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Mexican War of Independence
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See also: Spanish American wars of independence
See also: Celebration of Mexican political anniversaries in 2010
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Mexican War of Independence
Part of the Spanish American wars of independence

Clockwise from top left: Miguel Hidalgo, José María Morelos, Embrace of Acatempan between Iturbide and Guerrero, Trigarante Army in Mexico City, Mural of independence by O'Gorman
Date
16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821
(11 years, 1 week and 4 days)
Location
Mexico
Result
Mexican independence
First Mexican Empire gains independence from Spain
Signing of the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire
Territorial
changes
Spain loses the continental area of Viceroyalty of New Spain
Belligerents
Insurgents
Army of the Three Guarantees (1821)
Spanish Empire
Mexican royalists
Commanders and leaders
Miguel Hidalgo (1810–11)
Ignacio Allende (1810–11)
Ignacio López R. † (1810–11)
José María Morelos (1810–15)
Vicente Guerrero (1810–21)
Mariano Matamoros (1811–14)
Guadalupe Victoria (1812–21)
Francisco Xavier
Mina
(1817)
Agustín de Iturbide (1821) Ferdinand VII
Francisco Venegas (1810–13)
Félix María Calleja (1813–16)
Juan Ruiz de A. (1816–21)
Francisco Novella (1821)
Juan O'Donojú (1821)
Strength
100,000 irregular
23,100 regular 17,000
Casualties and losses
2,000 killed
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Mexican War
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The Mexican War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de Independencia de México) was an armed conflict, and the culmination of a political and social process which ended the rule of Spain in 1821 in the territory of New Spain. The war had its antecedent in Napoleon's French invasion of Spain in 1808; it extended from the Grito de Dolores by Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla on September 16, 1810, to the entrance of the Army of the Three Guarantees led by Agustín de Iturbide to Mexico City on September 27, 1821. September 16 is celebrated as Mexican Independence Day.
The movement for independence was inspired by the Age of Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions. By that time the educated elite of New Spain had begun to reflect on the relations between Spain and its colonial kingdoms. Changes in the social and political structure occasioned by Bourbon Reforms and a deep economic crisis in New Spain caused discomfort among the native-born Creole elite.
The dramatic political events in Europe, the French Revolutionary Wars and the conquests of Napoleon deeply influenced events in New Spain. In 1808, Charles IV and Ferdinand VII were forced to abdicate in favor of the French Emperor, who then made his elder brother Joseph king. The same year, the ayuntamiento (city council) of Mexico City, supported by viceroy José de Iturrigaray, claimed sovereignty in the absence of the legitimate king. That led to a coup against the viceroy; when it was suppressed, the leaders of the movement were jailed.
Despite the defeat in Mexico City, small groups of rebels met in other cities of New Spain to raise movements against colonial rule. In 1810, after being discovered, Querétaro conspirators chose to take up arms on September 16 in the company of peasants and indigenous inhabitants of Dolores (Guanajuato), who were called to action by the secular Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo, former rector of the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo.
After 1810 the independence movement went through several stages, as leaders were imprisoned or executed by forces loyal to Spain. At first they[who?] recognized the sovereignty of Ferdinand VII over Spain and its colonies, but later the leaders took more radical positions, including such issues of social order as the abolition of slavery. Secular priest José María Morelos called the separatist provinces to form the Congress of Chilpancingo, which gave the insurgency its own legal framework. After the defeat of Morelos, the movement survived as a guerrilla war under the leadership of Vicente Guerrero. By 1820, the few rebel groups survived most notably in the Sierra Madre del Sur and Veracruz.
The reinstatement of the liberal Constitution of Cadiz in 1820 caused a change of mind among the elite groups who had supported Spanish rule. Monarchist Creoles affected by the constitution decided to support the independence of New Spain; they sought an alliance with the former insurgent resistance. Agustín de Iturbide led the military arm of the conspirators and in early 1821 he met Vicente Guerrero. Both proclaimed the Plan of Iguala, which called for the union of all insurgent factions and was supported by both the aristocracy and clergy of New Spain. It called for monarchy in an independent Mexico. Finally, the independence of Mexico was achieved on September 27, 1821.
After that, the mainland of New Spain was organized as the Mexican Empire. This ephemeral Catholic monarchy changed to a federal republic in 1823, due to internal conflicts and the separation of Central America from Mexico.
After some Spanish reconquest attempts, including the expedition of Isidro Barradas in 1829, Spain under the rule of Isabella II recognized the independence of Mexico in 1836.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 First phase of the insurgency: the Hidalgo revolt
3 Second phase of the insurgency and independence
4 Construction of Historical Memory of Independence
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Background
Mexican resistance and struggle for independence began with the brutal Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire when Spanish conquerors had considerable autonomy from crown control. Don Martín Cortés (son of Hernán Cortés), the second marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, led a conspiracy of holders of encomiendas against the Spanish crown after it sought to eliminate privileges for the conquistadors, particularly putting limitations on encomiendas.[1] After the suppression of that mid-16th-century conspiracy, elites raised no substantial challenge to royal rule until the Hidalgo revolt of 1810.
Elites in Mexico City in the seventeenth century did force the removal of a reformist viceroy, the Marqués de Gelves, following an urban riot in 1624 fomented by those elites. He attempted to eliminate corrupt practices by creole elites as well as rein in the opulent displays of the clergy's power, but ecclesiastical authorities in conjunction with creole elites mobilized urban plebeians to oust the viceroy.[2][3] The crowd was reported to shout, "Long live the King! Love live Christ! Death to bad government! Death to the heretic Lutheran [Viceroy Gelves]! Arrest the viceroy!" The attack was against Gelves as a bad representative of the crown and not against the monarchy or colonial rule itself.[4]
There was also a brief conspiracy in the mid-seventeenth century to unite creole elites, blacks, and indigenous against the Spanish crown and proclaim Mexican independence. The man pushing this notion called himself Don Guillén Lampart y Guzmán, an Irishman born William Lamport. Lamport's conspiracy was discovered, and he was arrested by the Inquisition in 1642, and executed fifteen years later for sedition. There is a statue of Lamport in the mauseleum at the base of the Angel of Independence in Mexico City.
