text:
Natural gas field
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location of Gas Fields of Iran
Vučkovec Gas Field facility, Croatia
Natural gas originates by the same geological thermal cracking process that converts kerogen to petroleum. As a consequence, oil and natural gas are often found together. In common usage, deposits rich in oil are known as oil fields, and deposits rich in natural gas are called natural gas fields.
In general, organic sediments buried in depths of 1,000 m to 6,000 m (at temperatures of 60 °C to 150 °C) generate oil, while sediments buried deeper and at higher temperatures generate natural gas. The deeper the source, the "drier" the gas (that is, the smaller the proportion of condensates in the gas). Because both oil and natural gas are lighter than water, they tend to rise from their sources until they either seep to the surface or are trapped by a non-permeable stratigraphic trap. They can be extracted from the trap by drilling.
The largest natural gas field is South Pars/Asalouyeh gas field, which is shared between Iran and Qatar. The second largest natural gas field is the Urengoy gas field, and the third largest is the Yamburg gas field, both in Russia.
Offshore gas fields[edit]
The drillship Discoverer Enterprise is shown in the background, at work during exploratory phase of a new offshore field. The Offshore Support Vessel Toisa Perseus is shown in the foreground, illustrating part of the complex logistics of offshore oil and gas exploration and production.
Like oil, natural gas is often found underwater in offshore gas fields such as the North Sea, Corrib Gas Field off Ireland, and the Sable Offshore Energy Project in the Scotian Shelf near Sable Island. The technology utilized to extract and transport offshore natural gas is different from land-based fields in that a few, very large rigs are usually used, due to the cost and logistical difficulties in working over water. Rising gas prices in the early 21st century encouraged drillers to revisit fields that previously were not considered economically viable. For example, in 2008 McMoran Exploration passed a drilling depth of over 32,000 feet (9754 m) (the deepest test well in the history of gas production) at the Blackbeard site in the Gulf of Mexico.[1] Exxon Mobil's drill rig there had reached 30,000 feet by 2006 without finding gas, before it abandoned the site.
See also[edit]
Energy portal
General
Caprock
Gazprom
List of natural gas fields
Oil field
Stranded gas reserve
Underground hydrogen storage
Offshore aspects
North Sea Oil
Oil platform
Drillship
Other
Darvaza, Turkmenistan - The "Door to Hell"
References[edit]
Jump up ^ A Famed Dry Hole Gets a Second Shot, Wall Street Journal, 21 July 2008, p.B1
Further reading[edit]
Hyne, Norman J. (2001). Nontechnical guide to petroleum geology, exploration, drilling, and production (2nd ed.). Tulsa, Oklahoma: PennWell Corporation. ISBN 0-87814-823-X
External links[edit]
Atlas of Gulf of Mexico Gas and Oil Sands
Authority control
NDL: 00562265
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text:
List of El Señor de los Cielos cast members
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This is a list of cast members including main, recurring, and guest stars on El Señor de los Cielos.
Contents
[hide]
1 Cast
1.1 Main characters
1.2 Recurring characters
2 References
Cast[edit]
List indicator(s)
A dark grey cell indicates the character was not in the season.
A G indicates a guest role.
A Y indicates an appearance as a younger version of a pre-existing character.
A R indicates that the actor was promoted to the main cast after appearing as a recurrent in previous seasons.
Character
Season
1
2
3
4
5
6
El Chema
Main characters[edit]
Aurelio Casillas
Rafael Amaya Rafael AmayaG
Ximena Letrán
Ximena Herrera
Miltón Jiménez
"El Cabo"
Robinson Díaz Robinson DíazG Robinson Díaz
Víctor Casillas
"Chacorta"
Raúl Méndez[1]
Leonor Ballesteros
Carmen Villalobos
Marco Mejía
Gabriel Porras
El Chema
Mauricio Ochmann Alberto Guerra[2] Mauricio Ochmann
Mónica Robles
Fernanda CastilloR Fernanda CastilloG
Victoria Navárez
Marlene Favela
Rutila Casillas
Terina AngellY Ana Sofía DuránY
Carmen AubR Carmen AubR Carmen AubG
Amparo Rojas
Maritza Rodríguez[3]
Esperanza Salvatierra
Sabrina SearaR
Emiliana Contreras
Vanessa Villela[4] Vanessa VillelaG
Eunice Lara
"La Felina"
Marisela GonzálezR
Mabel Castaño
Mariana Seoane Mariana Seoane
Leandro Quezada
Miguel Varoni
Joe Navarro
Guy Ecker
El Súper Javi
Alejandro LópezR
Gustavo Casasola
Francisco Gattorno
Omar Terán
Jesús MoréR Jesús MoréG
Alba Casillas
Lisa OwenR Lisa OwenR
Evelina
Ninel Conde[5]
Chivo Ahumada
Carlos Bardem[6]
Diana Ahumada[6]
Isabella Castillo[6]
José Valdés
Roberto Escobar
Nora Requena
María Conchita Alonso
Recurring characters[edit]
El Vitaminas
Fernando Banda
Pablo Escobar
Andrés Parra
Matilde Rojas
Sara Corrales
Óscar Cadena
Fernando Solórzano Fernando Solórzano
Alí Benjumea
"El Turco"
Arturo Barba
Irina Vorodin
Sophie Gómez
General Daniel Jiménez Arroyo
"El Letrudo"
Juan Ríos Cantú Juan Ríos CantúG
Eugenia Casas
Angélica Celaya
Guadalupe Robles
Marco Pérez Marco PérezG
Isidro Robles
Guillermo Quintanilla Guillermo Quintanilla
Doris de Jiménez
Rocío Verdejo
Álvaro José Pérez
"Tijeras"
Tommy Vásquez
Jesús Linares
Fabián Peña
Gregorio Ponte
Emmanuel Orenday
Heriberto Casillas
Ruy Senderos
Roxana Mondragón
Bianca Calderón Bianca CalderónG
General Castro
Ángel Cerlo
Flavio Huerta
Arnoldo Picazzo
Ramiro Silva de la Garza
Juan Ignacio Aranda Juan Ignacio Aranda Juan Ignacio ArandaG
Juan Montoya
Jorge Zárate
Don Anacleto "Cleto" Letrán
Javier Díaz Dueñas
Lorelay "Lay" Cadena
Manuela GonzálezG Manuela González Anai Urrego
Víctor Casillas Jr.
