text:
Bacterial capsule
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It has been suggested that Polysaccharide encapsulated bacteria be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since November 2017.
The outer red layer in this diagram is the capsule, which is distinct from the cell envelope. This bacteria is Gram-positive, as its cell envelope comprises a single plasma membrane (orange) and a thick peptidoglycan-containing cell wall (purple).
The cell capsule is a very large structure of some prokaryotic cells, such as bacterial cells. It is a polysaccharide layer that lies outside the cell envelope of bacteria, and is thus deemed part of the outer envelope of a bacterial cell. It is a well-organized layer, not easily washed off, and it can be the cause of various diseases.
The capsule—which can be found in both Gram-negative bacteria and Gram-positive bacteria—should not be confused with the second lipid membrane (or bacterial outer membrane), which contains lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins and is found only in Gram-negative bacteria. When the amorphous viscid secretion (that makes up the capsule) diffuses into the surrounding medium and remains as a loose undemarcated secretion, it is known as slime layer.
A bacterial capsule has a semi-ridged border that follows the contour of the cell. The capsule excludes India Ink when dyed. A slime layer is a non-ridged matrix that is easily deformed and is not able to exclude India Ink. Biofilms are composed of many cells and their outer barriers. The primary functions of both capsules and slime layers are for protection and adhesion.
Contents
[hide]
1 Composition
2 Function
3 Diversity
4 Mnemonic
5 Demonstration of capsule
6 Use in vaccination
7 See also
8 References
Composition[edit]
It usually consists of polysaccharides,[1] but can be composed of other materials (e.g., polypeptide(D-glutamic acid) in B. anthracis), also peptidoglycan and muramic acid found in E.coli bacterial capsule. Because most capsules are so tightly packed, they are difficult to stain using standard stains because most stains cannot adhere to the capsule. For examination under the microscope, the bacteria and their background are stained darker than the capsule, which doesn't stain. When viewed, bacterial cells as well as the surface they are on, are stained dark, while the capsule remains pale or colorless and appears as a ring, or halo, around the cell.[2]
Function[edit]
The capsule is considered a virulence factor because it enhances the ability of bacteria to cause disease (e.g. prevents phagocytosis). The capsule can protect cells from engulfment by eukaryotic cells, such as macrophages.[3] A capsule-specific antibody may be required for phagocytosis to occur. Capsules also contain water which protects the bacteria against desiccation. They also exclude bacterial viruses and most hydrophobic toxic materials such as detergents.[citation needed] Immunity to one capsule type does not result in immunity to the other types. Capsules also help cells adhere to surfaces.
Diversity[edit]
The capsule is found most commonly among Gram-negative bacteria:
Escherichia coli (in some strains)
Neisseria meningitidis[4]
Klebsiella pneumoniae[5]
Haemophilus influenzae[6]
Pseudomonas aeruginosa[7]
Salmonella[citation needed]
However, some Gram-positive bacteria may also have a capsule:
Bacillus megaterium for example, synthesizes a capsule composed of polypeptide and polysaccharides.
Streptococcus pyogenes synthesizes a hyaluronic acid capsule.
Streptococcus pneumoniae has at least 91 different capsular serotypes.[8] These serotypes are the basis for the pneumococcal vaccines.
Streptococcus agalactiae produces a polysaccharide capsule of nine antigenic types that all contain sialic acid (Ia, Ib, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII).
Staphylococcus epidermidis
The yeast Cryptococcus neoformans, though not a bacterium, has a similar capsule.[9]
Capsules too small to be seen with an ordinary microscope, such as the M protein of Streptococcus pyogenes, are called microcapsules.
Mnemonic[edit]
A common mnemonic used to remember some encapsulated pathogens is:
"Even Some Super Killers Have Pretty Nice Big Capsules"
Escherichia coli, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Salmonella, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Neisseria meningitidis, Bacteroides fragilis, and the yeast Cryptococcus neoformans.
Demonstration of capsule[edit]
India ink staining: the capsule appears as a clear halo around the bacterium as the ink can't penetrate the capsule.[10]:87
Maneval's capsule stain: the capsule appears as a clear halo between the pink-stained bacterium and the bluish-grey stained background. The background stain is the acidic stain Congo red (which changes color to bluish-grey due to the pH), and the pink stain is acid fuschin.
Serological methods: Capsular material is antigenic and can be demonstrated by mixing it with a specific anticapsular serum. When examined under the microscope, the capsule appears 'swollen' due to an increase in its refractivity. This phenomenon is the basis of Quellung reaction.
Use in vaccination[edit]
Vaccination using capsular material is effective against some organisms (e.g., H. influenzae type b, S. pneumoniae, and N. meningitidis). However, polysaccharides are not highly antigenic, especially in children, so many capsular vaccines contain polysaccharides conjugated with protein carriers, such as the tetanus toxoid or diphtheria toxoid. This stimulates a much more robust immune response.[11]
See also[edit]
Bacterial cell structure
Quellung reaction, a method to visualize capsule under a microscope
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "bacterial capsule" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica [Capsules and Slime Layers].
Jump up ^ Daffé, M.; Etienne, G. (1999). "The capsule of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and its implications for pathogenicity". Tubercle and Lung Disease. 79 (3): 153–69. doi:10.1054/tuld.1998.0200. PMID 10656114.
Jump up ^ "Meningococcal meningitis". Textbookofbacteriology.net. Archived from the original on 2014-02-09. Retrieved 2014-01-22.
Jump up ^ Yoshida, K; Matsumoto, T; Tateda, K; Uchida, K; Tsujimoto, S; Yamaguchi, K (November 2000). "Role of bacterial capsule in local and systemic inflammatory responses of mice during pulmonary infection with Klebsiella pneumoniae". Journal of Medical Microbiology. 49 (11): 1003–10. doi:10.1099/0022-1317-49-11-1003. PMID 11073154.
