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Susan Oliver
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Susan Oliver
Born
Charlotte Gercke
(1932-02-13)February 13, 1932
New York City, New York, U.S.
Died
May 10, 1990(1990-05-10) (aged 58)
Woodland Hills, California, U.S.
Cause of death
Lung cancer
Occupation
Actress
Years active
1955–1988
Susan Oliver (February 13, 1932 – May 10, 1990) was an American actress, television director and aviator.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life and family
2 Career
2.1 Early years
2.2 Television and films
2.3 Directing and later years
3 Aviator and author
4 Death
5 Selected TV and filmography
5.1 Documentary
6 See also
7 Further reading
8 References
9 External links
Early life and family[edit]
Susan Oliver was born Charlotte Gercke, the daughter of George Gercke, journalist, and Ruth Hale Oliver, an astrology practitioner, in New York City in 1932. Her father was a political reporter and journalist for the New York World. Her parents divorced when she was still a child. In June 1949, Oliver joined her mother in Southern California, where Ruth was in the process of becoming a well known Hollywood astrologer. Oliver made a decision to embark upon a career as an actress and chose the stage name Susan Oliver.[1]
Career[edit]
Early years[edit]
By September 1949 and using her new name, Oliver returned to the East Coast to begin drama studies at Swarthmore College, followed by professional training at the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre in New York City. After working in summer stock, regional theater and in unbilled bits in daytime and primetime TV shows and commercials, she made her first major television appearance in a supporting role in the July 31, 1955, episode of the live drama series Goodyear TV Playhouse, and quickly progressed to leading parts in other shows.
Oliver did numerous TV shows in 1957, and appeared on stage. She began the year with an ingenue part, as the daughter of an 18th-century Manhattan family, in her first Broadway play, Small War on Murray Hill, a Robert E. Sherwood comedy.[2] That same year, Oliver replaced Mary Ure as the female lead in the Broadway production of John Osborne's play Look Back in Anger.
The play's short run was immediately followed by larger roles in live TV plays on Kaiser Aluminum Hour, The United States Steel Hour and Matinee Theater. Oliver then went to Hollywood, where she appeared in the November 14, 1957, episode of Climax!, one of the few live drama series based on the West Coast, as well as in a number of filmed shows, including one of the first episodes of NBC's Wagon Train, Father Knows Best, The Americans, and Johnny Staccato.
In July 1957, Oliver was chosen for the title role in her first motion picture, The Green-Eyed Blonde, a low-budget independent melodrama scripted by Dalton Trumbo (under a pseudonym), and released by Warner Bros. in December on the bottom half of a double bill.[3] It is the only motion picture on which Oliver received top billing.
In mid-1958, Oliver began rehearsals for a co-starring role in Patate, her second Broadway play.[4] Its seven performance run was even shorter than that of Small War on Murray Hill, but won Oliver a Theatre World Award for "Outstanding Breakout Performance;" it was her last Broadway appearance.
Television and films[edit]
With Gardner McKay and Guy Stockwell in Adventures in Paradise (1961)
On April 6, 1960, the 28-year-old Oliver played a spoiled young runaway, Maggie Hamilton, in "The Maggie Hamilton Story" on NBC's Wagon Train. Flint McCullough, played by Robert Horton, searches for her so the wagon train can proceed on schedule.[5] On November 9, 1960, she was cast as the lead guest star in "The Cathy Eckhart Story" on Wagon Train, with husband-and-wife actors John Larch and Vivi Janiss as Ben and Sarah Harness.
Oliver was cast in the 1960 episode of The Deputy as the long-lost daughter of star Henry Fonda's late girl friend, and appeared in Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre episode "Knife of Hate" as Susan Pittman. In 1961, Oliver played the part of Laurie Evans in the episode "Incident of His Brother's Keeper" on CBS's Rawhide, and in 1963, she played Judy Hall in the episode "Incident at Spider Rock." Also in 1962 Oliver appeared as Jeanie in the television series Laramie in the episode "Shadows in the Dust."
Oliver was cast in three episodes each of Adventures in Paradise, Twilight Zone, Route 66, Dr. Kildare, The Naked City, The Barbara Stanwyck Show, Burke's Law, The Fugitive, Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C., I Spy, The Virginian, and The Name of the Game. She made one appearance on The Andy Griffith Show and ABC's family western series, The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters. She also made two appearances in "The Invaders" (eps. "Inquisition" and "The Ivy Curtain").
Her most challenging role during this time was as the ambitious wife of doomed country music legend Hank Williams (George Hamilton) in Your Cheatin' Heart (1964). The same year she also starred opposite Jerry Lewis in The Disorderly Orderly, and also appeared in The Man from U.N.C.L.E (1965), and The Love-Ins (1967) with Richard Todd.
