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Effects of alcohol on memory
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Ethanol is the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid that acts as a central nervous system depressant.[1] Ethanol can impair different types of memory.
Ethanol
Alcoholic beverages
Contents
[hide]
1 Mode of action
1.1 Effects on hippocampus
1.2 Molecular effects on GABA and NMDA receptors
1.3 Effects on other brain regions
2 Long-term memory
2.1 Explicit memory
2.2 Implicit memory
3 Short-term memory
3.1 Brain areas affected by alcohol
3.2 Tasks and intoxication findings
4 Effects on working memory
4.1 In the short term
4.2 In the long term
5 Prospective memory
6 In popular culture
7 See also
8 References
Mode of action[edit]
Effects on hippocampus[edit]
Alcohol acts as a general central nervous system depressant, but it also affects specific areas of the brain to a greater extent than others. Memory impairment due to alcohol has been linked to disruption of hippocampal function—in particular affecting gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) neurotransmission which negatively impacts long-term potentiation (LTP).[2] The molecular basis of LTP is associated with learning and memory.[3] Particularly, damage to hippocampal CA1 cells adversely affects memory formation,[4] and this disruption has been linked to dose-dependent levels of alcohol consumption.[5] At higher doses, alcohol significantly inhibits neuronal activity in the CA1 and CA3 pyramidal cell layers of the hippocampus.[6][7][8] This impairs memory encoding[9] since the hippocampus plays an important role in the formation of new memories.
A Hippocampal Pyramidal Cell
Molecular effects on GABA and NMDA receptors[edit]
A GABAA Receptor
Alcohol acts as a positive allosteric modulator of GABA receptors, specifically type GABAA.[10] Upon activation, these GABA receptors conduct Cl-, resulting in neuronal hyperpolarization. This hyperpolarization decreases the chance of an action potential occurring and, thus, has an inhibitory effect on neurotransmission in the central nervous system. GABAA receptor subtypes vary in their sensitivity to dosage of alcohol consumed. Furthermore, acute alcohol intake promotes GABAergic neurotransmission via presynaptic release of GABA, dephosphorylation of GABAA receptors (increasing GABA sensitivity), and elevation of endogenous GABAergic neuroactive steroids.[11] Protein kinase C (PKC) has been implicated in differentially modulating the response of the GABAA receptor to alcohol, with effects depending on the PKC isozyme.[12] Alcohol effects have also implicated protein kinase A in affecting GABAA receptor function, such as promoting sensitivity.[13] Enhancement of GABAergic transmission due to alcohol consumption can also be brought about by neuroactive steroids, such as allopregnanolone, which act as GABAA receptor agonists.[11][14] Chronic alcohol consumption and alcohol dependence are correlated with altered expression, properties, and functions of the GABAA receptor that may contribute to alcohol tolerance.[11] There is still much to be discovered about alcohol’s specific and varying effects on the GABAA receptor and its subtypes.
At higher doses, ethanol also affects NMDA receptors (NMDARs) by inhibiting the ion current induced by NMDA, a glutamate receptor agonist.[15] This inhibition of synaptic excitation by alcohol has been shown to be dose-dependent (up to a certain point, after which it did not differ by much).[16] Alcohol appears to produce this inhibition by using a site of the NMDAR that is accessible from the extracellular environment.[17] Thusly, this inhibition of an ion current usually produced by NMDAR activation leads to decreased LTP in hippocampal areas.[18] Alcohol negatively affects LTP to a greater degree in immature versus mature animals.[19] In adolescents, alcohol decreases the expression of the NMDAR NR2A subunit in the hippocampus and the NR1 subunit in the prefrontal cortex.[20] Studies have also found a decrease in phosphorylation of 2B subunit in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, nucleus accumbens, and striatum.[21] NMDARS may be affected by PKA regulation due to the actions of alcohol.[22] Alcohol’s effects on GABAA neurotransmission may indirectly inhibit the activity of the NMDAR and contribute to its blockade of LTP induction; however, alcohol’s direct effects on NMDAR alone are sufficient for the inhibition of LTP.[23] The varying dose-dependent response to alcohol relies on the combined interactions and responses of the GABAA receptors, NMDARs, and metabotropic glutamate receptors subtype 5 (mGluR5).[24][25][26] These changes prevent excitatory synaptic transmissions from occurring, affecting synaptic plasticity and, in turn, memory and learning. However, there is still much to be elucidated concerning specific molecular mechanisms of how alcohol affects memory formation.
