text:
Honours degree
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Not to be confused with Honorary degree.
The term "honours degree" (or "honors degree") has various meanings in the context of different degrees and education systems. Most commonly it refers to a variant of the undergraduate bachelor's degree containing a larger volume of material or a higher standard of study, or both, than an "ordinary", "general" or "pass" bachelor's degree. Honours degrees are sometimes indicated by "Hons" after the degree abbreviation, with various punctuation according to local custom, e.g. "BA (Hons)", "B.A., Hons", etc.
Examples of honours degree include the honors bachelor's degree in the United States,[1] the bachelor's degree with honours in the United Kingdom,[2] Hong Kong and India,[3] the honours bachelor's degree in Ireland,[4] the honours bachelor's degree in Canada,[5] and the bachelor honours degree in Australia.[6] In South Africa the bachelor honours degree is a postgraduate degree that follows on from the completion of a bachelor's degree.[7] The undergraduate master of arts degree awarded by the ancient universities of Scotland in place of the bachelor of arts may be awarded as an honours or non-honours degree; these are at the same level as equivalent bachelor's degrees.[8][9] At master's level, the integrated master's degrees in British universities, which students enter at the same level as bachelor's degrees, are also honours degrees.[10] Honours degrees should not be confused with the Latin honors attached to degrees in the US and some other countries.
Many universities and colleges offer both honours and non-honours bachelor's degrees. In most countries where honours degrees are granted, they imply a higher level of achievement than a non-honours degree. In some countries (e.g. Canada or Australia), an honours degree may also involve a longer period of study than a non-honours degree.[5][6] Students who complete all the requirements for a non-honours bachelor's degree but do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded the honours degree would normally be awarded the non-honours degree (also known as a "pass", "general" or "ordinary" degree). In England, Northern Ireland and Wales, almost all bachelor's degrees are awarded as honours degrees; in contrast, honours degrees are rarely awarded in the United States.
The current British undergraduate degree classification system, with its division into first, upper and lower second, and third class honours, was developed in 1918 to distinguish between students on the basis of their academic achievement.[11] The concept of an "honours" degree goes back a lot further than this, however, with there being examinations for honours in the original regulations of the University of London in 1839,[12] and Nevil Maskelyne being recorded as taking a bachelor's degree with honours at Cambridge in 1754.[13] Other countries influenced by this system include Australia, Brunei, Canada, New Zealand, Malta, Singapore, South Africa and Hong Kong.
Contents
[hide]
1 Australia
2 Canada
3 England, Wales and Northern Ireland
4 Malta
5 New Zealand
6 Scotland
7 Ireland
8 South Africa
9 United States
10 See also
11 References
Australia[edit]
The consecutive Australian with Honours degree is usually a one- to two-year research program, after the completion of a Bachelor's degree in the same field. It can also be started as a concurrent program in the fourth year of a four-year bachelor's degree. It is generally considered a postgraduate year because a bachelor's degree can be completed without it.[14] Entry to an Honours degree generally requires proven abilities and a distinction (75% or greater) average in the relevant area or the final year units, and even then is quite competitive.
In the regular (standalone) Honours, the student will complete selected courses within a supervised program of research (field, laboratory, or secondary), and produce a long, high-quality research thesis. This is usually accompanied by a seminar or presentation of the findings to an academic board for marking. In the case of a quality thesis being produced, it may be published in a peer-reviewed journal or similar publication. Students receiving high marks in their Honours program have the option of continuing to candidature of a Doctoral program, such as Doctor of Philosophy, without having to complete a master's degree.[15]
At master's level, Monash University has a Master of Business with Honours program in which students can be awarded an Honours classification upon completion.[16]
Canada[edit]
In Canada, honours bachelor's degrees take at least four years to complete, often therefore requiring an extra year of study beyond the general bachelor's degree. Honours degrees are normally required for admission to master's programs, and may sometimes allow direct access to doctoral programs.[5][17][18][19] Honours degrees are allocated a GPA grade,[20] and are considered equivalent to UK honours degrees.[21][22]
England, Wales and Northern Ireland[edit]
In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, Bachelor's degrees are normally awarded "with Honours" after three years of study.[23] The bachelor's degree with Honours meets the requirements for a higher education qualification at level 6 of the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications in full,[24] and is a first cycle, end-of-cycle award on the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area established by the Bologna process. Students can be awarded an "Ordinary" degree if they achieve the required learning outcomes over a smaller volume of studies than is required for an honours degree, e.g. only passing 300 credits rather than the 360 usually required for an honours degree.[25][26] In addition to bachelor's degrees, four year integrated master's degrees, which combine study at bachelor's and master's level, are also awarded with honours.[10]
The University of Oxford does not award honours with its standard BA degree, but considers students who gain a third class degree or better to have "achieved honours status".[27]
Malta[edit]
A number of Honours degrees are offered by the University of Malta, usually indicating an extra year of study with an undergraduate dissertation or a specialisation within a 3-year programme.[28]
New Zealand[edit]
The Bachelor honours degree is a separate level on the New Zealand Qualifications Framework from the bachelor's degree without honours, as in Australia and Scotland.[29] It may either be a 4-year (480 credit) course or a single year (120 credit) course following on from a bachelor's degree, and prepares students for postgraduate study.[30]
Scotland[edit]
In Scotland, all undergraduate degrees with Honours must be of four-year duration. Students can choose to do the Honours degree or the general (or pass/ordinary) degree. The first two years of both types of degrees are the same; however, after that, students who pursue the Honours route will complete more advanced subjects and a dissertation in their last year, while students who choose to do the general degree will complete their third year at a lower level of specialisation.[31]
Entry into the Honours year in Scotland is generally not restricted and students are encouraged to take the Honours year as the general/ordinary/pass degree does not provide the same level of depth and specialisation.[31]
Students enrolling in the Honours program but failing to achieve the required academic merit for Honours are awarded a pass/ordinary/general degree.
