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The Inspector Lynley Mysteries
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The Inspector Lynley Mysteries
DVD cover of Series One and Two
Genre
Crime drama
Created by
Elizabeth George
Starring
Nathaniel Parker
Sharon Small
Lesley Vickerage
Catherine Russell
Paul Hickey
Shaun Parkes
Emma Fielding
Country of origin
United Kingdom
Original language(s)
English
No. of series
6
No. of episodes
24 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Ruth Baumgarten
Producer(s)
Sally Haynes
Running time
90 minutes
Release
Original network
BBC One
Picture format
16:9
Original release
12 March 2001 – 1 June 2008
External links
Website
www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b007rr0c
The Inspector Lynley Mysteries is a British crime drama, broadcast on BBC One from 12 March 2001 to 1 June 2008, encompassing six series and a total of twenty-three episodes. The protagonist, Detective Inspector Thomas "Tommy" Lynley, 8th Earl of Asherton (Nathaniel Parker), who is assigned to Scotland Yard, finds himself paired with Detective Sergeant Barbara Havers (Sharon Small). In addition to the tensions involved in solving murder cases, the series thrives on the characters' clashes regarding personality, gender, and class, as Lynley is dapper, male and a peer of the realm, while Havers is untidy, female and comes from a working-class background.
In August 2007, the BBC announced its intention to stop production of The Inspector Lynley Mysteries. Fans of the series mounted a campaign to save the series with a petition and contacts to the BBC, but to no avail. All six series have since been released on DVD, distributed by Acorn Media UK.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Production
2 Filming
3 Cast
4 Episode list
4.1 Pilot (2001)
4.2 Series 1 (2002)
4.3 Series 2 (2003)
4.4 Series 3 (2004)
4.5 Series 4 (2005)
4.6 Series 5 (2006)
4.7 Series 6 (2008)
5 International broadcasts
6 References
7 External links
Production[edit]
All episodes from the first two series and two from the third are based on novels by the American writer Elizabeth George, though the plots and characters are often significantly altered. Later episodes are original stories for television based on her characters. The theme music for the series was composed by Debbie Wiseman. The first episode, A Great Deliverance, was broadcast on 12 and 13 March 2001, becoming the only two-part episode throughout the series run. It was also based on the inaugural Inspector Lynley novel. The first full series began broadcasting on 8 April 2002, with the first episode based on and named after the third novel, Well-Schooled in Murder. The first eleven episodes were based on, and named after, the eleven Inspector Lynley novels published from 1988 to 2001, beginning with the inaugural novel A Great Deliverance, but subsequently departing from the print sequence. Eight more novels have since been published as of 2015.
Filming[edit]
Exterior shots of Lynley and Havers' base were filmed at the Bircham Dyson Bell solicitors offices on Broadway, central London. The first episode of series five was notable for being shot in Dungeness in Kent.[2] In the first episode, Lynley drove a Peugeot 607; whereas in both series one and two he drove a Jensen Interceptor; and in later episodes a Bristol 410. Despite the frequently recurring remark in PBS Mystery! presenter Diana Rigg's introductions to the series that Lynley "is the one with the Bentley", he never drove a Bentley on TV. He does, however, drive one in the George novels. In the pilot episode, the character of Helen Clyde was played by Emma Fielding. She was later portrayed by Lesley Vickerage from series one through three (from series three she and Lynley had married and she was thus known as Helen Lynley) and by Catherine Russell in series five.
Cast[edit]
Nathaniel Parker as Detective Inspector Thomas Lynley
Sharon Small as Detective Sergeant Barbara Havers
Emma Fielding as Helen Clyde (Pilot)
Lesley Vickerage as Helen Clyde (Series 1-2) / Helen Lynley (Series 3)
Catherine Russell as Helen Lynley (Series 5)
Paul Hickey as Forensic Patholgist Lafferty (Series 4-6)
Shaun Parkes as Detective Constable Winston Nkata (Series 5-6)
Episode list[edit]
Pilot (2001)[edit]
Episode
Title
Written by
Directed by
Viewers
(millions)[3]
Original airdate
1
"A Great Deliverance (Part One)" Lizzie Mickery Richard Laxton 8.37m 12 March 2001 (2001-03-12)
When a farmer, William Tey, is hacked to death with an axe in his barn on the Yorkshire Moors, Scotland Yard assigns Detective Inspector Thomas Lynley and Detective Sergeant Barbara Havers to the case. Found dead at the feet of his teenage daughter, who was covered in blood and is too traumatised to say what happened, the investigation reveals that Tey's wife had left him many years before and his other daughter has run away, refusing to have anything more to do with him. When it transpires his nephew will now inherit his farm, it provides Lynley with a possible motive for the killing.
2
"A Great Deliverance (Part Two)" Lizzie Mickery Richard Laxton 6.93m 13 March 2001 (2001-03-13)
The investigation into William Tey's murder continues, leading Lynley and Havers into the steamy side of a quiet English village. Although he was a stalwart of the local church, Tey had a hidden past which provides a wide range of suspects and motives. It seems that an old case of infanticide may hold the key to the present case. Meanwhile, Lynley is forced to deal with his own traumas: a group of former colleagues who would like nothing better than to bring him down, and Deborah, the woman he loves, has just married his best friend.
Series 1 (2002)[edit]
Episode
Title
Written by
Directed by
Viewers
(millions)[3]
Original airdate
1
"Well Schooled in Murder" Simon Block Robert Young 6.84m 8 April 2002 (2002-04-08)
Lynley is asked by an old school friend to investigate when one of his pupils is killed. The school in question is Bredgar Hall, a haven for the rich and the privileged with annual fees of £20,000 a year. The dead boy however, 13 year-old Matthew Whately, didn't come from a rich family. From all accounts, he was well liked and managed to fit into the school and its unique culture quite well. Faced with school administrators who seem more concerned with the school's reputation than the boy's death, Lynley and Havers must determine if the threat is from students, staff or someone not at all connected with the school.
2
"Payment in Blood" Lizzie Mickery Kim Flitcroft 6.53m 15 April 2002 (2002-04-15)
Lynley and Havers are sent to a remote Scottish mansion house, the home of Sir Stuart Stinhurst, to investigate the violent death of a famous playwright whilst she was helping to rehearse a production of her new play. Initial investigation reveals that practically anybody could have committed the crime, but everybody appears to have a convincing alibi and nobody has a motive. As the investigation continues, an apparent nearby suicide begins to have a bearing on the case - but Lynley believes that it wasn't suicide.
3
"For the Sake of Elena" Valerie Windsor Richard Laxton 6.98m 22 April 2002 (2002-04-22)
When the daughter of a Cambridge professor is brutally killed while out jogging, Lynley and Havers are assigned to the case. The young woman was deaf, and on the evidence, it appears the attack was deliberate. There are any number of suspects: the girl's father is divorced, re-married to a much younger woman who suspects him of having an affair; another Cambridge professor known for being a bit too friendly with students and against whom she was about to make a formal sexual harassment complaint; her ex-boyfriend, with whom she had recently broken up; and a student advisor who was very attracted to her, but in whom she had little interest.
Miranda Raison has a minor role as Ros, girlfriend of one Elena's housemates.
4
"Missing Joseph" Lizzie Mickery Richard Laxton 6.05m 29 April 2002 (2002-04-29)
While on detachment to the Lancashire police, Lynley investigates the apparent murder of the Reverend Robin Sage, who is found on a rural path, where he was presumably walking home. The autopsy reveals that he was poisoned with wild hemlock. He had dinner the previous evening with Juliet Spence, who was also violently ill through the night, but survived the poisoning. Juliet is involved in a relationship with PC Steve Shepherd, son of the local DCI, Kenneth Shepherd, and it is apparent that Juliet's teenage daughter, Maggie, is not pleased with her mother's choice.