NandoY Miguel Melo Jorge Luis Moreno
Elsa Marín
Erika de la Rosa
Ignacio Miravalle
Alejandro de la Madrid
Jeremy Andrews
Ari Brickman Ari BrickmanG
Max Miravalle
Carlos Torrestorija
Antonio Garnica
Tomás Goros
Cecilia
Surya MacGregor
Santiago Echeverría
Antonio de la Vega
Ernesto Gamboa
Sahit Sosa
Father Lázaro Sánchez
Juan Luis Orendain
Pepe Johnson
Ausencio Cruz
Pedro Navárez
Irineo Álvarez
Iñaki Izarrieta
Juan Carlos Gascón
Irma Veracierta
Sandra Díaz
Lilo Planas
Edgardo González
Diana Quiñones
Ofelia Guiza
Rodrigo Rivero Lanz
Manuel Balbi
José Manrique
"Skinny"
David Ponce[7]
Pompeyo
Carlos Puente Carlos PuenteG
Ramón
José Juan Meraz
Eleazar Yepes / El Tostao Yepes
Sebastian Caicedo Sebastian CaicedoG
El Toro
Daniel Rascón Daniel Rascón
Tim Rowlings
Sergio Mur
Don Alfredo "Feyo" Aguilera
Leonardo Daniel Leonardo Daniel
Luz Marina "Luzma" Casillas
Gala Montes
Begoña Barraza
Marina de Tavira Marina de Tavira
Belén Guerrero
"La Condesa"
Verónica Montes
Enrique Morejón
Carlos Torres
Julia Reyes
Sandra Beltrán
Cristina Salgado
Daniela Wong Viviana Serna
Elisa Peña
Bárbara Singer
Juan Antonio Marcado
Sebastián Ferrat
Abel Terán
Marco Treviño
Ricardo Monteverde
Marco Zetina
Valentín Fons
Fernando Sarfatti
Camilo Jaramillo
Néstor Rodulfo
Gloria
Ligia Petit
Benjamín "El Espanto"
Arnulfo Reyes Sánchez
Chatarrero
Alejandro Félix
Arelis Mendoza
Daniela Zavala
El Zopilote
Alejandro Navarrete
Dalvio Navarrete
"El Ingeniero"
Plutarco Haza Plutarco HazaG
Armando Pérez Ricard
Gabriel Coronel
Diosdado Carreño Arias
Franklin Virgüez
Gustavo Gaviria
"El Oficial"
Christian Tappan
Eva Ernestina Gallardo
Roxana Chávez
Reyesito
Juan Pablo Franco
Jorge Elías Salazar
Iván Tamayo
Officer Evelyn García
Lorena del Castillo Lorena del CastilloG
Aguasanta "Tata" Guerra
Wendy de los Cobos Wendy de los CobosG
Ismael Casillas Guerra
Iván Arana
Mayra
Citlali Galindo
Amalia Ramírez
Geráldine Zinat
Nicandro "Niki" Limón
Diego de Tovar
Lourdes
Ofelia Medina
Nazareno Ramírez
Carlos Fonseca
Paloma Villareal
Paloma Jiménez Paloma JiménezG
Consuelo "Connie" Limón
Ivonne Montero
Pilar Ortiz
Patricia Vico
Juan Carlos Salvatierra
Carlos Mata
Sebastián Almagro
Juan Martín Jauregui
Melquiades Soler "Penumbra"
Ernesto Benjumea
Rafael Jiménez "Doble 30"
Ricardo Leguizamo
Giuseppina "Pina" Cortini
Catherina Cardozo
Zoe
Valeria Vera
Arnulfo Sutamarchán
Kristo Cifuentes
Andrés Velandia
Juan Manuel Mendoza
Rubén Saba
Francisco Calvillo
Leonardo Castaño
Leonardo Álvarez
Filemón
Polo Monarrez
El Greñas
Alex Walerstein
Jaime Ernesto Rosales
Alan Slim
Guillermo Colón
Daniel Martínez
Susana
Alieth Vargas
Bernardo Castillo
José Sedek
Corina Saldaña
Karla Carrillo
Carlos Zuleta
Carlos Gallardo
Paulina Ugalde
Pahola Escalera
Ámbar Maldonado
Dayana Garroz
Kashi
Juanita Arias
Milena
Gloria Stalina
Edith Guzmán
Marisela Berti
Esther
Claudia Cobo
Eutimio "Rojo" Flores
Fernando Noriega Fernando Noriega
Coronel Garañón
Rafael Uribe
Figueroa
Gastón Velandia
Arístides Istúriz
Daniel Martínez Campo
Mocho
Carlos Serrato
Carla Uzcátegui
Elsy Reyes
El Pulque
Antonio López Torres
Samario
Rubén Arciniegas
Berenice Ahumada
Thali García[6]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Raúl Méndez 'Chacorta' En 'El Señor De Los Cielos' Confirma Que No Participará En Temporada 3" (in Spanish). Novela Lounge. Retrieved September 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Confirmado: Alberto Guerra será el 'nuevo' Chema". quien.com (in Spanish). Retrieved 3 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Yolaine Díaz. "Maritza Rodríguez cambiará el rumbo de El señor de los cielos". People en Español (in Spanish). Retrieved May 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ González, Moisés. "Vanessa Villela buscará vengarse de El señor de los cielos". People en Español (in Spanish). Retrieved 15 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Valdés, Carolina. "Ninel Conde ya reveló a quién interpretará en "El Señor de los Cielos"". estilodf.tv (in Spanish). Retrieved 12 May 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d González, Moisés. "Rafael Amaya tiene nueva conquista en El señor de los cielos y otras 9 noticias ¡De telenovela!". peopleenespanol.com (in Spanish). People en Español. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Así es David Ponce en su papel de 'Skynny' en 'El Señor de los Cielos' (VIDEO)". telemundo.com (in Spanish). Retrieved 3 June 2018.
