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Saint Pierre and Miquelon
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Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Coat of arms
Motto: "A Mare Labor"
"From the Sea, Work"
Status
Overseas collectivity
Capital
and largest city
Saint-Pierre
46°47′N 56°10′W / 46.783°N 56.167°W / 46.783; -56.167
Official languages
French
Demonym
Saint-Pierrais
Miquelonnais
French
Sovereign state
France
Government
Overseas collectivity
• President of France
Emmanuel Macron
• Prefect
Thierry Devimeux
• President of the Territorial Council
Stéphane Lenormand
Legislature
Territorial Council
Overseas collectivity of France
• Ceded by the UK
30 May 1814
• Overseas territory
27 October 1946
• Overseas department
17 July 1976
• Territorial collectivity
11 June 1985
• Overseas collectivity
28 March 2003
Area
• Total
242 km2 (93 sq mi) (unranked)
• Water (%)
negligible
Population
• Jan. 2011 census
6,080[1]
• Density
25/km2 (64.7/sq mi) (188th)
GDP (PPP)
2004 estimate
• Total
€161.131 million[2]
• Per capita
€26,073[2]
Currency
Euro (€) (EUR)
Time zone
(UTC−3)
• Summer (DST)
(UTC−2)
observes North American DST
Drives on the
right
Calling code
+508
ISO 3166 code
PM
Internet TLD
.pm
Saint Pierre and Miquelon, officially the Overseas Collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (French: Collectivité d'Outre-mer de Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon, French pronunciation: [sɛ̃.pjɛʁ.e.mi.klɔ̃]), is a self-governing territorial overseas collectivity of France, situated in the northwestern Atlantic Ocean near the Newfoundland and Labrador province of Canada.[3] It is the only part of New France that remains under French control,[3] with an area of 242 km2 and a population of 6,080 at the January 2011 census.[1]
Saint-Pierre aerial photo, 2013. Saint-Pierre Airport is at the lower right. Wikimedia Commons has extensive annotations.
The islands are situated at the entrance of Fortune Bay, which extends into the southwestern coast of Newfoundland, near the Grand Banks.[4] They are 3,819 kilometres (2,373 mi) from Brest, the nearest point in Metropolitan France,[5] and 25 kilometres (16 mi) from the Burin Peninsula of Newfoundland.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Politics
3.1 Maritime boundary case
4 Geography
4.1 Environment
4.2 Climate
5 Economy
6 Demographics
6.1 Ethnography
6.2 Languages
6.3 Religion
7 Culture
8 Transportation
9 Communications
10 Education and healthcare
11 Fire services
12 See also
13 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
Etymology[edit]
Saint-Pierre is French for Saint Peter, the patron saint of fishermen.[7]
The present name of Miquelon was first noted in the form of "Micquelle" in the Basque sailor Martin de Hoyarçabal's navigational pilot for Newfoundland.[8] It has been claimed that the name "Miquelon" is a Basque form of Michael; Mikel and Mikels are usually named Mikelon in the Basque Country. Therefore, from Mikelon it may have been written in the French way with a "q" instead of a "k".[9][10][11]
Though the Basque Country is divided between Spain and France, most Basques live on the south side of the border and speak Spanish, and Miquelon may have been influenced by the Spanish name Miguelón, an augmentative form of Miguel meaning "big Michael". The adjoined island's name of "Langlade" is said to be an adaptation of "l'île à l'Anglais" (Englishman's Island).[10]
History[edit]
Main article: History of Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Portuguese João Álvares Fagundes landed on the islands on 21 October 1520. They were made a French possession in 1536 by Jacques Cartier on behalf of the King of France.[12] Though already frequented by Mi'kmaq people[13] and Basque and Breton fishermen,[12] the islands were not permanently settled until the end of the 17th century: four permanent inhabitants were counted in 1670, and 22 in 1691.[12]
In 1670, during Jean Talon's tenure as Intendant of New France, a French officer annexed the islands when he found a dozen French fishermen camped there. The British Royal Navy soon began to harass the French, pillaging their camps and ships.[13] By the early 1700s, the islands were again uninhabited, and were ceded to the British by the Treaty of Utrecht which ended the War of the Spanish Succession in 1713.[13]
Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1763), which put an end to the Seven Years' War, France ceded all its North American possessions, but Saint-Pierre and Miquelon were returned to France. France also maintained fishing rights on the coasts of Newfoundland (French Shore).[14]
St Pierre, Le Quai La Roncière, 1887
With France being allied with the Americans during the American Revolutionary War, Britain invaded and razed the colony in 1778, sending the entire population of 2,000 back to France.[15] In 1793, the British landed in Saint-Pierre and, the following year, expelled the French population, and tried to install British settlers.[13] The British colony was in turn sacked by French troops in 1796. The Treaty of Amiens of 1802 returned the islands to France, but Britain reoccupied them when hostilities recommenced the next year.[13]
The Treaty of Paris (1814) gave them back to France, though Britain occupied them yet again during the Hundred Days War. France then reclaimed the then uninhabited islands in which all structures and buildings had been destroyed or fallen into disrepair.[13] The islands were resettled in 1816. The settlers were mostly Basques, Bretons and Normans, who were joined by various other elements, particularly from the nearby island of Newfoundland.[12] Only around the middle of the century did increased fishing bring a certain prosperity to the little colony.[13]
Saint-Pierre in 1921
During the early 1910s, the colony suffered severely as a result of unprofitable fisheries, and large numbers of its people emigrated to Nova Scotia and Quebec.[16] The draft imposed on all male inhabitants of conscript age after the beginning of World War I crippled the fisheries, which could not be processed by the older people and the women and children.[16] About 400 men from the colony served in the French military during World War I, 25% of whom died.[17] The increase in the adoption of steam trawlers in the fisheries also contributed to the reduction in employment opportunities.[16]
Smuggling had always been an important economic activity in the islands, but it became especially prominent in the 1920s with the institution of prohibition in the United States.[17] In 1931, the archipelago was reported to have imported 1,815,271 US gallons (1,511,529 imperial gallons; 6,871,550 litres) of whisky from Canada in 12 months, most of it to be smuggled into the United States.[18] The end of prohibition in 1933 plunged the islands into economic depression.[19]
During World War II, despite opposition from Canada, Britain and the United States, Charles de Gaulle seized the archipelago from Vichy France, to which the local government had pledged its allegiance. In a referendum the following day, the population endorsed the takeover by Free France.[20] After the 1958 French constitutional referendum, the islands were given the option of becoming fully integrated with France, becoming a self-governing state within the French Community, or preserving the status of overseas territory; it decided to remain a territory.[21]
Politics[edit]
Main article: Politics of Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Locally used flag of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, modelled after the coat of arms.
