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United States Bicentennial coinage
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The Eisenhower dollar, with the double date 1776–1976
Quarter Bicentennial reverse
Half dollar Bicentennial reverse
Dollar Bicentennial reverse (Type I)
Dollar Bicentennial reverse (Type II)
The United States Bicentennial coinage was a set of circulating commemorative coins, consisting of a quarter, half dollar and dollar struck by the United States Mint in 1975 and 1976. Regardless of when struck, each coin bears the double date 1776–1976 on the normal obverses for the Washington quarter, Kennedy half dollar and Eisenhower dollar. No coins dated 1975 of any of the three denominations were minted.
Given past abuses in the system, the Mint advocated against the issuance of commemorative coins starting in the 1950s. Beginning in 1971, members of Congress introduced bills to authorize coins to honor the United States Bicentennial, which would occur in 1976. The Mint, through its director, Mary Brooks, initially opposed such proposals, but later supported them, and Congress passed legislation requiring the temporary redesign of the reverse of the quarter, half dollar and dollar.
A nationwide competition resulted in designs of a Colonial drummer for the quarter, Independence Hall for the half dollar and the Liberty Bell superimposed against the moon for the dollar. All three coins remain common today due to the quantity struck. Circulation pieces were in copper nickel; Congress also mandated 45,000,000 part-silver pieces be struck for collectors. The Mint sold over half of the part-silver coins before melting the remainder after withdrawing them from sale in 1986.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Authorization
3 Competition
4 Preparation
5 Production
6 References
Background[edit]
Commemorative coins had been struck for a number of events and anniversaries by the United States Mint since 1892.[1] Organizations would get Congress to authorize a coin and would be allowed to buy up the issue, selling it to the public at a premium. The final issue among these commemoratives, half dollars honoring Booker T. Washington and George Washington Carver were struck over a number of years, and were discontinued in 1954. Originally priced at $3.50, they were repeatedly discounted; many could not be sold at a premium and entered circulation. The promoter of these issues, S.J. Phillips, mishandled the distribution and lost $140,000. The negative publicity caused the Department of the Treasury, of which the Mint is a part, to oppose subsequent commemorative coin proposals, and until the 1970s, Congress passed none.[2]
In 1966, Congress established the American Revolutionary Bicentennial Commission (ARBC) to plan and coordinate activities connected with the 1976 bicentennial of American Independence ("the Bicentennial"). In February 1970, the ARBC established a Coins and Medals Advisory Committee.[3] The committee's initial report, in July 1970, called for the production of a commemorative half dollar for the Bicentennial.[4] In December 1970, the committee called for special designs for all denominations of US coinage for the Bicentennial; the ARBC endorsed this position the following month. The Treasury, however, opposed the change, following its longstanding position against commemorative coins. Several proposals for Bicentennial coins were introduced in Congress in 1971 and 1972, but did not pass.[3]
Mint Director Mary Brooks had attended the Advisory Committee meetings. At one meeting, she supported having a 1776–1976 double date on circulating coins to mark the anniversary in 1976, although accommodating two dates on the obverse would involve production difficulties. However, in a newspaper interview she termed the idea of changing the six circulating coins (cent through dollar) "a disaster". She felt if any Bicentennial coin was issued, it should be non-circulating, perhaps a half cent or a gold piece.[3][4] Brooks believed that such a coin would not disrupt the Mint in the production of coins for circulation.[4] During 1972, however, she retreated from that position, and by the end of the year had persuaded Treasury Secretary George Shultz to support a Bicentennial coin bill.[3]
Authorization[edit]
In January 1973, Texas Representative Richard C. White introduced legislation for commemorative dollars and half dollars. Oregon Senator Mark Hatfield also put forward a bill, calling for a $25 gold piece. On March 2, 1973, the Treasury announced its support for Bicentennial coin legislation for design changes to the reverses of the circulating dollars and half dollars, and sent proposed legislation to Congress three days later.[5] Hearings before a subcommittee in the House of Representatives were held on May 2, 1973. Brooks testified, supporting the limited redesign in the bill, but opposing a more extensive coin redesign. Separately from the Bicentennial matter, she asked for authority to strike US coins at the West Point Bullion Depository, where space was available to install older coinage presses. Brooks deprecated the Hatfield proposal, stating that the coin would have to be .667 pure or less to avoid hoarding.[6]
As a result of the hearings, several additional bills were introduced, and additional hearings were held before a Senate subcommittee on June 6. Brooks testified again, and responding to criticism that only the two least popular denominations were to be changed, indicated her support for a Bicentennial quarter as well. On June 13, a bill, S. 1141 which provided for a circulating Bicentennial quarter, half dollar and dollar, gave permission for coins to be struck at West Point and allowed for 40% silver clad versions of the new coins for collectors was reported favorably by the Senate Banking Committee. It passed the Senate on July 13. However, amendments authorizing US citizens to own gold, and to implement the Hatfield proposal were attached to the bill. A similar bill passed the House of Representatives on September 12, differing from the Senate bill in lacking any provision relating to gold, and in not authorizing silver versions of the new coins.[7][a]
