text:
Th-fronting
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Th-fronting refers to the pronunciation of the English "th" as "f" or "v". When th-fronting is applied, /θ/ becomes /f/ (for example, three is pronounced as free) and /ð/ becomes /v/ (for example, bathe is pronounced as bave). Unlike the fronting of /θ/ to /f/, the fronting of /ð/ to /v/ usually does not occur word-initially (for example, while bathe can be pronounced as bave, that is rarely pronounced as *vat) although this was found in the speech of South-East London in a survey completed 1990-4.[1] Th-fronting is a prominent feature of several dialects of English, notably Cockney, Essex dialect, Estuary English, some West Country and Yorkshire dialects, Newfoundland English, African American Vernacular English, and Liberian English, as well as in many non-native English speakers (e.g. Hong Kong English, though the details differ among those accents).[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Uses
2 Example
3 Increase in use
4 Homophonous pairs
5 See also
6 References
Uses[edit]
Actor Simon Pegg wearing a t-shirt with the slogan Norf London, representing "North London" with th-fronting
The first reference to "th"-fronting in London speech occurs in 1787.[3] By 1850 it appears to have been considered a standard feature of working class speech in the city, and had the same status in Bristol by 1880.[4] The use of the labiodental fricatives [f] and [v] for the dental fricatives [θ] and [ð] was noted in Yorkshire in 1876.[5] In his 1892 book A Grammar of the Dialect of Windhill, Joseph Wright noted variable th-fronting in his district in words such as think, third and smithy.[6]
In the Survey of English Dialects, th-fronting was found in two main areas of England. One was the area around Bristol in the West Country. The other was in the area around London and Essex.[7]
In 1988, it was noted as spreading amongst non-standard accents in England.[8] Although th-fronting is found occasionally in the middle and upper (middle) class English accents as well, there is still a marked social difference between working and middle class speakers. Th-fronting is regarded as a 'boundary marker' between Cockney and Estuary English, as depicted in the first descriptions of the latter form of English[9][10] and confirmed by a phonetic study conducted by researcher Ulrike Altendorf. Nevertheless, Altendorf points out that th-fronting is found occasionally in middle class (Estuary) speech as well and concludes that "it is currently making its way into the middle class English accent and thus into Estuary English".[11]
In popular music, the singer Joe Brown's 1960s backing band was christened The Bruvvers (that is, "the brothers" with th-fronting). The 1960 musical Fings Ain't Wot They Used T'Be was stated to be a Cockney Comedy.
Up until the late 20th century th-fronting was common in speakers of Australian English from North Brisbane and the Sunshine Coast of Queensland. This may stem from the relatively high number of London cockneys who settled there during the Queensland gold rushes of the 19th century.[citation needed] The practice is gradually dying out as the influx of interstate and international immigrants increases.
Example[edit]
The following is a sample of a speaker of the Cockney accent who has th-fronting:
http://www.gazzaro.it/accents/sound/Cockney.mp3
