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Advanced Placement
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Advanced Placement (AP) is a program in the United States and Canada created by the College Board which offers college-level curricula and examinations to high school students. American colleges and universities may grant placement and course credit to students who obtain high scores on the examinations. The AP curriculum for each of the various subjects is created for the College Board by a panel of experts and college-level educators in that field of study. For a high school course to have the designation, the course must be audited by the College Board to ascertain that it satisfies the AP curriculum. If the course is approved, the school may use the AP designation and the course will be publicly listed on the AP Course Ledger.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Scoring
3 Score reporting
4 Exam subsidies
5 Advanced Placement courses
6 Upcoming exam changes
6.1 2016–2017
6.2 2018–2019
7 Recent exam information
8 Criticism
8.1 Decreasing quality
8.2 Passing scores and university credit
8.3 Academic achievement
8.4 School quality
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
History[edit]
After the end of World War II, the Ford Foundation created a fund that supported committees studying education.[2] The program, which was then referred to as the "Kenyon Plan",[3] was founded and pioneered at Kenyon College in Gambier, Ohio, by the then-college president Gordon Chalmers. The first study was conducted by three prep schools—the Lawrenceville School, Phillips Academy and Phillips Exeter Academy—and three universities—Harvard University, Princeton University and Yale University. In 1952 they issued the report General Education in School and College: A Committee Report which recommended allowing high school seniors to study college level material and to take achievement exams that allowed them to attain college credit for this work.[4] The second committee, the Committee on Admission with Advanced Standing, developed and implemented the plan to choose a curriculum. A pilot program was run in 1952 which covered eleven disciplines. In the 1955-56 school year, it was nationally implemented in ten subjects: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, English, History, French, German, Spanish, and Latin.
The College Board, a non-profit organization[5] based in New York City, has run the AP program since 1955.[6] From 1965 to 1989, Harlan Hanson was the director of the Advanced Placement Program.[7] It develops and maintains guidelines for the teaching of higher level courses in various subject areas. In addition, it supports teachers of AP courses and supports universities.[8] These activities are funded through fees required to take the AP exams.
In 2006, over one million students took over two million Advanced Placement examinations.[9] Many high schools in the United States offer AP courses,[10] though the College Board allows any student to take any examination regardless of participation in its respective course.[11] Therefore, home-schooled students and students from schools that do not offer AP courses have an equal opportunity to take AP exams.
As of the 2015 testing season, exams cost $91 each,[12] though the cost may be subsidized by local or state programs. Financial aid is available for students who qualify for it; the exam reduction is $26 or $28 per exam from College Board plus an additional $8 rebate per fee-reduced exam from the school. There may be further reductions depending on the state. Out of the $91, $8 goes directly to the school to pay for the administration of the test, which some schools will reduce to lower the cost to the student.[citation needed]
On April 3, 2008, the College Board announced that four AP courses—French Literature, Latin Literature, Computer Science AB, and Italian Language and Culture—would be discontinued after the 2008–2009 school year due to lack of funding.[13][14] However, the Italian Language and Culture test was again offered beginning in 2011.
Starting July 2013 AP allowed students for the first time to both view and send their scores online.[15]
The number of AP exams administered each year has seen a steady increase over the past decade. In 2003, 175,860 English Language and Composition exams were administered. By 2013, this number had risen to 476,277, or an increase of 171%. Such an increase has occurred in nearly all AP exams offered, with the AP Psychology exam seeing a 281% increase over the past decade. In 2017, the most taken AP exam was English Language and Composition with 579,426 students and the least taken AP exam was Japanese Language and Culture with 2,429 students.[16]
The AP exams begin on the first Monday in May and last ten school days (two weeks).
Scoring[edit]
AP tests are scored on a 1 to 5 scale as follows:[17]
5 – Extremely well qualified
4 – Well qualified
3 – Qualified
2 – Possibly qualified
1 – No recommendation
The multiple choice component of the exam is scored by computer, while the free response and essay portions are scored by trained Readers at the AP Reading each June. The scores on various components are weighted and combined into a raw Composite Score. The Chief Reader for each exam then decides on the grade cutoffs for that year's exam, which determine how the Composite Scores are converted into the final grades. During the process a number of reviews and statistical analyses are performed to ensure that the grading is reliable. The overall goal is for the grades to reflect an absolute scale of performance which can be compared from year to year.[18]
Some colleges use AP test scores to exempt students from introductory coursework, others use them to place students in higher designated courses, and some do both. Each college's policy is different, but most require a minimum score of 3 or 4 to receive college credit.[19] Typically, this appears as a "CR" grade on the college transcript, although some colleges and universities will award an A grade for a 5 score.[20] Some countries, such as Germany, that do not offer general admission to their universities and colleges for holders of an American high school diploma without preparatory courses will directly admit students who have completed a specific set of AP tests, depending on the subject they wish to study there.