Series 2 (2003)[edit]
Episode
Title
Written by
Directed by
Viewers
(millions)[4]
Original airdate
1
"Playing for the Ashes" Kate Wood Richard Spence 7.05m 10 March 2003 (2003-03-10)
When England cricketer Kenneth Waring dies of asphyxiation after a fire is set at a friend's house, Lynley has no doubt that he is dealing with murder. The house belonged to Waring's patron, and close friend, Miriam Whitelaw - who had a visitor the evening Waring died - her estranged daughter Olivia. Waring was separated from his wife, Jeannie, and had recently given her divorce papers. His lover and agent, Gabriella Patten, the ex-wife of a cricket teammate, has gone missing. Miriam had recently been attacked by animal rights activists which, unbeknown to her, included her daughter. When Waring's son confesses to the murder, Lynley has his doubts.
2
"In the Presence of the Enemy" Francesca Brill Brian Stirner 6.64m 17 March 2003 (2003-03-17)
The conservative editor of a major newspaper, Dennis Luxford, receives a ransom demand: publish the details of his first-born child or else. Some years earlier, he had a weekend tryst with a left-wing politician, Eve Bowen, now a government Minister, and by mutual agreement his paternity has never been publicly acknowledged. In a strange twist, the girl is killed before Luxford has a chance to publish the story. Lynley and Havers are soon dealing with another kidnapping when Luxford's young son Leo is taken and he again received the same ransom demand.
3
"A Suitable Vengeance" Valerie Windsor Edward Bennett 6.44m 24 March 2003 (2003-03-24)
Lynley and Helen's weekend away on the family estate to celebrate their engagement party descends into disaster when local shopkeeper Mick Cambrey is found dead in his shop in the village - and the local police arrest Cambrey's father-in-law, John Penellin, who is also Lynley's long-time estate manager. Lynley and Havers soon determine that the death is related to drug smuggling, but when one of the weekend guests, Justin Brooke, is found dead on the estate, they realize something other than heroin was being smuggled.
4
"Deception on His Mind" Valerie Windsor Tim Leandro 6.19m 31 March 2003 (2003-03-31)
Lynley and Havers investigate the death of Hatham Kureshi in the seaside village of Balford-le-nez. He was to marry Shala Malik, the daughter of a prominent businessman. The marriage was an arranged one, but it turns out she was having an affair with a local man, Theo Shaw, and that she is also pregnant. There is also much tension in the community owing to what some claim was a previous incident where the police supposedly covered up the murder of a 16-year old Asian boy. When Lynley learns that Hatham was also gay, it adds a whole new angle to the investigation.
Series 3 (2004)[edit]
Episode
Title
Written by
Directed by
Viewers
(millions)
Original airdate
1
"In Pursuit of the Proper Sinner" Ann Marie Di-Mambro Sebastian Graham Jones 6.51m 4 March 2004 (2004-03-04)
Lynley investigates the death of Nicola Maiden and Gerry Cole, who were beaten to death while out camping. Nicola's father Andy Maiden is a retired police officer but neither of her parents know, or will admit to knowing, who Cole is and thought she was seeing Julian Britton. Andy believes she was killed as a means of getting back at him and offers to go through his old files. The investigation reveals that Nicola worked for Martin Reeve, the owner of an escort agency. She had recently quit and set off on her own. Andy had also put him away once, for 10 years, leading to the break-up of Reeve's marriage. When another murder occurs, it sends the investigation in a different direction involving a theft and blackmail.
2
"A Traitor to Memory" Kevin Clarke Brian Stirner 6.31m 11 March 2004 (2004-03-11)
While attending an anniversary party at his superior officer's house, Lynley is given the task of investigating the death by car of a woman. He and Havers think it odd that he is given the case, but he doggedly pursues the truth. The woman was the mother of a gifted violinist who mysteriously abandoned his concert just at the time his mother was run down. As the plot deepens, connections to a crime 20 years earlier appear and tensions between Lynley and a fellow policeman boil over.
3
"A Cry for Justice" Ann Marie Di-Mambro Alrick Riley 6.15m 18 March 2004 (2004-03-18)
Havers is re-appointed to her rank of Detective Sergeant, and she and Lynley are assigned to investigate the murder of Morag McNicholl. The killing was made to look like a suicide, but it is clear she was killed by a blow to the head and that her wrists were slit after her death. Lynley also finds a large amount of cash in the flat, so rules out robbery as a motive. After discovering the dead woman was membership secretary at a prestigious private club, Havers goes undercover to see what information she can glean.
4
"If Wishes Were Horses" Simon Booker Alrick Riley 5.88m 25 March 2004 (2004-03-25)
Lynley and Havers investigate the murder of a forensic psychologist, Professor Dermot Finnegan, who was blown to pieces with a car bomb. During his time in office, he completed much work for the police and the list of those seeking revenge is endless - in his home village, Noel Shakespeare's daughter was imprisoned for killing her abusive husband following Finnegan's testimony, and he has campaigned relentlessly to get her a new trial. Peter Stephanopoulos, who also served 10 years largely on Finnegan's testimony, has now been released.
Series 4 (2005)[edit]
Episode
Title
Written by
Directed by
Viewers
(millions)[3]
Original airdate
1
"In Divine Proportion" Julian Simpson Brian Stirner 5.93m 17 March 2005 (2005-03-17)
Lynley and Havers are sent to a small village in East Anglia to investigate the murder of an interior designer who was shot inside her house, but her body was deliberately moved outside. As the investigation proceeds, they discover that the dead woman's sister was raped and committed suicide fifteen years earlier, and the perpetrator mysteriously disappeared. These events are somehow connected to the current crime but the perpetrator's son refuses to co-operate with the investigation and attempts suicide to avoid doing so. As the pair close in on the murderer, Havers becomes trapped in the local pub with several villagers and the murderer.
2
"In the Guise of Death" Simon Block Nigel Douglas 6.25m 24 March 2005 (2005-03-24)
Lynley is visiting the family estate with his sister, while Havers is also on leave and attending a rehab center. But they're soon drawn in by the local police to assist with the suspicious death of Stephen Fenner, who is found hanging in his barn. The post-mortem reveals that he was drugged and the suspicious death is soon a murder investigation. Fenner had recently been on the wrong end of a business deal having bought a lame racehorse. The investigation reveals however that there is a smuggling ring operating along the Cornish coast and Fenner may have been involved. A key suspect and a police officer will die however before Lynley and Havers identify the ringleader.
3
"The Seed of Cunning" Mark Greig Jeremy Silberston 6.88m 31 March 2005 (2005-03-31)
When the body of a doorkeeper in the House of Lords is found floating in the Thames, Lynley gets a chance to reunite with an old school mate, who heads a powerful committee deciding what missile defense system to buy. Havers, impressed with the setting, spends her nights meeting men through a dating service.
4
"Word of God" Peter Jukes Julian Simpson 6.34m 7 April 2005 (2005-04-07)
When the police discover the body of a man frozen in a meat truck, they think they have a case of people smuggling. The man had a false British passport in his possession and his death had similarities to a previous smuggling operation gone wrong. However the autopsy reveals that he was actually strangled. They also find a page from a Koran that proves to be extremely valuable. The immigration authorities, however, show little interest in Lynley and Havers' murder investigation.
Series 5 (2006)[edit]
Episode
Title
Written by
Directed by
Viewers
(millions)[3]
Original airdate
1
"Natural Causes" Peter Jukes Simon Massey 5.22m 20 July 2006 (2006-07-20)
Lynley finds himself suspended from duty accused of having threatened a witness. As a result, Havers is temporarily re-assigned to DI Fiona Knight. They look into the murder of Edie Covington who was found dead in her car at the bottom of the lake. Edie was well known to many in the local area and had incurred the wrath of Owen Hardourt-Baines, a local land developer who had hoped to develop the lakeside into a housing estate. The police think they have a motive and forensic evidence that points to a killer, but in the end must look elsewhere. Although suspended, Lynley can't help but involve himself in the case.
2
"One Guilty Deed" Mark Greig Jonathan Fox Bassett 5.24m 27 July 2006 (2006-07-27)
Roger Pollard was a member of a London criminal gang run by Michael Shand. When Pollard is found on a beach shot through the head, Lynley and Havers assume Shand is responsible. They are surprised however to learn that Pollard had grown up locally, making him an easy target for anyone trying to learn his whereabouts. Havers is in her element as she used to go to a holiday camp in the area as a child. She becomes convinced that the death of a young boy from the holiday camp, Martin McRae, some twenty years before is the key to solving the crime.