Effects on other brain regions[edit]
Alcohol also impairs and alters functioning in the cerebellum, which affects motor function and coordination.[27] It has a notable inhibitory effect on neurons of the cerebral cortex, affecting and altering thought processes, decreasing inhibition, and increasing the pain threshold. It also decreases sexual performance by depressing nerve centers in the hypothalamus.[28][29] Alcohol also has an effect on urine excretion via inhibition of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) secretion of the pituitary gland. Lastly, it depresses breathing and heart rate by inhibiting neuronal functioning of the medulla.[30]
Long-term memory[edit]
Long-term memory (LTM) has a long duration and large capacity.[31] Memories stored in LTM can last from a few days to a lifetime.[31] LTM consists of explicit memory (requiring conscious awareness) and implicit memory (unconscious awareness).[31] Information selected for LTM goes through three processes. First, in the encoding stage, information from the senses is incorporated into mental activity in the form of a memory.[31] Secondly, storage involves taking this information and holding it indefinitely in memory.[31] Lastly, retrieval is the ability to recall information from the long-term memory storage. Each of these processes can be affected by alcohol.[31]
Animation: Hippocampus (red)
Explicit memory[edit]
Explicit memory requires conscious and intentional effort for recall.[31] It includes both episodic memory (for specific events, such as a party) and semantic memory (for general information, such as one's name).[31]
Alcohol impairs episodic encoding, specifically for cued recall, recognition of completed word fragments, and free recall.[32] A blackout is an example of a difficulty in encoding episodic memories due to alcohol. Blackouts are caused by a rapid increase in blood alcohol concentration (BAC) which in turn distorts the neurons in the hippocampus.[33] This distortion impairs a person's ability to form new episodic memories.[33]
High doses of alcohol severely disrupt the storage process of semantic memories.[34] Alcohol was found to impair the storage of novel stimuli but not that of previously learned information.[34] Since alcohol affects the central nervous system, it hinders semantic storage functioning by restricting the consolidation of the information from encoding.[34]
Retrieval of explicit memory is significantly impaired by alcohol. When compared to sober participants, intoxicated participants performed quite poorly on a recall task for everyday events (episodic memory).[35] Intoxicated participants are also slower to respond in reaction time tasks.[36] Alcohol also impairs retrieval in word recognition tasks.[32] When both encoding and retrieval take place during intoxication, there are surprisingly more impairments for cued recall than for free recall.[32] In terms of gender differences in retrieval processes, females tend to score lower than males on recall tasks when intoxicated.[36]
Implicit memory[edit]
Implicit memory does not require conscious effort or intention for recall.[31] It occurs when previous experience influences performance on a certain task.[31] This is evident in priming experiments. Implicit memory includes procedural memory, which influences our everyday behaviours, such as riding a bike or tying shoes.[31] People can perform these abilities without thinking about them, which means procedural memory functions automatically. While retrieval of explicit memory is severely impaired by alcohol, retrieval of implicit memory is not.[35] Intoxicated subjects score higher on recognition tasks (involving implicit memory) than on recall tasks (involving explicit memory).[35]
Short-term memory[edit]
Short-term memory refers to temporary storage of small amounts of information over short delays.[31] Digit span refers to the proposed number of pieces of information (5-9) that can be held in short-term memory. This is also referred to as the magic number seven – plus or minus two. Any more pieces of information than this, and newer items replace previous items.[37] Alcohol intoxication has been found to have dissociative effects on short-term memory and cognitive functioning.[38][39]
Anterior Cingulate Cortex (yellow)
Animation: Parietal Lobe (red)
Brain areas affected by alcohol[edit]
Alcohol affects brain functioning. Neurochemical changes occurring in the anterior cingulate are correlated with altered short-term memory functions in the brains of young alcoholic men.[40] fMRIs of alcohol-dependent women displayed significantly less blood oxygen in the frontal and parietal regions, especially in the right hemisphere.[41] This is supported by findings of short-term memory impairment by lesions of the parietal lobe[42] and prefrontal cortex.[43] Associations between Third ventricle volume and cognitive performance on memory tests have been found in alcoholics.[44] Specifically, increases in third ventricular volume correlate with a decline in memory performance.[44]
Tasks and intoxication findings[edit]