In addition, completing AP courses help students qualify for various types of scholarships. According to the College Board, 31 percent of colleges and universities look at AP experience when making scholarship decisions.[21]
Beginning with the May 2011 AP Exam administration, the College Board changed the scoring method of AP Exams.[22][23] Total scores on the multiple-choice section are now based on the number of questions answered correctly. Points are no longer deducted for incorrect answers and, as was the case before, no points are awarded for unanswered questions. However, scoring requirements have also been increased.
Score reporting[edit]
Starting with the May 2013 AP Examination Administration, the College Board launched an Internet-based score reporting service.[24] Students can use their 2013 AP Number or Student Number (if one was indicated) along with a College Board Account,[25] to access current and previous years' exam scores. This system can also be used to send scores to colleges and universities for which a 4-digit institutional code[26] is assigned.
Exam subsidies[edit]
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Recognizing that the cost could be an impediment to students of limited means, a number of states and municipalities independent of the College Board have partially or fully subsidized the cost. For example, the state of Florida reimburses schools districts for the exam costs of students enrolled in Advanced Placement courses. The Los Angeles Unified School District, the Montebello Unified School District, the Hawaii Department of Education, New York City Department of Education, and the state of Indiana subsidize all AP Examination fees in subjects of math and science, and the Edmonds School District in suburban Seattle currently subsidizes Advanced Placement fees of students who enroll in the free school lunch program. In addition, some school districts offer free tests to all students enrolled in any Advanced Placement class.
Advanced Placement courses[edit]
There are currently 38 courses and exams available through the AP Program.[27] A complete list of courses can be found below:
AP Art History
AP Biology
AP Calculus AB
AP Calculus BC
AP Chemistry
AP Chinese Language and Culture
AP Computer Science A
AP Computer Science Principles
AP English Language and Composition
AP English Literature and Composition
AP Environmental Science
AP European History
AP French Language and Culture
AP German Language and Culture
AP Government and Politics: Comparative
AP Government and Politics: United States
AP Human Geography
AP Italian Language and Culture
AP Japanese Language and Culture
AP Latin
AP Macroeconomics
AP Microeconomics
AP Music Theory
AP Physics 1
AP Physics 2
AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism
AP Physics C: Mechanics
AP Psychology
AP Research (Second part of the AP Capstone program)
AP Seminar (First part of the AP Capstone program)
AP Statistics
AP Spanish Language and Culture
AP Spanish Literature and Culture
AP Studio Art: 2-D Design
AP Studio Art: 3-D Design
AP Studio Art: Drawing
AP United States History
AP World History
Upcoming exam changes[edit]
2016–2017[edit]
AP World History
This exam will also undergo the same basic changes to the 2014-2015 United States History and 2015-2016 European History exams.[28]
Shortened multiple-choice section with 55 questions, accounting for 40% of the total exam score. These are reduced from 70 questions and 50% in previous years, respectively.
Four short-answer questions in place of one of the long essays, accounting for 20% of the total exam score. These questions are given a 50-minute writing period.
Document-based question (DBQ) and the remaining long essay now account for 25% and 15% of the exam score respectively. New writing periods of 55 minutes and 35 minutes respectively are given instead of the combined 120-minute writing period for all three essays in previous exams.
AP Calculus AB
Time format changed
Addition of L'Hôpital's rule
AP Calculus BC
Addition of limit comparison tests, absolute and conditional convergence, and the alternating series.
2018–2019[edit]
AP United States Government and Politics[29]
Section I (MCQ) will be extended from 60 questions in 45 minutes to 55 questions in 80 minutes. It will still count towards 50% of the total exam score.
The questions will feature a greater use of scenarios and stimulus material.
The number of answer choices for each question will be reduced from five to four.
Section II (FRQ) will include five questions (instead of four) in 100 minutes (the same amount of time as the current exam).
Two will be short answer concept application questions, one with a scenario and one without.
One will be a quantitative analysis and interpretation question with a visual stimulus.
One will be a qualitative analysis and interpretation question with text and/or visual excerpts.
One will be an argumentation essay requiring supporting evidence and reasoning.
Recent exam information[edit]
AP exams were taken by subject in 2013.
Below are statistics from the 2014 year of exams showing the number of participants, the percentage who obtained a score of three (3) or higher, and the average score. (Students generally need a score of three (3) or higher to receive credit or benefit.)