At the end of the seventeenth century, there was a major riot in Mexico City where a mob attempted to burn down the viceroy's palace and the archbishop's residence. A painting by Cristóbal Villalpando shows the damage of the 1692 tumulto. Unlike the earlier one in 1624 in which elites were involved, the viceroy ousted, and no repercussions against the instigators, the 1692 riot was by plebeians alone and racially charged. The rioters attacked key symbols of Spanish power and shouted political slogans. "Kill the [American-born] Spaniards and the Gachupines [Iberian-born Spaniards] who eat our corn! We go to war happily! God wants us to finish off the Spaniards! We do not care if we die without confession! Is this not our land?"[5] The viceroy attempted to address the apparent cause of the riot, a rise of maize prices that affected the urban poor. But the 1692 riot "represented class warfare that put Spanish authority at risk. Punishment was swift and brutal, and no further riots in the capital challenged the Pax Hispanica."[6]
The various indigenous rebellions in the colonial era were often to throw off crown rule, but they were not an independence movement as such. However, during the war of independence, issues at the local level in rural areas constituted what one historian has called "the other rebellion."[7]
American-born Spaniards in New Spain developed a special understanding and ties to their New World homeland, what has been seen the formation of Creole patriotism. They did not, however, pursue political independence from Spain until the Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian peninsula and defeat of Spain destabilized the monarchy.[8][9] With the implementation of the Bourbon Reforms starting in the mid-eighteenth century, the Spanish crown sought to impose restrictions on creole elites.
In the early 19th century, Napoleon's occupation of Spain led to an outbreak of numerous revolts against colonial government across Spanish America. After the abortive Conspiracy of the Machetes in 1799, a massive revolt in the Bajío region was led by secular cleric Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla.[10] His Grito de Dolores was the first stage of the insurgency for Mexican independence.[10][11] Before 1810, there was no significant support for independence. Once the Hidalgo revolt was underway, it received major support only in the Bajío and parts of Jalisco.[12]
First phase of the insurgency: the Hidalgo revolt
See also: Cry of Dolores
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, by José Clemente Orozco, Jalisco Governmental Palace, Guadalajara.
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a priest and member of a group of educated Criollos in Querétaro City, hosted secret gatherings in his home to discuss whether it was better to obey or to revolt against a tyrannical government, as he defined the Spanish colonial government in Mexico. Famed military leader Ignacio Allende was among the attendees. In 1810 Hidalgo concluded that a revolt was needed because of injustices against the poor of Mexico. By this time Hidalgo was known for his achievements at the prestigious San Nicolás Obispo school in Valladolid (now Morelia), and later service there as rector. He also became known as a top theologian. When his older brother died in 1803, Hidalgo took over as priest for the town of Dolores.[13]
Hidalgo was in Dolores on 15 September 1810, with other rebel leaders including commander Allende, when they learned their conspiracy had been discovered. Hidalgo ran to the church, calling for all the people to gather, where from the pulpit he called upon them to revolt. They all shouted in agreement. The people were a comparatively small group, and poorly armed with whatever was at hand, including sticks and rocks. On the morning of 16 September 1810, Hidalgo called upon the remaining locals who happened to be in the market, and again, from the pulpit, exhorted the people of Dolores to join him. Most did: Hidalgo had a mob of some 600 men within minutes. This became known as the Grito de Dolores or Cry of Dolores.
Hidalgo and Allende marched their little army through towns including San Miguel and Celaya, where the angry rebels killed all the Spaniards they found. Along the way they adopted the standard of the Virgin of Guadalupe as their symbol and protector. When they reached the town of Guanajuato on September 28, they found Spanish forces barricaded inside the public granary. Among them were some 'forced' Royalists, creoles who had served and sided with the Spanish. By this time, the rebels numbered 30,000 and the battle was horrific. They killed more than 500 Spanish and creoles, and marched on toward Mexico City.
The Viceroy quickly organized a defense, sending out the Spanish general Torcuato Trujillo with 1,000 men, 400 horsemen, and 2 cannons - all that could be found on such short notice. On October 30, Hidalgo's army encountered Spanish military resistance at the Battle of Monte de las Cruces, fought them, and achieved victory. When the cannons were captured by the rebels, the surviving Royalists retreated to the City.
Despite having the advantage, Hidalgo retreated, against the counsel of Allende. This retreat, on the verge of apparent victory, has puzzled historians and biographers ever since. They generally believe that Hidalgo wanted to spare the numerous Mexican citizens in Mexico City from the inevitable sacking and plunder that would have ensued. His retreat is considered Hidalgo's greatest tactical error.[13]
Rebel survivors sought refuge in nearby provinces and villages. The insurgent forces planned a defensive strategy at a bridge on the Calderón River, pursued by the Spanish army. In January 1811, Spanish forces fought the Battle of the Bridge of Calderón and defeated the insurgent army, forcing the rebels to flee towards the United States–Mexican border, where they hoped to escape.[14]
But they were intercepted by the Spanish army. Hidalgo and his remaining soldiers were captured in the state of Coahuila at the Wells of Baján (Norias de Baján). All of the rebel leaders were found guilty of treason and sentenced to death, except for Mariano Abasolo. He was sent to Spain to serve a life sentence in prison. Allende, Jiménez and Aldama were executed on 26 June 1811, shot in the back as a sign of dishonor. Hidalgo, as a priest, had to undergo a civil trial and review by the Inquisition. He was eventually stripped of his priesthood, found guilty, and executed on 30 July. The heads of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jiménez were preserved and hung from the four corners of the granary of Guanajuato as a warning to those who dared follow in their footsteps.
Father José María Morelos
Following the execution of Hidalgo, José María Morelos took over leadership of the insurgency. He achieved the occupation of the cities of Oaxaca and Acapulco. In 1813, he convened the Congress of Chilpancingo to bring representatives together and, on 6 November of that year, the Congress signed the first official document of independence, known as the "Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America". A long period of war followed in the Siege of Cuautla. In 1815, Morelos was captured by Spanish colonial authorities, tried and executed for treason.[15]
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Father Hidalgo is today remembered as the Father of his Country, the great hero of Mexico's War for Independence. There are numerous hagiographic biographies of him.
