruszelnicki, Karl. "Fake Flies and Cheating Cheetahs", Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 1999, retrieved November 27, 2007.
Jump up ^ Rinehart, Janet. [1], Iowa Quarter Horse Racing Association, retrieved November 27, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b American Museum of Natural History. "Speed of Animals", Infoplease.com, retrieved November 27, 2007.
Stipp, David (4 June 2012). "All men can't jump". Slate. Retrieved 7 September 2012.
Resnick, Brian. "The animal kingdom's top marathoners". Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 7 September 2012.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Footspeed&oldid=844765993"
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Phosphorylation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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It has been suggested that Protein phosphorylation be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2017.
A phosphorylated serine residue
In chemistry, phosphorylation of a molecule is the attachment of a phosphoryl group. Together with its counterpart, dephosphorylation, it is critical for many cellular processes in biology. Phosphorylation is especially important for protein function, as this modification activates (or deactivates) almost half of the enzymes, thereby regulating their function.[1][2][3] Many proteins (between 1/3 to 2/3 of the proteome in eukaryotes[4][5]) are phosphorylated temporarily, as are many sugars, lipids, and other molecules.
Protein phosphorylation is considered the most abundant post-translational modification in eukaryotes. Phosphorylation can occur on serine, threonine and tyrosine side chains (often called 'residues') through phosphoester bond formation, on histidine, lysine and arginine through phosphoramidate bonds, and on aspartic acid and glutamic acid through mixed anhydride linkages. Recent evidence confirms widespread histidine phosphorylation at both the 1 and 3 N-atoms of the imidazole ring [6][7] Recent work from 2017 (preprinted at BioRxiv) suggests widespread human protein phosphorylation on multiple non-canonical amino acids, including motifs containing phosphorylated histidine, aspartate, glutamate, arginine and lysine in HeLa cell extracts. Due to the chemical lability of these phosphorylated residues, and in marked contrast to Ser, Thr and Tyr phosphorylation, the analysis of phosphorylated Histidine using standard biochemical and mass spectrometric approaches is much more challenging [8][9] and special procedures and separation techniques are required for their preservation alongside classical Ser, Thr and Tyr phosphorylation.[10]
The prominent role of protein phosphorylation in biochemistry is illustrated by the huge body of studies published on the subject (as of March 2015, the MEDLINE database returns over 240,000 articles, mostly on protein phosphorylation).
Contents
1 Glucose
2 Protein phosphorylation
2.1 Function
2.2 Signaling networks
2.3 Types of phosphorylation
2.4 Phosphorylation of histones
2.5 Detection and characterization
3 ATP
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Glucose[edit]
Phosphorylation of sugars is often the first stage in their catabolism. Phosphorylation allows cells to accumulate sugars because the phosphate group prevents the molecules from diffusing back across their transporter. Phosphorylation of glucose is a key reaction in sugar metabolism because many sugars are first converted to glucose before they are metabolized further.
The chemical equation for the conversion of D-glucose to D-glucose-6-phosphate in the first step of glycolysis is given by
D-glucose + ATP → D-glucose-6-phosphate + ADP
ΔG° = −16.7 kJ/mol (° indicates measurement at standard condition)
Researcher D. G. Walker of the University of Birmingham determined the presence of two specific enzymes in adult guinea pig liver, both of which catalyze the phosphorylation of glucose to glucose 6 phosphate.[dubious – discuss] The two enzymes have been identified as a specific glucokinase (ATP-D-glucose 6-phosphotransferase) and non-specific hexokinase (ATP-D-hexose 6-phosphotransferase).