Short-term memory is commonly tested with visual tasks. Short-term memory, especially for non-verbal and spatial material, are impaired by intoxication.[44] Alcohol decreases iconic memory (a type of visual short-term memory).[45] With BACs between 80–84 mg/dl, more intrusion errors occur in a delayed recall task compared to a control group.[46] Intrusion errors, which represent reflective cognitive functioning, occur when irrelevant information is produced. Alcoholics have less control of inhibiting intrusions.[46] Acute alcohol intoxication in social drinkers caused more intrusion errors in delayed recall tasks than in immediate free recall tasks.[46] Acute alcohol intoxication increases susceptibility to interference, which allows for more intrusion errors when there is a short delay.[46] Free recall (given list of words then asked to recall list) is significantly lower and therefore impaired by alcohol intoxication.[47][48] Encoding deficits were found in verbal free recall and recognition tasks under the influence of alcohol.[49] A discrimination task found significant alcohol-related impairments in depth perception and in visual short-term memory.[50] State-dependent learning and relearning studies in male heavy drinkers demonstrate that the condition of intoxication while learning and sobriety when tested caused a performance deficit in free recall tasks.[51] These findings are supportive of alcohol-induced storage deficits (not retrieval deficits).[51] The effects of acute alcohol consumption on visual short-term memory, stereoscopic depth perception, and attention were studied. A 33% alcohol condition showed significant impairments in depth perception and in visual short-term memory (assessed by the vernier discrimination task).[52]
Working Memory Model. Alcohol intoxication can disrupt rehearsal strategies which may involve the phonological loop and/or the visuospatial sketchpad.
Effects on working memory[edit]
Working memory allows one to keep things in mind while simultaneously performing complex tasks.[31] It involves a system for the temporary storage and manipulation of information, forming a crucial link between perception and controlled action.[53] Evidence suggests that working memory involves three components: the central executive which controls attention, the visuo-spatial sketchpad which holds and manipulates spatial information, and the phonological loop which performs a similar function for auditory and speech-based information.[53]
In the short term[edit]
Alcohol consumption has substantial, measurable effects on working memory, though these effects vary greatly between individual responses. Little is known about the neural mechanisms that underlie these individual differences.[54] It is also found that alcohol impairs working memory by affecting mnemonic strategies and executive processes rather than by shrinking the basic holding capacity of working memory. Isolated acute-moderate levels of alcohol intoxication do not profoundly physically alter the structures which are critical for working memory function, such as the frontal cortex, parietal cortex, anterior cingulate, and parts of the basal ganglia.[38] One finding regarding the effects of alcohol on working memory points out that alcohol reduces working memory only in individuals with a high baseline working memory capacity,[55] which suggests that alcohol might not uniformly affect working memory in different individuals. Alcohol appears to impair the capacity of working memory to modulate response inhibition.[55] Alcohol disinhibits behaviour, but only in individuals with a low baseline working memory capacity.[55] An interesting finding is that incentive to perform well with working memory measurement tasks while under the influence of alcohol 'does in fact have some effect on working memory, in that it boosts scores in rate of mental scanning and reaction time to stimulus, but did not reduce number of errors compared to subjects with no incentive to perform well.[56] Even acute alcohol intoxication (a blood alcohol concentration of 0.08-0.09%) produces a substantial impairment of working memory processes that require mnemonic rehearsal strategies.[38] Alcohol is less likely to impair a working memory task that does not rely on memory rehearsal or associated mnemonic strategies.[38] Because of this, working memory is very susceptible to falter when a person is participating in tasks involving retention concerning auditory and visual sequences.[38] A real world and interesting example of this is failure of guitarists or other musicians performing concerts to cue in on auditory patterns and make it known that their performance is hindered by intoxication, whereas professional basketball (a less sequence-heavy activity for working memory) standout Ron Artest recently admitted in an interview with Sporting News to drinking heavily during half-time in the early days of his career and it having little if any recognizable effect on his working memory. His former coach Fran Fraschilla has gone on record saying:[citation needed]
"It's a surprise because every day at practice, he came out in a mood to play. He came out in a basketball rage. He was fully committed; he wanted to let our upperclassmen know that he was the alpha male. It never came up that he had any sort of a problem with alcohol. This is the first I've heard of it."