Members of the two houses met in a conference committee on September 19 in a session described by onlookers as "fairly hot and heavy".[8] The resulting bill had no gold provisions, but authorized changes to the reverses of the quarter, half dollar and dollar for the Bicentennial. The obverses of the three coins would not change, but would bear the double date 1776–1976. By the terms of the statute, all coins minted to be issued after July 4, 1975 and before January 1, 1977 would bear the Bicentennial dates and designs. Congress directed the Mint to strike 45,000,000 silver clad coins (that is, 15,000,000 sets), and the Mint received the requested authority to strike coins at West Point. Circulation quarters, half dollars and dollars would continue to be of copper nickel bonded to an internal layer of copper, that is, copper nickel clad. The modified bill passed both houses of Congress on October 4, 1973, and the bill was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on October 18.[8] Hatfield's measure, along with similar legislation from other senators, was reintroduced in 1975, but died in committee, as did legislation seeking a Bicentennial two-cent piece and a bill seeking a coin honoring Abigail Adams and Susan B. Anthony.[9] The extra production at West Point was key to overcoming a shortage of cents in 1974, and permitted the Mint greater flexibility as it geared up to strike the Bicentennial pieces.[10]
Competition[edit]
On October 23, 1973, the Department of the Treasury announced a competition for the three reverse designs. Any US citizen could submit one drawing, or photograph of a plaster model 10 inches (250 mm) in diameter. Submissions were to include the legend "quarter dollar". Treasury Secretary Shultz, advised by a panel of judges, would decide which design would be used for which denomination—the inscription would be changed to half dollar and one dollar for the higher denominations. Additionally, the reverses were to bear the name of the country and the motto "e pluribus unum", as required by law.[11][12]
At Director Brooks' request, the National Sculpture Society selected the five judges for the competition. The judges were society President Robert Weinman (son of Adolph Weinman, who had designed the Mercury dime and Walking Liberty half dollar), Connecticut sculptor Adlai S. Hardin, former Mint Chief Engraver Gilroy Roberts, Julius Lauth of the Medallic Art Company, and Elvira Clain-Stefanelli, curator in the Division of Numismatics, Smithsonian Institution.[12]
The deadline was originally December 14, 1973, but was extended to January 9, 1974 because of the energy crisis and Christmas mail delays. Brooks traveled more than 7,000 miles (11,000 km) to publicize the competition. By the deadline, the Mint had received 15,000 inquiries and 884 entries. Members of the panel and any person employed by the US government as a sculptor were ineligible to enter. The prize for each of the three winners was $5,000. The judging was originally supposed to take place at West Point; with the delay, it took place instead at the Philadelphia Mint.[12][13]
From the entries, the judges selected twelve semifinalist designs; the sculptor submitting each received a prize of $750. The competitors were to place their work on plaster models, if that had not already been done, and were offered assistance in making the models.[14]
Preparation[edit]
The twelve remaining designs were released by the Treasury for public comment in early 1974. Two of the proposed coins featured sailing ships, two featured Independence Hall in Philadelphia, where the Declaration of Independence was signed, and three depicted the moon or lunar spacecraft. Another depicted the Liberty Bell superimposed on an atomic symbol.[15] According to numismatist Michael Marotta in his 2001 article on the Bicentennial coins, "the numismatic community's reaction to the entries was predictable: everyone complained by writing letters to the editor".[16]
From the twelve, the judges selected six finalists for review by the National Bicentennial Coin Design Competition Committee, consisting of Brooks, Representative Wright Patman, Senator John Sparkman, Commission of Fine Arts Secretary Charles H. Atherton and Eric P. Newman, chairman of the ARBC's coins and medals advisory committee.[14] After receiving the committee's recommendations, Secretary Shultz selected the winners and on March 6, 1974, Brooks went on the Today show to announce them. Jack L. Ahr's design featuring a colonial drummer, with a torch of victory surrounded by thirteen stars (representing the original states) was selected for the quarter. Seth Huntington's image of Independence Hall was selected for the half dollar while Dennis R. Williams' superimposition of the Liberty Bell against the moon was successful for the dollar. Ahr owned a commercial art firm and Huntington was head artist for Brown and Bigelow, a Minneapolis publishing firm. Williams, at age 21[17] the youngest person to design a US coin, was an art student who had originally created his design for a class assignment. No change would be made to the obverses of the coins, except for the double dating.[18]
This 1973 Bicentennial stamp, like the quarter, depicts a colonial drummer.
Ahr was accused of copying his drummer from a 1973 stamp by the stamp's designer, William A. Smith;[19] he denied it. According to numismatic historian Walter Breen, "both obviously derive from Archibald Willard's 1876 painting Spirit of '76,"[11] a painting which numismatic author David L. Ganz suggests that both undoubtedly saw sometime in their lives. Ahr, however, stated that his son had been the model for the drummer. [20] Brooks, in a letter to Smith, stated that the design for the quarter was "sufficiently original" to impress the National Sculpture Society.[19] Weinman later deprecated the winning designs:
I really don't think what we got was a great bargain. Nothing we selected was a real winner that I'd fight to the death for. In terms of what we had to work with, though, I think we did the best we could.[21]
On April 24, 1974, the three winning designers were brought to Washington, D.C. After a tour of the White House and meetings with the congressional committees which considered the coin bills, they went to the Treasury Building and received their $5,000 checks from the new Treasury Secretary, William E. Simon, who jokingly asked them if they wanted to invest their awards in savings bonds.[22]
Mint Chief Engraver Frank Gasparro made minor changes to all three reverse designs. Gasparro simplified the quarter design, altered the drum for the sake of authenticity, changed the lettering and modified the expression on the drummer's face. He made slight changes to Independence Hall on the half dollar and altered the lettering on the dollar to facilitate the metal flow during stamping and asked the designer to straighten the bottom edge of the Liberty Bell.[23][18] Ahr later stated that he would have liked more time to finalize his design, wishing to clarify the features of the drummer's face.[19] The initials of the designer were added to the design by the Mint.[24] All three agreed that Gasparro's changes improved their designs.[25]
Production[edit]
Mint Director Mary Brooks presents President Gerald Ford (center) with the first set of the Bicentennial coins, November 13, 1974 as American Revolutionary Bicentennial Administration Director John Warner looks on.
Type II Eisenhower dollar (1976).
40% silver version.
