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Book of the Dead
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For other uses, see Book of the Dead (disambiguation).

Book of Coming Forth by Day
in hieroglyphs
This detail scene, from the Papyrus of Hunefer (c. 1275 BCE), shows the scribe Hunefer's heart being weighed on the scale of Maat against the feather of truth, by the jackal-headed Anubis. The ibis-headed Thoth, scribe of the gods, records the result. If his heart equals exactly the weight of the feather, Hunefer is allowed to pass into the afterlife. If not, he is eaten by the waiting chimeric devouring creature Ammit composed of the deadly crocodile, lion, and hippopotamus. Vignettes such as these were a common illustration in Egyptian books of the dead.
The Book of the Dead is an ancient Egyptian funerary text, used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BCE) to around 50 BCE.[1] The original Egyptian name for the text, transliterated rw nw prt m hrw[2] is translated as Book of Coming Forth by Day.[3] Another translation would be Book of Emerging Forth into the Light. "Book" is the closest term to describe the loose collection of texts[4] consisting of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat, or underworld, and into the afterlife and written by many priests over a period of about 1000 years.
The Book of the Dead was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts, which were painted onto objects, not papyrus. Some of the spells included were drawn from these older works and date to the 3rd millennium BCE. Other spells were composed later in Egyptian history, dating to the Third Intermediate Period (11th to 7th centuries BCE). A number of the spells which made up the Book continued to be inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi, as had always been the spells from which they originated. The Book of the Dead was placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased.
There was no single or canonical Book of the Dead. The surviving papyri contain a varying selection of religious and magical texts and vary considerably in their illustration. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead, perhaps choosing the spells they thought most vital in their own progression to the afterlife. The Book of the Dead was most commonly written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll, and often illustrated with vignettes depicting the deceased and their journey into the afterlife.
Contents
1 Development
2 Spells
2.1 Organization
3 Egyptian concepts of death and afterlife
3.1 Preservation
3.2 Afterlife
3.3 Judgment
4 Producing a Book of the Dead
5 Discovery, translation, interpretation and preservation
5.1 Chronology
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Development[edit]
Part of the Pyramid Texts, a precursor of the Book of the Dead, inscribed on the tomb of Teti
The Book of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating back to the Egyptian Old Kingdom. The first funerary texts were the Pyramid Texts, first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th dynasty, around 2400 BCE.[5] These texts were written on the walls of the burial chambers within pyramids, and were exclusively for the use of the Pharaoh (and, from the 6th dynasty, the Queen). The Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals were left incomplete or drawn mutilated, most likely to prevent them causing any harm to the dead pharaoh.[6] The purpose of the Pyramid Texts was to help the dead King take his place amongst the gods, in particular to reunite him with his divine father Ra; at this period the afterlife was seen as being in the sky, rather than the underworld described in the Book of the Dead.[6] Towards the end of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts ceased to be an exclusively royal privilege, and were adopted by regional governors and other high-ranking officials.
In the Middle Kingdom, a new funerary text emerged, the Coffin Texts. The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, new spells, and included illustrations for the first time. The Coffin Texts were most commonly written on the inner surfaces of coffins, though they are occasionally found on tomb walls or on papyri.[6] The Coffin Texts were available to wealthy private individuals, vastly increasing the number of people who could expect to participate in the afterlife; a process which has been described as the "democratization of the afterlife".[7]
The Book of the Dead first developed in Thebes toward the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period, around 1700 BCE. The earliest known occurrence of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep, of the 13th dynasty, where the new spells were included amongst older texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. Some of the spells introduced at this time claim an older provenance; for instance the rubric to spell 30B states that it was discovered by the Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure, many hundreds of years before it is attested in the archaeological record.[8]
By the 17th dynasty, the Book of the Dead had become widespread not only for members of the royal family, but courtiers and other officials as well. At this stage, the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead, though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus.[9]
The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous Spell 125, the 'Weighing of the Heart', is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, c.1475 BCE. From this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll, and the text illustrated with vignettes. During the 19th dynasty in particular, the vignettes tended to be lavish, sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text.[10]
In the Third Intermediate Period, the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script, as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics. The hieratic scrolls were a cheaper version, lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning, and were produced on smaller papyri. At the same time, many burials used additional funerary texts, for instance the Amduat.[11]
During the 25th and 26th dynasties, the Book of the Dead was updated, revised and standardised. Spells were consistently ordered and numbered for the first time. This standardised version is known today as the 'Saite recension', after the Saite (26th) dynasty. In the Late period and Ptolemaic period, the Book of the Dead remained based on the Saite recension, though increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic period. New funerary texts appeared, including the Book of Breathing and Book of Traversing Eternity. The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the 1st century BCE, though some artistic motifs drawn from it were still in use in Roman times.[12]
Spells[edit]
See also: List of Book of the Dead spells and Magical texts
The mystical Spell 17, from the Papyrus of Ani. The vignette at the top illustrates, from left to right, the god Heh as a representation of the Sea; a gateway to the realm of Osiris; the Eye of Horus; the celestial cow Mehet-Weret; and a human head rising from a coffin, guarded by the four Sons of Horus.[13]
The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of individual texts and their accompanying illustrations. Most sub-texts begin with the word ro, which can mean "mouth," "speech," "spell," "utterance," "incantation," or "a chapter of a book." This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual speech and magical power.[14] In the context of the Book of the Dead, it is typically translated as either "chapter" or "spell." In this article, the word "spell" is used.
At present, some 192 spells are known,[15] though no single manuscript contains them all. They served a range of purposes. Some are intended to give the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife, or perhaps to identify them with the gods: for instance, Spell 17 is an obscure and lengthy description of the god Atum.[16] Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person's being were preserved and reunited, and to give the deceased control over the world around him. Still others protect the deceased from various hostile forces or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles. Famously, two spells also deal with the judgement of the deceased in the Weighing of the Heart ritual.
Such spells as 26 - 30, and sometimes spells 6 and 126, relate to the heart and were inscribed on scarabs.[17]
The texts and images of the Book of the Dead were magical as well as religious. Magic was as legitimate an activity as praying to the gods, even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves.[18] Indeed, there was little distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice.[19] The concept of magic (heka) was also intimately linked with the spoken and written word. The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation;[20] there is a sense in which action and speech were one and the same thing.[19] The magical power of words extended to the written word. Hieroglyphic script was held to have been invented by the god Thoth, and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful. Written words conveyed the full force of a spell.[20] This was even true when the text was abbreviated or omitted, as often occurred in later Book of the Dead scrolls, particularly if the accompanying images were present.[21] The Egyptians also believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it; thus, the Book of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical names of many of the entities he would encounter in the afterlife, giving him power over them.[22]
The spells of the Book of the Dead made use of several magical techniques which can also be seen in other areas of Egyptian life. A number of spells are for magical amulets, which would protect the deceased from harm. In addition to being represented on a Book of the Dead papyrus, these spells appeared on amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy.[18] Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers. Other items in direct contact with the body in the tomb, such as headrests, were also considered to have amuletic value.[23] A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the magical healing power of saliva.[18]
Organization[edit]
Almost every Book of the Dead was unique, containing a different mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available. For most of the history of the Book of the Dead there was no defined order or structure.[24] In fact, until Paul Barguet's 1967 "pioneering study" of common themes between texts,[25] Egyptologists concluded there was no internal structure at all.[26] It is only from the Saite period (26th dynasty) onwards that there is a defined order.[27]
The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Chapters into four sections:
Chapters 1–16* The deceased enters the tomb and descends to the underworld, and the body regains its powers of movement and speech.