In the long term[edit]
This article needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources, specifically: primary sources should be replaced; consider using PMID 23905882 and PMID 28470828. Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2017)
Alcohol has shown to have some long-term effect on working memory. Findings have shown that for working memory to be substantially affected, long-term, heavy drinking must be sustained over a long period of time as up to one drink per day does not impair cognitive function and may actually decrease the risk of cognitive decline.[57] Furthermore, chronic alcoholism is associated with impairment in sustained attention and visual working memory. Thus, alcoholics have reduced ability, but not necessarily inability, to perform these executive tasks, assumed to be subserved by regions of prefrontal cortex.[58] While it may not serve as a surprise that chronic alcoholism has been linked to decreased cognitive function including working memory, one surprising finding is not only that even moderate levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy were shown to have an adverse effect on the child's working memory when tested at 7.5 years of age, but that working memory may be the most important aspect of attention that is adversely affected by prenatal alcohol exposure.[59]
Prospective memory[edit]
Prospective memory involves remembering to carry out an intended action in the future without an explicit reminder.[31] Alcohol has been found to impair this ability. Chronic heavy alcohol users report significantly more prospective forgetting compared to low-dose and alcohol-free controls.[60] The Prospective Memory Questionnaire assesses short-term habitual prospective memory, long-term episodic prospective memory, and internally cued prospective memory.[60] Chronic heavy alcohol users reported significantly greater deficits for all three aspects of prospective memory.[60] Individuals that report heavy alcohol use report 24% more difficulties with prospective memory than those who report that they are light drinkers and 30% more difficulties than those who report that they never drink.[61] The effects of alcohol on prospective memory can also be assessed in the laboratory by simulating prospective memory tasks that individuals face in everyday life. Individuals who are given 0.6 g/kg alcohol prior to performing prospective memory tasks do significantly poorer than a placebo group.[62] Alcohol can damage the prefrontal and frontal areas of the brain, and this may be responsible for prospective memory impairments since prospective memory performance is highly correlated with frontal executive functions.[60]
In popular culture[edit]
The memory inhibiting effects of alcohol are often a prominent topic in popular culture. It appears in movies, books, and television shows. Several movies show characters drinking alcohol to the point of memory loss and awakening the next morning with a host of problems due to actions they performed while intoxicated.
One example is The Hangover, where three groomsmen lose the groom during a bachelor party in Las Vegas, so they retrace their steps to find him.[63] The characters still had functioning implicit/procedural memory, which allowed them to carry out the many acts they performed that night, but their episodic memory was impaired and thus they had no recollection of the events occurring. In addition to alcohol the characters were also under the influence of flunitrazepam.
Another movie is What Happens in Vegas. After an intoxicated night in "Sin City," two people wake-up to find they got married.[64]
Songs such as Waking Up in Vegas by Katy Perry[65] and Last Name by Carrie Underwood[66] also depict characters waking up and not remembering the night before due to alcohol consumption.
By some accounts, popular culture makes light of the memory problems that can result from alcohol consumption.
The court case R. v. Daviault [1994] concerned the viability of a legal defense based on intoxication.
Law and Order: Special Victims Unit; in season 11 episode 4, Hammered, a recovering alcoholic was coersed to drink by a business partner and later wakes up to a dead woman in his bed.