Ireland[edit]
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In Ireland, undergraduate degrees fall under two levels in the National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ) of the Quality and Qualifications Ireland (QQI). Courses of study at level 7 take three years and are awarded an Ordinary Bachelor Degree (180 ECTS credits) whereas a course of study at level 8 typically takes four years for an award of a Honours Bachelor Degree (180-240 ECTS credits). There is also an equivalent award at level 8 of a Higher Diploma which follows a course of study of one year duration (60 ECTS credits), such Higher Diplomas are designed for holders of either Honours Bachelor Degree or Ordinary Bachelor Degree who wish to study in a different field of learning than their initial award.
South Africa[edit]
In South Africa, non-professional bachelor's degrees (BA, BSc, BCom) are three year degrees (professional degrees such as engineering degrees or medicine are longer). The honours degree is an optional fourth-year and is an additional one-year qualification. Usually the honours degree specialises in one subject matter (e.g., mathematics, English). Intake into the honours degree is often highly selective. The bachelor's degree is at level 7 and the honours degree at level 8 on the National Qualifications Framework of the South African Qualifications Authority. Research components must comprise at least 25% of the honours degree.[32]
United States[edit]
In the United States, an honours degree (or honors degree in US spelling) requires a thesis or project work beyond that needed for the normal bachelor's program.[1] Honours programs in the US are taken alongside the rest of the degree and often have a minimum GPA requirement for entry, which can vary between institutions.[33][34] Some institutions do not have a separate honours program, but instead refer to bachelor's degrees awarded with Latin honours, which may be based either on GPA or class position, as honours degrees.[35][36]
See also[edit]
Bachelor's degree
Master's degree
Doctorate
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Structure of the U.S. Education System: Bachelor's Degrees". U.S. Department of Education. February 2008. Archived from the original on 23 August 2016. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
Jump up ^ The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies. Quality Assurance Agency. November 2014. p. 17. Archived from the original on 2016-10-13.
Jump up ^ "Bangalore University rolls out honours scheme for UG course". Times of India. 30 April 2014. Archived from the original on 12 February 2017. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "National Framework of Qualifications". Quality and Qualifications Ireland. Archived from the original on 28 March 2017. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Bachelors Degree". York University. Archived from the original on 21 June 2016. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Bachelor Honours Degree: An Explanation" (PDF). Australian Qualifications Framework Council. November 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 February 2018. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Higher Education Qualifications Framework" (PDF). South African Qualifications Authority. p. 25. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 July 2016. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Studying for a degree in Arts". Archived from the original on 2015-02-19. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
Jump up ^ The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies. Quality Assurance Agency. November 2014. p. 29. Archived from the original on 2016-10-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Frequently Asked Questions". Faculty Handbook. Durham University. What do I need to pass to get a degree?. Archived from the original on 16 September 2016. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Tear up the class system". Archived from the original on 2013-12-31. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
Jump up ^ Regulations of the University of London on the subject of the examinations for degrees in Arts. March 1839. p. 9.
Jump up ^ Arthur Thomas Malkin (1836). "Maskelyne". The Gallery of Portraits with Memoirs. VI. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. p. 20.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-04-14. Retrieved 2015-04-10.
