text:
List of longest-living organisms
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For Oldest life forms, see Earliest known life forms.
Hanako, a Japanese Koi that lived for 226 years (1751–1977).
This is a list of the longest-living organisms, that is, the individuals (in some instances, clones) of a species. This may be, for a given species:
Oldest known individuals that are currently living
Record holders, such as the most long-lived human, Jeanne Calment, or the most long-lived domestic cat, Creme Puff.
Ordinarily, this does not consider the age of the species itself, comparing species by the range of age-span of their individuals, or the time between first appearance (speciation) and extinction of the species.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biological immortality
2 Revived into activity after stasis
3 Clonal plant and fungal colonies
4 Individual microorganisms
5 Individual plant specimens
6 Humans
7 Other terrestrial and pagophilic animals
8 Aquatic animals
9 See also
10 Further reading
11 References
12 External links
Biological immortality[edit]
Hydras may not grow old.
Main article: Biological immortality
If the mortality rate of a species does not increase after maturity, the species does not age and is said to be biologically immortal. Many examples exist of plants and animals for which the mortality rate actually decreases with age, for all or part of the lifecycle.[1]
If the mortality rate remains constant, the rate determines the mean lifespan. The lifespan can be long or short, though the species technically "does not age".
Hydra species were observed for four years without any increase in mortality rate.[2]
Other species have been observed to regress to a larval state and regrow into adults multiple times.
The hydrozoan species Turritopsis dohrnii (formerly Turritopsis nutricula) is capable of cycling from a mature adult stage to an immature polyp stage and back again. This means no natural limit to its lifespan is known.[3] However, no single specimen has been observed for any extended period, and estimating the age of a specimen is impossible.
At least one hydrozoan (Laodicea undulata[4]) and one scyphozoan (Aurelia sp.1[5]) can also revert from medusa stage into polyp stage.
The larvae of skin beetles undergo a degree of "reversed development" when starved, and later grow back to the previously attained level of maturity. The cycle can be repeated many times.[6]
Revived into activity after stasis[edit]
This Judean Date Palm sprouted from a 2,000-year-old seed.
Various claims have been made about reviving bacterial spores to active metabolism after millions of years. Claims have been made of spores from amber being revived after 40 million years,[7] and spores from salt deposits in New Mexico being revived after 240 million years, the longest living organisms in history.[8][9] In a related find, a scientist was able to coax 34,000-year-old salt-captured bacteria to reproduce. His results were duplicated at a separate independent laboratory facility.[10]
A seed from the previously extinct Judean date palm was revived and managed to sprout after nearly 2,000 years.[11]
Silene stenophylla was grown from fruit found in an ancient squirrel's cache. The germinated plants bore viable seeds. The fruit was dated to be 31,800 years old ± 300 years.[12]
In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), dated at roughly 1,300 years old ± 270 years, was successfully germinated.[13][14]
During the 1990s, Raul Cano, a microbiologist at California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, revived yeast trapped in amber for 25 million years.[15][citation needed] Cano went on to found a brewery and crafted an "amber ale" with a 45-million-year-old variant of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.[16]
Around 1992, working among others with entomologist George Poinar, Cano sequenced the DNA of a fossil weevil trapped in amber;[17] Poinar was the author of a 1982 paper on conservation of specimens in amber[18] which influenced Michael Crichton to write his award-winning Jurassic Park.[19]
Clonal plant and fungal colonies[edit]
Pando is a clonal colony of quaking aspens that is at least 80,000 years old.
As with all long-lived plant and fungal species, no individual part of a clonal colony is alive (in the sense of active metabolism) for more than a very small fraction of the life of the entire colony. Some clonal colonies may be fully connected via their root systems, while most are not actually interconnected, but are genetically identical clones which populated an area through vegetative reproduction. Ages for clonal colonies, often based on current growth rates, are estimates.[20]
Pando is a Populus tremuloides (quaking aspen) tree or clonal colony that has been estimated at 80,000 years old.[21] Unlike many other clonal "colonies", the above-ground trunks remain connected to each other by a single massive subterranean root system.
The Jurupa Oak colony is estimated to be at least 13,000 years old, with other estimates ranging from 5,000 to 30,000 years old.[22]
A huge colony of the sea grass Posidonia oceanica in the Mediterranean Sea is estimated to be between 12,000 and 200,000 years old. The maximum age is theoretical, as the region it occupies was above water at some point between 10,000 and 80,000 years ago.[23][24][25]
Lomatia tasmanica in Tasmania: the sole surviving clonal colony of this species is estimated to be at least 43,600 years old.[26]
Eucalyptus recurva: clones in Australia are claimed to be 13,000 years old.[27]
King Clone is a creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) in the Mojave Desert estimated at 11,700 years old.[28] Another creosote bush has been said to be 12,150 years old, but this is as yet unconfirmed.
A Huon pine colony on Mount Read, Tasmania, is estimated at 10,000 years old, with individual specimens living over 3,000 years.[29]
Old Tjikko, a Norway spruce in Sweden, is a tree on top of roots that have been carbon dated to 9,550 years old. The tree is part of a clonal colony that was established at the end of the last ice age. Discovered by Professor Leif Kullman, at Umeå University, the tree is located in the county of Dalarna in Sweden. Old Tjikko is small, only 5 m (16 ft) in height.[30][31][32][33]
A box huckleberry bush in Pennsylvania is thought to be around 13,000 years old.[34]
"Humongous Fungus", an individual of the fungal species Armillaria solidipes in the Malheur National Forest, is thought to be between 2,000 and 8,500 years old.[35][36] It is thought to be the world's largest organism by area, at 2,384 acres (965 hectares).