Chapters 17–63 Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places. The deceased is made to live again so that he may arise, reborn, with the morning sun.
Chapters 64–129 The deceased travels across the sky in the sun ark as one of the blessed dead. In the evening, the deceased travels to the underworld to appear before Osiris.
Chapters 130–189 Having been vindicated, the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods. This section also includes assorted chapters on protective amulets, provision of food, and important places.[26]
Egyptian concepts of death and afterlife[edit]
A vignette in The Papyrus of Ani, from Spell 30B: Spell For Not Letting Ani's Heart Create Opposition Against Him, in the Gods' Domain, which contains a depiction of the ba of the deceased
The spells in the Book of the Dead depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife. The Book of the Dead is a vital source of information about Egyptian beliefs in this area.
Preservation[edit]
One aspect of death was the disintegration of the various kheperu, or modes of existence.[28] Funerary rituals served to re-integrate these different aspects of being. Mummification served to preserve and transform the physical body into sah, an idealised form with divine aspects;[29] the Book of the Dead contained spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased, which may have been recited during the process of mummification.[30] The heart, which was regarded as the aspect of being which included intelligence and memory, was also protected with spells, and in case anything happened to the physical heart, it was common to bury jewelled heart scarabs with a body to provide a replacement. The ka, or life-force, remained in the tomb with the dead body, and required sustenance from offerings of food, water and incense. In case priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings, Spell 105 ensured the ka was satisfied.[31] The name of the dead person, which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence, was written in many places throughout the Book, and spell 25 ensured the deceased would remember their own name.[32] The ba was a free-ranging spirit aspect of the deceased. It was the ba, depicted as a human-headed bird, which could "go forth by day" from the tomb into the world; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it.[33] Finally, the shut, or shadow of the deceased, was preserved by spells 91, 92 and 188.[34] If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved, remembered, and satiated, then the dead person would live on in the form of an akh. An akh was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell among the gods.[35]
Afterlife[edit]
The nature of the afterlife which the dead person enjoyed is difficult to define, because of the differing traditions within Ancient Egyptian religion. In the Book of the Dead, the dead were taken into the presence of the god Osiris, who was confined to the subterranean Duat. There are also spells to enable the ba or akh of the dead to join Ra as he travelled the sky in his sun-barque, and help him fight off Apep.[36] As well as joining the Gods, the Book of the Dead also depicts the dead living on in the 'Field of Reeds', a paradisiac likeness of the real world.[37] The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush, plentiful version of the Egypt of the living. There are fields, crops, oxen, people and waterways. The deceased person is shown encountering the Great Ennead, a group of gods, as well as his or her own parents. While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful, it is also clear that manual labour is required. For this reason burials included a number of statuettes named shabti, or later ushebti. These statuettes were inscribed with a spell, also included in the Book of the Dead, requiring them to undertake any manual labour that might be the owner's duty in the afterlife.[38] It is also clear that the dead not only went to a place where the gods lived, but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves. In many occasions, the deceased is mentioned as "The Osiris – [Name]" in the Book of the Dead.
Two 'gate spells'. On the top register, Ani and his wife face the 'seven gates of the House of Osiris'. Below, they encounter ten of the 21 'mysterious portals of the House of Osiris in the Field of Reeds'. All are guarded by unpleasant protectors.[39]
The path to the afterlife as laid out in the Book of the Dead was a difficult one. The deceased was required to pass a series of gates, caverns and mounds guarded by supernatural creatures.[40] These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms, typically as human figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts. Their names—for instance, "He who lives on snakes" or "He who dances in blood"—are equally grotesque. These creatures had to be pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the Book of the Dead; once pacified they posed no further threat, and could even extend their protection to the dead person.[41] Another breed of supernatural creatures was 'slaughterers' who killed the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris; the Book of the Dead equipped its owner to escape their attentions.[42] As well as these supernatural entities, there were also threats from natural or supernatural animals, including crocodiles, snakes, and beetles.[43]
Judgment[edit]
The Weighing of the Heart ritual, shown in the Book of the Dead of Sesostris
If all the obstacles of the Duat could be negotiated, the deceased would be judged in the "Weighing of the Heart" ritual, depicted in Spell 125. The deceased was led by the god Anubis into the presence of Osiris. There, the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a list of 42 sins,[44] reciting a text known as the "Negative Confession". Then the dead person's heart was weighed on a pair of scales, against the goddess Maat, who embodied truth and justice. Maat was often represented by an ostrich feather, the hieroglyphic sign for her name.[45] At this point, there was a risk that the deceased's heart would bear witness, owning up to sins committed in life; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality. If the scales balanced, this meant the deceased had led a good life. Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife, becoming maa-kheru, meaning "vindicated" or "true of voice".[46] If the heart was out of balance with Maat, then another fearsome beast called Ammit, the Devourer, stood ready to eat it and put the dead person's afterlife to an early and unpleasant end.[47]
This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness but as one of the few parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content. The judgment of the dead and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society. For every "I have not..." in the Negative Confession, it is possible to read an unexpressed "Thou shalt not".[48] While the Ten Commandments of Judeo-Christian ethics are rules of conduct laid down by a perceived divine revelation, the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality.[49] Views differ among Egyptologists about how far the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute, with ethical purity being necessary for progress to the Afterlife. John Taylor points out the wording of Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality; by preventing the heart from contradicting him with any inconvenient truths, it seems that the deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had not been entirely pure.[47] Ogden Goelet says "without an exemplary and moral existence, there was no hope for a successful afterlife",[48] while Geraldine Pinch suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially similar to the spells protecting from demons, and that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased's moral behaviour.[50]
Producing a Book of the Dead[edit]
Part of the Book of the Dead of Pinedjem II. The text is hieratic, except for hieroglyphics in the vignette. The use of red pigment, and the joins between papyrus sheets, are also visible.
