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Brown tree snake
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Brown tree snake
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Colubridae
Genus: Boiga
Species: B. irregularis
Binomial name
Boiga irregularis
(Merrem, 1802)
Synonyms
Coluber irregularis Merrem, 1802
Boiga irregularis Fitzinger, 1826
Dipsas irregularis Boie, 1827
Triglyphodon irregularis Duméril & Bibron, 1854
Dipsadomorphus irregularis Boulenger, 1896
The brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) is an arboreal rear-fanged colubrid snake native to eastern and northern coastal Australia, eastern Indonesia (Sulawesi to Papua), Papua New Guinea, and a large number of islands in northwestern Melanesia. This snake is infamous for being an invasive species responsible for extirpating the majority of the native bird population in Guam.[1] It is also one of the very few colubrids found in Australia, where elapids are more common.
Contents
1 Diet
2 Reproduction
3 Venom
4 Invasive species
4.1 Underlying biology
4.1.1 General characteristics
4.1.2 Predatory behaviour
4.1.3 Native habitat
4.1.4 Current habitats
4.1.5 Physiological evidence for reproductive suppression
4.1.6 Current status
4.2 Species status and effect
4.2.1 Effect of early introduction
4.3 Population control methods
4.3.1 Capturing and poisoning methods
4.3.2 Predation on brown tree snakes
5 References
6 External links
Diet[edit]
The brown tree snake preys upon birds, lizards, bats, and rats and other small rodents in its native range.[2] It preys on birds and shrews in Guam.[3]
Due to the availability of prey and lack of predators in introduced habitats such as Guam, they have been known to grow to larger sizes than their normal 1 to 2 m (3.3 to 6.6 ft) in length.[2] The longest recorded length of this species is one found on Guam measuring 3 m (9.8 ft).[2]
Reproduction[edit]
The reproductive characteristics of the brown tree snake have not been widely studied.[2] The female is known to produce four to 12 oblong eggs, 42–47 mm (1.7–1.9 in) long and 18–22 mm (0.71–0.87 in) wide with leathery shells.[2] Females may produce up to two clutches per year depending upon seasonal variations in climate and prey abundance.[2] The female deposits the eggs in hollow logs, rock crevices, and other sites where they are likely protected from drying and high temperatures.[2] Populations on Guam may reproduce year round.[4]
Venom[edit]
Invasive species on Guam
The brown tree snake is a nocturnal, rear-fanged colubrid, possessing two small, grooved fangs at the rear of the mouth.[5] Due to the placement of the fangs and their grooved rather than hollow architecture, the venom is difficult to convey into a bite on a human, and thus is only delivered in small doses. The venom appears to be weakly neurotoxic and possibly cytotoxic with localized effects that are trivial for adult humans; serious medical consequences have been limited to children, who are more susceptible because of their low body mass.[2] The snake has been reported as aggressive,[2] but is not considered dangerous to an adult human.[5] The venom seems to be primarily used to subdue lizards, which can be more easily positioned in the rear of the mouth for venom delivery.[2]
brown tree snake, Queensland, in characteristic "S-posture"
Brown tree snake on a fence post on Guam
Brown tree snake on Guam
Invasive species[edit]
Shortly after World War II, and before 1952, the brown tree snake was accidentally transported from its native range in the South Pacific to Guam, probably as a stowaway in ship cargo or by crawling into the landing gear of Guam-bound aircraft.[2][5][6] As a result of abundant prey resources on Guam and the absence of natural predators outside of feral pigs and mangrove monitors, brown tree snake populations reached unprecedented numbers. Snakes caused the extirpation of most of the native forest vertebrate species; thousands of power outages affecting private, commercial, and military activities; widespread loss of domestic birds and pets; and considerable emotional trauma to residents and visitors alike when snakes invaded human habitats with the potential for envenomation of small children. Since Guam is a major transportation hub in the Pacific, numerous opportunities exist for the brown tree snakes on Guam to be introduced accidentally to other Pacific islands as passive stowaways in ship and air traffic from Guam.[2] To minimize this threat, trained dogs are used to search, locate, and remove brown tree snakes before outbound military and commercial cargo and transportation vessels leave the island.[7] Numerous sightings of this species have been reported on other islands including Wake Island, Tinian, Rota, Okinawa, Diego Garcia, Hawaii, and even Texas in the continental United States.[8] An incipient population is probably established on Saipan.[2] Acetaminophen has been used to help eradicate the snake on Guam.[9]
Underlying biology[edit]