Individual microorganisms[edit]
Some endoliths have extremely long lives. In August 2013, researchers reported evidence of endoliths in the ocean floor, perhaps millions of years old, with a generation time of 10 millennia.[37] These are slowly metabolizing, not in a dormant state.
Individual plant specimens[edit]
The Llangernyw Yew may be the oldest tree in Europe.
A Great Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) is measured by ring count to be 5067 years old.[38] This is the oldest known tree in North America, and the oldest known living individual nonclonal tree in the world.
The Cypress of Abarkuh is estimated to be between 4000 to 5000 years and is likely the second-oldest living being in Asia (or the oldest according to Russian scientist Alexander Rouf[citation needed]).
Llangernyw Yew may be the oldest individual tree in Europe and second- or third-oldest individual tree in the world. Believed to be aged between 4,000 years and 5,000 years old, this ancient yew (Taxus baccata) is in the churchyard of the village of Llangernyw in North Wales.
Fortingall Yew, an ancient yew (Taxus baccata) in the churchyard of the village of Fortingall in Perthshire, Scotland, is one of the oldest known individual trees in Europe. Various estimates have put its age between 2,000 and 5,000 years, although now believed to be at the lower end of this range.
Fitzroya cupressoides is the species with the second-oldest verified age, a specimen in Chile being measured by ring count as 3,622 years old.[20]
The President, located in Sequoia National Park, California, is the oldest known living giant sequoia at approximately 3,200 years of age.[38]
A sacred fig (Ficus religiosa), the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, is 2,300 years old (planted in 288 BC).[39] It is the oldest known living to date human-planted tree in the world.[40]
A specimen of Lagarostrobos franklinii in Tasmania is thought to be about 2,000 years old.[41]
Numerous olive trees are purported to be 2,000 years old or older. An olive tree in Ano Vouves, Crete, claiming such longevity, has been confirmed on the basis of tree ring analysis.[42][43]
Jōmon Sugi, the cryptomeria naturally grown in Yakushima Island, Kagoshima, Japan, is 2,170 to 7,200 years old.
Great sugi of Kayano, the cryptomeria deemed planted by humans in Kaga, Ishikawa, Japan, had an estimated age of 2,300 years in 1928.
Welwitschia is a monotypic genus of gymnosperm plant, composed solely of the distinct Welwitschia mirabilis. The plant is considered a living fossil. Radiocarbon dating has confirmed many individuals have lived longer than 1,000 years, and some are suspected to be older than 2,000 years.[citation needed]
Yareta is a tiny flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to South America, occurring in the Puna grasslands of the Andes in Peru, Bolivia, the north of Chile, and the west of Argentina between 3,200 and 4,500 m altitude. Some yaretas could be up to 3,000 years old.[44]
Humans[edit]
Main articles: List of the verified oldest people and List of oldest living people
>80
77.5–80
75–77.5
72.5–75
70–72.5
67.5–70
65–67.5
60–65
55–60
50–55
45–50
40–45
<40
Life expectancy by region
Jeanne Calment lived to the age of 122 years, 164 days, becoming the oldest recorded human who ever lived. She died on August 4, 1997.[45]
The longest-living person who is still living and known is Nabi Tajima. (born 4 August 1900).[46]
These are single examples; for a broader view, see Life expectancy (includes humans).
Other terrestrial and pagophilic animals[edit]
Adwaita, an Aldabra giant tortoise, died at an estimated age of 255 in March 2006 in Alipore Zoo, Kolkata, India.[47] If verified, it will have been the oldest terrestrial animal in the world.
Tu'i Malila, a radiated tortoise, died at an age of 188 years in May 1965, at the time the oldest verified vertebrate.[48]
Jonathan, a Seychelles giant tortoise living on the island of Saint Helena, is reported to be about 186 years old, and may, therefore, be the oldest currently living terrestrial animal if the claim is true.[49]
Harriet, a Galápagos tortoise, died at the age of 175 years in June 2006.[50]
Timothy, a spur-thighed tortoise, born in Turkey died at an age of 165 years in 3 April 2004 in the UK.[51]
Nonja, a Sumatran orangutan, died at the age of 55 years in December 2007. She was claimed to be the oldest-living orangutan of her species.[52]
The tuatara, a lizard-like reptile native to New Zealand, can live well above 100 years. Henry, a tuatara at the Southland Museum in New Zealand, mated for the first time at the estimated age of 111 years in 2009 with an 80-year-old female and fathered 11 baby tuatara.[53]
Muja, the world's oldest alligator
Muja, an American alligator from Belgrade Zoo, is considered to be the oldest alligator in the world.[54] Muja is more than 80 years old.[55]
A female blue-and-yellow macaw named Charlie was reportedly hatched in 1899, which would make her 117 years old, as of 2016. Her age has not been independently confirmed and the claim may not be reliable. She is claimed to have formerly belonged to Winston Churchill, but Churchill's daughter denies the claim.[56]
Lin Wang, an Asian elephant, was the oldest elephant in the Taipei Zoo. He was born in January 18, 1917, and died in February 26, 2003, at 86 years, surpassing the previous record of 84. Normally, elephants live up to 50 years, while their maximum lifespan is generally estimated at 70.
