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Skewness
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For the planarity measure in graph theory, see Graph skewness.
Example distribution with non-zero (positive) skewness. These data are from experiments on wheat grass growth.
In probability theory and statistics, skewness is a measure of the asymmetry of the probability distribution of a real-valued random variable about its mean. The skewness value can be positive or negative, or undefined.
The qualitative interpretation of the skew is complicated and unintuitive. Skew does not refer to the direction the curve appears to be leaning; in fact, the opposite is true. For a unimodal distribution, negative skew indicates that the tail on the left side of the probability density function is longer or fatter than the right side – it does not distinguish these two kinds of shape. Conversely, positive skew indicates that the tail on the right side is longer or fatter than the left side. In cases where one tail is long but the other tail is fat, skewness does not obey a simple rule. For example, a zero value means that the tails on both sides of the mean balance out overall; this is the case for a symmetric distribution, but is also true for an asymmetric distribution where the asymmetries even out, such as one tail being long but thin, and the other being short but fat. Further, in multimodal distributions and discrete distributions, skewness is also difficult to interpret. Importantly, the skewness does not determine the relationship of mean and median. In cases where it is necessary, data might be transformed to have a normal distribution.
Contents
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1 Introduction
2 Relationship of mean and median
3 Definition
3.1 Pearson's moment coefficient of skewness
3.2 Examples
3.3 Properties
3.4 Sample skewness
4 Applications
5 Other measures of skewness
5.1 Pearson's first skewness coefficient (mode skewness)
5.2 Pearson's second skewness coefficient (median skewness)
5.3 Quantile-based measures
5.4 Groeneveld & Meeden’s coefficient
5.5 L-moments
5.6 Distance skewness
5.7 Medcouple
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Introduction[edit]
Consider the two distributions in the figure just below. Within each graph, the values on the right side of the distribution taper differently from the values on the left side. These tapering sides are called tails, and they provide a visual means to determine which of the two kinds of skewness a distribution has:
negative skew: The left tail is longer; the mass of the distribution is concentrated on the right of the figure. The distribution is said to be left-skewed, left-tailed, or skewed to the left, despite the fact that the curve itself appears to be skewed or leaning to the right; left instead refers to the left tail being drawn out and, often, the mean being skewed to the left of a typical center of the data. A left-skewed distribution usually appears as a right-leaning curve.[1]
positive skew: The right tail is longer; the mass of the distribution is concentrated on the left of the figure. The distribution is said to be right-skewed, right-tailed, or skewed to the right, despite the fact that the curve itself appears to be skewed or leaning to the left; right instead refers to the right tail being drawn out and, often, the mean being skewed to the right of a typical center of the data. A right-skewed distribution usually appears as a left-leaning curve.[1]
Skewness in a data series may sometimes be observed not only graphically but by simple inspection of the values. For instance, consider the numeric sequence (49, 50, 51), whose values are evenly distributed around a central value of 50. We can transform this sequence into a negatively skewed distribution by adding a value far below the mean, e.g. (40, 49, 50, 51). Similarly, we can make the sequence positively skewed by adding a value far above the mean, e.g. (49, 50, 51, 60)[clarification needed].
Relationship of mean and median[edit]
The skewness is not directly related to the relationship between the mean and median: a distribution with negative skew can have its mean greater than or less than the median, and likewise for positive skew.[citation needed]
In the older notion of nonparametric skew, defined as ( μ − ν ) / σ , {\displaystyle (\mu -\nu )/\sigma ,} where µ is the mean, ν is the median, and σ is the standard deviation, the skewness is defined in terms of this relationship: positive/right nonparametric skew means the mean is greater than (to the right of) the median, while negative/left nonparametric skew means the mean is less than (to the left of) the median. However, the modern definition of skewness and the traditional nonparametric definition do not in general have the same sign: while they agree for some families of distributions, they differ in general, and conflating them is misleading.
If the distribution is symmetric, then the mean is equal to the median, and the distribution has zero skewness.[2] If, in addition, the distribution is unimodal, then the mean = median = mode. This is the case of a coin toss or the series 1,2,3,4,... Note, however, that the converse is not true in general, i.e. zero skewness does not imply that the mean is equal to the median.
Paul T. von Hippel points out: "Many textbooks, teach a rule of thumb stating that the mean is right of the median under right skew, and left of the median under left skew. This rule fails with surprising frequency. It can fail in multimodal distributions, or in distributions where one tail is long but the other is heavy. Most commonly, though, the rule fails in discrete distributions where the areas to the left and right of the median are not equal. Such distributions not only contradict the textbook relationship between mean, median, and skew, they also contradict the textbook interpretation of the median."[3]
Definition[edit]
Pearson's moment coefficient of skewness[edit]
The skewness of a random variable X is the third standardized moment γ1, defined as:[4][5]
γ 1 = E  [ ( X − μ σ ) 3 ] = μ 3 σ 3 = E  [ ( X − μ ) 3 ] ( E  [ ( X − μ ) 2 ] ) 3 / 2 = κ 3 κ 2 3 / 2 {\displaystyle \gamma _{1}=\operatorname {E} \left[\left({\frac {X-\mu }{\sigma }}\right)^{3}\right]={\frac {\mu _{3}}{\sigma ^{3}}}={\frac {\operatorname {E} \left[(X-\mu )^{3}\right]}{\ \ \ (\operatorname {E} \left[(X-\mu )^{2}\right])^{3/2}}}={\frac {\kappa _{3}}{\kappa _{2}^{3/2}}}}

where μ is the mean, σ is the standard deviation, E is the expectation operator, μ3 is the third central moment, and κt are the tth cumulants. It is sometimes referred to as Pearson's moment coefficient of skewness,[5] or simply the moment coefficient of skewness,[4] but should not be confused with Pearson's other skewness statistics (see below). The last equality expresses skewness in terms of the ratio of the third cumulant κ3 to the 1.5th power of the second cumulant κ2. This is analogous to the definition of kurtosis as the fourth cumulant normalized by the square of the second cumulant. The skewness is also sometimes denoted Skew[X].