The truth about Hidalgo is more complex. His was the first serious insurrection on Mexican soil against Spanish authority, and his achievements with his poorly armed mob were significant. He was a charismatic leader and worked well with Allende despite their differences. But Hidalgo's shortcomings make historians ask, "What if?" After decades of abuse of Creoles and poor mestizos, Hidalgo found that there was a vast well of resentment and hatred of the Spanish government. He provided the catalyst for Mexico's poor to vent their anger on the hated "gachipines" or Spaniards, but his "army" was impossible to manage or control.[citation needed]
His leadership decisions, most importantly his retreat from Mexico City, contributed to his defeat. Historians can only speculate about the result if Hidalgo had pushed into Mexico City in November 1810. Hidalgo appeared to be too proud or stubborn to listen to the sound military advice offered by Allende and others and press his advantage.[citation needed]
Finally, Hidalgo's approval of the violent sacking and looting by his forces in Guanajuato and other towns alienated the group most vital to any independence movement: middle-class and wealthy creoles like himself. They were needed to develop a new identity and government for Mexico, one that would allow Mexicans to break from Spain.[citation needed]
Hidalgo achieved mythic status after his death. His martyrdom was an example to others who picked up the fallen banner of freedom and independence. He influenced later fighters such as José María Morelos, Guadalupe Victoria and others. Today, Hidalgo's remains are held in a Mexico City monument known as "the Angel of Independence", along with other Revolutionary heroes.[citation needed]
Second phase of the insurgency and independence
Oil painting of Agustín de Iturbide, leader of independence who was declared Emperor Augustín I, in 1822 following independence
Flag of the Army of the Three Guarantees
Portrait of Vicente Guerrero, mixed-race guerrilla leader of independence and later president of Mexico
From 1815 to 1821 most of the fighting for independence from Spain was done by small and isolated guerrilla bands. From these, two leaders arose: Guadalupe Victoria (born José Miguel Fernández y Félix) in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca, both of whom gained allegiance and respect from their followers. Believing the situation under control, the Spanish viceroy issued a general pardon to every rebel who would lay down his arms. After ten years of civil war and the death of two of its founders, by early 1820 the independence movement was stalemated and close to collapse. The rebels faced stiff Spanish military resistance and the apathy of many of the most influential criollos.[16]
In what was supposed to be the final government campaign against the insurgents, in December 1820, Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent a force led by a royalist criollo Colonel Agustín de Iturbide, to defeat Guerrero's army in Oaxaca. Iturbide, a native of Valladolid (now Morelia), had gained renown for his zeal against Hidalgo's and Morelos's rebels during the early independence struggle. A favorite of the Mexican church hierarchy, Iturbide symbolized conservative criollo values; he was devoutly religious, and committed to the defense of property rights and social privileges. He also resented his lack of promotion and failure to gain wealth.[17]
Iturbide's assignment to the Oaxaca expedition coincided with a successful military coup in Spain against the monarchy of Ferdinand VII. The coup leaders, part of an expeditionary force assembled to suppress the independence movements in the Americas, had turned against the monarchy. They compelled the reluctant Ferdinand to reinstate the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 that created a constitutional monarchy. When news of the liberal charter reached Mexico, Iturbide perceived it both as a threat to the status quo and a catalyst to rouse the criollos to gain control of Mexico. Independence was achieved when conservative Royalist forces in the colonies chose to rise up against the liberal regime in Spain; it was an about-face compared to their previous opposition to the peasant insurgency. After an initial clash with Guerrero's forces, Iturbide assumed command of the royal army. At Iguala, he allied his formerly royalist force with Guerrero’s radical insurgents to discuss the renewed struggle for independence.
While stationed in the town of Iguala, Iturbide proclaimed three principles, or "guarantees," for Mexican independence from Spain. Mexico would be an independent monarchy governed by King Ferdinand, another Bourbon prince, or some other conservative European prince; criollos would be given equal rights and privileges to peninsulares; and the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico would retain its privileges and position as the established religion of the land. After convincing his troops to accept the principles, which were promulgated on February 24, 1821 as the Plan of Iguala, Iturbide persuaded Guerrero to join his forces in support of this conservative independence movement. A new army, the Army of the Three Guarantees, was placed under Iturbide's command to enforce the Plan of Iguala. The plan was so broadly based that it pleased both patriots and loyalists. The goal of independence and the protection of Roman Catholicism brought together all factions.[18]
Iturbide's army was joined by rebel forces from all over Mexico. When the rebels' victory became certain, the Viceroy resigned. On August 24, 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown and Iturbide signed the Treaty of Córdoba, which recognized Mexican independence under the Plan of Iguala.[19] On September 27, 1821 the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City, and the following day Iturbide proclaimed the independence of the Mexican Empire, as New Spain was henceforth to be called. The Treaty of Córdoba was not ratified by the Spanish Cortes. Iturbide included a special clause in the treaty that left open the possibility for a criollo monarch to be appointed by a Mexican congress if no suitable member of the European royalty would accept the Mexican crown. Half of the new government employees appointed were Iturbide's followers.[20]
Flag of the Mexican Empire of Iturbide, the template for the modern Mexican flag with the eagle perched on a cactus. The crown on the eagle's head symbolizes monarchy in Mexico.
On the night of the May 18, 1822, a mass demonstration led by the Regiment of Celaya, which Iturbide had commanded during the war, marched through the streets and demanded their commander-in-chief to accept the throne. The following day, the congress declared Iturbide emperor of Mexico. On October 31, 1822 Iturbide dissolved Congress and replaced it with a sympathetic junta.[21]
Construction of Historical Memory of Independence
See also: Celebration of Mexican political anniversaries in 2010
In 1910, as part of the celebrations marking the centennial of the Hidalgo revolt of 1810, President Porfirio Díaz inaugurated the monument to Mexico's political separation from Spain, the Angel of Independence on Avenida Reforma. The creation of this architectural monument is part of the long process of the construction of historical memory of Mexican independence.