A greater flamingo named Greater died at Adelaide Zoo in January 2014 at the age of at least 83.[57]
Thaao, an Andean condor, died at the age of 80.[58]
Cookie, (hatched June 30, 1933) an Australian-born Major Mitchell's cockatoo resident at Brookfield Zoo, Illinois, was the oldest member of his species in captivity, and died in August 2016 at a verified age of 83.[59]
A female Laysan albatross named Wisdom successfully laid an egg at Midway Atoll in December 2016, at the age of 66. As of 2017, she is the oldest known wild bird in the world.[60]
The oldest living horse on record was named Ol' Billy. Bill was allegedly born in the year 1760 in London, England. Bill died in 1822 at the age of 62 years. Henry Harrison, an occupant of London during the time, had also allegedly known Ol' Billy for 59 years until Bill's death.[61]
Creme Puff, a cat owned by Jake Perry of Austin, Texas, was born August 3, 1967, and died three days after her 38th birthday on August 6, 2005.[62]
The oldest bear on record was Andreas, a European brown bear, living in the ARCTUROS bear sanctuary in northern Greece. He was at least 50 years old at the time of his death.
Debby, the polar bear, an inhabitant of the Assiniboine Park Zoo in Winnipeg, Canada, was the oldest polar bear and third-oldest bear species on record when she died in 2008, at the age of 42 years.[63]
A wild-born black rhino named Elly was the oldest in North America at an estimated 45 years of age, and resided in California's San Francisco Zoo from April 1974 until passing in May 2017.[64]
Yoda was named as the oldest mouse in 2004 at age 4.[65]
The oldest bat recorded, a Brandt's bat, is at least 41 years old.[66]
Aquatic animals[edit]
Giant barrel sponges can live more than 2,000 years.
Glass sponges found in the East China Sea and Southern Ocean have been found over 10,000 years old.[67][68][69]
Specimens of the black coral genus Leiopathes, such as Leiopathes glaberrima, are among the oldest continuously living organisms on the planet: around 4,265 years old.[70]
The giant barrel sponge Xestospongia muta is one of the longest-lived animals, with the largest specimens in the Caribbean estimated to be in excess of 2,300 years old.[71]
The black coral Antipatharia in the Gulf of Mexico may live more than 2,000 years.[72]
The Antarctic sponge Cinachyra antarctica has an extremely slow growth rate in the low temperatures of the Southern Ocean. One specimen has been estimated to be 1,550 years old.[73]
A specimen, "Ming" of the Icelandic cyprine Arctica islandica (also known as an ocean quahog), a mollusk, was found to have lived 507 years.[74] Another specimen had a recorded lifespan of 374 years.[75]
Many sub-families of the Oreosomatidae, including the Allocyttus, Neocyttus, and Pseudocyttus (collectively referred to as the Oreos) have been reported to live up to 170 years, based on otolith-increment estimates and radiometric dating [76][77][78]
Greenland shark had been estimated to live to about 200 years, but a study published in 2016 found that a 5.02 m (16.5 ft) specimen was 392 ± 120 years old, resulting in a minimum age of 272 and a maximum of 512.[79][80] That makes the Greenland shark the longest-lived vertebrate.[81]
Some koi fish have reportedly lived more than 200 years, the oldest being Hanako, which died at an age of 226 years on July 7, 1977.[82][83]
Rougheye rockfish – 205 years old.[84]
Orange roughy, also known as deep sea perch, can live up to 149 years.[85]
Some confirmed sources estimate bowhead whales to have lived at least to 211 years of age, making them the oldest mammals.[86]
The maximum life-span of the freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera) may be 210–250 years.[87][88][89]
Specimens of the Red Sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, have been found to be over 200 years old.[90]
The deepsea hydrocarbon seep tubeworm Lamellibrachia luymesi (Annelida, Polychaeta) lives for more than 170 years.[91]
Tardigrades, capable of cryptobiosis, have been shown to survive nearly 120 years in a dry state.[92]
Geoduck, a species of saltwater clam native to the Puget Sound, have been known to live more than 160 years.[93][94]
George the lobster was estimated to be about 140 years old by PETA in January 2009.[95]
In 2012, a sturgeon was caught in a Wisconsin river that was estimated to be 125 years old.[96]
A killer whale of the "Southern Resident Community" identified as J2 or Granny was estimated by some researchers to have been approximately 105 years old at her death in 2017; however, other dating methods estimated her age as 65–80.[97][98]
A Swedish man claimed that a European eel named Ale was 155 years old when it died in 2014. If correct, it would have been the world's oldest, having been hatched in 1859.[99]
See also[edit]
Biological immortality
Earliest known life forms
Immortality
Largest organism
Life timeline
List of oldest dogs
List of oldest trees
Lists of organisms by population
Longevity
Maximum life span
Nature timeline
Oldest people and List of oldest people
Regeneration
Further reading[edit]
Rachel Sussman (2014). The Oldest Living Things in the World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226057507.
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Jump up ^ Schöne; Fiebig, J; Pfeiffer, M; Gleb, R; Hickson, J; Johnson, A; Dreyer, W; Oschmann, W (2005). "Climate records from a bivalved Methuselah". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 228 (1–2): 130–148. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.03.049.
Jump up ^ "Allocyttus verrucosus". The Moirai – Aging Research. 2016-09-11. Retrieved 2016-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Pseudocyttus maculatus". The Moirai – Aging Research. 2016-10-05. Retrieved 2016-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Neocyttus rhomboidalis". The Moirai – Aging Research. 2016-10-03. Retrieved 2016-11-20.