On August 12, 1974, the three designers were at the Philadelphia Mint, where they ceremonially operated the presses to strike the first coins bearing their designs. These prototypes were exhibited under armed guard at the American Numismatic Association convention in Florida the next day. They differ from all other Bicentennial coins in that they were struck in silver proof without mint mark; other silver proof coins bear an "S" mint mark as struck at the San Francisco Assay Office (as the San Francisco Mint was then known). Coins struck at Denver bear a "D" on the obverse; pieces lacking a mint mark were struck at Philadelphia.[26] Sets of these prototypes were presented to President Gerald Ford, Counselor to the President Anne Armstrong and Director John Warner of the American Revolutionary Bicentennial Administration (the successor to the ARBC). All other first strikes were melted, with copies not even kept for the National Numismatic Collection.[27][28]
The Mint believed that if it was required to strike 1975 quarters, half dollars and dollars, not enough could be struck before it had to begin the Bicentennial issues to prevent the 1975 pieces from becoming collector's items. This risked coin shortages at a time when the Mint was seeking to build a surplus of quarters. Mint officials returned to Congress to seek amending legislation. President Ford signed a bill on December 26, 1974 that made several noncontroversial changes to law, including provisions to allow the Mint to keep striking 1974-dated pieces until it began striking the Bicentennial coins. By terms of the amending legislation, the commemorative coins could not be issued until after July 4, 1975.[29][30][31]
On November 15, 1974, the Mint began taking orders for the silver clad pieces, at a price of $15 for proof sets and $9 for uncirculated, with a deadline for orders of January 31, 1975.[18] Uncirculated coins are like those newly released into circulation; proof coins have a mirror finish.[32] Buyers were initially limited to five sets per person.[21] On January 19, 1975, Brooks announced that the silver proof set price was cut to $12, and the order limit was waived.[33] Buyers who had paid the higher price were sent refunds by check.[21] Brooks stated that the price reduction was because of production efficiencies, the benefit of which she wished to pass along to the public. Numismatic columnist Ed Reiter noted, though, that the reduction came amidst protests from the numismatic community that the price was too high. Coin dealer Herby Skelton suggested in 1977 that the initial high price for the sets followed by the reduction, together with the large mintage of silver sets made the public suspicious and contributed to lagging sales.[34] On August 20, 1975, the price for the uncirculated silver sets was reduced to $7 when bulk purchases of 50 or more were made.[18] A bank in Taiwan ordered 250,000 sets at this price.[35]
The first Bicentennial coins to be produced that were intended for the public were dollars, struck during February 1975.[36] The first for collectors were struck at San Francisco on April 23, 1975.[16] The San Francisco Assay Office struck the 45,000,000 silver coins first, producing eleven million sets in uncirculated and four million in proof, then began the base metal pieces. Once striking began, the Mint found that the copper nickel dollar was striking indistinctly, a problem not seen with the silver pieces. The Mint modified the dies; the most noticeable change is that the revised issue, or Type II as it came to be known, have narrower, sharper lettering on the reverse. All silver pieces (struck only at San Francisco) are Type I; all three mints struck both Type I and Type II copper nickel pieces. All dollars included in 1975 proof sets are Type I; all those included in 1976 proof sets are Type II.[37][38] Bicentennial coins for collectors were not delivered until after July 4, 1975.[32] The Bicentennial pieces, in base metal, were included in 1975 proof sets and mint sets together with 1975-dated cents, nickels and dimes.[39]
The new coins first entered circulation on July 7, 1975, when the half dollar was released in conjunction with ceremonies in Minneapolis, Huntington's hometown. The quarter followed in September and the dollar in October, each also with ceremonies to mark the issuance.[35] The pieces were struck in numbers exceeding those needed for circulation; a Mint spokesman stated, "The theory in striking them was to have enough available so as many Americans as possible would have an opportunity to have a coinage commemoration of the Bicentennial year. They're momentos."[21]
In 1977, the Mint returned to the old reverse designs for the quarter, half dollar and dollar.[35] Sales by mid-1977 had dropped off considerably, to perhaps 300 sets a week, with one Mint official describing the sales against the massive unsold quantities as "a drop in the bucket".[34] By 1979, the Mint anticipated an eventual sellout for the silver proof set, but admitted that with massive quantities unsold, there was no realistic possibility of selling all uncirculated silver sets.[21] On September 17, 1979, faced with a spike in silver prices, Mint Director Stella B. Hackel announced that the sets were being removed from sale.[40] They were returned to sale in August 1980, at increased prices of $20 in proof and $15 in uncirculated.[41] In September 1981, the Mint, citing a decline in the price of silver, reduced the price of the sets to $15 in proof and $12 in uncirculated. A limit of 100 sets per person was set on proof sales, with none on uncirculated.[42] A large number of sets were melted by the government in 1982.[38] Reagan administration Mint Director Donna Pope later stated, "Sales of 1776–1976 regular-issue Bicentennial coins went on and on, seemingly forever."[43] On December 31, 1986, the remaining Bicentennial uncirculated silver sets were removed from sale. At the time, it was announced that proof sets had already sold out when coins went off sale.[44] However, Marotta, writing in 2001, stated that when sales ceased, 400,000 proof sets and 200,000 uncirculated sets remained in inventory.[45]
Due to the large quantities struck, Bicentennial coins remain inexpensive. A set of three silver coins contains .5381 troy ounces of the precious metal.[38][41][42] In a 1996 statistical study, T.V. Buttrey found that about 750,000,000 of the circulation quarters, more than a third, had been hoarded and did not circulate.[45] Coin dealer Marcel Sassola suggested in 1977 of the silver sets, "There were just too many sold, and I think it will take a long time before they have any real value. Maybe by the Tricentennial."[34]
The total coinage by striking mint is shown below:
Circulation coins
Philadelphia[46]
Denver[46]
Quarters
809,784,016 860,118,839
Half dollars
234,308,000 287,565,248
Dollars (Type I)
4,019,000 21,048,710
Dollars (Type II)
113,318,000 82,179,164
San Francisco (sets)
Copper nickel[47]
Silver clad[47]
In 1975 proof sets (six coins, cent through dollar)
2,845,450 0
In 1976 proof sets (six coins, as above)
4,149,730 0
Actual number of silver uncirculated sets issued
0 4,908,319
Actual number of silver proof sets issued
0 3,998,621
References[edit]
Explanatory notes
Jump up ^ It was made legal for US citizens to own gold by legislation enacted August 14, 1974, effective December 31, 1974. Coin World Almanac 1977, pp. 55, 127–128.