See also[edit]
Confabulation
Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Ling, J., Heffernan, T.M., Buchanan, T., Rodgers, J., Scholey, A.B., and Parrot, A.C. (2003). Effects of Alcohol on Subjective Ratings of Prospective and Everyday Memory Deficits. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 27(6), 970-974
Jump up ^ Leitz, J.R., Morgan, C. A. J., Bisby, J.A., Rendell, P.G., Curran, V.H. (2009). Global impairment of prospective memory following acute alcohol. Psychopharmacology, 205, 379-387.
Jump up ^ "The Hangover" (2009). Retrieved from http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1119646/.
Jump up ^ "What Happens in Vegas" (2008). Retrieved from http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1033643/plotsummary.
Jump up ^ "YouTube – Waking Up in Vegas Lyrics – Katy Perry" (2009). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=06Qf7GdAF70
Jump up ^ "YouTube – Carrie Underwood – Last Name" (2009). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f27zNlmRMWU
[show]
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Presiding Officer of the United States Senate
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The Presiding Officer of the United States Senate is the person who presides over the United States Senate and is charged with maintaining order and decorum, recognizing members to speak, and interpreting the Senate's rules, practices, and precedents. Senate presiding officer is a role, not an actual office. The actual role is usually performed by one of three officials: the Vice President; an elected United States Senator; or, in special cases, the Chief Justice. Outside the constitutionally mandated roles, the actual appointment of a person to do the job of presiding over the Senate as a body is governed by Rule I of the Standing Rules.
The Vice President is assigned the responsibility by the Constitution of presiding over the Senate and designated as its president. The vice president has the authority (ex officio, for they are not an elected member of the Senate) to cast a tie-breaking vote. Early vice presidents took an active role in regularly presiding over proceedings of the body, with the president pro tempore only being called on during the vice president's absence. During the 20th century, the role of the vice president evolved into more of an executive branch position. Now, the vice president is usually seen as an integral part of a president's administration and presides over the Senate only on ceremonial occasions or when a tie-breaking vote may be needed.[1]
The Constitution also provides for the appointment of one of the elected senators to serve as President pro tempore. This senator presides when the vice president is absent from the body. The president pro tempore is selected by the body specifically for the role of presiding in the absence of (as the meaning of pro tempore, literally "for the time being") the actual presiding officer. By tradition, the title of President pro tempore has come to be given more-or-less automatically to the most senior senator of the majority party. In actual practice in the modern Senate, the president pro tempore also does not often serve in the role (though it is their constitutional right to do so). Instead, as governed by Rule I, they frequently designate a junior senator to perform the function.
When the Senate hears an impeachment trial of the President of the United States, by the procedure established in the Constitution, the Chief Justice is designated as the presiding officer.
Contents
1 Constitutional authority
2 Manner of address
3 List of Presiding Officers of the United States Senate
3.1 Notes
4 See also
5 References
Constitutional authority[edit]
The Constitution provides for two officers to preside over the Senate. Article One, Section 3, Clause 4 designates the Vice President of the United States as the President of the Senate. In this capacity, the vice president was expected to preside at regular sessions of the Senate, casting votes only to break ties. From John Adams in 1789 to Richard Nixon in the 1950s, presiding over the Senate was the chief function of vice presidents, who had an office in the Capitol, received their staff support and office expenses through the legislative appropriations, and rarely were invited to participate in cabinet meetings or other executive activities. In 1961, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson changed the vice presidency by moving his chief office from the Capitol to the White House, by directing his attention to executive functions, and by attending Senate sessions only at critical times when his vote, or ruling from the chair, might be necessary. Vice presidents since Johnson's time have followed his example.[2]
Next, Article One, Section 3, Clause 5 provides that in the absence of the vice president the Senate could choose a president pro tempore to temporarily preside and perform the duties of the chair. Since vice presidents presided routinely in the 18th and 19th centuries, the Senate thought it necessary to choose a president pro tempore only for the limited periods when the vice president might be ill or otherwise absent. As a result, the Senate frequently elected several presidents pro tempore during a single session.[2]
On three occasions during the 19th century, the Senate was without both a president and a president pro tempore:
July 9–11, 1850, following Millard Fillmore's accession to the presidency upon the death of Zachary Taylor, until William R. King was elected president pro tempore;
September 19–October 10, 1881, following Chester Arthur's accession to the presidency upon the death of James A. Garfield, until Thomas F. Bayard was elected president pro tempore;
November 25–December 7, 1885, following the death of Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks, until John Sherman was elected president pro tempore.