Since March 2003, Saint Pierre and Miquelon has been an overseas collectivity with a special status. The archipelago became an overseas territory in 1946, then an overseas department in 1976, before acquiring the status of territorial collectivity in 1985.[22] The archipelago has two communes: Saint-Pierre and Miquelon-Langlade.[23] A third commune, Isle-aux-Marins, existed until 1945, when it was absorbed by the municipality of Saint-Pierre.[12] The inhabitants possess French citizenship and suffrage.[24] Saint Pierre and Miquelon sends a senator and a deputy to the National Assembly of France in Paris, and enjoys a degree of autonomy concerning taxes, customs and excise.[15]
France appoints the Prefect of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, who represents the national government in the territory.[19] The Prefect is in charge of national interests, law enforcement, public order and, under the conditions set by the statute of 1985, administrative control.[25] The prefect as of December 2016[update] is Henri Jean, replacing Jean-Christophe Bouvier.[26] The local legislative body, the Territorial Council (French: Conseil Territorial), has 19 members: four councillors from Miquelon-Langlade and 15 from Saint-Pierre.[23] The President of the Territorial Council is the head of a delegation of "France in the name of Saint Pierre and Miquelon" for international events such as the annual meetings of NAFO and ICCAT.[23]
France is responsible for the defence of the islands.[3] The Maritime Gendarmerie has maintained a patrol boat, the Fulmar, on the islands since 1997.[27][28] Law enforcement in Saint Pierre and Miquelon is the responsibility of a branch of the French Gendarmerie Nationale. There are two police stations in the archipelago.[29]
Maritime boundary case[edit]
Map of the Exclusive Economic Zone of Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Main article: Canada–France Maritime Boundary Case
France claimed a 200-mile exclusive economic zone for Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, and in August 1983 the naval ship Le Hénaff and the seismic ship Lucien Beaufort were sent to explore for oil in the disputed zone.[30] In addition to the potential oil reserves, cod fishing rights on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland were at stake in the dispute. In the late 1980s, indications of declining fish stocks began to raise serious concern over the depletion of the fishery.[30] In 1992, an arbitration panel awarded the islands an exclusive economic zone of 12,348 square kilometres (4,768 sq mi) to settle a longstanding territorial dispute with Canada, although it represents only 25% of what France had sought.[3]
The 1992 decision fixed the maritime boundaries between Canada and the islands, but did not demarcate the continental shelf.[31]
Geography[edit]
Main article: Geography of Saint Pierre and Miquelon
3D image of the Saint Pierre and Miquelon archipelago
Located off the western end of the Newfoundland's Burin Peninsula, the archipelago of Saint Pierre and Miquelon is composed of eight islands, totalling 242 square kilometres (93 sq mi), and of which only two are inhabited.[32] The islands are bare and rocky, with steep coasts, and only a thin layer of peat to soften the hard landscape.[6]
The islands are geologically part of the northeastern end of the Appalachian Mountains along with Newfoundland.
Saint Pierre Island, whose area is smaller, 26 square kilometres (10 sq mi), is the most populous and the commercial and administrative center of the archipelago. A new airport, Saint-Pierre Airport, has been in operation since 1999 and is capable of accommodating long-haul flights from France.[22]
Miquelon-Langlade, the largest island, is in fact composed of two islands, Miquelon Island (also called Grande Miquelon), 110 square kilometres (42 sq mi), connected to Langlade Island (Petite Miquelon), 91 square kilometres (35 sq mi), by the Dune de Langlade, a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) long sandy tombolo,[22] A storm had severed them in the 18th century, separating the two islands for several decades, before currents reconstructed the isthmus.[12] The waters between Langlade and Saint-Pierre were called "the Mouth of Hell" (French: Gueule d'Enfer) until about 1900, as more than 600 shipwrecks have been recorded in that point since 1800.[33] In the north of Miquelon Island is the village of Miquelon-Langlade (710 inhabitants), while Langlade Island was almost deserted (only one inhabitant in the 1999 census).[12]
A third, formerly inhabited island, Isle-aux-Marins, known as Île-aux-Chiens until 1931 and located a short distance from the port of Saint-Pierre, has been uninhabited since 1963.[12]
Environment[edit]
Seabirds are the most common fauna.[24] Seals and other wildlife can be found in the Grand Barachois Lagoon of Miquelon. Every spring, whales migrating to Greenland are visible off the coasts of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon. Trilobite fossils have been found on Langlade. The stone pillars off the island coasts called "L'anse aux Soldats" eroded away and disappeared in the 1970s.[34] The rocky islands are barren, except for scrubby yews and junipers and thin volcanic soil.[33] The forest cover of the hills, except in parts of Langlade, had been removed for fuel long ago.[24]
Climate[edit]
Port of Saint-Pierre during the winter
The archipelago is characterized by a cold borderline humid continental/subarctic climate, under the influence of polar air masses and the cold Labrador Current.[32] The mild winters for being a subarctic climate also means it has influences of subpolar oceanic climate, thus being at the confluence of three climatic types. The February mean is just below the −3 °C (27 °F) isotherm for that classification.[35] Due to just three months being above 10 °C (50 °F) in mean temperatures and winter lows being so mild, climate classification of the islands is difficult and therefore both subarctic and humid continental could be applied in the absence of alternatives.