General characteristics[edit]
The brown tree snake is a nocturnal, arboreal species that uses visual and chemical cues in hunting in the tropical rainforest canopy and/or on the ground.[10] It is a member of the subfamily Colubrinae, genus Boiga, which is a group of roughly twenty five species that are referred to as "cat-eyed" snakes for their vertical pupils.[11] The brown tree snake is generally 1-2 m (3-6 ft) in length in its native range. The snake is long and slender, which facilitates its climbing ability and allows it to pass through tiny spaces in buildings, logs, and other shaded locations, where it seeks refuge during daylight. Variations in coloration occur in the snake's native range, ranging from a lightly patterned brown to yellowish/green or even beige with red, saddle-shaped blotches. They are rear-fanged, have a large head in relation to their body, and can survive for extended periods of time without food.[11]
Predatory behaviour[edit]
The brown tree snake is a generalist feeder known to eat a wide variety of foods, when threatened is highly aggressive and tends to lunge and strike the aggressor repeatedly. The snake has numerous teeth, but only the last two on each side of the upper jaw have grooves, which inject venom as it bites. Therefore, the snake’s mouth must be opened as wide as possible to insert and expose its fangs. A chewing movement is used by the snake to inject the venom by means of capillary action along the grooved fangs. The venom is used to subdue and kill prey on which the snake feeds; however, the venom is not considered dangerous to adult humans. In addition to subduing its victim with its venom, the brown tree snake often wraps its body around the prey, like a constrictor, to immobilize the prey while chewing and consuming the animal.[2]
Native habitat[edit]
The brown tree snake is native to coastal Australia, Papua New Guinea, and a large number of islands in northwestern Melanesia. The species occurs on variably sized islands, extending from Sulawesi in eastern Indonesia through Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands and into the wettest coastal areas of Northern Australia.[10] The snakes on Guam represent the only documented reproductive population outside the native range. Since January 2016, however, four snakes have been sighted on the island of Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands.[12]
Current habitats[edit]
The brown tree snake is not restricted to forested habitats, as it can also occur in grasslands and sparsely forested areas, as well. In Papua New Guinea, it occupies a wide variety of habitats at elevations up to 1,200 m.[13] It is most commonly found in trees, caves, and near limestone cliffs, but frequently comes down to the ground to forage at night. It hides during the day in the crowns of palm trees, hollow logs, rock crevices, caves, and even the dark corners of thatched houses near the roof.[10] Based on the frequency of sightings of this snake, in relation to buildings, poultry, and caged birds, the snake is considered to be common in human-disturbed habitats.[14]
Physiological evidence for reproductive suppression[edit]
Environmental stressors such as lack of shelter, climate change, overcrowding, and loss of prey have been researched as primary causes of diminished snake density, as they have been found to have direct correlation with the reproductive success of the snake. Current research on the breeding patterns of the brown tree snake is being conducted in hopes of further understanding how these environmental stressors are affecting the population density of the snake on Guam.[15]
A study conducted by I.T. Moore predicted that low body condition would correlate to high levels of stress hormones and low levels of sex steroids in free-living brown tree snakes on Guam when compared with the native snake population in Australia and snakes held in captivity on Guam. After extensive research, the body condition in the free-living snakes was found to be significantly different from the body condition of native and captive snakes.[15] The results determined, "depressed body condition and elevated plasmacorticosteron levels in the free-living animals suggest that a lack of food resources was placing individuals under chronic stress, resulting in suppression of the reproductive system." The study suggested that snakes living under stressful conditions such as high population densities or low prey resources had suppressed reproduction at multiple stages, including steroidogenesis and gametogenesis.[16]
Current status[edit]
Currently, the brown tree snake population on Guam is declining with an equilibrium population size predicted to be roughly 30 to 50 snakes per hectare (12-20 per acre). The decline in snake population may be identified as a result of depleted food resources, adult mortality, and/or suppressed reproduction.[17] The brown tree snake population on Guam has exceeded the carrying capacity of the island.