Oliver appeared in television films including Carter's Army. Oliver had a continuing role as Ann Howard on ABC's prime-time serial Peyton Place in 1966.
Oliver played the female lead character Vina in "The Cage" (1964), which was the first pilot of Gene Roddenberry's new show, Star Trek. Two years later, Oliver's performance was re-used in the first season, two-part episode "The Menagerie" (1966). The framing device was needed because of significant format and cast changes, in particular Jeffrey Hunter played Captain Christopher Pike in the pilot episode. For a famous fantasy sequence in which her character appeared as an "Orion slave girl," she was covered in green makeup all over her body.[6] A still of her with green skin was frequently seen in the end credits of the show, and became an iconic image of Star Trek, so much so that a 2014 documentary about Susan Oliver's life was titled The Green Girl.[7]
From 1975 to 1976, Oliver was a regular cast member of the soap opera Days of Our Lives, and received her only Emmy nomination (for "Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actress") in the three-hour, October 25, 1976, NBC made-for-TV movie Amelia Earhart. In addition to television roles, Oliver also had roles in several theatrical features including The Gene Krupa Story (1959), BUtterfield 8 (1960), and The Caretakers (1963).[1]
Directing and later years[edit]
By the late 1970s with acting assignments becoming scarcer, Oliver turned to directing. She was one of the original 19 women admitted to the American Film Institute's Directing Workshop for Women (AFI DWW) "who, upon her early death, left a good chunk of funding for the DWW."[8] In 1977, she wrote and directed Cowboysan, her AFI DWW short film which presents the fantasy scenario of a Japanese actor and actress playing leads in an American western. Oliver directed two TV episodes, the October 25, 1982, installment of M*A*S*H and the December 4, 1983, entry of one of its sequel series, Trapper John, M.D..[1]
In Oliver's last fully active years, she also appeared in the February 21, 1985, episode of Magnum, P.I., two episodes of Murder, She Wrote (March 31 and December 1), the February 12, 1987, episode of Simon & Simon, and the January 10, 1988, episode of the NBC domestic drama Our House. She made her last onscreen appearance in the November 6, 1988 episode of the syndicated horror anthology Freddy's Nightmares. During her career in Hollywood, Oliver appeared in more than one hundred television programs.[1]
Aviator and author[edit]
Oliver experienced an event in February 1959 that underscored her later aviation accomplishments. She was a passenger aboard Pan Am Flight 115, a Boeing 707 on a transatlantic flight from Paris to New York City when it dropped from 35,000 feet (11,000 m) to 6,000 feet (1,800 m). It was February 3, 1959, the same day Buddy Holly died in an airplane crash. These events caused her to avoid flying for the next year, even turning down job offers (with the exception of auditioning for BUtterfield 8) if they were so short notice she could only travel by air. She eventually underwent hypnosis to overcome her fear of flying.[9]
In July 1964, Hal Fishman introduced her to personal flying when he took her on an evening flight over Los Angeles in a Cessna 172.[9] The experience motivated her to return the next day to the Santa Monica Airport to begin training for a Private Pilot certificate. In 1966, while preparing for her own transatlantic flight, she was a passenger in a Piper J-3 Cub when the pilot ran into wires while "show-boating";[9] the airplane flipped and crashed. She and the pilot escaped injury.[10]
In 1967, piloting her own Aero Commander 200, she became the fourth woman to fly a single-engine aircraft solo across the Atlantic Ocean and the second to do it from New York City. Although she was attempting to fly to Moscow, her odyssey ended in Denmark after the government of the Soviet Union denied her permission to enter its air space. She wrote about her aviation exploits and philosophy of life in an autobiography published in 1983.[9]
In 1968, she was contacted by Learjet to see if she was interested in getting a type rating in one of their jets with the intent to set record flights for them. She earned the rating and even flew some charters (having by that time acquired a commercial pilot certificate in single and multiengine land airplanes), but did not fly any record flights in their jets.[9]