3
"Chinese Walls" Ed Whitmore Robert Bierman 6.03m 3 August 2006 (2006-08-03)
Emily Proctor, a 23-year-old student, is found stabbed to death in Hyde Park. She had recently obtained a first in law and was a pupil in the Chambers of well-known barrister Tony Wainwright. At age 13, Emily had first seen Wainwright in a television documentary about refugees and had always wanted to work with him. As Lynley and Havers look into her background, however, they are able to paint a more complex picture of the victim. She had recently reunited with her half-sister and was involved in the online sex industry. When the police learn that Wainwright's fiancé was killed a few days before his wedding 15 years earlier, the investigation takes a new direction.
4
"In the Blink of an Eye" Ed Whitmore Brian Kelly 5.69m 10 August 2006 (2006-08-10)
Lynley and Havers investigate the murder of Peter Rooker, a press photographer who was killed in an alley way. Rooker had been a successful war photographer in Bosnia but in recent years had been trying his hand at being a paparazzo. Rooker was also selling his photos to Melissa Booth, the editor of a major tabloid newspaper and his one time lover, now married to Eddie Price a very powerful business man. When the police determine that they were having an affair, Price becomes their principal suspect but he has a solid alibi for the time of Rooker's murder.
Series 6 (2008)[edit]
The broadcast of Limbo and Know Thine Enemy was initially postponed: they were due to air on 9 and 16 June 2007 respectively but did not air as scheduled. Their premiere broadcast came on 11 and 18 November 2007 on BBC Entertainment, before being broadcast on BBC One for the first time on 25 May and 1 June 2008 respectively.
Episode
Title
Written by
Directed by
Viewers
(millions)[3]
Original airdate
1
"Limbo" Ed Whitmore Robert Bierman 4.87m 11 November 2007 (2007-11-11) (BBC Entertainment)
25 May 2008 (BBC One)
Lynley is at a birthday party for the young son of some friends when the boy disappears. Twelve years later the boy's corpse is found and Lynley travels to Rome to accompany the dead boy's sister back to England for the funeral. However, the past seems to haunt her, and a break-in at her apartment leads Lynley to suspect that the 12-year old crime is still reverberating through the victim's family. At the same time, Lynley is also dealing with the death of Helen - and not too well, tending to drown his sorrows rather than deal with the loss.
2
"Know Thine Enemy" Ed Whitmore Graham Theakston 5.30m 18 November 2007 (2007-11-18) (BBC Entertainment)
1 June 2008 (BBC One)
Lynley and Havers investigate the death of teenager Sarah Middleton, who had gone missing two weeks previously. She was found in a lake and had been dead for three or four days. She had also been sexually assaulted. When a second schoolgirl, Kelly Stevens, also goes missing the police fear they have a predator on their hands. The police focus on Guy Thompson, who had recently beaten his wife, Tanya. Havers works on gaining the wife's trust, while Lynley learns more about the husband's troubled background. As they continue the investigation, there is growing doubt as to just who is the most dangerous.
International broadcasts[edit]
In the United States, all six series were broadcast on PBS from 2002 to 2008.
A Great Deliverance was broadcast on the series Mystery! in two parts as Inspector Lynley I on 19 and 26 August 2002.
Series 1 was shown on Mystery! as Inspector Lynley II on 31 August and 7, 14, and 21 September 2003.
Series 2 was shown on Mystery! as Inspector Lynley III on 5, 12, 19, and 26 September 2004.
Series 3 was shown on Mystery! as Inspector Lynley IV on 26 June and 3, 10, and 17 July 2005.
Series 4 was shown on Mystery! as Inspector Lynley V on 10, 17, 24 September, and 1 October 2006.
Series 5 was shown on Mystery! as Inspector Lynley VI on 9 and 16 September and 7 and 14 October 2007.
Episode 4 was the final broadcast of Mystery! before WGBH retooled the classic anthology series, along with Masterpiece Theatre, into Masterpiece.
Series 6 was shown on Masterpiece Mystery! as Inspector Lynley VII on 10 and 17 August 2008.
In December 2014, Knowledge Network began broadcasting the series from the beginning in Canada.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.edel.de/
Jump up ^ Kent Film Office. "Kent Film Office The Inspector Lynley Mysteries – Natural Causes Article".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Top 30 Programmes – BARB". barb.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
Jump up ^ http://www.barb.co.uk/whats-new/weekly-top-30?
External links[edit]
The Inspector Lynley Mysteries at bbc.co.uk
Official Masterpiece Mystery! website for The Inspector Lynley Mysteries.
Old Official Mystery! website for The Inspector Lynley Mysteries.
The Inspector Lynley Mysteries on IMDb
Nathaniel Parker's Official Homepage covers all the latest news on the series as well as a complete collection of episode reviews
USA based Yahoo ILM Discussion Board Forum for discussion of "The Inspector Lynley Mysteries." International membership.
UK based Yahoo group for discussion of the BBC's Inspector Lynley TV series Photos, fan fiction, links
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Chinese architecture
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Corner tower of the Forbidden City, Beijing
Chinese architecture is an architectural style that developed over millennia in China, before spreading out to influence architecture all throughout East Asia. Since the solidification of the style in the early imperial period, the structural principles of Chinese architecture have remained largely unchanged, the main changes being only the decorative details. Starting with the Tang Dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan, and a varying amount of influence on the architectural styles of Northeast and Southeast Asia.
The architecture of China is as old as Chinese civilization. From every source of information—literary, graphic, exemplary—there is strong evidence testifying to the fact that the Chinese have always enjoyed an indigenous system of construction that has retained its principal characteristics from prehistoric times to the present day. Over the vast area from Chinese Turkistan to Japan, from Manchuria to the northern half of French Indochina, the same system of construction is prevalent; and this was the area of Chinese cultural influence. That this system of construction could perpetuate itself for more than four thousand years over such a vast territory and still remain a living architecture, retaining its principal characteristics in spite of repeated foreign invasions—military, intellectual, and spiritual—is a phenomenon comparable only to the continuity of the civilization of which it is an integral part.
—  Liang, Ssu-ch'eng, 1984[1]
Throughout the 20th Century, Western-trained Chinese architects have attempted to combine traditional Chinese designs into modern architecture (usually government), with great success. Moreover, the pressure for urban development throughout contemporary China required higher speed of construction and higher floor area ratio, which means that in the great cities the demand for traditional Chinese buildings, which are normally less than 3 levels, has declined in favor of modern architecture. However, the traditional skills of Chinese architecture, including major and minor carpentry, masonry, and stonemasonry, are still applied to the construction of vernacular architecture in the vast rural area in China.
Contents
1 Features
1.1 Architectural bilateral symmetry
1.2 Enclosure
1.3 Hierarchy
1.4 Horizontal emphasis
1.5 Cosmological concepts
2 Architectural types
2.1 Commoners
2.2 Imperial
2.3 Religious
2.3.1 Gallery
3 Urban planning
4 Construction
4.1 Materials and history
4.2 Structure
5 Classification by structure
6 Miniature models
7 Influence from outside of China
8 Influence in neighboring Asian countries
9 Regional variation
9.1 Shanxi architecture
9.2 Lingnan (Cantonese) architecture
9.3 Minnan (Hokkien) architecture
9.4 Hakka architecture
9.5 Gan architecture
9.6 Yaodong
9.7 Others
10 See also
11 References
11.1 Citations
11.2 Sources
12 Further reading
13 External links
Features[edit]
A sancai (tri-colored) ceramic mansion from the Tang Dynasty (618-907), excavated from a Tang era tomb at Zhongbu village in the western suburbs of Xi'an.
The rectangular compound shown above has two sections of courtyards. The buildings on the axle line include central entrance, four-pointed pavilion, mountain-shaped front hall, artificial mountain and ponds, eight-pointed pavilion and mountain-shaped retiring quarters. The two sides of the central axle are arranged with corridor rooms symmetrically.
Architectural bilateral symmetry[edit]
A very important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on articulation and bilateral symmetry, which signifies balance. Bilateral symmetry and the articulation of buildings are found everywhere in Chinese architecture, from palace complexes to humble farmhouses. When possible, plans for renovation and extension of a house will often try to maintain this symmetry provided that there is enough capital to do so.[2] Secondary elements are positioned either side of main structures as two wings to maintain overall bilateral symmetry. The buildings are typically planned to contain an even number of columns in a structure to produce an odd number of bays (間). With the inclusion of a main door to a building in the center bay, symmetry is maintained.