My dad came from Wapping and me mum came from Poplar. Me dad was one of eleven kids… and Wapping in them days really was one of the poorest parts of London. I mean they really didn't have shoes on their feet. I'm talking about seventy years ago now. Erm… and Poplar was… sli… just slightly a cut above Wapping; erm… you was either East End respectable or you was sort of East End villain, you know, and my family was respectable on both sides. But me father had a very tough time because his father died when he was nineteen, leaving him the only one working to bring up eleven brothers… ten brothers and sisters and on a Thursday night he'd sometimes go home and the youngest two would be crying in the corner and he'd say “What's the matter with them, ma?” “Oh, well, Harry, you know it's Thursday night, and you don't get paid till tomorrow.” and they literally didn't have any food in the house.
In that recording father, brother and either are pronounced [ˈfɑːvə], [ˈbrʌvə] and [ˈiːvə]; Thursday is pronounced [ˈfɜːzdi].
Increase in use[edit]
Th-fronting in the speech of working-class adolescents in Glasgow was reported in 1998, provoking public as well as academic interest. The finding of th-fronting in Glaswegian creates a difficulty for models of language change which hinge on dialect contact associated with geographical mobility since the Glaswegian speakers who used [f] most in the 1997 sample are also those with the lowest geographical mobility. In addition, th-fronting was reported as "a relatively new phenomenon" in Edinburgh in March 2013.[12]
Homophonous pairs[edit]
Homophonous pairs[show]
/f, v/
/θ, ð/
IPA
Notes
barf bath ˈbɑːf Non-rhotic accents with trap-bath split.
deaf death ˈdɛf
duff doth ˈdʌf
elf health ˈɛlf With H-dropping.
even heathen ˈiːvən With H-dropping.
ever heather ˈɛvə(r) With H-dropping.
fain thane ˈfeɪn
fain thegn ˈfeɪn
fane thane ˈfeɪn
fane thegn ˈfeɪn
feign thane ˈfeɪn
feign thegn ˈfeɪn
fie thigh ˈfaɪ
fief thief ˈfiːf
fin thin ˈfɪn
fink think ˈfɪŋk
Finn thin ˈfɪn
first thirst ˈfɜː(r)st
fissile thistle ˈfɪsəl Some accents pronounce fissile as /ˈfɪsaɪl/.
for thaw ˈfɔː(r) Non-rhotic accents.
for Thor ˈfɔː(r)
ford thawed ˈfɔːd Non-rhotic accents with horse-hoarse merger.
fore thaw ˈfɔː Non-rhotic accents with horse-hoarse merger.
fore Thor ˈfɔː(r) With horse-hoarse merger.
fort thought ˈfɔːt Non-rhotic accents with horse-hoarse merger.
fought thought ˈfɔːt
four thaw ˈfɔː(r) Non-rhotic accents with horse-hoarse merger.
four Thor ˈfɔː(r) With horse-hoarse merger.
Fred thread ˈfrɛd
free three ˈfriː
frees threes ˈfriːz
freeze threes ˈfriːz
fresh thresh ˈfrɛʃ
fret threat ˈfrɛt
frieze threes ˈfriːz
fro throe ˈfrəʊ
fro throw ˈfrəʊ
froze throes ˈfrəʊz
froze throws ˈfrəʊz
funder thunder ˈfʌndə(r)
furred third ˈfɜː(r)d
furrow thorough ˈfʌrəʊ Some accents pronounce thorough as /ˈfʌrə/, although some also pronounce furrow as /ˈfʌrə/.
fervour; fervor further ˈfɜː(r)və(r)
golf goth ˈɡɒf Some accents pronounce golf as /ˈɡɒlf/.
lave lathe ˈleɪv
lever leather ˈlɛvə(r) Some accents pronounce lever as /ˈliːvə(r)/.
live lithe ˈlaɪv
loaf loath ˈləʊf
loaves loathes ˈləʊvz
miff myth ˈmɪf
never nether ˈnɛvə(r)
oaf oath ˈəʊf
phi thigh ˈfaɪ
Ralph wraith ˈreɪf Some accents pronounce Ralph as /ˈrælf/, /ˈrɑːlf/ or /ˈrɑːf/
Ralph wrath ˈrɑːf Some accents pronounce Ralph as /ˈrælf/, /ˈrɑːlf/ or /ˈreɪf/. Some accents pronounce wrath as /ˈræf/ or /ˈrɔːf/.
reave wreathe ˈriːv
reaves wreathes ˈriːvz
reaves wreaths ˈriːvz
reef wreath ˈriːf
reeve wreathe ˈriːv