Jump up ^ Schouls, Leo; Van Der Heide, Han; Witteveen, Sandra; Zomer, Bert; Van Der Ende, Arie; Burger, Marina; Schot, Corrie (2008). "Two variants among Haemophilus influenzae serotype b strains with distinct bcs4, hcsA and hcsB genes display differences in expression of the polysaccharide capsule". BMC Microbiology. 8 (1): 35. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-8-35. PMC 2267795  . PMID 18298818.
Jump up ^ Deretic, V; Dikshit, R; Konyecsni, WM; Chakrabarty, AM; Misra, TK (1989). "The algR gene, which regulates mucoidy in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, belongs to a class of environmentally responsive genes". Journal of Bacteriology. 171 (3): 1278–1283. PMC 209741  . PMID 2493441.
Jump up ^ Hyams, Catherine; Camberlein, Emilie; Cohen, Jonathan M.; Bax, Katie; Brown, Jeremy S. (2010-02-01). "The Streptococcus pneumoniae Capsule Inhibits Complement Activity and Neutrophil Phagocytosis by Multiple Mechanisms". Infection and Immunity. 78 (2): 704–715. doi:10.1128/IAI.00881-09. ISSN 0019-9567. PMC 2812187  . PMID 19948837.
Jump up ^ Gates, Marcellene A.; Thorkildson, Peter; Kozel, Thomas R. (April 1390). "Molecular architecture of the Cryptococcus neoformans capsule". Molecular Microbiology. 52 (1): 13–24. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2003.03957.x. PMID 15049807.
Jump up ^ Prokaryotes. Newnes. April 11, 1996. ISBN 978-0-08-098473-5.
Jump up ^ Goldblatt, D (2000-01-01). "Conjugate vaccines". Clinical and Experimental Immunology. 119 (1): 1–3. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2249.2000.01109.x. ISSN 0009-9104. PMC 1905528  . PMID 10671089.
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text:
Tuber
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For fungal genus, see Tuber (fungus). For other uses, see Tuber (disambiguation).
Ulluku (Ullucus tuberosus) tubers
Tubers are enlarged structures in some plant species used as storage organs for nutrients. They are used for the plant's perennation (survival of the winter or dry months), to provide energy and nutrients for regrowth during the next growing season, and as a means of asexual reproduction.[1] Stem tubers form from thickened rhizomes (underground stems) or stolons (horizontal connections between organisms). Common plant species with stem tubers include potato and yam. Some sources also treat modified lateral roots (root tubers) under the definition; these are encountered in sweet potato, cassava, and dahlia.
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
2 Stem tubers
2.1 Potatoes
3 Root tubers
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Terminology[edit]
The term originates from Latin tuber, meaning "lump, bump, swelling".[2]
Some sources define the term "tuber" to mean only structures derived from stems;[3] others use the term for structures derived from stems or roots.[4]
Stem tubers[edit]
A stem tuber forms from thickened rhizomes or stolons. The top sides of the tuber produce shoots that grow into typical stems and leaves and the under sides produce roots. They tend to form at the sides of the parent plant and are most often located near the soil surface. The underground stem tuber is normally a short-lived storage and regenerative organ developing from a shoot that branches off a mature plant. The offsprings or new tubers are attached to a parent tuber or form at the end of a hypogeogenous (initiated below ground) rhizome. In the autumn the plant dies, except for the new offspring stem tubers which have one dominant bud, which in spring regrows a new shoot producing stems and leaves, in summer the tubers decay and new tubers begin to grow. Some plants also form smaller tubers and/or tubercules which act like seeds, producing small plants that resemble (in morphology and size) seedlings. Some stem tubers are long-lived, such as those of tuberous begonia, but many plants have tubers that survive only until the plants have fully leafed out, at which point the tuber is reduced to a shriveled-up husk.
Flowers and tuber of Anredera cordifolia
Stem tubers generally start off as enlargements of the hypocotyl section of a seedling but also sometimes include the first node or two of the epicotyl and the upper section of the root. The stem tuber has a vertical orientation with one or a few vegetative buds on the top and fibrous roots produced on the bottom from a basal section, typically the stem tuber has an oblong rounded shape.
Tuberous begonia, yams,[5][6] and Cyclamen are commonly grown stem tubers. Mignonette vine (Anredera cordifolia) produces aerial stem tubers on 12-to-25-foot-tall (3.7 to 7.6 m) vines, the tubers fall to the ground and grow. Plectranthus esculentus of the mint family Lamiaceae, produces tuberous under ground organs from the base of the stem, weighing up to 1.8 kg per tuber, forming from axillary buds producing short stolons that grow into tubers.[7]
Potatoes[edit]
Main article: Potato
Potato plant with revealed tubers
Potatoes are stem tubers. Enlarged stolons thicken to develop into storage organs.[8][9][10]
The tuber has all the parts of a normal stem, including nodes and internodes. The nodes are the eyes and each has a leaf scar. The nodes or eyes are arranged around the tuber in a spiral fashion beginning on the end opposite the attachment point to the stolon. The terminal bud is produced at the farthest point away from the stolon attachment and tubers thus show the same apical dominance as a normal stem. Internally, a tuber is filled with starch stored in enlarged parenchyma like cells. The inside of a tuber has the typical cell structures of any stem, including a pith, vascular zones, and a cortex.
The tuber is produced in one growing season and used to perennate the plant and as a means of propagation. When fall comes, the above-ground structure of the plant dies, but the tubers survive over winter underground until spring, when they regenerate new shoots that use the stored food in the tuber to grow. As the main shoot develops from the tuber, the base of the shoot close to the tuber produces adventitious roots and lateral buds on the shoot. The shoot also produces stolons that are long etiolated stems. The stolon elongates during long days with the presence of high auxins levels that prevent root growth off of the stolon. Before new tuber formation begins, the stolon must be a certain age. The enzyme lipoxygenase makes a hormone, jasmonic acid, which is involved in the control of potato tuber development.