Citations
Jump up ^ Breen 1988, p. 582.
Jump up ^ Breen 1988, p. 581.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Breen 1988, p. 371.
^ Jump up to: a b c Marotta 2001, p. 502.
Jump up ^ Coin World Almanac 1977, p. 419.
Jump up ^ Coin World Almanac 1977, p. 420.
Jump up ^ Coin World Almanac 1977, pp. 421–422.
^ Jump up to: a b Coin World Almanac 1977, p. 422.
Jump up ^ Coin World Almanac 1977, pp. 49–50.
Jump up ^ Ganz 1976, p. 42.
^ Jump up to: a b Breen 1988, p. 372.
^ Jump up to: a b c Coin World Almanac 1977, p. 423.
Jump up ^ Kelley 1974, pp. 5–6.
^ Jump up to: a b Coin World Almanac 1977, pp. 423–424.
Jump up ^ Bardes 1974.
^ Jump up to: a b Marotta 2001, p. 503.
Jump up ^ D.R.Williams, designer
^ Jump up to: a b c d Coin World Almanac 1977, p. 424.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gregory 2006, pp. 52–53.
Jump up ^ The Numismatist 2012-07.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Reiter 1979.
Jump up ^ The Young Numismatist 1974, pp. 1–3.
Jump up ^ D.R.Williams, designer§
Jump up ^ Ganz 1976, p. 64.
Jump up ^ Ganz 1976, p. 59.
Jump up ^ Yeoman 2011, p. 19.
Jump up ^ Breen 1988, p. 472.
Jump up ^ Coin World Almanac 1977, pp. 424–425.
Jump up ^ Breen 1988, p. 421.
Jump up ^ Coin World Almanac 1977, p. 51.
Jump up ^ Ganz 1976, pp. 66–68.
^ Jump up to: a b Kiplinger's Personal Finance 1975, p. 5.
Jump up ^ Marotta 2001, pp. 503, 541.
^ Jump up to: a b c Reiter 1977.
^ Jump up to: a b c Coin World Almanac 1977, p. 425.
Jump up ^ Coin World Almanac 1977, p. 10.
Jump up ^ Wexler, Crawford & Flynn 2007, p. 8.
^ Jump up to: a b c Yeoman 2011, pp. 174, 207, 228.
Jump up ^ Yeoman 2011, pp. 337, 341.
Jump up ^ Marotta 2001, p. 541.
^ Jump up to: a b AP via The Blade 1980, p. 3.
^ Jump up to: a b Reiter 1981.
Jump up ^ Bowers Encyclopedia, Part 182.
Jump up ^ Webster 1986.
^ Jump up to: a b Marotta 2001, p. 542.
^ Jump up to: a b Yeoman 2011, p. 228.
^ Jump up to: a b Yeoman 2011, pp. 228, 337, 341.
Bibliography
Breen, Walter (1988). Walter Breen's Complete Encyclopedia of U.S. and Colonial Coins. New York, N.Y.: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-14207-6.
Coin World Almanac (3rd ed.). Sidney, Ohio: Amos Press. 1977. ASIN B004AB7C9M.
Ganz, David L. (1976). 14 Bits: The Story of America's Bicentennial Coinage. Washington, DC: Three Continents Press. ISBN 978-0-914478-63-8.
Wexler, John; Crawford, Bill; Flynn, Kevin (2007). The Authoritative Reference on Eisenhower Dollars (2nd ed.). Roswell, Ga.: Kyle Vick. ISBN 978-0-9679655-9-8.
Yeoman, R.S. (2011). A Guide Book of United States Coins 2012 (65th ed.). Atlanta, Ga.: Whitman Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-0-7948-3349-7.
Other sources
Bardes, Herbert C. (February 3, 1974). "From these will come our '76 coins". The New York Times. p. AL34. Retrieved August 4, 2011. (subscription required)
Bowers, Q. David. "Chapter 8: Silver commemoratives (and clad too), Part 182". Commemorative Coins of the United States: A Complete Encyclopedia. Retrieved December 23, 2012.
Gregory, Barbara J. (May 2006). "Drummer boy debate". The Numismatist. pp. 52–53. ISSN 0029-6090.
Kelley, Paul (Spring–Summer 1974). "Bicentennial coin headway". The Young Numismatist: 5–6.
Marotta, Michael E. (May 2001). "The Bicentennial coinage of 1976". The Numismatist. pp. 501–503, 541–542. ISSN 0029-6090.
Reiter, Ed (August 1977). "Strange fate for the Bicentennials". CoinAge: 86–88.
Reiter, Ed (July 8, 1979). "Bicentennial hangover". The New York Times. p. D38. Retrieved March 12, 2012. (subscription required)
Reiter, Ed (September 13, 1981). "Is this really the end of the Anthony dollar?". The New York Times. p. 52, section 2. Retrieved August 4, 2011. (subscription required)
Webster, Daniel (October 26, 1986). "Gold eagle coming soon". The Blade. Toledo, Ohio. Knight News Service. p. F-8. Retrieved August 4, 2011.
