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List of Outlander episodes
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Outlander is a British-American television drama series based on the Outlander series of historical time travel novels by Diana Gabaldon. Developed by Ronald D. Moore and produced by Sony Pictures Television and Left Bank Pictures for Starz, the show premiered on August 9, 2014. It stars Caitriona Balfe as Claire Randall, a married former World War II nurse who in 1946 finds herself transported back to the Scotland of 1743, where she meets the dashing Highland warrior Jamie Fraser (Sam Heughan) and becomes embroiled in the Jacobite risings.[1][2]
On June 1, 2016, Starz renewed the series for a third and fourth season, which adapt the third and fourth Outlander novels.[3] The 13-episode third season premiered on September 10, 2017.[4] As of October 8, 2017,[update] 34 episodes of Outlander have aired.
Contents
[hide]
1 Series overview
2 Episodes
2.1 Season 1 (2014–15)
2.2 Season 2 (2016)
2.3 Season 3 (2017)
3 Ratings
4 References
5 External links
Series overview[edit]
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 16 8 August 9, 2014 (2014-08-09) September 27, 2014 (2014-09-27)
8 April 4, 2015 (2015-04-04) May 30, 2015 (2015-05-30)
2 13 April 9, 2016 (2016-04-09) July 9, 2016 (2016-07-09)
3 13[5] September 10, 2017 (2017-09-10) December 10, 2017 (2017-12-10)[5]
Episodes[edit]
Season 1 (2014–15)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
Volume One
1
1 "Sassenach" John Dahl Ronald D. Moore August 9, 2014 (2014-08-09) 0.72[6]
In 1946, Claire Randall is a former WWII combat nurse visiting Inverness, Scotland, with her husband Frank, getting to know each other again after their wartime separation. Frank is researching his family history, in particular his 18th Century ancestor Jonathan "Black Jack" Randall. The morning after observing a modern Druid ritual at the standing stones on the hill of Craigh na Dun, Claire touches one of the stones, and wakes up lying on the ground. Soon she is in the middle of a skirmish between English redcoats and rebel Highlanders, and comes face to face with Frank's double, Randall, who is captain of the Dragoons. A Scotsman rescues Claire and she meets Jamie Fraser. She is able to set his dislocated arm and later treat his bullet wound, as they flee. Claire is brought to Castle Leoch, and realises that she has somehow travelled back in time.
2
2 "Castle Leoch" John Dahl Ronald D. Moore August 16, 2014 (2014-08-16) 0.90[7]
Claire is presented to Colum MacKenzie, laird of the castle, and realises she is suspected of being an English spy. She meets Geillis Duncan, and witnesses Jamie doing a kindness for Laoghaire, the pretty young granddaughter of Mrs. Fitzgibbons. As Claire plans to return to Inverness and the standing stones, Colum decides it is best to keep her at Leoch, against her will, as healer to the clan.
3
3 "The Way Out" Brian Kelly Anne Kenney August 23, 2014 (2014-08-23) 1.00[8]
Claire hopes that her medical skills will earn her the trust of the MacKenzies, and her eventual freedom, but manages only to make herself indispensable. By saving Mrs. Fitzgibbons's nephew from poisoning, which the fanatical Father Bain had declared as demonic possession, Claire makes a new enemy. After she and Jamie collude to help a youth punished for stealing, Claire is given renewed hope of being able to travel home when she hears a folk tale about a time traveller and the standing stones.
4
4 "The Gathering" Brian Kelly Matthew B. Roberts August 30, 2014 (2014-08-30) 0.84[9]
Claire plots her escape during a clan gathering at Leoch, but Jamie convinces her that she would fail. Escorting her back, he finds himself in a dangerous position with Colum that he had been trying to avoid, but manages to make an oath of loyalty while manoeuvering himself out of trouble with his kinsman. Claire earns Dougal's respect while tending a dying man on a boar hunt, and he decides to take her with him on his rent collecting tour.
5
5 "Rent" Brian Kelly Toni Graphia September 6, 2014 (2014-09-06) 0.95[10]
Claire clashes with Dougal and his men on the rent-collecting journey, especially when Dougal uses Jamie's scars to collect more money from the villagers. Later, she realises that they are collecting funds for the prospective Jacobite army. Knowing from history that their cause is doomed, she tries to warn them off.
6
6 "The Garrison Commander" Brian Kelly Ira Steven Behr September 13, 2014 (2014-09-13) 1.10[11]
The redcoats take Claire to meet General Lord Thomas, who promises her safe passage to Inverness in the company of Randall. When the General leaves, Randall tries to discover why she is in Scotland. She concocts a story and he describes in detail his vicious whipping of young Jamie. Dougal comes to take her away, but Randall insists that he has to deliver Claire to Fort William the following day. They leave, and Dougal tells Claire he does not have to turn her in if she marries Jamie and so becomes Scottish.
7
7 "The Wedding" Anna Foerster Anne Kenney September 20, 2014 (2014-09-20) 1.23[12]
Claire and Jamie get married to protect her from Randall, and try to get to know each other better afterwards to make the consummation less awkward. They realise their feelings for each other, but Claire is still torn thinking about Frank.
8
8 "Both Sides Now" Anna Foerster Ronald D. Moore September 27, 2014 (2014-09-27) 1.42[13]
In 1945, Frank is losing hope of finding Claire, but goes to the standing stones one last time. In the past, Claire finds herself nearby to the stones, and runs for them. She hears Frank calling, and he hears her as well. But Claire is captured by English troops before she can reach the stones, and a despondent Frank leaves, as she is taken to Fort William. Claire nearly talks her way out of being interrogated by Randall, but he turns the tables on her. Just as he is about to rape her at knifepoint, Jamie appears in the window.
Volume Two
9
9 "The Reckoning" Richard Clark Matthew B. Roberts April 4, 2015 (2015-04-04) 1.22[14]
Jamie saves Claire from Black Jack Randall, but the dynamic of their marriage is tested. Jamie tries to ease the conflict between Colum and Dougal sparked by Claire's rescue. Jamie rebuffs a seduction by Laoghaire, who then leaves a bad luck charm under Claire and Jamie's bed.
10
10 "By the Pricking of My Thumbs" Richard Clark Ira Steven Behr April 11, 2015 (2015-04-11) 0.86[15]
Claire confronts a spiteful Laoghaire, but is surprised to learn that the charm came from Geillis. Jamie petitions the Duke of Sandringham for help to rid himself of Randall and the price on his head, while Claire secretly uses her historical knowledge to leverage his help in Jamie's favour. Dougal is inconsolable after his wife's death from an illness, but Geillis, pregnant with his child, is pleased. When Geillis's husband dies at a banquet for the Duke, Claire realises that Geillis poisoned him. Colum forbids Dougal from pursuing a relationship with Geillis, and exiles Dougal to his estate, with Jamie in tow. Claire and Geillis are arrested for witchcraft.