reeves wreathes ˈriːvz
reeves wreaths ˈriːvz
rive writhe ˈraɪv
roof ruth ˈruːf Some accents pronounce roof as /ˈrʊf/.
sheave sheathe ˈʃiːv Some accents pronounce sheave as /ˈʃɪv/.
sheaves sheathes ˈʃiːvz Some accents pronounce sheaves as /ˈʃɪvz/.
sheaves sheaths ˈʃiːvz Some accents pronounce sheaves as /ˈʃɪvz/.
sliver slither ˈslɪvə(r)
whiff with ˈwɪf With wine-whine merger. Some accents pronounce with as /ˈwɪv/.
See also[edit]
List of th-fronting homophones
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Laura Tollfree, South East London English: discrete versus continuous modelling of consonantal reduction, p.172 in Urban Voices, edited by Paul Folkes and Gerard Docherty, published 1999 by Arnold, London
Jump up ^ Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 96–97, 328–30, 498, 500, 553, 557–58, 635. ISBN 0-521-24224-X.
Jump up ^ The Oxford Handbook of the History of English, edited by Terttu Nevalainen, Elizabeth Closs Traugot. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Of Varying Language and Opposing Creed': New Insights Into Late Modern English, edited by Javier Pérez-Guerra. Verlag Peter Lang. p. 38.
Jump up ^ Upton, Clive (2012). "Modern Regional English in the British Isles". In Mugglestone, Lynda. The Oxford History of English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 395.
Jump up ^ A Grammar of the Dialect of Windhill, Joseph Wright, page 91
Jump up ^ Britain, David; Cheshire, Jenny, eds. (2003). "Dialect levelling and geographical diffusion in British English". Social Dialectology: In Honour of Peter Trudgill. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. p. 233.
Jump up ^ Trudgill, Peter (1988). "Norwich revisited: Recent linguistic changes in an English urban dialect". English World-Wide. 9: 33–49. doi:10.1075/eww.9.1.03tru.
Jump up ^ Rosewarne, David (1984). "Estuary English". Times Educational Supplement, 19 (October 1984)
Jump up ^ Wells, John (1994). Transcribing Estuary English - a discussion document. Speech Hearing and Language: UCL Work in Progress, volume 8, 1994, pages 259-267
Jump up ^ Altendorf, Ulrike (1999). Estuary English: is English going Cockney? In: Moderna Språk, XCIII, 1, 1-11
Jump up ^ Schleef, Erik; Ramsammy, Michael (2013). "Labiodental fronting of /θ/ in London and Edinburgh: a cross-dialectal study". English Language & Linguistics. Cambridge. 17 (1): 25–54. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
[show]
v
t
e
History of English
Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Germanic
Proto-West-Germanic
Anglo-Frisian languages
Old English
Anglo-Norman language
Middle English
Early Modern English
Modern English
[hide]
Phonological history
General
Old English
Vowels
Great Vowel Shift
low unrounded vowels
low back vowels
high back vowels
high front vowels
diphthongs
changes before historic /l/
changes before historic /r/
trisyllabic laxing
Northern Cities Vowel Shift
Consonants
rhoticity
flapping
t-glottalization
l-vocalization
consonant clusters
h-dropping
wh
th
th-fronting
ð (eth)
þ (thorn)
th-stopping
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Th-fronting&oldid=800161112"
Categories:
English phonology
Splits and mergers in English phonology
English th
Hidden categories:
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2010
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 11 September 2017, at 20:59.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: b