Hepatic cell is freely permeable to glucose, and the initial rate of phosphorylation of glucose is the rate-limiting step in glucose metabolism by the liver (ATP-D-glucose 6-phosphotransferase) and non-specific hexokinase (ATP-D-hexose 6-phosphotransferase).[11]
The role of glucose 6-phosphate in glycogen synthase: High blood glucose concentration causes an increase in intracellular levels of glucose 6 phosphate in liver, skeletal muscle and fat (adipose) tissue. (ATP-D-glucose 6-phosphotransferase) and non-specific hexokinase (ATP-D-hexose 6-phosphotransferase). In liver, synthesis of glycogen is directly correlated by blood glucose concentration and in skeletal muscle and adipocytes, glucose has a minor effect on glycogen synthase. High blood glucose releases insulin, stimulating the trans location of specific glucose transporters to the cell membrane.[11][12]
The liver’s crucial role in controlling blood sugar concentrations by breaking down glucose into carbon dioxide and glycogen is characterized by the negative delta G value, which indicates that this is a point of regulation with. The hexokinase enzyme has a low Km, indicating a high affinity for glucose, so this initial phosphorylation can proceed even when glucose levels at nanoscopic scale within the blood.
The phosphorylation of glucose can be enhanced by the binding of Fructose-6-phosphate, and lessened by the binding fructose-1-phosphate. Fructose consumed in the diet is converted to F1P in the liver. This negates the action of F6P on glucokinase,[13] which ultimately favors the forward reaction. The capacity of liver cells to phosphorylate fructose exceeds capacity of metabolize fructose-1-phosphate. Consuming excess fructose ultimately results in an imbalance in liver metabolism, which indirectly exhausts the liver cell’s supply of ATP.[14]
Allosteric activation by glucose 6 phosphate, which acts as an effector, stimulates glycogen synthase, and glucose 6 phosphate may inhibit the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase by cyclic AMP-stimulated protein kinase.[12]
Phosphorylation of glucose is imperative in processes within the body. For example, phosphorylating glucose is necessary for insulin-dependent mechanistic target of rapamycin pathway activity within the heart. This further suggests a link between intermediary metabolism and cardiac growth.[15]
Protein phosphorylation[edit]
Main article: Protein phosphorylation
Function[edit]
Reversible phosphorylation of proteins is an important regulatory mechanism that occurs in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.[16][17][18][19] It is estimated that 230,000, 156,000 and 40,000 phosphorylation sites exist in human, mouse and yeast, respectively.[5] Kinases phosphorylate proteins and phosphatases dephosphorylate proteins. Many enzymes and receptors are switched "on" or "off" by phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. Reversible phosphorylation results in a conformational change in the structure in many enzymes and receptors, causing them to become activated or deactivated. Phosphorylation usually occurs on serine, threonine, tyrosine and histidine residues in eukaryotic proteins. Histidine phosphorylation of eukaryotic proteins appears to be much more frequent than tyrosine phosphorylation.[20] In prokaryotic proteins phosphorylation occurs on the serine, threonine, tyrosine, histidine or arginine or lysine residues.[16][17][20][21] The addition of a phosphate (PO4) molecule to a non-polar R group of an amino acid residue can turn a hydrophobic portion of a protein into a polar and extremely hydrophilic portion of a molecule. In this way protein dynamics can induce a conformational change in the structure of the protein via long-range allostery with other hydrophobic and hydrophilic residues in the protein.
One such example of the regulatory role that phosphorylation plays is the p53 tumor suppressor protein. The p53 protein is heavily regulated[22] and contains more than 18 different phosphorylation sites. Activation of p53 can lead to cell cycle arrest, which can be reversed under some circumstances, or apoptotic cell death.[23] This activity occurs only in situations wherein the cell is damaged or physiology is disturbed in normal healthy individuals.
Upon the deactivating signal, the protein becomes dephosphorylated again and stops working.[citation needed] This is the mechanism in many forms of signal transduction, for example the way in which incoming light is processed in the light-sensitive cells of the retina.
Regulatory roles of phosphorylation include
Biological thermodynamics of energy-requiring reactions
Phosphorylation of Na+/K+-ATPase during the transport of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions across the cell membrane in osmoregulation to maintain homeostasis of the body's water content.
Mediates enzyme inhibition
Phosphorylation of the enzyme GSK-3 by AKT (Protein kinase B) as part of the insulin signaling pathway.[24]
Phosphorylation of src tyrosine kinase (pronounced "sarc") by C-terminal Src kinase (Csk) induces a conformational change in the enzyme, resulting in a fold in the structure, which masks its kinase domain, and is thus shut "off".[25]
Important for protein-protein interaction via "recognition domains."