2014 scoring results
Exam name
Number administered
Scored ≥3 (%)
Mean score
Art History 23,213 59.6 2.82
Biology 213,294 64.2 2.91
Calculus AB 294,072 58.9 2.94
Calculus BC 93,180 84.6 4.02
Chemistry 148,554 52.8 2.68
Chinese Language 10,728 94.5 4.43
Computer Science 39,278 61.2 2.96
English Language 505,244 55.8 2.79
English Literature 397,477 55.0 2.76
Environmental Science 130,321 47.3 2.60
European History 110,297 59.5 2.65
French Language 21,268 78.0 3.36
German Language 5,111 73.3 3.34
United States Government 271,043 50.7 2.62
Comparative Government 20,361 62.0 3.09
Human Geography 136,448 52.0 2.64
Italian Language 2,331 69.6 3.23
Japanese Language 2,311 75.9 3.56
Latin 6,542 65.8 3.05
Macroeconomics 117,209 57.8 2.89
Microeconomics 74,049 65.6 3.07
Music Theory 17,176 62.7 3.07
Physics B 93,574 60.7 2.89
Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism 20,765 70.8 3.51
Physics C: Mechanics 47,000 76.7 3.56
Psychology 259,789 65.5 3.09
Spanish Language 135,341 89.3 3.72
Spanish Literature 20,118 74.5 3.14
Statistics 184,173 59.6 2.86
Studio Art: 2-D Design 26,811 78.5 3.33
Studio Art: 3-D Design 4,256 67.5 3.04
Studio Art: Drawing 16,928 77.5 3.27
United States History 462,766 52.4 2.76
World History 245,699 54.5 2.66
Total 4,135,962
One issue to consider is the fact that not all AP students take their course's test. The College Board estimates that about 2/3 of students enrolled in an AP course take the course's AP test.[30] On the other hand, a study of University of California system students found that only about 55% to 60% of AP students took their course's exam.[31]
However, "It has recently become clear . . . that these estimations of overall participation rates mask the variability in participation rates across AP examinations."[32] For example, one study of math and science AP courses showed that participation rates were 52.7% for AP Chemistry, 53.6% for AP Physics, 57.7% for AP Biology, and 77.4% for AP Calculus.[33] The largest study on this topic found similar participation rates (49.5% for AP Chemistry, 52.3% for AP Physics, 54.5% for Biology, and 68.9% for Calculus).[34] History exams tend to have slightly higher participation rates (57.9% for AP European History, 58.5% for AP World History, and 62.8% for AP U.S. History), and 65.4% of AP English students took either the AP English Language or AP English Literature exam.[32] This same study found that for "core AP subjects (i.e., no arts or language subjects)", the overall test participation rate was 60.8%.[32]
In February 2014 College Board released data from the previous ten years of AP exams. College Board found that 33.2% of public high school graduates from the class of 2013 had taken an AP exam, compared to 18.9% in 2003. In 2013 20.1% of graduates who had taken an AP test achieved a 3 or higher compared to 12.2% in 2003.
Criticism[edit]
Decreasing quality[edit]
In the 21st century, independent educational researchers began to question whether AP could maintain high academic standards while experiencing explosive growth.[35] Research has shown that the most popular AP tests tend to have the lowest passing rates, a possible indication that less academically prepared students are enrolling in AP classes.[36] Whether the AP program can serve large numbers of students without decreasing academic rigor is a matter of debate within the education field.[35][37]
Passing scores and university credit[edit]
University faculty, such as former professor and high school teacher John Tierney, have expressed doubts about the value of a passing AP score.[38] Students who receive scores of 3 or 4 are being given college credit at fewer universities.[when?] Academic departments also criticise the increasing proportion of students who take and pass AP courses but are not ready for college-level work.[39]
Academic achievement[edit]
Independent researchers in education have since 2010 studied the impact of the Advanced Placement program on students' academic achievement. An early study published in AP: A critical examination of the Advanced Placement program found that students who took AP courses in the sciences but failed the AP exam performed no better in college science courses than students without any AP course at all. Referring to students who complete the course but fail the exam, the head researcher, Phillip M. Sadler, stated in an interview that "research shows that they don’t appear to have learned anything during the year, so there is probably a better course for them".[40]
Two other studies compared non-AP students with AP students who had not taken their course's AP exam, had taken the AP exam but did not pass it, or had passed the AP exam. Like Sadler's study, both found that AP students who passed their exam scored highest in other measures of academic achievement.[41] The largest study of this sort, with a sample size of over 90,000, replicated these results and also showed that non-AP students performed with equal levels of academic achievement as AP students who did not take their course's AP exam—even after controlling for over 70 intervening variables.[42] This led the authors to state that AP participation "... is not beneficial to students who merely enroll in the courses ..."[42]:p. 414
School quality[edit]
Several states use Advanced Placement data for accountability purposes, and U.S. News and World Report use data on Advanced Placement course offerings and participation to rank high schools.[43] However, studies of local school districts[44] and the United States as a whole[45] show that increasing AP participation does not increase the overall academic achievement or school quality at the group (e.g., high school, racial/ethnic group, nation) level. This led one researcher to state, "Clearly, offering AP alone will not magically turn a failing school into a successful one."[46]
See also[edit]
Education portal
Canada portal
United States portal
Advanced Placement Awards
GCE Advanced Level
Education in Canada
Education in the United States
International Baccalaureate
Glossary of biology
Glossary of chemistry
Glossary of economics
Glossary of physics
Glossary of probability and statistics
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "AP Course Ledger". AP Course Audit. University of Oregon. Retrieved 13 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "A Brief History of the Advanced Placement Program" (PDF). College Board. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved January 29, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Historical Markers: Kenyon College". Kenyon College. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ Stanley N. Katz (March 10, 2006). "The Liberal Arts in School and College". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved January 21, 2011.
