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Theodore Roosevelt
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For other people named Theodore Roosevelt, see Theodore Roosevelt (disambiguation).
Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt around 1904
26th President of the United States
In office
September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1909
Vice President
None (1901–1905)
Charles W. Fairbanks
(1905–1909)
Preceded by
William McKinley
Succeeded by
William Howard Taft
25th Vice President of the United States
In office
March 4, 1901 – September 14, 1901
President
William McKinley
Preceded by
Garret Hobart
Succeeded by
Charles W. Fairbanks
33rd Governor of New York
In office
January 1, 1899 – December 31, 1900
Lieutenant
Timothy L. Woodruff
Preceded by
Frank S. Black
Succeeded by
Benjamin Barker Odell Jr.
Assistant Secretary of the Navy
In office
April 19, 1897 – May 10, 1898
President
William McKinley
Preceded by
William McAdoo
Succeeded by
Charles Herbert Allen
President of the New York City Board of Police Commissioners
In office
1895–1897
Preceded by
James J. Martin
Succeeded by
Frank Moss
New York State Assembly Minority Leader
In office
January 1, 1883 – December 31, 1883
Preceded by
Thomas G. Alvord
Succeeded by
Frank Rice
Member of the New York State Assembly
from the Manhattan 21st district
In office
January 1, 1882 – December 31, 1884
Preceded by
William J. Trimble
Succeeded by
Henry A. Barnum
Personal details
Born
Theodore Roosevelt Jr.
(1858-10-27)October 27, 1858
New York City, New York, U.S.
Died
January 6, 1919(1919-01-06) (aged 60)
Oyster Bay, New York, U.S.
Cause of death
Pulmonary embolism
Resting place
Youngs Memorial Cemetery, Oyster Bay, New York, U.S.
Political party
Republican (1880–1911; 1916–1919)
Other political
affiliations
Progressive "Bull Moose" (1912–1916)
Spouse(s)
Alice Lee
(m. 1880; d. 1884)
Edith Carow
(m. 1886)
Relations
See Roosevelt family
Children
Alice, Theodore III, Kermit, Ethel, Archibald, and Quentin
Parents
Theodore Roosevelt Sr.
Martha Stewart Bulloch
Education
Harvard University (A.B.)
Columbia Law School (J.D.)
Profession
Author
Conservationist
Explorer
Historian
Naturalist
Politician
Soldier
Awards
Nobel Peace Prize (1906)
Signature
Military career
Allegiance
United States of America
Service/branch
United States Army
New York Army National Guard
Years of service
1882–1886, 1898
Rank
Colonel
Commands held
1st United States Volunteer Cavalry
Battles/wars
Spanish–American War
• Battle of Las Guasimas
• Battle of San Juan Hill
Awards
Medal of Honor
(Posthumously; 2001)
This article is part of
a series about
Theodore Roosevelt
Political positions
Electoral history
Early life
Family
The Naval War of 1812
Rough Riders
Battle of San Juan Hill
Governor of New York
Governorship
"The Strenuous Life"
Vice President of the United States
1900 McKinley-Roosevelt campaign
"Speak softly and carry a big stick"
President of the United States
Presidency
First term
McKinley assassination
1st inauguration
Square Deal
West Wing
Coal strike
Booker T. Washington dinner
Venezuela crisis
Roosevelt Corollary
Second term
1904 campaign
Election
2nd inauguration
Conservation
Antiquities Act
Forest Service
Pure Food and Drug Act
FDA
Swift & Co. v. United States
Meat Inspection Act
Treaty of Portsmouth
Nobel Prize
FBI
Panama Canal
Great White Fleet
1912 election
Republican Convention
Progressive Party
Convention
New Nationalism
Assassination attempt
Post Presidency
African Expedition
River of Doubt Expedition
"Citizenship in a Republic"
WWI volunteers
Legacy
Memorials
v
t
e
Theodore Roosevelt Jr. (/ˈroʊzəvɛlt/ ROH-zə-velt;[a] October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919) was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, and naturalist, who served as the 26th President of the United States from 1901 to 1909. He also served as the 25th Vice President of the United States from March to September 1901 and as the 33rd Governor of New York from 1899 to 1900. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a driving force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. His face is depicted on Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln.
Roosevelt was born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, but he successfully overcame his physical health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle. He integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a "cowboy" persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College. His book, The Naval War of 1812 (1882), established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the reform faction of Republicans in New York's state legislature. Following the near-simultaneous deaths of his wife and mother, he escaped to a cattle ranch in the Dakotas. Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President William McKinley, but resigned from that post to lead the Rough Riders during the Spanish–American War. Returning a war hero, he was elected Governor of New York in 1898. After the death of Vice President Garret Hobart, the New York state party leadership convinced McKinley to accept Roosevelt as his running mate in the 1900 election, moving Roosevelt to the prestigious but powerless role of vice president. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously and the McKinley-Roosevelt ticket won a landslide victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity, and conservatism.
Following McKinley's assassination in September 1901, Roosevelt became president at age 42, and remains the youngest president. As a leader of the Progressive movement, he championed his "Square Deal" domestic policies, promising the average citizen fairness, breaking of trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. Making conservation a top priority, he established many new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nation's natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal. He expanded the Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States' naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to broker the end of the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. He avoided the controversial tariff and money issues. Elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, and Taft won the 1908 presidential election to succeed him. In polls of historians and political scientists, Roosevelt is generally ranked as one of the five best presidents.[2]
Frustrated with Taft's conservatism, Roosevelt belatedly tried to win the 1912 Republican nomination. He failed, walked out, and founded a third party, the Progressive, so-called "Bull Moose" Party, which called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split allowed the Democrats to win the White House. Following his election defeat, Roosevelt led a two-year expedition to the Amazon basin, where he nearly died of tropical disease. During World War I, he criticized President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war with Germany, and his offer to lead volunteers to France was rejected. Though he had considered running for president again in 1920, Roosevelt's health continued to deteriorate, and he died in 1919.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life and family
2 Education
3 Naval history and strategy
4 First marriage and widowerhood
5 Early political career
5.1 State Assemblyman
5.2 Presidential election of 1884
6 Cowboy in Dakota
7 Second marriage
8 Reentering public life
8.1 Civil Service Commission
8.2 New York City Police Commissioner
9 Emergence as a national figure
9.1 Assistant Secretary of the Navy
9.2 War in Cuba
9.3 Governor of New York
9.4 Vice President
10 Presidency (1901–1909)
10.1 Domestic policies
10.1.1 Trust busting and regulation
10.1.2 Coal strike
10.1.3 Prosecuted misconduct
10.1.4 Railroads
10.1.5 Pure food and drugs
10.1.6 Conservation
10.2 Foreign policy
10.2.1 Latin America and Panama Canal
10.3 Media
10.4 Election of 1904
10.5 Second-term troubles
11 Post-presidency
11.1 Election of 1908
11.2 Africa and Europe (1909–1910)
11.3 Republican Party schism
11.4 Election of 1912
11.4.1 Republican primaries and convention
11.4.2 The Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party
11.4.3 Assassination attempt
11.4.4 Election results
11.5 1913–1914 South American Expedition
12 Final years
13 Death
14 Writer
15 Character and beliefs
16 Political positions
17 Legacy
17.1 Persona and masculinity
18 Memorials and cultural depictions
19 Media
20 See also
21 Notes
22 References
23 Bibliography
23.1 Full biographies
23.2 Personality and activities
23.3 Domestic policies
23.4 Politics
23.5 Foreign and military policies
23.6 Historiography
23.7 Primary sources
24 External links
24.1 Official
24.2 Organizations
24.3 Libraries and collections
24.4 Media
24.5 Other
Early life and family
Theodore Roosevelt at age 11
Roosevelt's coat of arms, featuring a rose bush in reference to the name: "Roosevelt", which is Dutch for "rose field"[3]
Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27, 1858, at East 20th Street in New York City.[4] He was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart "Mittie" Bulloch and businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr. He had an older sister, Anna (nicknamed "Bamie"), a younger brother, Elliott, and a younger sister, Corinne. Elliott was later the father of First Lady Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, the wife of Theodore's distant cousin, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. His paternal grandfather was of Dutch descent;[5] his other ancestry included primarily Scottish and Scots-Irish, English[6] and smaller amounts of German, Welsh, and French.[7] Theodore Sr. was the fifth son of businessman Cornelius Van Schaack "C.V.S." Roosevelt and Margaret Barnhill. Theodore's fourth cousin, James Roosevelt I, who was also a businessman, was the father of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Mittie was the younger daughter of Major James Stephens Bulloch and Martha P. "Patsy" Stewart.[8] Through the Van Schaacks, Roosevelt was a descendant of the Schuyler family.[9]
Roosevelt's youth was largely shaped by his poor health and debilitating asthma. He repeatedly experienced sudden nighttime asthma attacks that caused the experience of being smothered to death, which terrified both Theodore and his parents. Doctors had no cure.[10] Nevertheless, he was energetic and mischievously inquisitive.[11] His lifelong interest in zoology began at age seven when he saw a dead seal at a local market; after obtaining the seal's head, Roosevelt and two cousins formed what they called the "Roosevelt Museum of Natural History". Having learned the rudiments of taxidermy, he filled his makeshift museum with animals that he killed or caught; he then studied the animals and prepared them for display. At age nine, he recorded his observation of insects in a paper entitled "The Natural History of Insects".[12]
Roosevelt's father significantly influenced him. His father was a prominent leader in New York's cultural affairs; he helped to found the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and had been especially active in mobilizing support for the Union during the Civil War, even though his in-laws included Confederate leaders. Roosevelt said, "My father, Theodore Roosevelt, was the best man I ever knew. He combined strength and courage with gentleness, tenderness, and great unselfishness. He would not tolerate in us children selfishness or cruelty, idleness, cowardice, or untruthfulness." Family trips abroad, including tours of Europe in 1869 and 1870, and Egypt in 1872, shaped his cosmopolitan perspective.[13] Hiking with his family in the Alps in 1869, Roosevelt found that he could keep pace with his father. He had discovered the significant benefits of physical exertion to minimize his asthma and bolster his spirits.[14] Roosevelt began a heavy regime of exercise. After being manhandled by two older boys on a camping trip, he found a boxing coach to teach him to fight and strengthen his weakened body.[15][16]
Roosevelt was minimally religious. He grew up in the Dutch Reformed Church, and gradually switched to attending his wife's Episcopalian church. Biographer Edmund Morris states:
When consoling bereaved people, he would awkwardly invoke 'unseen and unknown powers.' Aside from a few clichés of Protestant rhetoric, the gospel he preached had always been political and pragmatic. He was inspired less by the Passion of Christ than by the Golden Rule – that appeal to reason amounting, in his mind, to a worldly rather than heavenly law.[17]
Education
Roosevelt's taxidermy kit[18]
Roosevelt was mostly home schooled by tutors and his parents. Biographer H. W. Brands argued that "The most obvious drawback to his home schooling was uneven coverage of the various areas of human knowledge".[19] He was solid in geography and bright in history, biology, French, and German; however, he struggled in mathematics and the classical languages. When he entered Harvard College on September 27, 1876; his father advised: "Take care of your morals first, your health next, and finally your studies."[20] His father's sudden death on February 9, 1878, devastated Roosevelt, but he eventually recovered and doubled his activities.[21] He did well in science, philosophy, and rhetoric courses but continued to struggle in Latin and Greek. He studied biology intently and was already an accomplished naturalist and a published ornithologist; he read prodigiously with an almost photographic memory.[22] While at Harvard, Roosevelt participated in rowing and boxing; he was once runner-up in a Harvard boxing tournament.[23] Roosevelt was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi literary society, the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, and the prestigious Porcellian Club; he was also an editor of The Harvard Advocate. In 1880, Roosevelt graduated Phi Beta Kappa (22nd of 177) from Harvard with an A.B. magna cum laude. Biographer Henry Pringle states:
Roosevelt, attempting to analyze his college career and weigh the benefits he had received, felt that he had obtained little from Harvard. He had been depressed by the formalistic treatment of many subjects, by the rigidity, the attention to minutiae that were important in themselves, but which somehow were never linked up with the whole.[24]
After his father's death, Roosevelt had inherited $125,000, enough to live comfortably for the rest of his life. Roosevelt gave up his earlier plan of studying natural science and instead decided to attend Columbia Law School, moving back into his family's home in New York City. Roosevelt was an able law student, but he often found law to be irrational; he spent much of his time writing a book on the War of 1812. Determined to enter politics, Roosevelt began attending meetings at Morton Hall, the 59th Street headquarters of New York's 21st District Republican Association. Though Roosevelt's father had been a prominent member of the Republican Party, the younger Roosevelt made an unorthodox career choice for someone of his class, as most of Roosevelt's peers refrained from becoming too closely involved in politics. Nonetheless, Roosevelt found allies in the local Republican Party, and he defeated an incumbent Republican state assemblyman closely tied to the political machine of Senator Roscoe Conkling. After his election victory, Roosevelt decided to drop out of law school, later saying, "I intended to be one of the governing class."[25]
Naval history and strategy
While at Harvard, Roosevelt began a systematic study of the role played by the young United States Navy in the War of 1812.[26][27] Assisted by two uncles, he scrutinized original source materials and official U.S. Navy records. Roosevelt's carefully researched book, published in 1882, remains one of the most important scholarly studies of the war, complete with drawings of individual and combined ship maneuvers, charts depicting the differences in iron throw weights of cannon shot between rival forces, and analyses of the differences between British and American leadership down to the ship-to-ship level. Published in 1882, The Naval War of 1812 was praised for its scholarship and style, and it showed Roosevelt to be a scholar of history. It remains a standard study of the war.[28]
With the publication of The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783 in 1890, Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was immediately hailed as the world's outstanding naval theorist by the leaders of Europe. Roosevelt paid very close attention to Mahan's emphasis that only a nation with the world's most powerful fleet could dominate the world's oceans, exert its diplomacy to the fullest, and defend its own borders.[29][30] He incorporated Mahan's ideas into his views on naval strategy for the remainder of his career.[31][32]
First marriage and widowerhood
On his 22nd birthday in 1880, Roosevelt married socialite Alice Hathaway Lee.[33][34] Their daughter, Alice Lee Roosevelt, was born on February 12, 1884. Two days after giving birth, Roosevelt's wife died due to an undiagnosed case of kidney failure (called Bright's disease at the time), which had been masked by the pregnancy. In his diary, Roosevelt wrote a large 'X' on the page and then, "The light has gone out of my life." His mother, Mittie, had died of typhoid fever eleven hours earlier at 3:00 a.m., in the same house. Distraught, Roosevelt left baby Alice in the care of his sister Bamie in New York City while he grieved. He assumed custody of his daughter when she was three.[35]
After the death of his wife and mother, Roosevelt focused on his work, specifically by re-energizing a legislative investigation into corruption of the New York City government, which arose from a concurrent bill proposing that power be centralized in the mayor's office.[36] For the rest of his life, he rarely spoke about his wife Alice and did not write about her in his autobiography. While working with Joseph Bucklin Bishop on a biography that included a collection of his letters, Roosevelt did not mention his marriage to Alice nor his second marriage to Edith Kermit Carow.[37]
Early political career
Roosevelt as NY State Assemblyman, 1883
State Assemblyman
Roosevelt was a member of the New York State Assembly (New York Co., 21st D.) in 1882, 1883 and 1884. He immediately began making his mark, specifically in corporate corruption issues.[38] He blocked a corrupt effort by financier Jay Gould to lower his taxes. Roosevelt exposed suspected collusion in the matter by Judge Theodore Westbrook, and argued for and received approval for an investigation to proceed, aiming for the impeachment of the judge. The investigation committee rejected impeachment, but Roosevelt had exposed the potential corruption in Albany, and thus assumed a high and positive political profile in multiple New York publications.[39] Roosevelt's anti-corruption efforts helped him win re-election in 1882 by a margin greater than two-to-one, an achievement made even more impressive by the fact that Democratic gubernatorial candidate Grover Cleveland won Roosevelt's district.[40] With Conkling's Stalwart faction of the Republican Party in disarray following the assassination of President James Garfield, Roosevelt won election as the Republican party leader in the state assembly. He allied with Governor Cleveland to win passage of a civil service reform bill.[41] Roosevelt won re-election a second time, and sought the office of Speaker of the New York State Assembly, but was defeated by Titus Sheard in a 41 to 29 vote of the GOP caucus.[42][43] In his final term, Roosevelt served as Chairman of the Committee on Affairs of Cities; he wrote more bills than any other legislator.[44]
Presidential election of 1884
With numerous presidential hopefuls to choose from, Roosevelt supported Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont, a colorless reformer. The state GOP preferred the incumbent president, New York City's Chester Arthur, who was known for passing the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act. Arthur, at the time, was suffering from Bright's disease, unknown to the public, and out of duty he did not contest his own nomination. Roosevelt fought hard and succeeded in influencing the Manhattan delegates at the state convention in Utica. He then took control of the state convention, bargaining through the night and outmaneuvering the supporters of Arthur and James G. Blaine; he gained a national reputation as a key person in New York State.[45]
Roosevelt attended the 1884 GOP National Convention in Chicago and gave a speech convincing delegates to nominate African American John R. Lynch, an Edmunds supporter, to be temporary chair. Roosevelt fought alongside the Mugwump reformers; however, Blaine, having gained support from Arthur's and Edmunds' delegates, won the nomination by 541 votes on the fourth ballot. In a crucial moment of his budding political career, Roosevelt resisted the demand of the Mugwumps that he bolt from Blaine. He bragged about his one small success: "We achieved a victory in getting up a combination to beat the Blaine nominee for temporary chairman... To do this needed a mixture of skill, boldness and energy... to get the different factions to come in... to defeat the common foe."[46] He was also impressed by an invitation to speak before an audience of ten thousand, the largest crowd he had addressed up to that date. Having gotten a taste of national politics, Roosevelt felt less aspiration for advocacy on the state level; he then retired to his new "Chimney Butte Ranch" on the Little Missouri River.[47] Roosevelt refused to join other Mugwumps in supporting Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York and the Democratic nominee in the general election. He debated the pros and cons of staying loyal with his political friend, Henry Cabot Lodge. After Blaine won the nomination, Roosevelt had carelessly said that he would give "hearty support to any decent Democrat". He distanced himself from the promise, saying that it had not been meant "for publication".[48] When a reporter asked if he would support Blaine, Roosevelt replied, "That question I decline to answer. It is a subject I do not care to talk about."[49] In the end, he realized that he had to support Blaine to maintain his role in the GOP, and he did so in a press release on July 19.[50] Having lost the support of many reformers, Roosevelt decided to retire from politics and move to North Dakota.[51]
Cowboy in Dakota
Theodore Roosevelt as Badlands hunter in 1885. New York studio photo.