In contrast to the buildings, the Chinese gardens tend to be asymmetrical. The principle underlying the garden's composition is to create enduring flow.[3] The design of the classic Chinese garden is based on the ideology of "Nature and Man in One", as opposed to the home itself, which is a symbol of the human sphere co-existing with, but separate from nature. So, the arrangement is as flexible as possible to let people feel they are surrounded by and in harmony with nature. The two essential elements of the garden are hill stones and water. The hill stones mean the pursuit of immortality and water represents emptiness and existence. The mountain belongs to yang (static beauty) and the water belongs to yin (dynamic wonder). They depend on each other and complete the whole nature. [4]
Enclosure[edit]
In much of traditional Chinese architecture, buildings or building complexes take up an entire property but enclose open spaces within themselves. These enclosed spaces come in two forms, the:[2]
Courtyard (院): The use of open courtyards is a common feature in many types of Chinese architectures. This is best exemplified in the Siheyuan, which has consisted of an empty space surrounded by buildings connected with one another either directly or through verandas.
"Sky well" (天井): Although large open courtyards are less commonly found in southern Chinese architecture, the concept of an "open space" surrounded by buildings, which is seen in northern courtyard complexes, can be seen in the southern building structure known as the "sky well". This structure is essentially a relatively enclosed courtyard formed from the intersections of closely spaced buildings and offer small opening to the sky through the roof space from the floor up.
These enclosures serve in temperature regulation and in venting the building complexes. Northern courtyards are typically open and facing the south to allow the maximum exposure of the building windows and walls to the sun while keeping the cold northern winds out. Southern sky wells are relatively small and serves to collect rain water from the roof tops. They perform the same duties as the Roman impluvium while restricting the amount of sunlight that enters the building. Sky wells also serve as vents for rising hot air, which draws cool air from the lower stories of the house and allows for exchange of cool air with the outside.
A skywell in a Fujian temple with enclosing halls and bays on four sides.
A mid-20th century colonial style Taiwanese building containing a skywell.
A tulou outer building encloses a smaller circular building, which encloses an ancestral hall and courtyard in the center.
A dugout dwelling enclosing an underground courtyard.
An enclosing courtyard on four sides from the Astor Court in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, USA.
Hierarchy[edit]
A tomb mural of Xinzhou, dated to the Northern Qi (550-577 AD) period, showing a hall with a tiled roof, dougong brackets, and doors with giant door knockers (perhaps made of bronze)
The projected hierarchy and importance and uses of buildings in traditional Chinese architecture are based on the strict placement of buildings in a property/complex. Buildings with doors facing the front of the property are considered more important than those facing the sides. Buildings facing away from the front of the property are the least important.
South-facing buildings in the rear and more private location of the property with higher exposure to sunlight are held in higher esteem and reserved for elder members of the family or ancestral plaques. Buildings facing east and west are generally for junior members or branches of the family, while buildings near the front are typically for servants and hired help.[5]
Front-facing buildings in the back of properties are used particularly for rooms of celebratory rites and for the placement of ancestral halls and plaques. In multiple courtyard complexes, central courtyards and their buildings are considered more important than peripheral ones, the latter typically being used as storage or servants’ rooms or kitchens.[2]
Horizontal emphasis[edit]
Classical Chinese buildings, especially those of the wealthy, are built with an emphasis on breadth and less on height, featuring an enclosed heavy platform and a large roof that floats over this base, with the vertical walls not well emphasized. Buildings that were too high and large were considered unsightly, and therefore generally avoided.[6]Chinese architecture stresses the visual impact of the width of the buildings, using sheer scale to inspire awe in visitors.[7] This preference contrasts Western architecture, which tends to grow in height and depth. This often meant that pagodas towered above all other buildings in the skyline of a Chinese city.[8]
The halls and palaces in the Forbidden City (which were was fact partially designed with some western influence), have rather low ceilings when compared to equivalent stately buildings in the West, but their external appearances suggest the all-embracing nature of imperial China. These ideas have found their way into modern Western architecture, for example through the work of Jørn Utzon.[9]
Cosmological concepts[edit]
Model of a Chinese Siheyuan in Beijing, which shows off the symmetry, enclosed heavy platform and a large roof that floats over this base, with the vertical walls not as well emphasized.
Chinese architecture from early times used concepts from Chinese cosmology such as feng shui (geomancy) and Taoism to organize construction and layout from common residences to imperial and religious structures.[2] This includes the use of:
Screen walls to face the main entrance of the house, which stems from the belief that evil things travel in straight lines.
Talismans and imagery of good fortune:
Door gods displayed on doorways to ward off evil and encourage the flow of good fortune
Three anthropomorphic figures representing Fu Lu Shou (福祿壽 fú-lù-shòu) stars are prominently displayed, sometimes with the proclamation "the three stars are present" (三星宅 sān-xīng-zhài)
Animals and fruits that symbolize good fortune and prosperity, such as bats and pomegranates, respectively. The association is often done through rebuses.
Orienting the structure with its back to elevated landscape and ensuring that there is water in the front. Considerations are also made such that the generally windowless back of the structure faces the north, where the wind is coldest in the winter.
Ponds, pools, wells, and other water sources are usually built into the structure.
Aligning a building along a north/south axis, with the building facing south and the two sides facing east and west respectively.[10]
The use of certain colors, numbers and the cardinal directions in traditional Chinese architecture reflected the belief in a type of immanence, where the nature of a thing could be wholly contained in its own form. Although the Western tradition gradually developed a body of architectural literature, little was written on the subject in China, and the earliest text, the Kaogongji, was never disputed. However, ideas about cosmic harmony and the order of the city were usually interpreted at their most basic level, so a reproduction of the "ideal" city never existed. Beijing as reconstructed throughout the 15th and 16th century remains one of the best examples of traditional Chinese town planning.
Architectural types[edit]
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Commoners[edit]
Due to primarily wooden construction and poor maintenance, far fewer examples of commoner's homes survive to this day compared to those of nobles. According to Matthew Korman, the average commoner's home did not change much, even centuries after the establishment of the universal style, such as early 20th century homes, were very similar to late and mid imperial homes in layout and construction.[11]
These homes, be they those of bureaucrats, merchants or farmers, tended to follow a set pattern: the center of the building would be a shrine for the deities and the ancestors, which would also be used during festivities. On its two sides were bedrooms for the elders; the two wings of the building (known as "guardian dragons" by the Chinese) were for the junior members of the family, as well as the living room, the dining room, and the kitchen, although sometimes the living room could be very close to the center[12].
Sometimes the extended families became so large that one or even two extra pairs of "wings" had to be built. This resulted in a U-shaped building, with a courtyard suitable for farm work.[8] Merchants and bureaucrats, however, preferred to close off the front with an imposing front gate. All buildings were legally regulated, and the law held that the number of stories, the length of the building and the colours used depended on the owner's class.
Some commoners living in areas plagued by bandits built communal fortresses called Tulou for protection. Often favoured by the Hakka in Fujian and Jiangxi, the design of Tulou also shows the Chinese ancient philosophy of harmony between people and environment. People used local materials to build the walls with rammed earth. There is no window to the outside on the lower two floors for defense, but it’s open on the inside with a common courtyard and lets people get together easily. [13]
Imperial[edit]
There were certain architectural features that were reserved solely for buildings built for the Emperor of China. One example is the use of yellow roof tiles, yellow having been the Imperial color; yellow roof tiles still adorn most of the buildings within the Forbidden City. The Temple of Heaven, however, uses blue roof tiles to symbolize the sky. The roofs are almost invariably supported by brackets ("dougong"), a feature shared only with the largest of religious buildings. The wooden columns of the buildings, as well as the surfaces of the walls, tend to be red in color. Black is also a famous color often used in pagodas. It was believed that the gods are inspired by the black color to descend to the earth.
The Chinese 5-clawed dragon, adopted by the first Ming emperor for his personal use, was used as decoration on the beams, pillars, and on the doors on Imperial architecture. Curiously, the dragon was never used on roofs of imperial buildings.