Although Mexico gained its independence in September 1821, the marking of this historical event did not take hold immediately. The choice of date to celebrate was problematic, because Iturbide, who achieved independence from Spain, was rapidly created emperor of Mexico. His short-lived reign from 1821–22 ended when he was forced by the military to abdicate. This was a rocky start for the new nation, which made celebrating independence on the anniversary of Iturbide's Army of the Three Guarantees marching into Mexico City in triumph a less than perfect day for those who had opposed him. Celebrations of independence during his reign were marked on September 27. Following his ouster, there were calls to commemorate Mexican independence along the lines that the United States celebrated in grand style its Independence Day on July 4. The creation of a committee of powerful men to mark independence celebrations, the Junta Patriótica, organized celebrations of both September 16, to commemorate Hidalgo's grito and the start of the independence insurgency, and September 27, to celebrate actual political independence.[22]
During the Díaz regime (1876–1911), the president's birthday coincided with the September 15/16 celebration of independence. The largest celebrations took place and continue to do so in the capital's main square, the zócalo, with the peeling of the Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City's bells. In the 1880s, government officials attempted to move the bell that Hidalgo rang in 1810 to gather parishioners in Dolores for what became his famous "grito". Initially the pueblo's officials said the bell no longer existed, but in 1896, the bell, known as the Bell of San José, was taken to the capital. It was renamed the "Bell of Independence" and ritually rung by Díaz. It is now an integral part of Independence Day festivities.[23]
See also
Spanish American wars of independence portal
Mexico portal
Afro-Mexicans in the Mexican War of Independence
List of wars involving Mexico
Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico
References
Jump up ^ John Charles Chasteen. Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America. New York, Norton, 2001. ISBN 978-0-393-97613-7
Jump up ^ Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador, The Early History of Greater Mexico. Prentice Hall 2003, pp. 246-247.
Jump up ^ Jonathan I. Israel. Race, Class, and Politics in Colonial Mexico, 1610-1670. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1975.
Jump up ^ Altman et al, The Early History of Greater Mexico, p. 247.
Jump up ^ quoted in Altman et al, The Early History of Greater Mexico, p. 248.
Jump up ^ Altman et al, The Early History of Greater Mexico, p. 249.
Jump up ^ Eric Van Young, The Other Rebellion: Popular Violence, Ideology, and the Mexican Struggle for Independence, 1810-1821. Stanford: Stanfor University Press 2001.
Jump up ^ D.A. Brading, The First America: the Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492-1867. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 1991.
Jump up ^ John Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750-1940. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1986.
^ Jump up to: a b Hugh Hamill, The Hidalgo Revolt. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1966, pp. 90-94.
Jump up ^ John Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution, pp. 126-138.
Jump up ^ Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution, pp. 138-183.
^ Jump up to: a b Robert Harvey (2000). Liberators: Latin America's Struggle For Independence. Woodstock: The Overlook Press.
Jump up ^ Philip Young. History of Mexico: Her Civil Wars and Colonial and Revolutionary Annals. Gardners Books, [1847] 2007, pp. 84-86. ISBN 978-0-548-32604-6
Jump up ^ Leslie Bethell (1987). The Independence of Latin America. Cambridge University Press. p. 65.
Jump up ^ Timothy J. Henderson (2009). The Mexican Wars for Independence. pp. 115–16.
Jump up ^ .Christon I. Archer, "Royalist Scourge or Liberator of the Patria? Agustín de Iturbide and Mexico's War of Independence, 1810-1821," Mexican Studies / Estudios Mexicanos (2008) 24#2 pp 325-361
Jump up ^ Michael S. Werner (2001). Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico. Taylor & Francis. pp. 308–9.
Jump up ^ Nettie Lee Benson (1992). The Provincial Deputation in Mexico: Harbinger of Provincial Autonomy, Independence, and Federalism. University of Texas Press. p. 42.
Jump up ^ Philip Russell (2011). The History of Mexico: From Pre-Conquest to Present. Routledge. p. 132.
Jump up ^ Christon I. Archer (2007). The Birth of Modern Mexico, 1780-1824. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 220.
Jump up ^ Michael Costeloe, "The Junta Patriótica and the Celebration of Independence in Mexico City, 1825-1855" in !Viva Mexico! !Viva la Independencia! Celebrations of September 16, eds. William H. Beezley and David E. Lorey. Wilmington: SR Books 2001, pp. 44-45.
Jump up ^ Isabel Fernández Tejedo and Carmen Nava Nava, "Images of Independence in the Nineteenth Century: The 'Grito de Dolores', History and Myth" in !Viva Mexico! !Viva la Independencia! Celebrations of September 16, eds. William H. Beezley and David E. Lorey. Wilmington: SR Books 2001, pp. 33-34.
Further reading
Anna, Timothy E. (1978). The Fall of Royal Government in Mexico City. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-0957-6.
Beezley, William H. and David E. Lorey, eds. !Viva Mexico! !Viva la Independencia!: Celebrations of September 16. Wilmington DL: Scholarly Resources Books 2001.
Benjamin, Thomas. (2000). Revolución: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth, and History (University of Texas Press). ISBN 978-0-292-70880-8
Christon I. Archer, ed. (2003). The Birth of Modern Mexico. Willmington, Delaware: SR Books. ISBN 0-8420-5126-0.
Dominguez, Jorge. Insurrection or Loyalty: the Breakdown of the Spanish American Empire. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1980.
García, Pedro. Con el cura Hidalgo en la guerra de independencia en México. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1982.
Hamill, Jr. Hugh M. "Early Psychological Warfare in the Hidalgo Revolt," Hispanic American Historical Review (1961) 41#2 pp. 206–235 in JSTOR
Hamill, Hugh M. (1966). The Hidalgo Revolt: Prelude to Mexican Independence. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.
Hamnett, Brian R. (1986). Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions, 1750–1824. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521-3214-88.
Hamnett, Brian. "Royalist Counterinsurgency and the Continuity of Rebellion: Guanajuato and Michoacán, 1813-1820" Hispanic American Historical Review 62(1)February 1982, pp. 19–48.