Roosevelt moved West following the 1884 presidential election, and he built a second ranch named Elkhorn, which was thirty-five miles (56 km) north of the boomtown of Medora, North Dakota. Roosevelt learned to ride western style, rope and hunt on the banks of the Little Missouri. Though he earned the respect of the authentic cowboys, they were not overly impressed.[52] However, he identified with the herdsman of history, a man he said possesses, "few of the emasculated, milk-and-water moralities admired by the pseudo-philanthropists; but he does possess, to a very high degree, the stern, manly qualities that are invaluable to a nation".[53][54] He reoriented, and began writing about frontier life for national magazines; he also published three books – Hunting Trips of a Ranchman, Ranch Life and the Hunting-Trail, and The Wilderness Hunter.[55]
Roosevelt brought his desire to address the common interests of citizens to the west. He successfully led efforts to organize ranchers to address the problems of overgrazing and other shared concerns; his work resulted in the formation of the Little Missouri Stockmen's Association. He was also compelled to coordinate conservation efforts and was able to form the Boone and Crockett Club, whose primary goal was the conservation of large game animals and their habitats.[56] After the uniquely severe US winter of 1886–87 wiped out his herd of cattle and those of his competitors, and with it over half of his $80,000 investment, Roosevelt returned to the East.[57][58] Though his finances suffered from the experience, Roosevelt's time in the West helped remove the stigma of an ineffectual intellectual that could have hampered his political career.[59]
Second marriage
On December 2, 1886, Roosevelt married his childhood and family friend, Edith Kermit Carow.[60] Roosevelt was deeply troubled that his second marriage had taken place so soon after the death of his first wife, and he faced resistance from his sisters.[61] Nonetheless, the couple married at St George's, Hanover Square in London, England.[62] The couple had five children: Theodore "Ted" III in 1887, Kermit in 1889, Ethel in 1891, Archibald in 1894, and Quentin in 1897. The couple also raised Roosevelt's daughter from his first marriage, Alice, who often clashed with her stepmother.[63]
Reentering public life
Upon Roosevelt's return to New York in 1886, Republican leaders quickly approached him about running for mayor of New York City. Roosevelt accepted the nomination despite having little hope of winning the race against United Labor Party candidate Henry George and Democratic candidate Abram Hewitt.[64] Roosevelt campaigned hard for the position, but Hewitt won with 41% (90,552 votes), taking the votes of many Republicans who feared George's radical policies.[65][64] George was held to 31% (68,110 votes), and Roosevelt took third place with 27% (60,435 votes).[65] Fearing that his political career might never recover, Roosevelt turned his attention to writing The Winning of the West, a historical work tracking the westward movement of Americans; the book was a great success for Roosevelt, earning favorable reviews and selling numerous copies.[66]
Civil Service Commission
After Benjamin Harrison unexpectedly defeated Blaine for the presidential nomination at the 1888 Republican National Convention, Roosevelt gave stump speeches in the Midwest in support of Harrison.[67] On the insistence of Henry Cabot Lodge, President Harrison appointed Roosevelt to the United States Civil Service Commission, where he served until 1895.[68] While many of his predecessors had approached the office as a sinecure,[69] Roosevelt vigorously fought the spoilsmen and demanded enforcement of civil service laws.[70] The New York Sun then described Roosevelt as "irrepressible, belligerent, and enthusiastic".[71] Roosevelt frequently clashed with Postmaster General John Wanamaker, who handed out numerous patronage positions to Harrison supporters, and Roosevelt's attempt to force out several postal workers damaged Harrison politically.[72] Despite Roosevelt's support for Harrison's reelection bid in the presidential election of 1892, the eventual winner, Grover Cleveland, reappointed him to the same post.[73] Roosevelt's close friend and biographer, Joseph Bucklin Bishop, described his assault on the spoils system:
The very citadel of spoils politics, the hitherto impregnable fortress that had existed unshaken since it was erected on the foundation laid by Andrew Jackson, was tottering to its fall under the assaults of this audacious and irrepressible young man... Whatever may have been the feelings of the (fellow Republican party) President (Harrison)—and there is little doubt that he had no idea when he appointed Roosevelt that he would prove to be so veritable a bull in a china shop—he refused to remove him and stood by him firmly till the end of his term.[71]
New York City Police Commissioner
In 1894, a group of reform Republicans approached Roosevelt about running for Mayor of New York again; he declined, mostly due to his wife's resistance to being removed from the Washington social set. Soon after he declined, he realized that he had missed an opportunity to reinvigorate a dormant political career. He retreated to the Dakotas for a time; his wife Edith regretted her role in the decision and vowed that there would be no repeat of it.[74]
NYC Police Commissioner Roosevelt walks the beat with journalist Jacob Riis in 1894—Illustration from Riis' autobiography.
William Lafayette Strong, a reform-minded Republican, won the 1894 mayoral election and offered Roosevelt a position on the board of the New York City Police Commissioners.[67] Roosevelt became president of the board of commissioners and radically reformed the police force. Roosevelt implemented regular inspections of firearms and annual physical exams, appointed recruits based on their physical and mental qualifications rather than political affiliation, established Meritorious Service Medals, and closed corrupt police hostelries. During his tenure, a Municipal Lodging House was established by the Board of Charities, and Roosevelt required officers to register with the Board; he also had telephones installed in station houses.[75]
In 1894, Roosevelt met Jacob Riis, the muckraking Evening Sun newspaper journalist who was opening the eyes of New Yorkers to the terrible conditions of the city's millions of poor immigrants with such books as How the Other Half Lives. Riis described how his book affected Roosevelt:
When Roosevelt read [my] book, he came... No one ever helped as he did. For two years we were brothers in (New York City's crime-ridden) Mulberry Street. When he left I had seen its golden age... There is very little ease where Theodore Roosevelt leads, as we all of us found out. The lawbreaker found it out who predicted scornfully that he would "knuckle down to politics the way they all did", and lived to respect him, though he swore at him, as the one of them all who was stronger than pull... that was what made the age golden, that for the first time a moral purpose came into the street. In the light of it everything was transformed.[76]
Roosevelt made a habit of walking officers' beats late at night and early in the morning to make sure that they were on duty.[77] He made a concerted effort to uniformly enforce New York's Sunday closing law; in this, he ran up against boss Tom Platt as well as Tammany Hall—he was notified that the Police Commission was being legislated out of existence. Roosevelt chose to defer rather than split with his party.[78] As Governor of New York State, he would later sign an act replacing the Police Commission with a single Police Commissioner.[79]
Emergence as a national figure
Assistant Secretary of the Navy
In the 1896 presidential election, Roosevelt backed Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed for the Republican nomination, but William McKinley won the nomination and defeated William Jennings Bryan in the general election.[80] Roosevelt opposed Bryan's free silver platform, viewing many of Bryan's followers as dangerous fanatics, and Roosevelt gave campaign speeches for McKinley.[81] Urged by Congressman Henry Cabot Lodge, President McKinley appointed Roosevelt as the Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897.[82] Secretary of the Navy John D. Long was more concerned about formalities than functions, was in poor health, and left many major decisions to Roosevelt. Influenced by Alfred Thayer Mahan, Roosevelt called for a build-up in the country's naval strength, particularly the construction of battleships.[83] Roosevelt also began pressing his national security views regarding the Pacific and the Caribbean on McKinley, and was particularly adamant that Spain be ejected from Cuba.[84] He explained his priorities to one of the Navy's planners in late 1897:
I would regard war with Spain from two viewpoints: first, the advisability on the grounds both of humanity and self-interest of interfering on behalf of the Cubans, and of taking one more step toward the complete freeing of America from European dominion; second, the benefit done our people by giving them something to think of which is not material gain, and especially the benefit done our military forces by trying both the Navy and Army in actual practice.[85]
On February 15, 1898, the Maine exploded in the harbor of Havana, Cuba, killing hundreds of crew members. While Roosevelt and many other Americans blamed Spain for the explosion, McKinley sought a diplomatic solution.[86] Without approval from Long or McKinley, Roosevelt sent out orders to several naval vessels, directing them to prepare for war.[86][87] George Dewey, who had received an appointment to lead the Asiatic Squadron with the backing of Roosevelt, later credited his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay to Roosevelt's orders.[88] After finally giving up hope of a peaceful solution, McKinley asked Congress to declare war upon Spain, beginning the Spanish–American War.[89]
Col. Theodore Roosevelt
War in Cuba
Main article: Rough Riders
With the beginning of the Spanish–American War in late April 1898, Roosevelt resigned from his post as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. Along with Army Colonel Leonard Wood, he formed the First US Volunteer Cavalry Regiment.[90] His wife and many of his friends begged Roosevelt to remain in his post in Washignton, but Roosevelt was determined to see battle. When the newspapers reported the formation of the new regiment, Roosevelt and Wood were flooded with applications from all over the country.[91] Referred to by the press as the "Rough Riders", the regiment was one of many temporary units active only for the duration of the war.[92]
The regiment trained for several weeks in San Antonio, Texas, and in his autobiography Roosevelt wrote that his prior experience with the New York National Guard had been invaluable, in that it enabled him to immediately begin teaching his men basic soldiering skills.[93] The Rough Riders used some standard issue gear and some of their own design, purchased with gift money. Diversity characterized the regiment, which included Ivy Leaguers, professional and amateur athletes, upscale gentlemen, cowboys, frontiersmen, Native Americans, hunters, miners, prospectors, former soldiers, tradesmen, and sheriffs. The Rough Riders were part of the cavalry division commanded by former Confederate general Joseph Wheeler, which itself was one of three divisions in the V Corps under Lieutenant General William Rufus Shafter. Roosevelt and his men landed in Daiquiri, Cuba, on June 23, 1898, and marched to Siboney. Wheeler sent parts of the 1st and 10th Regular Cavalry on the lower road northwest and sent the "Rough Riders" on the parallel road running along a ridge up from the beach. To throw off his infantry rival, Wheeler left one regiment of his Cavalry Division, the 9th, at Siboney so that he could claim that his move north was only a limited reconnaissance if things went wrong. Roosevelt was promoted to colonel and took command of the regiment when Wood was put in command of the brigade. The Rough Riders had a short, minor skirmish known as the Battle of Las Guasimas; they fought their way through Spanish resistance and, together with the Regulars, forced the Spaniards to abandon their positions.[94]
Colonel Roosevelt and the Rough Riders after capturing Kettle Hill along with members of the 3rd Volunteers and the regular Army black 10th Cavalry
Under his leadership, the Rough Riders became famous for the charge up Kettle Hill on July 1, 1898, while supporting the regulars. Roosevelt had the only horse, and rode back and forth between rifle pits at the forefront of the advance up Kettle Hill, an advance that he urged despite the absence of any orders from superiors. He was forced to walk up the last part of Kettle Hill, because his horse had been entangled in barbed wire. The victories came at a cost of 200 killed and 1,000 wounded.[95]
Roosevelt commented on his role in the battles: "On the day of the big fight I had to ask my men to do a deed that European military writers consider utterly impossible of performance, that is, to attack over open ground an unshaken infantry armed with the best modern repeating rifles behind a formidable system of entrenchments. The only way to get them to do it in the way it had to be done was to lead them myself."[96]
In August, Roosevelt and other officers demanded that the soldiers be returned home. Roosevelt always recalled the Battle of Kettle Hill (part of the San Juan Heights) as "the great day of my life" and "my crowded hour". In 2001, Roosevelt was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions; he had been nominated during the war, but Army officials, annoyed at his grabbing the headlines, blocked it.[97] After returning to civilian life, Roosevelt preferred to be known as "Colonel Roosevelt" or "The Colonel", though "Teddy" remained much more popular with the public, even though Roosevelt openly despised that moniker. Men working closely with Roosevelt customarily called him "Colonel" or "Theodore".[98]
Governor of New York
After leaving Cuba in August 1898, the Rough Riders were transported to a camp at Montauk Point, Long Island, where Roosevelt and his men were briefly quarantined due to the War Department's fear of spreading yellow fever.[99] Shortly after Roosevelt's return to the United States, Republican Congressman Lemuel E. Quigg, a lieutenant of party boss Tom Platt, asked Roosevelt to run in the 1898 gubernatorial election. Platt disliked Roosevelt personally, feared that he would oppose Platt's interests in office, and was reluctant to propel Roosevelt to the forefront of national politics. But Platt also needed a strong candidate due to the unpopularity of the incumbent Republican governor, Frank S. Black, and Roosevelt agreed to become the nominee and to try not to "make war" with the Republican establishment once in office.[100] Roosevelt defeated Black in the Republican caucus by a vote of 753 to 218, and faced Democrat Augustus Van Wyck, a well-respected judge, in the general election.[101] Roosevelt campaigned vigorously on his war record, winning the election by a margin of just one percent.[102]