Jump up ^ About the College Board from collegeboard.com
Jump up ^ The History of the AP Program from collegeboard.com
Jump up ^ DiYanni, Robert (2008). "The History of AP Program". CollegeBoard.com. Retrieved July 23, 2009.
Jump up ^ The Advanced Placement Program from collegeboard.com
Jump up ^ Program Summary Report 2006 from collegeboard.com
Jump up ^ AP Fact Sheet from collegeboard.com
Jump up ^ AP: Frequently Asked Questions from collegeboard.com
Jump up ^ https://apstudent.collegeboard.org/takingtheexam/exam-fees
Jump up ^ de Vise, Daniel (April 4, 2008). "AP Language, Computer Courses Cut". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Jump up ^ Important Announcement about AP Italian Language and Culture from collegeboard.com
Jump up ^ AP Online Scores
Jump up ^ https://secure-media.collegeboard.org/digitalServices/pdf/research/2017/Student-Score-Distributions-2017.pdf
Jump up ^ "About AP Scores – The College Board". apscore.collegeboard.org. Retrieved 2017-05-09.
Jump up ^ "AP Central – Exam Scoring". College Board. Archived from the original on January 13, 2008.
Jump up ^ Understanding AP Exams Archived September 8, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. from PathAspire.com
Jump up ^ Multiple-Choice Scores from collegeboard.com
Jump up ^ College Board. "AP Program". Retrieved August 5, 2012. , citing "Unpublished institutional research, Crux Research, Inc. March 2007."
Jump up ^ "Guess What? Taking AP Exams Just Got Easier". ParentDish. 2010. Retrieved March 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ Finnegan, Leah (August 11, 2010). "AP Eliminates Guessing Penalty On Tests". Huffington Post.
Jump up ^ "Score Reporting Services". College Board. 2013. p. 1. Retrieved 4 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Create a CollegeBoard Account". College Board. 2013. p. 1. Retrieved 4 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "List of 4-digit Institutional Codes, PDF" (PDF). Educational Testing Service. 2013. p. 1. Retrieved 4 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "AP Central - Course Home Pages". apcentral.collegeboard.com. Retrieved 2017-05-09.
Jump up ^ "AP World History Revisions - Advances in AP - The College Board | Advances in AP". advancesinap.collegeboard.org. Retrieved 2015-06-03.
Jump up ^ "AP U.S. Government and Politics - Advances in AP - The College Board". advancesinap.collegeboard.org. Retrieved 2017-05-09.
Jump up ^ College Board. "Access to excellence: A report of the commission on the future of the Advanced Placement Program" (PDF). Author. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Geiser, Saul; Santelices, Veronica. "The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions". Center for Studies in Higher Education, University of California. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Warne, R. T. (2017). "Research on the academic benefits of the Advanced Placement Program: Taking stock and looking forward". SAGE Open. 7 (1): 9. doi:10.1177/2158244016682996. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Sadler, P. M.; Sonnert, G.; Hazari, Z.; Tai, R. (2014). "The role of advanced high school coursework in increasing STEM career interest". Science Educator. 23: 6.
Jump up ^ Warne, R. T. (2017). "Research on the academic benefits of the Advanced Placement Program: Taking stock and looking forward". SAGE Open. 7 (1): 9. doi:10.1177/2158244016682996. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Lichten, William (2000). "Whither Advanced Placement". Education Policy Analysis Archives. 8 (29). Retrieved 12 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Warne, R. T. (2017). "Research on the academic benefits of the Advanced Placement program: Taking stock and looking forward". SAGE Open. 7 (1). doi:10.1177/2158244016682996. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Lichten, William (2010). "Whither Advanced Placement--now?". In Sadler, P. M.; Sonnert, G.; Tai, R. H.; Klopfenstein, K. AP: A critical examination of the Advanced Placement program. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Education Press. pp. 233–243.
Jump up ^ Tireny, John. "AP Classes Are a Scam". The Atlantic. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Zimar, Heather (2005). "Universities Raise Standards for Earning Advanced Placement Credit". SEM Source: An Update on State of the Art Student Services. American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers (January 2005). Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved November 7, 2012.