Knight, Alan (2002). Mexico: The Colonial Era. Cambridge University Press.
Timmons, Wilbert H. (1963). Morelos: Priest, Soldier, Statesman of Mexico. El Paso: Texas Western College Press.
Jaime E. Rodríguez O, ed. (1989). The Independence of Mexico and the Creation of the New Nation. UCLA Latin American Studies. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications. ISBN 978-0-87903-070-4.
Tutino, John. From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750-1940. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1986.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mexican_War_of_Independence&oldid=815529599"
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values: ომი მექსიკის დამოუკიდებლობისათვის – Georgian

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text:
Krishna (TV series)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Shri Krishna[1]
Created by
Ramanand Sagar
Starring
Sarvadaman D. Banerjee
Swapnil Joshi
Pinky parikh
Country of origin
India
Original language(s)
Hindi
No. of episodes
221
Production
Running time
45 minutes
Release
Original network
Doordarshan
Original release
1993 (1993) – 1996 (1996)
Krishna (also called Shri Krishna) is an Indian television series created, written, and directed by Ramanand Sagar. The series originally aired weekly on Doordarshan. It is an adaptation of the stories of the life of Krishna, based on Bhagavat Puran, Brahma Vaivart Puran, Hari Vamsa, Vishnu Puran, Padma Puran, Garga Samhita, Bhagavad Gita & Mahabharat. The TV series was first broadcast on Doordarshan's Metro Channel (DD 2) from 1993. In 1996, the show was broadcast from the beginning on DD National. In 1999, the show moved to Zee where the remaining episodes were broadcast.
The entire series was re-telecast on Sony starting 2001 and later on Star.
This series is now being re-telecasted on ShivaShakthiSai TV, a Telugu Devotional channel, from 15 January 2016.
This serial was also telecast in Mauritius by Mauritius Broadcasting Corporation, in Toronto on Channel 57, in Nepal on Nepal Television, in South Africa on M.Net, in Indonesia on P.T. Cipta Television, in Jakarta on Pendidikan, in Thailand on Channel 3 and in London on T.V.Asia (Satellite).
Contents
[hide]
1 Direction and casting
2 Cast
3 Awards
4 References
Direction and casting[edit]
Shri Krishna was produced by Ramanand Sagar, Subhash Sagar and Prem Sagar under the banner "Sagar Enterprises" and directed by Ramanand Sagar, Anand Sagar and Moti Sagar. The role of young Krishna was played by Swapnil Joshi and adult Krishna was played by Sarvadaman D. Banerjee.[2][3]
Ravindra Jain composed music for this serial. The title song, "Shree Krishna Govind Hare Murari" is popular not only in India but also around the world.
Cast[edit]
Sarvadaman D. Banerjee as Krishna / Vishnu
Prem Chand Sharma as Pandu / Nakul
Reshma Modi as Radha
Swapnil Joshi as Young Krishna
Deepak Deulkar as Balram
Pinky Parikh as Rukmini / Yamuna / Lakshmi / Durga
Mona Parekh as Jambavati
Shweta Rastogi as Young Radha
Vilas Raj as Kans
Paulomi Mukherjee as Devaki
Sunil Pandey as Vasudev
Deepak Dave / Sagar Saini as Narad
Vijay Kavish as Ugrasen
Pramod Kapoor as Akrura
Damini Kanwal as Yashoda
Sandeep Mohan as Arjun
Mahendra Murlidhar Ghule as Bhim / Hanuman
Raman Vedprakash Khatri as Yudhishthir
Govind Khatri as Karna
Falguni Parikh as Draupadi
Jyotin Dave as Indra
Jharna Dave as Bhanamati(Sambara's Maid)
Radha Krishna Dutt as Maharishi Uttang / Dev Shilpi Vishwakarma / Jarasandh
Mukul Nag as Sudama / Ashwatthama
Sheeba Chaddha as Vasundhara, Sudama's wife
Tarakesh Chauhan as Dhritarashtra
Raj Premi as Shishupal
Sonia Kapoor as Subhadra
Shashi Sharma as Satyabhama
Kumar Hegde as Duryodhan
Deepak Jethi as Dushasan
Gautam Chaturvedi as Pondrak
Anuj Sharma as Abhimanyu
Arun Mathur as Sambara
Lata Haya as Kunti
Basheer Khan as Bhamasura
Shivendra Mahal as Jarasandha
Shakti Singh as Banasura
Arvind Raosaraya as Kumbhketu (Sambara's son)
J.P.Sharma as Shakuni
Navneet Chauhan as Drona
Girish Pardesi as Kalayavana/Kama/Pradyumna
Deepanjali Pardesi as Rati
N.Jitendra as Shalya/Kashiraj/Kripa
Bhakti Nirula as Tara (Pondrak's Wife)
Ashok Singh(actor) as Mayasur(Sambara's Son)/Dwivid
Neel Kamal as Rajguru (Sambara's Priest)
Niharika Bhatt as Mayawati (Sambara's Wife)
Leela Patel as Gandhari
Vijay Sharma as Vidura
Awards[edit]
Shri Krishna won the Uptron Award for the "Best director" in the year 1995. The show was one of the biggest grossers for Doordarshan in the mid to late '90s. It earned over Rs 100 crore.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.sagartv.com/krishna.htm
Jump up ^ http://thegreatindianperformance.wordpress.com/2010/07/20/ramanand-sagars-shri-krishna-1994/
Jump up ^ http://krishnastore.com/sri-krishna-tv-series-part-15-dvd-set-h-krishna-1737.html
[hide]
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text:
Outboard motor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Basic parts of an outboard motor
An outboard motor is a propulsion system for boats, consisting of a self-contained unit that includes engine, gearbox and propeller or jet drive, designed to be affixed to the outside of the transom. They are the most common motorized method of propelling small watercraft. As well as providing propulsion, outboards provide steering control, as they are designed to pivot over their mountings and thus control the direction of thrust. The skeg also acts as a rudder when the engine is not running. Unlike inboard motors, outboard motors can be easily removed for storage or repairs.
