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Sex and the City 2
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Sex and the City 2
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Michael Patrick King
Produced by
Michael Patrick King
John Melfi
Sarah Jessica Parker
Darren Star
Screenplay by
Michael Patrick King
Story by
Darren Star
Based on
Characters
by Candace Bushnell
Starring
Sarah Jessica Parker
Kim Cattrall
Kristin Davis
Cynthia Nixon
Music by
Aaron Zigman
Cinematography
John Thomas
Edited by
Michael Berenbaum
Production
company
Avery Pix[1]
Distributed by
New Line Cinema[1]
Release date
May 27, 2010 (2010-05-27)
Running time
146 minutes[2]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$95 million[3][4]
Box office
$294.6 million[4]
Sex and the City 2 is a 2010 American romantic comedy film written, co-produced, and directed by Michael Patrick King.[5] It is the sequel to the 2008 film Sex and the City,[6] based on the 1998–2004 HBO comedy-drama series of the same name (itself based on the book of the same name by Candace Bushnell).
The film stars Sarah Jessica Parker, Kim Cattrall, Kristin Davis, Cynthia Nixon and Chris Noth, who reprised their roles as friends Carrie, Samantha, Charlotte, Miranda, and Mr. Big. It also features cameos from Liza Minnelli, Miley Cyrus, Tim Gunn, Ron White, Omid Djalili, Penélope Cruz, Norm Lewis, Kelli O'Hara, and Ryan Silverman.
Sex and the City 2 was theatrically released on May 27, 2010, in the United States and May 28, 2010, in the United Kingdom, and grossed $294 million from a $95 million budget. It received seven Golden Raspberry nominations, and won in the categories of Worst Actress (for Parker, Cattrall, Davis, and Nixon), Worst Screen Ensemble, and Worst Sequel. The film was nominated for Worst Picture, Worst Screenplay, Worst Director, and Minnelli for Worst Supporting Actress. A third Sex and the City film was announced in 2016 but cancelled the following year.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Development
3.2 Filming
3.3 Casting
4 Release
5 Reception
5.1 Critical response
5.2 Box office
6 Home release
7 Soundtrack
8 Cancelled sequel
9 Awards and nominations
10 References
11 External links
Plot[edit]
Carrie, Samantha, Charlotte, and Miranda meet up. In flashback Carrie is depicted arriving in New York City in 1986, then met Charlotte in 1987, Miranda in 1989. She also meets Samantha, when she was a bartender at the music club CBGB.
In the present, three of the four women are married but Samantha, who at 52, is desperately trying to keep her libido alive with the help of "Suzanne Somers and her team of doctors" to keep her menopause at bay. The four of them attend Anthony and Stanford's wedding, where Carrie serves as "best man." Miranda quits her job after the misogynistic new managing partner disrespects her once too often. Charlotte's two children are a handful (mostly her two-year-old daughter Rose's extreme and constant crying) and she's worried that Harry is attracted to their buxom Irish nanny, Erin. Carrie's marriage to Mr. Big has settled down, though they differ on how to spend their spare time. For their anniversary, Carrie gives Mr. Big a vintage Rolex watch engraved with a romantic message, while he, much to her dismay, shows her a new TV in their bedroom as his gift, which Big says they can use to watch old movies together, something they did at the hotel at Anthony and Stanford's wedding and seemed to enjoy. Carrie, however, is disappointed, as she had hoped for jewelry as a gift.
Meanwhile, Samantha has been approached by an Arab sheikh to devise a PR campaign for his business. He offers to fly her and her friends on an all-expenses-paid luxury vacation to Abu Dhabi. The girls happily accept, although Carrie is worried about the separation from Big and Charlotte is worried about leaving her husband alone with the nanny. Only Miranda, unfettered by a job for the first time in her life, is enthusiastic. Upon entering Abu Dhabi, Samantha's hormone-enhancing drugs are confiscated under UAE law. This renders her devoid of estrogen; her famous libido goes dead. Charlotte tries to call Harry every few minutes; Miranda revels in the luxury surrounding her, while Carrie befriends her manservant, Gaurau, who is an underpaid temporary worker from India.
Carrie runs into her former lover, Aidan. He proposes dinner à deux at his hotel and she decides to meet Aidan for dinner. The dinner is very enjoyable, with the two discussing old times. Aidan remarks on the ways Carrie is "not like other women". In a moment of remembered passion, they kiss. Carrie runs away in panic and returns to the hotel. Back at the hotel, Miranda and Charlotte have drinks together and discuss the difficulties of motherhood. Carrie arrives, tells her friends about the kiss, and asks them whether she should tell Big, as they have no secrets between them. Miranda reflects on the events of the previous film, when her husband, Steve, told her about his affair. Samantha counsels Carrie to wait before deciding anything. Carrie opts to call Big to tell him. Big is silent upon hearing the news, and after saying a few words, hangs up.
The four women find their style and Western attitudes contrast with Muslim customs. While on a date with a handsome Dane, Samantha is arrested for public indecency after fondling him at a restaurant and making out with him on the beach. With the Sheikh's intervention, Samantha is released, but is left with a permanent police record. Worse, the Sheikh decides to cancel the PR meeting and ceases paying for the remainder of the women's luxurious stay. They are told they have 1 hour to either pay $22,000 a night for the rest of their stay or leave. They quickly pack their bags and leave, but must return to the souq to find Carrie's passport. When Samantha's flamboyance nearly incites a riot, the girls are rescued by a group of Emirati women who share their sense of style under their black robes.
When Carrie returns home, she finds the bedroom television removed and Big gone. She passes an anxious day, at the end of which he returns. Big tells her that although he was "pretty torn up", he realizes that what she needs is something to remind her at all times that she is married. He hands her a jewelry box, which reveals an engagement ring set with a black diamond. When Carrie asks him why a black diamond, he says, "Because you're not like anyone else", echoing Aidan's earlier comment.
Big and Carrie combine their interests; Charlotte's nanny, Erin, turns out to be a lesbian and is no threat to her marriage; Miranda finds a new job at a more laid back and diverse law firm where she is appreciated, and Samantha stays the same, even meeting up with the Danish architect she met in Abu Dhabi for sex on the beach, this time a beach in The Hamptons.
Cast[edit]
Sarah Jessica Parker as Carrie Bradshaw
Kim Cattrall as Samantha Jones
Kristin Davis as Charlotte York Goldenblatt
Cynthia Nixon as Miranda Hobbes
Chris Noth as John James Preston / Mr. Big
John Corbett as Aidan Shaw
David Eigenberg as Steve Brady
Evan Handler as Harry Goldenblatt
Jason Lewis as Jerry "Smith" Jerrod
Willie Garson as Stanford Blatch
Mario Cantone as Anthony Marentino
Lynn Cohen as Magda
Alice Eve as Erin (Charlotte's Irish nanny)
Noah Mills as Nicky Marentino
Megan Boone as Allie
Max Ryan as Dr. Rikard Spirt
Raza Jaffrey as Gaurau
Viola Harris as Gloria Blatch
Omid Djalili as Mr. Safir, Hotel Manager
Dhaffer L'Abidine as Mahmud
Art Malik as Sheikh Khaled
Penélope Cruz as Carmen García Carrión
Liza Minnelli as herself
Miley Cyrus as herself
Tuesday Knight as herself
Tim Gunn as himself
Production[edit]
Sarah Jessica Parker at the movie set.