Jump up ^ Hood, Lucy; Sadler, Philip M. (2010). "Putting AP to the Test: New research assesses the Advanced Placement program". Harvard Education Letter. 26 (May/June 2010). Retrieved November 7, 2012.
Jump up ^ Ackerman, Phillip; Kanfer, Ruth; Calderwood, Charles (2013). "High school Advanced Placement and student performance in college: STEM majors, non-STEM majors, and gender differences". Teachers College Record. 115 (10): 1–43.
^ Jump up to: a b Warne, Russell T.; Larsen, Ross; Anderson, Braydon; Odasso, Alyce J. (2015). "The impact of participation in the Advanced Placement program on students' college admissions test scores". The Journal of Educational Research. 108 (5): 400–416. doi:10.1080/00220671.2014.917253.
Jump up ^ Morse, Robert. "How U.S. News Calculated the 2015 Best High Schools Rankings". Retrieved 22 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Lichten, William (2010). Whither Advanced Placement--now. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Education Press. pp. 233–243.
Jump up ^ Warne, Russell; Anderson, Braydon. "The Advanced Placement program's impact on academic achievement" (PDF). New Educational Foundations (4): 32–54.
Jump up ^ Warne, Russell T. "Pushing students to take Advanced Placement courses does not help anyone". Retrieved 22 August 2015.
Further reading[edit]
McCauley, David. 2007. The Impact of Advanced Placement and Dual Enrollment Program on College Graduation.
Applied Research Project. Texas State University. http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/206/
Schneider, Jack. 2008. Schools' Unrest Over the AP Test
External links[edit]
The College Board's AP website for students and parents
AP Student website
Score Distributions (most recent exam)
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Environmental impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill
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This article is part of a series about the
Deepwater Horizon oil spill
BP
Deepwater Horizon
Explosion
Oil spill
Timeline
Volume and extent
Closure
Response
Environmental impact
Health consequences
Economic effects
Reactions
Investigation
Litigation
Compensation
v
t
e
The oil slick as seen from space by NASA's Terra satellite on 24 May 2010
The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico has been described as the worst environmental disaster in the United States, releasing about 4.9 million barrels (210 million US gal; 780,000 m3) of crude oil making it the largest marine oil spill. Both the spill and the cleanup efforts had effects on the environment.
The oil spill was called the "worst environmental disaster the US has faced" by White House energy adviser Carol Browner.[1] The spill was by far the largest in US history, almost 20 times greater than the usual estimate of the Exxon Valdez oil spill.[2] Factors such as petroleum toxicity, oxygen depletion and the use of Corexit are expected to be the main causes of damage.[3]
Contents
1 Impact to marine species
1.1 Timeline
1.2 Corals
1.3 Dolphins
1.4 Impact on marine life
2 Methane
3 Entry to the food chain
4 Toxicity from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
5 Impact on beaches
6 Impact due to clean-up
7 Impact on vegetation
8 Remaining oil in the water
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Impact to marine species[edit]
An oiled gannet seabird getting the oil washed off.
Most of the impact was on the marine species. Eight U.S. national parks were threatened[4] and more than 400 species that live in the Gulf islands and marshlands are at risk, including the endangered Kemp's ridley turtle, the green turtle, the loggerhead turtle, the hawksbill turtle, and the leatherback turtle. In the national refuges most at risk, about 34,000 birds were counted, including gulls, pelicans, roseate spoonbills, egrets, terns, and blue herons.[5] A comprehensive 2009 inventory of offshore Gulf species counted 15,700. The area of the spill includes 8,332 species, including more than 1,200 fish, 200 birds, 1,400 molluscs, 1,500 crustaceans, 4 sea turtles, and 29 marine mammals.[6][7] In a 2011 paper in the journal BioScience, researchers from the University of New Hampshire reported that the spill threatened 39 marine species in addition to the 14 currently under federal protection. Threatened species, the report found, ranged from 'whale sharks to seagrass". Also another impact to marine species was the impact to various food chains. With one break in the chain, the rest of the chain could be impacted greatly.[8]
Harry Roberts, a professor of Coastal Studies at Louisiana State University, has stated that 4 million barrels (640,000 m3) of oil would be enough to "wipe out marine life deep at sea near the leak and elsewhere in the Gulf" as well as "along hundreds of miles of coastline."[9] Mak Saito, an Associate Scientist at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution indicated that such an amount of oil "may alter the chemistry of the sea, with unforeseeable results."[9] Samantha Joye of the University of Georgia indicated that the oil could harm fish directly, and microbes used to consume the oil would reduce oxygen levels in the water.[10] The ecosystem, she said, could require years or decades to recover, as with previous spills.[11] Damage to the ocean floor would endanger the Louisiana pancake batfish in particular, whose range is entirely contained within the area affected by the spill.[12]