In 1970, Oliver co-piloted a Piper Comanche to victory in the 2760-mile transcontinental race known as the "Powder Puff Derby", which resulted in her being named Pilot of the Year. The pilot was Margaret Mead (not the famous anthropologist), an experienced pilot who had flown in several derbies with different co-pilots. In 1972, her training for a glider rating was chronicled for an episode of the television series The American Sportsman and the segment aired in March 1973.[11]
According to the FAA Registry, the glider rating was issued to Oliver on July 21, 1972. It was her last rating. The Registry shows her to have earned commercial pilot ratings for airplane single engine land, airplane multiengine land, instrument airplane, and private privileges for glider. Her last aviation medical exam was in May 1976; therefore, she could not legally pilot any aircraft except gliders after May 1978, marking the end of her piloting of powered aircraft.[12]
Death[edit]
Oliver was diagnosed with colorectal cancer that later metastasized to her lungs and she passed away on May 10, 1990 at the Motion Picture & Television Hospital in Woodland Hills, California.[13][14]
Selected TV and filmography[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1957 The Green-Eyed Blonde Phyllis ("Greeneyes")
1957 The Kaiser Aluminum Hour Kay Episode: "So Short a Season"
1957 Crossroads Connie Willis Episode: "9:30 Action"
1957 Wagon Train Judy Rossiter Episode: "The Emily Rossiter Story" [15]
1958 Father Knows Best Cousin Millie Episode: "Country Cousin"
1958 Kraft Television Theatre Pamela Episode: "The Woman at High Hollow"
1958 Suspicion Rosemary Russell Episode: "The Woman Turned to Salt"
1959 Trackdown Rebecca Ford Episode: "Blind Alley"
1959 Alcoa Theatre Bernice Davis Episode: "The Long House on Avenue A"
1959 The Gene Krupa Story Dorissa Dinell
1960 BUtterfield 8 Norma
1960 Wanted: Dead or alive Bess Episode: "The Pariah"
1960 The Untouchables Roxie Plumber Episode: "The Organization"
1960 Bonanza Leta Malvet Episode: "The Outcast"
1960 Wagon Train Maggie Hamilton Episode: "The Maggie Hamilton Story"
1960 The Twilight Zone Teenya Episode: "People Are Alike All Over"
1960 Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre Susan Pittman Episode: "Knife of Hate"
1961 04 12 air date Naked City as Jessica Episode: "A memory of Crying"
1961 The Aquanauts Laura West Episode: "Stormy Weather"
1961 Rawhide Laurie Evans Episode: "Incident of His Brother's Keeper"
1961 The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet Lori Episode: "Rick, the Milkman"
1961 Route 66 Joan Maslow Episode: "Welcome to Amity"
1961 Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre Hannah Smith Episode: "Image of a Drawn Sword"
1961 Thriller Edith Landers Episode: "Choose a Victim"
1962 Route 66 Claire/Chris Episode: "Between Hello and Goodbye"
1962 Laramie Jean Lavelle Episode: "Shadows in the Dust"
1962 Cain's Hundred Kitty Episode: "The Cost of Living"
1962 The Alfred Hitchcock Hour Annabel Delaney Episode: "Annabel"
1963 Rawhide Judy Hall Episode: "Incident at Spider Rock"
1963 77 Sunset Strip Kristine Seaver Episode: "Your Fortune for a Penny"
1963 The Caretakers Nurse Cathy Clark
1963 The Fugitive Karen Episode: "Never Wave Goodbye"
1963 Route 66 Willow Episode: "Fifty Miles from Home"
1964 Guns of Diablo Maria
1964 Your Cheatin' Heart Audrey Williams
1964 The Disorderly Orderly Susan Andrews
1964 Destry Rebecca Fairhaven Episode: "One Hundred Bibles"
1964 The Andy Griffith Show Jan McNair Episode: "Prisoner of Love" Season 4 Episode 18
1964 Looking For Love Jan
1964 Star Trek Vina Pilot Episode: "The Cage"
Episode: "The Menagerie" (Parts 1 & 2) S1: E12 & E13 respectively (1966) (re-used footage from the pilot)
1965 Seaway Sue Murray Episode: "The Sparrows"
1965 The Man from U.N.C.L.E. Ursula Alice Baldwin Episode: "The Bow-Wow Affair"
1966 A Man Called Shenandoah Virginia Harvey Episode: "Rope's End"
1966 Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. Julie Myers Episode: "A Date with Miss Camp Henderson"
1966 My Three Sons Jerry Harper Episode: "The Awkward Age"
1966 Peyton Place Ann Howard 48 episodes
1967 T.H.E. Cat Lori Neil Episode: "Twenty One And Out"
1967 The Love-Ins Patricia Cross
1967 The Wild Wild West Triste Episode: "The Night Dr. Loveless Died"
1967 The Invaders Stacy Cahill Episode: "The Ivy Curtain"
1968 A Man Called Gannon Matty
1968 The Invaders Joan Seeley Episode: "Inquisition"
1969 Mannix Linda Jordan Episode: "The Odds Against Donald Jordan"
1969 The Big Valley Kate Wilson Episode: "Alias Nellie Handley"
1969 Change of Mind Margaret Rowe
1969 The Monitors Barbara Cole