hide
v
t
e
El Señor de los Cielos
Luis Zelkowicz
List
Awards and nominations
Cast members
Episodes
Season 1
5
6
Characters
Aurelio Casillas
El Chema
Related
Señora Acero
Queen of the South
El Chema
Category
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_El_Señor_de_los_Cielos_cast_members&oldid=850181901"
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
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text:
Mania (Fall Out Boy album)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Mania
Studio album by Fall Out Boy
Released
January 19, 2018
Recorded
2016–17
Length
35:46
Label
Island
DCD2
Producer
Jesse Shatkin
Illangelo
Pharrell Williams
Jonny Coffer
Butch Walker
Fall Out Boy chronology
Make America Psycho Again
(2015)Make America Psycho Again2015 Mania
(2018)
Singles from Mania
"Young and Menace"
Released: April 27, 2017
"Champion"
Released: June 22, 2017
"The Last of the Real Ones"
Released: September 14, 2017
"Hold Me Tight or Don't"
Released: November 15, 2017
Mania (stylized as M A N I A and formally titled Mania: A Fall Out Boy LP) is the upcoming seventh studio album by American rock band Fall Out Boy, set to be released on January 19, 2018, by Island Records and DCD2 as the follow-up to their 2015 album, American Beauty/American Psycho.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 Album delay
2 Promotion
3 Singles
4 Track listing
5 Personnel
6 References
Background[edit]
Fall Out Boy enjoyed commercial success and worldwide acclaim after releasing their sixth studio album, American Beauty/American Psycho (2015). During the extensive touring in support of the album, the group began writing and recording material for a seventh album. The beginning of the production process for Mania began after the band's frontman Patrick Stump introduced the song "Young and Menace" to bass guitarist Pete Wentz at Reading and Leeds Festival in 2016, which inspired the musicians to record a full-length.[1] In an interview with Rolling Stone, Wentz described the vision behind Mania. "It feels like every once in awhile, you've gotta do a hard restart that clears the cache and erases the hard drive. I think that's what [Mania] was – a big palette cleanse," said Wentz.[2]
After the release of the album's first two singles, "Young and Menace" and "Champion", Patrick Stump issued a statement on Twitter confirming that the band was postponing the release date for Mania until January 19, 2018 due to the album "feeling rushed."[3]
Album delay[edit]
Mania was originally scheduled for a release on September 15, 2017, worldwide. However, on August 3, 2017, Patrick Stump announced that the record would be pushed back until January 19, 2018. "The album just really isn't ready, and it felt very rushed," Stump said on Twitter. "I'm never going to put a record out I genuinely don't believe is at least as strong or valid as the one that came before it and in order to do that we need a little bit more time to properly and carefully record solid performances."[4]
On November 6, 2017, the band announced on social media that the album had been completed and revealed the tracklist.[5]
Promotion[edit]
In support of the album, the band has performed the singles on television and has embarked on the Mania Tour in October 2017. The tour, which takes place in both North America and Australia, features support from blackbear,[6] Jaden Smith,[7] and WAAX.[8] A previously unreleased song that is featured on the album, "Wilson (Expensive Mistakes)", was debuted live on October 20, 2017, as part of The Mania Tour setlist.[9]
Singles[edit]
The lead single, "Young and Menace", was released on April 27, 2017. The song has a notable influence from the EDM genre, hinting at another progression of the band's sound with the album.[10] The second single, "Champion",[11] was released on June 22 in the U.S. and on June 23 worldwide.[12] The third single, "The Last of the Real Ones", was released on September 14, 2017.[13][14][15] The fourth single, "Hold Me Tight or Don't" was released on November 15.[16]
Track listing[edit]
All tracks written by Patrick Stump, Pete Wentz, Joe Trohman, and Andy Hurley, except where noted.
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length
1. "Young and Menace" 3:44
2. "Champion"
Stump
Wentz
Trohman
Hurley
Sia Furler
Jesse Shatkin
3:13
3. "Stay Frosty Royal Milk Tea" 2:50
4. "Hold Me Tight or Don't"
Stump
Wentz
Trohman
Hurley
Jonny Coffer
3:30
5. "The Last of the Real Ones"
Stump
Wentz
Trohman
Hurley
Carlo Montagnese
3:50
6. "Wilson (Expensive Mistakes)" 3:36
7. "Church"
Stump
Wentz
Trohman
Hurley
Andrew Wells
Audra Mae
Kate York
3:31
8. "Heaven's Gate" 3:45
9. "Sunshine Riptide" (featuring Burna Boy) 3:24
10. "Bishops Knife Trick" 4:23
Total length: 35:46
Note: tracklisting taken from iTunes Store and an officially created Fall Out Boy website.[17] [18][19]
Personnel[edit]
Fall Out Boy
Patrick Stump – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, programming
Pete Wentz – bass guitar, backing vocals
Joe Trohman – lead guitar, backing vocals
Andy Hurley – drums, percussion
Additional personnel
Jesse Shatkin – production, mixing
Fall Out Boy – primary production
Suzy Shinn – engineering
Rouble Kapoor – assistant engineering
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://www.rocksound.tv/features/read/fall-out-boys-pete-wentz-on-new-music-mania-and-making-an-unlistenable-song
Jump up ^ http://www.rollingstone.com/music/features/pete-wentz-on-new-fall-out-boy-lp-mania-fall-tour-w494845
Jump up ^ http://www.nme.com/news/music/fall-boy-delay-release-new-album-m-n-four-months-2121141
Jump up ^ https://twitter.com/PatrickStump/status/893184837854654464
Jump up ^ Boy, Fall Out (10:37 AM - 6 Nov 2017). "check again http://ismaniadoneyet.com checking things off that to do list". @falloutboy. Retrieved 2017-11-07. line feed character in |title= at position 40 (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
Jump up ^ "Fall Out Boy announce 'Mania Tour' opener and other news you might have missed today". Alternative Press. Retrieved 2017-07-29.