Only the buildings used by the imperial family were allowed to have nine jian (間, space between two columns); only the gates used by the Emperor could have five arches, with the centre one, of course, being reserved for the Emperor himself. The ancient Chinese favored the color red. The buildings faced south because the north had a cold wind.
A vaulted tomb chamber in Luoyang, built during the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–220)
A tomb chamber of Luoyang, built during the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–220) with incised wall decorations
The Great Red Gate at the Ming Tombs near Beijing, built in the 15th century
The yellow roof tiles and red walls in the Forbidden City (Palace Museum) grounds in Beijing, built during the Yongle era (1402–1424) of the Ming Dynasty
Beijing became the capital of China after the Mongol invasion of the 13th century, completing the easterly migration of the Chinese capital begun since the Jin dynasty. The Ming uprising in 1368 reasserted Chinese authority and fixed Beijing as the seat of imperial power for the next five centuries. The Emperor and the Empress lived in palaces on the central axis of the Forbidden City, the Crown Prince at the eastern side, and the concubines at the back (therefore the numerous imperial concubines were often referred to as "The Back Palace Three Thousand"). However, during the mid-Qing Dynasty, the Emperor's residence was moved to the western side of the complex. It is misleading to speak of an axis in the Western sense of a visual perspective ordering facades, rather the Chinese axis is a line of privilege, usually built upon, regulating access—there are no vistas, but a series of gates and pavilions.
Que 闕 towers along the walls of Tang-era Chang'an, as depicted in this 8th-century mural from Prince Li Chongrun's tomb at the Qianling Mausoleum in Shaanxi
Numerology heavily influenced Imperial Architecture, hence the use of nine in much of construction (nine being the greatest single digit number) and the reason why the Forbidden City in Beijing is said to have 9,999.9 rooms—just short of the mythical 10,000 rooms in heaven. The importance of the East (the direction of the rising sun) in orienting and siting Imperial buildings is a form of solar worship found in many ancient cultures, where there is the notion of Ruler being affiliated with the Sun.
The tombs and mausoleums of imperial family members, such as the 8th century Tang Dynasty tombs at the Qianling Mausoleum, can also be counted as part of the imperial tradition in architecture. These above-ground earthen mounds and pyramids had subterranean shaft-and-vault structures that were lined with brick walls since at least the Warring States (481–221 BC).[14]
Religious[edit]
See also: Temple (Chinese)
Nanchan Temple (Wutai), built in the late 8th century during the Tang dynasty
A timber hall built in 857 during the Tang dynasty, located at the Buddhist Foguang Temple of Mount Wutai, Shanxi
Generally speaking, Buddhist architecture follows the imperial style. A large Buddhist monastery normally has a front hall, housing the statues of the Four Heavenly Kings, followed by a great hall, housing the statues of the Buddhas. Accommodations for the monks and the nuns are located at the two sides. Some of the greatest examples of this come from the 18th century Puning Temple and Putuo Zongcheng Temple. Buddhist monasteries sometimes also have pagodas, which may house the relics of the Gautama Buddha; older pagodas tend to be four-sided, while later pagodas usually have eight sides.
Daoist architecture, on the other hand, usually follows the commoners' style. The main entrance is, however, usually at the side, out of superstition about demons which might try to enter the premise (see feng shui.) In contrast to the Buddhists, in a Daoist temple the main deity is located in the main hall at the front, the lesser deities in the back hall and at the sides. This is because Chinese people believe that even after the body has died, the soul is still alive. From the Han grave design, it shows the forces of cosmic yin and yang, the two forces from the heaven and earth that creates eternity. [15]
The tallest pre-modern building in China was built for both religious and martial purposes. The Liaodi Pagoda of 1055 AD stands at a height of 84 m (276 ft), and although it served as the crowning pagoda of the Kaiyuan monastery in old Dingzhou, Hebei, it was also used as a military watchtower for Song Dynasty soldiers to observe potential Liao Dynasty enemy movements.
The architecture of the mosques and gongbei tomb shrines of China's Muslims often combines traditional Chinese styles with Middle Eastern influences.
Gallery[edit]
A group of temples at the top of Mount Taishan, where structures have been built at the site since the 3rd century BC during the Han Dynasty
Nanshan Temple in Longkou, Shandong.
Lianhuashan (lit. "lotus flower mountain") Temple in Dalian
Island Pagoda, about 1871, from the album, Foochow and the River Min
The Nine Pinnacle Pagoda, built in the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty
A Chinese pavilion instead of a minaret at the Great Mosque of Xi'an.
The Fogong Temple Pagoda, located in Ying county, Shanxi province, built in 1056 during the Liao Dynasty, is the oldest existent fully wooden pagoda in China
The Giant Wild Goose Pagoda in Xi'an, built in 652 during the Tang Dynasty
The Songyue Pagoda, built in 523 AD during the Northern and Southern dynasties
The Liuhe Pagoda of Hangzhou, China, built in 1165 AD during the Song Dynasty
Hua Si Gongbei (the mausoleum of Ma Laichi) in Linxia City, Gansu
A timber hall built in 857 during the Tang Dynasty,[16] located at the Buddhist Foguang Temple in Mount Wutai, Shanxi
The Liaodi Pagoda, the tallest pre-modern Chinese pagoda, built in 1055 during the Song dynasty
Urban planning[edit]
Main article: Ancient Chinese urban planning
Chinese urban planning is based on fengshui geomancy and the well-field system of land division, both used since the Neolithic age. The basic well-field diagram is overlaid with the luoshu, a magic square divided into 9 sub-squares, and linked with Chinese numerology.[17] In Southern Song Dynasty (1131AD), the design of Hongcun city in Anhui was based around "harmony between man and nature", facing south and surrounded by mountains and water. According to the theory of the traditional Chinese fengshui geomancy, it is a carefully planned ancient village and show the Human-Nature Intergraded Ecological Planning concept. [18]
Since wars happened in northern China very often, people moved to southern China. The building method of a courtyard house was adapted to southern China. The village of Tungyuan in Fujian Province is a good example of a planned settlement that shows the Chinese feng shui elements - psychological self-defense and building structure – in the form of material self-defense. [19]
Construction[edit]
Materials and history[edit]
Models of watchtowers and other buildings made during the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–220); while these models were made of ceramics, the real versions were made of easily perishable wood and have not survived.
Wood was originally utilised as a primary building material because it was very common. Also, Chinese people trust that life is connecting with nature and humans should interact with animated things, therefore wood was favored as opposed to stone, which was associated with the homes of the dead.[20] However, unlike other building construction materials, old wooden structures often do not survive because they are more vulnerable to weathering and fires and are naturally subjected to rotting over time. Although now-nonexistent wooden residential towers, watchtowers, and pagodas predated it by centuries, the Songyue Pagoda built in 523 is the oldest extant pagoda in China; its use of brick instead of wood had much to do with its endurance throughout the centuries. From the Tang Dynasty (618–907) onwards, brick and stone architecture gradually became more common and replaced wooden edifices. The earliest examples of this transition can be seen in building projects such as the Zhaozhou Bridge completed in 605 or the Xumi Pagoda built in 636, yet stone and brick architecture is known to have been used in subterranean tomb architecture of earlier dynasties.