1970 Carter's Army Anna Renvic
1971 Company of Killers Thelma Dwyer
1971 Do You Take This Stranger? Mildred Crandall
1971 Dan August Leona Serling Episode: "Prognosis: Homicide"
1971 Sarge Fran Episode: "An Accident Waiting to Happen"
1971 Alias Smith and Jones Miss Blanche Graham Episode: "Journey from San Juan"
1972 Medical Center Ruth Episode: "Vision of Doom"
1972 Gunsmoke Sarah Elkins Episode: "Eleven Dollars"
1973 The American Sportsman Herself Segment: "Soaring at El Mirage"
1973 Cannon Jill Thorson Episode: "Moving Target"
1973 Circle of Fear Ellen Pritchard Episode: "Spare Parts"
1973 Love Story Virginia Madison Episode: "The Youngest Lovers"
1974 Ginger in the Morning Sugar
1974 Police Story Rina Prescott Episode: "World Full of Hurt"
1974 Petrocelli Eleanor Warren Episode: "Edge of Evil"
1976 Amelia Earhart Netta Snook "Snookie"
1977 The Streets of San Francisco Gracie Boggs Episode: "Hang Tough"
1977 Nido de Viudas Isabel US title: Widow's Nest
1980 Hardly Working Claire Trent
1982 Tomorrow's Child Marilyn Hurst Television movie
1982 M*A*S*H Director, 1 episode
1983 Trapper John, M.D. Director, 1 episode
1982 International Airport Mary Van Leuven Television movie
1985 Magnum, P.I. Laurie Crane Episode: "Let Me Hear the Music"
1986 Murder, She Wrote Louise Episode: "Jessica Behind Bars"
1988 Our House Olga Zelnikova Episode: "Balance of Power"
1988 Freddy's Nightmares The Maid / Future Judy Miller Episode: "Judy Miller, Come on Down"
Documentary[edit]
The Green Girl (2014, biographical documentary film directed by George Pappy)[16]
See also[edit]
Manumit School
Further reading[edit]
Oliver, Susan (1983). Odyssey: A Daring Transatlantic Journey. Macmillan. ISBN 9780025929203.
10. NTSB Identification: LAX67D0086
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Susan Oliver on IMDb
Jump up ^ The play's opening night at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre was on January 3, 1957, and, 12 performances later, closing night was January 12. Leo Genn as General Howe
Jump up ^ The film was scripted by blacklisted writer Dalton Trumbo and credited to "front" Sally Stubblefield.
Jump up ^ The melancholy comedy, written by French playwright Marcel Achard, played to sold-out theaters in Paris upon its premiere in 1957. Adapted for American audiences by Irwin Shaw, Patate (which in French means "spud," but can also mean "chump") paired Oliver with veteran leading man Tom Ewell (in the title role) and Lee Bowman. The play opened at Henry Miller's Theatre on October 28, 1958, and closed on November 1.
Jump up ^ "The Maggie Hamilton Story". Internet Movie Data Base. Retrieved May 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Asherman, Allan (1983). The Star Trek Compendium. WH Allen, Star Books. p. 28.
Jump up ^ "Star Trek's original Green Girl the subject of Kickstarter documentary". ew.com - Entertainment Weekly. 13 Feb 2013. Retrieved 31 Dec 2015.
Jump up ^ WOMEN DIRECTORS IN HOLLYWOOD, The Founding of the Directing Workshop for Women of the American Film Institute, a History, THE DREAM OF THE MARBLE BRIDGE, http://janhaag.com/ESessays.html
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Oliver, Susan (1983). Odyssey: A Daring Transatlantic Journey. Macmillan Publishing Co. ISBN 0-02-592920-8.
Jump up ^ NTSB No. LAX67D0086
Jump up ^ Robesonian newspaper archives, March 18, 1973; accessed March 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ Profile, amsrvs.registry.faa.gov; accessed March 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Susan Oliver Is Dead; Television Actress". New York Times. 1990-05-15. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ https://www.themarysue.com/star-trek-green-girl-documentary/
Jump up ^ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0743111/fullcredits?ref_=tt_ov_st_sm
Jump up ^ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2342700/
External links[edit]
Susan Oliver on IMDb
Susan Oliver at Memory Alpha (a Star Trek wiki)
Oliver biography and pictoral site, susanoliver.info
Susan Oliver profile, findagrave.com
Listen to Susan Oliver on Zero Hour hosted by Rod Serling Zero Hour Podcast 1973-12-24 (ep51) John Dehner and Susan Oliver – Fourth Of Forever – Part 1, with a new introduction.
http://articles.latimes.com/1990-05-12/news/mn-1030_1_susan-oliver
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VIAF: 33368810
LCCN: n83047989
IATH: w6wh4k3z
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text:
Survival of the fittest
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 25 August 2017.