A close-up of the Papyrus of Ani, showing the cursive hieroglyphs of the text
A Book of the Dead papyrus was produced to order by scribes. They were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funeral, or by the relatives of someone recently deceased. They were expensive items; one source gives the price of a Book of the Dead scroll as one deben of silver,[51] perhaps half the annual pay of a labourer.[52] Papyrus itself was evidently costly, as there are many instances of its re-use in everyday documents, creating palimpsests. In one case, a Book of the Dead was written on second-hand papyrus.[53]
Most owners of the Book of the Dead were evidently part of the social elite; they were initially reserved for the royal family, but later papyri are found in the tombs of scribes, priests and officials. Most owners were men, and generally the vignettes included the owner's wife as well. Towards the beginning of the history of the Book of the Dead, there are roughly 10 copies belonging to men for every one for a woman. However, during the Third Intermediate Period, 2/3 were for women; and women owned roughly a third of the hieratic paypri from the Late and Ptolemaic Periods.[54]
The dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary widely; the longest is 40m long while some are as short as 1m. They are composed of sheets of papyrus joined together, the individual papyri varying in width from 15 cm to 45 cm. The scribes working on Book of the Dead papyri took more care over their work than those working on more mundane texts; care was taken to frame the text within margins, and to avoid writing on the joints between sheets. The words peret em heru, or 'coming forth by day' sometimes appear on the reverse of the outer margin, perhaps acting as a label.[53]
Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops, with spaces being left for the name of the deceased to be written in later.[55] For instance, in the Papyrus of Ani, the name "Ani" appears at the top or bottom of a column, or immediately following a rubric introducing him as the speaker of a block of text; the name appears in a different handwriting to the rest of the manuscript, and in some places is mis-spelt or omitted entirely.[52]
The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs, most often from left to right, but also sometimes from right to left. The hieroglyphs were in columns, which were separated by black lines – a similar arrangement to that used when hieroglyphs were carved on tomb walls or monuments. Illustrations were put in frames above, below, or between the columns of text. The largest illustrations took up a full page of papyrus.[56]
From the 21st Dynasty onward, more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic script. The calligraphy is similar to that of other hieratic manuscripts of the New Kingdom; the text is written in horizontal lines across wide columns (often the column size corresponds to the size of the papyrus sheets of which a scroll is made up). Occasionally a hieratic Book of the Dead contains captions in hieroglyphic.
The text of a Book of the Dead was written in both black and red ink, regardless of whether it was in hieroglyphic or hieratic script. Most of the text was in black, with red ink used for the titles of spells, opening and closing sections of spells, the instructions to perform spells correctly in rituals, and also for the names of dangerous creatures such as the demon Apep.[57] The black ink used was based on carbon, and the red ink on ochre, in both cases mixed with water.[58]
The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely. Some contain lavish colour illustrations, even making use of gold leaf. Others contain only line drawings, or one simple illustration at the opening.[59]
Book of the Dead papyri were often the work of several different scribes and artists whose work was literally pasted together.[53] It is usually possible to identify the style of more than one scribe used on a given manuscript, even when the manuscript is a shorter one.[60] The text and illustrations were produced by different scribes; there are a number of Books where the text was completed but the illustrations were left empty.[61]
Book of the Dead of the Goldworker of Amun, Sobekmose, 31.1777e, Brooklyn Museum
Discovery, translation, interpretation and preservation[edit]
Karl Richard Lepsius, first translator of a complete Book of the Dead manuscript
The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early as the Middle Ages, well before its contents could be understood. Since it was found in tombs, it was evidently a document of a religious nature, and this led to the widespread misapprehension that the Book of the Dead was the equivalent of a Bible or Qur'an.[62][63]
In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the Ptolemaic era and coined the name "Book of The Dead" (das Todtenbuch). He also introduced the spell numbering system which is still in use, identifying 165 different spells.[15] Lepsius promoted the idea of a comparative edition of the Book of the Dead, drawing on all relevant manuscripts. This project was undertaken by Édouard Naville, starting in 1875 and completed in 1886, producing a three-volume work including a selection of vignettes for every one of the 186 spells he worked with, the more significant variations of the text for every spell, and commentary. In 1867 Samuel Birch of the British Museum published the first extensive English translation.[64] In 1876 he published a photographic copy of the Papyrus of Nebseny.[65]
The work of E. A. Wallis Budge, Birch's successor at the British Museum, is still in wide circulation – including both his hieroglyphic editions and his English translations of the Papyrus of Ani, though the latter are now considered inaccurate and out-of-date.[66] More recent translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen (1974) and Raymond O. Faulkner (1972).[67] As more work has been done on the Book of the Dead, more spells have been identified, and the total now stands at 192.[15]
In the 1970s, Ursula Rößler-Köhler at the University of Bonn began a working group to develop the history of Book of the Dead texts. This later received sponsorship from the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the German Research Foundation, in 2004 coming under the auspices of the German Academies of Sciences and Arts. Today the Book of the Dead Project, as it is called, maintains a database of documentation and photography covering 80% of extant copies and fragments from the corpus of Book of the Dead texts, and provides current services to Egyptologists.[68] It is housed at the University of Bonn, with much material available online.[69] Affiliated scholars are authoring a series of monograph studies, the Studien zum Altägyptischen Totenbuch, alongside a series that publishes the manuscripts themselves, Handschriften des Altägyptischen Totenbuches.[70] Both are in print by Harrassowitz Verlag. Orientverlag has released another series of related monographs, Totenbuchtexte, focused on analysis, synoptic comparison, and textual criticism.