Typical maritime seasonal lag is also strong with September being much milder than June during the summer solstice. The average temperature is 5.3 °C, with a temperature range of 19 °C between the warmest (15.7 °C in August) and coldest months (−3.6 °C in February).[32] Precipitation is abundant (1,312 mm per year) and regular (146 days per year), falling as snow and rain.[32] Because of its location at the confluence of the cold waters of the Labrador Current and the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the archipelago is also crossed a hundred days a year by fog banks, mainly in June and July.[32]
Two other climatic elements are remarkable: the extremely variable winds and haze during the spring to early summer.[36]
[hide]Climate data for St Pierre and Miquelon
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °C (°F)
9.8
(49.6) 9.0
(48.2) 12.2
(54) 13.8
(56.8) 22.0
(71.6) 25.1
(77.2) 28.3
(82.9) 25.8
(78.4) 26.8
(80.2) 20.0
(68) 14.4
(57.9) 12.8
(55) 28.3
(82.9)
Average high °C (°F)
−0.1
(31.8) −0.7
(30.7) 1.0
(33.8) 4.3
(39.7) 8.5
(47.3) 12.5
(54.5) 16.7
(62.1) 18.7
(65.7) 16.0
(60.8) 11.2
(52.2) 6.8
(44.2) 2.7
(36.9) 8.2
(46.8)
Daily mean °C (°F)
−2.6
(27.3) −3.2
(26.2) −1.4
(29.5) 2.0
(35.6) 5.6
(42.1) 9.6
(49.3) 14.1
(57.4) 16.2
(61.2) 13.5
(56.3) 8.9
(48) 4.5
(40.1) 0.4
(32.7) 5.7
(42.3)
Average low °C (°F)
−5.2
(22.6) −5.7
(21.7) −3.7
(25.3) −0.4
(31.3) 2.8
(37) 6.7
(44.1) 11.5
(52.7) 13.8
(56.8) 11.0
(51.8) 6.6
(43.9) 2.3
(36.1) −1.9
(28.6) 3.2
(37.8)
Record low °C (°F)
−17.4
(0.7) −18.7
(−1.7) −18.1
(−0.6) −9.8
(14.4) −4.5
(23.9) 0.8
(33.4) 4.9
(40.8) 5.8
(42.4) 1.7
(35.1) −2.6
(27.3) −9.2
(15.4) −14.6
(5.7) −18.7
(−1.7)
Average precipitation mm (inches)
102.3
(4.028) 101.0
(3.976) 100.8
(3.969) 97.6
(3.843) 102.6
(4.039) 103.7
(4.083) 99.5
(3.917) 93.3
(3.673) 141.4
(5.567) 135.9
(5.35) 133.9
(5.272) 114.7
(4.516) 1,326.7
(52.232)
Average rainy days
3.03 4.07 5.17 8.83 12.87 14.60 18.50 11.27 6.33 4.13 4.70 3.53 97.03
Average snowy days
22.63 19.00 15.25 7.36 0.89 0.04 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.00 4.40 3.20 73.77
Mean monthly sunshine hours
49.6 70.2 115.5 131.9 165.8 172.6 164.8 173.5 156.1 119.0 63.0 45.4 1,427.3
Source: Météo France[37][38] (Averages are for the period 1981–2010.)
Economy[edit]
Main article: Economy of Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Fishing boats in Saint-Pierre harbour
The inhabitants have traditionally earned their livelihood by fishing and by servicing fishing fleets operating off the coast of Newfoundland.[3] The climate and the small amount of available land hardly favour activity such as farming and livestock (weather conditions are severe, confining the growing season to a few weeks, and the soil contains significant peat and clay and is largely infertile).[39] Since 1992 the economy has been in steep decline, following the depletion of fish stocks due to overfishing, the limitation of fishing areas and the ban imposed on all cod fishing by the Canadian Government.[40]
The rise in unemployment has been countered by state financial aid for the retraining of businesses and individuals. The construction of the new airport helped sustain activity in the construction industry and public works.[22] Fish farming, crab fishing and agriculture are being developed[by whom?] to diversify the local economy.[3] The future of Saint Pierre and Miquelon rests on tourism, fisheries and aquaculture.[citation needed] Explorations are under way to exploit deposits of oil and gas.[22] Tourism relies on the proximity to Canada, while commerce and crafts make up the bulk of the business sector.[39]
The labour market is characterized by high seasonality, due to climatic hazards. Traditionally, the inhabitants suspended all outdoor activities (construction, agriculture, etc.) between December and April.[41] In 1999 the unemployment rate was 12.8%, and a third of the employed worked in the public sector. The employment situation was worsened by the complete cessation of deep-sea fishing, the traditional occupation of the islanders, as the unemployment rate in 1990 was lower at 9.5%.[12] The unemployment for 2010 shows a decrease from 2009, from 7.7% to 7.1%.[41] Exports are very low (5.1% of GDP) while imports are significant (49.1% of GDP).[42] About 70% of the islands' supplies are imported from Canada or from other parts of France via Nova Scotia.[24]
The euro functions as the official currency of Saint Pierre and Miquelon.[43] The Canadian dollar is also widely accepted and used, but change is usually given in euros.[44] The "Institut d'émission des départements d'outre-mer" (IEDOM), the French public institution responsible for issuing currency in the overseas territories that use the euro on behalf of the Bank of France, has had an agency in Saint Pierre since 1978.[45] The islands have issued their own stamps from 1885 to the present, except for a period between 1 April 1978 and 3 February 1986 when French stamps not specific to Saint Pierre and Miquelon were used.[46]
Demographics[edit]
Main article: Demographics of Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Historical populations
Year
Pop.