11
11 "The Devil's Mark" Mike Barker Toni Graphia April 18, 2015 (2015-04-18) 1.09[16]
Claire and Geillis face charges of witchcraft. Ned Gowan comes to their defence, but witnesses, including Laoghaire and Father Bain, testify against them, and they are found guilty. Before Jamie can fight his way out of the courtroom with his wife, Geillis confesses and exonerates Claire. Claire recognises from the smallpox vaccine scar on Geillis's shoulder that she too is from the future. Geillis is taken to be burned at the stake. When Jamie asks Claire about her scar, she tells him of her time travel. He believes her, takes her back to Craigh na Dun, and wishes her well in returning to her own time. But Claire decides not to go back.
12
12 "Lallybroch" Mike Barker Anne Kenney April 25, 2015 (2015-04-25) 1.11[17]
Jamie takes Claire to his family home of Lallybroch, where he clashes with his strong willed sister Jenny. Taking up his role as laird, he disrupts the household until Claire sets him straight. After Jamie narrowly avoids a run-in with passing redcoats, he and Jenny make amends.
13
13 "The Watch" Metin Hüseyin Toni Graphia May 2, 2015 (2015-05-02) 1.05[18]
The men of the Watch arrive at Lallybroch, and Jamie pretends to be a Fraser cousin. Claire realises that Jenny's impending childbirth will be a dangerous, breech birth, but Jenny swears her to secrecy. The redcoat defector Horrocks appears, and threatens to reveal that Jamie has a price on his head unless Jamie pays him. Jenny's husband Ian kills Horrocks. Coming clean to the Watch leader MacQuarrie, Jamie agrees to join their raid. Jenny gives birth to a daughter with Claire's help. Meanwhile, the raiding party is ambushed, and Jamie captured by the redcoats.
14
14 "The Search" Metin Hüseyin Matthew B. Roberts May 9, 2015 (2015-05-09) 1.08[19]
Claire and Jenny set out to find Jamie. They learn he has escaped his captors, and a newly arrived Murtagh takes Claire on a journey to find him. Their plan is to have Jamie find them by touring the countryside with Claire as a songstress called "The Sassenach". They attract Dougal's attention, and he tells them that Jamie has been recaptured and tried, and is awaiting execution at Wentworth Prison. Claire makes a deal with Dougal, and convinces his men to help her rescue Jamie.
15
15 "Wentworth Prison" Anna Foerster Ira Steven Behr May 16, 2015 (2015-05-16) 1.01[20]
Randall appears at Wentworth Prison and tortures Jamie, seeking his submission. Meanwhile, Claire gets into the prison to save her husband. When Randall catches her, Jamie agrees to submit to rape by Randall in exchange for her freedom. Before she leaves, Claire "curses" Randall and tells him what will be the date of his death. When all seems lost, Murtagh comes up with a plan to rescue Jamie.
16
16 "To Ransom a Man's Soul" Anna Foerster Ira Steven Behr & Ronald D. Moore May 30, 2015 (2015-05-30) 0.98[21]
Murtagh's rescue is successful and Randall left for dead, but Jamie remains tortured by his ordeal. As Claire tends to his injuries, Jamie is tormented by memory of his rape and torture. Murtagh accompanies them as they set sail for safety in France, where Claire hopes to meet Charles Stuart and somehow prevent the catastrophic Battle of Culloden. As they set sail, Claire tells Jamie that she is pregnant.
Season 2 (2016)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
17
1 "Through a Glass, Darkly" Metin Hüseyin Ronald D. Moore April 9, 2016 (2016-04-09) 1.46[22]
Claire awakes at Craigh Na Dun back in 1948. Grieving over Jamie's assumed death in battle, she is reunited with Frank, who cannot understand her reappearance but is desperate to reconcile. Claire explains where she has been, including her relationship with Jamie and that she is carrying his child. They agree that they will raise the child together and resume married life. She recalls, however, her arrival with Jamie to France, where they make contact with Jamie's Jacobite cousin Jared Fraser, and make an enemy of the Comte St. Germain.
18
2 "Not in Scotland Anymore" Metin Hüseyin Ira Steven Behr April 16, 2016 (2016-04-16) 1.24[23]
In 1744, Claire and Jamie have settled in Paris, ostensibly working for Jared but actually seeking to foil the Jacobite rebellion. Jared arranges for Jamie to meet with Prince Charles Stuart himself, but Jamie cannot deter him from planning to seize the English throne for his father. Claire secures an invitation to the Palace of Versailles, where she hopes to meet King Louis XV of France and thwart his funding of the Stuart cause. The Frasers make an impression, and are reunited with the Duke of Sandringham. Claire is shocked to learn that Randall is still alive, and is not sure if she should tell Jamie.
19
3 "Useful Occupations and Deceptions" Metin Hüseyin Anne Kenney April 23, 2016 (2016-04-23) 1.21[24]
While Jamie continues to try and sour the financing of Prince Charles's rebellion, Claire makes herself useful at L'Hôpital des Anges, a charity hospital run by the imperious Mother Hildegarde. Claire and Jamie discover that Sandringham is helping Charles secure funds from English nobles, which Jamie hopes to thwart. Though spending time with Sandringham will surely reveal to Jamie that Randall is alive, Claire cannot bear to tell Jamie herself.
20
4 "La Dame Blanche" Douglas Mackinnon Toni Graphia April 30, 2016 (2016-04-30) 1.17[25]
Claire finally tells Jamie about Randall, and the potential for vengeance reinvigorates Jamie. Claire suspects the Comte St. Germain when an attempt is made on her life, and she and Jamie plan a dinner party to paint Charles and his cause in a bad light to Sandringham. Murtagh, Claire and the young Mary Hawkins are attacked on their way to the party, and Mary is raped. Back at the house, the party goes as planned until a misunderstanding sparks a brawl.
21
5 "Untimely Resurrection" Douglas Mackinnon Richard Kahan May 7, 2016 (2016-05-07) 1.13[26]
The disastrous dinner party has discouraged Charles's investors, but the prince finds a new one in Jamie's enemy, St. Germain. Charles puts Jamie and St. Germain into business together, to their concern. Trying to preserve Frank's lineage, Claire sabotages the blossoming relationship between Mary Hawkins and Alex Randall. Randall appears at Versailles, and Jamie challenges him to a duel. Jamie is angry when Claire forces him to swear that he will not harm Randall until he has conceived a child with Mary.
22
6 "Best Laid Schemes..." Metin Hüseyin Matthew B. Roberts May 14, 2016 (2016-05-14) 1.03[27]
Jamie tells Murtagh the truth about Claire's past. Claire uses her medical knowledge to give St. Germain's men symptoms that resemble those of smallpox. Jamie and Murtagh then steal the Comte's wine shipment, seemingly dashing Charles's hopes. Fate brings Jamie and Randall face to face, and Claire arrives just in time to see them duelling. As Jamie stabs Randall and gendarmes arrive to arrest them, a pregnant Claire collapses, bleeding.
23
7 "Faith" Metin Hüseyin Toni Graphia May 21, 2016 (2016-05-21) 1.10[28]
Claire and Jamie's daughter is stillborn, and a devastated Claire nearly dies from fever. With Jamie in the Bastille, Claire discovers that he duelled with Randall because he had discovered the English captain raping Fergus. Claire seeks mercy for Jamie from the king, who forces her to decide the fates of suspected "sorcerers" Master Raymond and St. Germain. She contrives to save them, but Raymond poisons St. Germain. Claire submits sexually to the king in exchange for Jamie's freedom. They reconcile, and visit their daughter Faith's grave before leaving Paris for Scotland.