As governor, Roosevelt learned much about ongoing economic issues and political techniques that later proved valuable in his presidency. He was exposed to the problems of trusts, monopolies, labor relations, and conservation. Chessman argues that Roosevelt's program "rested firmly upon the concept of the square deal by a neutral state". The rules for the Square Deal were "honesty in public affairs, an equitable sharing of privilege and responsibility, and subordination of party and local concerns to the interests of the state at large".[103]
By holding twice-daily press conferences—which was an innovation—Roosevelt remained connected with his middle-class political base.[104] Roosevelt successfully pushed the Ford Franchise-Tax bill, which taxed public franchises granted by the state and controlled by corporations, declaring that "a corporation which derives its powers from the State, should pay to the State a just percentage of its earnings as a return for the privileges it enjoys".[105] He rejected "boss" Thomas C. Platt's worries that this approached Bryanite Socialism, explaining that without it, New York voters might get angry and adopt public ownership of streetcar lines and other franchises.[106]
The New York state government affected many interests, and the power to make appointments to policy-making positions was a key role for the governor. Platt insisted that he be consulted on major appointments; Roosevelt appeared to comply, but then made his own decisions. Historians marvel that Roosevelt managed to appoint so many first-rate men with Platt's approval. He even enlisted Platt's help in securing reform, such as in the spring of 1899, when Platt pressured state senators to vote for a civil service bill that the secretary of the Civil Service Reform Association called "superior to any civil service statute heretofore secured in America".[107]
Chessman argues that as governor, Roosevelt developed the principles that shaped his presidency, especially insistence upon the public responsibility of large corporations, publicity as a first remedy for trusts, regulation of railroad rates, mediation of the conflict of capital and labor, conservation of natural resources and protection of the less fortunate members of society.[103] Roosevelt sought to position himself against the excesses of large corporations on the one hand and radical movements on the other.[108]
As the chief executive of the most populous state in the union, Roosevelt was widely considered a potential future presidential candidate, and supporters such as William Allen White encouraged him to run for president.[109] Roosevelt had no interest in challenging McKinley for the Republican nomination in 1900, and was denied his preferred post of Secretary of War. As his term progressed, Roosevelt pondered a 1904 presidential run, but was uncertain about whether he should seek re-election as governor in 1900.[110]
Vice President
Main article: United States presidential election, 1900
In November 1899, Vice President Garret Hobart died of heart failure, leaving an open spot on the 1900 Republican national ticket. Though Henry Cabot Lodge and others urged him to run for vice president in 1900, Roosevelt was reluctant to take the powerless position and issued a public statement saying that he would not accept the nomination.[111] Additionally, Roosevelt was informed by President McKinley and campaign manager Mark Hanna that he was not being considered for the role of vice president due to his actions prior to the Spanish–American War. Eager to be rid of Roosevelt, Platt nonetheless began a newspaper campaign in favor of Roosevelt's nomination for the vice presidency.[112] Roosevelt attended the 1900 Republican National Convention as a state delegate and struck a bargain with Platt: Roosevelt would accept the nomination if the convention offered it to him, but would otherwise serve another term as governor. Platt asked Pennsylvania party boss Matthew Quay to lead the campaign for Roosevelt's nomination, and Quay outmaneuvered Hanna at the convention to put Roosevelt on the ticket.[113] Roosevelt won the nomination unanimously.[114]
Roosevelt proved highly energetic and an equal match for Democratic presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan's famous barnstorming style of campaigning. In a whirlwind campaign that displayed his energy to the public, Roosevelt made 480 stops in 23 states. He denounced the radicalism of Bryan, contrasting it with the heroism of the soldiers and sailors who fought and won the war against Spain. Bryan had strongly supported the war itself, but he denounced the annexation of the Philippines as imperialism, which would spoil America's innocence. Roosevelt countered that it was best for the Filipinos to have stability and the Americans to have a proud place in the world. With the nation basking in peace and prosperity, the voters gave McKinley an even larger victory than that which he had achieved in 1896.[115][116]
After the campaign, Roosevelt took office as vice president in March 1901. The office of Vice President was a powerless sinecure and did not suit Roosevelt's aggressive temperament.[117] Roosevelt's six months as Vice President were uneventful, and Roosevelt presided over the Senate for a mere four days before it adjourned.[118] On September 2, 1901, Roosevelt first publicized an aphorism that thrilled his supporters at the Minnesota State Fair: "Speak softly and carry a big stick, and you will go far."[119]
Presidency (1901–1909)
File:ROOSEVELT, Theodore-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg
BEP engraved portrait of Roosevelt as President
Main article: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt
On September 6, President McKinley was attending the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York when he was shot by Leon Czolgosz. Roosevelt was vacationing in Vermont, and traveled to Buffalo to visit McKinley in the hospital. It appeared that McKinley would recover, so Roosevelt resumed his vacation in the Adirondacks. When McKinley's condition worsened, Roosevelt began the trip to Buffalo. McKinley died on September 14, and Roosevelt was informed while he was in North Creek; he continued on to Buffalo and was sworn in at the Ansley Wilcox House.[35] As there was no formally designated order of succession for the post in the event that a president resigned, became incapacitated, or died (the Twenty-fifth Amendment would not be drafted and ratified until the 1960s), Roosevelt served his first term without a vice president. McKinley's supporters were nervous about the new president, and Hanna was particularly bitter that the man he had opposed so vigorously at the convention had succeeded McKinley. Roosevelt assured party leaders that he intended to adhere to McKinley's policies, and he retained McKinley's Cabinet. Nonetheless, Roosevelt sought to position himself as the party's undisputed leader, seeking to bolster the role of the president and position himself for the 1904 election.[120]
Shortly after taking office, Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dinner at the White House. To his dismay, this sparked a bitter, and at times vicious, reaction across the heavily segregated South. Roosevelt reacted with astonishment and protest, saying that he looked forward to many future dinners with Washington. Upon further reflection, Roosevelt wanted to ensure that this had no effect on political support in the South, and further dinner invitations to Washington were avoided;[121] their next meeting was scheduled as typical business at 10:00am instead.[122]
Domestic policies
Official White House portrait by John Singer Sargent
Trust busting and regulation
For his aggressive use of the 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act, compared to his predecessors, Roosevelt became mythologized as the "trust-buster"; but in reality he was more of a trust regulator.[123] Roosevelt viewed big business as a necessary part of the American economy, and sought only to prosecute the "bad trusts" that restrained trade and charged unfair prices.[124] He brought 44 antitrust suits, breaking up the Northern Securities Company, the largest railroad monopoly; and regulating Standard Oil, the largest oil and refinery company.[125][123] Presidents Benjamin Harrison, Grover Cleveland, and William McKinley combined prosecuted only 18 anti-trust violations under the Sherman Antitrust Act.[123]
Bolstered by his party's success in the 1902 elections, Roosevelt proposed the creation of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor, which would include the Bureau of Corporations. While Congress was receptive to Department of Commerce and Labor, it was more skeptical of the anti-trust powers that Roosevelt sought to endow within the Bureau of Corporations.[126] Roosevelt successfully appealed to the public to pressure Congress, and Congress overwhelmingly voted to pass Roosevelt's version of the bill.[127]
In a moment of frustration, House Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon commented on Roosevelt's desire for executive branch control in domestic policy-making: "That fellow at the other end of the avenue wants everything from the birth of Christ to the death of the devil." Biographer Brands states, "Even his friends occasionally wondered whether there wasn't any custom or practice too minor for him to try to regulate, update or otherwise improve."[128] In fact, Roosevelt's willingness to exercise his power included attempted rule changes in the game of football; at the Naval Academy, he sought to force retention of martial arts classes and to revise disciplinary rules. He even ordered changes made in the minting of a coin whose design he disliked, and ordered the Government Printing Office to adopt simplified spellings for a core list of 300 words, according to reformers on the Simplified Spelling Board. He was forced to rescind the latter after substantial ridicule from the press and a resolution of protest from the House of Representatives.[129]
Coal strike
Main article: Coal strike of 1902
In May 1902, anthracite coal miners went on strike, threatening a national energy shortage. After threatening the coal operators with intervention by federal troops, Roosevelt won their agreement to an arbitration of the dispute by a commission, which succeeded in stopping the strike. The accord with J.P. Morgan resulted in the miners getting more pay for fewer hours, but with no union recognition.[130][131] Roosevelt said, "My action on labor should always be considered in connection with my action as regards capital, and both are reducible to my favorite formula—a square deal for every man."[132] Roosevelt was the first president to help settle a labor dispute.[133]
Prosecuted misconduct
During Roosevelt's second year in office it was discovered there was corruption in the Indian Service, the Land Office, and the Post Office Department. Roosevelt, who had a high sense of morality and national purpose, investigated and prosecuted corrupt Indian agents who had cheated the Creeks and various tribes out of land parcels. Land fraud and speculation were found involving Oregon federal timberlands. In November 1902, Roosevelt and Secretary Ethan A. Hitchcock forced Binger Hermann, the General Land Office Commissioner, to resign office. On November 6, 1903 Francis J. Heney was appointed special prosecutor, and obtained 146 indictments involving an Oregon Land Office bribery ring. U.S. Senator John H. Mitchell was indicted for bribery to expedite illegal land patents, found guilty in July 1905, and sentenced to six months in prison.[134] More corruption was found in the Postal Department, that brought on the indictments of 44 government employees on charges of bribery and fraud.[135] Historians generally agree that Roosevelt moved "quickly and decisively" to prosecute misconduct in his administration.[136]
Railroads
Main article: Hepburn Act
Merchants complained that some railroad rates were too high. In the 1906 Hepburn Act, Roosevelt sought to give the Interstate Commerce Commission the power to regulate rates, but the Senate, led by conservative Nelson Aldrich fought back. Roosevelt worked with the Democratic Senator Benjamin Tillman to pass the bill. Roosevelt and Aldrich ultimately reached a compromise that gave the ICC the power to replace existing rates with "just-and-reasonable" maximum rates, but allowed railroads to appeal to the federal courts on what was "reasonable."[137][138] In addition to rate-setting, the Hepburn Act also granted the ICC regulatory power over pipeline fees, storage contracts, and several other aspects of railroad operations.[139]
Pure food and drugs
Roosevelt responded to public anger over the abuses in the food packing industry by pushing Congress to pass the Meat Inspection Act of 1906 and the Pure Food and Drug Act. Though conservatives initially opposed the bill, Upton Sinclair's The Jungle, published in 1906, helped galvanize support for reform.[140] The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 banned misleading labels and preservatives that contained harmful chemicals. The Pure Food and Drug Act banned food and drugs that were impure or falsely labeled from being made, sold, and shipped. Roosevelt also served as honorary president of the American School Hygiene Association from 1907 to 1908, and in 1909 he convened the first White House Conference on the Care of Dependent Children.[141]
Conservation
Main article: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt § Conservation
Of all Roosevelt's achievements, he was proudest of his work in conservation of natural resources, and extending federal protection to land and wildlife.[142] Roosevelt worked closely with Interior Secretary James Rudolph Garfield and Chief of the United States Forest Service Gifford Pinchot to enact a series of conservation programs that often met with resistance from Western members of Congress such as Charles William Fulton.[143] Nonetheless, Roosevelt established the United States Forest Service, signed into law the creation of five National Parks, and signed the 1906 Antiquities Act, under which he proclaimed 18 new U.S. National Monuments. He also established the first 51 bird reserves, four game preserves, and 150 National Forests, including Shoshone National Forest, the nation's first. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately 230,000,000 acres (930,000 km2).[144]
Roosevelt extensively used executive orders on a number of occasions to protect forest and wildlife lands during his tenure as President.[145] By the end of his second term in office, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish 150 million acres of reserved forestry land.[146] Roosevelt was unapologetic about his extensive use of executive orders to protect the environment, despite the perception in Congress that he was encroaching on too many lands.[146] Eventually, Senator Charles Fulton (R-OH) attached an amendment to an agricultural appropriations bill that effectively prevented the president from reserving any further land.[146] Before signing that bill into law, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish an additional 21 forest reserves, waiting until the last minute to sign the bill into law.[147] In total, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish 121 forest reserves in 31 states.[147] Prior to Roosevelt, only one president had issued over 200 executive orders, Grover Cleveland (253). The first 25 presidents issued a total of 1,262 executive orders. Roosevelt issued 1,081.[148]
Foreign policy
This political cartoon depicts Theodore Roosevelt's opposition to European influence in the Dominican Republic.