±%
1847
1,665 —
1860
2,916 +75.1%
1870
4,750 +62.9%
1897
6,352 +33.7%
1902
6,842 +7.7%
1907
4,760 −30.4%
1911
4,209 −11.6%
1921
3,918 −6.9%
1926
4,030 +2.9%
1931
4,321 +7.2%
1936
4,175 −3.4%
1945
4,354 +4.3%
1951
4,606 +5.8%
1957
4,879 +5.9%
1962
5,025 +3.0%
1967
5,235 +4.2%
1974
5,840 +11.6%
1982
6,041 +3.4%
1990
6,277 +3.9%
1999
6,316 +0.6%
2006
6,125 −3.0%
2011
6,080 −0.7%
INSEE (1847–1962;[47] 1967–2011[48])
The total population of the islands at the January 2011 census was 6,080,[1] of which 5,456 lived in Saint-Pierre and 624 in Miquelon-Langlade.[49] At the 1999 census, 76% of the population was born on the archipelago, while 16.1% were born in metropolitan France, a sharp increase from the 10.2% in 1990. In the same census, less than 1% of the population reported being a foreign national.[12]
The archipelago has a high emigration rate, especially among young adults, who often leave for their studies without returning afterwards.[12] Even at the time of the great prosperity of the cod fishery, the population growth had always been constrained by the geographic remoteness, harsh climate and infertile soils.[12]
Ethnography[edit]
While some ruins show a presence of indigenous American people on the archipelago, it is unlikely that there were year-round settlements beyond occasional fishing and hunting expeditions.[36] The current population is the result of inflows of settlers from the French ports, mostly Normans, Basques, Bretons and Saintongeais, and also from the historic area of Acadia in Canada (Gaspé Peninsula, parts of New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton) as well francphones who settled in Port au Port Peninsula on the island of Newfoundland.[36]
Languages[edit]
The inhabitants speak French; their customs and traditions are similar to the ones found in metropolitan France.[24] The French spoken on the archipelago is closer to Metropolitan French than to Canadian French but maintains a number of unique features.[50] Basque, formerly spoken in private settings by people of Basque ancestry, disappeared from the island by the late 1950s.[51]
Religion[edit]
The population is overwhelmingly Christian,[52] with the majority being Roman Catholic.[24] The Roman Catholic Vicariate Apostolic of Iles Saint-Pierre and Miquelon manages the local church.
Culture[edit]
Every summer there is a Basque Festival, which has demonstrations of harrijasotzaile (stone heaving), aizkolari (lumberjack skills), and Basque pelota.[53] The local cuisine is mostly based on seafood such as lobster, snow crab, mussels and especially cod.[54]
Ice hockey is very popular in Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, with local teams often competing in Newfoundland-based leagues. Several players from the islands have played on French and Canadian teams and even participated on France men's national ice hockey team in the Olympics.
Street names are not commonly used on the islands. Directions and locations are commonly given using nicknames and the names of nearby residents.[55]
The only time the guillotine was used in North America was in Saint-Pierre in the late 19th century. Joseph Néel was convicted of killing Mr Coupard on Île aux Chiens on 30 December 1888, and executed by guillotine on 24 August 1889. The guillotine had to be shipped from Martinique and it did not arrive in working order. It was very difficult to get anyone to perform the execution; finally a recent immigrant was coaxed into doing the job. This event was the inspiration for the film The Widow of Saint-Pierre (La Veuve de Saint-Pierre) released in 2000. The guillotine is now in a museum in Saint-Pierre.
Transportation[edit]
Main article: Transport in Saint Pierre and Miquelon
There has never been a direct air link between the islands and mainland France.[22] Although the Saint-Pierre Airport, which opened in 1999, was intended to overcome this problem, the situation remains unchanged. Nevertheless, the new facility has a very modern "all weather conditions landing system".[citation needed] All flights from and to Saint-Pierre pass through Canada.[22] Air Saint-Pierre's ATR 42 aircraft flies seasonally from the Canadian airports of Sydney and Stephenville, and year-round from Halifax, Montreal and St John's.[56]
With regular service from April to November or December, a passenger-only ferry connects the Newfoundland town of Fortune with Saint-Pierre. The same ferry operates year-round between Saint-Pierre, Langlade and Miquelon.[57]
Communications[edit]
See also: Telecommunications in Saint Pierre and Miquelon
An 1891 postage stamp from Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Saint-Pierre and Miquelon has four radio stations; all stations operate on the FM band, with the last stations converted from the AM band in 2004. Three of the stations are on Saint-Pierre, two of which are owned by Outre-Mer 1ère, along with one 1ère station on Miquelon. At night, these stations broadcast France-Inter. The other station (Radio Atlantique) is an affiliate of Radio France Internationale. The nation is linked to North America and Europe by satellite communications for telephone and television service.