24
8 "The Fox's Lair" Mike Barker Anne Kenney May 28, 2016 (2016-05-28) 1.06[29]
In Scotland, Jamie finds himself compelled to support the Jacobite rebellion. He and Claire seek military assistance from his grandfather, Lord Lovat, and are reunited with Colum and Laoghaire. Colum hopes to discourage the rebellion, which he is certain will fail. Laoghaire begs Claire's forgiveness, and later agrees to help Claire and Jamie manipulate Lovat. Playing both sides, Lovat promises peace to Colum, but also sends Jamie some troops as reinforcements.
25
9 "Je Suis Prest" Philip John Matthew B. Roberts June 4, 2016 (2016-06-04) 0.94[30]
Claire and Jamie are reunited with Angus, Rupert and Dougal. As Jamie and Murtagh attempt to train Lovat's men, the camps remind Claire of her traumatic experiences in World War II. She and Jamie later coerce young English scout William Grey to reveal vital information about the English army that is nearby.
26
10 "Prestonpans" Philip John Ira Steven Behr June 11, 2016 (2016-06-11) 0.82[31]
Jamie and the Jacobite army undertake their first battle against the English at Prestonpans. Surprising them in the fog, the Highlanders are victorious, but Angus later dies of his injuries.
27
11 "Vengeance Is Mine" Mike Barker Diana Gabaldon June 18, 2016 (2016-06-18) 0.86[32]
When Claire, Jamie and their party are surrounded by redcoats, Claire pretends to be an English hostage so Dougal can negotiate the Highlanders' safe passage. Taken to 'safety', Claire finds herself face to face with the Duke of Sandringham and his goddaughter Mary Hawkins. She also recognises Sandringham's valet, Danton, as the man who had raped Mary. Sandringham intends to lure "Red Jamie" to save Claire, and then turn them both over to the redcoats. Forewarned, Jamie and Murtagh slip into the castle. Mary kills Danton, and Murtagh beheads Sandringham to fulfill his promise to Claire and Mary to avenge their attack in Paris.
28
12 "The Hail Mary" Philip John Ira Steven Behr & Anne Kenney June 25, 2016 (2016-06-25) 1.05[33]
Jamie tries to avoid the Battle of Culloden with a preemptive strike against the English while they are celebrating the Duke of Cumberland's birthday, but the Prince gets lost in the dark. Claire finds herself trying to convince Randall to marry Mary, who is pregnant with a dying Alex's child. A dying Colum asks Claire to help him end his life painlessly. Before she does, he tells her that Geillis was not burned at the stake until after her and Dougal's child was born, and that the child was adopted into the MacKenzie clan.
29
13 "Dragonfly in Amber" Philip John Toni Graphia & Matthew B. Roberts July 9, 2016 (2016-07-09) 1.15[34]
In 1968, fifty-year-old Claire is reunited with Reverend Wakefield's adopted son, Roger, in Inverness. Her twenty-year-old daughter, Brianna, discovers that she is not Frank's biological daughter, but refuses to believe her mother's tale of time travel. Meanwhile, Brianna meets Scottish Independence activist Gillian Edgars, whom Claire later recognises is Geillis Duncan. Before the battle of Culloden in 1746, Jamie insists that Claire save herself and their unborn child by travelling back through the stones. Back in 1968, Claire realises Roger is a descendant of Geillis and Dougal. To prevent Gillian's death, they try to stop her from travelling back through time. They arrive too late, but seeing Gillian disappear into the stone convinces Brianna that her mother is telling the truth. Roger reveals to Claire that Jamie did not die at Culloden.
Season 3 (2017)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by [35]
Written by [35]
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
30
1 "The Battle Joined" Brendan Maher Ronald D. Moore September 10, 2017 (2017-09-10) 1.49[36]
In 1948, a pregnant Claire moves to Boston with Frank. Their relationship is tense, and she struggles to adjust to her new life as a housewife. She gives birth to Jamie's daughter. In 1746, Jamie and Rupert have survived the Battle of Culloden, but Jamie's wounds are grave. They are caught by redcoats, and Rupert is executed. Just as Jamie's turn comes, he is recognised by Lord Melton, the elder brother of the boy—John Grey—whose life Jamie spared before Prestonpans. Bound by honour, Melton sends Jamie home to Broch Tuarach, expecting him to die en route.
31
2 "Surrender" Jennifer Getzinger Anne Kenney September 17, 2017 (2017-09-17) 1.40[37]
Baby Brianna has brought Claire and Frank closer, but the memory of Jamie stands between them. Searching for fulfilment, Claire enrols in medical school as the only woman in her class. Jamie has survived, but with the English searching for him, he lives in a cave as an outlaw. Soldiers come to Lallybroch repeatedly, harassing Jenny and Ian for information about Jamie's whereabouts. When Fergus loses a hand in a run-in with redcoats, Jamie arranges to be "caught", so that Jenny can claim the reward and the English will leave his family alone.
32
3 "All Debts Paid" Brendan Maher Matthew B. Roberts September 24, 2017 (2017-09-24) 1.55[38]
Claire graduates. Now that Brianna is grown up, Frank wants a divorce so he can marry his mistress and return to England. They are poised to argue over where Brianna will live, but Frank is killed in a car accident. Jamie is serving time in Ardsmuir Prison, where he is the leader and spokesman for the Scottish prisoners. His uneasy relationship with the new governor, an adult John Grey, evolves into friendship. When the prison is shuttered, Murtagh and the rest of the prisoners are sent to the American colonies as indentured servants, while Grey paroles Jamie to work at a private estate called Helwater.
33
4 "Of Lost Things" Brendan Maher Toni Graphia October 1, 2017 (2017-10-01) 1.59[39]
Claire and Brianna research history to track Jamie to Ardsmuir, but when the trail runs cold, they return to America. Serving as a groom for the Dunsany family, Jamie is blackmailed into sex by heiress Geneva. When she and her earl husband die leaving their newborn son an orphan, Geneva's sister Isobel keeps the secret that the child is really Jamie's. Years later, when the young earl's resemblance to him is becoming obvious, Jamie leaves Helwater, with his secret son Willie in the care of Isobel and Grey.
34
5 "Freedom & Whisky" Brendan Maher Toni Graphia October 8, 2017 (2017-10-08) 1.60[40]
In December 1968, Roger arrives in Boston having discovered a clue to Jamie's whereabouts in 1765. Brianna urges Claire to go back and reunite with Jamie, and mother and daughter have a tearful farewell. In Edinburgh in 1765, Claire finds Jamie in a print shop.