Bolinder's two-cylinder Trim outboard engine.
A Mercury Marine 50 hp outboard engine, circa 1970s
1979 Evinrude 70 hp outboard, cowling and air silencer removed, exposing its shift/throttle/spark advance linkages, flywheel, and three carburetors
In order to eliminate the chances of hitting bottom with an outboard motor, the motor can be tilted up to an elevated position either electronically or manually. This helps when traveling through shallow waters where there may be debris that could potentially damage the motor as well as the propeller. If the electric motor required to move the pistons which raise or lower the engine is malfunctioning, every outboard motor is equipped with a manual piston release which will allow the operator to drop the motor down to its lowest setting.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 General uses
1.1 Large Outboards
1.2 Portable
1.3 Electric-powered
1.4 Pump-jet
1.5 Propane
2 History and developments
2.1 Four stroke outboards
2.2 Propane Outboards
3 Outboard motor selection
3.1 Power requirements
3.2 Shaft length
3.3 General Dimensions
4 Operational issues
4.1 Motor mounting height
4.2 Trim
4.3 Ventilation
4.4 Safety
4.5 Cooling System
4.5.1 Air cooled outboards
4.5.2 Closed loop cooling
5 Other Outboard Motoring Method
6 Manufacturers
6.1 Former manufacturers
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
10 Patents
General uses[edit]
A motorboat with an outboard motor attached to it
Large Outboards[edit]
Large outboards are usually bolted to the transom (or to a bracket bolted to the transom), and are linked to controls at the helm. These range from 2-, 3- and 4-cylinder models generating 15 to 135 horsepower suitable for hulls up to 17 feet (5.2 m) in length, to powerful V6 and V8 cylinder blocks rated up to 557 hp (415 kW).,[2] with sufficient power to be used on boats of 37 feet (11 m) or longer.
Portable[edit]
Small outboard motors, up to 15 horsepower or so are easily portable. They are affixed to the boat via clamps, and thus easily moved from boat to boat. These motors typically use a manual start system, with throttle and gearshift controls mounted on the body of the motor, and a tiller for steering. The smallest of these weigh as little as 12 kilograms (26 lb), have integral fuel tanks, and provide sufficient power to move a small dinghy at around 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph) This type of motor is typically used:
to power small craft such as jon boats, dinghies, canoes, etc.
to provide auxiliary power for sailboats,
for trolling aboard larger craft, as small outboards are typically more efficient at trolling speeds. In this application, the motor is frequently installed on the transom alongside and connected to the primary outboard to enable helm steering. In addition many small motor manufacturers have begun offering variants with power trim/tilt and electric starting functions so that they may be completely controlled remotely.
Electric-powered[edit]
Commonly referred to as "trolling motors" or "electric outboard motors", electric outboards are used
on very small craft or on small lakes where gasoline motors are prohibited,
as a secondary means of propulsion on larger craft, and
as repositioning thrusters while fishing for bass and other freshwater species,
and any other application where their quietness, and ease of operation and zero emissions outweigh the speed and range deficiencies.
Pump-jet[edit]
Pump-jet propulsion is available as an option on most outboard motors. Although less efficient than an open propeller, they are particularly useful in applications where the ability to operate in very shallow water is important. They also eliminate the laceration dangers of an open propeller.
Propane[edit]
Propane outboard motors are available from several manufacturers. These products have several advantages such as lower emissions, lower cost of fuel, and no need for choke once the system is pressurized.[3]
History and developments[edit]
The first known outboard motor was a small 5 kilogram (11 lb) electric unit designed around 1870 by Gustave Trouvé,[4] and patented in May 1880 (Patent N° 136,560).[5] Later about 25 petrol powered outboards may have been produced in 1896 by American Motors Co[4]—but neither of these two pioneering efforts appear to have had much impact.
The Waterman outboard engine appears to be the first real gasoline-powered outboard offered for sale.[6] Developed by Cameron Waterman,[7] a young Yale Engineering student, it was developed from 1903, with a patent application filed in 1905[8] Starting in 1906,[9][10] the company went on to make thousands of his "Porto-Motor"[11] units,[12] claiming 25,000 sales by 1914.[13] The inboard boat motor firm of Caille Motor Company of Detroit were instrumental in making the cylinder and engines.
The most successful early outboard motor,[12] was created by Norwegian-American inventor Ole Evinrude in 1909.[14] Between 1909 and 1912, Evinrude made thousands of his outboards and the three horse units were sold around the world. His Evinrude Outboard Co. was spun off to other owners, and he went on to success after starting the ELTO company to produce a two-cylinder motor - ELTO stood for Evinrude Light Twin Outboard. The 1920s were the first high-water mark for the outboard with Evinrude, Johnson, ELTO, Atwater Lockwood and dozens of other makers in the field.
Historically, a majority of outboards have been two-stroke powerheads fitted with a carburetor due to the design's inherent simplicity, reliability, low cost and light weight. Drawbacks include increased pollution, due to the high volume of unburned gasoline and oil in their exhaust, and louder noise.
Four stroke outboards[edit]
Although four stroke outboards have been sold since the late 1920s, particularly Roness and Sharland, in 1962 Homelite introduced a commercially viable four cycle outboard a 55-horsepower motor, based on the 4 cylinder Crosley automobile engine. This was called the Bearcat that was later purchased by Fischer-Pierce who are the makers of Boston Whaler for use in their boats because of their technical superiority and efficiency over two strokes. In 1964, Honda Motor Co. introduced its first four-stroke powerhead.[15] In 1984, Yamaha introduced their first four-stroke powerhead. These motors were only available in the smaller horsepower range. In 1990 Honda released 35 hp and 45 hp four-stroke models. They continued to lead in the development of four-stroke engines throughout the 1990s as US and European exhaust emissions regulations such as CARB (California Air Resources Board) led to the proliferation of four-stroke outboards. At first, North American manufacturers such as Mercury and OMC used engine technology from Japanese manufacturers such as Yamaha and Suzuki until they were able to develop their own four-stroke engine. The inherent advantages of four-stroke motors included: lower pollution (especially oil in the water), noise reduction, increase fuel economy, increased low end torque, and smoother operation.