Development[edit]
After months of speculation, the cast confirmed in February 2009 that a sequel was in the works. Filming began in August 2009.
The sequel is noticeably different from its predecessor, and includes more exotic locales than the original. King credits this to the experience he had promoting the original film in such locales. He was also inspired by the recession to write something bigger more akin to the extravagant adventures and escapist comedies of the 1930s.[7] The location of Abu Dhabi was chosen because of its high fashion culture (although the authorities later revoked filming clearance) and also that it was a location relatively free from the recession.[7]
All four stars, Sarah Jessica Parker, Cynthia Nixon, Kristin Davis, and Kim Cattrall, returned in the sequel; Chris Noth also signed on to reprise the role of Mr. Big.[8] Evan Handler returned as Harry Goldenblatt, John Corbett as Aiden Shaw, David Eigenberg played Steve Brady once more, Willie Garson returned as Stanford Blatch, and Mario Cantone again played Anthony Marentino, making the original cast almost complete. In addition, Michael Patrick King wrote and directed again, and Patricia Field once again took charge of the costumes and wardrobe. Hats were once again created by Prudence Millinery for Vivienne Westwood.
Entertainment Weekly confirmed that the budget for the film was US$95 million,[9] exactly $30 million greater than the budget for the first film. Sarah Jessica Parker was paid 15 million plus residuals for her dual role as a producer and starring as Carrie Bradshaw.[10]
Filming[edit]
Filming in New York City was postponed to the end of July as Emirati authorities refused clearance for filming in the United Arab Emirates. As a result, the Abu Dhabi segment of the film was filmed in Morocco.[11][12] All four leading ladies and other cast and crew were photographed[13] filming scenes in Morocco in November 2009, where they had originally planned to shoot for 13 days, which had to be extended to almost six weeks. Filming took place at several locations including the seaside town of Sidi Kaouki,[14] and Amanjena, outside of Marrakesh.[15]
The sequel officially began filming on September 1, 2009 and continued until the end of the year. Photos of all four leading women filming scenes around New York together and separately have emerged, featuring present-day scenes as well as a range of looks believed to be flashbacks from the earlier years of Carrie, Samantha, Miranda, and Charlotte's long-standing friendships. Images of Samantha in a wedding dress have also been released.[13] Additionally, scenes featuring prominent characters such as Mr. Big, Magda, Smith, Steve, and the children of Miranda and Charlotte have been filmed and photographed.
Casting[edit]
In September 2009, American singer/actress Liza Minnelli confirmed to several media outlets that she appeared in a cameo role. Singer/actress Bette Midler had been photographed on set, but does not appear in the film. Penélope Cruz appears briefly as Carmen, a banker.[16] Miley Cyrus appeared in one scene where she appears at the premiere of Smith Jerrod's new film, wearing the same dress as Samantha. On October 17, Oceanup.com posted several pictures of Miley filming the scene.[17]
John Corbett was seen on location in Morocco, confirming his speculated involvement in the film as Aidan.[18]
Release[edit]
Promotion began in December 2009, when the official teaser poster was released online, featuring Carrie in a white dress and gold sunglasses which reflect a Moroccan backdrop, and the tagline "Carrie On", a similar pun of the lead character's name as "Get Carried Away" from the first film.[19] The same image and tagline was used for the launch of the official Sex and the City 2 website, also launched in December 2009.
The teaser trailer premiered online on December 22, 2009.[20] In March 2010, new promotional stills were released, predominantly featuring scenes from the Moroccan portion of the film.[21] Also in March, Sarah Jessica Parker, Kristin Davis and Cynthia Nixon attended ShoWest 2010 in Las Vegas to premiere the full length trailer and discuss the film (Kim Cattrall was in London performing on stage in the West End, and joined the rest of the cast for promotion when her stage run ended on May 3).
The full theatrical trailer premiered on Entertainment Tonight and online on April 8, 2010,[22] featuring current New York City-themed hit "Empire State of Mind" by Jay-Z and Alicia Keys as well as Australian R&B/Pop singer, Ricki-Lee Coulter's platinum selling hit, "Can't Touch It".
A full scale promotional tour with all key cast members—including television, press conference and print—commenced in early May 2010, and continued throughout the film's release, encompassing many different countries and cities. The New York City premiere of the film was held on 24 May 2010.
Reception[edit]
Critical response[edit]
Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 16% of 206 critics have given the film a positive review; the average rating is 3.7/10.[23] By comparison the first film received a score of 49% based on 172 reviews and has an average score of 5.5/10.[24] The critical consensus is: "Straining under a thin plot stretched to its limit by a bloated running time, Sex and the City 2 adds an unfortunate coda to the long-running HBO series."[23] Metacritic gave the film a score of 27/100 based on a normalized average of 39 reviews indicating generally unfavorable reviews.[25]
The film was also criticized for its portrayal of the Middle East. Stephen Farber of The Hollywood Reporter called it "blatantly anti-Muslim"[26] and Hadley Freeman of the UK broadsheet The Guardian described the trailers as "borderline racist".[27]
Andrew O'Hagan of the London Evening Standard described the film as ugly on the inside and ended by saying, "This could be the most stupid, the most racist, the most polluting and women-hating film of the year".[28]
Roger Ebert gave the film one star out of four; he wrote, "I am obliged to report that this film will no doubt be deliriously enjoyed by its fans, for the reasons described above. Male couch potatoes dragged to the film against their will may find some consolation. Reader, I must confess that while attending the sneak preview with its overwhelmingly female audience, I was gob-smacked by the delightful cleavage on display."[29]
Lindy West wrote a noted[30][31] review of the film, saying that "SATC2 takes everything that I hold dear as a woman and as a human—working hard, contributing to society, not being an entitled cunt like it's my job—and rapes it to death with a stiletto that costs more than my car. It is 146 minutes long, which means that I entered the theater in the bloom of youth and emerged with a family of field mice living in my long, white mustache. This is an entirely inappropriate length for what is essentially a home video of gay men playing with giant Barbie dolls."[32]
Mitu Sengupta, a Toronto-based academic, criticized the film for exploiting women's and gay rights, and "pitifully" turning them into "badges of national honor" and "smug patriotic pride". She wrote: "what's really worrying about Sex and the City 2 is not its Orientalism or crass materialism, but how easily this seemingly benign bubble-gum flick ends up fighting a very macho war of global one-upmanship on the bodies of women and gay men."[33]
British film critic Mark Kermode declared it the worst film of 2010, saying he could not think of anything civilization had made that was "more poisonous, more repugnant, more repulsive, more retrograde, more depressing than Sex and the City 2", and said its unintentionally "ghastly" portrayal of the "disgustingly wealthy" almost made him want to become a communist.[34][35] Time named it one of the top 10 worst movies based on TV shows.[36]
The film received seven nominations at the 31st Golden Raspberry Awards including Worst Picture.[37] It went on to win three awards, including a joint worst actress award for the film's four principal actresses: Sarah Jessica Parker, Kim Cattrall, Cynthia Nixon, and Kristin Davis.[38] David Eigenberg expressed interest in receiving the Worst Couple/Screen Ensemble Razzie, which was awarded to the entire cast. According to Razzies founder John J. B. Wilson, "[Eigenberg] said that he had never won an award of any kind and if this was what he won, he would accept it." Eigenberg then collaborated with Wilson to make a humorous acceptance video which was posted on the official YouTube channel of the Golden Raspberry Awards.[39]
Box office[edit]
The film opened in 3,445 theaters on May 27, 2010, setting a record for one of the widest release for a R rated romantic comedy film. Playing in 2,000 theaters, the film grossed $3 million from its midnight premiere.[40] On its opening day, the film topped the box office grossing $14.2 million,[41] for a projected $60 million for a 4-day opening weekend, plus $75 million for a 5-day Memorial day weekend.[42] But it debuted in second place behind Shrek Forever After with $31 million, and its total to $45.2 million, for its 4-day opening weekend, plus $51 million on its 5-day opening weekend (Memorial Day).