35
6 "A. Malcolm"[41] Norma Bailey TBA October 22, 2017 (2017-10-22) TBD
36
7 "Creme de Menthe"[41] Norma Bailey Karen Campbell October 29, 2017 (2017-10-29) TBD
37
8 "First Wife"[41] Jennifer Getzinger Joy Blake November 5, 2017 (2017-11-05) TBD
38
9 "The Doldrums"[41] David Moore Shannon Goss November 12, 2017 (2017-11-12) TBD
39
10 TBA David Moore Luke Schelhaas November 19, 2017 (2017-11-19)[5] TBD
40
11 TBA Charlotte Brandström Karen Campbell & Shannon Goss November 26, 2017 (2017-11-26)[5] TBD
41
12 "The Bakra"[41] Charlotte Brandström Luke Schelhaas December 3, 2017 (2017-12-03) TBD
42
13 TBA TBA Matthew B. Roberts & Toni Graphia[42] December 10, 2017 (2017-12-10)[5] TBD
Ratings[edit]
Outlander : U.S. viewers per episode (millions)
Season
Ep. 1
Ep. 2
Ep. 3
Ep. 4
Ep. 5
Ep. 6
Ep. 7
Ep. 8
Ep. 9
Ep. 10
Ep. 11
Ep. 12
Ep. 13
1A
0.72 0.90 1.00 0.84 0.95 1.10 1.23 1.42 N/A
1B
1.22 0.86 1.09 1.11 1.05 1.08 1.01 0.98 N/A
2
1.46 1.24 1.21 1.17 1.13 1.03 1.10 1.06 0.94 0.82 0.86 1.05 1.15
3
1.49 1.40 1.55 1.59 1.60 TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD
Source: Nielsen Media Research[43][44][45]
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (October 10, 2017). "UPDATED: SHOWBUZZDAILY’s Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 10.8.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved October 10, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Outlander: Episode Guide". Zap2it. Retrieved August 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Roberts, Matthew B. (December 27, 2016). "On the holiday break - looking out my window -reading #DrumsofAutumn preparing for #Outlander S4 and writing the S3 finale with #ToniGraphia". Twitter. Retrieved July 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Outlander: Season One Ratings". TV Series Finale. June 2, 2015. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Outlander: Season Two Ratings". TV Series Finale. July 12, 2016. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Outlander: Season Three Ratings". TV Series Finale. Retrieved September 16, 2017.
External links[edit]
Official website
List of Outlander episodes on IMDb
[hide]
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Short works
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episodes
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What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962 film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 1991 television remake, see What Ever Happened to...
What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Robert Aldrich
Produced by
Robert Aldrich
Screenplay by
Lukas Heller
Based on
What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?
by Henry Farrell
Starring
Bette Davis
Joan Crawford
Victor Buono
Music by
Frank DeVol
Cinematography
Ernest Haller
Edited by
Michael Luciano
Production
company
Seven Arts Productions
Distributed by
Warner Bros. Pictures
Release date
October 31, 1962 (1962-10-31)
Running time
133 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$1 million[2]
Box office
$9.5 million[3][4]
What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? is a 1962 American psychological thriller[5]–horror film[6][7] produced and directed by Robert Aldrich, starring Bette Davis and Joan Crawford, about an aging former actress who holds her paraplegic sister captive in an old Hollywood mansion. The screenplay by Lukas Heller is based on the novel What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? by Henry Farrell. Upon the film's release, it was met with widespread critical and box office acclaim and was later nominated for five Academy Awards, winning one for Best Costume Design, Black and White.
The intensely bitter Hollywood rivalry between the film's two stars, Davis and Crawford, was heavily important to the film's initial success.[8] This in part led to the revitalization of the then-waning careers of the two stars. In the years after release, critics continued to acclaim the film for its psychologically driven black comedy, camp, and creation of the psycho-biddy subgenre.[8][9] The film's then-unheard of and controversial plot meant that it originally received an X rating in the UK.[1] Because of the appeal of the film's stars, Dave Itzkoff in The New York Times has identified it as being a "cult classic".[10] In 2003 the character of Baby Jane Hudson was ranked No. 44 on the American Film Institute's list of the 50 Best Villains of American Cinema.[11]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Critical reception
5 Accolades
6 Box office
7 Legacy
8 References
9 External links
Plot[edit]
In 1917, "Baby Jane" Hudson is an adored yet ill-tempered vaudevillian child star while her older sister Blanche lives in her shadow. By 1935, their fortunes have reversed: Blanche is a successful film actress and Jane lives in obscurity, her films having failed. One night, Jane mocks Blanche at a party, prompting Blanche to run away in tears. That same night, Blanche is paralyzed from the waist down in a mysterious car accident that is unofficially blamed on Jane, who is found three days later in a drunken stupor.
In 1962 a wheelchair-bound Blanche (Joan Crawford) and Jane (Bette Davis) are living together in Blanche's mansion, purchased with Blanche's movie earnings. By now, Jane has descended into alcoholism and mental illness and treats Blanche with cruelty to punish her for stealing her spotlight. Later, when Blanche informs Jane she may be selling the house, Jane's mental health begins to deteriorate further. During an argument, she removes the telephone from Blanche's bedroom, cutting Blanche off from the outside world. Later, Jane begins denying Blanche food, until she serves Blanche her dead parakeet on a platter—and, at a later meal, a rat that she killed in the cellar.
Jane becomes obsessed with recapturing her childhood stardom and puts an advertisement in the paper for a pianist to accompany her singing. When Jane leaves the house, Blanche tries to get the attention of her neighbor, Mrs. Bates (Anna Lee), by writing a note pleading for help and throwing it out her bedroom window. Jane returns in time to notice the note and prevents Mrs. Bates from seeing it. When Jane reads the note, the two sisters quarrel again.
When Blanche's caretaker Elvira Stitt (Maidie Norman) comes to clean the house, Jane pays her and gives her the day off, but when Elvira returns later on, Jane abruptly fires her and sends her away. After Jane goes to the bank to get some cash, Elvira comes back and finds that Jane has locked Blanche in her room. When Jane returns, Mrs. Bates tells her she saw Elvira go into the house. Jane confronts Elvira. Meanwhile, eccentric and cash-strapped Edwin Flagg (Victor Buono) sees Jane's newspaper advertisement and arrives at the mansion, where Jane hires him as her accompanist. Desperate for cash, Edwin insincerely flatters Jane and encourages her to revive her act. While Jane drives Edwin home, Blanche searches the house for food and discovers Jane has been forging her signature on checks. Desperate for help, Blanche crawls down the stairs and calls their doctor, telling him of Jane's erratic behavior and begging him to come to the house. Jane returns in time to find Blanche on the phone and beats her unconscious before imitating her voice over the phone and telling the doctor not to come. She then binds and gags Blanche and locks her back in her upstairs bedroom. Elvira, still suspicious of Jane, returns the next day and discovers Blanche in a weakened and starved state. Before she can rescue her, however, Jane beats Elvira to death with a hammer and disposes of her body.
Joan Crawford as Blanche Hudson
Days later, the police call upon the Hudson house and tell Jane that her maid's cousin has reported her missing. The panicked Jane prepares to leave, taking Blanche with her. Before they can leave, Edwin shows up uninvited and drunk, and discovers Blanche in her bed, bound and emaciated. Edwin flees to a drugstore where he notifies the authorities.
Jane drives Blanche to the beach and reverts to her childhood self. Near death, Blanche confesses that her paralysis is her own fault: on the night of the accident, she had tried to run Jane over because she was angry at her sister for mocking her, and ever since she has let Jane believe she was to blame for her spine being severed when the car struck the iron gate of their house. Pathetically, Jane asks, "You mean all this time we could have been friends?" With childlike joy, Jane goes to a beachside snack bar to get ice-cream cones for herself and Blanche, then succumbs completely to her insanity and dances before a crowd of puzzled onlookers, believing she is once again "Baby Jane", performing for her adoring fans. Two police officers, who have come to arrest Jane for Elvira's murder, see Blanche lying motionless in the sand and rush to her. The film ends here, without revealing whether Blanche has survived her ordeal.