Skewness can be expressed in terms of the non-central moment E[X3] by expanding the previous formula,
γ 1 = E  [ ( X − μ σ ) 3 ] = E  [ X 3 ] − 3 μ E  [ X 2 ] + 3 μ 2 E  [ X ] − μ 3 σ 3 = E  [ X 3 ] − 3 μ ( E  [ X 2 ] − μ E  [ X ] ) − μ 3 σ 3 = E  [ X 3 ] − 3 μ σ 2 − μ 3 σ 3 . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\gamma _{1}&=\operatorname {E} \left[\left({\frac {X-\mu }{\sigma }}\right)^{3}\right]\\&={\frac {\operatorname {E} [X^{3}]-3\mu \operatorname {E} [X^{2}]+3\mu ^{2}\operatorname {E} [X]-\mu ^{3}}{\sigma ^{3}}}\\&={\frac {\operatorname {E} [X^{3}]-3\mu (\operatorname {E} [X^{2}]-\mu \operatorname {E} [X])-\mu ^{3}}{\sigma ^{3}}}\\&={\frac {\operatorname {E} [X^{3}]-3\mu \sigma ^{2}-\mu ^{3}}{\sigma ^{3}}}.\end{aligned}}}
Examples[edit]
Skewness can be infinite, as when
Pr [ X > x ] = x − 2 for x > 1 , Pr [ X < 1 ] = 0 {\displaystyle \Pr \left[X>x\right]=x^{-2}{\mbox{ for }}x>1,\ \Pr[X<1]=0}
where the third cumulants are infinite, or as when
Pr [ X < x ] = ( 1 − x ) − 3 / 2 for negative x and Pr [ X > x ] = ( 1 + x ) − 3 / 2 for positive x . {\displaystyle \Pr[X<x]=(1-x)^{-3}/2{\mbox{ for negative }}x{\mbox{ and }}\Pr[X>x]=(1+x)^{-3}/2{\mbox{ for positive }}x.}
where the third cumulant is undefined.
Properties[edit]
Starting from a standard cumulant expansion around a normal distribution, one can show that
skewness = 6 (mean − median)/standard deviation (1 + kurtosis/8) + O (skewness2).[citation needed]
If Y is the sum of n independent and identically distributed random variables, all with the distribution of X, then the third cumulant of Y is n times that of X and the second cumulant of Y is n times that of X, so Skew [ Y ] = Skew [ X ] / n {\displaystyle {\mbox{Skew}}[Y]={\mbox{Skew}}[X]/{\sqrt {n}}} . This shows that the skewness of the sum is smaller, as it approaches a Gaussian distribution in accordance with the central limit theorem. Note that the assumption that the variables be independent for the above formula is very important because it is possible even for the sum of two Gaussian variables to have a skewed distribution (see this example).
Sample skewness[edit]
For a sample of n values, a natural method of moments estimator of the population skewness is[6]
b 1 = m 3 s 3 = 1 n ∑ i = 1 n ( x i − x ¯ ) 3 1 n − 1 ∑ i = 1 n ( x i − x ¯ ) 2 3 = 1 n ∑ i = 1 n ( x i − x ¯ ) 3 [ 1 n − 1 ∑ i = 1 n ( x i − x ¯ ) 2 ] 3 / 2 , {\displaystyle b_{1}={\frac {m_{3}}{s^{3}}}={\frac {{\tfrac {1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}(x_{i}-{\overline {x}})^{3}}{{\sqrt {{\tfrac {1}{n-1}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}(x_{i}-{\overline {x}})^{2}}}^{\,3}}}={\frac {{\tfrac {1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}(x_{i}-{\overline {x}})^{3}}{\left[{\tfrac {1}{n-1}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}(x_{i}-{\overline {x}})^{2}\right]^{3/2}}}\ ,}

where x ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {x}}} is the sample mean, s is the sample standard deviation, and the numerator m3 is the sample third central moment.
Another common definition of the sample skewness is[6][7]
G 1 = k 3 k 2 3 / 2 = n 2 ( n − 1 ) ( n − 2 ) m 3 s 3 = n ( n − 1 ) n − 2 m 3 m 2 3 2 = n ( n − 1 ) n − 2 [ 1 n ∑ i = 1 n ( x i − x ¯ ) 3 ( 1 n ∑ i = 1 n ( x i − x ¯ ) 2 ) 3 2 ] , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}G_{1}&={\frac {k_{3}}{k_{2}^{3/2}}}={\frac {n^{2}}{(n-1)(n-2)}}\;{\frac {m_{3}}{s^{3}}}\\&={\frac {\sqrt {n\left(n-1\right)}}{n-2}}{\frac {{m}_{3}}{{{m}_{2}}^{\frac {3}{2}}}}={\frac {\sqrt {n\left(n-1\right)}}{n-2}}\left[{\frac {{\frac {1}{n}}\sum \limits _{i=1}^{n}{{\left({{x}_{i}}-{\bar {x}}\right)}^{3}}}{{\left({\frac {1}{n}}\sum \limits _{i=1}^{n}{{\left({{x}_{i}}-{\bar {x}}\right)}^{2}}\right)}^{\frac {3}{2}}}}\right],\\\end{aligned}}}

where k 3 {\displaystyle k_{3}} is the unique symmetric unbiased estimator of the third cumulant and k 2 = s 2 {\displaystyle k_{2}=s^{2}} is the symmetric unbiased estimator of the second cumulant (i.e. the variance).
In general, the ratios b 1 {\displaystyle b_{1}} and G 1 {\displaystyle G_{1}} are both biased estimators of the population skewness γ 1 {\displaystyle \gamma _{1}} ; their expected values can even have the opposite sign from the true skewness. (For instance, a mixed distribution consisting of very thin Gaussians centred at −99, 0.5, and 2 with weights 0.01, 0.66, and 0.33 has a skewness of about −9.77, but in a sample of 3, G 1 {\displaystyle G_{1}} has an expected value of about 0.32, since usually all three samples are in the positive-valued part of the distribution, which is skewed the other way.) Nevertheless, b 1 {\displaystyle b_{1}} and G 1 {\displaystyle G_{1}} each have obviously the correct expected value of zero for any symmetric distribution with a finite third moment, including a normal distribution.
Under the assumption that the underlying random variable X {\displaystyle X} is normally distributed, it can be shown that n b 1 → d N ( 0 , 6 ) {\displaystyle {\sqrt {n}}b_{1}{\xrightarrow {d}}N(0,6)} . The variance of the skewness of a random sample of size n from a normal distribution is[8][9]
var  ( G 1 ) = 6 n ( n − 1 ) ( n − 2 ) ( n + 1 ) ( n + 3 ) . {\displaystyle \operatorname {var} (G_{1})={\frac {6n(n-1)}{(n-2)(n+1)(n+3)}}.}
An approximate alternative is 6/n, but this is inaccurate for small samples.
In normal samples, b 1 {\displaystyle b_{1}} has the smaller variance of the two estimators, with
var  ( b 1 ) < var  ( m 3 m 2 3 / 2 ) < var  ( G 1 ) , {\displaystyle \operatorname {var} (b_{1})<\operatorname {var} \left({\frac {m_{3}}{m_{2}^{3/2}}}\right)<\operatorname {var} (G_{1}),}
where m2 in the denominator is the (biased) sample second central moment.[6]
The adjusted Fisher–Pearson standardized moment coefficient G 1 {\displaystyle G_{1}} is the version found in Excel and several statistical packages including Minitab, SAS and SPSS.[10]
Applications[edit]
Aside from indicating which direction and a relative magnitude of how far a distribution deviates from normal, skewness itself offers few analytical insights; aside from calculating it for its own sake, it is rarely used as a variable in further calculations.