Species status and effect[edit]
Boiga irregularis from Washington DC Zoo
Effect of early introduction[edit]
The introduction of the brown tree snake on Guam after WWII has had a significant impact on the community dynamics of the island. Upon its introduction the brown tree snake population exploded and spread across the entirety of Guam. The brown tree snake population on the island has reached peak densities of greater than 100 snakes per hectare.[17] This population spike was caused by the copious amount of resources newly available to the brown tree snake upon its introduction. The limitations on the snake's population in its native range is predominantly food based. The snake's food source is far more limited in its native range than on the island of Guam as the prey in its natural range boasts significantly more natural defences to the snake than the prey on Guam.[13]
The predominant population affected by the snake's introduction was that of native bird species such as the Mariana fruit dove, the Guam flycatcher, the rufous fantail and the Micronesian myzomela. The introduction of the brown tree snake into Guam has resulted in extinction of twelve native bird species in total. The Guam National Wildlife Refuge is attempting to prevent the extinction of additional bird species endangered by the snake.[18] Other species significantly affected by the invasion of these snakes were small lizards and small mammals.[15] Research has indicated a direct correlation of the spread of these snakes across the island to the decrease in the populations of these native species. Furthermore, the introduction of the brown tree snake has had an indirect, negative impact on vegetative diversity as its intense predatory nature has decreased populations of vital pollinators including native birds and fruit bats. Data collected from nearby islands lacking brown tree snake populations depict a significant difference in vegetative species richness, that is, islands close to and similar to Guam in which the brown tree snake has not been introduced have greater vegetative species diversity. Overall, the vertebrate fauna and native flora of Guam have suffered tremendously because of the introduction of the brown tree snake.[17]
Population control methods[edit]
Capturing and poisoning methods[edit]
Biodegradable areal bait cartridges consisting each of a dead mouse and 80-mg acetaminophen tablets, designed to catch on trees in areas where brown tree snakes are invasive
Given the environmental impact of the brown tree snake, studies have attempted to provide a capturing methodology to alleviate the detrimental effects of the tree snake. The use of mice as bait has shown considerable reduction effects when combined with acetaminophen, to which the snake is particularly sensitive, in a mark-recapture experiment leading to potential widespread application in Guam.[19] When utilizing a precisely defined treated plot with results corrected for immigration and emigration, the additive effect of both acetaminophen and mice usage shows a 0% survival rate of the brown tree snake. In the study, 80 mg of acetaminophen was inserted into mouse carcasses.[16] In addition, one study showed that increasing inter-trap spacing would not only increase efficiency, but also not compromise efficacy as 20-, 30-, and 40-meter long perimeter trap lines were compared and no difference was found.[20] Another study echoed the aforementioned notion of increasing inter-trap spacing.[21]
Predation on brown tree snakes[edit]
An investigative study was performed to find predators of the brown tree snake that could possibly serve as a population control method. In this study two actual predators were identified and 55 potential predators were identified: the two actual predators identified were the red-bellied black snake and the cane toad.[22] Actual predators were identified by evidence showing that they would actually prey upon and consume the brown tree snake in a natural habitat whereas potential predators were identified as species that were only physically capable of consuming the brown tree snake.[23] The research collected in this study suggested that even with the introduction of brown tree snake predation, it was unlikely this would serve as an effective brown tree snake population control method.[22] One reason for this conclusion was that the identified actual predators of the brown tree snake are generalist feeders and would cause further detriment to other native island species.[23]
Another possible negative outcome of introducing species as a control method for the brown tree snake population is predation on juvenile cane toads and red-bellied snakes by brown tree snakes themselves, because they are opportunistic and generalist feeders.[23] This investigation determined that the environmental and ecological risk associated with the introduction of these predators was too high to implement.[22] Lastly, red-bellied snakes could pose a threat to the health of humans. The cost of introduction of such predatory species outweighs the benefits and is not practical.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Invasive Species: Animals - Brown Tree Snake, National Agricultural Library, United States Department of Agriculture, Retrieved 2010-08-31
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Fritts, T.H.; D. Leasman-Tanner (2001). "The Brown Treesnake on Guam: How the arrival of one invasive species damaged the ecology, commerce, electrical systems, and human health on Guam: A comprehensive information source". U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved 2008-09-11.