A stone-carved pillar-gate, or que (闕), 6 m (20 ft) in total height, located at the tomb of Gao Yi in Ya'an, Sichuan province, Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD);[21] notice the stone-carved decorations of roof tile eaves, despite the fact that Han Dynasty stone que (part of the walled structures around tomb entrances) lacked wooden or ceramic components (but often imitated wooden buildings with ceramic roof tiles).[22]
These rammed earth ruins of a granary in Hecang Fortress (Chinese: 河仓城； Pinyin: Hécāngchéng), located ~11 km (7 miles) northeast of the Western-Han-era Yumen Pass, were built during the Western Han (202 BC - 9 AD) and significantly rebuilt during the Western Jin (280-316 AD).[23]
In the early 20th century there were no known fully wood-constructed Tang Dynasty buildings that still existed; the oldest so far discovered was the 1931 find of Guanyin Pavilion at Dule Monastery, dated 984 during the Song.[24] This was until the architectural historians Liang Sicheng (1901–1972), Lin Huiyin (1904–1955), Mo Zongjiang (1916–1999), and (1902–c. 1960s) discovered that the Great East Hall of Foguang Temple on Mount Wutai in Shanxi was reliably dated to the year 857 in June 1937.[24] The groundfloor dimensions for this monastic hall measures 34 by 17.66 m (111.5 by 57.9 ft).[25] A year after the discovery at Foguang, the main hall of nearby Nanchan Temple on Mount Wutai was reliably dated to the year 782,[26] while a total of six Tang era wooden buildings have been found by the 21st century.[27] The oldest existent fully wooden pagoda that has survived intact is the Pagoda of Fogong Temple of the Liao Dynasty, located in Ying County of Shanxi. While the East Hall of Foguang Temple features only seven types of bracket arms in its construction, the 11th century Pagoda of Fogong Temple features a total of fifty-four.[28]
The earliest walls and platforms in China were of rammed earth construction, and over time brick and stone became more frequently used. This can be seen in ancient sections of the Great Wall of China, while the brick and stone Great Wall seen today is a renovation of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644).
Structure[edit]
Main article: Ancient Chinese wooden architecture
Mortise and tenon work of tie beams and cross beams, from Li Jie's building manual Yingzao Fashi, printed in 1103.
Diagram of corbel wood bracket supports ("Dougong") holding up a multi-inclined roof, from the architectural treatise Yingzao Fashi (1103 AD)
Foundations: Most buildings are typically erected on raised platforms (臺基) as their foundations. Vertical structural beams may rest on raised stone pedestals (柱础) which occasionally rest on piles. In lower class construction, the platforms are constructed of rammed earth platforms that are unpaved or paved with brick or ceramics. In the simplest cases vertical structural beams are driven into the ground directly. Upper class constructions typically have high raised stone paved rammed earth or stone foundations with ornately carved heavy stone pedestals for supporting large vertical structural beams.[5] The vertical beams rest and remain on their pedestals solely by friction and the pressure exerted by the building structure.[29]
Structural beams: Use of large structural timbers for primary support of the roof of a building. Wooden timber, usually large trimmed logs, are used as load-bearing columns and lateral beams for framing buildings and supporting the roofs. These beams are connected to each other directly or, in larger and higher class structures, tied indirectly together through the use of brackets. These structural timbers are prominently displayed in finished structures. It is not definitively known how the ancient builders raised the huge wooden load bearing columns into position.
Structural connections: Timber frames are typically constructed with joinery and dowelling alone, seldom with the use of glue or nails. These types of semi-rigid structural joints allow the timber structure to resist bending and torsion while under high compression.[5] Structural stability is further ensured through the use of heavy beams and roofs, which weighs the structure down.[29] The lack of glue or nails in joinery, the use of non-rigid support such as dougong, and the used of wood as structural members allow the buildings to slide, flex, and hinge while absorbing shock, vibration, and groundshift from earthquakes without significant damage to its structure.[5] Dougong has a special function. The rich people applied valuable materials to decorate the Dougong for displaying their wealth. The common people used artwork to express their appreciation to the house. [30]
Walls: The common use of curtain walls or door panels to delineate rooms or enclose a building, with the general de-emphasis of load-bearing walls in most higher class construction. However, with the reduction in availability of trees in the later dynasties for building structures, the use of load-bearing walls in non-governmental or religious construction increased, with brick and stone being commonly used.
Roofs: Flat roofs are uncommon while gabled roofs are almost omnipresent in traditional Chinese architecture. Roofs are either built on roof cross-beams or rest directly on vertical structural beams. In higher class construction, roof supporting beams are supported through complex dougong bracketing systems that indirectly connect them to the primary structural beams.[5] Three main types of roofs are found:
Straight inclined: Roofs with a single incline. These are the most economical type of roofing and are most prevalent in commoner architectures.
Multi-inclined: Roofs with 2 or more sections of incline. These roofs are used in higher class constructions, from the dwellings of wealthy commoners to palaces.
Sweeping: Roofs with a sweeping curvature that rises at the corners of the roof. This type of roof construction is usually reserved for temples and palaces although it may also be found in the homes of the wealthy. In the former cases, the ridges of the roof are usually highly decorated with ceramic figurines.
Roof apex: The roof apex of a large hall is usually topped with a ridge of tiles and statues for both decorative purposes as well as to weigh down the layers of roofing tiles for stability. These ridges are often well decorated, especially for religious or palatial structures. In some regions of China, the ridges are sometimes extended or incorporated into the walls of the building to form matouqiang (horse-head walls), which serve as a fire deterrent from drifting embers.
Roof top decorations: Symbolism can be found from colors of the eaves, roofing materials and roof top decorations. Gold/yellow is an auspicious (good) color, imperial roofs are gold or yellow. They are usually used by the emperor. Green roofs symbolize bamboo shafts, which, in turn, represent youth and longevity.[31]
Classification by structure[edit]
A pavilion inside the Zhuozheng Garden in Suzhou, Jiangsu province, one of the finest gardens in China
The Zhaozhou Bridge, built from 595–605 during the Sui Dynasty. It is the oldest fully stone open-spandrel segmental arch bridge in the world.
Chinese classifications for architecture include:
亭 (Chinese: 亭; pinyin: Tíng) ting (Chinese pavilions)
臺 (simplified Chinese: 台; traditional Chinese: 臺; pinyin: Taí) tai (terraces)
樓 (simplified Chinese: 楼; traditional Chinese: 樓; pinyin: Lóu) lou (Multistory buildings)
閣 (simplified Chinese: 阁; traditional Chinese: 閣; pinyin: Gé) ge (Two-story pavilions)
軒 (轩) xuan (Verandas with windows)
塔 ta (Chinese pagodas)
榭 xie (Pavilions or houses on terraces)
屋 wu (Rooms along roofed corridors)
斗拱(Chinese: 斗拱; pinyin: Dǒugǒng) dougong interlocking wooden brackets, often used in clusters to support roofs and add ornamentation.
藻井 Caisson domed or coffered ceiling
Miniature models[edit]
Main article: Science and technology of the Han Dynasty § Structural engineering
Although mostly only ruins of brick and rammed earth walls and towers from ancient China (i.e. before the 6th century AD) have survived, information on ancient Chinese architecture (especially wooden architecture) can be discerned from more or less realistic clay models of buildings created by the ancient Chinese as funerary items. This is similar to the paper joss houses burned in some modern Chinese funerals. The following models were made during the Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220):
A pottery palace from the Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)
Two residential towers joined by a bridge, pottery miniature, Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)
A pottery tower from the Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)
A ceramic model of a house with a courtyard, from the Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)
A pottery gristmill from the Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)
A pottery tower from the Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)
A pottery model of a well from the Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)
A pottery tower from the Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)
During the Jin Dynasty (265–420) and the Six Dynasties, miniature models of buildings or entire architectural ensembles were often made to decorate the tops of the so-called "soul vases" (hunping), found in many tombs of that period.[32]
Influence from outside of China[edit]
Despite largely being self-developing, there have been periods where Chinese architecture received significant influence from abroad, particularly during conquest dynasties such as the Yuan and Qing, who tended to be more outward-looking.[33] The foundations and ruins of the Yuan capitol of Khanbaliq directly under the Forbidden City in Beijing were analysed by scholars to be both distinct from previous styles and ancestral to many later features of Ming and Qing architecture. Additionally the import of many Muslim officials, architects and scholars from the Islamic world during the Yuan led to an influx of Islamic design elements, especially in mosques. [34]
The Zhenghai Mosque in Ningbo city, Zhejiang province is a type of Islamic Architecture which appeared in China during the Song dynasty (990AD). When the Arabic traders arrived at the big commercial city of Ningbo and settled down there, they spread the Muslim culture and built a mosque. Later, more mosques were built around Beijing. [35]
There are many miniature pagodas in Northeast China. They were built when the Buddhists came from India to spread Buddhism during the Liao dynasty (907-1125), and the empire supported the practice of Buddhism. They developed some new types of Buddhist architecture building with bricks. So, we can find many high-rise pagodas from Hebei Province to Beijing and Inner Mongolia. [36]
Influence in neighboring Asian countries[edit]
Chinese architecture has been influential in varying degrees in the development of the architecture of many neighboring Asian countries. After the Tang dynasty, the era when much Chinese culture was imported en masse by neighboring nations, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan, where the East Asian hip-and-gable roof design is ubiquitous.[37] [24]In Sri Lanka, Chinese architecture has played a significant role in shaping Sri Lankan architecture, alongside influences from Indian and Southeast Asian architecture.[38][39] The Kandyan roof style, for example bears many similarities to the East Asian hip-and-gable roof technique which has its origins in China.[40] In Thailand, certain Chinese techniques were adopted by Thai artisans after trade commenced with the Yuan and Ming dynasty. Certain temple and palace roof tops were also built in Chinese-style and Chinese-style buildings can be found in Ayutthaya a nod towards the large numbers of Chinese shipbuilders, sailors and traders who came to the country.[41] In Indonesia, mosques bearing Chinese influence can be found in certain parts of the country. This influence is recent in comparison to other parts of Asia and is largely due to the sizable Chinese Indonesian community.[42]
The Chinese-origin guardian lion is also found in front of Buddhist temples, buildings and some Hindu temples (in Nepal) across Asia including Japan, Korea, Thailand, Myanmar, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Cambodia and Laos.[43]
Regional variation[edit]
There is considerable regional variance in traditional Chinese architecture, some of which are very divergent from general layouts. Several of the more notable regional styles include:
Shanxi architecture[edit]
Main article: Shanxi architecture
Shanxi preserves the oldest wooden structures in China from Tang dynasty, including the Foguang Temple and Nanchan Temple. Yungang Grottoes in Datong and numerous Buddhist temples in the sacred Mount Wutai exemplify the religious architectures of China. Shanxi family compounds are representative of vernacular architecture in North China. In the mountainous areas of Shanxi, yaodong is a type of earth shelter that are commonly found.