Jump up ^ Pennisi, Elizabeth (11 August 2016). "Greenland shark may live 400 years, smashing longevity record". Science. Retrieved 11 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Nielsen, Julius; Hedeholm, Rasmus B.; Heinemeier, Jan; Bushnell, Peter G.; Christiansen, Jørgen S.; Olsen, Jesper; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Brill, Richard W.; Simon, Malene (2016-08-12). "Eye lens radiocarbon reveals centuries of longevity in the Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus)". Science. 353 (6300): 702–704. doi:10.1126/science.aaf1703. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 27516602.
Jump up ^ Varandani, Suman (14 December 2017). "512-Year-Old Shark, Believed To Be Oldest Living Verbrate, Found In North Atlantic". International Business Times. Retrieved 14 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Koshihara, Komei (1966). "The Story of Hanako". NHK. Archived from the original on August 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ Barton, Laura (2007-04-12). "The Guardian". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
Jump up ^ Cailliet, G.M., Andrews, A.H., Burton, E.J., Watters, D.L., Kline, D.E., Ferry-Graham, L.A. (2001). Age determination and validation studies of marine fishes: do deep-dwellers live longer?. Exp. Gerontol. 36 (4–6): 739–764. doi:10.1016/S0531-5565(00)00239-4. PMID 11295512.
Jump up ^ Fenton, G.E; Short, S.A.; Ritz, D.A. (June 1991). "Age determination of orange roughy, Hoplostethus atlanticus (Pisces: Trachichthyidae) using 210 Pb: 226 Ra disequilibria". Marine Biology. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer. 109 (2): 197–202. doi:10.1007/BF01319387. ISSN 0025-3162. Retrieved 2010-06-18.
Jump up ^ Alaska Science Forum (15 February 2001). "Bowhead Whales May Be the World's Oldest Mammals". Retrieved 2006-07-25.
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Jump up ^ Ebert, TA; Southon, JR (2003). "Red sea urchins can live over 100 years: confirmation with A-bomb 14carbon — Strongylocentrotus franciscanus". Fishery Bulletin. 101 (4): 915–922.
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External links[edit]
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Coxsackievirus
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Coxsackie virus
Virus classification
Group: Group IV ((+)ssRNA)
Order: Picornavirales
Family: Picornaviridae
Genus: Enterovirus
Species: Human enterovirus A, B
Coxsackievirus is a virus that belongs to a family of nonenveloped, linear, positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, Picornaviridae and the genus Enterovirus, which also includes poliovirus and echovirus. Enteroviruses are among the most common and important human pathogens, and ordinarily its members are transmitted by the fecal-oral route. Coxsackieviruses share many characteristics with poliovirus. With control of poliovirus infections in much of the world, more attention has been focused on understanding the nonpolio enteroviruses such as coxsackievirus.
Coxsackieviruses are among the leading causes of aseptic meningitis (the other usual suspects being echovirus and mumps virus).
The entry of coxsackievirus into cells, especially endothelial cells, is mediated by Coxsackie virus and adenovirus receptor.
Contents
[hide]
1 Groups
1.1 Group A
1.2 Group B
2 History
3 References
4 External links
Groups[edit]
Coxsackieviruses are divided into group A and group B viruses based on early observations of their pathogenicity in neonatal mice.[1] Group A coxsackieviruses were noted to cause a flaccid paralysis (which was caused by generalized myositis) while group B coxsackieviruses were noted to cause a spastic paralysis (due to focal muscle injury and degeneration of neuronal tissue). At least 23 serotypes (1–22, 24) of group A and six serotypes (1–6) of group B are recognized.
Group A[edit]
Main article: Coxsackie A virus
In general, group A coxsackieviruses tend to infect the skin and mucous membranes, causing herpangina, acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis, and hand, foot, and mouth (HFM) disease.[2]
Both group A and group B coxsackieviruses can cause nonspecific febrile illnesses, rashes, upper respiratory tract disease, and aseptic meningitis.
The basic reproductive number (R0) for Coxsackievirus A16 (Cox A16) was estimated to a median of 2.50 with an interquartile range of 1.96 to 3.67.[3]
Group B[edit]
Main article: Coxsackie B virus
Group B coxsackieviruses tend to infect the heart, pleura, pancreas, and liver, causing pleurodynia, myocarditis, pericarditis, and hepatitis (inflammation of the liver not related to the hepatotropic viruses). Coxsackie B infection of the heart can lead to pericardial effusion.
The development of insulin-dependent diabetes (IDDM) has recently been associated with recent enteroviral infection, particularly coxsackievirus B pancreatitis. This relationship is currently being studied further.
Sjogren's syndrome is also being studied in connection with coxsackievirus, as of January 2010.[4]
History[edit]
The coxsackieviruses were discovered in 1948–49 by Dr. Gilbert Dalldorf, a scientist working at the New York State Department of Health in Albany, New York.
Dalldorf, in collaboration with Grace Sickles,[5][6] had been searching for a cure for poliomyelitis. Earlier work Dalldorf had done in monkeys suggested that fluid collected from a nonpolio virus preparation could protect against the crippling effects of polio. Using newborn mice as a vehicle, Dalldorf attempted to isolate such protective viruses from the feces of polio patients. In carrying out these experiments, he discovered viruses that often mimicked mild or nonparalytic polio. The virus family he discovered was eventually given the name Coxsackie, from Coxsackie, New York, a small town on the Hudson River where Dalldorf had obtained the first fecal specimens.[7]
Dalldorf also collaborated with Gifford on many early papers.[8][9][10][11]
The coxsackieviruses subsequently were found to cause a variety of infections, including epidemic pleurodynia (Bornholm disease), and were subdivided into groups A and B based on their pathology in newborn mice. (Coxsackie A virus causes paralysis and death of the mice, with extensive skeletal muscle necrosis; Coxsackie B causes less severe infection in the mice, but with damage to more organ systems, such as heart, brain, liver, pancreas, and skeletal muscles.)