Many models assume normal distribution; i.e., data are symmetric about the mean. The normal distribution has a skewness of zero. But in reality, data points may not be perfectly symmetric. So, an understanding of the skewness of the dataset indicates whether deviations from the mean are going to be positive or negative.
D'Agostino's K-squared test is a goodness-of-fit normality test based on sample skewness and sample kurtosis.
Other measures of skewness[edit]
Comparison of mean, median and mode of two log-normal distributions with different skewnesses.
Other measures of skewness have been used, including simpler calculations suggested by Karl Pearson[11] (not to be confused with Pearson's moment coefficient of skewness, see above). These other measures are:
Pearson's first skewness coefficient (mode skewness)[edit]
The Pearson mode skewness,[12] or first skewness coefficient, is defined as
mean − mode/standard deviation.
Pearson's second skewness coefficient (median skewness)[edit]
The Pearson median skewness, or second skewness coefficient,[13][14] is defined as
3 (mean − median)/standard deviation.
The latter is a simple multiple of the nonparametric skew.
Quantile-based measures[edit]
Bowley's measure of skewness (from 1901),[15][16] also called Yule's coefficient (from 1912)[17][18] is defined as:
B 1 = Q 3 + Q 1 − 2 Q 2 Q 3 − Q 1 {\displaystyle B_{1}={\frac {{{Q}_{3}}+{{Q}_{1}}-2{{Q}_{2}}}{{{Q}_{3}}-{{Q}_{1}}}}} .
When writing it as Q 3 + Q 1 2 − Q 2 Q 3 − Q 1 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {{\frac {{{Q}_{3}}+{{Q}_{1}}}{2}}-{{Q}_{2}}}{\frac {{{Q}_{3}}-{{Q}_{1}}}{2}}}} , it is easier to see that the numerator is the average of the upper and lower quartiles (a measure of location) minus the median while the denominator is (Q3-Q1)/2 which (for symmetric distributions) is the MAD measure of dispersion.
Other names for this measure are Galton's measure of skewness,[19] the Yule–Kendall index[20] and the quartile skewness[citation needed],
A more general formulation of a skewness function was described by Groeneveld, R. A. and Meeden, G. (1984):[21][22][23]
γ ( u ) = F − 1 ( u ) + F − 1 ( 1 − u ) − 2 F − 1 ( 1 / 2 ) F − 1 ( u ) − F − 1 ( 1 − u ) {\displaystyle \gamma (u)={\frac {F^{-1}(u)+F^{-1}(1-u)-2F^{-1}(1/2)}{F^{-1}(u)-F^{-1}(1-u)}}}
where F is the cumulative distribution function. This leads to a corresponding overall measure of skewness[22] defined as the supremum of this over the range 1/2 ≤ u < 1. Another measure can be obtained by integrating the numerator and denominator of this expression.[21] The function γ(u) satisfies −1 ≤ γ(u) ≤ 1 and is well defined without requiring the existence of any moments of the distribution.[21]
Bowley's measure of skewness is γ(u) evaluated at u = 3/4. Kelley's measure of skewness uses u = 0.1.[citation needed]
Groeneveld & Meeden’s coefficient[edit]
Groeneveld & Meeden have suggested, as an alternative measure of skewness,[21]
B 3 = s k e w ( X ) = ( μ − ν ) E ( | X − ν | ) , {\displaystyle B_{3}=\mathrm {skew} (X)={\frac {(\mu -\nu )}{E(|X-\nu |)}},}
where μ is the mean, ν is the median, |…| is the absolute value, and E() is the expectation operator. This is closely related in form to Pearson's second skewness coefficient.
L-moments[edit]
Use of L-moments in place of moments provides a measure of skewness known as the L-skewness.[24]
Distance skewness[edit]
A value of skewness equal to zero does not imply that the probability distribution is symmetric. Thus there is a need for another measure of asymmetry that has this property: such a measure was introduced in 2000.[25] It is called distance skewness and denoted by dSkew. If X is a random variable taking values in the d-dimensional Euclidean space, X has finite expectation, X' is an independent identically distributed copy of X, and ‖ ⋅ ‖ {\displaystyle \|\cdot \|} denotes the norm in the Euclidean space, then a simple measure of asymmetry is
dSkew  ( X ) := 1 − E  ‖ X − X ′ ‖ E  ‖ X + X ′ ‖ if Pr ( X = 0 ) ≠ 1 {\displaystyle \operatorname {dSkew} (X):=1-{\frac {\operatorname {E} \|X-X'\|}{\operatorname {E} \|X+X'\|}}{\text{ if }}\Pr(X=0)\neq 1}
and dSkew(X) := 0 for X = 0 (with probability 1). Distance skewness is always between 0 and 1, equals 0 if and only if X is diagonally symmetric (X and −X have the same probability distribution) and equals 1 if and only if X is a nonzero constant with probability one.[26] Thus there is a simple consistent statistical test of diagonal symmetry based on the sample distance skewness:
dSkew n  ( X ) := 1 − ∑ i , j ‖ x i − x j ‖ ∑ i , j ‖ x i + x j ‖ . {\displaystyle \operatorname {dSkew} _{n}(X):=1-{\frac {\sum _{i,j}\|x_{i}-x_{j}\|}{\sum _{i,j}\|x_{i}+x_{j}\|}}.}
Medcouple[edit]
The medcouple is a scale-invariant robust measure of skewness, with a breakdown point of 25%.[27] It is the median of the values of the kernel function
h ( x i , x j ) = ( x i − x m ) − ( x m − x j ) x i − x j {\displaystyle h(x_{i},x_{j})={\frac {(x_{i}-x_{m})-(x_{m}-x_{j})}{x_{i}-x_{j}}}}
taken over all couples ( x i , x j ) {\displaystyle (x_{i},x_{j})} such that x i ≥ x m ≥ x j {\displaystyle x_{i}\geq x_{m}\geq x_{j}} , where x m {\displaystyle x_{m}} is the median of the sample { x 1 , x 2 , … , x n } {\displaystyle \{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots ,x_{n}\}} . It can be seen as the median of all possible quantile skewness measures.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Skewness (statistics).
Bragg peak
Coskewness
Shape parameters
Skew normal distribution
Skewness risk
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Susan Dean, Barbara Illowsky "Descriptive Statistics: Skewness and the Mean, Median, and Mode", Connexions website
Jump up ^ "1.3.5.11. Measures of Skewness and Kurtosis". NIST. Retrieved 18 March 2012.
Jump up ^ von Hippel, Paul T. (2005). "Mean, Median, and Skew: Correcting a Textbook Rule". Journal of Statistics Education. 13 (2).
^ Jump up to: a b "Measures of Shape: Skewness and Kurtosis", 2008–2016 by Stan Brown, Oak Road Systems
^ Jump up to: a b Pearson's moment coefficient of skewness, FXSolver.com
^ Jump up to: a b c Joanes, D. N.; Gill, C. A. (1998). "Comparing measures of sample skewness and kurtosis". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society (Series D): The Statistician. 47 (1): 183–189. doi:10.1111/1467-9884.00122.