"Resumed coin sales announced". The Blade. Toledo, Ohio. AP. August 1, 1980. p. 3. Retrieved August 4, 2011.
Kiplinger Washington Editors, Inc (April 1975). "Your questions answered". Kiplinger's Personal Finance. p. 5. ISSN 1056-697X. Retrieved August 5, 2011. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
"Drummer boy debate". The Numismatist. 125 (7): 27. July 2012.
"Bicentennial coin designers meet ANA officials at the White House". The Young Numismatist: 1–3. Spring–Summer 1974.
[show]
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Bicentennial coinage
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Aldeburgh Festival
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Snape Maltings concert hall
The Aldeburgh Festival of Music and the Arts is an English arts festival devoted mainly to classical music. It takes place each June in the Aldeburgh area of Suffolk, centred on Snape Maltings Concert Hall.
Contents
1 History of the Aldeburgh Festival
2 The festival today
3 References
4 External links
History of the Aldeburgh Festival[edit]
The Festival was founded in 1948 by the composer Benjamin Britten, the singer Peter Pears and the librettist/producer Eric Crozier. Their work with the English Opera Group (which they had founded with designer John Piper in 1947) frequently took them away from home, and it was while they were on tour in Switzerland with Albert Herring and The Rape of Lucretia in August of that year, that Peter Pears said "Why not make our own Festival? A modest Festival with a few concerts given by friends? Why not have an Aldeburgh Festival?"[1] The English Opera Group would provide a core programme of opera productions, but the vision was soon widened to include readings of poetry, literature, drama, lectures and exhibitions of art. The first festival was held from 5–13 June 1948 and used the Aldeburgh Jubilee Hall, a few doors away from Britten's house in Crabbe Street, as its main venue, with performances in other venues such as Aldeburgh's fifteenth-century Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul. It featured a performance of Albert Herring by the English Opera Group; Britten's newly written Saint Nicolas; and performances by Clifford Curzon and the Zorian String Quartet.
Over the years the festival grew and took in additional venues in nearby Orford, Blythburgh and Framlingham. However, the lack of a large venue was holding back the further development of the Festival until one of the largest mid-nineteenth-century maltings in East Anglia, at Snape, a village just outside Aldeburgh, became available. Britten, who had lived in Snape in the 1930s, had the vision that the largest of the malthouses could be converted into a Concert Hall. Most of the building's original character, such as the distinctive square malthouse roof-vents, was retained. The new concert hall was opened by the Queen on 2 June 1967, at the start of the twentieth Aldeburgh Festival.
Two years later, on the first night of the 1969 Festival, the concert hall was destroyed by fire. Only the shell of the outer walls remained. For that year the Festival was moved to other local venues and only one performance was lost. By the following year the hall had been rebuilt and once again it was opened in the presence of the Queen, this time at the start of the 1970 Festival. The new Concert Hall at Snape Maltings became the main focus for the Aldeburgh Festival, although performances continued to be held at all the former venues.
For the first six years of the Aldeburgh Festival, the joint Artistic Directors remained Britten, Pears and Crozier; in 1955, Britten and Pears were in sole charge, then the following year they were joined by Imogen Holst, who remained a member of the Artistic Directorate until her death in 1984. After Britten's own death in 1976, the artistic direction of the Festival was shared; many world-class musicians joined the artistic team, including at various times Philip Ledger, Colin Graham, Steuart Bedford, Mstislav Rostropovich, Murray Perahia, Simon Rattle, John Shirley-Quirk and Oliver Knussen. In 1999, a sole Artistic Director in the Britten mould – composer, solo performer, accompanist and conductor – was appointed in Thomas Adès, joined in 2004 by composer John Woolrich, first as Guest Artistic Director then as an Associate Artistic Director. Thomas Adès was succeeded as Artistic Director of the Festival by Pierre-Laurent Aimard in 2009.
From the beginning, the Festivals were characterised by an eclectic range of music, from the classics – Bach, Haydn, Mozart – to contemporary work, with young composers in particular being commissioned. By 1982, Britten–Pears archivist Rosamund Strode calculated that the Festival had to that date presented new works by over 75 composers, with world premieres of 15 operas.[2] Concert goers were over the ensuing years to see new works not only by Britten himself, but by composers such as Lennox Berkeley, Richard Rodney Bennett, Elliott Carter, Hans Werner Henze, Alfred Schnittke, Toru Takemitsu, Michael Tippett, Mark-Anthony Turnage and Malcolm Williamson, many of whom came to the Festival as composer-in-residence. Later, young composers continued to be encouraged with the foundation of the biennial Benjamin Britten Composers' Competition. Many new works were presented under the baton of Oliver Knussen, himself a notable contributor to the new works presented at the Festival.
Imogen Holst introduced early choral music, and soon works by European composers rarely heard at that time in England were in the repertoire, such as Berg, Mahler, Schoenberg, Poulenc, Boulez, and Webern. Later, Copland, Dutilleux, Lutoslawski and Kodály were to come to the Festival. In contrast, John Dankworth and Cleo Laine, Joyce Grenfell, Peggy Ashcroft and actors from the Royal Shakespeare Company made regular appearances; Princess Grace of Monaco came to take part in a poetry recital. Sviatoslav Richter played for Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother.
The size and capacity of the Concert Hall enabled the Festival to present full-scale orchestras for the first time, and for many years Simon Rattle brought his City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra to Snape. There was a strong connection with Russian music: Rostropovich and Richter became frequent visitors, and in 1970 Shostakovich's 14th Symphony – dedicated to Britten – had its first performance outside the USSR at the Concert Hall.