Additionally, Article One, Section 3, Clause 6 grants to the Senate the sole power to try federal impeachments and spells out the basic procedures for impeachment trials. Among the requirements is the stipulation that the Chief Justice is to preside over presidential impeachment trials. This rule underscores the solemnity of the occasion and aims, in part, to avoid the possible conflict of interest of a Vice President's presiding over the proceeding for the removal of the one official standing between the Vice President and the presidency.[3] The Chief Justice has presided as such only twice:
Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase presided over the impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson in 1868;
Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist presided over the impeachment trial of Bill Clinton in 1999.
According to Article One, Section 5, Clause 2 of the U.S. Constitution, the Senate is allowed to establish, for itself, its own rules of operations, including the roles and duties of the presiding officer. Those rules are known as the Standing Rules of the United States Senate, and Rule I deals with the appointment of a person to act as the chair, or presiding officer, for normal Senate proceedings. It recognizes the constitutionally mandated roles of vice president and president pro tempore, but goes further to allow for the appointment of an acting president pro tempore, and further allows for the president pro tempore to also designate any other senator to perform his duties. As a result, during the day-to-day operation of the body, it is rare for the actual presiding role to be handled by the president pro tempore (and rarer still for the vice president to do so). Instead, a designated junior senator is most commonly appointed to do the job.
Manner of address[edit]
The presiding officer is usually addressed as "Mr. President" or "Madame President." One exception is during impeachment trials of the president; the Chief Justice was referred to as "Mr. Chief Justice" both in 1868 and in 1999 while presiding over the Senate.[4]
During joint sessions of Congress in which the President of the United States is giving the address, practices have varied as to how the president refers to the vice president. Barack Obama and his predecessor George W. Bush addressed the vice president as "Vice President Biden" (in 2010) and "Vice President Cheney" (in 2008 and several previous years), or as "Mr. Vice President" (George W. Bush in 2001). However, earlier presidents referred to the vice president as "Mr. President" while addressing a joint session of Congress; Dwight D. Eisenhower, for instance, did so in 1960, and George H. W. Bush did so in 1991.
List of Presiding Officers of the United States Senate[edit]
show
List of Presiding Officers of the United States Senate
This list includes all Presidents of the Senate (the Vice Presidents of the United States), those Presidents pro tempore of the Senate who presided during intra–term vacancies in the vice presidency or when the Vice President was acting as President of the United States, and those Chief Justices who presided during presidential impeachment trials. It does not include Presidents pro tempore who presided over sessions temporarily during an absence of the Senate President, or junior senators designated by the President pro tempore to preside temporarily.