Jump up ^ Doane, David P., and Lori E. Seward. "Measuring skewness: a forgotten statistic." Journal of Statistics Education 19.2 (2011): 1-18. (Page 7)
Jump up ^ Duncan Cramer (1997) Fundamental Statistics for Social Research. Routledge. ISBN 9780415172042 (p 85)
Jump up ^ Kendall, M.G.; Stuart, A. (1969) The Advanced Theory of Statistics, Volume 1: Distribution Theory, 3rd Edition, Griffin. ISBN 0-85264-141-9 (Ex 12.9)
Jump up ^ Doane DP, Seward LE (2011) J Stat Educ 19 (2)
Jump up ^ http://www.stat.upd.edu.ph/s114%20cnotes%20fcapistrano/Chapter%2010.pdf
Jump up ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Pearson Mode Skewness". MathWorld.
Jump up ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Pearson's skewness coefficients". MathWorld.
Jump up ^ Doane, David P., and Lori E. Seward. "Measuring Skewness: A Forgotten Statistic?" Journal of Statistics Education 19.2 (2011): 1-18.
Jump up ^ Bowley, A. L. (1901). Elements of Statistics, P.S. King & Son, Laondon. Or in a later edition: BOWLEY, AL. "Elements of Statistics, 4th Edn (New York, Charles Scribner)."(1920).
Jump up ^ Kenney JF and Keeping ES (1962) Mathematics of Statistics, Pt. 1, 3rd ed., Van Nostrand, (page 102).
Jump up ^ Yule, George Udny. An introduction to the theory of statistics. C. Griffin, limited, 1912.
Jump up ^ Groeneveld, Richard A. "An influence function approach to describing the skewness of a distribution." The American Statistician 45.2 (1991): 97-102.
Jump up ^ Johnson et al (1994) p 3, p 40
Jump up ^ Wilks DS (1995) Statistical Methods in the Atmospheric Sciences, p 27. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-751965-3
^ Jump up to: a b c d Groeneveld, R.A.; Meeden, G. (1984). "Measuring Skewness and Kurtosis". The Statistician. 33 (4): 391–399. doi:10.2307/2987742. JSTOR 2987742.
^ Jump up to: a b MacGillivray (1992)
Jump up ^ Hinkley DV (1975) "On power transformations to symmetry", Biometrika, 62, 101–111
Jump up ^ Hosking, J.R.M. (1992). "Moments or L moments? An example comparing two measures of distributional shape". The American Statistician. 46 (3): 186–189. doi:10.2307/2685210. JSTOR 2685210.
Jump up ^ Szekely, G.J. (2000). "Pre-limit and post-limit theorems for statistics", In: Statistics for the 21st Century (eds. C. R. Rao and G. J. Szekely), Dekker, New York, pp. 411–422.
Jump up ^ Szekely, G. J. and Mori, T. F. (2001) "A characteristic measure of asymmetry and its application for testing diagonal symmetry", Communications in Statistics – Theory and Methods 30/8&9, 1633–1639.
Jump up ^ G. Brys; M. Hubert; A. Struyf (November 2004). "A Robust Measure of Skewness". Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics. 13 (4): 996–1017. doi:10.1198/106186004X12632.
Premaratne, G., Bera, A. K. (2001).
Adjusting the Tests for Skewness and Kurtosis for Distributional Misspecifications. Working Paper Number 01-0116, University of Illinois. Forthcoming in Comm in Statistics, Simulation and Computation.2016 1-15
Premaratne, G., Bera, A. K. (2000). Modeling Asymmetry and Excess Kurtosis in Stock Return Data. Office of Research Working Paper Number 00-0123, University of Illinois
References[edit]
Johnson, NL, Kotz, S, Balakrishnan N (1994) Continuous Univariate Distributions, Vol 1, 2nd Edition Wiley ISBN 0-471-58495-9
MacGillivray, HL (1992). "Shape properties of the g- and h- and Johnson families". Comm. Statistics — Theory and Methods. 21: 1244–1250.
Skewness Measures for the Weibull Distribution
External links[edit]
Wikiversity has learning resources about Skewness
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], "Asymmetry coefficient", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
An Asymmetry Coefficient for Multivariate Distributions by Michel Petitjean
On More Robust Estimation of Skewness and Kurtosis Comparison of skew estimators by Kim and White.
Closed-skew Distributions — Simulation, Inversion and Parameter Estimation
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Containment
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the United States policy. For other uses, see Containment (disambiguation).
United States Information Service poster distributed in Asia depicting Juan dela Cruz ready to defend the Philippines under the threat of communism, 1951.
Containment is a geopolitical strategy to stop the expansion of an enemy. It is best known as a Cold War foreign policy of the United States and its allies to prevent the spread of communism. As a component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to increase communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa, Vietnam, and Latin America. Containment represented a middle-ground position between detente and rollback.
The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan during the post-World War II administration of U.S. President Harry S. Truman. As a description of U.S. foreign policy, the word originated in a report Kennan submitted to U.S. Defense Secretary James Forrestal in 1947, which was later used in a magazine article. It is a translation of the French term cordon sanitaire, which was used to describe Western policy toward the Soviet Union in the 1920s.
Contents
[hide]
1 Earlier uses of term
2 Origin (1944–1947)
3 Harry S. Truman (1945–1953)
4 Alternative strategies
5 Korea
6 Dulles
7 Cuba
8 Vietnam
9 Afghanistan
10 Reagan Doctrine
11 After Cold War
12 See also
13 References
14 Sources
15 External links
Earlier uses of term[edit]
There were major historical precedents familiar to Americans and Europeans. In the 1850s, anti-slavery forces in the United States developed a free soil strategy of containment, without using the word, to stop the expansion of slavery until it later collapsed. Historian James Oakes explains the strategy:
The Federal government would surround the south with free states, free territories, and free waters, building what they called a 'cordon of freedom' around slavery, hemming it in until the system's own internal weaknesses forced the slave states one by one to abandon slavery.[1]
Following the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, there were calls by Western leaders to isolate the Bolshevik government, which seemed intent on promoting worldwide revolution. In March 1919, French Premier Georges Clemenceau called for a cordon sanitaire, a ring of non-communist states, to isolate the Soviet Union. Translating that phrase, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson called for a "quarantine." Both phrases compare communism to a contagious disease.
The U.S. initially refused to recognize the Soviet Union, but President Franklin D. Roosevelt reversed the policy in 1933 in the hope to expand American export markets.
The Munich Agreement of 1938 was a failed attempt to contain Nazi expansion in Europe. The U.S. tried to contain Japanese expansion in Asia in 1937 to 1941, and Japan reacted with its attack on Pearl Harbor.[2]
After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 during World War II, the U.S. and the Soviet Union found themselves allied against Germany and used rollback to defeat the Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, and Japan.