Jump up ^ "Jaden Smith is Going On Tour With Fall Out Boy". Spin. 2017-07-28. Retrieved 2017-07-30.
Jump up ^ "FALL OUT BOY // Announce 'Mania' Tour 2018". Hysteria Magazine. Retrieved 2017-07-29.
Jump up ^ Post-Dispatch, Daniel Durchholz Special to the. "Despite glitches, Fall Out Boy's 'Mania' show is a satisfying spectacle at Scottrade". stltoday.com. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
Jump up ^ Trendell, Andrew. "Fall Out Boy unveil new song and video". NME. Retrieved April 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Looks like Fall Out Boy's new song, 'Champion,' will be released next week - News - Alternative Press". Alternative Press. Retrieved June 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Elvis Duran Show (17 May 2017). "Fall Out Boy On New Single 'Young And Menace' + Upcoming Album 'Mania' - Elvis Duran Show" – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ Reed, Ryan (September 14, 2017). "Watch Fall Out Boy's Outlaw Thriller 'The Last of the Real Ones' Video". Rolling Stone. Retrieved September 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Gil (September 14, 2017). "Fall Out Boy Get Kidnapped by Killer Llamas in Weird 'The Last of the Real Ones' Video: Watch". Billboard. Retrieved September 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ Boy, Fall Out (6 September 2017). "We see a new song in your short future. The Last of the Real Ones coming soonpic.twitter.com/NwOCDseByt". @falloutboy. Retrieved 2017-10-10.
Jump up ^ Stubblebine, Allison (November 15, 2017). "Fall Out Boy Dance For Day of the Dead in Colorful 'Hold Me Tight or Don't' Video". Billboard. Retrieved November 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/m-a-n-i-a/id1229821606
Jump up ^ www.ismaniadoneyet.com
Jump up ^ "M A N I A by Fall Out Boy on Apple Music". itunes.apple.com. Retrieved 2017-11-09.
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Coral bleaching
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2017)
Bleached corals
Healthy corals
Coral bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel algae that live inside their tissues. Normally, coral polyps live in an endosymbiotic relationship with the algae and that relationship is crucial for the coral and hence for the health of the whole reef.[1] Bleached corals might continue to live for some time. But as the algae provide the coral with up to 90% of its energy, after expelling the algae the coral begins to starve.[2] After bleaching, some corals may recover, while some die. Above-average sea water temperatures caused by global warming have been identified as a leading cause for coral bleaching worldwide.[2] Between 2014 and 2016, the longest global bleaching events ever were recorded. According to the United Nations Environment Programme, these bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale. In 2016, bleaching of coral on the Great Barrier Reef killed between 29 and 50 percent of the reef's coral.[3][4][5] In 2017, the bleaching further expanded to areas of the reef that were previously spared, such as the central one.[6][7] The average interval between bleaching events has halved between 1980 and 2016.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Causes
2 Triggers
2.1 List of triggers
3 Mass bleaching events
4 Impact
4.1 Pacific Ocean
4.1.1 Great Barrier Reef
4.1.2 Hawaii
4.1.3 Japan
4.2 Indian Ocean
4.2.1 Maldives
4.2.2 Thailand
4.2.3 Indonesia
4.3 Atlantic Ocean
4.3.1 Florida
4.3.2 Belize
4.3.3 Caribbean
4.4 Other areas
4.5 Economic and political impact
4.6 Monitoring reef sea surface temperature
4.7 Changes in ocean chemistry
4.8 Infectious disease
5 Coral adaptation
6 Recovery and macroalgal regime shifts
7 Economic value of coral reefs
8 Cost benefit analysis of reducing loss of coral reefs
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links
Causes[edit]
Coral and microscopic algae have a symbiotic relationship. When water temperatures get too high, the algae leave the coral tissue and the coral begins to starve.
The corals that form the great reef ecosystems of tropical seas depend upon a symbiotic relationship with algae-like single-celled flagellate protozoa called zooxanthellae that live within their tissues and give the coral its coloration. The zooxanthellae provide the coral with nutrients through photosynthesis, a crucial factor in the clear and nutrient-poor tropical waters. In exchange, the coral provide the zooxanthellae with the carbon dioxide and ammonium needed for photosynthesis. Negative environmental conditions thwart the coral's ability to provide for the zooxanthellae's needs. To ensure short-term survival, the coral-polyp then expels the zooxanthellae. This leads to a lighter or completely white appearance, hence the term "bleached".[9] As the zooxanthellae provide up to 90% of the coral's energy needs through products of photosynthesis, after expelling, the coral may begin to starve.