Research work on the Book of the Dead has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts. Initially, these were copied out by hand, with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida. In the mid-19th century, hieroglyphic fonts became available and made lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more feasible. In the present day, hieroglyphics can be rendered in desktop publishing software and this, combined with digital print technology, means that the costs of publishing a Book of the Dead may be considerably reduced. However, a very large amount of the source material in museums around the world remains unpublished.[71]
Chronology[edit]
Sheet from a Book of the Dead, c. 1075 – 945 BCE, 37.1699E, Brooklyn Museum
c. 3150 BCE – First preserved hieroglyphs, on small labels in the tomb of a king buried (in tomb U-j) at Abydos
c. 3000 BCE – The beginning of the numbered dynasties of kings of ancient Egypt
'c. 2345 BCE – First royal pyramid, of King Unas, to contain the Pyramid Texts, carved precursors (intended only for the king) to the funerary literature from which the Book of the Dead ultimately developed
c. 2100 BCE – First Coffin Texts, developed from the Pyramid Texts and for a time painted on the coffins of commoners. Many spells of the Book of the Dead are closely derived from them
c. 1600 BCE – Earliest spells of the Book of the Dead, on the coffin of Queen Menthuhotep, a descendant of kings from the New Kingdom
c. 1550 BCE – From this time onward to the beginning of the New kingdom, papyrus copies of the Book of the Dead are used instead of inscribing spells on the walls of the tombs
c. 600 BCE – Approximately when the order of the spells became standard
2nd Century CE – Possibly the last copies of the Book of the Dead were produced, but it is a poorly documented era of history
313 CE – Christianity spreads to Egypt
1798 – Napoleon's invasion of Egypt encourages European interests in ancient Egypt; 1799, Vivant Denon was handed a copy of the Book of the Dead
1805 – J. Marc Cadet makes the first publication, on 18 plates, of a Book of the Dead, Copie figurée d'un Roleau de Papyrus trouvé à Thèbes dans un Thombeau des Rois, accompagnèe d'une notice descriptive, Paris, Levrault
1822 – Jean-François Champollion announces the key to the decipherment of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, subsequently developed in his later publications, the most extensive after his death in 1832
1842 – C.R. Lepsius publishes the first major study of the Book of the Dead, begins the numbering of the spells or chapters, and brings the name 'Book of the Dead' into general circulation[72]
See also[edit]
Aaru
Bardo Thodol (Tibetan book of the dead)
Book of the Dead of Amen-em-hat
Book of the Dead of Qenna
Ghosts in ancient Egyptian culture
Necronomicon (H. P. Lovecraft's book of the dead)
Qenna
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.54
Jump up ^ Allen, 2000. p.316
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.55; or perhaps "Utterances of Going Forth by Day" - D'Auria 1988, p.187
Jump up ^ The Egyptian Book of the Dead by Anonymous (2 Jun 2014) ...with an introduction by Paul Mirecki (VII)
Jump up ^ Faulkner p. 54
^ Jump up to: a b c Taylor 2010, p. 54
Jump up ^ D'Auria et al p.187
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.34
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p. 55
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.35–7
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.57–8
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.59 60
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.51
Jump up ^ Faulkner 1994, p.145; Taylor 2010, p.29
^ Jump up to: a b c Faulkner 1994, p.18
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.51, 56
Jump up ^ Hornung, Erik; David Lorton (15 June 1999). The ancient Egyptian books of the afterlife. Cornell University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8014-8515-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c Faulkner 1994, p.146
^ Jump up to: a b Faulkner 1994, p.145
^ Jump up to: a b Taylor 2010, p.30
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.32–3; Faulkner 1994, p.148
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.30–1
Jump up ^ Pinch 1994, p.104–5
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.55
Jump up ^ Barguet, Paul (1967). Le Livre des morts des anciens Égyptiens (in French). Paris: Éditions du Cerf.
^ Jump up to: a b Faulkner 1994, p.141
Jump up ^ Taylor, p.58
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.16-17
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.17 & 20
Jump up ^ For instance, Spell 154. Taylor 2010, p.161
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.163-4
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.163
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.17, 164
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.164
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.17
Jump up ^ Spells 100–2, 129–131 and 133–136. Taylor 2010, p.239–241
Jump up ^ Spells 109, 110 and 149. Taylor 2010, p.238–240
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.242–245
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.143
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.135
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.136–7
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p. 188
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p. 184–7
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p. 208
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.209
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.215
^ Jump up to: a b Taylor 2010, p.212
^ Jump up to: a b Faulkner 1994, p.14
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010,p.204–5
Jump up ^ Pinch 1994, p.155
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.62
^ Jump up to: a b Faulkner 1994, p.142
^ Jump up to: a b c Taylor 2010, p.264
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.62–3
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.267
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p. 266
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p. 270
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p. 277
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.267–8
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.270
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.268
Jump up ^ Faulkner 1994, p.13
Jump up ^ Taylor 210, p.288 9
Jump up ^ "Egypt's Place in Universal History", Vol 5, 1867
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.289 92
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.291
Jump up ^ Hornung 1999, p.15–16
Jump up ^ Müller-Roth 2010, p.190-191
Jump up ^ Das Altagyptische Totenbuch: Ein Digitales Textzeugenarchiv (external link)
Jump up ^ Müller-Roth 2010, p.191
Jump up ^ Taylor 2010, p.292–7
Jump up ^ Kemp, Barry (2007). How to Read the Egyptian Book of the Dead. New York: Granta Publications. pp. 112–113. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Further reading[edit]
Allen, James P., Middle Egyptian – An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, first edition, Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-77483-7
Allen, Thomas George, The Egyptian Book of the Dead: Documents in the Oriental Institute Museum at the University of Chicago. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1960.
Allen, Thomas George, The Book of the Dead or Going Forth by Day. Ideas of the Ancient Egyptians Concerning the Hereafter as Expressed in Their Own Terms, SAOC vol. 37; University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1974.
Assmann, Jan (2005) [2001]. Death and Salvation in Ancient Egypt. Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-4241-9
D'Auria, S (et al.) Mummies and Magic: the Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1989. ISBN 0-87846-307-0
Faulkner, Raymond O; Andrews, Carol (editor), The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. University of Texas Press, Austin, 1972.
Faulkner, Raymond O (translator); von Dassow, Eva (editor), The Egyptian Book of the Dead, The Book of Going forth by Day. The First Authentic Presentation of the Complete Papyrus of Ani. Chronicle Books, San Francisco, 1994.
Hornung, Erik; Lorton, D (translator), The Ancient Egyptian books of the Afterlife. Cornell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8014-8515-0
Lapp, G, The Papyrus of Nu (Catalogue of Books of the Dead in the British Museum). British Museum Press, London, 1997.
Müller-Roth, Marcus, "The Book of the Dead Project: Past, present and future." British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 15 (2010): 189-200.
Niwinski, Andrzej, Studies on the Illustrated Theban Funerary Papyri of the 11th and 10th Centuries B.C.. OBO vol. 86; Universitätsverlag, Freiburg, 1989.
Pinch, Geraldine, Magic in Ancient Egypt. British Museum Press, London, 1994. ISBN 0-7141-0971-1
Taylor, John H. (Editor), Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: Journey through the afterlife. British Museum Press, London, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7141-1993-9
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Book of the Dead
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Papyrus of Ani
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Book of the Dead.
The Mummy Chamber Brooklyn Museum Exhibit
Das altägyptische Totenbuch - ein digitales Textzeugenarchiv Complete digital archive of all witnesses for the Book of the Dead (with descriptions of the (c. 3000) objects and (c. 20.000) images)
Online Readable Text, with several images and reproductions of Egyptian papyri
Papyrus of Hunefer, with many scenes and their formula English translations, from the copy now in the British Museum
Video: British Museum curator introduces the Book of the Dead
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Ripley Entertainment
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Ripley Entertainment Inc. is an entertainment and edutainment holding company owned by the Jim Pattison Group of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The company has its headquarters in an unincorporated part of southern Orange County, Florida, near Orlando, at an office complex near the intersection of Sand Lake Road and John Young Parkway.[1]
Originating with a small daily newspaper cartoon drawn by Robert Ripley, which debuted in 1918, the company today operates over 90 attractions under a dozen brands worldwide.
The daily Believe It or Not! cartoon that catapulted Ripley to fame in the 1920s is still printed runs in hundreds of newspapers in over forty countries and dozens of languages.