Jump up ^ "Pathways to PhD for Honours, Final year and Masters Coursework students". RMIT University. Archived from the original on 2013-12-30. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
Jump up ^ "Master of Business (Honours) for 2014". Monash. Archived from the original on 2013-12-30. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
Jump up ^ "Degree Options in Canada". University Guide Online. Berlitz. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Academic Terms and Definitions". University of Guelph. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "UNIVERSITY STUDY IN CANADA – SHORT OVERVIEW". UniversityStudy.ca. Universities Canada. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Grade Point Average (GPA)". Queen's University, Canada. Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Salford and Canada". University of Salford. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "International Degree Equivalents". Graduate Recruitment Bureau. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies. Quality Assurance Agency. November 2014. p. 15. Archived from the original on 2016-10-13.
Jump up ^ The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies. Quality Assurance Agency. November 2014. p. 25. Archived from the original on 2016-10-13.
Jump up ^ "Glossary". Quality Assurance Agency. Ordinary degree. Archived from the original on 12 August 2016. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Flowchart of Progression Regulations for Bachelors Degrees/Diplomas/Certificates" (PDF). Faculty Handbook. Durham University. How does the Ordinary degree work?. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Verifying qualifications". University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 18 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Prospectus for year 2015" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-10-09. Retrieved 2016-01-21.
Jump up ^ "Understanding New Zealand qualifications". New Zealand Qualifications Authority. Archived from the original on 19 November 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Bachelor honours degree". New Zealand Qualifications Authority. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "The General Degree". University of St Andrews. Archived from the original on 2013-10-26. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
Jump up ^ Department of Higher Education and Training (17 October 2014). "National Qualifications Act (67/2008): Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework". Government Gazette. Republic of South Africa. 592 (38116): 3–42.
Jump up ^ "Honors Degree". Department of Physics and Astronomy. Northwestern University. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Honors Degree FAQs". University of Delaware. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Requirements for Honors Degrees". Harvard University. Archived from the original on 14 October 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Honors Degree". State University of New York at Oneonta. Archived from the original on 7 May 2018. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
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Salami
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For other uses, see Salami (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Salumi.
Winter salami
Salami (singular salame) is a type of cured sausage consisting of fermented and air-dried meat, typically beef or pork. Historically, salami was popular among southern and central European peasants because it stores at room temperature for up to 40 days once cut, supplementing a potentially meager or inconsistent supply of fresh meat. Countries and regions across Europe make their own traditional varieties of salami.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Origin and history
3 Ingredients of salami
4 Salami varieties
5 Manufacturing process
5.1 Preparation
5.2 Fermentation
5.3 Drying
6 Properties
7 Shelf life
8 Varieties
9 Health effects
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Etymology[edit]
The word salami in English comes from the plural form of the Italian salame.[1] It is a singular or plural word in English for cured meats of a European (particularly Italian) style. In Romanian, Bulgarian, and Turkish, the word is salam; in Hungarian, it is szalámi; while French, German, and Dutch have the same word as English. The name may be derived from the Latin words "salsiccia" and "salumen".[2]
The word originates from the word sale (salt) with a termination (ame) that in Italian indicates a collective noun.[3] Thus, it originally meant "all kinds of salted (meats)". The Italian tradition of cured meats includes several styles, and the word salame soon specifically meant only the most popular kind—a salted and spiced meat, ground and extruded into an elongated, thin casing (usually cleaned animal intestine), then left to undergo natural fermentation for days, months, or even years.
Origin and history[edit]
The concept of fermentation—allowing beneficial or benign organisms to grow in food to prevent destructive or toxic ones from growing—especially with meat, has been around for thousands of years. This is evident in the presence of various types of sausages found globally. As well, environmental conditions dictate what food processes are used, as seen in the Mediterranean and southern Europe where "meat products are dried to lower water activity (Aw) values, taking advantage of the long dry and sunny days, while in northern Europe, fermented sausages require smoking for further preservation."[4]
In Europe, the main countries that produce salami are France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Spain, which make "several of hundred millions kg per year."[5]
Worldwide, there are many different versions of sausage, each with its own cultural and flavor profiles. Additionally, each sausage has its own type of seasonings and amount of salt, making each flavor and texture unique. This wide array of fermented sausages, especially in terms of salami, shows its ubiquitous but exclusive nature. For example, due to immigration to North America, European settlers brought many traditions, including fermented meats such as bologna or pepperoni.[6] Similar types of sausages are found in the Middle East, where various meats like beef, lamb, and mutton are used; or in China, where "lap cheong" (translated as "waxed intestines") are usually pork.[7]