The department of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon is served by three television stations: Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon 1ère (call letters FQN) on Channel 8, with a repeater on Channel 31, and France Ô on Channel 6. While Saint-Pierre and Miquelon use the French SECAM-K1 standard for television broadcasts, the local telecommunications provider (SPM Telecom) carries many North American television stations and cable channels, converted from North America's NTSC standard. In addition, Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon 1ère is carried on Shaw Direct satellite and most digital cable services in Canada, converted to NTSC.
SPM Telecom is also the department's main Internet Service Provider, with its internet service being named "Cheznoo" (a play on Chez-Nous, French for "Our Place"). SPM Telecom also offers cellular phone and mobile phone service (for phones that adhere to the GSM standard). SPM Telecom uses the GSM 900 MHz band,[58] which is different from the GSM 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands used in the rest of North America.
The islands are treated as a separate country-level entity among radio amateurs, identifiable with ITU prefix "FP". Visiting radio amateurs, mainly from the US, activate Saint-Pierre and Miquelon every year on amateur radio frequencies. The islands are well known among radio amateurs, who collect contacts with these stations for Islands on the Air and DX Century Club awards; the geographic location of Saint Pierre and Miquelon gives a very good takeoff for shortwave communication all over the world.[citation needed]
Education and healthcare[edit]
The archipelago has four primary schools (Saint Odile, Henriette Bonin, Feu Rouge, les Quatre-Temps), one middle school (Collège de Miquelon/College Saint-Christophe) with an annex in Miquelon, one state (government) high school (Lycée-collège d’Etat Emile Letournel) and one vocational high school.
The students who wish to further their studies after high school are granted access to scholarships to study overseas. Many students go to metropolitan France, although some go to Canada (mainly in Quebec and New Brunswick), and the United States.[59]
Saint Pierre's institute for higher learning is the Institut Frecker, which is associated with Memorial University of Newfoundland.[citation needed] Since 2000, Frecker had been operated by the Government of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, with support of the federal government of Canada and the provincial government of Newfoundland and Labrador.[citation needed]
Saint-Pierre and Miquelon's health care system is entirely public and free.[59] In 1994, France and Canada signed an agreement allowing the residents of the archipelago to be treated in St. John's.[59] In 2015 St-Pierre and Miquelon indicated they would start looking for a new healthcare provider as recent rate increases by Eastern Health in Newfoundland were too expensive (increasing to $3.3 million in 2014 from $2.5 million in 2010). Currently Halifax, Nova Scotia and Moncton, New Brunswick are possible locations.[60] Since 1985 Hôpital François Dunan provides basic care and emergency care for residents of both islands.[61] The island's first hospital was military in 1904 and became a civilian facility in 1905. L’Hôpital-Hospice-Orphelinat opened in 1937.[62]
Fire services[edit]
There are four fire stations in St Pierre and Miquelon:
Both airports, St Pierre and Miquelon, have their own fire services
Service incendie Ville de St Pierre[63] – Casarne Renaissance is located at St Pierre with five apparatuses – 2 pumpers, aerial and hazmat
replace the old station Caserne Daguerre
Service incendie Miquelon – located in Miquelon with four apparatuses[64] – aerial, hazmat, mini pumper and larger pumper
While most apparatus are older second hand units from North America,[65] St Pierre acquired an aerial ladder from France in 2016.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Outline of Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Index of Saint Pierre and Miquelon-related articles
North America portal
France portal
New France portal
Islands portal
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c INSEE, Government of France. "Populations légales 2011 pour les départements et les collectivités d'outre-mer" (in French). Retrieved 26 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Evaluation du PIB 2004 de Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon – janvier 2007" (PDF). p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Saint Pierre and Miquelon". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Jump up ^ Premio Real (22 February 2005). "Les iles Saint-Pierre et Miquelon – Notes de la conférence donnée à l'Institut Canadien, devant la Société Géographique de Québec, le 29 avril 1880, par Son Excellence le comte de Premio-Real, consul-général d'Espagne". Ia600302.us.archive.org. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Flight distance from Brest, France to Saint Pierre and Miquelon". Travelmath.com. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "St. Pierre et Miquelon". Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "PATRON SAINT INDEX TOPIC: fishermen, anglers". Catholic Community Forum. Archived from the original on 20 February 2007.
Jump up ^ Hoyarçabal, Martin de: Les voyages aventureux du Capitaine Martin de Hoyarsal, habitant du çubiburu (Bordeaux, France, 1579)
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^ Jump up to: a b "Tourism Agencies in Saint Pierre et Miquelon". St-pierre-et-miquelon.com. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
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Further reading[edit]
Thomas, Martin (1997). "Deferring to Vichy in the Western Hemisphere: The St. Pierre and Miquelon Affair of 1941". International History Review. 19 (4): 809–835. doi:10.1080/07075332.1997.9640805.
External links[edit]
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Coordinates: 46°47′N 56°12′W / 46.783°N 56.200°W / 46.783; -56.200
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Primary transcript
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
It has been suggested that Precursor mRNA be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since October 2016.
A primary transcript is the single-stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) product synthesized by transcription of DNA, and processed to yield various mature RNA products such as mRNAs, tRNAs, and rRNAs. The primary transcripts designated to be mRNAs are modified in preparation for translation. For example, a precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) is a type of primary transcript that becomes a messenger RNA (mRNA) after processing.