In the late 1890s, Roosevelt had been an ardent imperialist, and he vigorously defended the permanent acquisition of the Philippines in the 1900 election campaign. After the rebellion ended in 1901, he largely lost interest in the Philippines and Asian expansion in general, despite the contradictory opinion of his Secretary of War, William Howard Taft. As president, he primarily focused the nation's overseas ambitions on the Caribbean, especially locations that had a bearing on the defense of his pet project, the Panama Canal.[149] Roosevelt also increased the size of the navy, and by the end of his second term the United States had more battleships than any other country besides Britain.[150]
Following the Spanish–American War, Roosevelt believed that the United States had emerged as a world power, and he sought ways to assert America's newly-eminent position abroad.[151] In 1905, Roosevelt offered to mediate a treaty to end the Russo-Japanese War. The parties agreed to meet in Portsmouth, New Hampshire and they resolved the final conflict over the division of Sakhalin– Russia took the northern half, and Japan the south; Japan also dropped its demand for an indemnity.[152] Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for his successful efforts in bringing about the Treaty of Portsmouth. George E. Mowry concludes that Roosevelt handled the arbitration well, doing an "excellent job of balancing Russian and Japanese power in the Orient, where the supremacy of either constituted a threat to growing America".[153][154] Roosevelt also played a major role in mediating the First Moroccan Crisis by calling the Algeciras Conference, which averted war between France and Germany.[155]
Roosevelt's presidency saw the strengthening of ties with Great Britain. The Great Rapprochement had begun with British support of the United States during the Spanish–American War, and it continued as Britain withdrew its fleet from the Caribbean in favor of focusing on the rising German naval threat.[156] In 1901, Britain and the United States signed the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty, abrogating the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty, which had prevented the United States from constructing a canal connecting the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean.[157] The long-standing Alaska boundary dispute was settled on terms favorable to the United States, as Great Britain was unwilling to alienate the United States over what it considered to be a secondary issue. As Roosevelt later put it, the resolution of the Alaskan boundary dispute "settled the last serious trouble between the British Empire and ourselves."[158]
The Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 resolved unpleasant racial tensions with Japan. Tokyo was angered over the segregation of Japanese children in San Francisco schools. The tensions were ended, but Japan also agreed not to allow unskilled workers to emigrate to the U.S.[159]
Latin America and Panama Canal
In December 1902, the Germans, British, and Italians sought to impose a naval blockade against Venezuela in order to force the repayment of delinquent loans. Roosevelt was particularly concerned with the motives of Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm. He succeeded in getting the aggressors to agree to arbitration by a tribunal at The Hague, and averted the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903.[160] The latitude granted to the Europeans by the arbiters was in part responsible for the "Roosevelt Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine, which the President issued in 1904: "Chronic wrongdoing or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere, the adherence of the United States to the Monroe doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power."[161]
The U.S.'s intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of Panama from Colombia in 1903
The pursuit of an isthmus canal in Central America during this period focused on two possible routes—Nicaragua and Panama, which was then a rebellious district within Colombia. Roosevelt convinced Congress to approve the Panamanian alternative, and a treaty was approved, only to be rejected by the Colombian government. When the Panamanians learned of this, a rebellion followed, was supported by Roosevelt, and succeeded. A treaty with the new Panama government for construction of the canal was then reached in 1903.[162] Roosevelt received criticism for paying the bankrupt Panama Canal Company and the New Panama Canal Company $40,000,000 for the rights and equipment to build the canal.[136] Critics charged that an American investor syndicate allegedly divided the large payment among themselves. There was also controversy over whether a French company engineer influenced Roosevelt in choosing the Panama route for the canal over the Nicaragua route. Roosevelt denied charges of corruption concerning the canal in a January 8, 1906 message to Congress. In January 1909, Roosevelt, in an unprecedented move, brought criminal libel charges against the New York World and the Indianapolis News known as the "Roosevelt-Panama Libel Cases".[163] Both cases were dismissed by U.S. District Courts, and on January 3, 1911, the U.S. Supreme Court, upon federal appeal, upheld the lower courts' rulings.[164] Historians are sharply critical of Roosevelt's criminal prosecutions of the World and the News, but are divided on whether actual corruption in acquiring and building the Panama Canal took place.[165]
In 1906, following a disputed election, an insurrection ensued in Cuba; Roosevelt sent Taft, the Secretary of War, to monitor the situation; he was convinced that he had the authority to unilaterally authorize Taft to deploy Marines if necessary, without congressional approval.[166]
Examining the work of numerous scholars, Ricard (2014) reports that:
The most striking evolution in the twenty-first century historiography of Theodore Roosevelt is the switch from a partial arraignment of the imperialist to a quasi-unanimous celebration of the master diplomatist.... [Regarding British relations these studies] have underlined cogently Roosevelt's exceptional statesmanship in the construction of the nascent twentieth-century "special relationship". ...The twenty-sixth president's reputation as a brilliant diplomatist and realpolitician has undeniably reached new heights in the twenty-first century...yet, his Philippine policy still prompts criticism.[167]
Media
Building on McKinley's effective use of the press, Roosevelt made the White House the center of news every day, providing interviews and photo opportunities. After noticing the reporters huddled outside the White House in the rain one day, he gave them their own room inside, effectively inventing the presidential press briefing. The grateful press, with unprecedented access to the White House, rewarded Roosevelt with ample coverage.[168]
Roosevelt normally enjoyed very close relationships with the press, which he used to keep in daily contact with his middle-class base. While out of office, he made a living as a writer and magazine editor. He loved talking with intellectuals, authors, and writers. He drew the line, however, at expose-oriented scandal-mongering journalists who, during his term, set magazine subscriptions soaring by their attacks on corrupt politicians, mayors, and corporations. Roosevelt himself was not usually a target, but his speech in 1906 coined the term "muckraker" for unscrupulous journalists making wild charges. "The liar", he said, "is no whit better than the thief, and if his mendacity takes the form of slander he may be worse than most thieves."[169]
The press did briefly target Roosevelt in one instance. After 1904, he was periodically criticized for the manner in which he facilitated the construction of the Panama Canal. According to biographer Brands, Roosevelt, near the end of his term, demanded that the Justice Department bring charges of criminal libel against Joseph Pulitzer's New York World. The publication had accused him of "deliberate misstatements of fact" in defense of family members who were criticized as a result of the Panama affair. Though an indictment was obtained, the case was ultimately dismissed in federal court—it was not a federal offense, but one enforceable in the state courts. The Justice Department had predicted that result, and had also advised Roosevelt accordingly.[170]
Election of 1904
1904 election results
Main article: United States presidential election, 1904
The control and management of the Republican Party lay in the hands of Ohio Senator and Republican Party chairman Mark Hanna until McKinley's death. Roosevelt and Hanna frequently cooperated during Roosevelt's first term, but Hanna left open the possibility of a challenge to Roosevelt for the 1904 Republican nomination. Roosevelt and Ohio's other Senator, Joseph B. Foraker, forced Hanna's hand by calling for Ohio's state Republican convention to endorse Roosevelt for the 1904 nomination.[171] Unwilling to break with the president, Hanna was forced to publicly endorse Roosevelt. Hanna and Pennsylvania Senator Matthew Quay both died in early 1904, and with the waning of Thomas Platt's power, Roosevelt faced little effective opposition for the 1904 nomination.[172] In deference to Hanna's conservative loyalists, Roosevelt at first offered the party chairmanship to Cornelius Bliss, but he declined. Roosevelt turned to his own man, George B. Cortelyou of New York, the first Secretary of Commerce and Labor. To buttress his hold on the party's nomination, Roosevelt made it clear that anyone opposing Cortelyou would be considered to be opposing the President.[173] The President secured his own nomination, but his preferred vice-presidential running mate, Robert R. Hitt, was not nominated.[174] Senator Charles Warren Fairbanks of Indiana, a favorite of conservatives, gained the nomination.[172]
While Roosevelt followed the tradition of incumbents in not actively campaigning on the stump, he sought to control the campaign's message through specific instructions to Cortelyou. He also attempted to manage the press's release of White House statements by forming the Ananias Club. Any journalist who repeated a statement made by the president without approval was penalized by restriction of further access.[175]
Alton Brooks Parker
The Democratic Party's nominee in 1904 was Alton Brooks Parker. Democratic newspapers charged that Republicans were extorting large campaign contributions from corporations, putting ultimate responsibility on Roosevelt, himself.[176] Roosevelt denied corruption while at the same time he ordered Cortelyou to return $100,000 of a campaign contribution from Standard Oil.[177] Parker said that Roosevelt was accepting corporate donations to keep damaging information from the Bureau of Corporations from going public.[177] Roosevelt strongly denied Parker's charge and responded that he would "go into the Presidency unhampered by any pledge, promise, or understanding of any kind, sort, or description...".[178] Allegations from Parker and the Democrats, however, had little impact on the election, as Roosevelt promised to give every American a "square deal".[178] Roosevelt won 56% of the popular vote, and Parker received 38%; Roosevelt also won the Electoral College vote, 336 to 140. Before his inauguration ceremony, Roosevelt declared that he would not serve another term.[179] Democrats afterwards would continue to charge Roosevelt and the Republicans of being influenced by corporate donations during Roosevelt's second term.[180]
Second-term troubles
Roosevelt family at Oyster Bay, circa 1903
As his second term progressed, Roosevelt moved to the left of his Republican Party base and called for a series of reforms, most of which failed to pass Congress.[181] Roosevelt's influence waned as he approached the end of his second term, as his promise to forego a third term made him a lame duck and his concentration of power provoked a backlash from many Congressmen.[182] He sought a national incorporation law (at a time when all corporations had state charters), called for a federal income tax (despite the Supreme Court's ruling in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.), and an inheritance tax. In the area of labor legislation, Roosevelt called for limits on the use of court injunctions against labor unions during strikes; injunctions were a powerful weapon that mostly helped business. He wanted an employee liability law for industrial injuries (pre-empting state laws) and an eight-hour work day for federal employees. In other areas he also sought a postal savings system (to provide competition for local banks), and he asked for campaign reform laws.[183]
The election of 1904 continued to be a source of contention between Republicans and Democrats. A Congressional investigation in 1905 revealed that corporate executives donated tens of thousands of dollars in 1904 to the Republican National Committee. In 1908, a month before the general presidential election, Governor Charles N. Haskell of Oklahoma, former Democratic Treasurer, said that Senators beholden to Standard Oil lobbied Roosevelt, in the summer of 1904, to authorize the leasing of Indian oil lands by Standard Oil subsidiaries. He said Roosevelt overruled his Secretary of Interior Ethan A. Hitchcock and granted a pipeline franchise to run through the Osage lands to the Prairie Oil and Gas Company. The New York Sun made a similar accusation and said that Standard Oil, a refinery who financially benefited from the pipeline, had contributed $150,000 to the Republicans in 1904 after Roosevelt's alleged reversal allowing the pipeline franchise. Roosevelt branded Haskell's allegation as "a lie, pure and simple" and obtained a denial from Shaw that Roosevelt had neither coerced Shaw nor overruled him.[184]
Post-presidency
Roosevelt shortly after leaving office, October 1910
Election of 1908
Main article: United States presidential election, 1908
Roosevelt enjoyed being president and was still relatively youthful, but felt that a limited number of terms provided a check against dictatorship. Roosevelt ultimately decided to stick to his 1904 pledge not to run for a third term. He personally favored Secretary of State Elihu Root as his successor, but Root's ill health made him an unsuitable candidate. New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes loomed as potentially strong candidate and shared Roosevelt's progressivism, but Roosevelt disliked him and considered him to be too independent. Instead, Roosevelt settled on his Secretary of War, William Howard Taft, who had ably served under Presidents Harrison, McKinley, and Roosevelt in various positions. Roosevelt and Taft had been friends since 1890, and Taft had consistently supported President Roosevelt's policies.[185] Roosevelt was determined to install the successor of his choice, and wrote the following to Taft: "Dear Will: Do you want any action about those federal officials? I will break their necks with the utmost cheerfulness if you say the word!" Just weeks later he branded as "false and malicious"; the charge was that he was using the offices at his disposal to favor Taft.[186] At the 1908 Republican convention, many chanted for "four years more" of a Roosevelt presidency, but Taft won the nomination after Henry Cabot Lodge made it clear that Roosevelt was not interested in a third term.[187]
In the 1908 election, Taft easily defeated the Democratic nominee, three-time candidate William Jennings Bryan. Taft promoted a progressivism that stressed the rule of law; he preferred that judges rather than administrators or politicians make the basic decisions about fairness. Taft usually proved to be a less adroit politician than Roosevelt and lacked the energy and personal magnetism, along with the publicity devices, the dedicated supporters, and the broad base of public support that made Roosevelt so formidable. When Roosevelt realized that lowering the tariff would risk creating severe tensions inside the Republican Party by pitting producers (manufacturers and farmers) against merchants and consumers, he stopped talking about the issue. Taft ignored the risks and tackled the tariff boldly, encouraging reformers to fight for lower rates, and then cutting deals with conservative leaders that kept overall rates high. The resulting Payne-Aldrich tariff of 1909, signed into law early in President Taft's tenure, was too high for most reformers, and Taft's handling of the tariff alienated all sides. While the crisis was building inside the Party, Roosevelt was touring Africa and Europe, to allow Taft to be his own man.[188]
Africa and Europe (1909–1910)
Roosevelt standing next to the elephant he shot on safari
In March 1909, shortly after the end of his presidency, Roosevelt left New York for the Smithsonian-Roosevelt African Expedition, a safari in east and central Africa.[189] Roosevelt's party landed in Mombasa, British East Africa (now Kenya) and traveled to the Belgian Congo (now Democratic Republic of the Congo) before following the Nile to Khartoum in modern Sudan. Financed by Andrew Carnegie and by his own writings, Roosevelt's party hunted for specimens for the Smithsonian Institution and for the American Museum of Natural History in New York.[190] The group, led by the legendary hunter-tracker RJ Cunninghame, included scientists from the Smithsonian, and was joined from time to time by Frederick Selous, the famous big game hunter and explorer. Participants on the expedition included Kermit Roosevelt, Edgar Alexander Mearns, Edmund Heller, and John Alden Loring.[191]
Roosevelt and his companions killed or trapped approximately 11,400 animals,[190] from insects and moles to hippopotamuses and elephants. The 1,000 large animals included 512 big game animals, including six rare White rhinos. Tons of salted animals and their skins were shipped to Washington; it took years to mount them all, and the Smithsonian shared many duplicate specimens with other museums. Regarding the large number of animals taken, Roosevelt said, "I can be condemned only if the existence of the National Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, and all similar zoological institutions are to be condemned".[192] He wrote a detailed account of the safari in the book African Game Trails, recounting the excitement of the chase, the people he met, and the flora and fauna he collected in the name of science.[193]
After his safari, Roosevelt traveled North to embark on a tour of Europe. Stopping first in Egypt, he commented favorably on British rule of the region, giving his opinion that Egypt was not yet ready for independence, paralleling his views about the Philippines).[194] He refused a meeting with the Pope due to a dispute over a group of Methodists active in Rome, but met with Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, King George V of Great Britain, and other European leaders. In Oslo, Norway, Roosevelt delivered a speech calling for limitations on naval armaments, a strengthening of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, and the creation of a "League of Peace" among the world powers.[195] He also delivered the Romanes Lecture at Oxford, in which he denounced those who sought parallels between the evolution of animal life and the development of society.[196] Though Roosevelt attempted to avoid domestic politics during his time abroad, he met with Gifford Pinchot, who related his own disappointment with the Taft Administration.[197] Pinchot had been forced to resign as head of the forest service after clashing with Taft's Interior Secretary, Richard Ballinger, who had prioritized development over conservation.[198] Roosevelt returned to the United States in June 1910.[196]
Republican Party schism
Punch depicts GOP Schism between Taft and TR
Roosevelt had attempted to refashion Taft into a younger version of himself, but as soon as Taft began to display his individuality, the former president expressed his disenchantment. He was offended on election night when Taft indicated that his success had been possible not just through the efforts of Roosevelt, but also his brother Charley. Roosevelt was further alienated when Taft, intent on becoming his own man, did not consult him about cabinet appointments.[199] Roosevelt and other progressives were also dissatisfied over Taft's conservation policies and his handling of the tariff, which had indirectly concentrated more power in the hands of conservative party leaders in Congress.[200]
Returning from Europe, Roosevelt urged progressives to take control of the Republican Party at the state and local level, and to avoid splitting the party in a way that would hand the presidency to the Democrats in 1912. Additionally, Roosevelt expressed optimism about the Taft Administration after meeting with the president in the White House in June 1910.[201] In August 1910, Roosevelt gave notable speech at Osawatomie, Kansas, which was the most radical of his career and initiated his public break with the Taft administration and the conservative Republicans. Advocating a program of "New Nationalism", Roosevelt emphasized the priority of labor over capital interests, a need to more effectively control corporate creation and combination, and proposed a ban on corporate political contributions.[202] Returning to New York, Roosevelt began a battle to take control of the state Republican party from William Barnes, Jr., Tom Platt's successor as the state party boss. Taft had pledged his support to Roosevelt in this endeavor, and Roosevelt was outraged when Taft's support failed to materialize at the 1910 state convention.[203] Roosevelt nonetheless campaigned for the Republicans in the 1910 elections, which saw the Democrats gain control of the House for the first time since the 1890s. Among the newly elected Democrats was New York state senator Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who argued that he represented his cousin's policies better than his Republican opponent.[204]
The Republican progressives interpreted the 1910 defeats as compelling argument for the complete reorganization of the party in 1911.[205] Senator Robert M. La Follette Sr. of Wisconsin joined with Pinchot, William White, and California Governor Hiram Johnson to create the National Progressive Republican League; their objectives were to defeat the power of political bossism at the state level and to replace Taft at the national level.[206] Despite skepticism of La Follette's new league, Roosevelt expressed general support for progressive principles. Between January and April 1911, Roosevelt wrote a series of articles for The Outlook, defending what he called "the great movement of our day, the progressive nationalist movement against special privilege, and in favor of an honest and efficient political and industrial democracy".[207] With Roosevelt apparently uninterested in running in 1912, La Follette declared his own candidacy in June 1911.[206] Roosevelt continually criticized Taft after the 1910 elections, and the break between the two men became final after the Justice Department filed an anti-trust lawsuit against US Steel in September 1911; Roosevelt was humiliated by this suit because he had personally approved of an acquisition that the Justice Department was now challenging. However, Roosevelt was still unwilling to run against Taft in 1912; he instead hoped to run in 1916 against whichever Democrat beat Taft in 1912.[208]
Election of 1912
Main articles: U.S. presidential election, 1912 and Progressive Party (United States, 1912)
Roosevelt campaigning for president, 1912
Republican primaries and convention
In November 1911, a group of Ohio Republicans endorsed Roosevelt for the party's nomination for president; the endorsers included James R. Garfield and Dan Hanna. This was notable, as the endorsement was made by leaders of President Taft's home state. Roosevelt conspicuously declined to make a statement requested by Garfield—that he flatly refuse a nomination. Soon thereafter, Roosevelt said, "I am really sorry for Taft... I am sure he means well, but he means well feebly, and he does not know how! He is utterly unfit for leadership and this is a time when we need leadership." In January 1912, Roosevelt declared "if the people make a draft on me I shall not decline to serve".[209] Later that year, Roosevelt spoke before the Constitutional Convention in Ohio, openly identifying as a progressive and endorsing progressive reforms—even endorsing popular review of state judicial decisions.[210] In reaction to Roosevelt's proposals for popular overrule of court decisions, Taft said, "Such extremists are not progressives—they are political emotionalists or neurotics".[211]
Roosevelt began to envision himself as the savior of the Republican Party from defeat in the upcoming presidential election. In February 1912, Roosevelt announced in Boston, "I will accept the nomination for president if it is tendered to me. I hope that so far as possible the people may be given the chance through direct primaries to express who shall be the nominee.[212][213] Elihu Root and Henry Cabot Lodge thought that division of the party would lead to its defeat in the next election, while Taft believed that he would be defeated either in the Republican primary or in the general election.[214]
The 1912 primaries represented the first extensive use of the presidential primary, a reform achievement of the progressive movement.[215] The Republican primaries in the South, where party regulars dominated, went for Taft, as did results in New York, Indiana, Michigan, Kentucky and Massachusetts. Meanwhile, Roosevelt won in Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, California, Maryland and Pennsylvania; Roosevelt also won Taft's home state of Ohio. These primary elections, while demonstrating Roosevelt's continuing popularity with the electorate, were not pivotal. The final credentials of the state delegates at the national convention were determined by the national committee, which was controlled by the party leaders, headed by the incumbent president.