Internationally the sequel topped the charts in Germany for five weeks, Britain for three weeks, Australia for two weeks and exceeding the original in Japan and Greece. Sex and the City 2 sold more tickets than the first part in many other markets. As of August 19, 2010, the film's total US gross stands at $95.3 million. As of August 1, 2010, internationally it has grossed $199.3 million—giving it a worldwide total of $294.7 million. Although 27% lower than the first film, it was 2010's highest-grossing romantic comedy.[43]
Home release[edit]
Sex and the City 2 was released on DVD, Blu-ray, and iTunes on October 26, 2010, in the US[44] where it entered the chart at number one selling almost one million copies in its first week.[45] It was released on DVD and Blu-ray in the UK on November 29, 2010, also entering the sales chart at number one.[46]
Soundtrack[edit]
Sex and the City 2
Soundtrack album by Various Artists
Released
May 25, 2010
Genre
Soundtrack
Label
Sony Music Australia
Sex and the City soundtrack chronology
Sex and the City, Vol. 2: More Music
(2008)Sex and the City, Vol. 2: More Music2008 Sex and the City 2
(2010)
Sex and the City 2 original motion picture soundtrack was released on May 25, 2010.
"Rapture" – Alicia Keys (Blondie)
"Everything to Lose" – Dido
"Language of Love" – Cee Lo
"Window Seat" – Erykah Badu
"Kidda" – Natacha Atlas
"Euphrates Dream" – Michael McGregor
"Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" – Liza Minnelli (Beyoncé)
"Can't Touch It" – Ricki-Lee
"Empire State of Mind (Part II) Broken Down" – Alicia Keys
"Love Is Your Color" – Jennifer Hudson & Leona Lewis
"I Am Woman" – Sarah Jessica Parker, Kim Cattrall, Kristin Davis, Cynthia Nixon
"If Ever I Would Leave You" – Sex and the City Men's Choir
"Sunrise, Sunset" – Sex and the City Men's Choir
"Till There Was You" – Sex and the City Men's Choir
"Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered" – Shayna Steele, Jordan Ballard, Kamilah Marshall
"Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye" – Liza Minnelli with Billy Stritch (Cole Porter)
"True Colors" – Cyndi Lauper
"Divas and Dunes" – Aaron Zigman
Not included on the soundtrack.
"Songs Remind Me of You" by Annie appears in the background of the after party scene, but is not included on the soundtrack.
"Empire State of Mind" by Jay-Z featuring Alicia Keys appears in the background of the Smith's movie premiere scene, and official trailer, but is not included on the soundtrack.
The score was recorded and mixed by Dennis S. Sands and Steve Kempster and performed by a large ensemble of the Hollywood Studio Symphony conducted by Stephen Coleman who orchestrated Zigman's score. Patrick Kirst also orchestrated.
Charts
Chart (2010)
Peak
position
UK Compilation Chart[47] 7
Irish Top 30 Compilation Chart[48] 2
Australian Albums Chart[49] 7
US Billboard 200[50] 13
Italian Top 30 Compilation Chart[51] 15
Cancelled sequel[edit]
In December 2016, Radar Online reported that a script for the third film had been approved.[52] On September 28, 2017, Sarah Jessica Parker announced that the third film was not going to happen: "It's over, we're not doing it." She said, "We had this beautiful, funny, heartbreaking, joyful, very relatable script and story", and that "It's not just disappointing that we don't get to tell the story and have that experience, but more so for that audience that has been so vocal in wanting another movie." [53] The Daily Mail claimed that Kim Cattrall's "outrageous demands" to Warner Bros. are to blame for the third film's cancellation.[54] Cattrall responded that, "The only 'DEMAND' I ever made was that I didn't want to do a 3rd film.....& that was back in 2016."[55]
Awards and nominations[edit]
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Year
Award
Category
Work
Result
2010 National Movie Awards Anticipated Movie of the Summer Sex and the City 2 Nominated
2011 People's Choice Awards Favorite Comedy Movie Nominated
Golden Raspberry Awards Worst Picture Nominated - lost to The Last Airbender
Worst Actress Kim Cattrall, Kristin Davis, Cynthia Nixon, and Sarah Jessica Parker Won
Worst Supporting Actress Liza Minnelli Nominated - lost to Jessica Alba for The Killer Inside Me, Little Fockers, Machete and Valentine's Day
Worst Director Michael Patrick King Nominated - lost to M. Night Shyamalan for The Last Airbender
Worst Screenplay Michael Patrick King Nominated - lost to The Last Airbender
Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel Won
Worst Screen Ensemble Won
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sex and the City 2
Sex and the City 2 on IMDb
Sex and the City 2 at AllMovie
Sex and the City 2 at Box Office Mojo
Sex and the City 2 at Rotten Tomatoes
Sex and the City 2 at Metacritic
Sex and the City 2 at The Numbers
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Sex and the City by Candace Bushnell
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
4
5
6 ("To Market, to Market")
Characters
Carrie Bradshaw
Samantha Jones
Charlotte York Goldenblatt
Miranda Hobbes
John James "Mr. Big" Preston
Steve Brady
Films
Sex and the City
soundtrack
Sex and the City 2
Miscellaneous
Book
Sex and the City: Music from the HBO Series
The Carrie Diaries
episodes
1
2
Accolades
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Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel
Remake or Sequel
Wyatt Earp (1994)
The Scarlet Letter (1995)
Speed 2: Cruise Control (1997)
The Avengers / Godzilla / Psycho (1998)
Book of Shadows: Blair Witch 2 (2000)
Planet of the Apes (2001)
Swept Away (2002)
Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle (2003)
Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed (2004)
Son of the Mask (2005)
Prequel or Sequel
Basic Instinct 2 (2006)
Daddy Day Camp (2007)
Remake or Rip-off
Little Man (2006)
I Know Who Killed Me (2007)
Prequel, Remake,
Rip-off or Sequel
Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008)
Land of the Lost (2009)
Sex and the City 2 (2010)
Jack and Jill (2011)
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)
The Lone Ranger (2013)
Annie (2014)
Fantastic Four (2015)
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016)
Fifty Shades Darker (2017)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
LCCN: no2010088645
VIAF: 177709494
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sex_and_the_City_2&oldid=841417932"
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Palindrome
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Palindromes" redirects here. For the film, see Palindromes (film).