Healthy coral at left and bleached, but still living, coral to right
Coral can survive short-term disturbances, but if the conditions that lead to the expulsion of the zooxanthellae persist, the coral's chances of survival diminish. In order to recover from bleaching, the zooxanthellae have to re-enter the tissues of the coral polyps and restart photosynthesis to sustain the coral as a whole and the ecosystem that depends on it.[10] If the coral polyps die of starvation after bleaching, they will decay. The hard coral species will then leave behind their calcium carbonate skeletons, which will be taken over by algae, effectively blocking coral re-growth. Eventually, the coral skeletons will erode, causing the reef structure to collapse.
Triggers[edit]
Coral bleaching may be caused by a number of factors. While localized triggers lead to localized bleaching, the large scale coral bleaching events of the recent years have been triggered by increased sea surface temperatures.[11] Coral reefs located in warm, shallow water with low water flow have been more affected than reefs located in areas with higher water flow.[12]
List of triggers[edit]
Bleached coral - partially overgrown with algae
increased water temperature (most commonly due to global warming), or reduced water temperatures[13][14][15][16]
oxygen starvation caused by an increase in zooplankton levels as a result of overfishing[17][unreliable source?]
increased solar irradiance (photosynthetically active radiation and ultraviolet light)[18]
increased sedimentation (due to silt runoff)[19]
bacterial infections[20]
changes in salinity[21]
herbicides[22]
extreme low tide and exposure[23]
cyanide fishing[24]
elevated sea levels due to global warming (Watson)[clarification needed]
mineral dust from African dust storms caused by drought[25]
pollutants such as oxybenzone, butylparaben, octyl methoxycinnamate, or enzacamene: four common sunscreen ingredients that are nonbiodegradable and can wash off of skin[26][27][28][29][30]
ocean acidification due to elevated levels of CO2 caused by air pollution[31]
Mass bleaching events[edit]
Bleached Acropora coral (foreground) and normal colony (background), Keppel Islands, Great Barrier Reef
Elevated sea water temperatures are the main cause of mass bleaching events.[32] Sixty major episodes of coral bleaching have occurred between 1979 and 1990,[33][34] with the associated coral mortality affecting reefs in every part of the world. In 2016, the longest coral bleaching event was recorded.[35]
Factors that influence the outcome of a bleaching event include stress-resistance which reduces bleaching, tolerance to the absence of zooxanthellae, and how quickly new coral grows to replace the dead. Due to the patchy nature of bleaching, local climatic conditions such as shade or a stream of cooler water can reduce bleaching incidence.[36] Coral and zooxanthellae health and genetics also influence bleaching.[36]
Large coral colonies such as Porites are able to withstand extreme temperature shocks, while fragile branching corals such Acropora are far more susceptible to stress following a temperature change.[37] Corals consistently exposed to low stress levels may be more resistant to bleaching.[38][39]
Scientists believe that the oldest known bleaching was that of the Late Devonian (Frasnian/Famennian), also triggered by the rise of sea surface temperatures. It resulted in the demise of the largest coral reefs in the Earth's history [40]
Impact[edit]
Two images of the Great Barrier Reef showing that the warmest water (top picture) coincides with the coral reefs (lower picture), setting up conditions that can cause coral bleaching
In the 2012–2040 period, coral reefs are expected to experience more frequent bleaching events. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) sees this as the greatest threat to the world's reef systems.[41][42][43][44] Coral reefs worldwide were lost by 19%, and 60% of the remaining reefs are at immediate risk of being lost. There are a few ways to tell the impacts of coral bleaching on reefs. First by the coral cover, the more coral that is covering the ground the less of an impact bleaching had. Second, coral abundance, which is the number of different living species on the coral reef. (Shidqi et al. 2017)
Pacific Ocean[edit]
Great Barrier Reef[edit]
The Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Australia experienced bleaching events in 1980, 1982, 1992, 1994, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2016 and 2017.[44][45] Some locations suffered severe damage, with up to 90% mortality.[46] The most widespread and intense events occurred in the summers of 1998 and 2002, with 42% and 54% respectively of reefs bleached to some extent, and 18% strongly bleached.[47][48] However coral losses on the reef between 1995 and 2009 were largely offset by growth of new corals.[49] An overall analysis of coral loss found that coral populations on the Great Barrier Reef had declined by 50.7% from 1985 to 2012, but with only about 10% of that decline attributable to bleaching, and the remaining 90% caused about equally by tropical cyclones and by predation by crown-of-thorns starfishes.[50] A global mass coral bleaching has been occurring since 2014 because of the highest recorded temperatures plaguing oceans. These temperatures have caused the most severe and widespread coral bleaching ever recorded in the Great Barrier reef. The most severe bleaching in 2016 occurred near Port Douglas. In late November 2016 surveys of 62 reefs showed that long term heat stress from climate change caused a 29% loss of shallow water coral. The highest coral death and reef habitat loss was inshore and mid-self reefs around Cape Grenville and Princess Charlotte Bay. [51] The IPCC's moderate warming scenarios (B1 to A1T, 2 °C by 2100, IPCC, 2007, Table SPM.3, p. 13[52]) forecast that corals on the Great Barrier Reef are very likely to regularly experience summer temperatures high enough to induce bleaching.[47]
Hawaii[edit]
Major bleaching occurred in Hawaiian coral reefs in 1996 and in 2002.[53] In 2014, biologists from the University of Queensland observed the first mass bleaching event, and attributed it to The Blob.[54] In 2014 and 2015, a survey in Hanauma Bay Nature Preserve on Oahu found 47% of the corals suffering from coral bleaching and close to 10% of the corals dying.[55]
Japan[edit]
According to a 2017 Japanese government report, almost 75% of Japan's largest coral reef in Okinawa has died from bleaching.[56]
Indian Ocean[edit]
Coral reef provinces have been permanently damaged by warm sea temperatures, most severely in the Indian Ocean. Up to 90% of coral cover has been lost in the Maldives, Sri Lanka, Kenya and Tanzania and in the Seychelles during the massive 1997-98 bleaching event.[57]
Maldives[edit]
More than 60% of the coral in the Maldives has suffered from bleaching in 2016.[58]
Thailand[edit]
Thailand experienced a severe mass bleaching in 2010 which affected 70% of the coral in the Andaman Sea. Between 30% and 95% of the bleached coral died.[59]
Indonesia[edit]