Origin (1944–1947)[edit]
Key State Department personnel grew increasingly frustrated with and suspicious of the Soviets as the war drew to a close. Averell Harriman, U.S. Ambassador in Moscow, once a "confirmed optimist" regarding U.S.-Soviet relations,[3] was disillusioned by what he saw as the Soviet betrayal of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising as well as by violations of the February 1945 Yalta Agreement concerning Poland.[4] Harriman would later have a significant influence in forming Truman's views on the Soviet Union.[5]
In February 1946, the U.S. State Department asked George F. Kennan, then at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow, why the Russians opposed the creation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. He responded with a wide-ranging analysis of Russian policy now called the Long Telegram:[6]
Soviet power, unlike that of Hitlerite Germany, is neither schematic nor adventuristic. It does not work by fixed plans. It does not take unnecessary risks. Impervious to logic of reason, and it is highly sensitive to logic of force. For this reason it can easily withdraw—and usually does when strong resistance is encountered at any point.[7]
According to Kennan:
The Soviets perceived themselves to be in a state of perpetual war with capitalism;
The Soviets would use controllable Marxists in the capitalist world as allies;
Soviet aggression was not aligned with the views of the Russian people or with economic reality, but with historic Russian xenophobia and paranoia;
The Soviet government's structure prevented objective or accurate pictures of internal and external reality.
Kennan's cable was hailed in the State Department as "the appreciation of the situation that had long been needed."[8] Kennan himself attributed the enthusiastic reception to timing: "Six months earlier the message would probably have been received in the State Department with raised eyebrows and lips pursed in disapproval. Six months later, it would probably have sounded redundant."[8] Clark Clifford and George Elsey produced a report elaborating on the Long Telegram and proposing concrete policy recommendations based on its analysis. This report, which recommended "restraining and confining" Soviet influence, was presented to Truman on September 24, 1946.[9]
In January 1947, Kennan drafted an essay entitled "The Sources of Soviet Conduct."[6] Navy Secretary James V. Forrestal gave permission for the report to be published in the journal Foreign Affairs under the pseudonym "X."[10] Biographer Douglas Brinkley has dubbed Forrestal "godfather of containment" on account of his work in distributing Kennan's writing.[11] The use of the word "containment" originates from this so-called "X Article": "In these circumstances it is clear that the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."[12]
Kennan later turned against the containment policy and noted several deficiencies in his X Article. He later said that by containment he meant not the containment of Soviet Power "by military means of a military threat, but the political containment of a political threat." [13] Second, Kennan admitted a failure in the article to specify the geographical scope of "containment", and that containment was not something he believed the United States could necessarily achieve everywhere successfully.[14]
Harry S. Truman (1945–1953)[edit]
After Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1946 elections, President Truman, a Democrat, made a dramatic speech that is often considered to mark the beginning of the Cold War. In March 1947, he requested that Congress appropriate $400 million in aid to the Greek and Turkish governments, which were fighting Communist subversion.[15] Truman pledged to, "support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."[15] This pledge became known as the Truman Doctrine. Portraying the issue as a mighty clash between "totalitarian regimes" and "free peoples," the speech marks the adoption of containment as official U.S. policy. Congress appropriated the money.
Truman's motives on that occasion have been the subject of considerable scholarship and several schools of interpretation. In the orthodox explanation of Herbert Feis, a series of aggressive Soviet actions in 1945–47 in Poland, Iran, Turkey, and elsewhere awakened the American public to the new danger to freedom to which Truman responded.[16] In the revisionist view of William Appleman Williams, Truman's speech was an expression of longstanding American expansionism.[16] In the realpolitik view of Lynn E. Davis, Truman was a naive idealist who unnecessarily provoked the Soviets by couching disputes in terms like democracy and freedom that were alien to the Communist vision.[17]
According to psychological analysis by Deborah Larson, Truman felt a need to prove his decisiveness and feared that aides would make unfavorable comparisons between him and his predecessor, Roosevelt.[18] "I am here to make decisions, and whether they prove right or wrong I am going to take them," he once said.[19]
The drama surrounding the announcement of the Truman Doctrine catered to president's self-image of a strong and decisive leader, but his real decision-making process was more complex and gradual. The timing of the speech was not a response to any particular Soviet action but to the fact that the Republican Party had just gained control of Congress.[20] Truman was little involved in drafting the speech and did not himself adopt the hard-line attitude that it suggested until several months later.[21]
The British, with their own position weakened by economic distress, urgently called on the U.S. to take over the traditional British role in Greece.[22] Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson took the lead in Washington, warning congressional leaders in late February 1947 that if the United States did not take over from the British, the result most probably would be a "Soviet breakthrough" that "might open three continents to Soviet penetration."[23][24] Truman was explicit about the challenge of Communism taking control of Greece. He won wide support from both parties as well as experts in foreign policy inside and outside the government. It was strongly opposed by the Left, notably by former Vice President Henry A. Wallace, who ran against Truman in the 1948 presidential campaign.[25]
Truman, under the guidance of Acheson, followed up his speech with a series of measures to contain Soviet influence in Europe, including the Marshall Plan, or European Recovery Program, and NATO, a 1949 military alliance between the U.S. and Western European nations. Because containment required detailed information about Communist moves, the government relied increasingly on the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Established by the National Security Act of 1947, the CIA conducted espionage in foreign lands, some of it visible, more of it secret. Truman approved a classified statement of containment policy called NSC 20/4 in November 1948, the first comprehensive statement of security policy ever created by the United States. The Soviet Union's first nuclear test in 1949 prompted the National Security Council to formulate a revised security doctrine. Completed in April 1950, it became known as NSC 68.[26] It concluded that a massive military buildup was necessary to deal with the Soviet threat. According to the report, drafted by Paul Nitze and others:
In the words of the Federalist (No. 28) "The means to be employed must be proportioned to the extent of the mischief." The mischief may be a global war or it may be a Soviet campaign for limited objectives. In either case we should take no avoidable initiative which would cause it to become a war of annihilation, and if we have the forces to defeat a Soviet drive for limited objectives it may well be to our interest not to let it become a global war.[27]
Alternative strategies[edit]
There were three alternative policies to containment under discussion in the late 1940s. The first was a return to isolationism, minimizing American involvement with the rest of the world, a policy that was supported by conservative Republicans, especially from the Midwest, including former President Herbert Hoover and Senator Robert A. Taft. However, many other Republicans, led by Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg, said that policy had helped cause World War II and so was too dangerous to revive.[28]
The second policy was continuation of the détente policies that aimed at friendly relationships with the Soviet Union, especially trade, Roosevelt had been the champion of détente, but he was dead, and most of his inner circle had left the government by 1946. The chief proponent of détente was Henry Wallace, a former vice president and the Secretary of Commerce under Truman. Wallace's position was supported by far left elements of the CIO, but they were purged in 1947 and 1948. Wallace ran against Truman on the Progressive Party ticket in 1948, but his campaign was increasingly dominated by Communists, which helped to discredit détente.[29]
The third policy was rollback, an aggressive effort to undercut or destroy the Soviet Union itself. Military rollback against the Soviet Union was proposed by James Burnham[30] and other conservative strategists in the late 1940s. After 1954, Burnham and like-minded strategists became editors and regular contributors to William F. Buckley, Jr.'s National Review magazine.