A palindrome is a word, number, or other sequence of characters which reads the same backward as forward, such as madam or racecar. Sentence-length palindromes may be written when allowances are made for adjustments to capital letters, punctuation, and word dividers, such as "A man, a plan, a canal, Panama!", "Was it a car or a cat I saw?" or "No 'x' in Nixon".
Composing literature in palindromes is an example of constrained writing.
The word "palindrome" was coined by the English playwright Ben Jonson in the 17th century from the Greek roots palin (πάλιν; "again") and dromos (δρóμος; "way, direction").
Contents
1 History
1.1 Famous palindromes
2 Types
2.1 Characters, words, or lines
2.2 Sentences and phrases
2.3 Semordnilap
2.4 Names
2.5 Numbers
2.6 In speech
2.7 Classical music
3 Long palindromes
4 Biological structures
5 Computation theory
6 Notable palindromists
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
History[edit]
The Sator Square.
Palindromes date back at least to 79 AD, as a palindrome was found as a graffito at Herculaneum, a city buried by ash in that year. This palindrome, called the Sator Square, consists of a sentence written in Latin: "Sator Arepo Tenet Opera Rotas" ("The sower Arepo holds with effort the wheels"). It is remarkable for the fact that the first letters of each word form the first word, the second letters form the second word, and so forth. Hence, it can be arranged into a word square that reads in four different ways: horizontally or vertically from either top left to bottom right or bottom right to top left. As such, they can be referred to as palindromatic.[citation needed]
Palindrome on the font at St Martin, Ludgate
The palindromic Latin riddle "In girum imus nocte et consumimur igni" ("we go wandering at night and are consumed by fire") describes the behavior of moths. It is likely that this palindrome is from medieval rather than ancient times.
Byzantine Greeks often inscribed the palindrome, "Wash [the] sins, not only [the] face" ΝΙΨΟΝ ΑΝΟΜΗΜΑΤΑ ΜΗ ΜΟΝΑΝ ΟΨΙΝ ("Nipson anomēmata mē monan opsin", engraving "ps" with the single Greek letter Ψ, psi), on baptismal fonts. This practice was continued in many English churches. Examples include the font at St. Mary's Church, Nottingham and also the font in the basilica of St. Sophia, Constantinople, the font of St. Stephen d'Egres, Paris; at St. Menin's Abbey, Orléans; at Dulwich College; and at the following churches: Worlingworth (Suffolk), Harlow (Essex), Knapton (Norfolk), St Martin, Ludgate (London), and Hadleigh (Suffolk).
A palindrome with the same square property is the Hebrew palindrome, "We explained the glutton who is in the honey was burned and incinerated", (פרשנו רעבתן שבדבש נתבער ונשרף; perashnu: ra`avtan shebad'vash nitba`er venisraf), credited to Abraham ibn Ezra in 1924,[1] and referring to the halachic question as to whether a fly landing in honey makes the honey treif (non-kosher).
Famous palindromes[edit]
Some well-known English palindromes are, "Able was I ere I saw Elba",[2] "A man, a plan, a canal – Panama",[3] "Madam, I'm Adam" and "Never odd or even".
English palindromes of notable length include mathematician Peter Hilton's "Doc, note: I dissent. A fast never prevents a fatness. I diet on cod"[4] and Scottish poet Alastair Reid's "T. Eliot, top bard, notes putrid tang emanating, is sad; I'd assign it a name: gnat dirt upset on drab pot toilet."[5]
Types[edit]
Characters, words, or lines[edit]
The most familiar palindromes in English are character-unit palindromes. The characters read the same backward as forward. Some examples of palindromic words are redivider, deified, civic, radar, level, rotor, kayak, reviver, racecar, redder, madam, and refer.
There are also word-unit palindromes in which the unit of reversal is the word ("Is it crazy how saying sentences backwards creates backwards sentences saying how crazy it is?"). Word-unit palindromes were made popular in the recreational linguistics community by J. A. Lindon in the 1960s. Occasional examples in English were created in the 19th century. Several in French and Latin date to the Middle Ages.[6]
There are also line-unit palindromes.[7][clarification needed]
Sentences and phrases[edit]
Palindromes often consist of a sentence or phrase, e.g., "Mr. Owl ate my metal worm", "Was it a car or a cat I saw?" or "Go hang a salami, I'm a lasagna hog". Punctuation, capitalization, and spaces are usually ignored. Some, such as "Rats live on no evil star", "Live on time, emit no evil", and "Step on no pets", include the spaces.
Semordnilap[edit]
Semordnilap (palindromes spelled backward) is a name coined for words that spell a different word in reverse. The word was coined by Martin Gardner in his notes to C.C. Bombaugh's book Oddities and Curiosities of Words and Literature.[8] Semordnilap is itself a semordnilap.
An example of this is the word stressed, which is desserts spelled backward.
"Noon" is a palindrome but not a semordnilap because it is the same word whether spelled backward or forward.
Some semordnilaps are deliberate creations; an example in electronics (although rarely used now) is the mho, a unit of electrical conductance, which is ohm spelled backwards, the unit of electrical resistance and the reciprocal of conductance. Similarly, the daraf, a unit of elastance, is farad spelled backwards, the unit of capacitance and the reciprocal of elastance.
Semordnilaps are also known as emordnilaps[9], word reversals, reversible anagrams,[10] heteropalindromes, semi-palindromes, half-palindromes, reversgrams, mynoretehs, volvograms,or anadromes.[11][12][13] They have also sometimes been called antigrams,[11] though this term usually refers to anagrams which have opposite meanings.
Names[edit]
Some names are palindromes, such as the given names Hannah, Ada, Anna, Bob, Nitin and Otto, or the surnames Harrah, Renner and Salas. In Finnish, the surname Nenonen is a palindrome. Lon Nol (1913–1985) was Prime Minister of Cambodia. Nisio Isin is a Japanese novelist and manga writer, whose pseudonym (西尾 維新, Nishio Ishin) is a palindrome when romanized using the Kunrei-shiki or the Nihon-shiki systems, and is often written as NisiOisiN to emphasize this. Some people have changed their name in order to make of it a palindrome (such as actors Robert Trebor and Steve Evets and rock-vocalist Ola Salo), while others were given a palindromic name at birth (such as the philologist Revilo P. Oliver or the flamenco dancer Sara Baras).
There are also palindromic names in fictional media. "Stanley Yelnats" is the name of a character in Holes, a 1998 novel and 2003 film. Four of the fictional Pokémon species have palindromic names in English (Eevee, Girafarig, Ho-Oh, and Alomomola).
The 1970s pop band ABBA is a palindrome using the starting letter of the first name of each of the four band members.