Peter Pears, in addition to his role as joint Artistic Director, was a regular performer, often accompanied by Britten, and often appearing in up to ten concerts during the Festival. Janet Baker, Julian Bream, Osian Ellis, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, John Shirley-Quirk and Robert Tear were among the regular performers in the early days, followed later by Alfred Brendel, Ian Bostridge, Thomas Allen, Philip Langridge and Ann Murray.
The Concert Hall proved very capable of being turned into an opera stage. The Royal Opera presented A Midsummer Night's Dream in the first season, and on 16 June 1973, the first performance of Britten's final opera, Death in Venice, was given at the Concert Hall, with Pears in the role of Aschenbach. In 1976, in what was to be Britten's last Festival, Janet Baker sang the premiere of his dramatic cantata Phaedra in a festival that included performances by André Previn, Elisabeth Söderström, Sviatoslav Richter and the entire Rostropovich family.
In 1979, Rostropovich conducted the Britten–Pears School in a performance of Eugene Onegin (with Pears as guest in the role of M. Triquet, and Eric Crozier as the valet Guillot). In subsequent years, the School regularly performed an opera during the Festival.
The festival today[edit]
The organisation responsible for running the Aldeburgh Festival changed its name to Aldeburgh Music in 2006.
Thomas Adès was succeeded as Artistic Director of the Festival by Pierre-Laurent Aimard in 2009. In 2009, a suite of new spaces at Snape Maltings, including the Hoffmann Building's Britten Studio and the Jerwood Kiln Studio, was opened with the premiere performance of Harrison Birtwistle's The Corridor (opera).
The 2012 Festival had Oliver Knussen as Artist in Residence, and the typically eclectic programme[3] included new productions by Netia Jones of Knussen's Where the Wild Things Are and Higglety Pigglety Pop!, a concert series exploring the work of Helmut Lachenmann, recitals by Menahem Pressler, Ian Bostridge, Peter Serkin, Miklós Perényi, Dezső Ránki and the Arditti and Keller Quartets, the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra with the UK premiere of a work by Elliott Carter, as well as dramatised performances with film at the Leiston Long Shop Museum, the complete screening with live accompaniment of Britten's 1930s film scores, a promenade performance of John Cage's Song Books in the Hoffmann Building under the banner of #Faster than Sound, and open-air community events on Aldeburgh Beach.
The centenary of Britten's birth was held between November 2012 and November 2013, and the 2013 Festival, the 66th, featured a new production by Tim Albery of Britten's opera, Peter Grimes, the complete Church Parables in Orford Church, and new works by Harrison Birtwistle, Wolfgang Rihm, Judith Weir, Magnus Lindberg and Richard Rodney Bennett.
In addition to the annual Festival, Aldeburgh Music also runs the Britten–Pears Young Artist Programme (formerly the Britten–Pears School for Advanced Musical Studies), Aldeburgh Residencies – a programme offering bespoke training and development opportunities to UK and international artists – Aldeburgh Young Musicians for exceptionally talented young people between the ages of 8 and 18, The Jerwood Opera Writing Programme, for the development of new opera, as well as an extensive education programme. Aldeburgh's artist development programmes feed heavily into the June festival and other events throughout the year.
The Aldeburgh Festival retains a unique character, largely due to its location in rural Suffolk. It also continues to emphasise the presentation of new music, new interpretations and the rediscovery of forgotten music. It has seen the premieres of several works by Britten (A Midsummer Night's Dream in 1960; Death in Venice in 1973) and also Harrison Birtwistle's Punch and Judy in 1968, The Io Passion in 2004, The Corridor in 2009 and The Cure in 2015.
The Aldeburgh Festival has always included the visual arts as well as music, and a number of exhibitions are curated each year to accompany the music programme. From 2011, the main exhibition of contemporary art has been promoted under the title SNAP, at various locations around the Snape Maltings site, organised by Abigail Lane. In 2012, featured artists included Glenn Brown, May Cornet, Brian Eno, Ryan Gander, Maggi Hambling, Mark Limbrick, Emily Richardson and Gavin Turk.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Quoted in Benjamin Britten: A Biography by Humphrey Carpenter, 1992
Jump up ^ Article in 1982 Aldeburgh Festival Programme Book
Jump up ^ 65th Aldeburgh Festival Booking Brochure
External links[edit]
Aldeburgh Festival
ITV Local Anglia's entertainment show All Angles on Aldeburgh Festival June 2008
"Big Beach Jive" – Video of Aldeburgh Festival event 2012
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Coordinates: 52°09′49″N 1°29′50″E / 52.16351°N 1.49723°E / 52.16351; 1.49723
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Red rosin paper
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A large quantity of rosin paper to be used in roofing.
Red rosin paper (red building paper, brown rosin paper, slip sheet paper, rosin-sized sheathing paper, and building paper) is a 100% recycled heavy duty felt paper used in construction such as underlayment under flooring and siding. The names comes from the rosin used in the paper, the process of sizing it to add the rosin, and its use by builders. "Alum-rosin size was invented by Moritz Friedrich Illig in Germany in 1807..."[1] and is known to have been used as a building paper by 1850.
In building construction red rosin paper is used to reduce air and moisture flow through a wall or floor, create a "slip sheet" so different materials can slip by each other as they expand and contract,[2] keep dust from working down through a floor, minimize squeaking,[3] and sometimes as part of built-up roofs. Rosin paper is also temporarily used to protect a work site during construction. Rosin paper may have a polyurethane coating to improve moisture resistance and tearing. It is not acid free particularly containing abietic acid and comes in many size rolls up to 96 inches (2.4 m) wide.
Papers from the Middle Ages were sized with gelatine but the invention of the paper-making machine in the late 18th century demanded a better size [4] resulting in the creation of the rosin size.