Likewise, in eastern Europe, Hungarian salami is quite popular. Hungarian salami is "intensively smoked, and then its surface is inoculated with mold starters or spontaneous mold growth."[7]
Ingredients of salami[edit]
Hungarian Herz Salami poster, an advertisement from Budapest, 1900
A traditional salami, with its typical marbled appearance, is made from beef or pork (sometimes specifically veal). Beef is usual in halal and kosher salami, which never include pork for religious reasons. Makers also use other meats, including venison[8] and poultry (mostly turkey).[9] Goose salami is traditional in parts of Northern Italy. Salami has also been made from horse meat.[10] In the Provence region of France, donkey meat is used for salami as well, the product being sold in street markets. Typical additional ingredients include:[11]
Garlic
Minced fat
Salt
Spices, usually white pepper
Various herbs
Vinegar
Wine
The maker usually ferments the raw meat mixture for a day, then stuffs it into either an edible natural or inedible cellulose casing, and hangs it up to cure. Some recipes apply heat to about 40 °C (104 °F) to accelerate fermentation and drying. Higher temperatures (about 60 °C (140 °F)) stop the fermentation when the salami reaches the desired pH, but the product is not fully cooked (75 °C (167 °F) or higher). Makers often treat the casings with an edible mold (Penicillium) culture. The mold imparts flavor, helps the drying process, and helps prevent spoilage during curing.[12]
Salami varieties[edit]
Salami varieties include this smoked Westphalian salami with added Camembert cheese culture
Salami varieties include:
Cacciatore (cacciatora, cacciatorini) "hunter" salami, Italy[13]
Chorizo, also spicy Iberian variant
Ciauscolo, typical of Marche
Fegatelli
Felino, province of Parma
Finocchiona, typical of southern Tuscany
Genovese
German salami
Hard
Kulen spicy salami characteristic for Slavonia, Vojvodina, and parts of Baranya
Lardo
Napoletano, Napoli
Milanese, Milano
'Nduja
Sujuk Turkish Salami
Pepperoni
Saucisson sec (French "dry sausage")
Soppressata, typical of Calabria
Spegepølse (Danish, means salted and dried sausage)
Vysočina
Winter salami (Hungarian téliszalámi)
Many Old World salami are named after their region or country of origin—such as Arles, Genoa, Hungarian, and Milano salami. Many are flavored with garlic. Some types—including some varieties from Spain (salchichón), Hungary (pick salami), and Italy (such as Neapolitan varieties that led to American pepperoni) include paprika or chili powder. Varieties also differ by coarseness or fineness of the chopped meat and size and style of the casing.
Manufacturing process[edit]
Saucisson
Though completely uncooked, salami are not raw, but cured. Salame cotto—typical of the Piedmont region in Italy—is cooked or smoked before or after curing to impart a specific flavor but not for any benefit of cooking. Before cooking, a cotto salame is considered raw and not ready to eat.
Three major stages are involved in the production of salami: preparation of raw materials, fermentation, and ripening and drying. Minor differences in the formulation of the meat or production techniques give rise to the various kinds of salami across different countries.[citation needed]
Play media
Salami in casing
Preparation[edit]
Before fermentation, raw meat (usually pork or beef depending on the type of salami that is produced) is milled and mixed with other ingredients such as salt, sugar, spices and yeast,[14] and, if the particular salami variety requires it, bacterial starter culture.
Fermentation[edit]
This mixture is then inserted into casings of the desired size. To achieve the flavor and texture that salami possesses, fermentation, which can also be referred to as a slow acidification process promoting a series of chemical reactions in the meat, has to take place.[15] Direct acidification of meat was found to be inappropriate for salami production since it causes protein denaturation and an uneven coagulation thereby causing an undesirable texture in the salami.[15]
For a more modern controlled fermentation, makers hang the salami in warm humid conditions for one to three days to encourage the fermenting bacteria to grow, then hang it in a cool, humid environment to slowly dry. In a traditional process, the maker skips the fermentation step and immediately hangs the salami in a cool, humid curing environment. Added sugars (usually dextrose) provide a food source for the curing bacteria.
The bacteria produce lactic acid as a waste product, which lowers the pH and coagulates the proteins, reducing the meat's water-holding capacity. The bacteria-produced acid makes the meat an inhospitable environment for pathogenic bacteria and imparts a tangy flavor that distinguishes salami from machine-dried pork. Salami flavor relies as much on how these bacteria are cultivated as it does on the quality and variety of the other ingredients. Originally, makers introduced wine into the mix, favouring the growth of other beneficial bacteria. Now, they use starter cultures.
The climate of the curing environment and casing size and style determine the drying and curing process. According to the particular variety of salami, different fermentation methods involving different acids have been explored in order to create various colours and flavors. Starter cultures such as lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and coagulase-negative cocci (CNC) like specific strains of Staphylococcus xylosus[16] or Micrococcus[17][18] are most commonly used in salami production.[19] More species of LAB and CNC were discovered during recent decades and they were found to have different fermentation temperatures with variable rates of acidification.[20] Despite the fact that these bacteria can help maintain a longer shelf life for meat products and even retard the growth of pathogens, there are a few studies that argue some starter cultures may be related to the production of enterotoxins or biogenic amines that can be harmful to the human body.[20] Therefore, starter cultures have to be carefully selected by producers and properly used in fermentation.