values:
mbox-text plainlist
vertical-align:middle; font-size:95%;

value: tbody

value: table

attrs: role class style

values: background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000;width: 22em;

values:
/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_th
mw-redirect
Pronunciation of English th

values: Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

values:
/wiki/West_Country_dialects
mw-redirect
West Country dialects

values:
/wiki/English_English
mw-redirect
English English

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2010)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

values:
/wiki/Horse-hoarse_merger
mw-redirect
Horse-hoarse merger

values:
/wiki/Wine-whine_merger
mw-redirect
Wine-whine merger

values: wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed jquery-tablesorter

values: wikt:Appendix:List of dialect-dependent homophones

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1075%2Feww.9.1.03tru

values: Phonological history of English low back vowels

values: Phonological history of English high back vowels

values: Phonological history of English high front vowels

values: Phonological history of English diphthongs

values: English-language vowel changes before historic /l/

values: English-language vowel changes before historic /r/

values: Phonological history of English consonants

values: Phonological history of English consonant clusters

values: nowraplinks collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:Splits and mergers in English phonology

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2010

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values:
/wiki/Th-fronting
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Th-fronting rootpage-Th-fronting skin-vector action-view


text:
Volcanic rock
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Volcanics" redirects here. For Volcanic pistols, see Volcanic Repeating Arms.
For the album, see Volcanic Rock (album).
Ignimbrite is a deposit of a pyroclastic flow.
Volcanic rock (often shortened to volcanics in scientific contexts) is a rock formed from magma erupted from a volcano. In other words, it differs from other igneous rock by being of volcanic origin. Like all rock types, the concept of volcanic rock is artificial, and in nature volcanic rocks grade into hypabyssal and metamorphic rocks and constitute an important element of some sediments and sedimentary rocks. For these reasons, in geology, volcanics and shallow hypabyssal rocks are not always treated as distinct. In the context of Precambrian shield geology, the term "volcanic" is often applied to what are strictly metavolcanic rocks.
Volcanic rocks are among the most common rock types on Earth's surface, particularly in the oceans. On land, they are very common at plate boundaries and in flood basalt provinces. It has been estimated that volcanic rocks cover about 8% of the Earth's current land surface.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics
1.1 Setting and size
1.2 Texture
1.3 Chemistry
1.4 Mineralogy
2 Naming
3 Composition of volcanic rocks
4 See also
5 References
Characteristics[edit]
Setting and size[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2011)
Lava
Tephra
Volcanic bomb
Lapilli
Volcanic ash
Classification of Volcaniclastic rocks and sediments[2][3]
Pyroclastic deposit
Clast size in mm
Pyroclast
Primarily unconsolidated: tephra
Primarily consolidated: pyroclastic rock
> 64 mm Bomb, block Agglomerate, bed of blocks or bomb, block tephra Agglomerate, pyroclastic breccia
64 to 2 mm Lapillus Layer, bed of lapilli or lapilli tephra Lapilli tuff
2 to 1/16 mm Coarse ash grain Coarse ash Coarse (ash tuff)
< 1/16 mm Fine ash grain (dust grain) Fine ash (dust) Fine (ash) tuff (dust tuff)
Texture[edit]
Photomicrograph of a volcanic lithic fragment (sand grain); upper picture is plane-polarized light, bottom picture is cross-polarized light, scale box at left-center is 0.25 millimeter.
Volcanic rocks are usually fine-grained or aphanitic to glass in texture. They often contain clasts of other rocks and phenocrysts. Phenocrysts are crystals that are larger than the matrix and are identifiable with the unaided eye. Rhomb porphyry is an example with large rhomb shaped phenocrysts embedded in a very fine grained matrix.
Volcanic rocks often have a vesicular texture caused by voids left by volatiles trapped in the molten lava. Pumice is a highly vesicular rock produced in explosive volcanic eruptions.
Chemistry[edit]
Most modern petrologists classify igneous rocks, including volcanic rocks, by their chemistry when dealing with their origin. The fact that different mineralogies and textures may be developed from the same initial magmas has led petrologists to rely heavily on chemistry to look at a volcanic rock's origin.
The chemistry of volcanic rocks is dependent on two things: the initial composition of the primary magma and the subsequent differentiation. Differentiation of most volcanic rocks tends to increase the silica (SiO2) content, mainly by crystal fractionation.
The initial composition of most volcanic rocks is basaltic, albeit small differences in initial compositions may result in multiple differentiation series. The most common of these series are tholeiitic, calc-alkaline, and alkaline.
Mineralogy[edit]
Most volcanic rocks share a number of common minerals. Differentiation of volcanic rocks tends to increase the silica (SiO2) content mainly by fractional crystallization. Thus, more evolved volcanic rocks tend to be richer in minerals with a higher amount of silica such as phyllo and tectosilicates including the feldspars, quartz polymorphs and muscovite. While still dominated by silicates, more primitive volcanic rocks have mineral assemblages with less silica, such as olivine and the pyroxenes. Bowen's reaction series correctly predicts the order of formation of the most common minerals in volcanic rocks.