The use of suckling mice was not Dalldorf's idea, but was brought to his attention in a paper written by Danish scientists Orskov and Andersen in 1947, who were using such mice to study a mouse virus. The discovery of the coxsackieviruses stimulated many virologists to use this system, and ultimately resulted in the isolation of a large number of so-called "enteric" viruses from the gastrointestinal tract that were unrelated to poliovirus, and some of which were oncogenic (cancer-causing).
The discovery of the coxsackieviruses yielded further evidence that viruses can sometimes interfere with each other's growth and replication within a host animal. Other researchers found this interference can be mediated by a substance produced by the host animal, a protein now known as interferon. Interferon has since become prominent in the treatment of a variety of cancers and infectious diseases.
In 2007, an outbreak of coxsackievirus occurred in eastern China. It has been reported that 22 children died. More than 800 people were affected, with 200 children hospitalized.[12]
Cavatak, a wild-type Coxsackievirus A21, is being used in human clinical trials as an oncolytic virus.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Pedro-Pons, Agustín (1968). Patología y Clínica Médicas (in Spanish). 6 (3rd ed.). Barcelona: Salvat. p. 598. ISBN 84-345-1106-1.
Jump up ^ Seitsonen, Jani; Shakeel, Shabih; Susi, Petri; Pandurangan, Arun P.; Sinkovits, Robert S.; Hyvönen, Heini; Laurinmäki, Pasi; Ylä-Pelto, Jani; Topf, Maya; Hyypiä, Timo; Butcher, Sarah J. (2012). "Structural analysis of coxsackievirus A7 reveals conformational changes associated with uncoating". Journal of Virology. 86 (13): 7207–7215. doi:10.1128/JVI.06425-11. PMC 3416324  . PMID 22514349.
Jump up ^ Ma E, Fung C, Yip SH, Wong C, Chuang SK, Tsang T (Aug 2011). "Estimation of the basic reproduction number of enterovirus 71 and coxsackievirus A16 in hand, foot, and mouth disease outbreaks". Pediatr Infect Dis J. 30 (8): 675–9. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e3182116e95. PMID 21326133.
Jump up ^ Triantafyllopoulou, Antigoni; Tapinos, Nikos; Moutsopoulos, Haralampos; et al. (2004). "Evidence for Coxsackievirus Infection in Primary Sjogren's Syndrome". 50 (9). American College of Rheumatology: 2897–2902. doi:10.1002/art.20463.
Jump up ^ Dalldorf G, Sickles GM (July 1948). "An Unidentified, Filtrable Agent Isolated From the Feces of Children With Paralysis". Science. 108 (2794): 61–62. doi:10.1126/science.108.2794.61. PMID 17777513.
Jump up ^ DALLDORF G, SICKLES GM (June 1949). "A virus recovered from the feces of poliomyelitis patients pathogenic for suckling mice". J. Exp. Med. 89 (6): 567–82. doi:10.1084/jem.89.6.567. PMC 2135891  . PMID 18144319.
Jump up ^ Coxsackie NY and the virus named after it posted to Virology Blog 10 AUGUST 2009 by Professor Vincent Racaniello. Accessed via internet August 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Dalldorf G, Gifford R (June 1951). "Clinical and epidemiologic observations of Coxsackie-virus infection". N. Engl. J. Med. 244 (23): 868–73. doi:10.1056/NEJM195106072442302. PMID 14843332.
Jump up ^ Dalldorf G, Gifford R (November 1952). "Adaptation of Group B Coxsackie virus to adult mouse pancreas". J. Exp. Med. 96 (5): 491–7. doi:10.1084/jem.96.5.491. PMC 2136156  . PMID 13000059.
Jump up ^ Dalldorf G, Gifford R (January 1954). "Susceptibility of gravid mice to Coxsackie virus infection". J. Exp. Med. 99 (1): 21–7. doi:10.1084/jem.99.1.21. PMC 2136322  . PMID 13118060.
Jump up ^ DALLDORF G, GIFFORD R (February 1955). "Recognition of mouse ectromelia". Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 88 (2): 290–2. doi:10.3181/00379727-88-21566. PMID 14357417.
Jump up ^ "China says it controls viral outbreak in children". Reuters. 2007-05-19. .
External links[edit]
3D macromolecular structures of Coxsackieviruses from the EM Data Bank(EMDB)
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The Heroes of Olympus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Heroes of Olympus" redirects here. For the game published by Task Force Games, see Heroes of Olympus (role-playing game).