Drying[edit]
After fermentation, the sausage must be dried. This changes the casings from water-permeable to reasonably airtight. A white covering of either mold or flour helps prevent photo-oxidation of the meat and rancidity in the fat.
Ripening and drying happens after fermentation.[14] This stage causes the main physical and microbial changes through the large amount of water loss.[21] About half of the water is evaporated and further water loss has to be prevented by packaging.[21] Nonuniform drying processes could cause the formation of a hard shell on the surface of salami. This is similar to other food products such as fruits that undergo dehydration to decrease the risk of diseases or spoilage-causing microbial growth.[21] In modern manufacturing temperature and relative humidity are strictly controlled according to the size of the salami.[21]
Nitrates or nitrites may be added to provide additional color and inhibit growth of harmful bacteria from the genus Clostridium. Salt, acidity, nitrate/nitrite levels, and dryness of the fully cured salami combine to make the uncooked meat safe to consume. High quality, fresh ingredients are important to helping prevent deadly microorganisms and toxins from developing.
Properties[edit]
Salami is homogeneous in appearance and highly ductile.[22][clarification needed] Its quality is dependent on the quality of the raw materials and the level of technology used in its production.[22] The aroma and taste of salami are developed by enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions.[22] The characteristic fermented meat flavour is believed to be developed by a combination of endogenous enzymatic activities and the lactic acid produced by the starter culture.[22] Lactic acid bacteria develop the tangy flavor of salami through the fermentation of carbohydrates and produces an appealing red color to the meat after fermentation, while coagulase-negative cocci can catabolize amino acids and fatty acids to produce volatile compounds.[20] The flavour itself consists of odour properties, which comes from volatile substances, and taste and tactile properties, which comes from non-volatile substances that are a result of enhancers and synergists.[22]
When smoke is applied to salami, it also affects the taste, smell, appearance, and texture. Some of these changes are due to the formation of phenolic compounds, which slow fat oxidation.[22] The pyrolysis of cellulose and hemicelluloses in the salami casing produces carbonyls, which develop the colour of the meat.[22]
More than 400 volatile compounds have been identified in different types of dry-fermented sausages.[23] For example, the organic compounds identified in Hungarian salami produced the dominant flavours of smokiness, sweetness, pungency, sourness, and cloves; secondary flavours included cooked meat, cheese, popcorn, cooked potato, mushroom, seasoning, phenols, roasting, sulfur, and sweatiness.[23] Some minor flavours included malt, garlic, fruit, pine, grass, citrus, honey, caramel, and vanilla.[23] The overall smoky note is the result of numerous phenols.[23] Whether these odorants are formed in the salami or simply transferred from the raw materials during manufacturing is unknown; systematic studies have yet to compare the odorants present in the raw materials to those in the final product.[23]
Shelf life[edit]
Salami will remain stable for long periods of time, as it has a low water activity and contains preservatives, colourings, flavourings, antioxidants and acidifying cultures.[24] Semi-ripened salami will maintain its flavour for long periods of time under retail display conditions, but it will eventually deteriorate due to the development of incipient rancidity.[24] The shelf life of salami is mainly determined by sensory deterioration, which is the result of various oxidation phenomena; pathogenic or spoilage bacteria do not readily proliferate in dry-cured sausage.[24] The main cause of flavour deterioration in dry-cured sausage is rancidity, though the possible formation of other off-flavours, such as mouldy, acid, putrid or pungent traits, may contribute to the decreased eating quality.[24]
The use of coriander essential oil in salami has been shown to increase the higher synthetic antioxidant effect of butylated hydroxytoluene, which delays lipid oxidation and the rancid aroma and taste that come with it.[25] Additionally, salami with coriander essential oil shows improvements in the sensory attributes of taste, odor, texture, brightness, and red colour intensity.[25]
Varieties[edit]
Italian Salami
Salami is a raw-fermented sausage consisting of raw comminuted pork and/or beef meat, fat, and additives, such as curing salt, spices, sugar, and a starter culture.[23] There are multiple different types of salami meat in various markets around the world. In northern and central Europe, smoked salamis are preferred, and ripening is controlled by the addition of lactic acid-producing starter cultures, whereas in southern Europe, salami is slowly air-dried and mostly mold-ripened.[23] Therefore, different preservation and drying methods are used around the world to prepare salami.
Spanish salami.