Truman himself adopted a rollback strategy in the Korean War after the success of the Inchon landings in September 1950, only to reverse himself after the Chinese counterattack two months later and revert to containment. General Douglas MacArthur called on Congress to continue the rollback policy, but Truman fired him for insubordination.[31]
Under President Dwight Eisenhower, a rollback strategy was considered against communism in Eastern Europe from 1953 to 1956. Eisenhower agreed to a propaganda campaign to rollback the influence of communism psychologically, but he refused to intervene in the 1956 Hungarian Uprising,[32] mainly for fear that it would cause the Third World War. Since 1950, the Soviets had been known to possess nuclear weapons.[33]
Korea[edit]
A 1962 nuclear explosion as seen through the periscope of a U.S. Navy submarine. The goal of containment was to 'contain' communism without a nuclear war.
The U.S. followed containment when it entered the Korean War to defend South Korea from a communist invasion by North Korea. However, the success of the Inchon landing inspired the U.S. and the United Nations to adopt a rollback strategy to overthrow communist North Korea, thus allowing nationwide elections under U.N. auspices.[34] General Douglas MacArthur then advanced across the 38th parallel into North Korea. The Chinese then sent in a large army and defeated the U.N. forces, pushing them below the 38th parallel. Although the Chinese had been planning to intervene for months,[35] this action was interpreted by Truman's supporters as a response to U.S. forces crossing the 38th parallel. That interpretation allowed the episode to be used to confirm the wisdom of containment doctrine as opposed to rollback. The Communists were later pushed back to around the original border. Truman blamed MacArthur's focus on victory and adopted a "limited war" policy. His focus shifted to negotiating a settlement, which was finally reached in 1953. For his part, MacArthur denounced Truman's "no-win policy."[36]
Dulles[edit]
Many Republicans, including John Foster Dulles, were concerned that Truman had been too timid. In 1952, Dulles called for rollback and the eventual liberation of Eastern Europe.[37] Dulles was named secretary of state by incoming President Eisenhower, but Eisenhower's decision not to intervene during the 1956 Hungarian Uprising made containment a bipartisan doctrine. Eisenhower relied on clandestine CIA actions to undermine hostile governments and used economic and military foreign aid to strengthen governments supporting the American position in the Cold War.[38]
Cuba[edit]
In the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, the top officials in Washington debated using rollback to get rid of Soviet nuclear missiles, which were threatening the United States. There was fear of a nuclear war until a deal was reached in which the Soviets would publicly remove their nuclear weapons, the United States would secretly remove its missiles from Turkey and to avoid invading Cuba. The policy of containing Cuba was put into effect by President John F. Kennedy and continued until 2015.[39]
Vietnam[edit]
Senator Barry Goldwater, the Republican candidate for president in 1964, challenged containment and asked, "Why not victory?"[40] President Lyndon Johnson, the Democratic nominee, answered that rollback risked nuclear war. Johnson explained containment doctrine by quoting the Bible: "Hitherto shalt thou come, but not further."[41] Goldwater lost to Johnson in the 1964 election by a wide margin. Johnson adhered closely to containment during the Vietnam War. Rejecting proposals by General William Westmoreland for U.S. ground forces to advance into Laos and cut communist supply lines, Johnson gathered a group of elder statesmen called The Wise Men. The group included Kennan, Acheson and other former Truman advisors.
Rallies in support of the troops were discouraged for fear that a patriotic response would lead to demands for victory and rollback.[41] Military responsibility was divided among three generals so that no powerful theater commander could emerge to challenge Johnson as MacArthur had challenged Truman.[42]
Nixon, who replaced Johnson in 1969, referred to his foreign policy as détente, a relaxation of tension. Although it continued to aim at restraining the Soviet Union, it was based on political realism, thinking in terms of national interest, as opposed to crusades against communism or for democracy. Emphasis was placed on talks with the Soviet Union concerning nuclear weapons called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Nixon reduced U.S. military presence in Vietnam to the minimum required to contain communist advances, in a policy called Vietnamization. As the war continued, it grew less popular. A Democratic Congress forced Nixon, a Republican, to abandon the policy in 1973 by enacting the Case–Church Amendment, which ended U.S. military involvement in Vietnam and led to successful communist invasions of South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.
Afghanistan[edit]
President Jimmy Carter came to office in 1977 and was committed to a foreign policy that emphasized human rights. However, in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, containment was again made a priority. The wording of the Carter Doctrine (1980) intentionally echoeed that of the Truman Doctrine.
Reagan Doctrine[edit]
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Following the communist victory of Vietnam, Democrats began to view further communist advance as inevitable, but Republicans returned to the rollback doctrine. Ronald Reagan, a long-time advocate of rollback, was elected US President in 1980. He took a more aggressive approach to dealings with the Soviets and believed that détente was misguided and peaceful coexistence was tantamount to surrender. When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, American policy makers worried that the Soviets were making a run for control of the Persian Gulf. Throughout the 1980s, under a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine, the United States provided technical and economic assistance to the Afghan guerrillas fighting against the Soviet army (Mujahideen).[43]
By sending military aid to anti-communist insurgents in Afghanistan, Angola, Cambodia, and Nicaragua, Reagan confronted existing communist governments and went beyond the limits of containment doctrine. He deployed the Pershing II missile in Europe and promoted research on a Strategic Defense Initiative, called "Star Wars" by its critics, to shoot down missiles fired at the United States.
Reagan's aim was to defeat the Soviets through an expensive arms buildup the Soviets could not match. However, Reagan continued to follow containment in several key areas. He pursued a comprehensive nuclear disarmament initiative called START I and policy toward Europe continued to emphasize a NATO-based defensive approach.
After Cold War[edit]
The end of the Cold War in 1991 marked the official end of the containment policy, but the U.S. kept its bases in the areas around Russia, such as those in Iceland, Germany, and Turkey. Also, much of the policy helped influence U.S. foreign policy in later years, such as during the War on Terror and dealing with post-Cold War dictators, such as Iraq's Saddam Hussein.
See also[edit]
Domino theory
Détente
Marshall Plan
Rollback
Truman Doctrine
China containment policy
Dual containment (Iran-Iraq containment)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ James Oakes (2012). Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861-1865. W. W. Norton. p. 12.
Jump up ^ Sidney Pash, "Containment, Rollback and the Onset of the Pacific War, 1933-1941" in G. Kurt Piehler and Sidney Pash, eds. The United States and the Second World War: New Perspectives on Diplomacy, War, and the Home Front (2010) pp 38-67
Jump up ^ Larson, Deborah Welch, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation, p. 69.
Jump up ^ Larson, p. 116.