Occasionally, a magma may pick up crystals that crystallized from another magma; these crystals are called xenocrysts. Diamonds found in kimberlites are rare but well-known xenocrysts; the kimberlites do not create the diamonds, but pick them up and transport them to the surface of the Earth.
Naming[edit]
A naming diagram showing some terminology used for volcanic rocks
Vesicular olivine basalt from La Palma (green phenocrysts are olivine).
A 15-centimeter (5.9 in) piece of pumice supported by a rolled U.S. $20 bill demonstrates its very low density.
Volcanic rocks are named according to both their chemical composition and texture. Basalt is a very common volcanic rock with low silica content. Rhyolite is a volcanic rock with high silica content. Rhyolite has silica content similar to that of granite while basalt is compositionally equal to gabbro. Intermediate volcanic rocks include andesite, dacite, trachyte, and latite.
Pyroclastic rocks are the product of explosive volcanism. They are often felsic (high in silica). Pyroclastic rocks are often the result of volcanic debris, such as ash, bombs and tephra, and other volcanic ejecta. Examples of pyroclastic rocks are tuff and ignimbrite.
Shallow intrusions, which possess structure similar to volcanic rather than plutonic rocks, are also considered to be volcanic, shading into subvolcanic.
The terms lava stone and lava rock are more used by marketers than geologists, who would likely say "volcanic rock" (since lava is a molten liquid and rock is solid). "Lava stone" may describe anything from a friable silicic pumice to solid mafic flow basalt, and is sometimes used to describe rocks that were never lava, but look as if they were (such as sedimentary limestone with dissolution pitting). To convey anything about the physical or chemical properties of the rock, a more specific term should be used; a good supplier will know what sort of volcanic rock they are selling.[4]
Composition of volcanic rocks[edit]
ʻAʻā next to pāhoehoe lava at the Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve, Idaho, United States.
A German example of latite, a type of volcanic rock
The sub-family of rocks that form from volcanic lava are called igneous volcanic rocks (to differentiate them from igneous rocks that form from magma below the surface, called igneous plutonic rocks).
The lavas of different volcanoes, when cooled and hardened, differ much in their appearance and composition. If a rhyolite lava-stream cools quickly, it can quickly freeze into a black glassy substance called obsidian. When filled with bubbles of gas, the same lava may form the spongy appearing pumice. Allowed to cool slowly, it forms a light-colored, uniformly solid rock called rhyolite.
A sample of rhyolite
Basaltic scoria from Amsterdam Island in the Indian Ocean
The lavas, having cooled rapidly in contact with the air or water, are mostly finely crystalline or have at least fine-grained ground-mass representing that part of the viscous semi-crystalline lava flow that was still liquid at the moment of eruption. At this time they were exposed only to atmospheric pressure, and the steam and other gases, which they contained in great quantity were free to escape; many important modifications arise from this, the most striking being the frequent presence of numerous steam cavities (vesicular structure) often drawn out to elongated shapes subsequently filled up with minerals by infiltration (amygdaloidal structure).[5][6][7]
As crystallization was going on while the mass was still creeping forward under the surface of the Earth, the latest formed minerals (in the ground-mass) are commonly arranged in subparallel winding lines that follow the direction of movement (fluxion or fluidal structure)—and larger early minerals that previously crystallized may show the same arrangement. Most lavas fall considerably below their original temperatures before emitted. In their behavior, they present a close analogy to hot solutions of salts in water, which, when they approach the saturation temperature, first deposit a crop of large, well-formed crystals (labile stage) and subsequently precipitate clouds of smaller less perfect crystalline particles (metastable stage).
In igneous rocks the first generation of crystals generally forms before the lava has emerged to the surface, that is to say, during the ascent from the subterranean depths to the crater of the volcano. It has frequently been verified by observation that freshly emitted lavas contain large crystals borne along in a molten, liquid mass. The large, well-formed, early crystals (phenocrysts) are said to be porphyritic; the smaller crystals of the surrounding matrix or ground-mass belong to the post-effusion stage. More rarely lavas are completely fused at the moment of ejection; they may then cool to form a non-porphyritic, finely crystalline rock, or if more rapidly chilled may in large part be non-crystalline or glassy (vitreous rocks such as obsidian, tachylyte, pitchstone).
A common feature of glassy rocks is the presence of rounded bodies (spherulites), consisting of fine divergent fibres radiating from a center; they consist of imperfect crystals of feldspar, mixed with quartz or tridymite; similar bodies are often produced artificially in glasses that are allowed to cool slowly. Rarely these spherulites are hollow or consist of concentric shells with spaces between (lithophysae). Perlitic structure, also common in glasses, consists of the presence of concentric rounded cracks owing to contraction on cooling.