Hungarian-type salami is a specialty in salami production, because it is first slightly smoked and mold-ripened afterward.[23] The salami that is of Hungarian origin, the so-called "Hungarian winter salami", is made of raw pork, bacon, salt, spices, sugars, and sodium nitrite.[23] Szegedi téliszalámi (winter salami) is made from the Mangalitsa pork breed, with horse large intestine used as its casing to preserve and serve it.[26] This type acquires a grey mold cover on it and has a firm texture and excellent keeping quality after a 30% weight loss reached in 3 to 4 months.[26] Hungarian salami is one of the world's two trade names for salami, Milano salami being the other.[26] These fermented sausages combine smoke and mold application in one. The traditional technology used to produce them is based on the Italian pre-drying technique developed during the nineteenth century, but they are smoked and their pH does not drop below 5.5, so the final flavor of the product is not acidic.[26]
Dry fermented sausage ('salami aeros') is an important product of the Greek meat industry with an annual production of about 10 000 tons.[27] Its manufacture varies depending on the skill and experience of the meat manufacturer rather than a process solely based on scientific and technological means of production.[27] This type of traditional sausage, which undergoes an adventitious fermentation, is of superior quality compared to those inoculated with starters and made in industrial scale.[27] The quality of this type of traditional salami is often more expensive due to its high quality.
Naples-type salami is also a popular Southern Italian dry fermented sausage made of coarsely minced pork meat.[26] In Northeast Italy, traditional dry fermented salami sausages made of fresh pork display unique organoleptic sensory profiles characterized by accented acidity, slight sourness, and elastic semi hard consistency.[26] Other popular dry salamis in Italy are mainly made from a combination of pork and small bits of beef, seasoned with garlic; pepperoni is also made of pork and beef, and is usually smoked; and chorizo is highly spiced and smoked.[26]
In central Europe, Germany, there is Westphalian salami. It is made with fast technology from pork meat, pepper, garlic, and sometimes mustard seeds, is a smoked, firm, sliceable product with a distinct fermentation/sour flavor. The sausages are stuffed into large-diameter casings and ripened by lowering the temperature from 24 °C to 12–14 °C until a water loss of 25% is obtained.[26]
In the Netherlands, the most popular Dutch products are finely chopped salami, Cervelat, Snijworst (with high fat content and rind added), Boerenmetworst (which is coarsely chopped), and chorizo (which is less spicy than the Spanish product).[26] In Russia, typical products are Moscow-type and Russian-type salamis made from pork and beef meat. A particular feature of Moscow-type salami is the large size of fat particles (7–8mm) that give the sausage a rough cover.[26]
Health effects[edit]
There are many aspects of salami that can be considered both detrimental and positive to human health. Salami has been found to be a possible allergen to some people due to the use of penicillium species mold starter during the drying and curing portion of processing to add flavor and stop growth of undesirable molds. These molds occur predominantly in the skin of salami.[28]
Fermented pork back fat that is used to make salami has very high saturated fatty acid and cholesterol content, which can increase the risk of heart disease and pancreatitis.[citation needed] However, it has been shown that it is possible to replace the pork back fat in salami with extra virgin olive oil thereby changing the fatty acid profile of the salami. Olive oil consists of a much larger amount of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, which allows this substitution to create a healthier product.[29] Salami is considered slightly acidic due to lactic acid that is present. In salami where the pork back fat was substituted for extra virgin olive oil, it has shown to have a lower pH of around 5.00 compared to its original levels of around 6.35 to 6.55 making the salami more acidic.[29] These lower pH levels are healthier for humans as higher populations of lactic acid bacteria inhibit the spread of spoilage microorganisms.[29]
E. coli.
There have also been cases that have showcased some of the possible health dangers of salami. An outbreak of Escherichia coli O157 infection of a husband and wife was traced back to the consumption of dry fermented salami made with pork meat after the couple was hospitalized for bloody diarrhea.[30] There was also an outbreak of E. coli O157 in 1994 with 17 cases all occurring from the consumption of pre-sliced salami that was processed by one company. A research investigation of the factory where the salami was processed found that all processing techniques and production methods complied with all regulations and there was no evidence of contamination after processing.[31]
Preservation of any meat products is important. Some fungi can create undesirable color and flavor to the contaminated meat and produce toxins. There are also fungi which are not harmful to humans such as those that are formed on the surface of dried salami which are an indication of maturation after ripening.[20] Thus, producers have to eliminate fungi that have potential risks to human health. As natural preservatives are becoming more desirable food additives than artificial preservatives in food industries, some studies about salami have been focusing on the utilization of essential oils such as oregano and clove oil as preservatives that can be applied to salami production due to their anti-fungal activities.[32] Several types of oils including rosemary, clove, oregano and sage oils were found to have different levels of inhibition effect to various types of fungi that could possibly grow on salami.[32] Since several of these oils contain volatile compounds whose amount can affect the flavor of the food, researchers often perform a sensory test to find the amount of the oil that can best serve as an anti-fungal preservative but have the least effect on the flavor or appearance of the salami.[32]
Ferrara pressed salami
Finocchiona, Tuscan salami sausage with fennel
Skilandis, a Lithuanian sausage
Felino salami
See also[edit]
Food portal
Bologna sausage
Charcuterie (Salumi in Italian; this term refers to prepared meat products generally. Salami is one example, and is not a variant spelling of "salumi")
List of dried foods
List of sausages
List of smoked foods
Pastrami
Summer sausage
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "salami - definition of salami in English from the Oxford dictionary". oxforddictionaries.com.