In 2017 there was a study done on two islands in Indonesia to see how their coral cover was. One of the places was Melinjo Islands and the other was Saktu Islands. In Saktu Island the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad, with an average coral cover of 22.3%. In Melinjo Islands the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad, with an average coral cover of 22.2%. (Shidqi et al. 2017)
Atlantic Ocean[edit]
Florida[edit]
In South Florida, a 2016 survey of large corals from Key Biscayne to Fort Lauderdale found that about 66% of the corals were dead or reduced to less than half of their live tissue.[60]
Belize[edit]
The first recorded mass bleaching event that took place in the Belize Barrier Reef was in 1998, where sea level temperatures reached up to 31.5 °C (88.7 °F) from 10 August to 14 October.[61] For a few days, Hurricane Mitch brought in stormy weather on October 27 but only reduced temperatures by 1 degree or less. During this time period, mass bleaching in the fore-reef and lagoon occurred. While some fore reef colonies suffered some damage, coral mortality in the lagoon was catastrophic.[61]
The most prevalent coral in the reefs of Belize in 1998 was the lettuce coral, Agaricia tenuifolia. On 22 and 23 October, surveys were conducted at two sites and the findings were devastating. Virtually all the living coral was bleached white and their skeletons indicated that they had died recently. At the lagoon floor, complete bleaching was evident among Agaricia tenuifolia. Furthermore, surveys done in 1999 and 2000 showed a near total mortality of Agaricia tenuifolia at all depths. Similar patterns occurred in other coral species as well. Measurements on water turbidity suggest that these mortalities were attributed to rising water temperatures rather than solar radiation.[61]
Caribbean[edit]
Since 1970 the coral reef cover in the Caribbean has decreased from 50% to only 10%. In 2013 there was a study done to see how the coral was doing after the mass bleaching event in 2010. Only one year later in 2011, the majority of the dominant species declined by about 62%. As well as the dominant species the coral abundance declined by about 50%. However, between 2011 and 2013 the cover of coral did increase for 10 of the 26 dominant species but declined for 5 other populations (Buglass, et al. 2016).
Other areas[edit]
Coral in the south Red Sea does not bleach despite summer water temperatures up to 34 °C (93 °F).[38][62] Coral bleaching in the Red Sea is more common in the northern section of the reefs, the southern part of the reef has been plagued by coral eating starfish, dynamite fishing and human impacts on the environment. In 1988 there was a massive bleaching event that affected the reefs in Saudi Arabia and in Sudan, the southern reefs were more resilient and affected them very little. Previously it was thought that the North suffers more from coral bleaching but they show a fast turnover of coral and the southern reef was thought to not suffer from bleaching as harshly, they show more consistency. However, new research shows where the south reef should be bigger and healthier than the north it was not. This is believed to be because of major disturbances in recent history from bleaching events, and coral eating starfish.[63] In 2010, coral bleaching occurred in Saudi Arabia and Sudan, where the temperature rose 10 to 11 degrees. Certain taxa experienced 80% to 100% of their colonies bleaching, while some showed on average 20% of that taxa bleaching.[64]
Economic and political impact[edit]
According to Brian Skoloff of The Christian Science Monitor, "If the reefs vanished, experts say, hunger, poverty and political instability could ensue."[65] Since countless sea life depend on the reefs for shelter and protection from predators, the extinction of the reefs would ultimately create a domino effect that would trickle down to the many human societies that depend on those fish for food and livelihood. There has been a 44% decline over the last 20 years in the Florida Keys, and up to 80% in the Caribbean alone.[66]
Coral reefs provide various ecosystem services, one of which is being a natural fishery, as many frequently consumed commercial fish spawn or live out their juvenile lives in coral reefs around the tropics.[67][68][69] Thus, reefs are a popular fishing site and are an important source of income for fishers, especially small, local fisheries.[69] As coral reef habitat decreases due to bleaching, reef associated fish populations also decrease, which affects fishing opportunities.[67] A model from one study by Speers et al. calculated direct losses to fisheries from decreased coral cover to be around $49 – $69 billion, if human societies continue to emit high levels of greenhouse gases.[67] But, these losses could be reduced for a consumer surplus benefit of about $14 – $20 billion, if societies chose to emit a lower level of greenhouse gases instead.[67] These economic losses also have important political implications, as they fall disproportionately on developing countries where the reefs are located, namely in Southeast Asia and around the Indian Ocean.[67][69][70] It would cost more for countries in these areas to respond to coral reef loss as they would need to turn to different sources of income and food, in addition to losing other ecosystem services such as ecotourism.[68][70] A study completed by Chen et al. suggested that the commercial value of reefs decreases by almost 4% every time coral cover decreases by 1% because of losses in ecotourism and other potential outdoor recreational activities.[68]
Coral reefs also act as a protective barrier for coastlines by reducing wave impact, which lowers the damage from storms, erosions, and flooding. Countries that lose this natural protection will lose more money because of the increased susceptibility of storms. This indirect cost, combined with the lost revenue in tourism, will result in enormous economic effects.[9]
Monitoring reef sea surface temperature[edit]
The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) monitors for bleaching "hot spots", areas where sea surface temperature rises 1 °C or more above the long-term monthly average. The "hot spots" are the location in which thermal stress is measured and with the development of Degree Heating Week (DHW), the coral reef's thermal stress is monitored [71][72]. Global coral bleaching is being detected earlier due to the satellite remote sensing the rise of sea temperatures[71][73]. It is necessary to monitor the high temperatures because coral bleaching events are affecting coral reef reproduction and normal growth capacity, as well as it weakening corals, eventually leading to their mortality[73]. This system detected the worldwide 1998 bleaching event,[74][75] that corresponded to the 1997–98 El Niño event.[76] Currently, 190 reef sites around the globe are monitored by the NOAA, and send alerts to research scientists and reef managers via NOAA Coral Reef Watch (CRW) website[77]. By monitoring the warming of sea temperatures, the early warnings of coral bleaching, alerts reef managers to prepare and draw awareness to future bleaching events[77].