Cast[edit]
Bette Davis as Jane Hudson
Julie Allred as nine-year-old Jane
Debbie Burton as young Jane's singing voice
Joan Crawford as Blanche Hudson
Gina Gillespie as thirteen-year-old Blanche
Victor Buono as Edwin Flagg
Marjorie Bennett as Dehlia Flagg
Maidie Norman as Elvira Stitt
Anna Lee as Mrs. Bates
B. D. Merrill as Liza Bates
Dave Willock as Ray Hudson
Anne Barton as Cora Hudson
Wesley Addy as Marty McDonald
Bert Freed as Ben Golden
Robert Cornthwaite as Doctor Shelby
Production[edit]
Bette Davis (left) as Baby Jane Hudson and Joan Crawford as her sister, Blanche Hudson
Bette Davis came up with her own makeup for her role. The house exterior of the Hudson mansion is located at 172 South McCadden Place in the neighborhood of Hancock Park, Los Angeles. Other residential exteriors show cottages on DeLongpre Avenue near Harvard Avenue in Hollywood without their current gated courtyards. The scene on the beach was shot in Malibu, reportedly the same site where Aldrich filmed the final scene of Kiss Me Deadly (1955).
Footage from the Bette Davis films Parachute Jumper and Ex-Lady (both 1933) and the Joan Crawford film Sadie McKee (1934) was used to represent the film acting of Baby Jane and Blanche respectively.
The neighbor's daughter was played by Davis' daughter B. D. Merrill who, following in the footsteps of Crawford's daughter Christina, later wrote a memoir that depicted her mother in an unfavorable light.
Crawford was scheduled to appear alongside Davis on a publicity tour of Baby Jane but cancelled at the last minute. Davis claimed that Crawford backed out because she didn't want to share the stage with her.[12] In a 1972 telephone conversation, Crawford related to future author Shaun Considine that after seeing a screening of the film she urged Davis to go and have a look. When she didn't hear back from her co-star, Crawford called Davis and asked her what she thought of the film to which Davis replied, "You were so right, Joan. The picture is good. And I was terrific." Crawford replied, "That was it. She never said anything about my performance. Not a word." Considine alleges that this denial from Davis (with regard to Joan's talent as an actress) prompted Crawford to cancel the publicity tour and upstage Davis at the Oscars.[13]
Prior to the Oscars ceremony, Crawford contacted the Best Actress nominees who were unable to attend the ceremonies and offered to accept the award on their behalf should they win. Davis claimed that Crawford lobbied against her among Academy voters. When Anne Bancroft was declared the winner for The Miracle Worker, she was in New York performing in a play, and had agreed to have Crawford accept her award if she won. Crawford triumphantly swept on-stage to pick up the trophy. Davis later commented, "It would have meant a million more dollars to our film if I had won. Joan was thrilled I hadn't."[14] As both Davis and Crawford had accepted lower salaries in exchange for a share of the film's profits,[15] Davis considered it especially foolish of Crawford to have worked against their common interests, especially at a time when roles for actresses of their generation were hard to find.
During the filming of Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964), Crawford acknowledged to visiting reporter/author Lawrence J. Quirk the difficulty she was having with Davis because of the Oscar incident but added, "She acted like Baby Jane was a one-woman show after they nominated her. What was I supposed to do, let her hog all the glory, act like I hadn't even been in the movie? She got the nomination. I didn't begrudge her that, but it would have been nice if she'd been a little gracious in interviews and given me a little credit. I would have done it for her."[16]
Critical reception[edit]
The film received very positive reviews and elicited mixed responses over the Davis/Crawford combination. In his review in The New York Times, Bosley Crowther observed, "[Davis and Crawford] do get off some amusing and eventually blood-chilling displays of screaming sororal hatred and general monstrousness ... The feeble attempts that Mr. Aldrich has made to suggest the irony of two once idolized and wealthy females living in such depravity, and the pathos of their deep-seated envy having brought them to this, wash out very quickly under the flood of sheer grotesquerie."[17]
Variety stated, "Although the results heavily favor Davis (and she earns the credit), it should be recognized that the plot, of necessity, allows her to run unfettered through all the stages of oncoming insanity ... Crawford gives a quiet, remarkably fine interpretation of the crippled Blanche, held in emotionally by the nature and temperament of the role."[18]
In a retrospective review, TV Guide awarded the film four stars, calling it "Star wars, trenchantly served" and adding, "If it sometimes looks like a poisonous senior citizen show with over-the-top spoiled ham, just try to look away ... As in the best Hitchcock movies, suspense, rather than actual mayhem, drives the film."[19]
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 92% based on 48 reviews.[20]
Accolades[edit]
The film was nominated for five Academy Awards, winning one for Best Costume Design.[21]
Academy Award for Best Actress (Bette Davis, nominee)
Academy Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Victor Buono, nominee)
Academy Award for Best Costume Design, Black and White (Norma Koch, winner)
Academy Award for Best Cinematography, Black and White (Ernest Haller, nominee)
Academy Award for Best Sound (Joseph D. Kelly, nominee)
BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actress (Crawford, nominee)
BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actress (Davis, nominee)
Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Drama (Davis, nominee)
Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture (Buono, nominee)
Laurel Award for Golden Laurel for Sleeper of the Year (Winner)
Golden Palm – 1963 Cannes Film Festival (nominee)[22]
Box office[edit]
The film was a surprise box office hit, grossing $9 million at the worldwide box office and $4,050,000 in theatrical rentals in North America.[3][23] Its estimated budget was only $980,000.[1]
In the United Kingdom, the film was given an X certificate by the BBFC in 1962, with a few minor cuts. These cuts were waived for a video submission, which was given an 18 certificate in 1988, meaning no-one under 18 years of age could purchase a copy of the film.[1] However, in 2004, the film was re-submitted for a theatrical re-release, and it was given a 12A certificate, now meaning persons under 12 years of age could view it if accompanied by an adult. It remains at this category.[24]
Legacy[edit]
This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (July 2017)
The film's success spawned a succession of horror/thriller films featuring psychotic older women, later dubbed the psycho-biddy subgenre, among them Aldrich's Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte, What Ever Happened to Aunt Alice?, and director Curtis Harrington's Whoever Slew Auntie Roo? and What's the Matter with Helen?. It was parodied by the Italian comedy film What Ever Happened to Baby Toto?[25]
Shaun Considine's 1989 book Bette and Joan: The Divine Feud chronicles the actresses' rivalry, including their experience shooting this film.[26]
Comedy duo French and Saunders (Jennifer Saunders and Dawn French) did a BBC episode called "Whatever Happened to Baby Dawn" on 22 March 1990.[27]
The film was remade in 1991 as a television film starring real-life sisters Vanessa and Lynn Redgrave.[28]
In 2006, Christina Aguilera adopted a new alter ego called Baby Jane after Bette Davis' character in the film.[29]
In episode 4 of RuPaul's Drag Race: All Stars (season 2), the queens' acting chops are tested in parody movie sequels of RuPaul's favourite movies. A parody of ''What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?'' called ''Wha' Ha' Happened To Baby JJ?'' was made by Alaska and Alyssa Edwards.[30]
The backstage battle between Crawford and Davis during the production of the film is the basis for Feud: Bette and Joan, the 2017 first season of the Ryan Murphy television series Feud. It stars Jessica Lange as Crawford and Susan Sarandon as Davis.[31][32] It premiered on March 5, 2017.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Whatever Happened to Baby Jane? (X)". British Board of Film Classification. November 30, 1962. Retrieved September 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ Alain Silver and James Ursini, Whatever Happened to Robert Aldrich?, Limelight, 1995 p 256
^ Jump up to: a b Box Office Information for What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? IMDb. Retrieved April 14, 2012.