The 32 Ripley’s Believe It or Not! museums that house his collection of oddities in various countries have received over 100 million visitors since 1933.[2]
Contents
1 Publishing interests
2 Holdings
3 References
4 External links
Publishing interests[edit]
Ripley Entertainment Inc. established Ripley Publishing Ltd to produce the Ripley's Believe It or Not Annual and other books.
Holdings[edit]
Guinness World Records Attractions
Louis Tussaud's Wax Museums: In the summer of 2004, Ripley's bought the Palace of Wax museum in Grand Prairie, Texas, rebranding it as the United States' first Tussauds'.
Ripley's Aquarium of Canada - Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Ripley's Aquarium of Myrtle Beach
Ripley's Aquarium of the Smokies
Ripley's Believe it or Not! Odditoriums
Ripley's Haunted Adventure - three locations in US and one in Thailand
Ripley's Mini-Golf and Arcade - Gatlinburg, Tennessee, USA
Ripley's Moving Theater
Ripley's Sightseeing Trains - St. Augustine, Florida, USA
Ripley's Mirror Maze - Gatlinburg, Tennessee, San Antonio, Texas, Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, Ocean City, Maryland. All USA
Ripley's Davy Crockett Mini-Golf - Gatlinburg, Tennessee, USA
Ripley's Old McDonald Mini-Golf - Sevierville, Tennessee, USA
Ride the Ducks - Branson, MO[3]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Contact." Ripley Entertainment. Retrieved on December 7, 2009. Location per https://maps.google.com/
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ "Death toll from capsized duck boat on Missouri lake rises to 17". NBC News. Retrieved 2018-07-20.
About Ripley Entertainment
External links[edit]
Ripley Entertainment website
Ripley's Believe It or Not! website
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ISNI: 0000 0001 0675 3271
LCCN: n2004031125
VIAF: 158477493
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Geography of Colombia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Colombia
Relief map of Colombia.
(San Andres Archipielago not shown)
Area'
Total 1,138,910 km2 (439,736 sq mi)
Land 1,038,700 km2 (401,044 sq mi)
Water 100,210 km2 (38,691 sq mi)
Latitude 4°0' N
Longitude 72°0'W
Borders
Venezuela 2,341 km
Brazil 1,790 km
Peru 1,494 km
Ecuador 708 km
Panama 339 km
Maritime claims
Territorial sea 12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi)
Continental shelf 200-m depth or to the
depth of exploitation
Economic zone 200 nmi (370.4 km; 230.2 mi)
The Republic of Colombia is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in North America. Colombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru;[1] and it shares maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti.[2][3] Colombia is the 26th largest nation in the world and the fourth-largest country in South America after Brazil, Argentina, and Peru.[4] Despite its large territory, Colombia's population is not evenly distributed, with most Colombians living in the mountainous western portion of the country as well as the northern coastline, most living in or near the capital city of Bogotá. The southern and eastern portions of the country are mostly sparsely inhabited tropical rainforest, and inland tropical plains containing large estates or large livestock farms, oil and gas production facilities, small farming communities and indigenous tribes.
Contents
1 Main
1.1 Andean region
1.2 Caribbean region
1.3 Pacific region
1.4 Orinoquía region
1.5 Amazon region
2 Climate
3 Vegetation
4 Relief
5 Protected areas
6 Natural resources
7 Environmental issues
8 Extreme points
9 Facts
10 Hydrology
10.1 Rivers confined to Colombia
10.2 Rivers originating in Colombia
10.3 Lakes
11 See also
12 References
13 External links
Main[edit]
Colombia usually classifies its geography into five natural regions, from the Andes mountain range, a region shared with Ecuador, Venezuela; the Pacific Ocean coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean Sea coastal region, shared with Venezuela and Panama; the Llanos (plains), shared with Venezuela; to the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador. Colombia is the only South American country which borders both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Despite this The World Factbook makes no difference between Amazon region of Colombia (predominantly jungle) and the Orinoquia region of Colombia (predominantly plains). The World Factbook considers most appropriate to divide the country into four geographic regions: the Andean highlands, consisting of the three Andean ranges and intervening valley lowlands; the Caribbean lowlands coastal region; the Pacific lowlands coastal region, separated from the Caribbean lowlands by swamps at the base of the Isthmus of Panama; and eastern Colombia, the great plain that lies to the east of the Andes Mountains.
The chief western mountain range, the Cordillera Occidental, is a moderately high range with peaks reaching up to about 15,000 ft (4,572 m) (4,670 m).[5] The Cauca River Valley, an important agricultural region with several large cities on its borders, separates the Cordillera Occidental from the massive Cordillera Central. Several snow-clad volcanoes in the Cordillera Central have summits that rise above 17,000 ft (5,182 m). The valley of the slow-flowing and muddy Magdalena River, a major transportation artery, separates the Cordillera Central from the main eastern range, the Cordillera Oriental. The peaks of the Cordillera Oriental are moderately high. This range differs from Colombia's other mountain ranges in that it contains several large basins. In the east, the sparsely populated, flat to gently rolling eastern lowlands called llanos cover almost 60 percent of the country's total land area.
This cross section of the republic does not include two of Colombia's regions: the Caribbean coastal lowlands and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, both in the northern part of the country. The lowlands in the west are mostly swampy; the reed-filled marshes of the area are called ciénagas by the people of Colombia. The Guajira Peninsula in the east is semiarid. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is a spectacular triangular snowcapped block of rock that towers over the eastern part of this lowland. Here can be found the highest peak of the country named Pico Cristobal Colon (5775 m).[5]
Andean region[edit]
Main article: Andean Region of Colombia
Páramo of Rabanal, Boyacá.
Glaciers in Colombia.
Near the Ecuadorian frontier, the Andes Mountains divide into three distinct, roughly parallel chains, called cordilleras, that extend northeastward almost to the Caribbean Sea. Altitudes reach more than 18,700 ft (5,700 m), and mountain peaks are permanently covered with snow. The elevated basins and plateaus of these ranges have a moderate climate that provides pleasant living conditions and in many places enables farmers to harvest twice a year. Torrential rivers on the slopes of the mountains produce a large hydroelectric power potential and add their volume to the navigable rivers in the valleys. In the late 1980s, approximately 78 percent of the country's population lived in the Andean highlands.
The Cordillera Occidental in the west, the Cordillera Central in the center, and the Cordillera Oriental in the east have different characteristics. Geologically, the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central form the western and eastern sides of a massive crystalline arch that extends from the Caribbean lowlands to the southern border of Ecuador. The Cordillera Oriental, however, is composed of folded stratified rocks overlying a crystalline core.
The Cordillera Occidental is relatively low and is the least populated of the three cordilleras. Summits are only about 9,840 ft (2,999 m) above sea level and do not have permanent snows. Few passes exist, although one that is about 4,985 ft (1,519 m) above sea level provides the major city of Cali with an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. The relatively low elevation of the cordillera permits dense vegetation, which on the western slopes is truly tropical.