Changes in ocean chemistry[edit]
Increasing ocean acidification due to rises in carbon dioxide levels exacerbates the bleaching effects of thermal stress. Acidification affects the corals' ability to create calcareous skeletons, essential to their survival.[78] This is because ocean acidification decreases the amount of carbonate ion in the water, making it more difficult for corals to absorb the calcium carbonate they need for the skeleton. As a result, the resilience of reefs goes down, while it becomes easier for them to erode and dissolve.[79] In addition, the increase in CO2 allows herbivore overfishing and nutrification to change coral-dominated ecosystems to algal-dominated ecosystems.[80] A recent study from the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future found that with the combination of acidification and temperature rises, the levels of CO2 could become too high for coral to survive in as little as 50 years.[78]
Infectious disease[edit]
Infectious bacteria of the species Vibrio shiloi are the bleaching agent of Oculina patagonica in the Mediterranean Sea, causing this effect by attacking the zooxanthellae.[81][82][83] V. shiloi is infectious only during warm periods. Elevated temperature increases the virulence of V. shiloi, which then become able to adhere to a beta-galactoside-containing receptor in the surface mucus of the host coral.[82][84] V. shiloi then penetrates the coral's epidermis, multiplies, and produces both heat-stable and heat-sensitive toxins, which affect zooxanthellae by inhibiting photosynthesis and causing lysis.
During the summer of 2003, coral reefs in the Mediterranean Sea appeared to gain resistance to the pathogen, and further infection was not observed.[85] The main hypothesis for the emerged resistance is the presence of symbiotic communities of protective bacteria living in the corals. The bacterial species capable of lysing V. shiloi had not been identified as of 2011.
Coral adaptation[edit]
In 2010, researchers at Penn State discovered corals that were thriving while using an unusual species of symbiotic algae in the warm waters of the Andaman Sea in the Indian Ocean. Normal zooxanthellae cannot withstand temperatures as high as was there, so this finding was unexpected. This gives researchers hope that with rising temperatures due to global warming, coral reefs will develop tolerance for different species of symbiotic algae that are resistant to high temperature, and can live within the reefs.[86][87] In 2010, researchers from Stanford University also found corals around the Samoan Islands that experience a drastic temperature increase for about four hours a day during low tide. The corals do not bleach or die regardless of the high heat increase. Studies showed that the corals off the coast of Ofu Island near America Samoa have become trained to withstand the high temperatures. Researchers are now asking a new question: can we condition corals, that are not from this area, in this manner and slowly introduce them to higher temperatures for short periods of time and make them more resilient against rising ocean temperatures.[88]
Recovery and macroalgal regime shifts[edit]
After corals experience a bleaching event to increased temperature stress some reefs are able to return to their original, pre-bleaching state.[89][90] Reefs either recover from bleaching, where they are recolonized by zooxanthellae, or they experience a regime shift, where previously flourishing coral reefs are taken over by thick layers of macroalgae.[91] This inhibits further coral growth because the algae produces antifouling compounds to deter settlement and competes with corals for space and light. As a result, macroalgae forms stable communities that make it difficult for corals to grow again. Reefs will then be more susceptible to other issues, such as declining water quality and removal of herbivore fish, because coral growth is weaker.[11] Discovering what causes reefs to be resilient or recover from bleaching events is of primary importance because it helps inform conservation efforts and protect coral more effectively.
Corals have shown to be resilient to short-term disturbances. Recovery has been shown in after storm disturbance and crown of thorns starfish invasions.[89] Fish species tend to fare better following reef disturbance than coral species as corals show limited recovery and reef fish assemblages have shown little change as a result of short-term disturbances.[89] In contrast, fish assemblages in reefs that experience bleaching exhibit potentially damaging changes. One study by Bellwood et al. notes that while species richness, diversity, and abundance did not change, fish assemblages contained more generalist species and less coral dependent species.[89] Responses to coral bleaching are diverse between reef fish species, based on what resources are affected.[92] Rising sea temperature and coral bleaching do not directly impact adult fish mortality, but there are many indirect consequences of both.[92] Coral-associated fish populations tend to be in decline due to habitat loss; however, some herbivorous fish populations have seen a drastic increase due to the increase of algae colonization on dead coral.[92] Studies note that better methods are needed to measure the effects of disturbance on the resilience of corals.[89][93]
The lemon damselfish (Pomacentrus moluccensis) is a coral associated species that has been shown to decline dramatically following coral bleaching.[94]
Until recently, the factors mediating the recovery of coral reefs from bleaching were not well studied. Research by Graham et al. (2005) studied 21 reefs around Seychelles in the Indo-Pacific in order to document the long-term effects of coral bleaching.[90] After the loss of more than 90% of corals due to bleaching in 1998 around 50% of the reefs recovered and roughly 40% of the reefs experienced regime shifts to macroalgae dominated compositions.[90] After an assessment of factors influencing the probability of recovery, the study identified five major factors: density of juvenile corals, initial structural complexity, water depth, biomass of herbivorous fishes, and nutrient conditions on the reef.[90] Overall, resilience was seen most in coral reef systems that were structurally complex and in deeper water.[90]