Jump up ^ French box office results for Robert Aldrich films at Box Office Story
Jump up ^ "What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962) - Robert Aldrich - Synopsis, Characteristics, Moods, Themes and Related - AllMovie". AllMovie.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger. "What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? Movie Review (1962) - Roger Ebert". www.rogerebert.com.
Jump up ^ Tobias, Scott. "What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?" – via www.nytimes.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "'BLU-RAY REVIEW – "What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?"". Slant Magazine. November 6, 2012. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ "What Ever Happened To Baby Jane?". The A.V. Club. June 6, 2008. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Itzkoff, Dave (July 12, 2012). "Whatever Happened to 'Baby Jane'? It's Getting a Remake". New York Times. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ "AFI'S 100 YEARS...100 HEROES & VILLAINS". AFI. July 4, 2003. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ BETTE AND JOAN by Shaun Considine, Dell, 1989, ISBN 0-440-20776-2, pp. 347
Jump up ^ BETTE AND JOAN by Shaun Considine, Dell, 1989, ISBN 0-440-20776-2, pp. 433
Jump up ^ Mother Goddam: The Story of the Career of Bette Davis by Whitney Stine, with a running commentary by Bette Davis, Hawthorn Books, Inc., 1974, ISBN 0-8015-5184-6, pp. 296–297
Jump up ^ Mother Goddam: The Story of the Career of Bette Davis by Whitney Stine, with a running commentary by Bette Davis, Hawthorn Books, Inc., 1974, ISBN 0-8015-5184-6, p. 307
Jump up ^ Joan Crawford: The Essential Biography by Lawrence J. Quirk and William Schoell, University Pr of Kentucky, 2002, ISBN 0813122546, ISBN 978-0813122540, pp. 221
Jump up ^ "Movies" – via www.nytimes.com.
Jump up ^ "Variety review".
Jump up ^ "What Ever Happened To Baby Jane?". TVGuide.com.
Jump up ^ "What Ever Happened To Baby Jane? (1962)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ "The 35th Academy Awards (1963) Nominees and Winners". oscars.org. Retrieved 2011-08-23.
Jump up ^ "Festival de Cannes: What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?". festival-cannes.com. Retrieved 2009-02-27.
Jump up ^ "All-Time Top Grossers", Variety, January 8, 1964, p. 69
Jump up ^ "Whatever Happened to Baby Jane? (12A)". British Board of Film Classification. August 27, 2004. Retrieved September 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ Alberto Anile. I film di Totò (1946–1967): la maschera tradita. Le mani, 1998. ISBN 8880120808.
Jump up ^ Rorke, Robert. "Why Bette Davis and Joan Crawford's Feud Lasted a Lifetime". The New York Post. Retrieved February 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Whatever Happened To Baby Dawn?, Series 3, French and Saunders - BBC Two". BBC.
Jump up ^ "What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1991) - David Greene - Synopsis, Characteristics, Moods, Themes and Related - AllMovie". AllMovie.
Jump up ^ Vineyard, Jennifer (August 23, 2006) "Christina Clip Got A Boost From Outkast, Role-Playing Dancers". Retrieved June 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ "RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars – Season 2, Ep. 4 – Drag Movie Shequels – Full Episode | Logo TV". Logo TV. Retrieved 2017-04-09.
Jump up ^ Wagmeister, Elizabeth. "Feud: Ryan Murphy Lands Third FX Anthology With Susan Sarandon, Jessica Lange". Variety. Retrieved May 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ Birnbaum, Debra (January 12, 2017). "FX Sets Premiere Dates for Feud, The Americans, Archer". Variety. Retrieved January 12, 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Whatever Happened to Baby Jane? (film).
1960s portal
What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? at the American Film Institute Catalog
What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? on IMDb
What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? at the TCM Movie Database
What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? at AllMovie
What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? at Rotten Tomatoes
[hide]
v
t
e
Films directed by Robert Aldrich
Big Leaguer (1953)
World for Ransom (1954)
Apache (1954)
Vera Cruz (1954)
Kiss Me Deadly (1955)
The Big Knife (1955)
Autumn Leaves (1956)
Attack (1956)
Ten Seconds to Hell (1959)
The Angry Hills (1959)
The Last Sunset (1961)
Sodom and Gomorrah (1962)
What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962)
4 for Texas (1963)
Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964)
The Flight of the Phoenix (1965)
The Dirty Dozen (1967)
The Legend of Lylah Clare (1968)
The Killing of Sister George (1968)
Too Late the Hero (1970)
The Grissom Gang (1971)
Ulzana's Raid (1972)
Emperor of the North Pole (1973)
The Longest Yard (1974)
Hustle (1975)
Twilight's Last Gleaming (1977)
The Choirboys (1977)
The Frisco Kid (1979)
...All the Marbles (1981)
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Encomienda
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Francisco Hernández Giron was a Spanish encomendero in the Viceroyalty of Peru who protested the New Laws in 1553. These laws, passed in 1542, gave certain rights to indigenous peoples and protected them against abuses. Drawing by Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala.
Encomienda (Spanish pronunciation: [eŋkoˈmjenda]) was a labor system in Spain and its empire. It rewarded conquerors with the labor of particular groups of subject people. It was first established in Spain during the Roman period, but used also following the Christian conquest of Muslim territories. It was applied on a much larger scale during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the Philippines. Conquered peoples were considered vassals of the Spanish monarch. The Crown awarded an encomienda as a grant to a particular individual. In the conquest era of the sixteenth century, the grants were considered to be a monopoly on the labor of particular groups of Indians, held in perpetuity by the grant holder, called the encomendero, and his descendants.[1]
In the encomienda, the Spanish Crown granted a person a specified number of natives from a specific community. Indigenous leaders were charged with mobilizing the assessed tribute and labor. In turn, encomenderos were to ensure the native people were given instruction in the Christian faith and Spanish language, and protect them from warring tribes or pirates; they had to suppress rebellion against Spaniards, and maintain infrastructure. In return, the natives would provide tributes in the form of metals, maize, wheat, pork, or other agricultural products.