Phosphorylation of the cytosolic components of NADPH oxidase, a large membrane-bound, multi-protein enzyme present in phagocytic cells, plays an important role in the regulation of protein-protein interactions in the enzyme.[26]
Important in protein degradation.
In the late 1990s, it was recognized that phosphorylation of some proteins causes them to be degraded by the ATP-dependent ubiquitin/proteasome pathway. These target proteins become substrates for particular E3 ubiquitin ligases only when they are phosphorylated.
Important in glycolysis.
Glycolysis is an essential process of glucose degrading into two molecules of pyruvate, through various steps, with the help of different enzymes. It occurs in ten steps and proves that phosphorylation is a much required and necessary step to attain the end products. Phosphorylation initiates the reaction in step 1 of the preparatory step[27] (first half of glycolysis), and initiates step 6 of payoff phase (second phase of glycolysis).[28]
Glucose, by nature, is a small molecule with the ability to diffuse in and out of the cell. By phosphorylating glucose (adding a negatively charged phosphate group), glucose is converted to glucose-6-phosphate and trapped within the cell as the cell membrane is negatively charged. This reaction occurs due to the enzyme hexokinase, an enzyme that helps phosphorylate many six-membered ring structures. Glucose-6-phosphate cannot travel through the cell membrane and is therefore, coerced to stay inside the cell. Phosphorylation takes place in step 3, where fructose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. This reaction is catalyzed by phosphofructokinase.
While phosphorylation is performed by ATPs during preparatory steps, phosphorylation during payoff phase is maintained by inorganic phosphate. Each molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is phosphorylated to form 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. This reaction is catalyzed by GAPDH (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase). The cascade effect of phosphorylation eventually causes instability and allows enzymes to open the carbon bonds in glucose.
Phosphorylation functions as an extremely vital component of glycolysis, for it helps in transport, control and efficiency.[29]
Signaling networks[edit]
Elucidating complex signaling pathway phosphorylation events can be difficult. In cellular signaling pathways, protein A phosphorylates protein B, and B phosphorylates C. However, in another signaling pathway, protein D phosphorylates A, or phosphorylates protein C. Global approaches such as phosphoproteomics, the study of phosphorylated proteins, which is a sub-branch of proteomics, combined with mass spectrometry-based proteomics, have been utilised to identify and quantify dynamic changes in phosphorylated proteins over time. These techniques are becoming increasingly important for the systematic analysis of complex phosphorylation networks.[30] They have been successfully used to identify dynamic changes in the phosphorylation status of more than 6000 sites after stimulation with epidermal growth factor.[31] Another approach for understanding Phosphorylation Network, is by measuring the genetic interactions between multiple phosphorylating proteins and their targets. This reveals interesting recurring patterns of interactions – network motifs.[32] Computational methods have been developed to model phosphorylation networks [33][34] and predict their responses under different perturbations.[35]
Types of phosphorylation[edit]
Further information: Kinase
Within a protein, phosphorylation can occur on several amino acids. Phosphorylation on serine is thought to be the most common, followed by threonine. Tyrosine phosphorylation is relatively rare but lies at the head of many protein phosphorylation signalling pathways (e.g. in tyrosine kinase-linked receptors) in most of the eukaryotes. Phosphorylation on amino acids, such as serine, threonine, and tyrosine results in the formation of a phosphoprotein, when the phosphate group of the phosphoprotein reacts with the -OH group of a Ser, Thr, or Tyr sidechain in an esterification reaction.[36] However, since tyrosine phosphorylated proteins are relatively easy to purify using antibodies, tyrosine phosphorylation sites are relatively well understood. Histidine and aspartate phosphorylation occurs in prokaryotes as part of two-component signaling and in some cases in eukaryotes in some signal transduction pathways.The analysis of phosphorylated Histidine using standard biochemical and mass spectrometric approaches is much more challenging than that of Ser, Thr or Tyr.[9][6][7] and [37] In prokaryotes, archea, and some lower eukaryotes histidine's nitrogen act as a nucleophile and binds to a phosphate group.[38] Once histidine is phosphorylated the regulatory domain of the response regulator catalyzes the transfer of the phosphate to aspartate.