The Heroes of Olympus
The logo for The Heroes of Olympus series
The Lost Hero (2010)
The Son of Neptune (2011)
The Mark of Athena (2012)
The House of Hades (2013)
The Blood of Olympus (2014)
Author
Rick Riordan
Cover artist
John Rocco
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
Fantasy, young adult fiction, mystery, adventure, Greek and Roman mythological fiction
Publisher
Disney Hyperion
Published
2010–2014
Media type
Print (hardcover and paperback), audiobook, e-book
No. of books
5
Preceded by
Percy Jackson & the Olympians
Followed by
The Trials of Apollo
The Heroes of Olympus is a pentalogy of fantasy-adventure novels written by American author Rick Riordan. The novels detail a conflict between Greek and Roman demigods and Gaea, the earth goddess. The series is a sequel to Percy Jackson & the Olympians, which dealt with Greek gods.[1] Riordan introduces Roman mythology into his sequel series as well as several new characters. The first book of the series, The Lost Hero, was published on October 12, 2010.[2] The final entry in the series, The Blood of Olympus, was published on October 7, 2014.[3]
Contents
1 Plot
1.1 Swapped heroes
1.2 Giants become stronger
1.3 Conclusion
2 Supplementary works
2.1 The Demigod Diaries
3 Characters
3.1 Greeks
3.2 Romans
4 Inspirations and origins
5 Publishing history
6 Follow-up series
7 Achievements
7.1 Reception
8 References
9 External links
Plot[edit]
Further information: Camp Half-Blood chronicles
The Heroes of Olympus is centered around a prophecy, introduced in The Last Olympian, that predicted seven demigods would unite to protect the world from an awakened Gaea. Demigods from both the Greek camp, Camp Half-Blood, and a newfound Roman camp, Camp Jupiter, work together to save the world from being destroyed by Gaea. The prophecy reads:
Seven half-bloods shall answer the call,
To storm or fire, the world must fall.
An oath to keep with a final breath,
And foes bear arms to the Doors of Death.
Seven demigods—Annabeth Chase, Leo Valdez, Percy Jackson and Piper McLean from Camp Half-Blood, with Jason Grace, Frank Zhang, and Hazel Levesque from Camp Jupiter—join forces. A storm or a fire will destroy the world (Leo destroys Gaea with a fire). One of the seven will make an oath that is kept until their last breath. Leo vows to return to Ogygia. Leo dies in the explosion that kills Gaea. He is revived thanks to the Physician's Cure. (This also could have been to bring back Festus.) The last line details how demigods, a giant, and a titan will free the Doors of Death.
Swapped heroes[edit]
The novel begins by introducing Jason Grace, Piper McLean, and Leo Valdez, three newly discovered demigods who travel to Camp Half-Blood. In response to a prophecy, they set off on a quest to prevent the rebirth of the giant king Porphyrion and rescue Piper's father, who has been kidnapped by another giant, Enceladus. Jason, who has amnesia, also begins to remember pieces of his past throughout the book - most importantly, that he comes from a Roman camp for demigods called Camp Jupiter. Camp Half-Blood resolves to seek out this other camp both to gain allies in the fight against Gaea, the giants' mother and commander, and to locate the missing Percy Jackson.[4]
The novel opens with Percy Jackson (stricken with amnesia) discovering Camp Jupiter and meeting several Roman demigods. After a prophecy from Mars, he, Frank Zhang, and Hazel Levesque travel to Alaska to stop the rise of the giant Alcyoneus and free the god Thanatos, whom the giant has captured. After successfully completing their mission, the group returns to Camp Jupiter to defend it from yet another giant, Polybotes, and his army. After repelling this invasion, the demigods from Camp Jupiter go to meet the delegation from Camp Half-Blood arriving in the flying ship known as the Argo II.[5]
Giants become stronger[edit]
After the Argo II unintentionally fires on Camp Jupiter, the seven demigods of the "Prophecy of Seven" - Percy Jackson, Annabeth Chase, Hazel Levesque, Frank Zhang, Jason Grace, Piper McLean, and Leo Valdez - rush to escape the angered Roman campers. They travel to Rome following the Mark of Athena, a magical talisman designed to lead children of Athena (like Annabeth) to the missing Athena Parthenos. During their journey, they hear that Nico di Angelo has been captured by the Aloadae, and go to rescue him. Although they successfully free the son of Hades and locate the statue, Annabeth and Percy are pulled into Tartarus and the rest of the group resolves to find some way to save them.[6]
In Tartarus, Percy Jackson and Annabeth Chase travel towards the "Doors of Death" (the only exit to the mortal world) with help from Bob the Titan, hoping to escape and simultaneously stop more monsters from getting through. In the mortal world, the remaining demigods search for the mortal side of the Doors to help open them. They also meet with Reyna Avila Ramírez-Arellano, a Roman demigod; she, Nico di Angelo, and Coach Hedge leave with the Athena Parthenos for Camp Half-Blood. Once reunited, the original seven sail for Greece, where they expect Gaea's main force will gather.[7]
Conclusion[edit]
While Reyna Ramírez-Arellano, Nico di Angelo, and Gleeson Hedge travel towards Camp Half-Blood (where the Romans are preparing to attack the Greeks), the seven of the quest travel to Athens. With help from the gods, the demigods defeat the giants in Athens. They then return to the fight on Long Island and Leo Valdez sacrifices himself to defeat Gaea and restore peace. In the final pages, Leo is resurrected by his bronze dragon Festus and goes to find his girlfriend Calypso. Unaware that he is alive, Camp Half-Blood and Camp Jupiter mourn his loss, determining to become allies and prevent such a deadly war from happening again.[8]
Supplementary works[edit]
The Demigod Diaries[edit]
Main article: The Demigod Diaries
Released August 14, 2012,[9] The Demigod Diaries is a collection of short stories. Similar to The Demigod Files, it contains some new stories with character interviews, illustrations, puzzles, and a quiz. The four stories include:
"The Diary of Luke Castellan": Thalia Grace and Luke Castellan meet Halycon Green, Luke receives his knife, and the pair encounters Annabeth Chase. The events of the story take place roughly five years before The Lightning Thief, the first book of Percy Jackson & the Olympians.[10]
"Percy Jackson and the Staff of Hermes": Percy Jackson and Annabeth are sent by Hermes to retrieve his caduceus from the fire-breathing giant Cacus. The story takes place between The Last Olympian and The Lost Hero.[10]
"Leo Valdez and the Quest for Buford": Jason Grace, Leo Valdez, and Piper McLean confront a group of Maenads while searching for Buford the table, who has run off with an important piece of the unfinished Argo II. The story takes place at Camp Half-Blood between The Lost Hero and The Son of Neptune.[10]
"Son of Magic": Alabaster Torrington, a demigod son of Hecate who fought on Kronos's side, finds himself in a fight to the death with Lamia. He is alone after being banished from Camp Half-Blood following Kronos's defeat in The Last Olympian and asks the mortal Howard Claymore for help. This story was written by Rick Riordan's son Haley Riordan.[11][10]
Characters[edit]
Main article: List of characters in mythology novels by Rick Riordan § Camp Half-Blood chronicles
Greeks[edit]
Perseus "Percy" Jackson: The 17-year-old son of Poseidon from Camp Half-Blood, Percy was the narrator and main protagonist of the preceding series. He suffers from amnesia in The Son of Neptune. He is the boyfriend of Annabeth Chase.