Name
Term
Position
John Langdon April 6–21, 1789 President pro tempore
John Adams April 21, 1789 – March 4, 1797 President of the Senate
Thomas Jefferson March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801 President of the Senate
Aaron Burr March 4, 1801 – March 4, 1805 President of the Senate
George Clinton March 4, 1805 – April 20, 1812 President of the Senate
William H. Crawford April 20, 1812 – March 4, 1813 President pro tempore
Elbridge Gerry March 4, 1813 – November 23, 1814 President of the Senate
John Gaillard November 25, 1814 – March 4, 1817 President pro tempore
Daniel Tompkins March 4, 1817 – March 4, 1825 President of the Senate
John C. Calhoun March 4, 1825 – December 28, 1832 President of the Senate
Hugh Lawson White December 28, 1832 – March 4, 1833 President pro tempore
Martin Van Buren March 4, 1833 – March 4, 1837 President of the Senate
Richard Mentor Johnson March 4, 1837 – March 4, 1841 President of the Senate
John Tyler March 4 – April 4, 1841 President of the Senate
Samuel L. Southard April 4, 1841 – May 31, 1842 President pro tempore
Willie P. Mangum May 31, 1842 – March 4, 1845 President pro tempore
George M. Dallas March 4, 1845 – March 4, 1849 President of the Senate
Millard Fillmore March 4, 1849 – July 9, 1850 President of the Senate
Vacant July 9–11, 1850[a]
William R. King July 11, 1850 – December 20, 1852 President pro tempore
David Rice Atchison December 20, 1852 – March 4, 1853 President pro tempore
William R. King March 4 – April 18, 1853 President of the Senate
David Rice Atchison April 18, 1853 – December 4, 1854 President pro tempore
Lewis Cass December 4, 1854 President pro tempore
Jesse D. Bright December 5, 1854 – June 9, 1856 President pro tempore
Charles E. Stuart June 9–10, 1856 President pro tempore
Jesse D. Bright June 11, 1856 – January 6, 1857 President pro tempore
James Murray Mason January 6 – March 4, 1857 President pro tempore
John C. Breckinridge March 4, 1857 – March 4, 1861 President of the Senate
Hannibal Hamlin March 4, 1861 – March 4, 1865 President of the Senate
Andrew Johnson March 4 – April 15, 1865 President of the Senate
Lafayette S. Foster April 15, 1865 – March 2, 1867 President pro tempore
Benjamin Wade March 2, 1867 – March 12, 1868 President pro tempore
Salmon P Chase March 13 – May 26, 1868 Chief Justice
Benjamin Wade May 27, 1868 – March 3, 1869 President pro tempore
Schuyler Colfax March 4, 1869 – March 4, 1873 President of the Senate
Henry Wilson March 4, 1873 – November 22, 1875 President of the Senate
Thomas W. Ferry November 22, 1875 – March 4, 1877 President pro tempore
William A. Wheeler March 4, 1877 – March 4, 1881 President of the Senate
Chester A. Arthur March 4 – September 19, 1881 President of the Senate
Vacant September 19 – October 10, 1881[b]
Thomas F. Bayard October 10–13, 1881 President pro tempore
David Davis III October 13, 1881 – March 3, 1883 President pro tempore
George F. Edmunds March 3, 1883 – March 3, 1885 President pro tempore
Thomas A. Hendricks March 4, 1885 – November 25, 1885 President of the Senate
Vacant November 25 – December 7, 1885[c]
John Sherman December 7, 1885 – February 26, 1887 President pro tempore
John James Ingalls February 26, 1887 – March 3, 1889 President pro tempore
Levi P. Morton March 4, 1889 – March 4, 1893 President of the Senate
Adlai E. Stevenson I March 4, 1893 – March 4, 1897 President of the Senate
Garret Hobart March 4, 1897 – November 21, 1899 President of the Senate
William P. Frye November 21, 1899 – March 4, 1901 President pro tempore
Theodore Roosevelt March 4 – September 14, 1901 President of the Senate
William P. Frye September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1905 President pro tempore
Charles W. Fairbanks March 4, 1905 – March 4, 1909 President of the Senate
James S. Sherman March 4, 1909 – October 30, 1912 President of the Senate
Augustus Octavius Bacon October 30 – December 15, 1912 President pro tempore
(rotating)
Jacob Harold Gallinger December 16, 1912 – January 4, 1913 President pro tempore
(rotating)
Augustus Octavius Bacon January 5–18, 1913 President pro tempore
(rotating)
Jacob Harold Gallinger January 19 – February 1, 1913 President pro tempore
(rotating)
Augustus Octavius Bacon February 2–15, 1913 President pro tempore
(rotating)
Jacob Harold Gallinger February 16 – March 4, 1913 President pro tempore
(rotating)
Thomas R. Marshall March 4, 1913 – March 4, 1921 President of the Senate
Calvin Coolidge March 4, 1921 – August 2, 1923 President of the Senate
Albert B. Cummins August 2, 1923 – March 4, 1925 President pro tempore
Charles G. Dawes March 4, 1925 – March 4, 1929 President of the Senate
Charles Curtis March 4, 1929 – March 4, 1933 President of the Senate
John Nance Garner March 4, 1933 – January 20, 1941 President of the Senate