Jump up ^ Toldra, Fidel (2012). Biochemistry of Fermented Meat, in Food Biochemistry and Food Processing, Second Edition. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 331. ISBN 978-0-8138-0874-1.
Jump up ^ "Etimologia : salame;". etimo.it.
Jump up ^ Toldra, Fidel (2014). Handbook of Fermented Meat and Poultry. Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons. p. 3. ISBN 9781118522653.
Jump up ^ Bertolini et. al, Massimo (December 2006). "Seasoning Process Design Optimization for an Ascending Flow Ripening Chamber". Journal of Food Engineering. 77 (3): 529–538. doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.06.067.
Jump up ^ Handbook of Food Products Manufacturing - Wiley Online Library. doi:10.1002/0470113553.
^ Jump up to: a b Handbook of Fermented Meat and Poultry - Wiley Online Library. doi:10.1002/9781118522653.
Jump up ^ "Venison Salami". Cooks.com. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
Jump up ^ "Turkey Salami". Recipe Tips. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
Jump up ^ "Cold Cuts: Horse Salami". Parco naturale Valle del Ticino. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
Jump up ^ "Food Processing: Strategies for Quality Assessment". google.com.au.
Jump up ^ "Food Processing: Strategies for Quality Assessment". google.com.au.
Jump up ^ "Italian Salami-Salame". LifeInItaly.com. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Fonseca, Gustavo Graciano; Silva Porto, Paulo Sergio; Almeida Pinto, Luiz Antonio (2006). "Reduction of Drying and Ripening Times During the Italian Type Salami Production". Trends in Applied Sciences Research. 1 (5): 504–510. doi:10.3923/tasr.2006.504.510.
^ Jump up to: a b Barbut, S. (June 2010). "Color Development During Natural Fermentation and Chemical Acidification of Salami-type Products". Journal of Muscle Food. 21 (3): 499–580. doi:10.1111/j.1745-4573.2009.00198.x.
Jump up ^ Aquilanti, L., Garofalo, C., Osimani, A. and Clementi, F.: Ecology of lactic acid bacteria and coagulase negative cocci in fermented dry sausages manufactured in Italy and other Mediterranean countries: an overview, in: International Food Research Journal 23(2): 429-445 (2016)
Jump up ^ Len Poli: Making salami at home, Sonoma Mountain Sausage, 4 September 2016
Jump up ^ Böhme, H. M. et al.: Production of salami from ostrich meat with strains of Lactobacillus sake, Lactobacillus curvatus and Micrococcus sp., in Meat Science, Volume 44, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 173-180, ISSN 0309-1740, doi: 10.1016/S0309-1740(96)00083-6
Jump up ^ Aquilanti, Lucia; Santarellia, Sara; Silvestria, Gloria; Osimania, Andrea; Petruzzellib, Annalisa; Clementia, Francesca (November 2007). "The microbial ecology of a typical Italian salami during its natural fermentation". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 120 (1–2): 136–145. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.06.010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Vignolo, Graciela; Fontana, Cecilia; Fadda, Silvina (Feb 2010). Handbook of Meat Processing. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 379–398. doi:10.1002/9780813820897.ch22. ISBN 9780813820897. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Cevolia, Chiara; Fabbria, Angelo; Tabanellib, Giulia; Montanarib, Chiara; Gardinia, Fausto; Lanciottia, Rosalba; Guarnieria, Adriano (July 2014). "Finite element model of salami ripening process and successive storage in package". Journal of Food Engineering. 132: 14–20. doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2014.02.003. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g van Schalkwyk, D. L.; McMillin, K. W.; Booyse, Mardé; Witthuhn, R. C.; Hoffman, L. C. (1 May 2011). "Physico-chemical, microbiological, textural and sensory attributes of matured game salami produced from springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), gemsbok (Oryx gazella), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and zebra (Equus burchelli) harvested in Namibia". Meat Science. 88 (1): 36–44. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2010.11.028.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Söllner, Kerstin; Schieberle, Peter (9 April 2009). "Decoding the Key Aroma Compounds of a Hungarian-Type Salami by Molecular Sensory Science Approaches". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 57 (10): 4319–4327. doi:10.1021/jf900402e. PMID 19358532.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lorenzo, José Manuel; Bedia, Mario; Bañón, Sancho (1 March 2013). "Relationship between flavour deterioration and the volatile compound profile of semi-ripened sausage". Meat Science. 93 (3): 614–620. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.11.006.