The actual number of mammal deaths due to the spill may be as much as 50 times higher than the number of recovered carcasses, according to a study published in the Journal Conservation Letters.[13] "The Deepwater oil spill was the largest in US history, however, the recorded impact on wildlife was relatively low, leading to suggestions that the environmental damage of the disaster was actually modest. This is because reports have implied that the number of carcasses recovered... equals the number of animals killed by the spill" stated Rob Williams from University of British Columbia.[14]
Timeline[edit]
On 22 October 2010, it was reported that miles-long strings of weathered oil had been sighted moving toward marshes on the Mississippi River delta. Hundreds of thousands of migrating ducks and geese spend the winter in this delta.[15] Two years after the Deepwater explosion, migratory birds were found to have carried chemicals from the spill to Minnesota. Preliminary evidence showed the vast majority of the small sample of pelican eggs tested contained "petroleum compounds and Corexit".[16] As of 2 November 2010, 6,814 dead animals had been collected, including 6,104 birds, 609 sea turtles, 100 dolphins and other mammals, and 1 other reptile.[17][18] According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, cause of death had not been determined as of late June. According to NOAA, since 1 January 2011, 67 dead dolphins had been found in the area affected by the spill, with 35 of them premature or newborn calves.[19]
A NOAA study in spring 2012, along with two other studies reported at the same time, suggest that the long-term environmental effects of the spill may have been "far more profound than previously thought". The joint study by NOAA and BP found "many of the 32 dolphins studied were underweight, anemic and suffering from lung and liver disease, while nearly half had low levels of a hormone that helps the mammals deal with stress as well as regulating their metabolism and immune systems". Researchers found that some types of spiders and other insects were far less numerous than before the spill.[20]
During a January 2013 flyover, former NASA physicist, Bonny Schumaker noted a "dearth of marine life" in a radius 30 to 50 miles (50 to 80 km) around the Macondo well. "Since the fall of 2011, now about 14 months, I see no turtles, few if any dolphins, few if any rays ... few sharks, few bait balls, all of the things we used to see," she commented. This may mean that the wildlife left the area in search of food. "I guess the Gulf of Mexico in these parts is a stinky, dead desert for its previous visitors," Schumaker told NBC news.[21]
Three years after the oil spill, the residual effects were still apparent, with tar balls still found on the Mississippi coast, as well as an oil sheen along a coastal marsh, and erosion on an island in Barataria Bay sped up by the death of mangrove trees and marsh grass.[22]
Corals[edit]
In November 2010, federally funded scientists found damage to deep sea coral several miles from the well. Expedition leader and biologist with Penn State University Charles Fisher said there was "an abundance of circumstantial data" suggesting coral damage is related to the spill. This discovery indicated that the spill's ecological consequences may be greater than was previously officially claimed.[23] "The visual data for recent and ongoing death are crystal clear and consistent over at least 30 colonies; the site is close to the Deepwater Horizon; the research site is at the right depth and direction to have been impacted by a deep-water plume, based on NOAA models and empirical data; and the impact was detected only a few months after the spill was contained."[24]
In March 2012, definitive link was found between the death of a Gulf coral community the size of half a football field and the spill.[25] The scientists wrote: "The presence of recently damaged and deceased corals beneath the path of a previously documented plume emanating from the Macondo well provides compelling evidence that the oil impacted deep-water ecosystems."[26][27]
Dolphins[edit]
Striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba)
In February 2011, the first birthing season for dolphins since the spill, the director of the Institute for Marine Mammal Studies in Gulfport reported that dead baby dolphins were washing up along the Mississippi and Alabama shorelines at about 10 times the normal number for the first two months of the year. "For some reason, they have started aborting or they were dead before they were born; the average is one or two a month. This year we have 17 and February is not even over yet."