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Survival of the fittest (disambiguation).
Herbert Spencer coined the phrase "survival of the fittest".
"Survival of the fittest" is a phrase that originated from Darwinian evolutionary theory as a way of describing the mechanism of natural selection. The biological concept of fitness is defined as reproductive success. In Darwinian terms the phrase is best understood as "Survival of the form that will leave the most copies of itself in successive generations."
Herbert Spencer first used the phrase, after reading Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, in his Principles of Biology (1864), in which he drew parallels between his own economic theories and Darwin's biological ones: "This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called 'natural selection', or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life."[1]
Darwin responded positively to Alfred Russel Wallace's suggestion of using Spencer's new phrase "survival of the fittest" as an alternative to "natural selection", and adopted the phrase in The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication published in 1868.[1][2] In On the Origin of Species, he introduced the phrase in the fifth edition published in 1869,[3][4] intending it to mean "better designed for an immediate, local environment".[5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Critiquing the phrase “survival of the fittest”
2 Interpreted as expressing a biological theory
3 Interpreted as expressing a moral theory
3.1 Social Darwinists
3.2 Creationists
3.3 Anarchists
4 History of the phrase
5 Tautology?
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
9.1 Origins of the phrase
9.2 Tautology links
9.3 Morality link
9.4 Kropotkin: Mutual Aid
Critiquing the phrase “survival of the fittest”[edit]
While the phrase "survival of the fittest” is often used to refer to “natural selection”, it is avoided by modern biologists, because the phrase can be misleading. For example, “survival” is only one aspect of selection, and not always the most important. Another problem is that the word “fit” is frequently confused with a state of physical fitness. In the evolutionary meaning “fitness” is the rate of reproductive output among a class of genetic variants.[7]
Interpreted as expressing a biological theory[edit]
The phrase can also be interpreted to express a theory or hypothesis: that "fit" as opposed to "unfit" individuals or species, in some sense of "fit", will survive some test.
Interpretations of the phrase as expressing a theory are in danger of being tautological, meaning roughly "those with a propensity to survive have a propensity to survive"; to have content the theory must use a concept of fitness that is independent of that of survival.[5][8]
Interpreted as a theory of species survival, the theory that the fittest species survive is undermined by evidence that while direct competition is observed between individuals, populations and species, there is little evidence that competition has been the driving force in the evolution of large groups such as, for example, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. Instead, these groups have evolved by expanding into empty ecological niches.[9] In the punctuated equilibrium model of environmental and biological change, the factor determining survival is often not superiority over another in competition but ability to survive dramatic changes in environmental conditions, such as after a meteor impact energetic enough to greatly change the environment globally. The main land dwelling animals to survive the K-Pg impact 66 million years ago had the ability to live in underground tunnels, for example.
In 2010 Sahney et al. argued that there is little evidence that intrinsic, biological factors such as competition have been the driving force in the evolution of large groups. Instead, they cited extrinsic, abiotic factors such as expansion as the driving factor on a large evolutionary scale. The rise of dominant groups such as amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds occurred by opportunistic expansion into empty ecological niches and the extinction of groups happened due to large shifts in the abiotic environment.[9]
Interpreted as expressing a moral theory[edit]
Social Darwinists[edit]
It has been claimed that "the survival of the fittest" theory in biology was interpreted by late 19th century capitalists as "an ethical precept that sanctioned cut-throat economic competition" and led to the advent of the theory of "social Darwinism" which was used to justify laissez-faire economics, war and racism. However, these ideas predate and commonly contradict Darwin's ideas, and indeed their proponents rarely invoked Darwin in support.[citation needed] The term "social Darwinism" referring to capitalist ideologies was introduced as a term of abuse by Richard Hofstadter's Social Darwinism in American Thought published in 1944.[10][11]
Creationists[edit]
Critics of theories of evolution have argued that "survival of the fittest" provides a justification for behaviour that undermines moral standards by letting the strong set standards of justice to the detriment of the weak.[12] However, any use of evolutionary descriptions to set moral standards would be a naturalistic fallacy (or more specifically the is–ought problem), as prescriptive moral statements cannot be derived from purely descriptive premises. Describing how things are does not imply that things ought to be that way. It is also suggested that "survival of the fittest" implies treating the weak badly, even though in some cases of good social behaviour – co-operating with others and treating them well – might improve evolutionary fitness.[10][13]
Anarchists[edit]
Russian anarchist Peter Kropotkin viewed the concept of "survival of the fittest" as supporting co-operation rather than competition. In his book Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution he set out his analysis leading to the conclusion that the fittest was not necessarily the best at competing individually, but often the community made up of those best at working together. He concluded that
In the animal world we have seen that the vast majority of species live in societies, and that they find in association the best arms for the struggle for life: understood, of course, in its wide Darwinian sense — not as a struggle for the sheer means of existence, but as a struggle against all natural conditions unfavourable to the species. The animal species, in which individual struggle has been reduced to its narrowest limits, and the practice of mutual aid has attained the greatest development, are invariably the most numerous, the most prosperous, and the most open to further progress.