Henry A. Wallace January 20, 1941 – January 20, 1945 President of the Senate
Harry S. Truman January 20 – April 12, 1945 President of the Senate
Kenneth McKellar April 12, 1945 – January 4, 1947 President pro tempore
Arthur H. Vandenberg January 4, 1947 – January 3, 1949 President pro tempore
Kenneth McKellar January 3–20, 1949 President pro tempore
Alben W. Barkley January 20, 1949 – January 20, 1953 President of the Senate
Richard Nixon January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961 President of the Senate
Lyndon B. Johnson January 20, 1961 – November 22, 1963 President of the Senate
Carl Hayden November 22, 1963 – January 20, 1965 President pro tempore
Hubert Humphrey January 20, 1965 – January 20, 1969 President of the Senate
Spiro Agnew January 20, 1969 – October 10, 1973 President of the Senate
James Eastland October 10 – December 6, 1973 President pro tempore
Gerald Ford December 6, 1973 – August 9, 1974 President of the Senate
James Eastland August 9 – December 19, 1974 President pro tempore
Nelson Rockefeller December 19, 1974 – January 20, 1977 President of the Senate
Walter Mondale January 20, 1977 – January 20, 1981 President of the Senate
George H. W. Bush January 20, 1981 – July 13, 1985 President of the Senate
Strom Thurmond July 13, 1985[d] President pro tempore
George H. W. Bush July 13, 1985 – January 20, 1989 President of the Senate
Dan Quayle January 20, 1989 – January 20, 1993 President of the Senate
Al Gore January 20, 1993 – January 7, 1999 President of the Senate
William Rehnquist January 8 – February 12, 1999 Chief Justice
Al Gore February 13, 1999 – January 20, 2001 President of the Senate
Dick Cheney January 20, 2001 – June 29, 2002 President of the Senate
Robert Byrd June 29, 2002[e] President pro tempore
Dick Cheney June 29, 2002 – July 21, 2007 President of the Senate
Robert Byrd July 21, 2007[f] President pro tempore
Dick Cheney July 21, 2007 – January 20, 2009 President of the Senate
Joe Biden January 20, 2009 – January 20, 2017 President of the Senate
Mike Pence January 20, 2017 – present President of the Senate
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The Senate was without both a president and a president pro tempore following Millard Fillmore's accession to the presidency upon the death of Zachary Taylor, until William R. King was elected president pro tempore.
Jump up ^ The Senate was without both a president and a president pro tempore following Chester A. Arthur's accession to the presidency upon the death of James Garfield, until Thomas F. Bayard was elected president pro tempore.
Jump up ^ The Senate was without both a president and a president pro tempore following the death of Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks, until John Sherman was elected president pro tempore.
Jump up ^ Thurmond was the presiding officer of the Senate from 11:28 a.m. until 7:22 p.m. while Vice President George H. W. Bush served as Acting President pursuant to President Ronald Reagan's invocation of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution to declare his temporary incapacity while undergoing surgery.
Jump up ^ Byrd was the presiding officer of the Senate from 7:09 a.m. until 9:24 a.m. while Vice President Dick Cheney served as Acting President pursuant to President George W. Bush's invocation of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution to declare his temporary incapacity while undergoing a colonoscopy that required sedation.
Jump up ^ Byrd was the presiding officer of the Senate from 7:16 a.m. until 9:21 a.m. while Vice President Dick Cheney served as Acting President pursuant to President George W. Bush's invocation of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution to declare his temporary incapacity while undergoing a colonoscopy that required sedation.
See also[edit]
List of Vice Presidents of the United States
List of Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate
Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, the presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Vice President of the United States (President of the Senate)". senate.gov. United States Senate. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "President Pro Tempore". senate.gov. United States Senate. Retrieved November 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ Gerhardt, Michael J. "Essay on Trial of Impeachment". The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved November 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ See closing argument of Thaddeus Stevens during the trial of President Johnson and a transcript of Day 17 of the Senate impeachment trial of President Bill Clinton
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