Honda Marine Group, Mercury Marine, Mercury Racing, Nissan Marine, Suzuki Marine, Tohatsu Outboards, Yamaha Marine, and China Oshen-Hyfong marine have all developed new four-stroke engines. Some are carburetted, usually the smaller engines. The balance are electronically fuel-injected. Depending on the manufacturer, newer engines benefit from advanced technology such as multiple valves per cylinder, variable camshaft timing (Honda's VTEC), boosted low end torque (Honda's BLAST), 3-way cooling systems, and closed loop fuel injection. Mercury Verado four-strokes are unique in that they are supercharged.
Mercury Marine, Mercury Racing, Tohatsu, Yamaha Marine, Nissan and Evinrude each developed computer-controlled direct-injected two-stroke engines. Each brand boasts a different method of DI.
Fuel economy on both direct injected and four-stroke outboards measures from a 10 percent to 80 percent improvement, compared with conventional two-strokes. Depending on rpm and load at cruising speeds, figure on about a 30 percent mileage improvement.[16]
Propane Outboards[edit]
In 2012, Lehr inc. Produced the first line of propane powered outboards. Designer Bernardo J. Herzer marked these outboards as low cost, green, and low maintenance. The first models included a 5 hp option and a 2.5 hp option. Since their introduction, Tohatsu has released their own 5hp versions. The Lehr original currently offers sizes ranging from the original 2.5 hp to 40 hp. Propane's advantages over gasoline include increased fuel stability, lower emissions, and reliability.
Outboard motor selection[edit]
It is important to select a motor that is a good match for the hull in terms of power and shaft length.
Power requirements[edit]
Overpowering is a dangerous condition that can lead to the transom accelerating past the rest of the vessel[17] and underpowering often results in a boat that is incapable of performing in the role for which it was acquired. Boats built in the U.S. have a Coast Guard Rating Plate which specifies the maximum recommended horsepower for the hull. A motor with less than 75% of the maximum will most likely result in unsatisfactory performance.
Shaft length[edit]
Outboard motor shaft lengths are standardized to fit 15-inch, 20-inch and 25-inch transoms. If the shaft is too long it will extend farther into the water than necessary creating drag, which will impair performance and fuel economy. If the shaft is too short, the motor will be prone to ventilation. Even worse, if the water intake ports on the lower unit are not sufficiently submerged, engine overheating is likely, which can result in severe damage.
General Dimensions[edit]
Different outboard engine brands require different transom dimensions and sizes, that affects performance and trim.
Outboard Brand - Model
Transom Angle
Max Transom Thickness
Transom To Bulkhead
Yamaha - F350 12° 712 mm
Yamaha – F300 12° 712 mm
EVINRUDE – DE 300 14° 68.58 mm
EVINRUDE - G2 300 HP 14°
SUZUKI – DF 300 AP 14° 81 mm
MERCURY – 300 HP 14°
LEHR - 5.0HP 14°
LEHR - 2.5HP 14°
Operational issues[edit]
Motor mounting height[edit]
Motor height on the transom is an important factor in achieving optimal performance. The motor should be as high as possible without ventilating or loss of water pressure. This minimizes the effect of hydrodynamic drag while underway, allowing for greater speed. Generally, the antiventilation plate should be about the same height as, or up to two inches higher than, the keel, with the motor in neutral trim.
Trim[edit]
Trim is the angle of the motor in relation to the hull, as illustrated below. The ideal trim angle is the one in which the boat rides level, with most of the hull on the surface instead of plowing through the water.

If the motor is trimmed out too far, the bow will ride too high in the water. With too little trim, the bow rides too low. The optimal trim setting will vary depending on many factors including speed, hull design, weight and balance, and conditions on the water (wind and waves). Many large outboards are equipped with power trim, an electric motor on the mounting bracket, with a switch at the helm that enables the operator to adjust the trim angle on the fly. In this case, the motor should be trimmed fully in to start, and trimmed out (with an eye on the tachometer) as the boat gains momentum, until it reaches the point just before ventilation begins or further trim adjustment results in an RPM increase with no increase in speed. Motors not equipped with power trim are manually adjustable using a pin called a topper tilt lock.
Ventilation[edit]
Ventilation is a phenomenon that occurs when surface air or exhaust gas (in the case of motors equipped with through-hub exhaust) is drawn into the spinning propeller blades. With the propeller pushing mostly air instead of water, the load on the engine is greatly reduced, causing the engine to race and the propeller to spin fast enough to result in cavitation, at which point little thrust is generated at all. The condition continues until the prop slows enough for the air bubbles to rise to the surface.[18] The primary causes of ventilation are: motor mounted too high, motor trimmed out excessively, damage to the antiventilation plate, damage to propeller, foreign object lodged in the diffuser ring.
Safety[edit]
If the helmsman goes overboard, the boat may continue under power but uncontrolled, risking serious or fatal injuries to the helmsman and others in the water. A safety measure is a "kill cord" attached to the boat and helmsman, which cuts the motor if the helmsman falls overboard.[19]
Cooling System[edit]
Rotor of the impeller pump (cooling system) of an outboard motor
The most common type of cooling used on outboards of all eras use a rubber impeller to pump water from below the waterline up into the engine. This design has remained the standard due mainly to the efficiency and simplicity of its design. One disadvantage to this system is that if the impeller is run dry for a length of time (such as leaving the engine running when pulling the boat out of the water or in some cases tilting the engine out of the water while running), the impeller is likely to be ruined in the process.
Air cooled outboards[edit]
Air cooled outboard engines are currently produced by some manufacturers, these tend to be small engines of less than 5 horsepower. Outboard engines made by Briggs & Stratton are air-cooled[20]
Closed loop cooling[edit]
Outboards manufactured by Seven Marine use a closed-loop cooling system with heat exchanger. This means saltwater is not pumped through the engine block as is the case with most outboards but still has to be pumped through the heat exchanger
Other Outboard Motoring Method[edit]
Vietnamese-style "Shrimp Tail Outboard Motor" Schematic. Design probably adapted decades ago from predecessors of Kohler Long tail Outboard Motor.