With the ouster of Christopher Columbus, the Spanish crown sent a royal governor, Fray Nicolás de Ovando, who established the formal encomienda system.[2] In many cases natives were forced to do hard labor and subjected to extreme punishment and death if they resisted.[3] However, Queen Isabella of Castile forbade Indian slavery and deemed the indigenous to be "free vassals of the crown".[4] Various versions of the Leyes de Indias or Laws of the Indies from 1512 onwards attempted to regulate the interactions between the settlers and natives. Both natives and Spaniards appealed to the Real Audiencias for relief under the encomienda system.
Encomiendas had often been characterized by the geographical displacement of the enslaved and breakup of communities and family units, but in Mexico, the encomienda ruled the free vassals of the crown through existing community hierarchies, and the natives were allowed to keep in touch with their families and homes.[5] This system was similar to the labor that the former indigenous Inca Empire and its predecessors had earlier required from subject peoples.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Encomenderos
3 Establishment
3.1 Encomienda and epidemics
4 Abolition
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
History[edit]
The heart of encomienda and encomendero lies in the Spanish verb encomendar, "to entrust". The encomienda was based on the reconquista institution in which adelantados were given the right to extract tribute from Muslims or other peasants in areas that they had conquered and resettled.[6]
The encomienda system in Spanish America differed from the Peninsular institution. The encomenderos did not own the land on which the natives lived. The system did not entail any direct land tenure by the encomendero; Indian lands were to remain in the possession of their communities. This right was formally protected by the crown of Castile because the rights of administration in the New World belonged to this crown and not to the Catholic monarchs as a whole.[7]
Encomenderos[edit]
Hernán Cortés, conqueror of the Aztecs and premier encomendero of New Spain
The first grantees of the encomienda or encomenderos were usually conquerors who received these grants of labor by virtue of participation in a successful conquest. Later, some receiving encomiendas in New Spain (Mexico) were not conquerors themselves but were sufficiently well connected that they received grants.
In his study of the encomenderos of early colonial Mexico, Robert Himmerich y Valencia divides conquerors into those who were part of Hernan Cortes's original expedition, calling them "first conquerors", and those who were members of the later Narváez expedition, calling them "conquerors". The latter were incorporated into Cortes' contingent. Himmerick designated as pobladores antiguos (old settlers), a group of undetermined number of encomenderos in New Spain, men who had resided in the Caribbean region prior to the Spanish conquest of Mexico.
Holders of encomiendas also included women and indigenous elite. Doña Maria Jaramillo, the daughter of Doña Marina and conqueror Juan Jaramillo, received income from her deceased father's encomiendas.[8] Two of Moctezuma's daughters, Doña Isabel Moctezuma and her younger sister, Doña Leonor Moctezuma, were granted extensive encomiendas in perpetuity by Hernan Cortes. Doña Leonor Moctezuma married in succession two Spaniards, and left the encomiendas to her daughter by her second husband.[9][10][11] Vassal Inca rulers appointed after the conquest also sought and were granted encomiendas.
The status of humans as wards of the trustees under the encomienda system served to "define the status of the Indian population": the natives were free men, not slaves or serfs. But some Spaniards treated them as poorly as slaves.
The encomienda was essential to the Spanish crown's sustaining its control over North, Central and South America in the first decades after the colonization. It was the first major organizational law instituted on the continent, which was affected by war, widespread disease epidemics caused by Eurasian diseases, and resulting turmoil. The settler-conquistadors were confronted by the fury of the aroused Indian lords; voyagers, explorers, and the friars did not.[12] Initially, the encomienda system was devised to meet the needs of the early agricultural economies in the Caribbean. Later it was adopted to the mining economy of Peru and Upper Peru. The encomienda lasted from the beginning of the sixteenth century to the seventeenth century.[6]
Philip II, enacted a law on 11 June 1594 to establish the encomienda in the Philippines, where he made grants to the local nobles (principalía). They used the encomienda to gain ownership of large expanses of land, many of which (such as Makati) continue to be owned by affluent families.[13]
Establishment[edit]
In 1503, the crown began to formally grant encomiendas to conquistadors and officials as rewards for service to the crown. The system of encomiendas was aided by the crown's organizing the indigenous into small harbors known as reducciones, with the intent of establishing new towns and populations.
Each reducción had a native chief responsible for keeping track of the laborers in his community. The encomienda system did not grant people land, but it indirectly aided in the settlers' acquisition of land. As initially defined, the encomendero and his heirs expected to hold these grants in perpetuity. After a major crown reform in 1542, known as the New Laws, encomendero families were restricted to holding the grant for two generations. When the crown attempted to implement the policy in Peru, shortly after the 1535 Spanish conquest, Spanish recipients rebelled against the crown, killing the viceroy, Don Blasco Núñez Vela.
In Mexico, viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza decided against implementing the reform, citing local circumstances and the potential for a similar conqueror rebellion. To the crown he said, "I obey crown authority but do not comply with this order."[14] The encomienda system was ended legally in 1720, when the crown attempted to abolish the institution. The encomenderos were then required to pay remaining encomienda laborers for their work.
The encomiendas became very corrupt and harsh. In the neighborhood of La Concepcion, north of Santo Domingo, the adelantado of Santiago heard rumors of a 15,000-man army planning to stage a rebellion.[15] Upon hearing this, the Adelantado captured the caciques involved and had most of them hanged.
Later, a chieftain named Guarionex laid havoc to the countryside before an Indian-Spanish army of about 3,090 routed the Ciguana people under his leadership.[16] Although expecting Spanish protection from warring tribes, the islanders sought to join the Spanish forces. They helped the Spaniards deal with their ignorance of the surrounding environment.[17]
As noted, the change of requiring the encomendado to be returned to the crown after two generations was frequently overlooked, as the colonists did not want to give up the labor or power. The Codice Osuna, one of many colonial-era Aztec codices (indigenous manuscripts) with native pictorials and alphabetic text in Nahuatl, there is evidence that the indigenous were well aware of the distinction between indigenous communities held by individual encomenderos and those held by the crown.[18] In 1574, the Viceroy of Peru Diego Lopez de Velasco investigated the encomiendas. He concluded there were 32,000 Spanish families in the New World, 4,000 of whom had encomiendas. They oversaw 1,500,000 natives paying tribute, and 5 million "civilized" natives.[19]
The phrase "sin indios no hay Indias" (without Indians, there are no Indies – i.e. America), popular in Spanish America especially in the 16th century, emphasizes the economic importance and appeal of this indentured labor. It was ranked higher than allocations of precious metals or other natural resources. Land awardees customarily complained about how "worthless" territory was without a population of encomendados.
Encomienda and epidemics[edit]
The native people of Mexico experienced a series of outbreaks of disease in the wake of European conquest, including a catastrophic epidemic that began in 1545 which killed an estimated 5 million to 15 million people, or up to 80% of the native population of Mexico, followed by a second epidemic from 1576 to 1578 killing an additional 2 to 2.5 million people, or about 50% of the remaining native population. Recent research suggests that these infections appear to have been aggravated by the extreme climatic conditions of the time and by the poor living conditions and harsh treatment of the native people under the encomienda system of New Spain.[20]
Abolition[edit]
The encomienda system was the subject of controversy in Spain and its territories almost from its start. In 1510, an Hispaniola encomendero named Valenzuela murdered a group of Native American leaders who had agreed to meet for peace talks in full confidence. The Taíno Cacique Enriquillo rebelled against the Spaniards between 1519 and 1533. In 1538, Emperor Charles V, realizing the seriousness of the Taíno revolt, changed the laws governing the treatment of Indians laboring in the encomiendas.[21] Conceding to Las Casas's viewpoint, the peace treaty between the Taínos and the audiencia was eventually disrupted in four to five years. The crown also made two failed attempts to end the abuses of the encomienda system, through the Law of Burgos (1512–13) and the New Law of the Indies (1542). Furthermore, these laws were indeed beneficial to the authorities.