The Cordillera Occidental is separated from the Cordillera Central by the deep rift of the Cauca Valley. The Río Cauca rises within 124 mi (200 km) of the border with Ecuador and flows through some of the best farmland in the country. After the two cordilleras converge, the Cauca Valley becomes a deep gorge all the way to the Caribbean lowlands.
The Cordillera Central is the loftiest of the mountain systems. Its crystalline rocks form a towering wall dotted with snow-covered volcanoes that is 500 mi (805 km) long. There are no plateaus in this range and no passes under 10,825 ft (3,299 m). The highest peak in this range, the Nevado del Huila, reaches 17,602 ft (5,365 m) above sea level. The second highest peak is a volcano, Nevado del Ruiz, which erupted violently on November 13, 1985. Toward its northern end, this cordillera separates into several branches that descend toward the Caribbean coast.
Between the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Oriental flows the Magdalena River. This 1,600-kilometer (994 mi)-long river rises near a point some 180 km (112 mi) north of the border with Ecuador, where the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central diverge. Its spacious drainage area is fed by numerous mountain torrents originating high in the snowfields. The Magdalena River is generally navigable from the Caribbean Sea as far as the town of Neiva, deep in the interior, but is interrupted midway by rapids. The valley floor is very deep; nearly 800 km (497 mi) from the river's mouth the elevation is no more than about 300 meters (984 ft).
In the Cordillera Oriental at elevations between 2,500 and 2,700 meters (8,202 and 8,858 ft), three large fertile basins and a number of small ones provide suitable areas for settlement and intensive economic production. In the basin of Cundinamarca, where the Spanish found the Chibcha Indians, the European invaders established the town of Santa Fe de Bogotá (present-day Bogotá) at an elevation of 2,650 meters (8,694 ft) above sea level.
To the north of Bogotá, in the densely populated basins of Chiquinquirá and Boyacá, are fertile fields, rich mines, and large industrial establishments that produce much of the national wealth. Still farther north, where the Cordillera Oriental makes an abrupt turn to the northwest near the border with Venezuela, the highest point of this range, the Sierra Nevada de Cocuy, rises to 5,493 meters (18,022 ft) above sea level. In the department of Santander, the valleys on the western slopes are more spacious, and agriculture is intensive in the area around Bucaramanga. The northernmost region of the range around Cúcuta is so rugged that historically it has been easier to maintain communications and transportation with Venezuela than with the adjacent parts of Colombia.
Caribbean region[edit]
Main articles: Caribbean Region of Colombia and Caribbean Natural Region, Colombia
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, the highest standing mountain by the sea.
The Caribbean lowlands consist of all of Colombia north of an imaginary line extending northeastward from the Golfo de Urabá to the Venezuelan frontier at the northern extremity of the Cordillera Oriental. The semiarid Guajira Peninsula and Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub, in the extreme north, bear little resemblance to the rest of the region. In the southern part rises the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, an isolated mountain system with peaks reaching heights over 5,700 meters (18,701 ft) and slopes generally too steep for cultivation.
The Caribbean lowlands region is in roughly the shape of a triangle, the longest side of which is the coastline. Most of the country's commerce moves through Cartagena, Barranquilla, Santa Marta, and the other ports located along this important coast. Inland from these cities are swamps, hidden streams, and shallow lakes that support banana and cotton plantations, countless small farms, and, in higher places, cattle ranches.
The city of Cartagena is a petrochemical, seaport(#1 in the country) and tourist city(#1 in the country). Santa Marta is also a seaport and tourist city but is a smaller-scale city by comparison. Barranquilla is located some 25 miles (40 km) from the Caribbean coastline but it is a more developed city with a greater number of industries and commercial places, widely known for its abilities in all forms of metalwork and construction . Its inhabitants have the highest education level of the region and the city is famous for being the starting point and focus of the region and the country's development as the first city in the country with the use of phones, public lighting, air mail, planes and industrial works.
The Caribbean region merges next to and is connected with the Andean highlands through the two great river valleys. After the Andean highlands, it is the second most important region in economic activity. Approximately 17% of the country's population lived in this region in the late 1980s.
The region also includes the peninsular archipelago of San Andres Island and the Insular Territories of Colombia, which are disputed in part by Nicaragua. However, the Colombian Navy protects such territories with the use of force when necessary to avoid foreign invasion and the islands are home to 2 important bases for defense and custom controls, formerly used for research of classified projects with civilian assistance as the local universities often research in the area of oceanography and marine biology but also in the fields of biochemistry, genetics, immunology and Colombia is known for its advances in medical fields in experimental surgery, breast implant development or prosthetics and immunology and these facilities serve as containment and secure experimentation labs to complement those in Barranquilla and other undisclosed locations within the coast territories.
The Insular Region is considered by some as a geopolitical region of Colombia which comprises the areas outside the continental territories of Colombia and includes the San Andrés y Providencia Department in the Caribbean sea and the Malpelo and Gorgona Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Insular region subregions include other group of islands;
Archipiélago de San Bernardo (in the Morrosquillo Gulf, Caribbean).
Islas del Rosario (Caribbean)
Isla Fuerte (Caribbean)
Isla Barú (Caribbean)
Isla Tortuguilla (Caribbean)
Isla Tierra Bomba (Caribbean)
Pacific region[edit]
Main article: Pacific Region of Colombia
The western third of the country is the most geographically complex. Starting at the shore of the Pacific Ocean in the west and moving eastward at a latitude of 5 degrees north, a diverse sequence of features is encountered. In the extreme west are the very narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, which are backed by the Serranía de Baudó, the lowest and narrowest of Colombia's mountain ranges. Next is the broad region of the Río Atrato/Río San Juan lowland, which has been proposed as a possible alternate to the Panama Canal as a human-made route between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Colombia occupies most of the Andes mountain range northern extremity sharing a bit with Venezuela which splits into three branches between the Colombia-Ecuador border.
In the 1980s, only 3% of all Colombians resided in the Pacific lowlands, a region of jungle and swamp with considerable but little-exploited potential in minerals and other resources. Buenaventura is the only port of any size on the coast. On the east, the Pacific lowlands are bounded by the Cordillera Occidental, from which numerous streams run. Most of the streams flow westward to the Pacific, but the largest, the navigable Río Atrato, flows northward to the Golfo de Urabá, making the river settlements accessible to the major Atlantic ports and commercially related primarily to the Caribbean lowlands hinterland. To the west of the Río Atrato rises the Serranía de Baudó, an isolated chain of low mountains that occupies a large part of the region. Its highest elevation is less than 1,800 meters, and its vegetation resembles that of the surrounding tropical forest.