The ecological roles and functional groups of species also play a role in the recovery of regime shifting potential in reef systems. Coral reefs are affected by bioeroding, scraping, and grazing fish species. Bioeroding species remove dead corals, scraping species remove algae and sediment to further future growth, grazing species remove algae.[95] The presence of each type of species can influence the ability for normal levels of coral recruitment which is an important part of coral recovery.[95] Lowered numbers of grazing species after coral bleaching in the Caribbean has been likened to sea-urchin-dominated systems which do not undergo regime shifts to fleshy macroalgae dominated conditions.[91]
There is always the possibility of unobservable changes, or cryptic losses or resilience, in a coral community's ability to perform ecological processes.[89][95] These cryptic losses can result in unforeseen regime changes or ecological flips.[89] More detailed methods for determining the health of coral reefs that take into account long-term changes to the coral ecosystems and better-informed conservation policies are necessary to protect coral reefs in the years to come.[89][90][93][95]
Economic value of coral reefs[edit]
Coral reefs provide goods and services to an estimated quarter of all ocean species. [96] Experts estimate that coral reef services are worth up to $1.2 million per hectare which translates to an average of $172 billion per year.[97] The benefits of coral reefs include providing physical structures such as coastal shoreline protection, biotic services within and between ecosystems, biogeochemical services such as maintaining nitrogen levels in the ocean, climate records, and recreational and commercial (tourism) services.[98]
Cost benefit analysis of reducing loss of coral reefs[edit]
In 2010, the Convention on Biological Diversity's (CBD) Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 created twenty distinct targets for sustainable development for post-2015. Target 10 indicates the goal of minimizing "anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs".[99] Two programs were looked at, one that reduces coral reef loss by 50% that has a capital cost of $684 million and a recurrent cost of $81 million. The other program reduces coral reef loss by 80% and has a capital cost of $1,036 million with recurring costs of $130 million. CBD acknowledges that they may be underestimating the costs and resources needed to achieve this target due to lack of relevant data but nonetheless, the cost-benefit analysis shows that the benefits outweigh the costs by a great enough amount for both programs (Benefit Cost Ratio of 95.3 and 98.5) that "there is ample scope to increase outlays on coral protection and still achieve a benefit to cost ratio that is well over one.[100]
See also[edit]
Climate change
Coral reef
Ove Hoegh-Guldberg (biologist)
Notes[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Ateweberhan, Mebrahtu; Feary, David A.; Keshavmurthy, Shashank; Chen, Allen; Schleyer, Michael H.; Sheppard, Charles R.C. (2013). "Climate change impacts on coral reefs: Synergies with local effects, possibilities for acclimation, and management implications". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 74 (2): 526–39. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.06.011. PMID 23816307.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Graham, Nicholas A. J.; Jennings, Simon; MacNeil, M. Aaron; Mouillot, David; Wilson, Shaun K. (2015). "Predicting climate-driven regime shifts versus rebound potential in coral reefs". Nature. 518 (7537): 94–7. Bibcode:2015Natur.518...94G. doi:10.1038/nature14140. PMID 25607371.
^ Jump up to: a b Folke, Carl; Carpenter, Steve; Walker, Brian; Scheffer, Marten; Elmqvist, Thomas; Gunderson, Lance; Holling, C.S. (2004). "Regime Shifts, Resilience, and Biodiversity in Ecosystem Management". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 35 (1): 557–81. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711. JSTOR 30034127.
^ Jump up to: a b c Baker, Andrew C.; Glynn, Peter W.; Riegl, Bernhard (2008-12-10). "Climate change and coral reef bleaching: An ecological assessment of long-term impacts, recovery trends and future outlook". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 80 (4): 435–471. Bibcode:2008ECSS...80..435B. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2008.09.003.
^ Jump up to: a b Hughes, Terry P.; Graham, Nicholas A.J.; Jackson, Jeremy B.C.; Mumby, Peter J.; Steneck, Robert S. (2010). "Rising to the challenge of sustaining coral reef resilience". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 25 (11): 633–42. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2010.07.011. PMID 20800316.
Jump up ^ Bellwood, David R.; Hoey, Andrew S.; Ackerman, John L.; Depczynski, Martial (2006). "Coral bleaching, reef fish community phase shifts and the resilience of coral reefs". Global Change Biology. 12 (9): 1587–94. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01204.x.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bellwood, D. R.; Hughes, T. P.; Folke, C.; Nyström, M. (2004). "Confronting the coral reef crisis". Nature. 429 (6994): 827–33. Bibcode:2004Natur.429..827B. doi:10.1038/nature02691. PMID 15215854.
Jump up ^ https://insider.si.edu/2011/11/dna-barcode-survey-suggests-coral-reef-biodiversity-is-seriously-underestimated/
Jump up ^ https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2009-10/d-wac101509.php
Jump up ^ https://ccl.on.worldcat.org/oclc/56538155
Jump up ^ http://www.copenhagenconsensus.com/sites/default/files/biodiversity_assessment_-_markandya.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.copenhagenconsensus.com/sites/default/files/biodiversity_assessment_-_markandya.pdf
References[edit]
Watson, Megan E. "Coral Reefs." Encyclopedia of Environmental Issues. Rev. ed. Vol. 1. Pasadena: Salem Press, 2011. pp. 317–318. ISBN 978-1-58765-736-8
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coral bleaching.
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority information on bleaching.
ReefBase: a global information system on coral reefs.
More details on coral bleaching, causes and effects.
Travellers Impressions
The Link between Overfishing and Mass Coral Bleaching
Discussion on Overfishing and Coral Bleaching
Social & Economic Costs of Coral Bleaching[dead link] from "NOAA Socioeconomics" website initiative
Microdocs: Coral bleaching
Coral Bleaching at Maro Reef, September 2004
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