Annabeth Chase: A 17-year-old daughter of Athena. Annabeth is highly intelligent and a gifted architect.
Piper McLean: A 15-year-old daughter of Aphrodite. She can "charmspeak" (magically convince people to do what she says) and is very beautiful. She carries a knife called Katropris (purportedly owned by Helen of Troy) that shows her visions of the future. She begins dating Jason Grace during the series.
Leo Valdez: A 15-year-old son of Hephaestus who can control fire (a very rare ability). He builds the Argo II. Leo begins dating Calypso in The Blood of Olympus after being stranded on Ogygia earlier in the series.
Nico di Angelo: A 15-year-old son of Hades who has power over the dead and the ability to “shadow travel” long distances. He is the only demigod who knew about both Camps before the war. Nico begins dating Will Solace during the time period encompassing the end of “The Blood of Olympus” and the beginning of “The Hidden Oracle,” the first book in the next series.
Gleeson Hedge: An old satyr, formerly a coach at the Wilderness School. Hedge's first child is born during the final book of the series.
Thalia Grace: Thalia is Jason's biological sister, but a daughter of Zeus rather than Jupiter.
Tyson: Tyson is a cyclops, the half-brother of Percy
Rachel Elizabeth Dare: Camp Half-Blood's oracle. Rachel is not a demigod or a legacy; she is a regular mortal human who was born with the gift to see through the Mist. She is the current Oracle of Delphi.
Grover Underwood: Percy's best friend, a satyr; he and Percy have an empathy link that allows them to sense one another.
Romans[edit]
Jason Grace: A 15-year-old Roman son of Jupiter who can fly, control winds and lightning, and create storms. He is a natural leader and was praetor before Hera took his memory and sent him to Camp Half-Blood.
Hazel Levesque: A 13-year-old daughter of Pluto. She originally lived in the 1940s before dying to stop the rise of Alcyoneus and later being revived by her half-brother Nico di Angelo. She can control precious metals and stones, navigate underground, and manipulate the Mist.
Frank Zhang: A 16-year-old son of Mars and a descendant of Poseidon on his mother's side. Frank can shapeshift.
Reyna Avila Ramírez-Arellano: A 16-year-old daughter of the Roman goddess of war, Bellona. Reyna can lend her useful abilities (like her courage, strength, and leadership ability) to other demigods.
Octavian: An 18-year-old Roman descendant of Apollo, he serves as the Camp Jupiter’s augur. Octavian is power-hungry and seizes control of the camp after Reyna goes looking for the Athena Parthenos. He is largely responsible for the Roman Camp attacking Camp Half-Blood.
Inspirations and origins[edit]
After realizing how many Greek and Roman myths he had left untouched as well the immense success of the original series, Riordan began writing a second series, using inspiration for his storyline from experiences that he and his children had while playing video and role-playing games such as World of Warcraft and Scion. After creating the storyline, Riordan created three new main characters—Jason, Piper, and Leo—but continued to use the previous main characters such as Annabeth and Grover as secondary characters.[12]
Rick Riordan (pictured) came up with The Heroes of Olympus after toying with the idea of Roman gods.