Jump up ^ Pianka, Eric R.; King, Dennis; King, Ruth Allen. (2004). Varanoid Lizards of the World. Indiana University Press, 588 pages ISBN 0-253-34366-6
Jump up ^ Savidge, Julie A.; Qualls, Fiona J.; Rodda, Gordon H. (April 2007). "Reproductive Biology of the Brown Tree Snake, Boiga irregularis (Reptilia: Colubridae), during Colonization of Guam and Comparison with That in Their Native Range". Pacific Science. 61 (2): 191–199. doi:10.2984/1534-6188(2007)61[191:RBOTBT]2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mehrtens, John (1987). Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling. ISBN 0-8069-6461-8.
Jump up ^ Conniff, Richard (June 12, 2005). "'Out of Eden': The Origin of Invasive Species". New York Times. New York City, NY, USA. Retrieved 2014-09-01.
Jump up ^ Vice, Daniel S.; Engeman, Richard M.; Hall, Marc A.; Clark, Craig S. (2009). "Working Dogs: The Last Line of Defense for Preventing Dispersal of Brown Treesnakes from Guam". In Helton, William S. Canine Ergonomics: The Science of Working Dogs (PDF). Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. pp. 195–204. ISBN 978-1420079913.
Jump up ^ Kraus, Fred (2004). "ALIEN SPECIES". Department of Land and Natural Resources State of Hawaii. Retrieved 2008-09-11.
Jump up ^ Lendon, Brad (2010-09-07). "Tylenol-loaded mice dropped from air to control snakes". CNN.com. Retrieved 2010-09-07.
^ Jump up to: a b c Campbell, S.R.; S.P. Mackessy (2008). "Microhabitat use by brown treesnakes (Boiga irregularis): Effects of moonlight and prey" (PDF). Journal of Herpetology. 42 (2): 246–250. doi:10.1670/07-0681.1. JSTOR 40060508. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-13. Retrieved 2011-02-11.
^ Jump up to: a b Fritts, T.H.; G.H. Rodda (1998). "The role of introduced species in the degradation of island ecosystems: A case history of Guam". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 29: 113–140. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.29.1.113.
Jump up ^ http://www.saipantribune.com/index.php/brown-tree-snake-sighted-lower-base/
^ Jump up to: a b Bomford, M.; F. Kraus (2008). "Predicting establishment for alien reptiles and amphibians: a role for climate matching". Biological Invasions. 11: 713–724. doi:10.1007/s10530-008-9285-3.
Jump up ^ D'Evelyn, ST; Tarui, N; Burnett, K; Roumasset, JA (December 2008). "Learning-by-catching: uncertain invasive-species populations and the value of information". Journal of Environmental Management. 89 (4): 284–92. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.04.027. PMID 17767994.
^ Jump up to: a b c Moore, Ignacio T; Greene, Michael J; Lerner, Darren T; Asher, Chance E; Krohmer, Randolph W; Hess, David L; Whittier, Joan; Mason, Robert T (January 2005). "Physiological evidence for reproductive suppression in the introduced population of brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis) on Guam". Biological Conservation. 121 (1): 91–98. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2004.04.012.
^ Jump up to: a b Savarie, P.J.; J.A. Shivik (2001). "Use of acetaminophen for large-scale control of brown tree snakes". Journal of Wildlife Management. 65 (2): 356–365. doi:10.2307/3802916.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mortensen, H.S.; Y.L. Dupont (2008). "Snake in paradise: Disturbance of plant reproduction following extirpation of bird flower-visitors on Guam". Biological Conservation. 141 (8): 2146–2154. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.06.014. Retrieved 2011-02-11.
Jump up ^ Maxfield, Barbara (2009-07-22). "Guam National Wildlife Refuge Draft Comprehensive Conservation Plan Released for Public Review and Comment" (PDF). US Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved 2012-02-21.
Jump up ^ Johnson, MA (2 December 2013). "Two thousand mice dropped on Guam by parachute — to kill snakes". NBCNews.com. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Engeman, Richard M.; Linnell, Michael A. (December 2004). "The effect of trap spacing on the capture of brown tree snakes on Guam". International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. USDA National Wildlife Research Center. 54 (4): 265–267. doi:10.1016/j.ibiod.2004.03.003.