Volcanic rocks, Porto Moniz, Madeira
The phenocrysts or porphyritic minerals are not only larger than those of the ground-mass; as the matrix was still liquid when they formed they were free to take perfect crystalline shapes, without interference by the pressure of adjacent crystals. They seem to have grown rapidly, as they are often filled with enclosures of glassy or finely crystalline material like that of the ground-mass . Microscopic examination of the phenocrysts often reveals that they have had a complex history. Very frequently they show layers of different composition, indicated by variations in color or other optical properties; thus augite may be green in the center surrounded by various shades of brown; or they may be pale green centrally and darker green with strong pleochroism (aegirine) at the periphery.
In the feldspars the center is usually richer in calcium than the surrounding layers, and successive zones may often be noted, each less calcic than those within it. Phenocrysts of quartz (and of other minerals), instead of sharp, perfect crystalline faces, may show rounded corroded surfaces, with the points blunted and irregular tongue-like projections of the matrix into the substance of the crystal. It is clear that after the mineral had crystallized it was partly again dissolved or corroded at some period before the matrix solidified.
Corroded phenocrysts of biotite and hornblende are very common in some lavas; they are surrounded by black rims of magnetite mixed with pale green augite. The hornblende or biotite substance has proved unstable at a certain stage of consolidation, and has been replaced by a paramorph of augite and magnetite, which may partially or completely substitute for the original crystal but still retains its characteristic outlines.[8]
See also[edit]
Intrusion
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Wilkinson, Bruce H.; McElroy, Brandon J.; Kesler, Stephen E.; Peters, Shanan E.; Rothman, Edward D. (2008). "Global geologic maps are tectonic speedometers—Rates of rock cycling from area-age frequencies". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 121: 760–779. Bibcode:2009GSAB..121..760W. doi:10.1130/B26457.1. Archived from the original on 2016-05-31.
Jump up ^ LE BAS, M. J.; STRECKEISEN, A. L. "The IUGS systematics of igneous rocks". Journal of the Geological Society. 148 (5): 825–833. doi:10.1144/gsjgs.148.5.0825. Archived from the original on 2017-07-20.
Jump up ^ "Rock Classification Scheme - Vol 1 - Igneous". British Geological Survey: Rock Classification Scheme. NERC. 1: 1–52. 1999. Archived from the original on 2016-11-24.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2017-08-16. Retrieved 2017-09-09.
Jump up ^ Pinkerton, H.; Bagdassarov, N. "Transient phenomena in vesicular lava flows based on laboratory experiments with analogue materials". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. Bibcode:2004JVGR..132..115B. doi:10.1016/s0377-0273(03)00341-x. Retrieved October 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Lava Stones". Archived from the original on October 27, 2016. Retrieved October 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Rheological properties of basaltic lavas at sub-liquidus temperatures: laboratory and field measurements on lavas from Mount Etna". cat.inist.fr. Archived from the original on November 2, 2015. Retrieved October 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Petrology". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
[show]
v
t
e
Common igneous rocks classified by silicon dioxide content
Type Ultramafic
<45% SiO2 Mafic
45–52% SiO2 Intermediate
52–63% SiO2 Intermediate–felsic
63–69% SiO2 Felsic
>69% SiO2
Volcanic rocks:
Subvolcanic rocks:
Plutonic rocks:
Komatiite, Picrite basalt
Kimberlite, Lamproite
Peridotite
Basalt
Diabase (Dolerite)
Gabbro
Andesite
Microdiorite
Diorite
Dacite
Microgranodiorite
Granodiorite
Rhyolite
Microgranite, Aplite
Granite
[show]
v
t
e
Volcanoes
Types
Caldera
Cinder cone
Complex volcano
Cryovolcano
Fissure vent
Lava cone
Lava dome
Maar
Mud volcano
Parasitic cone
Pyroclastic cone
Pyroclastic shield
Rootless cone
Shield volcano
Somma volcano
Stratovolcano
Subglacial volcano
Submarine volcano
Supervolcano
Volcanic cone
Volcanic rocks
Agglomerate
Andesite
Basalt
Basaltic andesite
Benmoreite
Blairmorite
Dacite
Felsite
Komatiite
Latite
Leucitite
Nephelinite
Obsidian
Phonolite
Phonotephrite
Rhyodacite
Rhyolite
Tephriphonolite
Trachyandesite
Trachybasalt
Trachyte
Tuff
Lists and groups
Hotspot
Lists of volcanoes
Decade Volcanoes
Volcanic arc
Volcanic belt
Volcanic field
monogenetic
polygenetic
Category
Commons
Portal
WikiProject
Authority control
BNF: cb11944243g (data)
GND: 4139602-9
LCCN: sh85144250
NDL: 00565266
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_rock&oldid=840098379"
Categories:
Volcanic rocks
Igneous petrology
Volcanology
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica without Wikisource reference
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
Articles to be expanded from May 2011
All articles to be expanded
Articles using small message boxes
Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikiversity
Languages
العربية
Беларуская
Български
Català
Čeština
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Galego
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Қазақша
Nederlands
日本語
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Русский
Slovenčina
Suomi
Svenska
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
中文
27 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 7 May 2018, at 18:23.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href title