Numbers[edit]
Main article: Palindromic number
Main article: Periodic continued fraction
A palindromic number is a number whose digits, with decimal representation usually assumed, are the same read backward, for example, 5885. They are studied in recreational mathematics where palindromic numbers with special properties are sought. A palindromic prime is a palindromic number that is a prime number, for example, 191 and 313.
The continued fraction of √n + ⌊√n⌋ is a repeating palindrome when n is an integer, where essentially, for any positive x, ⌊x⌋ denotes the integer part of x.
The question of whether Lychrel numbers exist is an unsolved problem in mathematics about whether all numbers become palindromes when they are continuously reversed and added. For example, 56 is not a Lychrel number as 56 + 65 = 121, and 121 is a palindrome. The number 59 becomes a palindrome after three iterations: 59 + 95 = 154; 154 + 451 = 605; 605 + 506 = 1111, so 59 is not a Lychrel number either. Numbers such as 196 are thought to never become palindromes when this reversal process is carried out and are therefore suspected to be Lychrel numbers. If a number is not a Lychrel number, it is called a "delayed palindrome" (56 has a delay of 1 and 59 has a delay of 3). In January 2017 the number 1,999,291,987,030,606,810 was published in OEIS as A281509, and described as "The Largest Known Most Delayed Palindrome", with a delay of 261. Several smaller 261-delay palindromes were published separately as A281508.
In speech[edit]
"Une Slave valse nue" played forward and backward
Problems playing this file? See media help.
A phonetic palindrome is a portion of speech that is identical or roughly identical when reversed. It can arise in context where language is played with, for example in slang dialects like verlan.[14] In French, there is the phrase une Slave valse nue ("a Slavic woman waltzes naked"), phonemically /yn slav vals ny/.[15] John Oswald discussed his experience of phonetic palindromes while working on audio tape versions of the cut-up technique using recorded readings by William S. Burroughs.[16][17] A list of phonetic palindromes discussed by word puzzle columnist O.V. Michaelson include "crew work"/"work crew", "dry yard", "easy", "Funny enough", "Let Bob tell", "new moon", "selfless", "Sorry, Ross", "Talk, Scott", "to boot", "top spot" (also an orthographic palindrome), "Y'all lie", "You're caught. Talk, Roy", and "You're damn mad, Roy".[18]
Classical music[edit]
Center part of palindrome in Alban Berg's opera Lulu
Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 47 in G is nicknamed "the Palindrome". The third movement, minuet and trio is a musical palindrome. The second half of the piece is the same as the first but backwards.
The interlude from Alban Berg's opera Lulu is a palindrome, as are sections and pieces, in arch form, by many other composers, including James Tenney, and most famously Béla Bartók. George Crumb also used musical palindrome to text paint the Federico García Lorca poem "¿Por qué nací?", the first movement of three in his fourth book of Madrigals. Igor Stravinsky's final composition, The Owl and the Pussy Cat, is a palindrome.[citation needed]
The first movement from Constant Lambert's ballet Horoscope (1938) is entitled "Palindromic Prelude". Lambert claimed that the theme was dictated to him by the ghost of Bernard van Dieren, who had died in 1936.[19]
British composer Robert Simpson also composed music in the palindrome or based on palindromic themes; the slow movement of his Symphony No. 2 is a palindrome, as is the slow movement of his String Quartet No. 1. His hour-long String Quartet No. 9 consists of thirty-two variations and a fugue on a palindromic theme of Haydn (from the minuet of his Symphony No. 47). All of Simpson's thirty-two variations are themselves palindromic.
Hin und Zurück ("There and Back": 1927) is an operatic 'sketch' (Op. 45a) in one scene by Paul Hindemith, with a German libretto by Marcellus Schiffer. It is essentially a dramatic palindrome. Through the first half, a tragedy unfolds between two lovers, involving jealousy, murder and suicide. Then, in the reversing second half, this is replayed with the lines sung in reverse order to produce a happy ending.
The music of Anton Webern is often palindromic. Webern, who had studied the music of the Renaissance composer Heinrich Isaac, was extremely interested in symmetries in music, be they horizontal or vertical. An example of horizontal or linear symmetry in Webern's music is the first phrase in the second movement of the symphony, Op. 21. A striking example of vertical symmetry is the second movement of the Piano Variations, Op. 27, in which Webern arranges every pitch of this dodecaphonic work around the central pitch axis of A4. From this, each downward reaching interval is replicated exactly in the opposite direction. For example, a G♯3—13 half-steps down from A4 is replicated as a B♭5—13 half-steps above.
Just as the letters of a verbal palindrome are not reversed, so are the elements of a musical palindrome usually presented in the same form in both halves. Although these elements are usually single notes, palindromes may be made using more complex elements. For example, Karlheinz Stockhausen's composition Mixtur, originally written in 1964, consists of twenty sections, called "moments", which may be permuted in several different ways, including retrograde presentation, and two versions may be made in a single program. When the composer revised the work in 2003, he prescribed such a palindromic performance, with the twenty moments first played in a "forwards" version, and then "backwards". Each moment, however, is a complex musical unit, and is played in the same direction in each half of the program.[20] By contrast, Karel Goeyvaerts's 1953 electronic composition, Nummer 5 (met zuivere tonen) is an exact palindrome: not only does each event in the second half of the piece occur according to an axis of symmetry at the centre of the work, but each event itself is reversed, so that the note attacks in the first half become note decays in the second, and vice versa. It is a perfect example of Goeyvaerts's aesthetics, the perfect example of the imperfection of perfection.[21]
In classical music, a crab canon is a canon in which one line of the melody is reversed in time and pitch from the other. A large-scale musical palindrome covering more than one movement is called "chiasic", referring to the cross-shaped Greek letter "χ" (pronounced /ˈkaɪ/.) This is usually a form of reference to the crucifixion; for example, the Crucifixus movement of Bach's Mass in B minor. The purpose of such palindromic balancing is to focus the listener on the central movement, much as one would focus on the center of the cross in the crucifixion. Other examples are found in Bach's cantata BWV 4, Christ lag in Todes Banden, Handel's Messiah and Fauré's Requiem.[22]
A table canon is a rectangular piece of sheet music intended to be played by two musicians facing each other across a table with the music between them, with one musician viewing the music upside down compared to the other. The result is somewhat like two speakers simultaneously reading the Sator square from opposite sides, except that it is typically in two-part polyphony rather than in unison.
Long palindromes[edit]
The longest palindromic word in the Oxford English Dictionary is the onomatopoeic tattarrattat, coined by James Joyce in Ulysses (1922) for a knock on the door.[23][24] The Guinness Book of Records gives the title to detartrated, the preterite and past participle of detartrate, a chemical term meaning to remove tartrates. Rotavator, a trademarked name for an agricultural machine, is often listed in dictionaries. The term redivider is used by some writers, but appears to be an invented or derived term—only redivide and redivision appear in the Shorter Oxford Dictionary. Malayalam, a language of southern India, is of equal length.