Jump up ^ Engeman, Richard M.; Vice, Daniel S.; Nelson, George; Muña, Ernest (April 2000). "Brown tree snakes effectively removed from a large plot of land on Guam by perimeter trapping". International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. USDA National Wildlife Research Center. 45 (3-4): 139–142. doi:10.1016/S0964-8305(00)00039-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Caudell, J.N.; M.R. Conover (2001). "Predation of brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis) in Australia". International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. 49 (2-3): 107–111. doi:10.1016/s0964-8305(01)00110-x.
^ Jump up to: a b c Burnett, K.M.; S. D'Evelyn (2008). "Beyond the lamppost: Optimal prevention and control of the Brown Tree Snake in Hawaii". 67 (1). Ecological Economics: 66–74. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Boiga irregularis.
Species Profile- Brown Tree Snake (Boiga irregularis), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for brown tree snake.
Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q900781
Wikispecies: Boiga irregularis
ADW: Boiga_irregularis
EoL: 795579
GBIF: 2457884
iNaturalist: 27686
IRMNG: 11196197
ITIS: 174206
IUCN: 196562
NCBI: 92519
WoRMS: 594754
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brown_tree_snake&oldid=856206823"
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Rings of Power
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Power ring (disambiguation).
This Middle-earth-related article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in-universe style. Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective. (February 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Rings of Power in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium are magic rings created by Sauron or by the Elves of Eregion under Sauron's tutelage. Sauron intended three of the rings to be worn by Elves, Seven by Dwarves, Nine by Men, and one, the One Ring, by Sauron himself in Mordor.
Sauron intended the rings to subvert these races of Middle-earth to his power, since the One Ring controlled the others. Sauron's plan was not completely successful, for the Elves hid their rings and did not use them while Sauron held the One, and the Dwarves did not respond to the One's control as Sauron expected. But the Men who wore the Nine were enslaved by Sauron, and became the Nazgûl ("ringwraiths").
Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings is largely concerned with the attempt of Sauron to recover the One and the efforts of the West to forestall him by destroying it. The One is destroyed near the end of the War of the Ring when it falls into the Cracks of Doom in Orodruin, along with Gollum, who had bitten off Frodo’s finger on which he was wearing the Ring. Tolkien is not entirely clear about what happened to the other rings, though he implied that the power of any that survived came to an end. After the War of the Ring, the three Elven Rings were taken by their bearers over the sea to the Undying Lands.
Contents
1 Literature
1.1 The making of the rings
1.1.1 The Verse of the Rings
1.2 The Nine
1.3 The Seven
1.4 The Three
1.5 The One
2 Adaptations
3 See also
4 References
4.1 General references
Literature[edit]
The making of the rings[edit]
Tolkien's essay "Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age" in The Silmarillion gives the background of the making of the rings.[1] At the end of the First Age, Sauron evaded the call of the Valar to surrender, and fled to Middle-earth. Midway through the Second Age he came in disguise as Annatar ("Lord of Gifts") to the Elven-smiths of Eregion, who were led by Celebrimbor, and taught them the craft of forging magic rings. Tolkien writes that the Elves made many lesser rings as essays in the craft,[2] but eventually with Sauron's assistance they forged the Seven and the Nine. The Three were made by Celebrimbor himself without Sauron's assistance; they remained unsullied by his touch.
Sauron returned to Mordor, and in his forge in Mount Doom he made the One Ring, imbuing it with a large portion of his power. Its purpose was to dominate and command the wearers of the other Rings. However, when Sauron put on the One Ring and recited the incantation inscribed on it, the Elves became aware of him, and understood who he was and his purpose. The words he spoke are in the language that Westron speakers call the Black Speech:
The inscription on the One Ring is a Tengwar rendering of the language known as Black Speech.
Ash nazg durbatulûk,
Ash nazg gimbatul,
Ash nazg thrakatulûk
Agh burzum-ishi krimpatul.
One Ring to rule them all,
One Ring to find them,
One Ring to bring them all,
And in the darkness bind them.
When the Elves wearing the rings discerned Sauron's intention, they immediately removed them and hid them. Sauron invaded the West to recover the rings that the Elves had made; much of the West, including Eregion, was destroyed before he was driven back to Mordor. Sauron recovered the Nine and three of the Seven, but not the Three Elven Rings, which remained hidden.