Prior to the 1912 Republican National Convention in Chicago, Roosevelt expressed doubt about his prospects for victory, noting that Taft had more delegates and control of the credentials committee. His only hope was to convince party leaders that the nomination of Taft would hand the election to the Democrats, but party leaders were determined not to cede their leadership to Roosevelt.[216] The credentials committee awarded almost all contested delegates to Taft, and Taft won the nomination on the first ballot.[217] Black delegates from the South played a key role: they voted heavily for Taft and put him over the top.[218] La Follette also helped Taft's candidacy; he hoped that a deadlocked convention would result in his own nomination, and refused to release his delegates to support Roosevelt.[217]
The Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party
See also: New Nationalism (Theodore Roosevelt) and Progressive Party (United States, 1912)
"The right of the people to rule"
Excerpts from a speech given by Theodore Roosevelt at Carnegie Hall, March 12, 1912. Recorded August 1912 by Thomas Edison. Duration 4:07.
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Once his defeat at the Republican convention appeared probable, Roosevelt announced that he would "accept the progressive nomination on a progressive platform and I shall fight to the end, win or lose". At the same time, Roosevelt prophetically said, "My feeling is that the Democrats will probably win if they nominate a progressive".[219] Bolting from the Republican Party, Roosevelt and key allies such as Pinchot and [[Albert Beveridge] created the Progressive Party, structuring it as a permanent organization that would field complete tickets at the presidential and state level. It was popularly known as the "Bull Moose Party", after Roosevelt told reporters, "I'm as fit as a bull moose".[220] At the 1912 Progressive National Convention, Roosevelt cried out, "We stand at Armageddon and we battle for the Lord." California Governor Hiram Johnson was nominated as Roosevelt's running mate. Roosevelt's platform echoed his 1907–8 proposals, calling for vigorous government intervention to protect the people from the selfish interests:
To destroy this invisible Government, to dissolve the unholy alliance between corrupt business and corrupt politics is the first task of the statesmanship of the day.[221][222] This country belongs to the people. Its resources, its business, its laws, its institutions, should be utilized, maintained, or altered in whatever manner will best promote the general interest. This assertion is explicit... Mr. Wilson must know that every monopoly in the United States opposes the Progressive party... I challenge him... to name the monopoly that did support the Progressive party, whether... the Sugar Trust, the US Steel Trust, the Harvester Trust, the Standard Oil Trust, the Tobacco Trust, or any other... Ours was the only program to which they objected, and they supported either Mr. Wilson or Mr. Taft[223]
Though many Progressive party supporters in the North were supporters of civil rights for blacks, Roosevelt did not give strong support to civil rights and ran a "lily-white" campaign in the South. Rival all-white and all-black delegations from four southern states arrived at the Progressive national convention, and Roosevelt decided to seat the all-white delegations.[224][225][226] Nevertheless, he won little support outside mountain Republican strongholds. Out of nearly 1100 counties in the South, Roosevelt won two counties in Alabama, one in Arkansas, seven in North Carolina, three in Georgia, 17 in Tennessee two in Texas, one in Virginia, and none in Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, or South Carolina.[227]
Assassination attempt
The bullet-damaged speech and eyeglass case on display at the Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace
On October 14, 1912, while campaigning in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Roosevelt was shot by a saloonkeeper named John Flammang Schrank. The bullet lodged in his chest after penetrating his steel eyeglass case and passing through a thick (50 pages) single-folded copy of the speech titled "Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual", which he was carrying in his jacket.[228] Roosevelt, as an experienced hunter and anatomist, correctly concluded that since he was not coughing blood, the bullet had not reached his lung, and he declined suggestions to go to the hospital immediately. Instead, he delivered his scheduled speech with blood seeping into his shirt.[229] He spoke for 90 minutes before completing his speech and accepting medical attention. His opening comments to the gathered crowd were, "Ladies and gentlemen, I don't know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot, but it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose."[230] Afterwards, probes and an x-ray showed that the bullet had lodged in Roosevelt's chest muscle, but did not penetrate the pleura. Doctors concluded that it would be less dangerous to leave it in place than to attempt to remove it, and Roosevelt carried the bullet with him for the rest of his life.[231]
Election results
After the Democrats nominated Governor Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey, Roosevelt did not expect to win the general election, as Wilson had compiled a record attractive to many progressive Democrats who might have otherwise considered voting for Roosevelt.[232] Roosevelt still campaigned vigorously, and the election developed into a two-person contest between Wilson and Roosevelt despite Taft's presence in the race. Roosevelt respected Wilson, but the two differed on various issues; Wilson opposed any federal intervention regarding women's suffrage or child labor (he viewed these as state issues), and attacked Roosevelt's tolerance of large businesses.[233]
Roosevelt won 4.1 million votes (27%), compared to Taft's 3.5 million (23%). Wilson gained 6.3 million votes (42% of the total) and a massive landslide in the Electoral College, with 435 electoral votes; Roosevelt won 88 electoral votes, while Taft won 8. Pennsylvania was the only eastern state won by Roosevelt; in the Midwest, he carried Michigan, Minnesota, and South Dakota; in the West, California, and Washington.[234] Wilson's victory represented the first Democratic presidential election victory since Cleveland's 1892 campaign, and it was the party's best performance in the Electoral College since 1852. Roosevelt, meanwhile, garnered a higher share of the popular vote than any other third party presidential candidate in history.[235]
1913–1914 South American Expedition
Main article: Roosevelt–Rondon Scientific Expedition
A friend of Roosevelt's, Father John Augustine Zahm, persuaded Roosevelt to participate in an expedition to South America. To finance the expedition, Roosevelt received support from the American Museum of Natural History in return for promising to bring back many new animal specimens. Roosevelt's popular book, Through the Brazilian Wilderness[236] describes his expedition into the Brazilian jungle in 1913 as a member of the Roosevelt-Rondon Scientific Expedition, co-named after its leader, Brazilian explorer Cândido Rondon.
From left to right (seated): Fr. John Augustine Zahm, Cândido Rondon, Kermit Roosevelt, Cherrie, Miller, four Brazilians, Roosevelt, Fiala. Only Roosevelt, Kermit, Cherrie, Rondon, and the Brazilians traveled down the River of Doubt.
Once in South America, a new, far more ambitious goal was added: to find the headwaters of the Rio da Duvida, and trace it north to the Madeira and thence to the Amazon River. It was later renamed Roosevelt River in honor of the former President. Roosevelt's crew consisted of his son Kermit, naturalist Colonel Rondon, George K. Cherrie, sent by the American Museum of Natural History, Brazilian Lieutenant João Lira, team physician Dr. José Antonio Cajazeira, and 16 skilled paddlers and porters. The initial expedition started somewhat tenuously on December 9, 1913, at the height of the rainy season. The trip down the River of Doubt started on February 27, 1914.[237]
During the trip down the river, Roosevelt suffered a minor leg wound after he jumped into the river to try to prevent two canoes from smashing against the rocks. The flesh wound he received, however, soon gave him tropical fever that resembled the malaria he had contracted while in Cuba fifteen years before.[238] Because the bullet lodged in his chest from the assassination attempt in 1912 was never removed, his health worsened from the infection.[239] This weakened Roosevelt so greatly that six weeks into the adventure, he had to be attended to day and night by the expedition's physician and his son Kermit. By then, he could not walk because of the infection in his injured leg and an infirmity in the other, which was due to a traffic accident a decade earlier. Roosevelt was riddled with chest pains, fighting a fever that soared to 103 °F (39 °C) and at times made him delirious. Regarding his condition as a threat to the survival of the others, Roosevelt insisted he be left behind to allow the poorly provisioned expedition to proceed as rapidly as it could. Only an appeal by his son persuaded him to continue.[237]
Despite Roosevelt's continued decline and loss of over 50 pounds (23 kg), Commander Rondon reduced the pace of the expedition to allow for his commission's mapmaking and other geographical tasks, which required regular stops to fix the expedition's position by sun-based survey. Upon Roosevelt's return to New York, friends and family were startled by his physical appearance and fatigue. Roosevelt wrote, perhaps prophetically, to a friend that the trip had cut his life short by ten years. For the rest of his few remaining years, he would be plagued by flare-ups of malaria and leg inflammations so severe as to require surgery.[240] Before Roosevelt had even completed his sea voyage home, critics raised doubts over his claims of exploring and navigating a completely uncharted river over 625 miles (1,006 km) long. When he had recovered sufficiently, he addressed a standing-room-only convention organized in Washington, D.C., by the National Geographic Society and satisfactorily defended his claims.[237]
Final years
Ex-President Theodore Roosevelt in Allentown, Pennsylvania, 1914
See also: Roosevelt's World War I volunteers
Roosevelt returned to the United States in May 1914. Though he was outraged by the Wilson Administration's conclusion of a treaty that expressed "sincere regret" for the way in which the United States had acquired the Panama Canal Zone, he was impressed by many of the reforms passed under Wilson. Roosevelt made several campaign appearances for the Progressives, but the 1914 elections were a disaster for the fledgling third party.[241] Roosevelt began to envision another campaign for president, this time with himself at the head of the Republican Party, but conservative party leaders remained opposed to Roosevelt.[242] In hopes of engineering a joint nomination, the Progressives scheduled the 1916 Progressive National Convention at the same time as the 1916 Republican National Convention. When the Republicans nominated Charles Evans Hughes, Roosevelt declined the Progressive nomination and urged his Progressive followers to support the Republican candidate.[243] Though Roosevelt had long disliked Hughes, he disliked Wilson even more, and he campaigned energetically for the Republican nominee. However, Wilson won the 1916 election by a narrow margin.[244] The Progressives disappeared as a party following the 1916 election, and Roosevelt and many of his followers permanently re-joined the Republican Party.[245]
When World War I began in 1914, Roosevelt strongly supported the Allies and demanded a harsher policy against Germany, especially regarding submarine warfare. Roosevelt angrily denounced the foreign policy of President Wilson, calling it a failure regarding the atrocities in Belgium and the violations of American rights.[246] In 1916, while campaigning for Hughes, Roosevelt repeatedly denounced Irish-Americans and German-Americans whom he described as unpatriotic, saying they put the interests of Ireland and Germany ahead of America's by supporting neutrality. He insisted that one had to be 100% American, not a "hyphenated American" who juggled multiple loyalties. In March 1917, Congress gave Roosevelt the authority to raise a maximum of four divisions similar to the Rough Riders, and Major Frederick Russell Burnham was put in charge of both the general organization and recruitment.[247][248] However, President Wilson announced to the press that he would not send Roosevelt and his volunteers to France, but instead would send an American Expeditionary Force under the command of General John J. Pershing.[249] Roosevelt never forgave Wilson, and quickly published The Foes of Our Own Household, an indictment of the sitting president.[250][251][252] Roosevelt's youngest son, Quentin, a pilot with the American forces in France, was shot down behind German lines on July 14, 1918, at the age of 20. It is said that Quentin's death distressed Roosevelt so much that he never recovered from his loss.[253]
Roosevelt's attacks on Wilson helped the Republicans win control of Congress in the off-year elections of 1918. He declined a request from New York Republican to run for another gubernatorial term, but attacked Wilson's Fourteen Points, calling instead for the unconditional surrender of Germany. He was cautiously optimistic about the proposed League of Nations, but had reservations about its impact on United States sovereignty.[254] Roosevelt was popular enough to contest the 1920 Republican nomination, but his health was broken by 1918 due to the lingering effects of malaria. His family and supporters threw their support behind Roosevelt's old military companion, General Leonard Wood, but Taft supporter Warren G. Harding defeated Wood on the tenth ballot of the 1920 Republican National Convention.[255]
Death
Roosevelt's grave, Oyster Bay, New York
On the night of January 5, 1919, Roosevelt suffered breathing problems. After receiving treatment from his physician, Dr. George W. Faller, he felt better and went to bed. Roosevelt's last words were "Please put out that light, James" to his family servant James Amos. Between 4:00 and 4:15 the next morning, Roosevelt died in his sleep at Sagamore Hill after a blood clot had detached from a vein and traveled to his lungs.[239] He was sixty years old. Upon receiving word of his death, his son Archibald telegraphed his siblings: "The old lion is dead."[253] Woodrow Wilson's vice president, Thomas R. Marshall, said that "Death had to take Roosevelt sleeping, for if he had been awake, there would have been a fight."[256] Following a private farewell service in the North Room at Sagamore Hill, a simple funeral was held at Christ Episcopal Church in Oyster Bay.[257] Vice President Thomas R. Marshall, Charles Evans Hughes, Warren Harding, Henry Cabot Lodge, and William Howard Taft were among the mourners.[257] The snow-covered procession route to Youngs Memorial Cemetery was lined with spectators and a squad of mounted policemen who had ridden from New York City.[258] Roosevelt was buried on a hillside overlooking Oyster Bay.[259]
Writer
Main article: Theodore Roosevelt bibliography
Address to the Boys Progressive League
A speech by Roosevelt as a former President
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Part of the Works of Theodore Roosevelt
Roosevelt was a prolific author, writing with passion on subjects ranging from foreign policy to the importance of the national park system. Roosevelt was also an avid reader of poetry. Poet Robert Frost said that Roosevelt "was our kind. He quoted poetry to me. He knew poetry."[260]
As an editor of Outlook magazine, Roosevelt had weekly access to a large, educated national audience. In all, Roosevelt wrote about 18 books (each in several editions), including his autobiography,[261] The Rough Riders,[262] History of the Naval War of 1812,[263] and others on subjects such as ranching, explorations, and wildlife. His most ambitious book was the four volume narrative The Winning of the West, focused on the American frontier in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Roosevelt said that the American character – indeed a new "American race" (ethnic group) had emerged from the heroic wilderness hunters and Indian fighters, acting on the frontier with little government help.[264] Roosevelt also published an account of his 1909–10 African expedition entitled African Game Trails.