In English, two palindromic novels have been published: Satire: Veritas by David Stephens (1980, 58,795 letters), and Dr Awkward & Olson in Oslo by Lawrence Levine (1986, 31,954 words).[25] What is better known is the 224-word long poem "Dammit I'm Mad" by Demetri Martin.[26]
According to Guinness World Records, the Finnish 19-letter word saippuakivikauppias (a soapstone vendor), is the world's longest palindromic word in everyday use.[27]
Biological structures[edit]
Main article: Palindromic sequence
Palindrome of DNA structure
A: Palindrome, B: Loop, C: Stem
In most genomes or sets of genetic instructions, palindromic motifs are found. The meaning of palindrome in the context of genetics is slightly different, however, from the definition used for words and sentences. Since the DNA is formed by two paired strands of nucleotides, and the nucleotides always pair in the same way (Adenine (A) with Thymine (T), Cytosine (C) with Guanine (G)), a (single-stranded) sequence of DNA is said to be a palindrome if it is equal to its complementary sequence read backward. For example, the sequence ACCTAGGT is palindromic because its complement is TGGATCCA, which is equal to the original sequence in reverse complement.
A palindromic DNA sequence may form a hairpin. Palindromic motifs are made by the order of the nucleotides that specify the complex chemicals (proteins) that, as a result of those genetic instructions, the cell is to produce. They have been specially researched in bacterial chromosomes and in the so-called Bacterial Interspersed Mosaic Elements (BIMEs) scattered over them. Recently[when?] a research genome sequencing project discovered that many of the bases on the Y-chromosome are arranged as palindromes.[28] A palindrome structure allows the Y-chromosome to repair itself by bending over at the middle if one side is damaged.
It is believed that palindromes frequently are also found in proteins,[29][30] but their role in the protein function is not clearly known. It has recently[31] been suggested that the prevalence existence of palindromes in peptides might be related to the prevalence of low-complexity regions in proteins, as palindromes frequently are associated with low-complexity sequences. Their prevalence might also be related to an alpha helical formation propensity of these sequences,[31] or in formation of proteins/protein complexes.[32]
Computation theory[edit]
In automata theory, a set of all palindromes in a given alphabet is a typical example of a language that is context-free, but not regular. This means that it is impossible for a computer with a finite amount of memory to reliably test for palindromes on one pass. (For practical purposes with modern computers, this limitation would apply only to impractically long letter-sequences.)
In addition, the set of palindromes may not be reliably tested by a deterministic pushdown automaton which also means that they are not LR(k)-parsable or LL(k)-parsable. When reading a palindrome from left-to-right, it is, in essence, impossible to locate the "middle" until the entire word has been read completely.
It is possible to find the longest palindromic substring of a given input string in linear time.[33][34]
The palindromic density of an infinite word w over an alphabet A is defined to be zero if only finitely many prefixes are palindromes; otherwise, letting the palindromic prefixes be of lengths nk for k=1,2,... we define the density to be
d P ( w ) = ( lim sup k → ∞ n k + 1 n k ) − 1 . {\displaystyle d_{P}(w)=\left({\limsup _{k\rightarrow \infty }{\frac {n_{k+1}}{n_{k}}}}\right)^{-1}\ .}
Among aperiodic words, the largest possible palindromic density is achieved by the Fibonacci word, which has density 1/φ, where φ is the Golden ratio.[35]
A palstar is a composition of palindromic strings.[33]
Notable palindromists[edit]
Dmitry Avaliani
Howard Bergerson
Hugo Brandt Corstius
Simo Frangén and Pasi Heikura (Alivaltiosihteeri)
Velimir Khlebnikov
J. A. Lindon
Leigh Mercer
Mark Saltveit
Su Hui (poet)
See also[edit]
Ambigram
Anagram
Anastrophe, different word order
Antimetabole
Backmasking
"Bob" by "Weird Al" Yankovic
Constrained writing
Eodermdrome
I Palindrome I by They Might Be Giants
List of palindromic places
Longest palindromic substring
Mirror writing
Palindroma, a genus of spiders with palindromic species names
Palindromic number
Palindromic polynomial
Pangram
Phonetic palindrome
Yreka, California for the palindromic Yreka Bakery and Yrella Gallery
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Soclof, Adam (28 December 2011). "Jewish Wordplay". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Noting the first exile of Napoleon to Elba
Jump up ^ By Leigh Mercer, published in Notes and Queries, 13 Nov. 1948, according to The Yale Book of Quotations, F. R. Shapiro, ed. (2006, ISBN 0-300-10798-6).
Jump up ^ "Professor Peter Hilton". Daily Telegraph. London. 10 November 2010. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
Jump up ^ By Brendan Gill, published in Here At The New Yorker, (1997, ISBN 0-306-80810-2).
Jump up ^ Mark J. Nelson (2012-02-07). "Word-unit palindromes". Retrieved 2012-11-18.
Jump up ^ "Never Odd Or Even, and Other Tricks Words Can Do" by O.V. Michaelsen (Sterling Publishing Company: New York), 2005 p124-7
Jump up ^ Bombaugh, C.C. (1961). Martin Gardner, ed. Oddities and Curiosities of Words and Literature (first ed.). Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. p. 345.
Jump up ^ "Reverse Pairs (Emordnilap Words)". sightwordsgame.com.
Jump up ^ "AskOxford: What is the word for a word that is another word spelt backwards?". Oxforddictionaries.com. Archived from the original on 2011-12-02. Retrieved 2012-04-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "Anagrams FAQ Page – Are there any unusual varieties of anagram?". Anagrammy.com. 2011-03-19. Retrieved 2012-04-23.
Jump up ^ Sprachwissenschaft (in German). C. Winter Universitätsverlag. 1984. p. 245. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ Astle, D. (2012). Puzzled: Secrets and clues from a life in words. Profile. p. 248. ISBN 978-1-84765-816-6. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ Goertz, Karein K. (2003). "Showing Her Colors: An Afro-German Writes the Blues in Black and White". Callaloo. 26 (2): 306–319. doi:10.1353/cal.2003.0045. JSTOR 3300855.
Jump up ^ Durand, Gerard (2003). Palindromes en Folie. Les Dossiers de l'Aquitaine. p. 32. ISBN 2846220360.
Jump up ^ "Section titled "On Burroughs and Burrows ..."". Pfony.com. Retrieved 2012-04-23.
Jump up ^ Reversible audio cut-ups of William S. Burroughs' voice, including an acoustic palindrome in example 5 (requires Flash)
Jump up ^ Michaelson, O.V. (1998). Words at play: quips, quirks and oddities. Sterling.
Jump up ^ "Answers.com". Answers.com. Retrieved 2012-04-23.
Jump up ^ Rudolf Frisius, Karlheinz Stockhausen II: Die Werke 1950–1977; Gespräch mit Karlheinz Stockhausen, "Es geht aufwärts" (Mainz, London, Berlin, Madrid, New York, Paris, Prague, Tokyo, Toronto: Schott Musik International, 2008): 164–65. ISBN 978-3-7957-0249-6.
Jump up ^ M[orag] J[osephine] Grant, Serial Music, Serial Aesthetics: Compositional Theory in Post-war Europe (Cambridge, U.K.; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001): 64–65.