The Verse of the Rings[edit]
The words inscribed on the One Ring come from the following verse, which describes 20 Rings of Power:
Three Rings for the Elven-kings under the sky,
Seven for the Dwarf-lords in their halls of stone,
Nine for Mortal Men doomed to die,
One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne,
In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie,
One ring to rule them all, one ring to find them,
One ring to bring them all and in the darkness bind them
In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie.
— The Lord of the Rings, Epigraph
The Nine[edit]
Main article: Nazgûl
Later in the Second Age, Sauron gave the Nine to powerful men, "kings, sorcerers, and warriors of old".[3] All of them fell under the rings' dominance, and they became the Nazgûl (Ringwraiths), spirits of terror whom Sauron could command even without the One. Their lives were extended indefinitely by the rings, and they became Sauron's chief servants.
To mortal observers who were not themselves wearing a Ring, a Ring of Power seemed to render the wearer invisible.[2] Although the Nazgûl could not be seen, they emanated an evil presence;[4] their steeds were also visible. When they wished to adopt a noticeable form, they wore dark cloaks over their invisible bodies.
It is not clear whether the Nazgûl kept their rings. Tolkien says both "the Nine the Nazgûl keep"[5] and that Sauron had gathered the Nine to himself,[2] though in the latter case his meaning may be metaphorical. When the Nazgûl are destroyed, no mention is made of their rings.
Only two of the Nazgûl are identified in the texts: the Witch-king of Angmar was the leader of the nine, and his second in command was Khamûl, an Easterling.[6] Khamûl is the only Nazgûl identified by name. Three of the Nine were Númenórean.[7]
The Seven[edit]
Also in the Second Age Sauron gave the Seven to the seven Dwarf-lords (though the Dwarves of Moria maintained a tradition that the ring given to Durin III came directly from the Elven-smiths).[8][9] Gandalf mentions a rumour that the seven hoards of the Dwarves began each with a single golden ring, and although the Dwarves used their rings to increase their treasure, Tolkien does not explain how the rings accomplished this (save for a reference that the rings "need gold to breed gold"). The main power of the Seven on their wearers was to excite their sense of avarice. The wearers did not become invisible, did not get extended life-spans, nor succumb directly to Sauron's control – though he could still influence them to anger and greed.[1]
Over the years, Sauron recovered three rings from the Dwarves, the last from Thráin II during his final captivity in Dol Guldur, some years before the beginning of The Hobbit. The remaining four, according to Gandalf, were consumed by dragons.[2]
Until the Council of Elrond, the Dwarves did not know that Thráin had held the ring of Durin's line and had lost it to Sauron. They thought instead that it might have been lost when Thrór was killed by Azog in Moria.[5] One of the motivations for Balin's doomed expedition to Moria was the possibility of recovering the ring. Sauron's messenger attempted to bribe the Dwarves of Erebor for news of Bilbo (the last known bearer of the One) with the promise of the return of the remaining three of the Seven and control over the Mines of Moria.
The Three[edit]
Main article: Three Rings
The Three Rings of the Elves were called Narya, the Ring of Fire (set with a ruby); Nenya, the Ring of Water or Ring of Adamant (made of mithril and set with a "white stone"), and Vilya, the Ring of Air, the "mightiest of the Three" (made of gold and set with a sapphire).[10]
Before the sack of Eregion, Celebrimbor gave Vilya and Narya to Gil-galad and Nenya to Galadriel. Gil-galad later gave Narya to Círdan, and gave Vilya to Elrond.
The Three remained hidden from Sauron and untouched by him. During the Third Age, after he lost the One, they were used for the preservation and enhancement of three remaining realms of the Eldar. Vilya was used by Elrond in Rivendell, Nenya by Galadriel in Lothlórien, and Narya by Círdan in Lindon. When the Istari, or wizards, arrived about T.A. 1100, Círdan gave Narya to Gandalf, who bore it until the end of the Third Age.
During the period of The Lord of the Rings, the Three were borne by Elrond, Galadriel, and Gandalf; but until the end of the book their rings are not seen. Only Frodo, the bearer of the One, sees Galadriel's ring, and only when she draws his attention to it. At the end of the book, these three take their rings, now visible and powerless, over the sea to the Undying Lands.