Micrograph of gene transcription of ribosomal RNA illustrating the growing primary transcripts
There are several steps contributing to the production of primary transcripts. All these steps involve a series of interactions to initiate and complete the transcription of DNA in the nucleus of eukaryotes. Certain factors play key roles in the activation and inhibition of transcription, where they regulate primary transcript production. Transcription produces primary transcripts that are further modified by several processes. These processes include the 5' cap, 3'-polyadenylation, and alternative splicing. In particular, alternative splicing directly contributes to the diversity of mRNA found in cells. The modifications of primary transcripts have been further studied in research seeking greater knowledge of the role and significance of these transcripts. Experimental studies based on molecular changes to primary transcripts the processes before and after transcription have led to greater understanding of diseases involving primary transcripts.
Contents
[hide]
1 Production
1.1 Regulation
1.2 R-loops
2 RNA processing
2.1 Processing
2.2 5' capping
2.3 Polyadenylation
2.4 Alternative splicing
3 Experiments
4 Related diseases
5 See also
6 References
Production[edit]
Main article: Transcription (genetics)
The steps contributing to the production of primary transcripts involve a series of molecular interactions that initiate transcription of DNA within a cell's nucleus. Based on the needs of a given cell, certain DNA sequences are transcribed to produce a variety of RNA products to be translated into functional proteins for cellular use. To initiate the transcription process in a cell's nucleus, DNA double helices are unwound and hydrogen bonds connecting compatible nucleic acids of DNA are broken to produce two unconnected single DNA strands.[1] One strand of the DNA template is used for transcription of the single-stranded primary transcript mRNA. This DNA strand is bound by an RNA polymerase at the promoter region of the DNA.[2]
Transcription of DNA by RNA polymerase to produce primary transcript
In eukaryotes, three kinds of RNA—rRNA, tRNA, and mRNA—are produced based on the activity of three distinct RNA polymerases, whereas, in prokaryotes, only one RNA polymerase exists to create all kinds of RNA molecules.[3] RNA polymerase II of eukaryotes transcribes the primary transcript, a transcript destined to be processed into mRNA, from the antisense DNA template in the 5' to 3' direction, and this newly synthesized primary transcript is complementary to the antisense strand of DNA.[1] RNA polymerase II constructs the primary transcript using a set of four specific ribonucleoside monophosphate residues (Adenosine monophosphate (AMP), Cytidine monophosphate (CMP), Guanosine monophosphate (GMP), and Uridine monophosphate (UMP)) that are added continuously to the 3' hydroxyl group on the 3' end of the growing mRNA.[1]
Studies of primary transcripts produced by RNA polymerase II reveal that an average primary transcript is 7,000 nucleotides in length, with some growing as long as 20,000 nucleotides in length.[2] The inclusion of both exon and intron sequences within primary transcripts explains the size difference between larger primary transcripts and smaller, mature mRNA ready for translation into protein.
Regulation[edit]
A number of factors contribute to the activation and inhibition of transcription and therefore regulate the production of primary transcripts from a given DNA template.
Activation of RNA polymerase activity to produce primary transcripts is often controlled by sequences of DNA called enhancers. Transcription factors, proteins that bind to DNA elements to either activate or repress transcription, bind to enhancers and recruit enzymes that alter nucleosome components, causing DNA to be either more or less accessible to RNA polymerase. The unique combinations of either activating or inhibiting transcription factors that bind to enhancer DNA regions determine whether or not the gene that enhancer interacts with is activated for transcription or not.[4] Activation of transcription depends on whether or not the transcription elongation complex, itself consisting of a variety of transcription factors, can induce RNA polymerase to dissociate from the Mediator complex that connects an enhancer region to the promoter.[4]
Role of transcription factors and enhancers in gene expression regulation
Inhibition of RNA polymerase activity can also be regulated by DNA sequences called silencers. Like enhancers, silencers may be located at locations farther up or downstream from the genes they regulate. These DNA sequences bind to factors that contribute to the destabilization of the initiation complex required to activate RNA polymerase, and therefore inhibit transcription.[5]
Histone modification by transcription factors is another key regulatory factor for transcription by RNA polymerase. In general, factors that lead to histone acetylation activate transcription while factors that lead to histone deacetylation inhibit transcription.[6] Acetylation of histones induces repulsion between negative components within nucleosomes, allowing for RNA polymerase access. Deacetylation of histones stabilizes tightly coiled nucleosomes, inhibiting RNA polymerase access. In addition to acetylation patterns of histones, methylation patterns at promoter regions of DNA can regulate RNA polymerase access to a given template. RNA polymerase is often incapable of synthesizing a primary transcript if the targeted gene's promoter region contains specific methylated cytosines— residues that hinder binding of transcription-activating factors and recruit other enzymes to stabilize a tightly bound nucleosome structure, excluding access to RNA polymerase and preventing the production of primary transcripts.[4]
R-loops[edit]
R-loops are formed during transcription. An R-loop is a three-stranded nucleic acid structure containing a DNA-RNA hybrid region and an associated non-template single-stranded DNA. Actively transcribed regions of DNA often form R-loops that are vulnerable to DNA damage. Introns reduce R-loop formation and DNA damage in highly expressed yeast genes.[7]
RNA processing[edit]
Transcription, a highly regulated phase in gene expression, produces primary transcripts. However, transcription is only the first step which should be followed by many modifications that yield functional forms of RNAs.[8] Otherwise stated, the newly synthesized primary transcripts are modified in several ways to be converted to their mature, functional forms to produce different proteins and RNAs such as mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
Processing[edit]
The basic primary transcript modification process is similar for tRNA and rRNA in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. On the other hand, primary transcript processing varies in mRNAs of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.[8] For example, some prokaryotic bacterial mRNAs serve as templates for synthesis of proteins at the same time they are being produced via transcription. Alternatively, pre-mRNA of eukaryotic cells undergo a wide range of modifications prior to their transport from the nucleus to cytoplasm where their mature forms are translated.[8] These modifications are responsible for the different types of encoded messages that lead to translation of various types of products. Furthermore, primary transcript processing provides a control for gene expression as well as a regulatory mechanism for the degradation rates of mRNAs. The processing of pre-mRNA in eukaryotic cells includes 5' capping, 3' Polyadenylation, and alternative splicing.