The stolons are easily recognized when potato plants are grown from seeds. As the plants grow, stolons are produced around the soil surface from the nodes. The tubers form close to the soil surface and sometimes even on top of the ground. When potatoes are cultivated, the tubers are cut into pieces and planted much deeper into the soil. Planting the pieces deeper creates more area for the plants to generate the tubers and their size increases. The pieces sprout shoots that grow to the surface. These shoots are rhizome-like and generate short stolons from the nodes while in the ground. When the shoots reach the soil surface, they produce roots and shoots that grow into the green plant.
Root tubers[edit]
Freshly dug sweet potato plants with tubers.
A tuberous root or storage root, is a modified lateral root, enlarged to function as a storage organ. The enlarged area of the root-tuber, or storage root, can be produced at the end or middle of a root or involve the entire root. It is thus different in origin but similar in function and appearance to a stem tuber. Examples of plants with notable tuberous roots include the sweet potato, cassava, and dahlia.
Root tubers are perennating organs, thickened roots that store nutrients over periods when the plant cannot actively grow, thus permitting survival from one year to the next. The massive enlargement of secondary roots typically represented by Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas), have the internal and external cell and tissue structures of a normal root, they produce adventitious roots and stems which again produce adventitious roots.[11]
In root-tubers, there are no nodes and internodes or reduced leaves. Root tubers have one end called the proximal end, which is the end that was attached to the old plant; this end has crown tissue that produces buds which grow into new stems and foliage.[12] The other end of the root tuber is called the distal end, and it normally produces unmodified roots. In stem tubers the order is reversed, with the distal end producing stems. Tuberous roots are biennial in duration: the first year the plant produces root-tubers, and at the end of the growing season, the plant shoots often die, leaving the newly generated tubers. The next growing season, the root-tubers produce new shoots. As the shoots of the new plant grow, the stored reserves of the root-tuber are consumed in the production of new roots, stems, and reproductive organs; any remaining root tissue dies concurrently to the plant's regeneration of next generation of root-tubers.
Hemerocallis fulva plus a number of Daylily hybrids have large root-tubers, H. fulva spreads by underground stolons[13] that end with a new fan that grows roots that produce thick root tubers and then send out more stolons.[14][15]
Root tubers, along with other storage tissues that plants produce, are consumed by animals as a rich source of nutrients. The root-tubers of Arrowhead plants of the genus Sagittaria are eaten by ducks.[16]
Plants with root tubers are propagated in late summer to late winter by digging up the tubers and separating them, making sure that each piece has some crown tissue for replanting.
See also[edit]
Amorphophallus, a tuber-bound tropical plant genus known for Amorphophallus titanum among others.
Bulb, modified stems with a short fleshy vertical stem, covered by thick fleshy modified leaves that enclose a bud for the next season's growth[17]
Caudex, a form of stem modification similar in appearance with tuber
Corm, modified stems covered by dry scale-like leaves called a tunic, differing from true bulbs by having distinct nodes and internodes
Taproot, the largest, most central, and most dominant root of some plants
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rooting cuttings of tropical trees, London: Commonwealth Science Council, 1994, p. 11, ISBN 978-0-85092-394-0
Jump up ^ "Tuber". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Mauseth, James D. (2012), Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology (5th ed.), Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning, ISBN 978-1-4496-6580-7 , p. 672
Jump up ^ Beentje, Henk (2010), The Kew Plant Glossary, Richmond, Surrey: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, ISBN 978-1-84246-422-9 , p. 124
Jump up ^ Raz, Lauren (2002). Dioscoreaceae. Flora of North America North of Mexico. p. Vol 26, 479.
Jump up ^ Martin, FW; Ortiz, Sonia (1963). "Origin and Anatomy of Tubers of Dioscorea Floribunda and D. Spiculiflora". Botanical Gazette. 124 (6): 416–421. doi:10.1086/336228. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
Jump up ^ J. Allemann; P.J. Robbertse; P.S. Hammes (20 June 2003). "Organographic and anatomical evidence that the edible storage organs of Plectranthus esculentus N.E.Br. (Lamiaceae) are stem tubers". Field Crops Research. 83 (1): 35–39. doi:10.1016/S0378-4290(03)00054-6. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Potato Genome Project
Jump up ^ Interrelationships of the number of initial sprouts, stems, stolons [1] and tubers per potato plant Journal Potato Research. Springer Netherlands ISSN 0014-3065 (Print) ISSN 1871-4528 (Online) Issue Volume 33, Number 2 / June, 1990
Jump up ^ http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/w/x/wxm15/Online/Botany/Stems/stem_lecture_01.htm
Jump up ^ Davis, Edited by Tim D.; Haissig, Bruce E. (1994), Biology of adventitious root formation, New York: Plenum Press, p. 17, ISBN 0-306-44627-8 CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Kyte, Lydiane; Kleyn, John (1996), Plants from test tubes : an introduction to micropropagation, Portland, Or.: Timber Press, pp. 23–24, ISBN 0-88192-361-3
Jump up ^ http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200027676
Jump up ^ Mansfeld, Rudolf (2001), Mansfeld's Encyclopedia of agricultural and horticultural crops, Berlin: Springe, p. 2231, ISBN 3-540-41017-1
Jump up ^ http://sain.utk.edu/invasives/species32.shtml
Jump up ^ Hammerson, Geoffrey A. (2004), Connecticut wildlife : biodiversity, natural history, and conservation, Hanover: University Press of New England, p. 89, ISBN 1-58465-369-8
Jump up ^ Davis, P.H.; Cullen, J. (1979), The identification of flowering plant families, including a key to those native and cultivated in north temperate regions, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 102, ISBN 0-521-29359-6
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tubers.
Cook's Thesaurus has a good inventory of tuber varieties.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuber&oldid=802851287"
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Tuber (disambiguation)