Applying this concept to human society, Kropotkin presented mutual aid as one of the dominant factors of evolution, the other being self-assertion, and concluded that
In the practice of mutual aid, which we can retrace to the earliest beginnings of evolution, we thus find the positive and undoubted origin of our ethical conceptions; and we can affirm that in the ethical progress of man, mutual support not mutual struggle – has had the leading part. In its wide extension, even at the present time, we also see the best guarantee of a still loftier evolution of our race.
History of the phrase[edit]
Herbert Spencer first used the phrase – after reading Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species – in his Principles of Biology of 1864[14] in which he drew parallels between his economic theories and Darwin's biological, evolutionary ones, writing, "This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called 'natural selection', or the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life."[1]
In July 1866 Alfred Russel Wallace wrote to Darwin about readers thinking that the phrase "natural selection" personified nature as "selecting", and said this misconception could be avoided "by adopting Spencer's term" Survival of the fittest. Darwin promptly replied that Wallace's letter was "as clear as daylight. I fully agree with all that you say on the advantages of H. Spencer's excellent expression of 'the survival of the fittest'. This however had not occurred to me till reading your letter. It is, however, a great objection to this term that it cannot be used as a substantive governing a verb". Had he received the letter two months earlier, he would have worked the phrase into the fourth edition of the Origin which was then being printed, and he would use it in his "next book on Domestic Animals etc.".[1]
Darwin wrote on page 6 of The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication published in 1868, "This preservation, during the battle for life, of varieties which possess any advantage in structure, constitution, or instinct, I have called Natural Selection; and Mr. Herbert Spencer has well expressed the same idea by the Survival of the Fittest. The term "natural selection" is in some respects a bad one, as it seems to imply conscious choice; but this will be disregarded after a little familiarity". He defended his analogy as similar to language used in chemistry, and to astronomers depicting the "attraction of gravity as ruling the movements of the planets", or the way in which "agriculturists speak of man making domestic races by his power of selection". He had "often personified the word Nature; for I have found it difficult to avoid this ambiguity; but I mean by nature only the aggregate action and product of many natural laws,—and by laws only the ascertained sequence of events."[2]
In the first four editions of On the Origin of Species, Darwin had used the phrase "natural selection".[15] In Chapter 4 of the 5th edition of The Origin published in 1869,[3] Darwin implies again the synonym: "Natural Selection, or the Survival of the Fittest".[4] By the word "fittest" Darwin meant "better adapted for immediate, local environment", not the common modern meaning of "in the best physical shape" (think of a puzzle piece, not an athlete).[5] In the introduction he gave full credit to Spencer, writing "I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection. But the expression often used by Mr. Herbert Spencer of the Survival of the Fittest is more accurate, and is sometimes equally convenient."[16]
In The Man Versus The State, Spencer used the phrase in a postscript to justify a plausible explanation of how his theories would not be adopted by "societies of militant type". He uses the term in the context of societies at war, and the form of his reference suggests that he is applying a general principle.[17]
"Thus by survival of the fittest, the militant type of society becomes characterized by profound confidence in the governing power, joined with a loyalty causing submission to it in all matters whatever".[18]
Though Spencer’s conception of organic evolution is commonly interpreted as a form of Lamarckism,[a] Herbert Spencer is sometimes credited with inaugurating Social Darwinism. The phrase "survival of the fittest" has become widely used in popular literature as a catchphrase for any topic related or analogous to evolution and natural selection. It has thus been applied to principles of unrestrained competition, and it has been used extensively by both proponents and opponents of Social Darwinism.[citation needed]
Evolutionary biologists criticise the manner in which the term is used by non-scientists and the connotations that have grown around the term in popular culture. The phrase also does not help in conveying the complex nature of natural selection, so modern biologists prefer and almost exclusively use the term natural selection. The biological concept of fitness refers to reproductive success, as opposed to survival, and is not explicit in the specific ways in which organisms can be more "fit" (increase reproductive success) as having phenotypic characteristics that enhance survival and reproduction (which was the meaning that Spencer had in mind).[citation needed]
Tautology?[edit]
"Survival of the fittest" is sometimes claimed to be a tautology.[20] The reasoning is that if one takes the term "fit" to mean "endowed with phenotypic characteristics which improve chances of survival and reproduction" (which is roughly how Spencer understood it), then "survival of the fittest" can simply be rewritten as "survival of those who are better equipped for surviving". Furthermore, the expression does become a tautology if one uses the most widely accepted definition of "fitness" in modern biology, namely reproductive success itself (rather than any set of characters conducive to this reproductive success). This reasoning is sometimes used to claim that Darwin's entire theory of evolution by natural selection is fundamentally tautological, and therefore devoid of any explanatory power.[20]