Jump up ^ Larson, p.68.
^ Jump up to: a b John Lewis Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (2011) pp 201-24
Jump up ^ Kennan, George, "The Long Telegram"
^ Jump up to: a b Larson, p. 28.
Jump up ^ Hechler, Ken (1996). Working with Truman: a personal memoir of the White House years. University of Missouri Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-8262-1067-8. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (2011) pp 249-75.
Jump up ^ "Driven Patriot: The Life And Times Of James Forrestal"
Jump up ^ Adrian R. Lewis (2006). The American Culture of War: A History of US Military Force from World War II to Operation Iraqi Freedom. Taylor & Francis. p. 67.
Jump up ^ George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1925-1950 P. 358
Jump up ^ George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1925-1950 P. 359
^ Jump up to: a b President Harry S. Truman's Address Before a Joint Session of Congress, March 12, 1947.
^ Jump up to: a b Larsen, Deborah Welch, Origins of Containment, p. 9.
Jump up ^ Larsen, p. 15.
Jump up ^ Larson, p. 147.
Jump up ^ Larson, pp 145-46.
Jump up ^ Larson, p. 302.
Jump up ^ Larson, p. xi., p. 303
Jump up ^ Lawrence S. Wittner, American Intervention in Greece, 1943-1949 (1982)
Jump up ^ Dean Acheson (1987). Present at the creation: my years in the State Department. W W Norton. p. 219.
Jump up ^ James Chace (2008). Acheson: The Secretary Of State Who Created The American World. Simon & Schuster. pp. 166–67.
Jump up ^ John M. Schuessler, "Absorbing The First Blow: Truman And The Cold War," White House Studies (2009) 9#3 pp 215-231.
Jump up ^ Efstathios T. Fakiolas, "Kennan's Long Telegram and NSC-68: A Comparative Theoretical Analysis," East European Quarterly (1997) 31#4 pp 415-433.
Jump up ^ NSC 68: United States Objectives and Programs for National Security
Jump up ^ David McCullough (2003). Truman. Simon & Schuster. p. 631.
Jump up ^ Jerel A. Rosati; James M. Scott (2011). The Politics of United States Foreign Policy. Cengage Learning. p. 342.
Jump up ^ Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World: A Life (2002) p. 155
Jump up ^ James I. Matray, "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea." Journal of American History (1979): 314-333. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ László Borhi, "Rollback, Liberation, Containment, or Inaction? U.S. Policy and Eastern Europe in the 1950s", Journal of Cold War Studies, 1#3 (1999), pp 67–110 online
Jump up ^ Robert R. Bowie and Richard H. Immerman. eds. (1998). Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy. Oxford University Press. pp. 158–77. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ James I. Matray, "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea," Journal of American History, Sept. 1979, Vol. 66 Issue 2, pp. 314–333, in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Chinese Military Science Academy (September 2000). History of War to Resist America and Aid Korea (抗美援朝战争史) I. Beijing: Chinese Military Science Academy Publishing House. pp. 35–36. ISBN 7-80137-390-1. On 4 August 1950, with the proposed Chinese invasion of Taiwan aborted, Mao Zedong reported to the Politburo that he would intervene in Korea as soon as the Taiwan invasion force was reorganized.
Jump up ^ Safire, William, Safire's Political Dictionary, p. 531.
Jump up ^ "Kennan and Containment, 1947", Diplomacy in Action, U.S. Department of State,
Jump up ^ John Prados, Safe for Democracy: The Secret Wars of the CIA, (2009)
Jump up ^ Alice L. George, The Cuban missile crisis: The threshold of nuclear war (Routledge, 2013).
Jump up ^ Richard J. Jensen, Jon Thares Davidann, Yoneyuki Sugita, Trans-Pacific Relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the Twentieth Century, p. 178. (2003)
^ Jump up to: a b Jensen, p. 180. The quote is from Job 38:11.
Jump up ^ Jensen, p. 182.
Jump up ^ Olson, James Stuart. Historical dictionary of the 1950s. Westport, Conn: Greenwood P, 2000.
Sources[edit]
Corke, Sarah-Jane. "History, historians and the Naming of Foreign Policy: A Postmodern Reflection on American Strategic thinking during the Truman Administration," Intelligence and National Security, Autumn 2001, Vol. 16 Issue 3, pp. 146–63.
Felix, David. Kennan and the Cold War: An Unauthorized Biography. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2015.
Gaddis, John Lewis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American National Security Policy During the Cold War. 2004.
Hopkins, Michael F. "Continuing Debate And New Approaches In Cold War History," Historical Journal (2007), 50: 913-934 doi:10.1017/S0018246X07006437
Kennan, George F., American Diplomacy, The University of Chicago Press. 1984. ISBN 0-226-43147-9
Pieper, Moritz A. (2012). "Containment and the Cold War: Reexaming the Doctrine of Containment as a Grand Strategy Driving US Cold War Interventions". StudentPulse.com. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
Wright, Steven. The United States and Persian Gulf Security: The Foundations of the War on Terror, Ithaca Press, 2007.
External links[edit]
EDSITEment's Lesson Strategy of Containment 1947-1948
https://astro.temple.edu/~rimmerma/the_X_article.htm
Look up containment in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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text:
Chinese domination of Vietnam
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
History of Vietnam
2879–258 BC Hồng Bàng dynasty
2879–1913 BC • Early Hồng Bàng
1912–1055 BC • Mid Hồng Bàng
1054–258 BC • Late Hồng Bàng
257–179 BC Thục dynasty
207–111 BC Triệu dynasty
111 BC–40 AD 1st Chinese domination
40–43 Trưng Sisters
43–544 2nd Chinese domination
544–602 Early Lý dynasty
602–938 3rd Chinese domination
939–967 Ngô dynasty
968–980 Đinh dynasty
980–1009 Early Lê dynasty
1009–1225 Later Lý dynasty
1225–1400 Trần dynasty
1400–1407 Hồ dynasty
1407–1427 4th Chinese domination
1407–1413 • Later Trần dynasty
1428–1788 Later Lê dynasty
1527–1592 • Mạc dynasty
1545–1787 • Trịnh lords
1558–1777 • Nguyễn lords
1778–1802 Tây Sơn dynasty
1802–1945 Nguyễn dynasty
1858–1954 French Indochina
1945 Empire of Vietnam
From 1945 Republic
1945–1976 • North Vietnam
(Democratic Republic of Vietnam)
1955–1975 • South Vietnam
(Republic of Vietnam)
1975–1976 • Viet Cong-occupied South Vietnam
From 1976 Unification of Vietnam
Further subjects[hide]
Champa dynasties (192–1832)
Funan (68–550)
Chenla (550–802)
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Military history
v
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e
The Chinese domination of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Bắc thuộc, Hán tự: 北屬, "Belonging to the North (China)"[1][2][3]) began in 111 BC, and is usually considered to have ended in 938 AD. A fourth, relatively brief, 20-year punitive invasion by the Ming dynasty, 400 years later, is usually excluded by historians in discussion of the main, almost continuous, period of Chinese colonization from 111 BC to 938 AD, as is the brief occupation of northern Vietnam by Chinese forces at the end of the Second World War.