5' capping[edit]
Shortly after transcription is initiated in eukaryotes, a pre-mRNA's 5' end is modified by the addition of a 7-methylguanosine cap, also known as a 5' cap.[8] The 5' capping modification is initiated by the addition of a GTP to the 5' terminal nucleotide of the pre-mRNA in reverse orientation followed by the addition of methyl groups to the G residue.[8] 5' capping is essential for the production of functional mRNAs since the 5' cap is responsible for aligning the mRNA with the ribosome during translation.[8]
Polyadenylation[edit]
In eukaryotes, polyadenylation further modifies pre-mRNAs during which a structure called the poly-A tail is added.[8] Signals for polyadenylation, which include several RNA sequence elements, are detected by a group of proteins which signal the addition of the poly-A tail (approximately 200 nucleotides in length). The polyadenylation reaction provides a signal for the end of transcription and this reaction ends approximately a few hundred nucleotides downstream from the poly-A tail location.[8]
Alternative splicing[edit]
In complex eukaryotic cells, one primary transcript is able to prepare large amounts of mature mRNAs due to alternative splicing. Alternate splicing is regulated so that each mature mRNA may encode a multiplicity of proteins.
Alternative splicing of the primary transcript
The effect of alternative splicing in gene expression can be seen in complex eukaryotes which have a fixed number of genes in their genome yet produce much larger numbers of different gene products.[8] Most eukaryotic pre-mRNA transcripts contain multiple introns and exons. The various possible combinations of 5' and 3' splice sites in a pre-mRNA can lead to different excision and combination of exons while the introns are eliminated from the mature mRNA. Thus, various kinds of mature mRNAs are generated.[8] Alternative splicing takes place in a large protein complex called the spliceosome. Alternative splicing is crucial for tissue-specific and developmental regulation in gene expression.[8] Alternative splicing can be affected by various factors, including mutations such as chromosomal translocation.
In prokaryotes, splicing is done by autocatalytic cleavage or by endolytic cleavage. Autocatalytic cleavages, in which no proteins are involved, are usually reserved for sections that code for rRNA, whereas endolytic cleavage corresponds to tRNA precursors.
Experiments[edit]
A study by Cindy L. Wills and Bruce J. Dolnick from the Department of Experimental Therapeutics at the Roswell Park Memorial Institute in Buffalo, New York and from the Cell and Molecular Biology Program at University of Wisconsin in Madison, Wisconsin was made to understand cellular processes involving primary transcripts. Researchers wanted to understand whether 5-Fluorouracil (FUra), a drug known for use in cancer treatment, inhibits or shuts down dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) pre-mRNA processing and/or nuclear mRNA stability in methotrexate-resistant KB cells. Long-term exposure to FUra had no effect on the level of DHFR pre-mRNA containing certain introns, which are sections of pre-mRNA that are usually cut out of the sequence as a part of processing. However, levels of total DHFR mRNA decreased two-fold in cells exposed to 1.0 microM FUra. There was no significant change in the half-life, which refers to the time it takes 50% of the mRNA to decay, of total DHFR mRNA or pre-mRNA observed in cells exposed to FUra. And nuclear/cytoplasmic RNA labeling experiments demonstrated that the rate of nuclear DHFR RNA changing to cytoplasmic DHFR mRNA decreased in cells treated with FUra. These results provide further evidence that FUra may help in the processing of mRNA precursors and/or affect the stability of nuclear DHFR mRNA.[9]
Judith Lengyel and Sheldon Penman from the department of Biology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts wrote an article about one type of primary transcript involved in the genes of two dipterans, or insects that have two wings: Drosophila and Aedes. The article describes how researchers looked at hnRNA, or basically pre-mRNA, primary transcripts in the two kinds of insects. The size of hnRNA transcripts and the fraction of hnRNA that is converted to mRNA in cell lines, or groups of cells derived from a single cell of whatever one is studying, of Drosophila melanogaster and Aedes albopictus were compared. Both insects are dipterans, but Aedes has a larger genome than Drosophila. This means that Aedes has more DNA, which means more genes. The Aedes line make larger hnRNA than did the Drosophila line even though the two cell lines grew under similar conditions and produced mature or processed mRNA of the same size and sequence complexity. These data suggest that the size of hnRNA increases with increasing genome size, which is obviously shown by Aedes.[10]