From mid-January to late March 2011, scientists counted almost 200 dead dolphins in the Gulf, with another 90 in 2010. After investigating the deaths, NOAA put a gag order on the results, saying that the research is part of a criminal investigation of the spill. Numerous independent scientists said they have been "personally rebuked by federal officials for speaking out of turn to the media about efforts to determine the cause" of the deaths.[28]
In April 2011, one year from the onset of the spill, scientists confirmed that they had discovered oil on dead dolphins found along the Gulf Coast. Fifteen of the 406 dolphins that had washed ashore in the last 14 months had oil on their bodies; the oil found on eight of them was linked to the spill. A NOAA spokesperson said it was "significant that even a year after the oil spill we are finding oil on the dolphins, the latest just two weeks ago."[29] A NOAA study in the summer of 2011 showed dolphins that came in contact with the petroleum were "seriously ill" with drastically low weight, low blood sugar and for some, cancer of the liver and lungs.[30]
In December 2013, the journal Environmental Science & Technology published a study finding that of 32 dolphins briefly captured from 24-km stretch near southeastern Louisiana, half were seriously ill or dying from liver disease, pneumonia, loss of teeth, and one pregnant female was carrying a dead fetus. The animals compared unfavorably with dolphins from an area of the gulf unaffected by the spill. BP said the report, which was the first study of the spill's impact on dolphins, was “inconclusive as to any causation associated with the spill”.[31][32]
On April 12, 2016, a research team reported that 88 percent of about 360 baby or stillborn dolphins within the spill area "had abnormal or under-developed lungs", compared to 15 percent in other areas. The study was published in the April 2016 Diseases of Aquatic Organisms.[33]
Impact on marine life[edit]
"Disturbing numbers" of mutated fish were seen in the Gulf.[34][35] Scientists and fishermen are pointing to the spill, the dispersants and chemicals used in its cleanup as the cause of these deformities which include shrimp born without eyes, fish with lesions, fish with oozing sores and, according to a local fisherwoman, "We are also finding eyeless crabs, crabs with their shells soft instead of hard, full grown crabs that are one-fifth their normal size, clawless crabs, and crabs with shells that don't have their usual spikes ... they look like they've been burned off by chemicals". The dispersants are known to be mutagenic.[36] In Barataria Bay, Louisiana, an area "heavily impacted by oil and dispersants", 50% of shrimp were found lacking eyes and eye sockets.[36] Another lifelong fisher-woman reported seeing "fish without covers over their gills and others with large pink masses hanging off their eyes and gills".[36] A 2014 study of the effects of the oil spill on bluefin tuna, published in the journal Science, found that oil already broken down by wave action and chemical dispersants was more toxic than fresh oil.[37]
Prior to the spill, approximately 0.1% of Gulf fish had lesions or sores. A report from the University of South Florida said that many locations showed 20% of fish with lesions, and later expeditions some as high as 50%.[36]
A 2014 paper in the journal Science found that toxins released by the oil spill killed fish by causing cardiac arrest. The study found that even very low concentrations of crude oil can slow the pace of fish heartbeats. The study was conducted by researchers at Stanford University and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as part of the federal Natural Resource Damage Assessment process required by the Oil Pollution Act. It focused on tuna partly because the spill occurred in an area where Atlantic bluefin tuna were spawning. The effects were considered especially problematic for fish embryos and early developing fish, because the heartbeat changes could affect the development of other organs, including the lungs and liver. BP disputed the study, raising questions about the study and the use of its findings in the damage assessment process.[37][38][39] Another peer-reviewed study, released in March 2014 and conducted by 17 scientists from the United States and Australia and published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, found that tuna and amber jack that were exposed to oil from the spill developed deformities of the heart and other organs. BP responded that the concentrations of oil in the study were a level rarely seen in the Gulf, but The New York Times reported that the BP statement was contradicted by the study.[40]
Methane[edit]
Oceanographer John Kessler estimated that the crude gushing from the well contained approximately 40% methane by weight, compared to about 5% found in typical oil deposits.[41] Methane can potentially suffocate marine life and create dead zones where oxygen is depleted.[41] Oceanographer Dr. Ian MacDonald believes that the natural gas dissolving below the surface has the potential to reduce the Gulf oxygen levels and emit benzene and other toxic compounds.[42][43]
Entry to the food chain[edit]
Signs of an oil-and-dispersant mix were found under the shells of tiny blue crab larvae in the Gulf by researchers at Tulane University in 2010. This finding indicated that the use of dispersants had broken the oil into droplets small enough to easily enter the food chain. Marine biologists found "orange blobs" under the shells of crab larvae in "almost all" of the larvae collected from over 300 miles (480 km) of coastline stretching from Grand Isle, Louisiana, to Pensacola, Florida.[3] According to a March 2012 study, spilled oil entered the ocean's food chain through zooplankton. Dr. Michael Roman of the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science stated "traces of oil in the zooplankton prove that they had contact with the oil and the likelihood that oil compounds may be working their way up the food chain".[44] Alabama researchers in July 2012 found that dispersants may have killed microscopic plankton and disrupted the food chain. Scientists commenting on the study, published in PLOS ONE, said it pointed toward "major future effects of the spill".[45] One scientist called its findings "scary, though limited because the experiments spanned only five days".[46] Carbon isotopic evidence has revealed that oil from the disaster has entered the bodies of land animals and birds (terrestrial fauna) leading to a reduction in the reproductive success of some species.[47]