A modern equivalent would be Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper (SRBP).
See also[edit]
Construction paper
Tar paper
Felt paper
Card stock
Wax paper
Tracing paper
Parchment paper
Coated paper
Kraft paper
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jim Thurn, "History, Chemistry, and Long-Term Effects of Alum-Rosin Size in Paper" The Cochineal December 3, 2003. quoting Barrow Research Laboratory, W.J.. 1974. Permanence/durability of the book-VII physical and chemical properties of book papers, 1507-1949. Richmond: W.J. Barrow Research Laboratory., and Green, S. 1992. "An outline history of sizing methods with special reference to practices at Hayle Mill". Conference papers manchester 1992, Third International Institute of Paper Conservation Conference, Manchester. 197-200. https://pacer.ischool.utexas.edu/html/2081/1396/j-thurn-03-alum.html accessed 3/11/2014
Jump up ^ Randon Chisnell. "Greif Containerboard Mills - Red Rosin". greifcontainerboard.com.
Jump up ^ James McCaffrey. "Red Rosin Paper". plasticover.com.
Jump up ^ Svensson, Inga-Lisa and Alwarsdotter, Ylwa. "A Papermaker's View of the Standard of Perminant Paper, ISO 9706", A reader in preservation and conservation. München: K.G. Saur, 2000. 62. Print.
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Cairn Terrier
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Cairn Terrier
Two Cairn Terriers showing variations in coat color.
Origin
Scotland
[hide]Traits
Weight
10–16 lb (4.5–7.3 kg)
Height
9–13 in (23–33 cm)
Coat
Abundant shaggy outer coat, soft downy undercoat. Can be cream, deep red, brindle, light gray, or black.[1]
Litter size
2-10
Life span
12-18years
[hide]Classification / standards
FCI
Group 3, Section 2 Small Terriers #004 standard
AKC
Terrier standard
ANKC
Group 2 (Terriers) standard
CKC
Group 4 - Terriers standard
KC (UK)
Terrier standard
NZKC
Terrier standard
UKC
Terriers standard
Domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris)
The Cairn Terrier is one of the oldest terrier breeds, originating in the Scottish Highlands and recognized as one of Scotland's earliest working dogs. The breed was given the name Cairn, because the breed's function was to hunt and chase quarry between the cairns in the Scottish highlands.[2]
Although the breed had existed long before, the name 'Cairn Terrier' was a compromise suggestion after the breed was originally brought to official shows in the United Kingdom in 1909 under the name Short-haired Skye terriers. This name was not acceptable to The Kennel Club due to opposition from Skye Terrier breeders, and the name 'Cairn Terrier' was suggested as an alternative. They are usually left-pawed,[3] which has been shown in dogs to correlate to superior performance in tasks related to scent. Cairn terriers are ratters.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Description
3 Grooming
4 Health
4.1 Survey
5 Living conditions
6 Exercise
7 Famous Cairns
7.1 In media
7.2 In books
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
Cairns originated in the Highlands of Scotland and the Isle of Skye,[4] initially grouped in the "Skye Terrier" class alongside the Scottish and West Highland White terriers. In the early 1900s, the three breeds began to be bred separately.
The Kennel Club of the United Kingdom gave the Cairn Terrier a separate register in 1912; the first year of recognition, 134 were registered and it was in that year that the breed was also given Championship status.[5]
Description[edit]
A brindle Cairn Terrier
A red/wheaten Cairn Terrier
Cairn terriers tend to look similar to a Norwich Terrier, but with some differences (for example the shaggy fur). Their outer layer of fur is shaggy, but they have a soft, downy undercoat. Their ideal weight is also 4.5-7.3 kg (10-16 lb), and the height 9–13 in (23–33 cm).
Grooming[edit]
Cairn Terrier
Cairn terriers shed very little, but should always be hand stripped. Using scissors or shears can ruin the dog's rugged outer coat after one grooming. Hand stripping involves pulling the old dead hair out by the roots. If done incorrectly, this can cause discomfort to the dog, causing it to shy away from future hand stripping. Removing the dead hair in this manner allows new growth to come in. This new growth helps protect the dog from water and dirt.
Cairn terrier ancestors are from Scotland, where the wire coat repels water and keeps the dog dry even in rainy or damp climates. Keeping the Cairn terrier coat in its original state will prevent possible skin irritations. As dead hair is removed by stripping the coat, new growth comes in and the skin and coat remain healthy. Clipper-cutting a Cairn might destroy the protective wire coat unique to this breed.
It is wise to have a pet examined to rule out heritable skin diseases if a Cairn is obtained from unknown sources (i.e. pet stores, rescues, or puppy mills).[citation needed]
Health[edit]
These dogs are generally healthy and live on average about 12 to 17 years.[6][7]
Survey[edit]
Breeders, owners, and veterinarians have identified several health problems that are significant for Cairns. Some of these diseases are hereditary, while others occur as a result of nonspecific factors (i.e. infections, toxins, injuries, or advanced age). Currently, the Cairn Terrier Club of America, along with the Institute for Genetic Disease Control in Animals, maintains an open registry for Cairn terriers in hopes of reducing the occurrence of hereditary diseases within the breed. Breeders voluntarily submit their dogs' test results for research purposes, as well as for use by individuals who seek to make sound breeding decisions.
Some of the more common hereditary health problems found in the Cairn are:[8][9]
Bronchoesophageal fistula
Cataracts
Corneal dystrophy
Craniomandibular osteopathy (lion jaw)
Diabetes mellitus
Entropion
Hip dysplasia
Hypothyroidism
Krabbe disease (globoid cell leukodystrophy)
Legg-Calvé-Perthes syndrome
Lens luxation
Luxating patella
Ocular melanosis
Portosystemic shunt
Progressive retinal atrophy
Soft tissue sarcoma
Von Willebrand disease
Living conditions[edit]
Cairn Terrier portrait
Cairn terriers exist happily in an apartment if sufficiently exercised.[citation needed] They are very active indoors and suffice even without a yard.[citation needed] Daily walks help keep Cairn terriers happy and healthy. Fenced-in yards are strongly recommended for safety and well being as well as being kept on leash when not in the yard.