First Chinese domination of Vietnam (111 BC–39 AD) Chinese incursions, followed by Chinese victory in the Han-Nanyue War (111 BC), established Chinese rule in Vietnam. This was briefly interrupted by the revolt of the Trưng Sisters (40–43 AD).
Second Chinese domination of Vietnam (43–544) ended by the revolt of Lý Nam Đế who led a rebellion taking advantage of internal disorder in China and the weakness of the waning Liang dynasty. This secured 60 years of independence for Vietnam, but following regime change and consolidation of power in China, the new Sui dynasty sent an overwhelmingly large army south to reestablish control over northern Vietnam in 602.
Third Chinese domination of Vietnam (602–938) starting with the peaceful abdication by Lý's successor in the face of overwhelming Chinese numbers, and marked by entrenchment of mandarin administration. The period concluded with the internal collapse of China's Tang dynasty and Ngô Quyền's destruction of the Southern Han armada at the naval Battle of Bach Dang River (938).
Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam (1407–1427) a 20-year occupation by the Ming dynasty army, from Vietnamese defeat in the Ming–Hồ War (1406–1407) to Vietnamese rebellion and Lê Lợi's defeat of the Chinese at the Battle of Tốt Động – Chúc Động and Battle of Chi Lăng - Xương Giang (1427).
Geographical extent and impact[edit]
The four periods of Chinese colonization or occupation do not correspond to the modern borders of Vietnam but to Vietnam as a cultural entity. During the first three Chinese periods of domination, Vietnamese society was primarily in the northern part of modern Vietnam.[4][5] Ten centuries of Chinese colonization left a substantial demographic footprint, with settlement by large numbers of ethnic Chinese,[6][7] while opening up Vietnam for trade.[8] Against this the second period of Chinese colonization saw almost 500 years of revolt and war,[9] though the third period (603-939) was more harmonious.
In addition to administration, and making Chinese the language of administration, the long period of Chinese domination introduced Chinese techniques of dike construction, rice cultivation, and animal husbandry.[10][11] Chinese culture, having been established among the elite mandarin class, remained the dominant current among that elite for most of the next 1,000 years (939-1870s) until the loss of independence under French Indochina. This cultural affiliation to China remained true even when militarily defending Vietnam against attempted invasion, such as against the Mongol Kublai Khan. The only significant exceptions to this were the 7 years of the strongly anti-Chinese Hồ dynasty which banned the use of Chinese (among other actions triggering the fourth Chinese invasion), but then after the expulsion of the Ming the rise in vernacular chữ nôm literature.[12] Although 1,000 years of Chinese rule left many traces, the collective memory of the period reinforced Vietnam's cultural and later political independence.[13]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Thailand, Indochina and Burma Handbook, 1994 - Page 557 Joshua Eliot - 1993 "Confucianism was introduced from China during the Bac Thuoc Period (111 BC-938 AD) when the Chinese dominated the country. The 'religion' enshrined the concept of imperial rule by the mandate of heaven, effectively constraining social .."
Jump up ^ Viet Nam social sciences 2002 Page 42 Ủy ban khoa học xã hội Việt Nam - 2002 "The first period of cultural disruption and transformation: in and around the first millennium CE (that is, the period of Bac thuoc) all of Southeast Asia shifted into strong cultural exchanges with the outside world, on the one hand with Chinese ..."
Jump up ^ Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor edited by Ooi Keat Gin (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio, 2004) Volume 1 2004 Page 1296 "Thoi Bac-Thuoc ..Chinese colonial period in Vietnam"
Jump up ^ Craig A. Lockard Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History To 1500 2010 Page 125 "Champa existed from 192 to 1471 c.e., when the Vietnamese finally conquered Champa. Vietnam and Chinese Colonization During Chinese colonial times, Vietnamese society was largely confined to what is today the northern third of Vietnam ..."
Jump up ^ Hugh Dyson Walker East Asia: A New History 2012- Page 259 "In July 1407, Vietnam was renamed Jiao-zhi, and Chinese colonial rule was reestablished, with its capital at Thang Long, as in earlier days. Vietnamese provinces were re-labeled prefectures, with sub-prefectural and district subordinate units."
Jump up ^ Khánh Trần The Ethnic Chinese & Economic Development in Vietnam 1993- Page 14 "Thus began the long period of Chinese colonization and it also resulted in the first massive migration of Chinese into Vietnam. In 214 Bc nearly half a million Chinese troops and fugitives were resettled in the northern part of Vietnam.3 "
Jump up ^ Leo Suryadinata Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians Page 268 1997 "After more than ten centuries of Chinese colonization, this Vietnamese territory became one of the many places for refugees, convicts, officers and garrisons coming from northern China. Most of them consisted of men.2"
Jump up ^ Anh Tuá̂n Hoàng Silk for Silver: Dutch-Vietnamese Relations, 1637-1700 - Page 12 - 2007 "It was said that Chinese merchants trading to this place all grew very wealthy.28 The Chinese colonization of northern Vietnam, 179 BC–AD 905 These Chinese sources recount that at the time of the Chinese colonization, in certain periods ..."
Jump up ^ Vuong Quan Hoang and Tran Tri Dung Vietnam Entrepreneurial Cultures Page 65 "In the second Chinese colonial period (43-544 AD), the Vietnamese society witnessed almost 500 years of war. Before the third Chinese colonial period (603-939), Vietnam enjoyed nearly 60 years of sovereignty, from 544 to 602."
Jump up ^ Vietnam - Page 20 Audrey Seah, Charissa Marie Nair - 2005 "The long period of Chinese domination influenced Vietnamese culture. The Vietnamese adopted Chinese techniques of dike construction, rice cultivation, and animal husbandry. Knowledge of Chinese language led to Chinese influence on ."
Jump up ^ Keat Gin Ooi -Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East ... - Volume 1 - Page 12 2004 This early kingdom had five rulers, a century of independence, and then was under Chinese domination for a millennium from 111 B.C.E. Sinicization took root during this Chinese colonial period. Scholars and officials who fled the mainland ...
Jump up ^ The World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia - Volume 6 - Page 828 Marshall Cavendish Corporation - 2007 "The Chinese occupied but never quite subdued Vietnam for the next thousand years. From the reign of the first Hung king through the period of Chinese domination, there were two kinds of literature in Vietnam: an elaborate court poetry written ..."
Jump up ^ Lonely Planet Vietnam- Page 29 Nick Ray, Peter Dragicevic, Regis St Louis - 2007 "In AD679 the Chinese changed the name of Vietnam to Annam, which means 'the Pacified South.' Ever since this era, the collective memory of Chinese domination has played an important role in shaping Vietnamese identity and attitudes towards their northern neighbour."
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