Ivo Melcak, Stepanka Melcakova, Vojtech Kopsky, Jaromıra Vecerova and Ivan Raska from the department of Cell Biology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, at the Academy of Sciences of Czech Republic in Prague studied the influences of nuclear speckles on pre-mRNA. Nuclear speckles (speckles) are a part of the nuclei of cells and are enriched with splicing factors known for involvement in mRNA processing. Nuclear speckles have shown to serve neighboring active genes as storage places of these splicing factors. In this study, researchers showed that, in HeLa cells which derived from cells of a person who had cervical cancer and have proven useful for experiments, the first group of spliceosomes on pre-mRNA come from these speckles. Researchers used microinjections of spliceosome-accepting and mutant adenovirus pre-mRNAs with differential splicing factor binding to make different groups and then followed the sites in which they were heavily present. Spliceosome-accepting pre-mRNAs were rapidly targeted into the speckles, but the targeting was found to be temperature-dependent. The polypyrimidine tract sequences in mRNA promote the construction of spliceosome groups and is required for targeting, but, by itself, was not sufficient. The downstream flanking sequences were particularly important for the targeting of the mutant pre-mRNAs in the speckles. In supportive experiments, the behavior of the speckles was followed after the microinjection of antisense deoxyoligoribonucleotides (complementary sequences of DNA and or RNA to a specific sequence) and, in this case, specific sequences of snRNAs. snRNAs are known for helping in the processing of pre-mRNA as well. Under these conditions, spliceosome groups formed on endogenous pre-mRNAs. Researchers concluded that the spliceosome groups on microinjected pre-mRNA form inside the speckles. Pre-mRNA targeting and buildup in the speckles is a result of the loading of splicing factors to the pre-mRNA, and the spliceosome groups gave rise to the speckled pattern observed.[11]
Related diseases[edit]
Research has also led to greater knowledge about certain diseases related to changes within primary transcripts. One study involved estrogen receptors and differential splicing. The article entitled, "Alternative splicing of the human estrogen receptor alpha primary transcript: mechanisms of exon skipping" by Paola Ferro, Alessandra Forlani, Marco Muselli and Ulrich Pfeffer from the laboratory of Molecular Oncology at National Cancer Research Institute in Genoa, Italy, explains that 1785 nucleotides of the region in the DNA that codes for the estrogen receptor alpha (ER-alpha) are spread over a region that holds more than 300,000 nucleotides in the primary transcript. Splicing of this pre-mRNA frequently leads to variants or different kinds of the mRNA lacking one or more exons or regions necessary for coding proteins. These variants have been associated with breast cancer progression.[12] In the life cycle of retroviruses, proviral DNA is incorporated in transcription of the DNA of the cell being infected. Since retroviruses need to change their pre-mRNA into DNA so that this DNA can be integrated within the DNA of the host it is affecting, the formation of that DNA template is a vital step for retrovirus replication. Cell type, the differentiation or changed state of the cell, and the physiological state of the cell, result in a significant change in the availability and activity of certain factors necessary for transcription. These variables create a wide range of viral gene expression. For example, tissue culture cells actively producing infectious virions of avian or murine leukemia viruses (ASLV or MLV) contain such high levels of viral RNA that 5–10% of the mRNA in a cell can be of viral origin. This shows that the primary transcripts produced by these retroviruses do not always follow the normal path to protein production and convert back into DNA in order to multiply and expand.[13]
See also[edit]
Transcription (biology)
Transcriptome
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c T. Strachan; Andrew P. Read (January 2004). Human Molecular Genetics 3. Garland Science. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-0-8153-4184-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Alberts, B. "Molecular Biology of the Cell 3rd Edition". NCBI. New York: Garland Science.
Jump up ^ Griffiths, AJF. "An Introduction to Genetic Analysis". NCBI. New York: W.H. Freeman.
^ Jump up to: a b c Scott F. Gilbert (15 July 2013). Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates, Incorporated. pp. 38–39, 50. ISBN 978-1-60535-173-5.
Jump up ^ Brown, T.A. "Genomes 2nd Edition". NCBI. Oxford: Wiley-Liss.
Jump up ^ Harvey Lodish (2008). Molecular Cell Biology. W. H. Freeman. pp. 303–306. ISBN 978-0-7167-7601-7.
Jump up ^ Bonnet A, Grosso AR, Elkaoutari A, Coleno E, Presle A, Sridhara SC, Janbon G, Géli V, de Almeida SF, Palancade B (2017). "Introns Protect Eukaryotic Genomes from Transcription-Associated Genetic Instability". Mol. Cell. 67 (4): 608–621.e6. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2017.07.002. PMID 28757210.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Cooper, GM. "The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd edition". NCBI. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2000.
Jump up ^ Will, CL; Dolnick, BJ (Dec 1989). "5-Fluorouracil inhibits dihydrofolate reductase precursor mRNA processing and/or nuclear mRNA stability in methotrexate-resistant KB cells". J Biol Chem. 264 (35): 21413–21. PMID 2592384.
Jump up ^ Lengyel, J; Penman, S (Jul 1975). "hnRNA size and processing as related to different DNA content in two dipterans: Drosophila and Aedes". Cell. 5 (3): 281–90. doi:10.1016/0092-8674(75)90103-8. PMID 807333.
Jump up ^ Melčák, Ivo; Melčáková, Štěpánka; Kopsky, Vojtěch; Večeřová, Jaromíra; Raška, Ivan (February 2001). "Prespliceosomal Assembly on Microinjected Precursor mRNA Takes Place in Nuclear Speckles". Mol Biol Cell. 12 (2): 393–406. doi:10.1091/mbc.12.2.393. PMC 30951  . PMID 11179423.
Jump up ^ Ferro, P; Forlani, A; Muselli, M; Pfeffer, U (Sep 2003). "Alternative splicing of the human estrogen receptor alpha primary transcript: mechanisms of exon skipping". Int J Mol Med. 12 (3): 355–63. PMID 12883652.
Jump up ^ Coffin JM, Hughes SH, Varmus HE, editors. Retroviruses. Cold Spring Harbor (NY): Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 1997. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK19441/
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