Jump up ^ Charton, Shawn E. Jennens vs. Handel: Decoding the Mysteries of Messiah.
Jump up ^ James Joyce (1982). Ulysses. Editions Artisan Devereaux. pp. 434–. ISBN 978-1-936694-38-9. ...I was just beginning to yawn with nerves thinking he was trying to make a fool of me when I knew his tattarrattat at the door he must ...
Jump up ^ O.A. Booty (1 January 2002). Funny Side of English. Pustak Mahal. pp. 203–. ISBN 978-81-223-0799-3. The longest palindromic word in English has 12 letters: tattarrattat. This word, appearing in the Oxford English Dictionary, was invented by James Joyce and used in his book Ulysses (1922), and is an imitation of the sound of someone ...
Jump up ^ Eckler, Ross (1996). Making the Alphabet Dance. NY: St. Martin's. p. 36. ISBN 0-333-90334-X.
Jump up ^ "Demetri Martin's Palindrome". Yale University. Mathematics Department. Archived from the original on 29 June 2010. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Longest palindromic word". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "2003 Release: Mechanism Preserves Y Chromosome Gene". National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI). Retrieved 2017-11-21.
Jump up ^ Ohno S (1990). "Intrinsic evolution of proteins. The role of peptidic palindromes". Riv. Biol. 83 (2-3): 287–91, 405–10. PMID 2128128.
Jump up ^ Giel-Pietraszuk M, Hoffmann M, Dolecka S, Rychlewski J, Barciszewski J (February 2003). "Palindromes in proteins" (PDF). J. Protein Chem. 22 (2): 109–13. doi:10.1023/A:1023454111924. PMID 12760415.
^ Jump up to: a b Sheari A, Kargar M, Katanforoush A, et al. (2008). "A tale of two symmetrical tails: structural and functional characteristics of palindromes in proteins". BMC Bioinformatics. 9: 274. doi:10.1186/1471-2105-9-274. PMC 2474621  . PMID 18547401.
Jump up ^ Pinotsis N, Wilmanns M (October 2008). "Protein assemblies with palindromic structure motifs". Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 65 (19): 2953–6. doi:10.1007/s00018-008-8265-1. PMID 18791850.
^ Jump up to: a b Crochemore, Maxime; Rytter, Wojciech (2003), "8.1 Searching for symmetric words", Jewels of Stringology: Text Algorithms, World Scientific, pp. 111–114, ISBN 978-981-02-4897-0
Jump up ^ Gusfield, Dan (1997), "9.2 Finding all maximal palindromes in linear time", Algorithms on Strings, Trees, and Sequences, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 197–199, doi:10.1017/CBO9780511574931, ISBN 0-521-58519-8, MR 1460730
Jump up ^ Adamczewski, Boris; Bugeaud, Yann (2010), "8. Transcendence and diophantine approximation", in Berthé, Valérie; Rigo, Michael, Combinatorics, automata, and number theory, Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications, 135, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 443, ISBN 978-0-521-51597-9, Zbl 1271.11073
Further reading[edit]
Word Ways: The Journal of Recreational Linguistics. Greenwood Periodicals et al., 1968–. ISSN 0043-7980.
The Palindromist. Palindromist Press, 1996–.
Howard W. Bergerson. Palindromes and Anagrams. Dover Publications, 1973. ISBN 978-0486206646.
Stephen J. Chism. From A to Zotamorf: The Dictionary of Palindromes. Word Ways Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0963515209.
Michael Donner. I Love Me, Vol. I: S. Wordrow's Palindrome Encyclopedia. Algonquin Books, 1996. ISBN 978-1565121096.
External links[edit]
Look up palindrome or Appendix:English palindromes in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Palindrome
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Palindromes.
List of palindromes from Princeton Lexical Database.
Create your own palindromes.
Palindromes in several European Languages
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text:
United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs attention from an expert in U.S. Supreme Court cases. Please add a reason or a talk parameter to this template to explain the issue with the article. WikiProject U.S. Supreme Court cases may be able to help recruit an expert. (November 2008)
United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc.
Supreme Court of the United States
Argued February 9–11, 1948
Decided May 3, 1948
Full case name
United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. et al.
Citations
334 U.S. 131 (more)
68 S. Ct. 915; 92 L. Ed. 1260; 1948 U.S. LEXIS 2850; 77 U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 243; 1948 Trade Cas. (CCH) ¶ 62,244
Prior history
Injunction granted, U.S. District Court (66 F.Supp. 323)
Holding
Practice of block booking and ownership of theater chains by film studios constituted anti-competitive and monopolistic trade practices.
Court membership
Chief Justice
Fred M. Vinson
Associate Justices
Hugo Black · Stanley F. Reed
Felix Frankfurter · William O. Douglas
Frank Murphy · Robert H. Jackson
Wiley B. Rutledge · Harold H. Burton
Case opinions
Majority
Douglas
Concur/dissent
Frankfurter
Jackson took no part in the consideration or decision of the case.
Laws applied
Sherman Antitrust Act; 15 U.S.C. § 1, 2
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc.
United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc., 334 US 131 (1948) (also known as the Hollywood Antitrust Case of 1948, the Paramount Case, the Paramount Decision or the Paramount Decree) was a landmark United States Supreme Court antitrust case that decided the fate of movie studios owning their own theatres and holding exclusivity rights on which theatres would show their films. It would also change the way Hollywood movies were produced, distributed, and exhibited.[citation needed] The Court held in this case that the existing distribution scheme was in violation of the antitrust laws of the United States, which prohibit certain exclusive dealing arrangements.
The case is important both in U.S. antitrust law and film history. In the former, it remains a landmark decision in vertical integration cases; in the latter, it is seen as the first nail in the coffin of the old Hollywood studio system.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Decision
2.1 Douglas
2.2 Frankfurter
3 Consequences
4 See also
5 Further reading
6 References
Background[edit]
The legal issues originated in the silent era, when the Federal Trade Commission began investigating film companies for potential violations under the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890.
The major film studios owned the theaters where their motion pictures were shown, either in partnerships or outright and complete. Thus specific theater chains showed only the films produced by the studio that owned them. The studios created the films, had the writers, directors, producers and actors on staff ("under contract" as it was called), owned the film processing and laboratories, created the prints and distributed them through the theaters that they owned: In other words, the studios were vertically integrated, creating a de facto oligopoly. By 1945, the studios owned either partially or outright 17% of the theaters in the country, accounting for 45% of the film-rental revenue.
Ultimately, this issue of the studios' allegedly illegal trade practices led to all the major movie studios being sued in 1938 by the U.S. Department of Justice.[1] As the largest studio, Paramount was the primary defendant, but all of the other Big Five (Loew's (MGM), Warner Bros., 20th Century Fox, RKO Pictures) and Little Three (Universal Studios, Columbia Pictures, United Artists) were named, as well as numerous subsidiaries and executives from each company.[2] Separate cases were also filed against large independent chains, including the 148-theater Schine.[3]
The federal government's case was settled with a consent decree in 1940,[4][5] which allowed the government to reinstate the lawsuit if, by November 1943, it had not seen a satisfactory level of compliance. Among other requirements, the consent decree included the following conditions:
The Big Five studios could no longer block-book short film subjects along with feature films (known as one-shot, or full force, block booking);
The Big Five studios could continue to block-book features, but the block size would be limited to five films;
Blind buying (buying of films by theater districts without seeing films beforehand) would now be outlawed and replaced with "trade showing," special screenings every two weeks at which representatives of all 31 theater districts in the United States could see films before they decided to book a film; and
The creation of an administration board to enforce these requirements.