Although the Verse of the Rings describes Three Rings for the Elven-kings, the only Elven king who actually held a ring was Gil-galad. He held both Vilya and Narya, but entrusted them to Elrond and Círdan before perishing in Mordor.
The One[edit]
Main article: One Ring
Unlike the other Rings of Power, the One was unadorned. It bore only the inscription of the incantation Sauron spoke when he made it, and even that was invisible unless the ring was heated.[2] Though the other rings could be destroyed in dragon-fire, the One could be unmade only in the unyielding fires of Mount Doom where it was forged.[2]
When Sauron made the ring, he was obliged to transfer much of his power into it so that it could control the other rings, themselves objects of great potency. With the ring, Sauron remained very powerful, and he could use it to dominate the will of others; he very quickly corrupted Númenor into the worship of Melkor and open rebellion against the Valar.
When Isildur cut the ring from his hand, Sauron became much weaker. He required the ring to effect his conquest of Middle-earth, and spent most of the Third Age attempting to get it back.
The ring had a great effect on the human bearers who held it in the interim. It granted them indefinite life; though the effort of living became more difficult as time went on, for it did not grant new life.[2] If they wore it, it made them invisible, enhanced their hearing, and made the shadowy world of the wraiths visible to them. It exerted a malicious influence; Gandalf mentions that though a bearer might begin with good intentions, the good intentions would not last.[2] The Ring would give its bearer a fraction of Sauron's power, proportionate with the bearer's strength and force of will. Gollum, Bilbo, Sam, and Frodo only became invisible, although when Frodo bound Gollum to his service in The Two Towers, he indicated that he could use the Ring to control Gollum (because the Ring had mastered Gollum long ago). Gandalf and Galadriel, however, recognized that they could use the full power of the Ring, becoming even more powerful than Sauron himself, but they resisted, knowing that in the end, the Ring would corrupt them. Gandalf explained to Frodo that, with great concentration and training, even he could tap into the Ring's power, but probably at the cost of his sanity.
The One Ring possessed something of a will of its own. Its only accepted master was Sauron himself, and it would seek to leave any other bearer when it would cause the greatest harm, or when it might return to Sauron. Bilbo warned Frodo of this, and Frodo kept it on a chain so that it would not slip off unnoticed. In the end, Gollum succumbs to the malevolent influence of the ring, defies Frodo, and takes the ring for himself. While dancing with joy over the recovery of the ring, Gollum falls into the Cracks of Doom in Orodruin, where the ring is destroyed. With the destruction of the Ring, Gandalf explains that Sauron is weakened to the point that he will never be able to materialize again.[11]
Adaptations[edit]
Ralph Bakshi's 1978 animated film begins with the forging of the Rings of Power and the events of the Last Alliance's war against Sauron, all portrayed in silhouette against a red background.
Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring begins with a similar prologue, though longer and more detailed. The three Elven rings are shown being cast using a cuttlebone mold, an ancient primitive casting technique. Additionally, Tolkien illustrators John Howe and Alan Lee, employed as conceptual designers for the films, have cameos as two of the nine human Ring-bearers who become Nazgûl.
See also[edit]
Middle-earth portal
"Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age"
Magic ring
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Silmarillion, Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Fellowship, The Shadow of the Past
Jump up ^ The Silmarillion, "Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age", p. 289.
Jump up ^ Unfinished Tales, "The Hunt for the Ring", p. 338.
^ Jump up to: a b Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel, "The Council of Elrond", The Fellowship of the Ring .
Jump up ^ Unfinished Tales, "The Hunt for the Ring", p. 338.
Jump up ^ The Silmarillion, "Akallabêth, p. 267.
Jump up ^ The Lord of the Rings, Appendix A, "III. Durin's Folk".
Jump up ^ Unfinished Tales, "The History of Galadriel and Celeborn", p. 238.
Jump up ^ The Return of the King, "The Grey Havens", passim.
Jump up ^ Return of the King, The Last Debate
General references[edit]
Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954), The Fellowship of the Ring, The Lord of the Rings, Boston: Houghton Mifflin (published 1987), ISBN 0-395-08254-4
Tolkien, J. R. R. (1955), The Return of the King, The Lord of the Rings, Boston: Houghton Mifflin (published 1987), ISBN 0-395-08256-0
Tolkien, J. R. R. (1977), Christopher Tolkien, ed., The Silmarillion, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-395-25730-1
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