Yungang Grottoes, Datong, China.
Temples in Mount Wutai
The Grand East Hall of the Foguang Temple in Mount Wutai
Birdview of the Zunsheng Temple in Mount Wutai
Goddess Temple of Jinci, Taiyuan
Pingyao City Wall
A market street in Pingyao ancient city
Wang Family Compound, in Lingshi
Qiao Family Compound, Jingyi Court in Qi County
Chang Family Studies, Yuci
Yaodong in Lingshi County, Shanxi
Lingnan (Cantonese) architecture[edit]
Main article: Cantonese architecture
The classical Lingnan architecture is used primarily in the southern province of Gwongdung and the eastern half of the neighboring Gwongsai. It is noted for its use of carvings and sculptures for decorations, green brick, balconies, "Cold alleys", "Narrow doors", and many other characteristics adaptive to the subtropical region.
The Ho Ancestral Hall in Punyu, Gwongzau; Built in 14th century, it utilizes manner door - a second door behind the main one, which is related to Cantonese Feng shui culture.
Chan Clan Academy in Gwongzau is often cited as a representative example of Lingnan architecture.
A cold alley in Chan Clan Academy; A "Narrow Door" leads to the next alley.
A monument in honor of the Cantonese folk hero Wong Fei-hung, in Futsan.
Most Hongkongese are of Cantonese origin. Thus, Hong Kong naturally has a lot of buildings of classical Lingnan style. Pictured is a Mazu temple in Shek Pai Wan, Hong Kong.
Minnan (Hokkien) architecture[edit]
Main article: Hokkien architecture
Minnan architecture, or Hokkien architecture, refers to the architectural style of the Hoklo people, the Han Chinese group who have been the dominant demographic of most of Fujian and Taiwan. This style is noted for its use of swallowtail roofs (heavily decorated upward-curving roof ridges) and "cut porcelain carving" for decorations.[44]
Nanfeng Ancestral Temple at Chiàu-an, Changchow, Hokkien (the name of Fujian in the Hokkien language.
Cut porcelain carving decorations above the main door of Nanfeng Ancestral Temple.
A Mazu temple in Chiayi City, Taiwan.
A shrine for Tudigong, a Taoist earth deity, in Kaohsiung, Taiwan; It is an example of a less garish swallowtail roof.
Front entrance of Thian Hock Keng Temple, Singapore.
Hakka architecture[edit]
Main article: Hakka architecture
Hakka people have been noted for building very distinctive walled villages in order to protect themselves from clan wars.
Gan architecture[edit]
Main article: Architecture of Jiangxi
The Gan Chinese-speaking province of Jiangxi is noted for its distinct style, making use of bricks, wood, and stones as materials, primarily erected with wooden frames.
Jiangxi's indigenous architecture - Liukeng village.
A "Pai tau uk" (牌頭屋) in Nanchang, Jiangxi.
Yaodong[edit]
Main article: Yaodong
The Jin Chinese cultural area of Shanxi and northern Shaanxi are noted for carving their homes into the sides of mountains. The soft rock of the Loess Plateau in this region makes for an excellent insulating material.
Others[edit]
Aside from the above, there are many other regional styles, such as Hutong, which is prevalent in northern China, Longtang and Shikumen of Haipai (Shanghainese) architecture, and so on.
Entrance to a residence in a hutong.
Shikumen in Xintiandi lanes in Shanghai.
Great Wall of Qi in Shandong.
Du Fu Thatched Cottage in Sichuan.
Jinci in the Jin Chinese-speaking province of Shanxi.
See also[edit]
Architecture portal
China portal
Ancient Chinese wooden architecture
Architecture of the Song Dynasty
Architecture of Hong Kong
Architecture of Penang
Chinese garden
Chinese pagodas
Feng Shui
Hutong
Imperial roof decoration
Imperial guardian lions
Shanghai - for a gallery of modern buildings
Shikumen
Siheyuan
Walled villages of Hong Kong
Yu Hao
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Liang Ssu-ch'eng, year 12, A pictorial history of Chinese architecture : a study of the development of its structural system and the evolution of its types, ed. by Wilma Fairbank, Cambridge (Mass.): MIT Press.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Knapp, Ronald G. (2006), Chinese Houses: The Architectural Heritage of a Nation, Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8048-3537-4
Jump up ^ Handler, Sarah (January 19, 2005), Ming Furniture in the Light of Chinese Architecture, Ten Speed Press
Jump up ^ Cui, Huaizu, and Qingqing Hu (2015), Creation and Appreciation of “Nature and Man in One” and Chinese Classic Beauty of Garden – Taking the Suzhou classic garden as an example, (https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/abs/2015/04/shsconf_icmetm2015_02001/shsconf_icmetm2015_02001.html). Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e 浙江长城纪实文化传播公司 (2004), 中国古建筑, 齊魯音像出版社出版发行, ISBN 978-7-88408-237-7
Jump up ^ LI, YIH-YUAN (1979), "Ancestors", Ancestors, DE GRUYTER MOUTON, doi:10.1515/9783110805314.329, ISBN 9783110805314 |chapter= ignored (help)
Jump up ^ "Traditional Chinese Architecture", Traditional Chinese Architecture, Princeton University Press, 2017-01-31, doi:10.1515/9781400885138-018, ISBN 9781400885138 |chapter= ignored (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Kohrman, Matthew (1998-03). "Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China:Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China,". American Anthropologist. 100 (1): 236. doi:10.1525/aa.1998.100.1.236.1. ISSN 0002-7294. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Jump up ^ Weston, Richard (2002), Utzon, Edition Blondal, p. 221, ISBN 978-87-88978-98-8
Jump up ^ Kohrman, Matthew (1998-03). "Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China:Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China,". American Anthropologist. 100 (1): 236. doi:10.1525/aa.1998.100.1.236.1. ISSN 0002-7294. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Jump up ^ Kohrman, Matthew (1998-03). "Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China:Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China,". American Anthropologist. 100 (1): 236. doi:10.1525/aa.1998.100.1.236.1. ISSN 0002-7294. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Jump up ^ Cassault, Andre (1987). The Beijing Courtyard House. Open House International.
Jump up ^ Wang, Shao-Sen; Li, Su-Yu; and Shi-Jie Liao (2012). The Genes of Tulou: A Study on the Preservation and Sustainable Development of Tulou (http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/4/12/3377/htm). Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Jump up ^ Guo, Qinghua. "Tomb Architecture of Dynastic China: Old and New Questions," Architectural History (Volume 47, 2004): 1–24. Page 12.