In Vietnam and perhaps other parts of South East Asia such as Thailand, designs perhaps adapted from the predecessors of one such as this Kohler Long Tail,[21] using locally materials are used until the present. In Vietnam, they are called "May Duoi Tom"(Shrimp Tail Motor). The outboard motors, which can be smallish air-cooled or water-cooled gasoline, diesel or even modified automotive engines, are bolted to a welded steel tube frame, with another long steel tube up to 3 m long to hold the drive shaft, driving a conventional looking propeller. The frame that holds the motor has a short, swiveling steel pin/tube approximately 15 cm long underneath, to be inserted into a corresponding hole on the transom, or a solid block or wood purposely built-in thereof.,[22][23][24][25][26] This drop-in arrangement enables extremely quick transfer of the motor to another boat or for storage - all that is needed is to lift it out. The pivoting design allows the outboard motor to be swiveled by the operator in almost all directions: Sideways for direction, up and down to change the thrust line according to speed or bow lift, elevate completely out of water for easy starting, placing the drive shaft and the propeller forward along the side of the boat for reverse, or put them inside the boat for propeller replacement, which can be a regular occurrence to the cheap cast aluminum propellers on the often debris-prone inland waterways. This design is utilized to propel Long-tail boats.
Manufacturers[edit]
Aquawatt Electric Outboard Motor
Bolinder[27]
Briggs & Stratton - USA - Up to 5 hp
Cimco Marine AB
DBD Marine
ELTO
ePropulsion - Hong Kong
Evinrude, a division of Bombardier Recreational Products - USA - Up to 300 hp
Hidea - China
Honda Marine Group - Japan - Up to 250 hp
Kohler Company
Jarvis Marine
Lehr
Maxus outboards
Mud-skipper Longtail outboard
McCulloch
Mercury/Mariner - USA - Up to 300 hp
Nissan Marine (now Tohatsu)
Oshen-Hyfong Marine
Parsun - China
Selva Marine - Italy - Up to 250 hp
Seven Marine - USA - One model of 557 hp, utilising General Motors powerplant
Suzuki Marine - Japan - Up to 300 hp
Tohatsu - Japan
Tomos
Torqeedo - Electric outboards
Zomair
Ul'yanovsk Motor Plant
West Bend
Yamaha Outboards - Japan - Up to 350 hp
Former manufacturers[edit]
British Anzani
British Seagull (defunct)
Johnson Outboards (folded into Evinrude Outboard Motors)
Yanmar Diesel (no longer manufactures outboards)
See also[edit]
Electric outboard motor
Luxury yacht tenders
Pneumatic motor
Sterndrive (inboard/outboard drive)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Wordford, Chris. "Outboard Motors". Retrieved 9 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Seven-Marine.com: "Seven Marine's 557 Horsepower V-8 Supercharged Outboard."". Retrieved 7 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "Is the Lehr Propane Outboard Engine Right for Your Boat?". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 2017-05-27.
^ Jump up to: a b Olsson, Kent. "THE OUTBOARD MOTORS". Säffle Marinmotor Museum. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Desmond, Kevin. "A Brief History of Electric Water Speed Records". electric record team. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Kiekhaefer Will Fete Inventor of Outboard Motor", The Milwaukee Sentinel - Jan 16, 1955
Jump up ^ "Cameron Beach Waterman | Family Tree Unknown". wikitree.com. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "BOAT-PROPELLING DEVICBOAT-PROPELLING DEVICE", US Patent 851,389
Jump up ^ "The Original Outboard Motor", Bob Zipps, July 1988, The Antique Outboarder]
Jump up ^ "The History of Outboards", originally from: Bob Whittier, 1957, Yachting Magazine
Jump up ^ "Some early Porto-Motor advertisements", Rowboat Motor Journal, Vol 2, Issue 1, 2009
^ Jump up to: a b "The Outboard Motor Turns 100", boatingmag.com
Jump up ^ "Waterman PORTO Does It". The Independent. Jul 6, 1914. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Colorful rivalry of outboard giants ...", jsonline.com
Jump up ^ "Outboard Engines".
Jump up ^ "Two-Stroke versus Four-Stroke: Who's the Winner?". Retrieved 15 June 2008.
Jump up ^ Standards for Backyard Boat Builders (COMTDPUB P16761.3B), United States Coast Guard, Summer 1993 [1]
Jump up ^ Carlton, John S., Marine Propellers and Propulsion, Elsevier, Ltd., 1994, ISBN 978-0-7506-8150-6
Jump up ^ "Royal Yachting Association: Use your kill cord, 30 April 2013". rya.org.uk. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Briggs & Stratton Outboard Motor Review". duckworksmagazine.com. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Gander Mountain® > Hunting, Fishing, Camping, and Outdoor Gear & Equipment : We Live Outdoors®". gandermountain.com. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Image: Mtchicvli.jpg, (768 × 512 px)". i1051.photobucket.com. 20 July 2012. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Image: Mytutrngrtd.jpg, (768 × 512 px)". i1051.photobucket.com. 20 July 2012. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
Jump up ^ http://dantri.vcmedia.vn/Uploaded/2011/02/08/du-xuan-mien-Tay1.jpg
Jump up ^ "Image: 4476235603_a74f02303f.jpg, (500 × 289 px)". farm5.static.flickr.com. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Image: dealersite%2Fimages%2Fnewvehicles%2Fnv138300_0.jpg, (540 × 405 px)". images.psndealer.com. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Bolinder trim story". lagerholm.com. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Outboard motors.
"How A Kicker Works, June 1951, Popular Science by George W. Waltz Jr - basic article on outboard motors with many drawings and illustrations
The Antique Outboard Motor Club International
The Super-Elto Outboard Motor (1927) Smithsonian Institution Libraries
The Antique Outboard Wiki
Early Outboard Motor Boat Racing in British Columbia
Patents[edit]
U.S. Patent 1,001,260 - Marine propulsion mechanism
U.S. Patent 1,011,930 - Canoe and other small craft
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Outboard_motor&oldid=808072491"
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