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

attrs: href class title

attrs: class style

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content

values:
/wiki/Volcanic_lithic_fragment
mw-redirect
Volcanic lithic fragment

values:
/wiki/Rhomb_porphyry
mw-redirect
Rhomb porphyry

values:
/wiki/Chinese_scholar%27s_rocks
mw-redirect
Chinese scholar's rocks

values: Edit section: Composition of volcanic rocks

values:
/wiki/Igneous_volcanic_rock
mw-redirect
Igneous volcanic rock

values:
/wiki/Igneous_plutonic_rock
mw-redirect
Igneous plutonic rock

values:
/wiki/Amsterdam_Island
mw-redirect
Amsterdam Island

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1130%2FB26457.1

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1144%2Fgsjgs.148.5.0825

values:
nofollow
external text
http://reddome.com/lava-rock.html

values:
nofollow
https://lavasteine24.de/
external text

values: Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values: border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align: center;;;width:12%;

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Pyroclastic_cone
mw-redirect
Pyroclastic cone

values:
navbox-image
3
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4139602-9

values: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica without Wikisource reference

values: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica

values: Category:Articles to be expanded from May 2011

values: Category:Articles using small message boxes

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Volcanic_rock
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: صخر بركاني – Arabic

values: Эфузіўныя горныя пароды – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Ефузивни скали – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanit
Vulkanit – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Ηφαιστειογενές πέτρωμα – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: سنگ آتشفشانی – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: Հրաբխային ապար – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: ज्वालामुखीय चट्टानें – Hindi

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gosberg
Gosberg – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: סלע געשי – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: Эффузиялық тау жынысы – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values:
https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanit
Vulkanit – Low German
nds
nds
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Эффузивные горные породы – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: หินภูเขาไฟ – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Ефузивні гірські породи – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Volcanic_rock rootpage-Volcanic_rock skin-vector action-view


text:
(There'll Be Bluebirds Over) The White Cliffs of Dover
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"(There'll Be Bluebirds Over) The White Cliffs of Dover"
Song by Glenn Miller
Recorded
November 1941
Composer(s)
Walter Kent
Lyricist(s)
Nat Burton
"(There'll Be Bluebirds Over) The White Cliffs of Dover" is a popular World War II song composed in 1941 by Walter Kent to lyrics by Nat Burton. Made famous in Vera Lynn's 1942 version, it was one of Lynn's best-known recordings and among the most popular World War II tunes.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 World War II performances
3 Later performances
4 References
Background[edit]
The song was written about a year after British Commonwealth and German aircraft had been fighting over the cliffs of Dover in the Battle of Britain (1940). Nazi Germany had conquered much of Europe and in 1941 was still bombing Britain. With neither America nor the Soviet Union having yet joined the war, Britain was the only major power fighting the Axis in Europe (see The Darkest Hour). The lyrics refer to the RAF and RCAF fighter pilots (in their blue uniforms) as "bluebirds" and expresses confidence that they would prevail.[citation needed] Notable phrases include "Thumbs Up!" which was an RAF and RCAF term for permission to go, and "flying in those angry skies" where the air war was taking place. There will probably never be wild bluebirds over the White Cliffs of Dover as the bluebird is not indigenous to Europe and is non-migratory.
The lyrics also looked towards a time when the war would be over and peace would rule over the iconic white cliffs of Dover, Britain's symbolic border with the European mainland.
The full song includes two verses rarely found in recordings:
I'll never forget the people I met braving those angry skies.
I remember well as the shadows fell, the light of hope in their eyes.
And tho' I'm far away, I can still hear them say "Thumbs Up!"
for when the dawn comes up,... There'll be blue birds over...