^ Jump up to: a b Marangoni, Cristiane; Moura, Neusa Fernandes de. "Sensory profile of Italian salami with coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) essential oil". Food Science and Technology (Campinas). 31 (1): 119–123. doi:10.1590/S0101-20612011000100016. ISSN 0101-2061.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Vignolo, Graciela; Fontana, Cecilia; Fadda, Silvina (1 January 2010). Fellow, Fidel Toldrá Ph D. researchessor member, ed. Semidry and Dry Fermented Sausages. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 379–398. doi:10.1002/9780813820897.ch22. ISBN 9780813820897.
^ Jump up to: a b c Samelis, John; Metaxopoulos, John; Vlassi, Maria; Pappa, Aristea (20 October 1998). "Stability and safety of traditional Greek salami — a microbiological ecology study". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 44 (1–2): 69–82. doi:10.1016/S0168-1605(98)00124-X.
Jump up ^ Ludman, S.; Perrin, Y.; Caubet, J. C.; Wassenberg, J. (2013). "Perplexing cases of allergy to salami". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: In Practice. 1 (1): 97–98. doi:10.1016/j.jaip.2012.10.002.
^ Jump up to: a b c Del Nobilea, Matteo Alessandro; Conteb, Amalia; Incoronatob, Anna Lucia; Panzab, Olimpia; Sevia, Agostino; Marinoa, Rosaria (Jan 2009). "New strategies for reducing the pork back-fat content in typical Italian salami". Meat Science. 81 (1): 263–269. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2008.07.026. PMID 22063993.
Jump up ^ Conedera, G.; Mattiazzi, E.; Russo, F.; Chiesa, E.; Scorzato, I.; Grandesso, S.; Caprioli, A. (2007). "A family outbreak of Escherichia coli O157 haemorrhagic colitis caused by pork meat salami". Epidemiology and Infection. 135 (02): 311–314. doi:10.1017/s0950268806006807. PMC 2870571  .
Jump up ^ Tilden, J. Jr; Young, W.; McNamara, A. M.; Custer, C.; Boesel, B.; Lambert-Fair, M.A.; Morris, J. G. Jr (1996). "A new route of transmission for escherichia coli: Infection from dry fermented salami". American Journal of Public Health. 86 (8 Pt 1): 1142–1145. doi:10.2105/ajph.86.8_pt_1.1142. PMC 1380627  .
^ Jump up to: a b c Cenci, Aline Maria; Ugalde, Mariane Lobo; Steffens, Juliana; Valduga, Eunice; Cansian, Rogério Luis; Toniazzo, Geciane (Jan 2015). "Control of Penicillium sp. on the Surface of Italian Salami Using Essential Oils". Food technology and biotechnology. 53 (3): 342. doi:10.17113/ftb.53.03.15.3877.
Further reading[edit]
Bacus. Jim, "Utilization of Microorganisms in Meat Processing – a handbook for meat plant operators", Research Studies Press
Campbell-Platt, G and Cook, P. (Eds) (1995) "Fermented Meats", Blackie Academic and Professional, Glasgow
Darby W.J et al. "Food: the gift of Osiris", London 1977
Gou P. et al. "Potassium Chloride, Potassium lactate & Glycine as Sodium Chloride substitutes in fermented sausages & in dry cured pork loin", Meat Science vol 42 nol p37-48 1996
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Salami.
DOP Cured Meats
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https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami
Salami – Afrikaans
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values: سلامي (طعام) – Arabic

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https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami
Salami – Breton
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https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami
Salami – Catalan
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https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami
Salami – Danish
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https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami
Salami – German
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https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaami
Salaami – Estonian
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values: Σαλάμι – Greek

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https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami
Salami – Spanish
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https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamo
Salamo – Esperanto
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https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami
Salami – Basque
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values: سالامی – Persian

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https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami
Salami – French
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https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salame
Salame – Galician
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https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salama
Salama – Croatian
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https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami
Salami – Indonesian
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https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salame
Salame – Italian
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values: სალიამი – Georgian

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https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami
Salami – Luxembourgish
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Salami – Dutch
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Salami – Norwegian
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Salami – Norwegian Nynorsk
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Salame – Portuguese
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https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami
Salami – Scots
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https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami
Salami – Finnish
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Salami – Swedish
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Salami – Tagalog
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Salam – Turkish
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Salami – Vietnamese
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