Unlike the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series which uses first-person narration solely from Percy's point of view, the second series is told in third-person, with the point of view alternating between various main characters. In The Lost Hero, those characters are Jason, Piper, and Leo. Although initially uncertain how fans would react, Riordan later found that they enjoyed the new format, as it allowed them to learn more about each character.[13]
Riordan says that "it was my way of letting them revisit that world in a fresh twist, but also to catch up with Percy and Annabeth and the rest of the gang from the first series".[13] He also decided to include the Roman gods after many readers requested that Riordan write a new series on Roman gods, who are the Roman equivalent of the Greek gods, with some minor changes in personality. He pondered on how the Roman aspect of the gods would be after moving from Greece to Rome to America. After a while, "playing with that idea gave me the idea for the new series".[13]
Publishing history[edit]
The Lost Hero, the first book in the Heroes of Olympus series, was released on October 12, 2010 as a hardcover, audiobook, and ebook.[14] The initial publishing run consisted of 2.5 million copies.[15] The book's official publication was preceded by several "sneak-peek" releases by Disney-Hyperion.[16] A graphic novel version, adapted and illustrated by Orpheus Collar, was released October 7, 2014.[17][18]
Follow-up series[edit]
A sequel pentalogy series titled The Trials of Apollo is currently in-development, with the first installment, The Hidden Oracle released on May 3, 2016. The second installment, The Dark Prophecy, was released on May 2, 2017.[19]
Achievements[edit]
Reception[edit]
The Lost Hero was a number one bestseller on the lists of The New York Times,[20] USA Today,[21] The Wall Street Journal,[22] and Publishers Weekly.[23] Many critics praised the novel as a good follow-up to Riordan's previous series. A review by The Epoch Times commented, "If anyone was afraid that Riordan couldn’t top his Percy Jackson series—they can quit worrying. This new series, even though in the same genre as the Percy Jackson group, has fresh ideas, more mystery and magic and keeps the reader engrossed from start to finish."[24] Despite this praise, some reviews were more mixed. Vicky Smith of Kirkus Reviews wrote, "[there are] far too many pages of stretched-out action, telling not showing and awkward dialogue...Unless Riordan tightens things up considerably by number five, [readers] may find themselves hoping that it does not end with a third Great Prophecy".[25]
The Lost Hero won the Barnes & Noble Best Book of 2010 award and was a Massachusetts Children's Book Award Honor book for 2014, among other honors.[26][27] Rick Riordan was named "Author of the Year" for the novel at the 2011 Children's Choice Awards.[28][29] The book was also recommended by the ALA Best Fiction for Young Adults list of 2012.[27][30]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Heroes of Olympus". Rick Riordan. Archived from the original on October 18, 2014.
Jump up ^ Link, The Lost Hero. The Lost Hero. Rick Riordan books. Retrieved December 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ "'The Blood of Olympus' by Rick Riordan hits shelves today!". Hypable. Archived from the original on 2014-10-08.
Jump up ^ Riordan, Rick (2010). The Lost Hero. New York City: Disney-Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4231-1339-3.
Jump up ^ Riordan, Rick (2011). The Son of Neptune. New York City: Disney-Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4231-4059-7.
Jump up ^ Riordan, Rick (2012). The Mark of Athena. New York City: Disney-Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4231-4060-3.
Jump up ^ Riordan, Rick (2013). The House of Hades. New York City: Disney-Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4231-4672-8.
Jump up ^ Riordan, Rick (2014). The Blood of Olympus. Los Angeles: Disney-Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4231-4673-5.
Jump up ^ "The Heroes of Olympus: The Demigod Diaries' to be Released This August". Geekynews. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Riordan, Rick (2011). The Demigod Diaries. New York City: Disney-Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4231-6300-8.
Jump up ^ ""The Heroes Of Olympus: The Demigod Diaries" To Be Released This August". LeakyNews. 2012-01-01. Retrieved 2012-11-11.
Jump up ^ Kirch, Claire (October 14, 2010). "Riordan Debuts New Series in Austin". Publishers Weekly. Archived from the original on February 16, 2013. Retrieved October 28, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c Banks, Dave (October 18, 2010). "Greek Goddesses and Roman Gods: The Geek Dad Interview With Rick Riordan". Wired News. Wired News. Archived from the original on February 16, 2013. Retrieved October 28, 2010.
Jump up ^ Seller, John A. (September 13, 2010). "Disney Announces Print Run, Plans for 'Percy Jackson' Spinoff". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved October 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ Kirch, Claire (October 14, 2010). "Riordan Debuts New Series in Austin". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved October 28, 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Lost Hero Sneek Peek". Retrieved June 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Rought, Karen (June 12, 2014). "Rick Riordan updates fans on current projects, begins Norse series". Hypable. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "About Orpheus Collar". Retrieved July 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Rought, Karen (May 5, 2016). "'Trials of Apollo' book 2 info revealed on heels of 'Hidden Oracle' release". Hypable. Retrieved August 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ Schuessler, Jennifer. "New York Times Best Sellers: Children's Chapter Books". The New York Times. Retrieved November 30, 2010.
Jump up ^ "USA Today bestseller list". USA Today. Retrieved June 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Lost Hero – Heroes of Olympus: The Online World of Rick Riordan". rickriordan.com. Archived from the original on October 15, 2010. Retrieved November 9, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Publishers Weekly Children's bestseller list". Publishers Weekly. Publishers Weekly.
Jump up ^ Chasteen, Patricia (December 14, 2010). "The Epoch Times Book Review". Book Review: The Lost Hero. The Epoch Times. Retrieved July 12, 2012.
Jump up ^ Vicky Smith (October 15, 2010). "Rick Riordan's The Lost Hero". Kirkus Reviews. Retrieved October 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Best of 2010 – Kids' Books". barnesandnoble.com. barnesandnoble.com. Retrieved January 4, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Lost Hero by Rick Riordan". LibraryThing. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Yinn, Maryann (May 3, 2011). "Rick Riordan Wins Author of the Year Award at 2011 Children's Choice Book Awards". Publishing: Awards. GalleyCat. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Roback, Diane (May 3, 2011). "Riordan, Wiesner Named Author, Illustrator of Year at CBC Gala". Industry News. Publishers Weekly. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Lost Hero: Heroes of Olympus, Book 1". American Library Association. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
External links[edit]
The Heroes of Olympus series site from publisher Disney (readriordan.com)
Rick Riordan Myth Master at publisher Penguin Books (UK)
Rick Riordan at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
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