However, the expression "survival of the fittest" (taken on its own and out of context) gives a very incomplete account of the mechanism of natural selection. The reason is that it does not mention a key requirement for natural selection, namely the requirement of heritability. It is true that the phrase "survival of the fittest", in and by itself, is a tautology if fitness is defined by survival and reproduction. Natural selection is the portion of variation in reproductive success that is caused by heritable characters (see the article on natural selection).[20]
If certain heritable characters increase or decrease the chances of survival and reproduction of their bearers, then it follows mechanically (by definition of "heritable") that those characters that improve survival and reproduction will increase in frequency over generations. This is precisely what is called "evolution by natural selection." On the other hand, if the characters which lead to differential reproductive success are not heritable, then no meaningful evolution will occur, "survival of the fittest" or not: if improvement in reproductive success is caused by traits that are not heritable, then there is no reason why these traits should increase in frequency over generations. In other words, natural selection does not simply state that "survivors survive" or "reproducers reproduce"; rather, it states that "survivors survive, reproduce and therefore propagate any heritable characters which have affected their survival and reproductive success". This statement is not tautological: it hinges on the testable hypothesis that such fitness-impacting heritable variations actually exist (a hypothesis that has been amply confirmed.)[20]
Momme von Sydow suggested further definitions of 'survival of the fittest' that may yield a testable meaning in biology and also in other areas where Darwinian processes have been influential. However, much care would be needed to disentangle tautological from testable aspects. Moreover, an "implicit shifting between a testable and an untestable interpretation can be an illicit tactic to immunize natural selection [...] while conveying the impression that one is concerned with testable hypotheses."[8][21]
Skeptic Society founder and Skeptic magazine publisher Michael Shermer addresses the tautology problem in his 1997 book, Why People Believe Weird Things, in which he points out that although tautologies are sometimes the beginning of science, they are never the end, and that scientific principles like natural selection are testable and falsifiable by virtue of their predictive power. Shermer points out, as an example, that population genetics accurately demonstrate when natural selection will and will not effect change on a population. Shermer hypothesizes that if hominid fossils were found in the same geological strata as trilobites, it would be evidence against natural selection.[22]
See also[edit]
Age of the Earth
Anarchism
Altruism
Robert Boyle
Capitalism
Darwinian puzzle
Ethical relativism
Eugenics
Evolution of societies
Freedom of thought
Freethought
Garden of Eden
Mutation
Natural philosophy
Neo-Creationism
Peter Kropotkin
John Ruskin
Scientific scepticism
Social Darwinism
Social ecology
Social evolutionism
Social implications of the theory of evolution
Universal Darwinism
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Though Spencer was an advocate of the inheritance of acquired characters, he considered Lamarck’s failure to explain organic evolution in physical terms as a serious weakness of his theory.[19]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Letter 5140 – Wallace, A. R. to Darwin, C. R., 2 July 1866". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 12 January 2010.
"Letter 5145 – Darwin, C. R. to Wallace, A. R., 5 July (1866)". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 12 January 2010.
^ "Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology of 1864, vol. 1, p. 444, wrote: 'This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called "natural selection", or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life.'" Maurice E. Stucke, Better Competition Advocacy, retrieved 29 August 2007 , citing HERBERT SPENCER, THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY 444 (Univ. Press of the Pac. 2002.)
^ Jump up to: a b "This preservation, during the battle for life, of varieties which possess any advantage in structure, constitution, or instinct, I have called Natural Selection; and Mr. Herbert Spencer has well expressed the same idea by the Survival of the Fittest. The term "natural selection" is in some respects a bad one, as it seems to imply conscious choice; but this will be disregarded after a little familiarity." Darwin, Charles (1868), The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, 1 (1st ed.), London: John Murray, p. 6, retrieved 10 August 2015
^ Jump up to: a b Freeman, R. B. (1977), "On the Origin of Species", The Works of Charles Darwin: An Annotated Bibliographical Handlist (2nd ed.), Cannon House, Folkestone, Kent, England: Wm Dawson & Sons Ltd
^ Jump up to: a b "This preservation of favourable variations, and the destruction of injurious variations, I call Natural Selection, or the Survival of the Fittest." – Darwin, Charles (1869), On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (5th ed.), London: John Murray, pp. 91–92, retrieved 22 February 2009
^ Jump up to: a b c "Stephen Jay Gould, Darwin's Untimely Burial", 1976; from Philosophy of Biology:An Anthology, Alex Rosenberg, Robert Arp ed., John Wiley & Sons, May 2009, pp. 99–102.