Jump up ^ Suhadolnik, Nataša Vampelj (2011). Han Mural Tombs: Reflection of Correlative Cosmology through Mural Paintings (https://revije.ff.uni-lj.si/as/article/view/2870). Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 4.0 License.
Jump up ^ Steinhardt (2004), 228–229.
Jump up ^ Schinz, 1996
Jump up ^ Zheng, Shanwen; Han, Baolong; Wang, Dang; and Zhiyun Ouyang (2018). Ecological Wisdom and Inspiration Underlying the Planning and Construction of Ancient Human Settlements: Case Study of Hongcun UNESCO World Heritage Site in China (http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/5/1345). Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Jump up ^ Jin, Xia; and Shang-chia Chiou (2015). Architectural Features and Preservation of Ancient Residential Complexes of the Changs in Xiangan, Xiamen, page 455 (https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XL-5-W7/453/2015/isprsarchives-XL-5-W7-453-2015.pdf). Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Jump up ^ Li, Lin; Tang, Lei; Zhu, Haihong; Zhang, Hang; Yang, Fan; and Wenmin Qin (2017). Semantic 3D Modeling Based on CityGML for Ancient Chinese-Style Architectural Roofs of Digital Heritage (http://www.mdpi.com/2220-9964/6/5/132/htm). Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Jump up ^ Liu, Xujie (2002). "The Qin and Han Dynasties" in Chinese Architecture, 33–60. Edited by Nancy S. Steinhardt. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09559-7. Page 55.
Jump up ^ Steinhardt, Nancy N. (2005). "Pleasure tower model," in Recarving China's Past: Art, Archaeology, and Architecture of the 'Wu Family Shrines', 275–281. Edited by Naomi Noble Richard. New Haven and London: Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum. ISBN 0-300-10797-8. Pages 279–280.
Jump up ^ Wang Xudang, Li Zuixiong, and Zhang Lu (2010). "Condition, Conservation, and Reinforcement of the Yumen Pass and Hecang Earthen Ruins Near Dunhuang", in Neville Agnew (ed), Conservation of Ancient Sites on the Silk Road: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Conservation of Grotto Sites, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, People's Republic of China, June 28 - July 3, 2004, 351-357. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute, J. Paul Getty Trust. ISBN 978-1-60606-013-1, pp 351-352.
^ Jump up to: a b c Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "The Tang Architectural Icon and the Politics of Chinese Architectural History," The Art Bulletin (Volume 86, Number 2, 2004): 228–254. Page 228.
Jump up ^ Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "The Tang Architectural Icon and the Politics of Chinese Architectural History," The Art Bulletin (Volume 86, Number 2, 2004): 228–254. Page 233.
Jump up ^ Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "The Tang Architectural Icon and the politics of Chinese Architectural History," The Art Bulletin (Volume 86, Number 2, 2004): 228–254. Page 228–229.
Jump up ^ Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "The Tang Architectural Icon and the Politics of Chinese Architectural History," The Art Bulletin (Volume 86, Number 2, 2004): 228–254. Page 238.
Jump up ^ Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "Liao: An Architectural Tradition in the Making," Artibus Asiae (Volume 54, Number 1/2, 1994): 5–39. Page 13.
^ Jump up to: a b YU, Maohong; ODA, Yoshiya; FANG, Dongping; ZHAO, Junhai (2008), "Advances in structural mechanics of Chinese ancient architectures", Front. Archit. Civ. Eng. China, 2 (1): 1–25, doi:10.1007/s11709-008-0002-1
Jump up ^ Jin, Xia; and Shang-chia Chiou (2015). Architectural Features and Preservation of Ancient Residential Complexes of the Changs in Xiangan, Xiamen, page 458 (https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XL-5-W7/453/2015/isprsarchives-XL-5-W7-453-2015.pdf). Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 28 June 2014. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Dien, Albert E. (2007), Six dynasties civilization, Early Chinese civilization series, Yale University Press, pp. 214–215, ISBN 978-0-300-07404-8
Jump up ^ James-Chakraborty, Kathleen (2014-01-01), "Architecture since 1400", Architecture since 1400, University of Minnesota Press, pp. 1–15, doi:10.5749/minnesota/9780816673964.003.0001, ISBN 9780816673964 |chapter= ignored (help)
Jump up ^ Hou, Renzhi (2014), "An Historical Geography of Peiping", An Historical Geography of Peiping, China Academic Library, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 75–94, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-55321-9_7, ISBN 9783642553202 |chapter= ignored (help)
Jump up ^ Hagras, Hamada Muhammed (2017). An Ancient Mosque In Ningbo, China “Historical And Architectural Study” (http://ejournal.uin-malang.ac.id/index.php/JIA/article/view/3851). Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 4.0 License.
Jump up ^ Kim, Youn-mi (2017). Virtual Pilgrimage and Virtual Geography: Power of Liao Miniature Pagodas (907–1125) (http://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/8/10/206/htm). Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Jump up ^ McCannon, John (19 March 2018). "Barron's how to Prepare for the AP World History Examination". Barron's Educational Series. Retrieved 19 March 2018 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Winks, Robin (21 October 1999). "The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography". OUP Oxford. Retrieved 19 March 2018 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Bandaranayake, S. D. (19 March 1974). "Sinhalese Monastic Architecture: The Viháras of Anurádhapura". BRILL. Retrieved 19 March 2018 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Paranavitana, Senarat; Prematilleka, Leelananda; Leeuw, Johanna Engelberta van Lohuizen-De (19 March 1978). "Senarat Paranavitana Commemoration Volume". BRILL. Retrieved 19 March 2018 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Sthapitanond, Nithi; Mertens, Brian (19 March 2018). "Architecture of Thailand: A Guide to Tradition and Contemporary Forms". Editions Didier Millet. Retrieved 19 March 2018 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Formichi, Chiara (1 October 2013). "Religious Pluralism, State and Society in Asia". Routledge. Retrieved 19 March 2018 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ "Monster Monday: Guardian Lions". kgorman.ca. 22 January 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Hongyin, X. (2009). Research on the comparison of the Minnan new jiageng architecture [J]. Fujian Architecture & Construction, 5, 008.
Sources[edit]
Liang, Ssu-ch'eng 1984, A pictorial history of Chinese architecture: a study of the development of its structural system and the evolution of its types, ed. by Wilma Fairbanks, Cambridge (Mass.): MIT Press
Schinz, Alfred (1996), The magic square: cities in ancient China, Edition Axel Menges, p. 428, ISBN 978-3-930698-02-8
Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "Liao: An Architectural Tradition in the Making," Artibus Asiae (Volume 54, Number 1/2, 1994): 5–39.
Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "The Tang Architectural Icon and the Politics of Chinese Architectural History," The Art Bulletin (Volume 86, Number 2, 2004): 228–254.
Weston, Richard. 2002. Utzon : inspiration, vision, architecture. Hellerup: Blondal.
Further reading[edit]
Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan, Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture, Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896). ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. Cf. Part Four, Chapter 24.
Sickman L and Soper A. The Art and Architecture of China (Penguin Books, 1956).
KNAPP, RONALD G. (2000). CHINA'S OLD DWELLINGS. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2075-6. Archived from the original on 11 September 2016. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Architecture of China.
Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home To explore an in depth look into the ancient architecture of the Huang family’s domestic life in China, the Yin Yu Tang house offers an interactive view of the typical domestic architecture of the Qing dynasty.
Herbert Offen Research Collection An excellent bibliography of publicly accessible books and manuscripts on Chinese architecture.
Islamic Architecture in China Introduction to the Chinese Mosques in South, West, and North respectively
Chinese Vernacular Architecture & General Chinese Architecture--Web Links Chinese Vernacular Architecture & General Chinese Architecture—Web Links
Chinese Residential Houses Ten types of Chinese residential houses
Asian Historical Architecture
Web Resources of Chinese Architecture History
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values: Category:Use dmy dates from September 2016

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values: العمارة الصينية – Arabic

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values: Архитектура Китая – Russian

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values: Китайська архітектура – Ukrainian

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