In 1907, Roosevelt became embroiled in a widely publicized literary debate known as the nature fakers controversy. A few years earlier, naturalist John Burroughs had published an article entitled "Real and Sham Natural History" in the Atlantic Monthly, attacking popular writers of the day such as Ernest Thompson Seton, Charles G. D. Roberts, and William J. Long for their fantastical representations of wildlife. Roosevelt agreed with Burroughs' criticisms, and published several essays of his own denouncing the booming genre of "naturalistic" animal stories as "yellow journalism of the woods". It was the President himself who popularized the negative term "nature faker" to describe writers who depicted their animal characters with excessive anthropomorphism.[265]
Character and beliefs
Sagamore Hill, Roosevelt's estate
Roosevelt intensely disliked being called "Teddy", and was quick to point out this fact to those who referred to him as such, though it would become widely used by newspapers during his political career. He attended church regularly. In 1907, concerning the motto "In God We Trust" on money, he wrote, "It seems to me eminently unwise to cheapen such a motto by use on coins, just as it would be to cheapen it by use on postage stamps, or in advertisements." He was also a member of the Freemasons and Sons of the American Revolution.[266]
Roosevelt had a lifelong interest in pursuing what he called, in an 1899 speech, "The Strenuous Life". To this end, he exercised regularly and took up boxing, tennis, hiking, rowing, polo, and horseback riding. As governor of New York, he boxed with sparring partners several times each week, a practice he regularly continued as President until being hit so hard in the face he became blind in his left eye (a fact not made public until many years later). Thereafter, he practiced judo, attaining a third degree brown belt; he also continued his habit of skinny-dipping in the Potomac River during the winter.[267][268]
Roosevelt was an enthusiastic singlestick player and, according to Harper's Weekly, showed up at a White House reception with his arm bandaged after a bout with General Leonard Wood in 1905.[269] Roosevelt was an avid reader, reading tens of thousands of books, at a rate of several per day in multiple languages. Along with Thomas Jefferson, Roosevelt was the most well-read of all American presidents.[270]
Political positions
Main article: Political positions of Theodore Roosevelt
On taking office, Roosevelt reassured many conservatives, stating, "the mechanism of modern business is so delicate that extreme care must be taken not to interfere with it in a spirit of rashness or ignorance."[271] The following year, Roosevelt asserted the president's independence from business interests by opposing the merger which created the Northern Securities Company, and many were surprised that any president, much less an unelected one, would challenge powerful banker J.P. Morgan.[272] In his last two years as president, Roosevelt became increasingly distrustful of big business, despite its close ties to the Republican Party.[273] Roosevelt sought to replace the 19th-century laissez-faire economic environment with a new economic model which included a larger regulatory role for the federal government. He believed that 19th-century entrepreneurs had risked their fortunes on innovations and new businesses, and that these capitalists had been rightly rewarded. By contrast, he believed that 20th-century capitalists risked little but nonetheless reaped huge and, given the lack of risk, unjust, economic rewards. Without a redistribution of wealth away from the upper class, Roosevelt feared that the country would turn to radicals or fall to revolution.[274] His Square Deal domestic program had three main goals: conservation of natural resources, control of corporations, and consumer protection.[275] The Square Deal evolved into his program of "New Nationalism", which emphasized the priority of labor over capital interests and a need to more effectively control corporate creation and combination, and proposed a ban on corporate political contributions.[202]
Legacy
Roosevelt in Pennsylvania on October 26, 1914
Historians credit Roosevelt for changing the nation's political system by permanently placing the presidency at center stage and making character as important as the issues. His notable accomplishments include trust busting and conservationism. He is a hero to liberals for his proposals in 1907–12 that presaged the modern welfare state of the New Deal Era, and put the environment on the national agenda. Conservatives admire his "big stick" diplomacy and commitment to military values. Dalton says, "Today he is heralded as the architect of the modern presidency, as a world leader who boldly reshaped the office to meet the needs of the new century and redefined America's place in the world."[276]
However, liberals have criticized him for his interventionist and imperialist approach to nations he considered "uncivilized". Conservatives reject his vision of the welfare state and emphasis on the superiority of government over private action. Historians typically rank Roosevelt among the top five presidents.[277][278]
Persona and masculinity
1910 cartoon shows Roosevelt's multiple roles from 1899 to 1910
Dalton says Roosevelt is remembered as, "one of the most picturesque personalities who has ever enlivened the landscape".[279] His friend, historian Henry Adams, proclaimed:
Roosevelt, more than any other man... showed the singular primitive quality that belongs to ultimate matter—the quality that medieval theology assigned to God—he was pure act.[280]
Recent biographers have stressed Roosevelt's personality. Cooper compared him with Woodrow Wilson, and discovered that both of them played the roles of warrior and priest.[281] Dalton stressed Roosevelt's strenuous life.[282] Sarah Watts examined the desires of the "Rough Rider in the White House".[283] Brands calls Roosevelt "the last romantic", arguing that his romantic concept of life emerged from his belief that "physical bravery was the highest virtue and war the ultimate test of bravery".[284]
Roosevelt as the exemplar of American masculinity has become a major theme.[285][286] As president, he repeatedly warned men that they were becoming too office-bound, too complacent, too comfortable with physical ease and moral laxity, and were failing in their duties to propagate the race and exhibit masculine vigor.[287] French historian Serge Ricard says, "the ebullient apostle of the Strenuous Life offers ideal material for a detailed psycho-historical analysis of aggressive manhood in the changing socio-cultural environment of his era; McKinley, Taft, or Wilson would perhaps inadequately serve that purpose".[288] He promoted competitive sports and the Boy Scouts of America, founded in 1910, as the way forward.[289] Brands shows that heroic displays of bravery were essential to Roosevelt's image and mission:
What makes the hero a hero is the romantic notion that he stands above the tawdry give and take of everyday politics, occupying an ethereal realm where partisanship gives way to patriotism, and division to unity, and where the nation regains its lost innocence, and the people their shared sense of purpose.[290]
Memorials and cultural depictions
Main articles: Memorials to Theodore Roosevelt and Cultural depictions of Theodore Roosevelt
Roosevelt's face on Mount Rushmore
Roosevelt was included with Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln at the Mount Rushmore Memorial, designed in 1927 with the approval of Republican President Calvin Coolidge.[291][292] For his gallantry at San Juan Hill, Roosevelt's commanders recommended him for the Medal of Honor. In the late 1990s, Roosevelt's supporters again recommended the award. On January 16, 2001, President Bill Clinton awarded Theodore Roosevelt the Medal of Honor posthumously for his charge on San Juan Hill, Cuba, during the Spanish–American War.[293] The United States Navy named two ships for Roosevelt: the USS Theodore Roosevelt (SSBN-600), a submarine that was in commission from 1961 to 1982, and the USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71), an aircraft carrier that has been on active duty in the Atlantic Fleet since 1986. On November 18, 1956, the United States Postal Service released a 6¢ Liberty Issue postage stamp honoring Roosevelt. A 32¢ stamp was issued on February 3, 1998, as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series.[294] In 2008, Columbia Law School awarded a law degree to Roosevelt, posthumously making him a member of the class of 1882.[295]
Roosevelt's "Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick" ideology is still quoted by politicians and columnists in different countries—not only in English, but also in translations to various other languages.[119] Another lasting, popular legacy of Roosevelt is the stuffed toy bears—teddy bears—named after him following an incident on a hunting trip in Mississippi in 1902.[296] Roosevelt has been portrayed in films and television series such as Brighty of the Grand Canyon, The Wind and the Lion, Rough Riders, My Friend Flicka,[297] and Law of the Plainsman.[298] Robin Williams portrayed Roosevelt in the form of a wax mannequin that comes to life in Night at the Museum and its sequels Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian and Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb. In 2017, it was announced that Leonardo DiCaprio will portray Roosevelt in a biopic to be directed by Martin Scorsese.[299]
Media
Theodore Roosevelt was one of the first presidents whose voice was recorded for posterity. Several of his recorded speeches survive.[300] A 4.6-minute voice recording,[301] which preserves Roosevelt's lower timbre ranges particularly well for its time, is among those available from the Michigan State University libraries (this is the 1912 recording of The Right of the People to Rule, recorded by Edison at Carnegie Hall). The audio clip sponsored by the Authentic History Center includes his defense[302] of the Progressive Party in 1912, wherein he proclaims it the "party of the people" – in contrast with the other major parties.
Play media
Parade for the school children of San Francisco, down Van Ness Avenue
Play media
Collection of film clips of Roosevelt
Roosevelt goes for a ride in Arch Hoxsey's plane in October 1910
See also
Biography portal
Military of the United States portal
United States Army portal
North America portal
Electoral history of Theodore Roosevelt
First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt
List of United States political appointments across party lines
Second inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site
Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site
Theodore Roosevelt Association
Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library
US Presidents on US postage stamps
List of Presidents of the United States
List of Presidents of the United States, sortable by previous experience
Notes
Jump up ^ His last name is, according to Roosevelt himself, "pronounced as if it was spelled 'Rosavelt.' That is in three syllables. The first syllable as if it was 'Rose.'"[1]
References
Jump up ^ Hart, Albert B.; Ferleger, Herbert R (1989). "Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia" (CD-ROM). Theodore Roosevelt Association. pp. 534–35. Retrieved June 10, 2007.
Jump up ^ Murray, Robert K; Blessing, Tim H (2004). Greatness in White House. Pennsylvania State U.P. pp. 8–9, 15.
Jump up ^ McMillan, Joseph (October 1, 2010), Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 26th and 32nd Presidents of the United States, American Heraldry Society, archived from the original on December 30, 2008
Jump up ^ Morris 1979, p. 3.
Jump up ^ Schriftgiesser, Karl (1942). The Amazing Roosevelt Family, 1613–1942. Wildred Funk, Inc.
Jump up ^ James Patrick Byrne; Philip Coleman; Jason Francis King. Ireland and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History. p. 848.
Jump up ^ Vought, Hans P. (2004). The Bully Pulpit and the Melting Pot: American Presidents and the Immigrant, 1897–1933. Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press. p. 29. ISBN 0-86554-8870.
Jump up ^ Putnam 1958, ch 1–2.
Jump up ^ Genealogy of the Oyster Bay Roosevelts. Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/trfamily.html Accessed March 14, 2015
Jump up ^ McCullough 1981, pp. 93–108.
Jump up ^ Putnam 1958, pp. 23–27.
Jump up ^ TR's Legacy — The Environment, PBS, retrieved March 6, 2006 .
Jump up ^ Roosevelt 1913, p. 13.
Jump up ^ Putnam 1958, pp. 63–70.
Jump up ^ Thayer 1919, p. 20.
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Bibliography
Full biographies
Brands, Henry William (1997), TR: The Last Romantic (full biography), New York: Basic Books, ISBN 978-0-465-06958-3, OCLC 36954615 .
Chessman, G Wallace (1965), Governor Theodore Roosevelt: The Albany Apprenticeship, 1898–1900
Cooper, John Milton (1983), The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt (dual scholarly biography), ISBN 978-0-674-94751-1 .
Dalton, Kathleen (2002), Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life (full scholarly biography), ISBN 0-679-76733-9 .
Gould, Lewis L (2012), Theodore Roosevelt , 105 pp, very short biography by leading scholar.
Harbaugh, William Henry (1963), The Life and Times of Theodore Roosevelt (full scholarly biography) .
Miller, Nathan (1992), Theodore Roosevelt: A Life, William Morrow & Co .
Morris, Edmund (1979), The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt, 1. To 1901 ; Pulitzer prize for Volume 1.
Morris, Edmund (2001), Theodore Rex, 2. To 1909
Morris, Edmund (2010), Colonel Roosevelt, 3.
Pringle, Henry F (1956) [1932], Theodore Roosevelt (full scholarly biography) (2nd ed.) .
Putnam, Carleton (1958), Theodore Roosevelt (biography), I: The Formative Years , only volume published, to age 28.
Samuels, Peggy (1997), Teddy Roosevelt at San Juan: The Making of a President, Texas A&M UP .
Thayer, William Roscoe (1919), Theodore Roosevelt: an intimate biography, Houghton Mifflin .
Personality and activities
Bishop, Joseph Bucklin (2007), Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children, Wildside Press, ISBN 978-1-434-48394-2 .
DiSilvestro, Roger (2011), Theodore Roosevelt in the Badlands: A Young Politician's Quest in the American West, Walker & Co, ISBN 978-0-8027-1721-4, archived from the original on March 26, 2011 .
Fehn, Bruce (2005), "Theodore Roosevelt and American Masculinity", Magazine of History, 19 (2): 52–59, ISSN 0882-228X, doi:10.1093/maghis/19.2.52 Provides a lesson plan on TR as the historical figure who most exemplifies the quality of masculinity.
Gluck, Sherwin (1999), TR's Summer White House, Oyster Bay . Chronicles the events of TR's presidency during the summers of his two terms.
Greenberg, David (2011), "Beyond the Bully Pulpit", Wilson Quarterly, 35 (3): 22–29 . The president's use of publicity, rhetoric and force of personality.
Millard, Candice (2005), River of Doubt: Theodore Roosevelt's Darkest Journey ; his deadly 1913–14 trip to the Amazon.
McCullough, David (1981), Mornings on Horseback: The Story of an Extraordinary Family, a Vanished Way of Life and the Unique Child Who Became Theodore Roosevelt, Simon & Schuster , best seller; to 1886.
——— (2001) [1981], Mornings on Horseback, The Story of an Extraordinary Family, a Vanished Way of Life, and the Unique Child Who Became Theodore Roosevelt (popular biography) , to 1884.
O'Toole, Patricia (2005), When Trumpets Call: Theodore Roosevelt after the White House, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-86477-0 . 494 pp.
Renehan, Edward J (1998), The Lion's Pride: Theodore Roosevelt and His Family in Peace and War, Oxford University Press , examines TR and his family during the World War I period.
Testi, Arnaldo (1995), "The Gender of Reform Politics: Theodore Roosevelt and the Culture of Masculinity", Journal of American History, 81 (4): 1509–33, doi:10.2307/2081647 .
Thompson, J Lee (2010), Theodore Roosevelt Abroad: Nature, Empire, and the Journey of an American President, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-230-10277-4 , 240 pp. TR in Africa & Europe, 1909–10
Watts, Sarah (2003), Rough Rider in the White House: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of Desire . 289 pp.
Yarbrough, Jean M (2012), Theodore Roosevelt and the American Political Tradition, University Press of Kansas , 337 pp; TR's political thought and its significance for republican self-government.
Domestic policies
Brinkley, Douglas (2009). The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America. New York: HarperCollins. online review; another online review
Cutright, P.R. (1985) Theodore Roosevelt: The making of a Modern Conservationist (U of Illinois Press.)
Dorsey, Leroy G (1997), "The Frontier Myth and Teddy Roosevelt's Fight for Conservation", in Gerster, Patrick; Cords, Nicholas, Myth America: A Historical Anthology, II, St. James, NY: Brandywine Press, ISBN 1-881089-97-5 .