The priest of Hispaniola and former encomendero Bartolomé de las Casas underwent a profound conversion after seeing the abuse of the native people.[22] He dedicated his life to writing and lobbying to abolish the encomienda system, which he thought systematically enslaved the native people of the New World. Las Casas participated in an important debate, where he pushed for the enactment of the New Laws and an end to the encomienda system.[23] The Laws of Burgos and the New Laws of the Indies failed in the face of colonial opposition and, in fact, the New Laws were postponed in the Viceroyalty of Peru. When Blasco Núñez Vela, the first viceroy of Peru, tried to enforce the New Laws, which provided for the gradual abolition of the encomienda, many of the encomenderos were unwilling to comply with them and revolted against him.
Nevertheless, the encomienda system was generally replaced by the crown-managed repartimiento system throughout Spanish America after mid-century.[6] Like the encomienda, the new repartimento did not include the attribution of land to anyone, rather only the allotment of native workers. But they were directly allotted to the crown, who, through a local crown official, would assign them to work for settlers for a set period of time, usually several weeks. The repartimiento was an attempt "to reduce the abuses of forced labour".[6] As the number of natives declined and mining activities were replaced by agricultural activities in the seventeenth century, the hacienda, or large landed estates in which laborers were directly employed by the hacienda owners (hacendados), arose because land ownership became more profitable than acquisition of forced labor.[24]
The encomienda was strongly based on the encomendado's tribal identity. Mixed-race (Mestizo) individuals, for example, could not by law be subjected to the encomienda. This moved many Amerindians to deliberately seek to dilute their tribal identity and that of their descendants as a way for them to escape the service, by seeking intermarriage with people from different ethnicities, especially Spaniards or Creoles. In this way the encomienda somewhat weakened Amerindians' tribal identification and ethnicity, which in turn diminished the pool of available encomendados.
See also[edit]
1712 Huilliche rebellion
Black Legend
Cargo system
Gregorio de San Juan
Historiography of Colonial Spanish America
Jesuit reductions
Reductions
References[edit]
Jump up ^ James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz, Early Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press 138.
Jump up ^ Ida Altman, et al., The Early History of Greater Mexico, Pearson, 2003, p. 47
Jump up ^ Rodriguez, Junius P. (2007). Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion. 1. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-313-33272-2.
Jump up ^ Ida Altman, et al., The Early History of Greater Mexico, Pearson, 2003, 143
Jump up ^ Charles Gibson, The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule, Stanford, 1964.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Encomienda". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 26 September 2008.
Jump up ^ Scott, Meredith, "The Encomienda System Archived 2005-12-18 at the Wayback Machine.".
Jump up ^ Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New Spain, 1521-1555, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991 p. 178
Jump up ^ Himmerich y Valencia (1991), The Encomenderos, pp. 195-96
Jump up ^ Samora, Julian; Patricia Vandel Simon. "A History of the Mexican-American People". Archived from the original on April 2, 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-18.
Jump up ^ Himmerich y Valencia (1991), 27
Jump up ^ Clendinnen, Inga; Ambivalent Conquests: Maya and Spaniard in Yucatán, 1517–1570. (p. 83) ISBN 0-521-37981-4
Jump up ^ Anderson, Dr. Eric A (1976). The encomienda in early Philippine colonial history (PDF). Quezon City: Journal of Asian Studies. pp. 27–32.
Jump up ^ Arthur S. Aiton, Antonio de Mendoza, First Viceroy of New Spain, Durham: Duke University Press 1972.
Jump up ^ Pietro Martire D'Anghiera. De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. p. 121. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Pietro Martire D'Anghiera. De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. p. 143. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Pietro Martire D'Anghiera. De Orbe Novo, the Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D'Anghera. p. 132. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Codice Osuna, Ediciones del Instituto Indigenista Interamericano, Mexico 1947, pp. 250-254
Jump up ^ Crow, John A. The Epic of Latin America.
Jump up ^ Rodolfo Acuna-Soto, David W. Stahle, Malcolm K. Cleaveland, and Matthew D. Therrell (April 2002). "Megadrought and Megadeath in 16th Century Mexico", Emerg Infect Dis., 8(4), pp. 360–362. doi: 10.3201/eid0804.010175. Retrieved 16 Jan. 2018.
Jump up ^ David M. Traboulay. Columbus and Las Casas: the conquest and Christianization of America, 1492–1566. p. 44. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Bartolomé de Las Casas, who arrived in the New World in 1502, averred that greed was the reason Christians “murdered on such a vast scale,” killing “anyone and everyone who has shown the slightest sign of resistance,” and subjecting “all males to the harshest and most iniquitous and brutal slavery that man has ever devised for oppressing his fellow-men, treating them, in fact, worse than animals.” Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (Kindle Locations 338-341). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.
Jump up ^ Benjamin Keen, Bartolome de las Casas in history: toward an understanding of the man and his work. (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University, 1971), 364–365.
Jump up ^ Tindall, George Brown & David E. Shi (1984). America: A Narrative History (Sixth ed.). W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 280.
Further reading[edit]
Austin, Shawn Michael. (2015) "Guaraní kinship and the encomienda community in colonial Paraguay, sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries", Colonial Latin American Review, 24:4, 545-571, DOI: 10.1080/10609164.2016.1150039
* Avellaneda, Jose Ignacio (1995). The Conquerors of the New Kingdom of Granada. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1612-3.
Chamberlain, Robert S., "Simpson's the Encomienda in New Spain and Recent Encomienda Studies" The Hispanic American Historical Review 34.2 (May 1954):238–250.
Gibson, Charles, The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964.
Guitar, Lynne (1997). "Encomienda System". In Junius P. Rodriguez (ed.). The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. vol. 1, A-K. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 250–251. ISBN 0-87436-885-5. OCLC 37884790. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
Himmerich y Valencia, Robert (1991). The Encomenderos of New Spain, 1521–1555. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-72068-8.
Keith, Robert G. "Encomienda, Hacienda, and Corregimiento in Spanish America: A Structural Analysis," Hispanic American Historical Review 52, no. 3 (1971): 431-446.
Lockhart, James, "Encomienda and Hacienda: The Evolution of the Great Estate in the Spanish Indies," Hispanic American Historical Review 49, no. 3 (1969)
Ramirez, Susan E. "Encomienda" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 2, pp. 492–3. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
Simpson, Leslie Byrd Simpson, The Encomienda in New Spain: The Beginning of Spanish Mexico (1950)
Zavala, Silvio. De Encomienda y Propiedad Territorial en Algunas Regiones de la América Española. Mexico City: Aurrúa 1940.
External links[edit]
"Encomienda" Encyclopædia Britannica
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Encomienda&oldid=825245488"
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