Phosphorylation of histones[edit]
Eukaryotic DNA is organized with histone proteins in specific complexes called chromatin. The chromatin structure functions and facilitates the packaging, organization and distribution of eukaryotic DNA. However, it has a negative impact on several fundamental biological processes such as transcription, replication and DNA repair by restricting the accessibility of certain enzymes and proteins. Post-translational modification of histones such as histone phosphorylation has been shown to modify the chromatin structure by changing protein:DNA or protein:protein interactions.[39] Histone post-translational modifications modify the chromatin structure. The most commonly associated histone phosphorylation occurs during cellular responses to DNA damage, when phosphorylated histone H2A separates large chromatin domains around the site of DNA breakage.[40] Researchers investigated whether modifications of histones directly impact RNA polymerase II directed transcription. Researchers choose proteins that are known to modify histones to test their effects on transcription, and found that the stress-induced kinase, MSK1, inhibits RNA synthesis. Inhibition of transcription by MSK1 was most sensitive when the template was in chromatin, since DNA templates not in chromatin were resistant to the effects of MSK1. It was shown that MSK1 phosphorylated histone H2A on serine 1, and mutation of serine 1 to alanine blocked the inhibition of transcription by MSK1. Thus results suggested that the acetylation of histones can stimulate transcription by suppressing an inhibitory phosphorylation by a kinase as MSK1.[41]
Detection and characterization[edit]
Antibodies can be used as powerful tool to detect whether a protein is phosphorylated at a particular site. Antibodies bind to and detect phosphorylation-induced conformational changes in the protein. Such antibodies are called phospho-specific antibodies; hundreds of such antibodies are now available. They are becoming critical reagents both for basic research and for clinical diagnosis.
Example of posttranslational modification detected on a 2D gel (spot boundaries delimited by analysis software, identification by mass spectrometry, P46462 is the protein ID in Expasy)
Posttranslational modification (PTM) isoforms are easily detected on 2D gels. Indeed, phosphorylation replaces neutral hydroxyl groups on serines, threonines, or tyrosines with negatively charged phosphates with pKs near 1.2 and 6.5. Thus, below pH 5.5, phosphates add a single negative charge; near pH 6.5, they add 1.5 negative charges; above pH 7.5, they add 2 negative charges. The relative amount of each isoform can also easily and rapidly be determined from staining intensity on 2D gels.
In some very specific cases, the detection of the phosphorylation as a shift in the protein's electrophoretic mobility is possible on simple 1-dimensional SDS-PAGE gels, as it's described for instance for a transcriptional coactivator by Kovacs et al.[42] Strong phosphorylation-related conformational changes (that persist in detergent-containing solutions) are thought to underlie this phenomenon. Most of the phosphorylation sites for which such a mobility shift has been described fall in the category of SP and TP sites (i.e. a proline residue follows the phosphorylated serine or threonine residue).
More recently large-scale mass spectrometry analyses have been used to determine sites of protein phosphorylation. Over the last 4 years, dozens of studies have been published, each identifying thousands of sites, many of which were previously undescribed.[43][44] Mass spectrometry is ideally suited for such analyses using HCD or ETD fragmentation, as the addition of phosphorylation results in an increase in the mass of the protein and the phosphorylated residue. Advanced, highly accurate mass spectrometers are needed for these studies, limiting the technology to labs with high-end mass spectrometers. However, the analysis of phosphorylated peptides by mass spectrometry is still not as straightforward as for “regular”, unmodified peptides. Recently EThcD has been developed combining electron-transfer and higher-energy collision dissociation. Compared to the usual fragmentation methods, EThcD scheme provides more informative MS/MS spectra for unambiguous phosphosite localization.[45]
A detailed characterization of the sites of phosphorylation is very difficult, and the quantitation of protein phosphorylation by mass spectrometry requires isotopic internal standard approaches.[46] A relative quantitation can be obtained with a variety of differential isotope labeling technologies.[47] There are also several quantitative protein phosphorylation methods, including fluorescence immunoassays, Microscale thermophoresis, FRET, TRF, fluorescence polarization, fluorescence-quenching, mobility shift, bead-based detection, and cell-based formats.[48][49]
ATP[edit]
ATP, the "high-energy" exchange medium in the cell, is synthesized in the mitochondrion by addition of a third phosphate group to ADP in a process referred to as oxidative phosphorylation. ATP is also synthesized by substrate-level phosphorylation during glycolysis. ATP is synthesized at the expense of solar energy by photophosphorylation in the chloroplasts of plant cells.