The studios did not fully implement the consent decree, and in 1942 with Allied Theatre Owners proposed an alternate "Unity Plan". They proposed booking larger blocks of theatres with the caveat of allowing theaters to reject films.[6] This led to the formation of the Society of Independent Motion Picture Producers (SIMPP),[6] which also filed a lawsuit against Paramount Detroit Theaters, the first major lawsuit of producers against exhibitors. The government declined the Unity proposal and reinstated the 1943 lawsuit.[7] The case went to trial on October 8, 1945, one month and six days after the end of World War II.[1] The case was decided in favor of the studios, and the government immediately appealed.
The case reached the U.S. Supreme Court in 1948; their verdict went against the movie studios, forcing all of them to divest themselves of their movie theater chains.[8] This, coupled with the advent of television and the attendant drop in movie ticket sales, brought about a severe slump in the movie business, a slump that would not be reversed until 1972, with the release of The Godfather, the first modern blockbuster.
The Paramount decision is a bedrock of corporate antitrust law, and as such is cited in most cases where issues of vertical integration play a prominent role in restricting fair trade.
Decision[edit]
The Court ruled 7-1 in the government's favor, affirming much of the consent decree (Justice Robert H. Jackson took no part in the proceedings). William O. Douglas delivered the Court's opinion, with Felix Frankfurter dissenting in part, arguing the Court should have left all of the decree intact but its arbitration provisions.[8]
Douglas[edit]
Douglas's opinion reiterated the facts and history of the case and reviewed the District Court's opinion, agreeing that its conclusion was "incontestable".[8] He considered five different trade practices addressed by the consent decree:
Clearances and runs, under which movies were scheduled so they would only be showing at particular theatres at any given time, to avoid competing with another theater's showing;
Pooling agreements, the joint ownership of theaters by two nominally competitive studios;
Formula deals, master agreements, and franchises: arrangements by which an exhibitor or distributor allocated profits among theaters that had shown a particular film, and awarded exclusive rights to independent theatres, sometimes without competitive bidding;
Block booking, the studios' practice of requiring theaters to take an entire slate of its films, sometimes without even seeing them, sometimes before the films had even been produced ("blind bidding"), and
Discrimination against smaller, independent theaters in favor of larger chains.
Douglas let stand the District Court's sevenfold test for when a clearance agreement was a restraint of trade, as he agreed they had a legitimate purpose. Pooling agreements and joint ownership, he agreed, were "bald efforts to substitute monopoly for competition ... Clearer restraints of trade are difficult to imagine."[8]:149 He allowed, however, that courts could consider how an interest in an exhibitor was acquired and sent some other issues back to the District Court for further inquiry and resolution. He set aside the lower court findings on franchises so that they might be reconsidered from the perspective of allowing competitive bidding. On the block booking question, he rejected the studios' argument that it was necessary to profit from their copyrights: "The copyright law, like the patent statutes, makes reward to the owner a secondary consideration".[8]:158 The prohibitions on discrimination he let stand entirely.
Frankfurter[edit]
Frankfurter took exception to the extent to which his brethren had agreed with the studios that the District Court had not adequately explored the underlying facts in affirming the consent decree. He pointed to another recent Court decision, International Salt Co. v. United States that lower courts are the proper place for such findings of fact, to be deferred to by higher courts. Also, he reminded the Court that the District Court had spent fifteen months considering the case and reviewed almost 4,000 pages of documentary evidence: "I cannot bring myself to conclude that the product of such a painstaking process of adjudication as to a decree appropriate for such a complicated situation as this record discloses was an abuse of discretion."[8]:180 He would have modified the District Court decision only to permit the use of arbitration to resolve disputes.
Consequences[edit]
Movie studios previously charged low rents to exhibitors because they were owned by the studio. When the studios were forced to sell their theaters, the result was higher rental rates charged to exhibitors (rising from an average of approximately 35% to its current level of approximately 50%), so the studios could recoup their expenses.[citation needed] The inability to block-book an entire year's worth of movies caused studios to be more selective in the movies they made, resulting in higher production costs and dramatically fewer movies made. This caused studios to further raise the rates they charged theaters, since the volume of movies fell.[citation needed]
The court orders forcing the separation of motion picture production and exhibition companies are commonly referred to as the Paramount Decrees. Paramount Pictures Inc. was forced to split into two companies: the film company Paramount Pictures Corp. and the theater chain (United Paramount Theaters) which merged in 1953 with the American Broadcasting Company.[citation needed]
Consequences of the decision include:[citation needed]
More independent producers and studios to produce their film product free of major studio interference.
The beginning of the end of the old Hollywood studio system and its golden age.
The weakening of the (Hays) Production Code, since it saw the rise of independent and "art house" theaters which showed foreign or independent films made outside of its jurisdiction.
Following the decision, and with the rise of television, the major studios felt that the loss of their exclusive theatre arrangements would reduce the opportunity to re-release product from their film libraries. Paramount, for example, sold its pre-1950 sound feature film library to MCA, which created EMKA (today Universal Television) to manage this library. Other studios, such as 20th Century Fox or Warner Bros., also sold or leased their classic back catalogs to other companies. By contrast, Walt Disney believed his film library was much more valuable than RKO had estimated it to be; in 1953, he formed a holding company that held rights to work he did prior to 1953 as well as distributed new material from his studio—that company became its own in-house distribution unit, Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The growth of television in subsequent years has resulted in these supposedly "worthless" films earning billions of dollars in rentals from television stations and networks.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Bigelow v. RKO Radio Pictures, Inc., 327 U.S. 251 (1946), where the Supreme Court held that major Hollywood distributors had engaged in an antitrust conspiracy preventing certain independent movie houses from showing first run films.
Buchwald v. Paramount
Leibovitz v. Paramount Pictures Corp.
Paramount Communications, Inc. v. QVC Network, Inc.
Further reading[edit]
Gil, Richard. 2015. "Does Vertical Integration Decrease Prices? Evidence from the Paramount Antitrust Case of 1948." American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 7(2): 162-91.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "The Hollywood Antitrust Case". 2005.
Jump up ^ "List of Original Defendants in the Paramount Case". 2005.
Jump up ^ "The Theater Monopoly Cases". 2005.
Jump up ^ "Part 3: The Consent Decree of 1940". 2005.
Jump up ^ "SHOW BUSINESS: Consent Decree". Time. November 11, 1940. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Independents Protest the United Motion Picture Industry (1942)". 2005.
Jump up ^ "The Government Reactivates the Paramount Case". 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. , 334 U.S. 131 (May 3, 1948).
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