The Atrato Swamp—in Chocó Department adjoining the border with Panama—is a deep muck sixty-five kilometers in width that for years has challenged engineers seeking to complete the Pan-American Highway. This stretch, near Turbo, where the highway is interrupted is known as the Tapón del Chocó (Chocon Plug). A second major transportation project involving Chocó Department has been proposed. A second interoceanic canal would be constructed by dredging the Río Atrato and other streams and digging short access canals. Completion of either of these projects would do much to transform this region, although it could have devastating consequences on the fragile environment.
Orinoquía region[edit]
Main article: Orinoquía Region of Colombia
The area east of the Andes includes about 699,300 square kilometers or three-fifths of the country's total area, but Colombians view it almost as an alien land. The entire area, known as the eastern plains, was home to only 2% of the country's population in the late 1980s. The Spanish term for plains (llanos) can be applied only to the open plains in the northern part, particularly the Piedmont areas near the Cordillera Oriental, where extensive cattle raising is practiced.
The region is unbroken by highlands except in Meta Department, where the Serranía de la Macarena, an outlier of the Andes has unique vegetation and wildlife believed to be reminiscent of those that once existed throughout the Andes.
Amazon region[edit]
Main article: Amazon Region of Colombia
Many of the numerous large rivers of eastern Colombia are navigable. The Río Guaviare and the streams to its north flow eastward and drain into the basin of the Río Orinoco, a river that crosses into Venezuela and flows into the Atlantic Ocean. Those south of the Río Guaviare flows into the Amazon Basin. The Río Guaviare divides eastern Colombia into the llanos subregion in the north and the tropical rainforest, or selva, subregion in the south.
Climate[edit]
Main article: Climate of Colombia
Colombia map of Köppen climate classification.
Flooding in Colombia, April 2004
The striking variety in temperature and precipitation results principally from differences in elevation. Temperatures range from very hot at sea level to relatively cold at higher elevations but vary little with the season. At Bogotá, for example, the average annual temperature is 15 °C (59 °F), and the difference between the average of the coldest and the warmest months is less than 1 °C (1.8 °F). More significant, however, is the daily variation in temperature, from 5 °C (41 °F) at night to 17 °C (62.6 °F) during the day.
Colombians customarily describe their country in terms of the climatic zones: the area under 900 meters (2,953 ft) in elevation is called the hot zone (tierra caliente), elevations between 900 and 1,980 meters (2,953 and 6,496 ft) are the temperate zone (tierra templada), and elevations from 1,980 meters (6,496 ft) to about 3,500 meters (11,483 ft) constitute the cold zone (tierra fría). The upper limit of the cold zone marks the tree line and the approximate limit of human habitation. The treeless regions adjacent to the cold zone and extending to approximately 4,500 meters (14,764 ft) are high, bleak areas (usually referred to as the páramos), above which begins the area of permanent snow (nevado).
About 86% of the country's total area lies in the hot zone. Included in the hot zone and interrupting the temperate area of the Andean highlands are the long and narrow extension of the Magdalena Valley and a small extension in the Cauca Valley. Temperatures, depending on elevation, vary between 24 and 38 °C (75.2 and 100.4 °F), and there are alternating dry and wet seasons corresponding to summer and winter, respectively. Breezes on the Caribbean coast, however, reduce both heat and precipitation.
Rainfall in the hot zone is heaviest in the Pacific lowlands and in parts of eastern Colombia, where rain is almost a daily occurrence and rain forests predominate. Precipitation exceeds 7,600 millimeters (299.2 in) annually in most of the Pacific lowlands, making this one of the wettest regions in the world. The highest average annual precipitation in the world is estimated to be in Lloro, Colombia, with 13,299 mm (523.6 in).[6] In eastern Colombia, it decreases from 6,350 millimeters (250 in) in portions of the Andean piedmont to 2,540 millimeters (100 in) eastward. Extensive areas of the Caribbean interior are permanently flooded, more because of poor drainage than because of the moderately heavy precipitation during the rainy season from May through October.
The temperate zone covers about 8% of the country. This zone includes the lower slopes of the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central and most of the intermontane valleys. The important cities of Medellín (1,487 meters or 4,879 feet) and Cali (1,030 meters or 3,379 feet) are located in this zone, where rainfall is moderate and the mean annual temperature varies between 19 and 24 °C (66.2 and 75.2 °F), depending on the elevation. In the higher elevations of this zone, farmers benefit from two wet and two dry seasons each year; January through March and July through September are the dry seasons.
The Atrato River.
The cold or cool zone constitutes about 6% of the total area, including some of the most densely populated plateaus and terraces of the Colombian Andes; this zone supports about onefourth of the country's total population. The mean temperature ranges between 10 and 19 °C (50.0 and 66.2 °F), and the wet seasons occur in April and May and from September to December, as in the high elevations of the temperate zone.
Precipitation is moderate to heavy in most parts of the country; the heavier rainfall occurs in the low-lying hot zone. Considerable variations occur because of local conditions that affect wind currents, however, and areas on the leeward side of the Guajira Peninsula receive generally light rainfall; the annual rainfall of 350 millimeters (13.8 in) recorded at the Uribia station there is the lowest in Colombia. Considerable year-to-year variations have been recorded, and Colombia sometimes experiences droughts.
Colombia's geographic and climatic variations have combined to produce relatively well-defined "ethnocultural" groups among different regions of the country: the Costeño from the Caribbean coast; the Caucano in the Cauca region and the Pacific coast; the Antioqueño in Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca departments; the Tolimense in Tolima and Huila departments; the Cundiboyacense in the interior departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá in the Cordillera Oriental; the Santandereano in Norte de Santander and Santander departments; and the Llanero in the eastern plains. Each group has distinctive characteristics, accents, customs, social patterns, and forms of cultural adaptation to climate and topography that differentiates it from other groups. Even with rapid urbanization and modernization, regionalism and regional identification continued to be important reference points, although they were somewhat less prominent in the 1980s than in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Colombia's proximity to the equator influences its climates. The lowland areas are continuously hot. Altitude affects temperature greatly. Temperatures decrease about 3.5 °F (1.9 °C) for every 1,000-foot (305 m) increase in altitude above sea level. Rainfall varies by location in Colombia, tending to increase as one travels southward. This is especially true in the eastern lowlands. For example, rainfall in parts of the Guajira Peninsula seldom exceeds 30 in (762 mm) per year. Colombia's rainy southeast, however, is often drenched by more than 200 in (5,080 mm) of rain per year. Rainfall in most of the rest of the country runs between these two extremes.
Vegetation[edit]
See also: Fauna of Colombia and Flora of Colombia
Altitude affects not only temperature, but also vegetation. In fact, altitude is one of the most important influences on vegetation patterns in Colombia. The mountainous parts of the country can be divided into several vegetation zones according to altitude, although the altitude limits of each zone may vary somewhat depending on the latitude.