When night shadows fall, I'll always recall out there across the sea
Twilight falling down on some little town;
It's fresh in my memory.
I hear mother pray, and to her baby say "Don't cry,"
This is her lullaby.... There'll be blue birds over...
World War II performances[edit]
Glenn Miller recorded a version of the song in November 1941.[1]
Jimmie Baker frequently performed it in Europe during the war.[1]
The song was sung by the vocal group The King's Men on a 3 February 1942 episode of the Fibber McGee and Molly Show.
Ray Eberle and Tex Beneke also included it in their repertoires.[1]
Later performances[edit]
The song is the terrace anthem of the supporters of Dover Athletic FC.
The Checkers, an American group, released an R&B version of the song in 1953 which became very popular. Other artists who have recorded the song include Connie Francis, Bing Crosby, Ray Conniff, Jim Reeves, Acker Bilk, The Righteous Brothers, Bert Kaemfert and The Hot Sardines on their debut album released in 2014.[2] The 1990s pop duo Robson & Jerome recorded the song as the B side of their U.K. No. 1 hit single "Unchained Melody." The Jive Aces released a swing version in 2005 (similar to Acker Bilk's arrangement)
On 18 February 2009, a story in The Daily Telegraph announced that Vera Lynn was suing the British National Party (BNP) for using her version of "The White Cliffs of Dover" on an anti-immigration album without her permission. Dame Vera's lawyer claimed sales of the song would help boost the BNP's coffers and would link her name to the party's far-right views by association.[3]
On 12 October 2009, Ian Hislop presented a half-hour BBC Radio 4 programme about the song.[4]
On 9 May 2015, Elaine Paige performed the song at VE Day 70: A Party to Remember at Horse Guards Parade in London.[5]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Andrews, Maxene; Gilbert, Bill (1993). Over Here, Over There: The Andrew Sisters and the USO Stars in World War II. Kensington Publishing Corp. p. 1. ISBN 0821741179.
Jump up ^ The Hot Sardines
Jump up ^ Dame Vera Lynn takes on BNP over White Cliffs of Dover, The Daily Telegraph online, 18 February 2009.
Jump up ^ "Bluebirds over the White Cliffs of Dover". BBC.
Jump up ^ VE Day Concert Katherine Jenkins, Pixie Lott, Status Quo Lead Party at The Standard Retrieved 11 May 2015
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=(There%27ll_Be_Bluebirds_Over)_The_White_Cliffs_of_Dover&oldid=800205175"
Categories:
1941 songs
1995 singles
Songs of World War II
Songs about the United Kingdom
British patriotic songs
Robson & Jerome songs
Max Bygraves songs
Songs with music by Walter Kent
Hidden categories:
Use dmy dates from October 2013
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Norsk
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Svenska
Edit links
This page was last edited on 12 September 2017, at 02:19.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: th

attrs: colspan class style

value: tr

value: td

value: span

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/White_cliffs_of_Dover
mw-redirect
White cliffs of Dover

values:
/wiki/Dover_Athletic_FC
mw-redirect
Dover Athletic FC

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:Songs with music by Walter Kent

values: Category:Use dmy dates from October 2013

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: (There'll Be Bluebirds Over) The White Cliffs of Dover – Norwegian

values: (There'll Be Bluebirds Over) The White Cliffs of Dover – Serbo-Croatian

values: (There'll Be Bluebirds Over) The White Cliffs of Dover – Swedish

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-_There_ll_Be_Bluebirds_Over_The_White_Cliffs_of_Dover rootpage-_There_ll_Be_Bluebirds_Over_The_White_Cliffs_of_Dover vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view