Cairn terriers are particularly easily trained; ethical breeders strongly suggest obedience school or some other type of training to direct Cairn terrier's focus on the owner as the one in command if they are going to be used for hunting. If allowed to take control of the household, behavior problems may develop that can only be resolved by hiring a professional dog trainer. Many breeders only sell puppies to dedicated dog owners who agree to basic obedience school.
Exercise[edit]
Cairns are active dogs, thus need a daily walk. Play takes care of a lot of their exercise needs; however, as with all breeds, play will not fulfill their primal instinct to walk. Dogs which do not get to go on daily walks are more likely to display behavior problems. They also enjoy a good romp in a safe open area off leash, such as a large fenced yard.
According to Temple Grandin in her book Animals Make Us Human, dogs need 45 minutes to one hour per day of playing and seeking. After fulfilling this, dogs become balanced and well-mannered. Obedience school is often a good start to creating interactive play using words or commands for a dog to perform specific actions on cue. Teaching a Cairn terrier tricks is also a clever way to direct their active energy into acceptable controlled dog games.
Famous Cairns[edit]
Black and gray Cairn Terrier
Terry, the dog that played Toto in the 1939 screen adaptation of The Wizard of Oz, was a brindle Cairn terrier. Due to the identification of the State of Kansas with the original story The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, a resident of Wichita has begun a drive to make the Cairn terrier the official dog of Kansas.[10] Terry also had a role in the Shirley Temple film Bright Eyes, and 12 other films.

In media[edit]
In I Love Lucy, Little Ricky had a Cairn terrier named Fred.
J. Edgar Hoover notably bred Cairn terriers and gifted them to high ranking government officials during his career.
UK TV presenter Paul O'Grady often features a Cairn terrier called Olga on his primetime chat show; dark in colour, Olga is a rescue dog.
Also in the UK, Pauline Fowler actress Wendy Richard in the BBC TV show EastEnders had a Cairn she fondly named Betty. Betty made an appearance as Toto on BBC's "Strictly Come Dancing" (series 10) after Vincent Simone and his celebrity partner Dani Harmer danced a waltz to "Over the Rainbow" from The Wizard of Oz.
George Lopez's family dog on the ABC TV series George Lopez, is a Cairn terrier named Mr. Needles, named by the son, Max, for the extremely high number of shots that the incredibly sick former stray received from the veterinarian.
Australian television soap series Neighbours had a Cairn terrier named Audrey which belonged to the character Libby Kennedy.[11]
The character of Romulus, owned by Ray Milland's character, Steven Tolliver, in Cecil B. De Mille's epic Reap the Wild Wind (1942) was a Cairn terrier.
A few years later, in The Uninvited (1944), the Ray Milland character also had a Cairn terrier.
Thimble the dog was a brindle Cairn terrier played by Danvers. Thimble appeared once in episode five, season five of the British television drama Upstairs, Downstairs.
A wheaten Cairn Terrier named Kobe was featured in Dunston Checks In, Lost And Found, and the opening scenes of Twister.
In USA Network's Mr. Robot, Rami Malek's character Elliot Alderson has a Cairn terrier named Flipper.[12]
In the film Kingsman: The Secret Service, the character Harry Hart owned a Cairn terrier named Mr. Pickle. In the sequel Kingsman: The Golden Circle, Eggsy uses a similar Cairn terrier puppy to trigger Hart's memories after he suffered amnesia.
In books[edit]
In the Maximum Ride book series, Total, the talking dog, is a Cairn terrier.
In the first edition of L. Frank Baum's book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1899), though Baum did not specify in the text what breed Toto was, illustrator W. W. Denslow drew him as a Cairn Terrier.
In Donald Barthelme’s short story "Chablis," the narrator says that his baby wants, according to his wife, a "Cairn Terrier."[13]

References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Cairn Terrier". Vetstreet.
Jump up ^ - The breed is commonly used for hunting and burrowing prey among the cairns.
Jump up ^ Paw preference
Jump up ^ "Cairn Terrier History". American Kennel Club. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "swwectc- cairn history". www.swwectc.freeuk.com. Retrieved 2016-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Individual Breed Results for Purebred Dog Health Survey".
Jump up ^ Leroy, G. G.; Phocas, F.; Hedan, B.; Verrier, E.; Rognon, X. (2015). "Inbreeding impact on litter size and survival in selected canine breeds". The Veterinary Journal. 203: 74–8. doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.11.008. PMID 25475165. mean=12.23 ± 4.18 median=13.42
Jump up ^ "Health Related Concerns". Cairn Terrier Club of America Inc. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Alex., Gough, (2004). Breed predispositions to disease in dogs and cats. Thomas, Alison, 1964-. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Pub. ISBN 1405107480. OCLC 53231203.
Jump up ^ "Wichita resident wants 'Toto' breed named state dog of Kansas". Lawrence Journal-World & 6 News. 13 May 2006. Retrieved 12 May 2005.
Jump up ^ Kilkelly, Daniel (17 August 2011). "'Neighbours' pet dog Audrey loses cancer battle". Digital Spy. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "'Mr. Robot': Rami Malek Reveals What's Next... for Flipper". Retrieved 28 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Barthelme, Donald. "Chablis." Forty Stories. New York: Penguin Books, 1989. 1. Print.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cairn Terrier.
Cairn Terrier at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
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