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Ullucus tuberosus

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Perennating organ

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Ipomoea batatas

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Adventitious roots

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//doi.org/10.1086%2F336228

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http://www.foodsubs.com/Tubers.html

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values: درنة نبات – Arabic

values:
https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberclo
Tuberclo – Aragonese
an
an
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knoin
Knoin – Bavarian
bar
bar
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomolj
Gomolj – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubercle
Tubercle – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mugul
Mugul – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubero
Tubero – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberkulu
Tuberkulu – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubercule
Tubercule – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomolj
Gomolj – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberkulo
Tuberkulo – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbi
Umbi – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubero
Tubero – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values: ಗೆಡ್ಡೆ – Kannada

values: Түйнек – Kazakh

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiazi
Kiazi – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gums
Gums – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gum%C3%B3
Gumó – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knolgewas
Knolgewas – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values: ग्वःपुसा – Newari

values:
https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8A%8B
芋 – Japanese
ja
ja
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knoll
Knoll – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotknoll
Rotknoll – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubercul
Tubercul – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuganak
Tuganak – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values: Клубень – Russian

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuber
Tuber – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values: අල (උද්භිදවේදය) – Sinhala

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuber
Tuber – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomolj
Gomolj – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Кртола – Serbian

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krtola
Krtola – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beuti
Beuti – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukula
Mukula – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

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