Jump up ^ "Evolutionary biologists customarily employ the metaphor 'survival of the fittest,' which has a precise meaning in the context of mathematical population genetics, as a shorthand expression when describing evolutionary processes." Chew, Matthew K.; Laubichler, Manfred D. (4 July 2003), "PERCEPTIONS OF SCIENCE: Natural Enemies — Metaphor or Misconception?", Science, 301 (5629): 52–53, PMID 12846231, doi:10.1126/science.1085274, retrieved 20 March 2008
Jump up ^ Colby, Chris (1996–1997), Introduction to Evolutionary Biology, TalkOrigins Archive, retrieved 22 February 2009
^ Jump up to: a b von Sydow, M. (2014). ‘Survival of the Fittest’ in Darwinian Metaphysics – Tautology or Testable Theory? (pp. 199–222) In E. Voigts, B. Schaff & M. Pietrzak-Franger (Eds.). Reflecting on Darwin. Farnham, London: Ashgate.
^ Jump up to: a b Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. and Ferry, P.A. (2010), "Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land" (PDF), Biology Letters, 6 (4): 544–547, PMC 2936204  , PMID 20106856, doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b John S. Wilkins (1997), Evolution and Philosophy: Social Darwinism – Does evolution make might right?, TalkOrigins Archive, retrieved 21 November 2007
Jump up ^ Leonard, Thomas C. (2005), "Mistaking Eugenics for Social Darwinism: Why Eugenics is Missing from the History of American Economics" (PDF), History of Political Economy, 37 (supplement:): 200–233, doi:10.1215/00182702-37-Suppl_1-200
Jump up ^ Alan Keyes (7 July 2001), WorldNetDaily: Survival of the fittest?, WorldNetDaily, retrieved 19 November 2007
Jump up ^ Mark Isaak (2004), CA002: Survival of the fittest implies might makes right, TalkOrigins Archive, retrieved 19 November 2007
Jump up ^ Vol. 1, p. 444
Jump up ^ U. Kutschera (14 March 2003), A Comparative Analysis of the Darwin-Wallace Papers and the Development of the Concept of Natural Selection (PDF), Institut für Biologie, Universität Kassel, Germany, archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2008, retrieved 20 March 2008
Jump up ^ Darwin, Charles (1869), On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (5th ed.), London: John Murray, p. 72
Jump up ^ The principle of natural selection applied to groups of individual is known as Group selection.
Jump up ^ Herbert Spencer; Truxton Beale (1916), The Man Versus the State: A Collection of Essays, M. Kennerley (snippet)
Jump up ^ Federico Morganti (May 26, 2013). "Adaptation and Progress: Spencer’s Criticism of Lamarck". Evolution & Cognition. External link in |publisher= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Corey, Michael Anthony (1994), "Chapter 5. Natural Selection", Back to Darwin: the scientific case for Deistic evolution, Rowman and Littlefield, p. 147, ISBN 978-0-8191-9307-0
Jump up ^ Cf. von Sydow, M. (2012). From Darwinian Metaphysics towards Understanding the Evolution of Evolutionary Mechanisms. A Historical and Philosophical Analysis of Gene-Darwinism and Universal Darwinism. Universitätsverlag Göttingen.
Jump up ^ Shermer, Michael; Why People Believe Weird Things; 1997; Pages 143–144
External links[edit]
Origins of the phrase[edit]
AboutDarwin.com — Darwin's Timeline
Pioneers of Psychology
Evolution Quotations compiled by GIGA
Tautology links[edit]
Darwin's Untimely Burial by Stephen Jay Gould
Evolution and Philosophy: A Good Tautology is Hard to Find by John Wilkins, part of the talk.origins archive.
CA500: "Survival of the fittest is a tautology" from the talk.origins index to creationist claims by Mark Ridley.
Is "survival of the fittest" a tautology by Don Lindsay.
Darwin's Great Tautology by the Doubting Thomas
Morality link[edit]
CA002: Survival of the fittest implies that "might makes right"
David Hume — Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
Evolution and philosophy — Does evolution make might right? by John S. Wilkins.
"Survival of the fittest" by Alan Keyes.
Darwinism and Laissez-Faire Capitalism from the Institute for Creation Research
Kropotkin: Mutual Aid[edit]
Mutual Aid; a factor of evolution at Project Gutenberg
Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution – HTML version at the Anarchy Archives
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