Gould, Lewis L (2011), The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (2nd ed.) , standard history of his domestic and foreign policy as president.
Bakari, Mohamed El-Kamel. "Mapping the ‘Anthropocentric-ecocentric’Dualism in the History of American Presidency: The Good, the Bad, and the Ambivalent." Journal of Studies in Social Sciences 14, no. 2 (2016).
Keller, Morton, ed. (1967), Theodore Roosevelt: A Profile (excerpts from TR and from historians) .
Murphey, William (March 2013), "Theodore Roosevelt and the Bureau of Corporation: Executive-Corporate Cooperation and the Advancement of the Regulatory State", American Nineteenth Century History, 14 (1): 73–111, doi:10.1080/14664658.2013.774983 .
Redekop, Benjamin. (2015). "Embodying the Story: The Conservation Leadership of Theodore Roosevelt". Leadership (2015) DOI:10.1177/1742715014546875 online
Swanson, Ryan A (2011), "'I Never Was a Champion at Anything': Theodore Roosevelt's Complex and Contradictory Record as America's 'Sports President'", Journal of Sport History, 38 (3): 425–46 .
Zacks, Richard (2012), Island of Vice: Theodore Roosevelt's Doomed Quest to Clean Up Sin-Loving New York .
Politics
Blum, John Morton (1954), The Republican Roosevelt, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, OCLC 310975 . How TR did politics.
Chace, James (2004), 1912: Wilson, Roosevelt, Taft, and Debs: The Election That Changed the Country, ISBN 978-0-7432-0394-4 , 323 pp.
Chambers, John W. (1974), Woodward, C. Vann, ed., Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct, New York, New York: Delacorte Press, pp. 207–237, ISBN 0-440-05923-2
Gould, Lewis L (2008), Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern American Politics (by a leading scholar) .
Haverkamp, Michael (2001), "Rossevelt and Taft: How the Republican Vote Split in Ohio in 1912", Ohio History, 110 (1): 121–35 .
Kohn, Edward P (Spring 2006), "A Necessary Defeat: Theodore Roosevelt and the New York Mayoral Election of 1886", New York History, 87: 205–27 .
——— (2006), "Crossing the Rubicon: Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge, and the 1884 Republican National Convention", Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 5 (1): 18–45, doi:10.1017/s1537781400002851 .
Leuchtenberg, William E. (2015), The American President: From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton, Oxford University Press
Milkis, Sidney M (2009), Theodore Roosevelt, the Progressive Party, and the Transformation of American Democracy, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas . 361 pp.
Mowry, George E (1939), "Theodore Roosevelt and the Election of 1910", The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 25 (4): 523–34, JSTOR 1892499, doi:10.2307/1892499 .
——— (1946), Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Movement . Focus on 1912
——— (1954), The Era of Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of Modern America, 1900–1912 (general survey of era) .
Powell, Jim (2006), Bully Boy: The Truth About Theodore Roosevelt's Legacy, Crown Forum, ISBN 0-307-23722-2 . Attacks TR policies from conservative/libertarian perspective.
Ruddy, Daniel (2016), Theodore the Great: Conservative Crusader, Washington D.C.: Regnery History, ISBN 978-1-62157-441-5
Foreign and military policies
Beale, Howard K (1956), Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (standard history of his foreign policy) .
Hendrix, Henry J (2009), Theodore Roosevelt's Naval Diplomacy: The US Navy & the Birth of the American Century .
Holmes, James R (2006), Theodore Roosevelt and World Order: Police Power in International Relations . 328 pp.
Jones, Gregg (2012), Honor in the Dust: Theodore Roosevelt, War in the Philippines, and the Rise and Fall of America's Imperial Dream
Marks III, Frederick W (1979), Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt .
McCullough, David (1977), The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914 .
Oyos, Matthew (2011), "Courage, Careers, and Comrades: Theodore Roosevelt and the United States Army Officer Corps", Journal of the Gilded Age & Progressive Era, 10 (1): 23–58, doi:10.1017/s1537781410000022 . On TR's controversial reforms.
Ricard, Serge (2006), "The Roosevelt Corollary", Presidential Studies Quarterly, 36 (1): 17–26, doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00283.x .
——— (2008), "Theodore Roosevelt: Imperialist or Global Strategist in the New Expansionist Age?", Diplomacy and Statecraft, 19 (4): 639–57, doi:10.1080/09592290802564379 .
Rofe, J Simon (2008), "'Under the Influence of Mahan': Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt and their Understanding of American National Interest", Diplomacy and Statecraft, 19 (4): 732–45, doi:10.1080/09592290802564536 .
———; Thompson, John M (2011), "Internationalists in Isolationist times – Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt and a Rooseveltian Maxim", Journal of Transatlantic Studies, 9 (1): 46–62, doi:10.1080/14794012.2011.550773 .
Tilchin, William N (1997), Theodore Roosevelt and the British Empire: A Study in Presidential Statecraft
Tilchin, William N; Neu, Charles E, eds. (2006), Artists of Power: Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and Their Enduring Impact on US Foreign Policy, Praeger . 196 pp.
Historiography
Dalton, Kathleen. "Changing interpretations of Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive era." in Christopher M. Nichols and Nancy C. Unger, eds A Companion to the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (2017): 296–307.
Grantham, Dewey W., Jr. "Theodore Roosevelt in American Historical Writing, 1945–1960." Mid-America 43#1 (January 1961): 3–35.
Ricard, Serge. "The State of Theodore Roosevelt Studies" H-Diplo Essay No. 116 24 October 2014 online
Ricard, Serge, ed. (2011), A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt , excerpt and text search, 28 new essays by scholars; focus on historiography. online
Tilchin, William, "The Rising Star of Theodore Roosevelt's Diplomacy: Major Studies from Beale to the Present." Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal 15#3 (Summer 1989):2–24.
Primary sources
Kohn, Edward P., ed. A Most Glorious Ride: The Diaries of Theodore Roosevelt, 1877–1886 (State University of New York Press, 2015), 284 pp.
Bishop, ed., Joseph Bucklin (1920), Theodore Roosevelt and His Time Shown in His Own Letters vol. 1 CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link); vol 2
Roosevelt, Theodore; Roosevelt, Kermit (1926), East of the Sun and West of the Moon, New York: Scribner
Roosevelt, Theodore (1889), The Winning of the West, I, New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons
——— (1913), Autobiography, New York: Macmillan .
——— (1917), The Foes of Our Own Household, New York: George H. Doran, LCCN 17025965
——— (1926), The Works (National ed.) , 20 vol.; 18,000 pages containing most of TR's speeches, books and essays, but not his letters; a CD-ROM edition is available; some of TR's books are available online through Project Bartleby
——— (1941), Hart, Albert Bushnell; Ferleger, Herbert Ronald, eds., Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia , Roosevelt's opinions on many issues; online version at Theodore Roosevelt.
——— (1951–1954), Morison, Elting E; Blum, John Morton; Chandler, Alfred D jr, eds., The Letters (annotated ed.) , 8 vols. Very large.
——— (1967), Harbaugh, William, ed., The Writings (one-volume selection of speeches and essays) .
——— (1968), Roosevelt, Archibald, ed., Theodore Roosevelt on Race, Riots, Reds, Crime, Probe
——— (1999) [1913], An Autobiography, Bartleby .
——— (1999) [1882], The Naval War of 1812 Or the History of the United States Navy during the Last War with Great Britain to Which Is Appended an Account of the Battle of New Orleans, New York: The Modern Library, ISBN 0-375-75419-9 .
——— (2001), Brands, HW, ed., The Selected Letters
——— (2004), Auchincloss, Louis, ed., Theodore Roosevelt, The Rough Riders and an Autobiography, Library of America, ISBN 978-1-931082-65-5 .
——— (2004), Auchincloss, Louis, ed., Letters and Speeches, Library of America, ISBN 978-1-931082-66-2 .
———. "Books and speeches". Project Gutenberg. Retrieved October 5, 2010.
———, Original Handwritten and Typed Letters, Notes, and Documents, Shapell Manuscript Foundation .
External links
Find more aboutTheodore Rooseveltat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
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Libraries and collections
Theodore Roosevelt Center at Dickinson State University
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Julian L. Street Papers on Theodore Roosevelt, at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
Doris A. and Lawrence H. Budner Collection on Theodore Roosevelt at the DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University
Theodore Roosevelt's journalism at The Archive of American Journalism
Theodore Roosevelt American Museum of Natural History
Works by Theodore Roosevelt at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Theodore Roosevelt at Internet Archive
Works by Theodore Roosevelt at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Media
"Theodore Roosevelt collected news and commentary". The New York Times.
"Life Portrait of Theodore Roosevelt", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, September 3, 1999
"Writings of Theodore Roosevelt" from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
Other
United States Congress. "Theodore Roosevelt (id: R000429)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt: A Resource Guide – Library of Congress
Theodore Roosevelt, Nobel Peace Prize (1906)
Theodore Roosevelt at DMOZ
Henderson, Daniel. Great-heart; The Life Story of Theodore Roosevelt (1919) at Project Gutenberg
Theodore Roosevelt on IMDb
Appearances on C-SPAN
[show]
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Theodore Roosevelt
26th President of the United States, 1901–1909
25th Vice President of the United States, 1901
33rd Governor of New York, 1899–1900
Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1897–1898
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← William McKinley
William Howard Taft →
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Preceded by
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1882–1884 Succeeded by
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Preceded by
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1883 Succeeded by
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Preceded by
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[show]
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Related articles
History
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2009 chairmanship election
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2013 chairmanship election
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Bibliography
Timeline of modern American conservatism
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[show]
v
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Cabinet of President Theodore Roosevelt (1901–09)
Secretary of State
John Milton Hay (1901–05)
Elihu Root (1905–09)
Robert Bacon (1909)
Secretary of the Treasury
Lyman J. Gage (1901–02)
Leslie M. Shaw (1902–07)
George B. Cortelyou (1907–09)
Secretary of War
Elihu Root (1901–04)
William H. Taft (1904–08)
Luke E. Wright (1908–09)
Attorney General
Philander C. Knox (1901–04)
William H. Moody (1904–06)
Charles J. Bonaparte (1906–09)
Postmaster General
Charles Emory Smith (1901–02)
Henry C. Payne (1902–04)
Robert J. Wynne (1904–05)
George B. Cortelyou (1905–07)
George von L. Meyer (1907–09)
Secretary of the Navy
John D. Long (1901–02)
William H. Moody (1902–04)
Paul Morton (1904–05)
Charles J. Bonaparte (1905–06)
Victor H. Metcalf (1906–08)
Truman H. Newberry (1908–09)
Secretary of the Interior
Ethan A. Hitchcock (1901–07)
James R. Garfield (1907–09)
Secretary of Agriculture
James Wilson (1901–09)
Secretary of Commerce and Labor
George B. Cortelyou (1903–04)
Victor H. Metcalf (1904–06)
Oscar S. Straus (1906–09)
[show]
v
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Laureates of the Nobel Peace Prize
1901–1925
1901 Henry Dunant / Frédéric Passy
1902 Élie Ducommun / Charles Gobat
1903 Randal Cremer
1904 Institut de Droit International
1905 Bertha von Suttner
1906 Theodore Roosevelt
1907 Ernesto Moneta / Louis Renault
1908 Klas Arnoldson / Fredrik Bajer
1909 A. M. F. Beernaert / Paul Estournelles de Constant
1910 International Peace Bureau
1911 Tobias Asser / Alfred Fried
1912 Elihu Root
1913 Henri La Fontaine
1914
1915
1916
1917 International Committee of the Red Cross
1918
1919 Woodrow Wilson
1920 Léon Bourgeois
1921 Hjalmar Branting / Christian Lange
1922 Fridtjof Nansen
1923
1924
1925 Austen Chamberlain / Charles Dawes
1926–1950
1926 Aristide Briand / Gustav Stresemann
1927 Ferdinand Buisson / Ludwig Quidde
1928
1929 Frank B. Kellogg
1930 Nathan Söderblom
1931 Jane Addams / Nicholas Butler
1932
1933 Norman Angell
1934 Arthur Henderson
1935 Carl von Ossietzky
1936 Carlos Saavedra Lamas
1937 Robert Cecil
1938 Nansen International Office for Refugees
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944 International Committee of the Red Cross
1945 Cordell Hull
1946 Emily Balch / John Mott
1947 Friends Service Council / American Friends Service Committee
1948
1949 John Boyd Orr
1950 Ralph Bunche
1951–1975
1951 Léon Jouhaux
1952 Albert Schweitzer
1953 George Marshall
1954 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
1955
1956
1957 Lester B. Pearson
1958 Georges Pire
1959 Philip Noel-Baker
1960 Albert Lutuli
1961 Dag Hammarskjöld
1962 Linus Pauling
1963 International Committee of the Red Cross / League of Red Cross Societies
1964 Martin Luther King Jr.
1965 UNICEF
1966
1967
1968 René Cassin
1969 International Labour Organization
1970 Norman Borlaug
1971 Willy Brandt
1972
1973 Lê Đức Thọ (declined award) / Henry Kissinger
1974 Seán MacBride / Eisaku Satō
1975 Andrei Sakharov
1976–2000
1976 Betty Williams / Mairead Corrigan
1977 Amnesty International
1978 Anwar Sadat / Menachem Begin
1979 Mother Teresa
1980 Adolfo Pérez Esquivel
1981 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
1982 Alva Myrdal / Alfonso García Robles
1983 Lech Wałęsa
1984 Desmond Tutu
1985 International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War
1986 Elie Wiesel
1987 Óscar Arias
1988 UN Peacekeeping Forces
1989 Tenzin Gyatso (14th Dalai Lama)
1990 Mikhail Gorbachev
1991 Aung San Suu Kyi
1992 Rigoberta Menchú
1993 Nelson Mandela / F. W. de Klerk
1994 Shimon Peres / Yitzhak Rabin / Yasser Arafat
1995 Pugwash Conferences / Joseph Rotblat
1996 Carlos Belo / José Ramos-Horta
1997 International Campaign to Ban Landmines / Jody Williams
1998 John Hume / David Trimble
1999 Médecins Sans Frontières
2000 Kim Dae-jung
2001–present
2001 United Nations / Kofi Annan
2002 Jimmy Carter
2003 Shirin Ebadi
2004 Wangari Maathai
2005 International Atomic Energy Agency / Mohamed ElBaradei
2006 Grameen Bank / Muhammad Yunus
2007 Al Gore / Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
2008 Martti Ahtisaari
2009 Barack Obama
2010 Liu Xiaobo
2011 Ellen Johnson Sirleaf / Leymah Gbowee / Tawakkol Karman
2012 European Union
2013 Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
2014 Kailash Satyarthi / Malala Yousafzai
2015 Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet
2016 Juan Manuel Santos
2017 International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons
[show]
v
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Hall of Fame for Great Americans
John Adams
John Quincy Adams
Jane Addams
Louis Agassiz
Susan B. Anthony
John James Audubon
George Bancroft
Clara Barton
Henry Ward Beecher
Alexander Graham Bell
Daniel Boone
Edwin Booth
Louis Brandeis
Phillips Brooks
William Cullen Bryant
Luther Burbank
Andrew Carnegie
George Washington Carver
William Ellery Channing
Rufus Choate
Henry Clay
Grover Cleveland
James Fenimore Cooper
Peter Cooper
Charlotte Cushman
James Buchanan Eads
Thomas Alva Edison
Jonathan Edwards
Ralph Waldo Emerson
David Farragut
Stephen Foster
Benjamin Franklin
Robert Fulton
Josiah W. Gibbs
William C. Gorgas
Ulysses S. Grant
Asa Gray
Alexander Hamilton
Nathaniel Hawthorne
Joseph Henry
Patrick Henry
Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.
Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.
Mark Hopkins
Elias Howe
Washington Irving
Andrew Jackson
Thomas J. Jackson
Thomas Jefferson
John Paul Jones
James Kent
Sidney Lanier
Robert E. Lee
Abraham Lincoln
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
James Russell Lowell
Mary Lyon
Edward MacDowell
James Madison
Horace Mann
John Marshall
Matthew Fontaine Maury
Albert A. Michelson
Maria Mitchell
James Monroe
Samuel F. B. Morse
William T. G. Morton
John Lothrop Motley
Simon Newcomb
Thomas Paine
Alice Freeman Palmer
Francis Parkman
George Peabody
William Penn
Edgar Allan Poe
Walter Reed
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt
Augustus Saint-Gaudens
William Tecumseh Sherman
John Philip Sousa
Joseph Story
Harriet Beecher Stowe
Gilbert Stuart
Sylvanus Thayer
Henry David Thoreau
Mark Twain
Lillian Wald
Booker T. Washington
George Washington
Daniel Webster
George Westinghouse
James McNeill Whistler
Walt Whitman
Eli Whitney
John Greenleaf Whittier
Emma Willard
Frances E. Willard
Roger Williams
Woodrow Wilson
Orville Wright
Wilbur Wright
[show]
v
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Presidents of the American Historical Association
1884–1900
Andrew Dickson White (1884-85)
George Bancroft (1886)
Justin Winsor (1887)
William Frederick Poole (1888)
Charles Kendall Adams (1889)
John Jay (1890)
William Wirt Henry (1891)
James Burrill Angell (1892-93)
Henry Adams (1893-94)
George Frisbie Hoar (1895)
Richard Salter Storrs (1896)
James Schouler (1897)
George Park Fisher (1898)
James Ford Rhodes (1899)
Edward Eggleston (1900)
1901–1925
Charles Francis Adams Jr. (1901)
Alfred Thayer Mahan (1902)
Henry Charles Lea (1903)
Goldwin Smith (1904)
John Bach McMaster (1905)
Simeon Eben Baldwin (1906)
J. Franklin Jameson (1907)
George Burton Adams (1908)
Albert Bushnell Hart (1909)
Frederick Jackson Turner (1910)
William Milligan Sloane (1911)
Theodore Roosevelt (1912)
William Archibald Dunning (1913)
Andrew C. McLaughlin (1914)
H. Morse Stephens (1915)
George Lincoln Burr (1916)
Worthington C. Ford (1917)
William Roscoe Thayer (1918-19)
Edward Channing (1920)
Jean Jules Jusserand (1921)
Charles Homer Haskins (1922)
Edward Potts Cheyney (1923)
Woodrow Wilson (1924)
Charles McLean Andrews (1924-25)
1926–1950
Dana Carleton Munro (1926)
Henry Osborn Taylor (1927)
James Henry Breasted (1928)
James Harvey Robinson (1929)
Evarts Boutell Greene (1930)
Carl L. Becker (1931)
Herbert Eugene Bolton (1932)
Charles A. Beard (1933)
William Dodd (1934)
Michael Rostovtzeff (1935)
Charles Howard McIlwain (1936)
Guy Stanton Ford (1937)
Laurence M. Larson (1938)
William Scott Ferguson (1939)
Max Farrand (1940)
James Westfall Thompson (1941)
Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr. (1942)
Nellie Neilson (1943)
William Linn Westermann (1944)
Carlton J. H. Hayes (1945)
Sidney Bradshaw Fay (1946)
Thomas J. Wertenbaker (1947)
Kenneth Scott Latourette (1948)
Conyers Read (1949)
Samuel Eliot Morison (1950)
1951–1975
Robert Livingston Schuyler (1951)
James G. Randall (1952)
Louis R. Gottschalk (1953)
Merle Curti (1954)
Lynn Thorndike (1955)
Dexter Perkins (1956)
William L. Langer (1957)
Walter Prescott Webb (1958)
Allan Nevins (1959)
Bernadotte Everly Schmitt (1960)
Samuel Flagg Bemis (1961)
Carl Bridenbaugh (1962)
Crane Brinton (1963)
Julian P. Boyd (1964)
Frederic C. Lane (1965)
Roy Franklin Nichols (1966)
Hajo Holborn (1967)
John K. Fairbank (1968)
C. Vann Woodward (1969)
Robert Roswell Palmer (1970)
David M. Potter (1971)
Joseph Strayer (1971)
Thomas C. Cochran (1972)
Lynn Townsend White Jr. (1973)
Lewis Hanke (1974)
Gordon Wright (1975)
1976–2000
Richard B. Morris (1976)
Charles Gibson (1977)
William J. Bouwsma (1978)
John Hope Franklin (1979)
David H. Pinkney (1980)
Bernard Bailyn (1981)
Gordon A. Craig (1982)
Philip D. Curtin (1983)
Arthur S. Link (1984)
William H. McNeill (1985)
Carl Neumann Degler (1986)
Natalie Zemon Davis (1987)
Akira Iriye (1988)
Louis R. Harlan (1989)
David Herlihy (1990)
William Leuchtenburg (1991)
Frederic Wakeman (1992)
Louise A. Tilly (1993)
Thomas C. Holt (1994)
John Henry Coatsworth (1995)
Caroline Bynum (1996)
Joyce Appleby (1997)
Joseph C. Miller (1998)
Robert Darnton (1999)
Eric Foner (2000)
2001–Present
William Roger Louis (2001)
Lynn Hunt (2002)
James M. McPherson (2003)
Jonathan Spence (2004)
James J. Sheehan (2005)
Linda K. Kerber (2006)
Barbara Weinstein (2007)
Gabrielle M. Spiegel (2008)
Laurel Thatcher Ulrich (2009)
Barbara D. Metcalf (2010)
Anthony Grafton (2011)
William Cronon (2012)
Kenneth Pomeranz (2013)
Jan E. Goldstein (2014)
Vicki L. Ruiz (2015)
Patrick Manning (2016)
Tyler E. Stovall (2017)
Mary Beth Norton (2018)
[show]
Rough Riders
Officers
Leonard Wood
Theodore Roosevelt
Alexander Oswald Brodie
James H. McClintock
Buckey O'Neill
Seth Bullock
John Campbell Greenway
John Avery McIlhenny
Allyn K. Capron Jr.
Allyn K. Capron Sr.
George Curry
Woodbury Kane
Thomas H. Rynning
Enlisted men
George G. McMurtry
Chris Madsen
Hamilton Fish
Thomas Grindell
Henry Barrett
Billy McGinty
Juan Alamia
Frank Frantz
Craig Wadsworth
Henry Nash
Ben Daniels
Frank Knox
Robert Wrenn
Engagements
Spanish–American War
Battle of Las Guasimas
Battle of San Juan Hill
Siege of Santiago
Memorials
Rough Riders Memorial
Buckey O'Neill Cabin
Bucky O'Neill Monument
Bronco Buster
Theodore Roosevelt Monument Assemblage
Film
The Rough Riders (1927 film)
Teddy, the Rough Rider (1940 film)
Rough Riders (1997 mini-series)
See also
Buckhorn Saloon
Arizona Rangers
Three Guardsmen
Canyon Diablo Train Robbery
Tiburón Island Tragedy
Roosevelt's World War I volunteers
The Lost Battalion
[show]
v
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Teddy bears
Bear manufacturers
Build-A-Bear Workshop
Chad Valley
J. K. Farnell
Gund
Ideal Toy Company
Margarete Steiff GmbH
Merrythought
Teddy Atelier Stursberg
Teddy-Hermann
Ty Inc.
Vermont Teddy Bear Company
Types of bear
AG Bear
Beanie Babies
Boyds Bears
Care Bears
Coffee Bean Bears
Forever Friends
Freddy Teddy
Gund Snuffles
Holiday Beanie Babies
Me to You Bears
WereBears
Teddy bear museums
Teddy bear museum
Dorset Teddy Bear Museum
Teddy Bear Museum of Naples
Famous teddies
Aloysius
Archibald Ormsby-Gore
Benjamin Bear
Berlino
Duffy the Disney Bear
Corduroy
Fozzie Bear
Freddy Fazbear
Grizzly Teddy
Lotso
Microsoft Bear
Misha
Nassur
Nev
Paddington Bear
Pooky
Pudsey Bear
Rilakkuma
Roosevelt
Rupert Bear
Rupert (Family Guy)
Smokey
Sooty
SuperTed
Teddy (Mr. Bean)
Teddy Ruxpin
Uszatek
Mr Whoppit
Winnie-the-Pooh
Yogi Bear
Film and television
The Adventures of Teddy Ruxpin
Bear Behaving Badly
Becky and Barnaby Bear
Boonie Bears
C Bear and Jamal
Colargol
Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears
Issi Noho
Old Bear Stories
Paddington
The Secret World of Benjamin Bear
SuperTed
Ted
Ted 2
Teddybears
The Teddy Bear Master
Teddy Edward
The Upstairs Downstairs Bears
The Yogi Bear Show
Books
Corduroy
Little Bear
Old Bear and Friends
Teddy Dressing
The Berenstain Bears
Polar the Titanic Bear
Uppo-Nalle
Winkie
Winnie-the-Pooh
Music
"(Let Me Be Your) Teddy Bear"
"Psycho Teddy"
"Teddy Bears' Picnic"
"The Teddy Bear Song"
Video games
Build-A-Bear Workshop
Hubert the Teddy Bear: Winter Games
Opération Teddy Bear
Teddy Together
Related topics
The Bear Club
Peter Bull
Gummy bears
Round and round the garden
SGUL Teddy Bear Hospital
Richard Steiff
Sudanese blasphemy case
Teddybear Airdrop Minsk 2012
Teddy bear parachuting
Teddy Bear Review
Teddy bear toss
Teddy Grahams
Theodore Roosevelt
Stuffed toys
[show]
v
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e
Eleanor Roosevelt
Chairwoman, Presidential Commission on the Status of Women (1961–1962)
34th First Lady of the United States (1933–1945)
United Nations
United States delegate, United Nations General Assembly (1946–1952)
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (1947–1953, Chairperson 1946–1951)
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Human Rights Day
First Lady of
the United States
"My Day" daily newspaper column, 1935–1962
Co-Chair, Office of Civilian Defense
Marian Anderson Lincoln Memorial Concert
Tuskegee Airmen flight
Arthurdale and Eleanor, West Virginia
American Youth Congress
National Youth Administration
Black Cabinet
1940 Democratic National Convention speech
Women in Defense
Freedom House
Other events
First Lady of New York
Presidential Commission on the Status of Women
National Organization for Women
Encampment for Citizenship
Life and homes
Val-Kill National Historic Site
Val-Kill Industries
Campobello home
Franklin D. Roosevelt's paralytic illness
Hyde Park home and gravesite
Legacy
Roosevelt Institute
Roosevelt Institute Campus Network
Roosevelt Study Center
Eleanor Roosevelt Monument
Eleanor Roosevelt Award for Human Rights
Statue at the Franklin Roosevelt Memorial
Eleanor Roosevelt College
Marian Anderson: the Lincoln Memorial Concert (1939 film)
Sunrise at Campobello (1958 play, 1960 film)
The Eleanor Roosevelt Story (1965 film)
Eleanor and Franklin (1976 film)
Eleanor and Franklin: The White House Years (1977 film)
The Roosevelts (2014 documentary)
Related
United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights
International Bill of Human Rights
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
Morgenthau Plan
Roosevelt family
Franklin D. Roosevelt (husband
presidency)
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (daughter)
James Roosevelt II (son)
Elliott Roosevelt (son)
Franklin D. Roosevelt Jr. (son)
John Roosevelt II (son)
Eleanor Roosevelt Seagraves (granddaughter)
Curtis Roosevelt (grandson)
Sara Delano Roosevelt (granddaughter)
Franklin Delano Roosevelt III (grandson)
John Roosevelt Boettiger (grandson)
James Roosevelt III (grandson)
Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (father)
Anna Hall Roosevelt (mother)
Hall Roosevelt (brother)
Theodore Roosevelt Sr. (grandfather)
Martha Stewart Bulloch (grandmother)
Theodore Roosevelt (uncle
presidency)
Bamie Roosevelt (aunt)
Fala (family dog)
[show]
v
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e
(1896 ←) United States presidential election, 1900 (→ 1904)
Democratic Party
Convention
Nominee
William Jennings Bryan
VP nominee
Adlai Stevenson I
Candidates
George Dewey
Republican Party
Convention
Nominee
William McKinley
VP nominee
Theodore Roosevelt
[show]
Third party and independent candidates
Prohibition Party
Nominee
John G. Woolley
VP nominee
Henry B. Metcalf
Social Democratic Party
Nominee
Eugene V. Debs
VP nominee
Job Harriman
Populist Party
Nominee
Wharton Barker
VP nominee
Ignatius L. Donnelly
Socialist Labor Party
Nominee
Joseph Francis Malloney
VP nominee
Valentine Remmel
Other 1900 elections: House
Senate
[show]
v
t
e
(1900 ←) United States presidential election, 1904 (→ 1908)
Democratic Party
Convention
Nominee
Alton B. Parker
VP nominee
Henry G. Davis
Candidates
William Randolph Hearst
Republican Party
Convention
Nominee
Theodore Roosevelt
VP nominee
Charles W. Fairbanks
Candidates
Mark Hanna
[show]
Third party and independent candidates
Socialist Party
Nominee
Eugene V. Debs
VP nominee
Ben Hanford
Prohibition Party
Nominee
Silas C. Swallow
VP nominee
George W. Carroll
Populist Party
Nominee
Thomas E. Watson
VP nominee
Thomas Tibbles
Socialist Labor Party
Nominee
Charles Hunter Corregan
VP nominee
William Wesley Cox
Other 1904 elections: House
Senate
[show]
v
t
e
(1908 ←) United States presidential election, 1912 (→ 1916)
Democratic Party
Convention
Nominee
Woodrow Wilson
VP nominee
Thomas R. Marshall
Candidates
Champ Clark
Judson Harmon
Oscar Underwood
Thomas R. Marshall
Eugene Foss
Republican Party
Convention
Nominee
William Howard Taft
VP nominee
Nicholas Murray Butler
Candidates
Theodore Roosevelt
Robert M. La Follette, Sr.
Progressive Party
Convention
Nominee
Theodore Roosevelt
VP nominee
Hiram Johnson
Socialist Party
Nominee
Eugene V. Debs
VP nominee
Emil Seidel
[show]
Third party and independent candidates
Prohibition Party
Nominee
Eugene W. Chafin
VP nominee
Aaron S. Watkins
Socialist Labor Party
Nominee
Arthur E. Reimer
VP nominee
August Gillhaus
Other 1912 elections: House
Senate
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 44346731
LCCN: n79027239
ISNI: 0000 0001 2130 3885
GND: 118749633
SELIBR: 346541
SUDOC: 027419665
BNF: cb122070908 (data)
BIBSYS: 90147444
ULAN: 500329597
MusicBrainz: 78d3ca64-9e25-4c12-803f-b6455d8c74e5
NLA: 35461165
NDL: 00535439
NKC: jn20000701526
US Congress: R000429
BNE: XX1036126
KulturNav: 2207bc11-fcf5-4afe-a4ff-9ad41154ab66
IATH: w67h1h16
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodore_Roosevelt&oldid=808446526"
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