The "tierra caliente" (hot land), below 1,000 m (3,300 ft), is the zone of tropical crops such as bananas. The tierra templada (temperate land), extending from an altitude of 1,000 to 2,000 m (3,300 to 6,600 ft), is the zone of coffee and maize. Wheat and potatoes dominate in the "tierra fría" (cold land), at altitudes from 2,000 to 3,200 m (6,600 to 10,500 ft). In the "zona forestada" (forested zone), which is located between 3,200 and 4,000 m (10,500 and 13,100 ft), many of the trees have been cut for firewood. Treeless pastures dominate the páramos, or alpine grasslands, at altitudes of 4,000 to 4,500 m (13,100 to 14,800 ft). Above 4,500 m (14,800 ft), where temperatures are below freezing, is the "tierra helada", a zone of permanent snow and ice.
Vegetation also responds to rainfall patterns. A scrub woodland of scattered trees and bushes dominates the semiarid northeast. To the south, savannah (tropical grassland) vegetation covers the Colombian portion of the llanos. The rainy areas in the southeast are blanketed by tropical rainforest. In the mountains, the spotty patterns of precipitation in alpine areas complicate vegetation patterns. The rainy side of a mountain may be lush and green, while the other side, in the rain shadow, may be parched.
Relief[edit]
Relief map of Colombia
The Andean range is located in Colombia from the southwest (Ecuador border) toward the northeast (Venezuela border) and is divided in the Colombian Massif (Macizo Colombiano) in three ranges (East Andes, Central Andes and West Andes) that form two long valleys, Magdalena and Cauca follow by the rivers of the same name.
The eastern half of Colombia, comprising more than half its territory, is plain and composed by savanna and rainforest, crossed by rivers belonging to the Amazon and Orinoco basins. The northern part, called "Los Llanos" is a savanna region, mostly in the Orinoco basin (therefore called also Orinoquía). The southern part is covered by the Amazon rain forest and belongs mostly to the Amazon basin. It is usually called Amazonía.
At the north and west of the Andes range there are some coastal plains. The Caribbean plains at the north and the Pacific plains at the west.
Colombian Pacific Plains are among the most rainy parts in the world, chiefly at the north (Chocó).
The highest mountain in Colombia is not in the Andes but in the Caribbean plain: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta with its highest points named Pico Cristobal Colon (5775 m) and Pico Simon Bolivar (same elevation). Other mountains in the Caribbean plain include the Montes de María and the Serranía de San Lucas.
In the Pacific Plains there are other mountain formations, chiefly the Serranía del Darién and the Serranía del Baudó.
In the eastern Region, there is the Serranía de la Macarena and there are formations belonging to the Guyana Shield.
Protected areas[edit]
Main article: List of national parks of Colombia
National natural parks of Colombia.
Natural resources[edit]
Main article: Natural resources of Colombia
The natural resources of Colombia are varied and extensive with most of its territory and oceans still unexplored. Colombia has one of the largest open pit coal mines in the world in the region of Cerrejon in the Guajira Peninsula. It also has oil rigs and natural gas extraction in the eastern plains. Colombia is the main producer of emeralds and an important participant in gold, silver, iron, salt, platinum, petroleum, nickel, copper, hydropower and uranium extraction.[7]
Environmental issues[edit]
Main article: Environmental issues in Colombia
Land use map of Colombia, 1970.
Economic activity map of Colombia, 1970.
The main environmental issues affecting Colombia are deforestation; soil and water quality damage from overuse of pesticides; air pollution, especially in Bogota, from vehicle emissions and other main cities. The collateral damaged produced by attacks against oil pipeline infrastructure by rebel guerrillas in the Colombian armed conflict has produced long term damage to the environment. The armed groups also deforest large areas to cultivate illegal crops and open unauthorized highways in protected areas.
Extreme points[edit]
Main article: Extreme points of Colombia
Highest points
Snowfields and glaciers in Colombia are limited to the highest peaks and ranges in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental and above the 4,700-meter elevation on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The total area of snowfields and glaciers was estimated to be about 104 square kilometers in the early 1970s.
Historical, geographical, and pictorial records point toward a consistent and progressive depletion of ice-and-snow masses in the Colombian Andes since the end of the "Little Ice Age" in the late 1800s. Many glaciers have disappeared during the 20th century, and others are expected to disappear in the coming decades.[8]
Facts[edit]
Land boundaries: total: 6,6724 km
Coastline: 3,208 km (Caribbean Sea 1,760 km, North Pacific Ocean 1,448 km)
Climate: tropical along coast and eastern plains; cooler in highlands
Terrain: flat coastal lowlands, central highlands, high Andes Mountains, eastern lowland plains
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: Pico Cristobal Colon 5,975 m note: nearby Pico Simon Bolivar also has the same elevation
Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, nickel, gold, copper, emeralds, hydropower
Land use: arable land: 1.43% permanent crops: 1.68% other: 96.89% (2012)
Irrigated land: 10,870 km² (2011)
Total renewable water resources: 2,132 km3 (2011)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): total: 12.65 km3 (55%/4%/41%) per capita: 308 m3/yr (2010)
Natural hazards: highlands subject to volcanic eruptions; occasional earthquakes; periodic droughts
Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
Hydrology[edit]
See also: List of rivers in Colombia
Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin.
The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.
Caribbean Drain
Pacifice Drain
Orinoco Basin
Amazon Basin
Rivers confined to Colombia[edit]
Atrato
Cauca
Magdalena
Nechí
Sinú
Baudó
Patía
San Juan
Guaviare
Inírida
Meta
Vichada
Apaporis
Caguán
Rivers originating in Colombia[edit]
Catatumbo
Arauca
Caquetá
Guainía
Putumayo River
Vaupés
Lakes[edit]
The mouth of the Magdalena River and the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta.
Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta
La Cocha Lagoon
Lake Tota
See also[edit]
Environmental issues in Colombia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Republic of Colombia shares land borders with five (5) countries". cancilleria.gov.co.
Jump up ^ "Maritime borders". cancilleria.gov.co.
Jump up ^ (in Spanish) UNAL: History of the Colombian current territory[permanent dead link] UNAL Accessed 23 August 2007.
Jump up ^ DANE: 2005 Census of Colombia - total area Archived 2013-04-03 at the Wayback Machine. dane.gov.co Accessed 23 August 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "Travel map of the Andes". Nelles Map. Retrieved 2011-01-10.
Jump up ^ Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation. National Climatic Data Center. August 9, 2005. Last accessed January 18, 2007.
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Encarta: Natural Resources of Colombia Encyclopedia Encarta Accessed 24 August 2007. Archived 2009-11-01 at WebCite 2009-10-31.
Jump up ^ USGS: Glaciers of Colombia USGS Accessed 23 August 2007.
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook website https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html.
Mellander, Gustavo A.; Nelly Maldonado Mellander (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama Years. Río Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza Mayor. ISBN 1-56328-155-4. OCLC 42970390.
Mellander, Gustavo A. (1971). The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years. Danville, Ill.: Interstate Publishers. OCLC 138568.
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