See also[edit]
Moiety conservation
Phosida
Phosphoamino acid analysis
RegPhos
Types of phosphorylation
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Functional analyses for site-specific phosphorylation of a target protein in cells (A Protocol)
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text:
Memory Man (Baldacci novel)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Memory Man
Hardcover edition
Author
David Baldacci
Country
United States
Language
English
Series
Amos Decker
Genre
Crime novel
Publisher
Grand Central Publishing
Publication date
September 15, 2015
Media type
Print, e-book, audiobook
Pages
432 pp (hardback)
ISBN
978-1455559817
Memory Man is a crime novel about a man whose wife, daughter and brother in law were murdered, written by David Baldacci.[1][2] This is the first novel to feature new character Amos Decker.[3] The novel was released in September 2015 by Grand Central Publishing.
Plot[edit]
Amos Decker is a former professional football player who was violently hit on his first play resulting in severe injuries and changes to his brain. As his football career has ended, Decker becomes a police officer, and later a successful detective, while using his newly acquired mental abilities (Synesthesia and Hyperthymesia). After his family is murdered in an unsolved case, Decker loses his will to live, and becomes a transient while working as a private investigator.
After a mass shooting at a local high school, Decker is asked to assist in solving the case by the local police force he used to work for. It soon becomes apparent that the shooting is somehow related to the killing of his family 18 months before.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Memory Man by David Baldacci". amazon.com. Retrieved 2015-09-08.
Jump up ^ "David Baldacci's 'Memory Man' is a master class in the art of the bestseller".
Jump up ^ "Memory Man (Amos Decker #1) by David Baldacci". goodreads.com. Retrieved 2015-09-08.
External links[edit]
Official website
hide
v
t
e
Novels by David Baldacci
Camel Club
The Camel Club (2005)
The Collectors (2006)
Stone Cold (2007)
Divine Justice (2008)
Hell's Corner (2010)
Sean King and Michelle Maxwell novels
Split Second (2003)
Hour Game (2004)
Simple Genius (2007)
First Family (2009)
The Sixth Man (2011)
King and Maxwell (2013)
Shaw and Katie James novels
The Whole Truth (2008)
Deliver Us from Evil (2010)
John Puller novels
Zero Day (2011)
The Forgotten (2012)
The Escape (2014)
No Man's Land (2016)
Will Robie novels
The Innocent (2012)
The Hit (2013)
The Target (2014)
The Guilty (2015)
Amos Decker novels
Memory Man (2015)
The Last Mile (2016)
The Fix (2017)
The Fallen (2018)
Freddy and the French Fries novels
Freddy and the French Fries: Fries Alive! (2005)
Freddy and the French Fries: The Mystery of Silas Finklebean (2006)
Other novels
Absolute Power (1996)
Total Control (1996)
The Winner (1997)
The Simple Truth (1998)
Saving Faith (1999)
Wish You Well (2000)
Last Man Standing (2001)
The Christmas Train (2002)
True Blue (2009)
One Summer (2011)
Day of Doom
Adaptations
Absolute Power
King & Maxwell
Wish You Well

This article about a crime novel is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v
t
e

See guidelines for writing about novels. Further suggestions might be found on the article's talk page.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Memory_Man_(Baldacci_novel)&oldid=813786553"
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