Toxicity from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons[edit]
Terry Wade of Texas A&M University, Steven Lohrenz of the University of Southern Mississippi and the Stennis Space Center found evidence of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), which are often linked to oil spills, and include carcinogens and chemicals that pose various risks to human health, as deep as 3,300 feet (1.0 km) and as far away as 8 miles (13 km) in May 2010, and said it likely worsened as more oil spilled. The PAHs can kill animals immediately, in high enough concentrations, and can lead to cancer. "From the time that these observations were made, there was an extensive release of additional oil and dispersants at the site. Therefore, the effects on the deep sea ecosystem may be considerably more severe than supported by the observations reported here," the researchers wrote in the journal Geophysical Research Letters. PAH's, they said, include a group of compounds, with different types at different depths. "It is possible they dissipate quickly, but no one has yet showed this".[48]
In September 2010, Oregon State University researchers found sharply heightened levels of chemicals in the waters off the coast of Louisiana in August 2010, the last sampling date, even after the well was capped one month prior. Near Grand Isle, Louisiana, the team discovered that PAH remained at levels 40 times higher than before the spill. The PAH's were most concentrated in the area near the Louisiana Coast, but levels also jumped 2-3 fold in other spill-affected areas off Alabama, Mississippi and Florida. As of August 2010, PAH levels remained near those discovered while the spill was still flowing heavily.[49] Kim Anderson, a professor of environmental and molecular toxicology, said that based on the findings of other researchers, she suspected that the abundant use of dispersants by BP increased the bio-availability of the PAHs. "There was a huge increase of PAHs that are bio-available to the organisms – and that means they can essentially be uptaken by organisms throughout the food chain."[50]
Dr. Jim Cowan of Louisiana State University's Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, believes PAHs, weathered from leaked oil on the seabed, are likely the cause of the mutations.[36]
A 2014 study of the effects of the oil spill on bluefin tuna, published in the journal Science, clarifying the mechanics by which PAH kill fish, found that the toxins from oil spills can cause irregular heartbeats leading to cardiac arrest. It found that PAHs block signaling pathways that allow potassium and calcium ions to flow in and out of cardiac cell membranes and sustain normal heart rates, and that even very low concentrations of crude oil can disrupt these signaling pathways, slowing fish heartbeats. The study found that cardiotoxicity might have been widespread in animal life exposed to the spill.[38]
Impact on beaches[edit]
Workers cleaning up a beach during Deepwater Horizon oil spill
The oil from the disaster affected between 622 and 1300 miles of the United States coastline around the Gulf of Mexico and has acutely catalyzed the erosion of land due to the oil having led to the death of most of the marsh vegetation (flora).[51] A 2012 study of the sands of the contaminated beaches and marshes showed that the variety of organisms, one of the lowest links in the food chain, had dropped dramatically since the spill.[52] The remaining species are believed to be those that favor polluted conditions and that consume hydrocarbons. This could result in long-lasting effects to the ecosystem. The lead author said, "We went from this very diverse community with an abundance of different organisms to this really (impoverished) community that was really dominated by a couple of fungal species". The authors also expressed concerns that trace minerals and metals such as mercury and arsenic deposited by the oil may cause harm to both wildlife and humans.[53][54]
The use of dispersant made oil sink faster and more deeply into the beaches, and possibly groundwater supplies, according to a November 2012 a study released by Florida State University and Utrecht University in the Netherlands. The researchers found that Corexit 9500A allowed the PAHs to permeate sand where, due to a lack of sunlight, degradation is slowed.[21][55]
Impact due to clean-up[edit]
The oil clean-up itself caused damage to the fragile environment. Environmentalists and oil spill veterans warned that the various rushed, sometimes untested and unnecessary methods being used in the clean-up was "wreaking havoc". "Absolutely nothing you do to respond to an oil spill is without impacts of its own," said the EPA's Lisa P. Jackson.[56]
In Orange Beach Alabama, beach erosion and disruption of plant and animal life-cycles continued into 2011, despite repeated requests by the Mayor and other local officials to leave the area. Clean-up crews deterred tourists from visiting local hotels and beaches due to an increase in criminal activity caused by the influx of clean-up workers.[citation needed][57]
Impact on vegetation[edit]
Studies of vegetation death and accelerated marsh erosion following Deepwater Horizon oil spill have shown that both of these impacts (or “injuries,” when assessing natural resource damages) can be related to the percent of oiling on the stems of marsh vegetation.[58][59] Spatial quantification of these injuries thus relies on estimates of how many kilometers of shoreline fell into each of the four stem oiling categories on which these injury determinations were based (0-10%, 10-50%, 50-90%, 90-100%). The total length of the Louisiana coastline under mainland herbaceous marsh that was oiled was estimated to be 1,161 km, with 29% (334 km) falling into the two upper classes of stem oiling (i.e. > 50% stem oiling).[60]
Remaining oil in the water[edit]
In August 2010, scientists had determined as up to 79% of the spilled oil remained in the Gulf of Mexico, under the surface.[61] In March 2011, it was reported that thousands of pounds of oil and dispersant were collected each day from highly visible resort areas and that 17,000 lb (7,700 kg) were collected from a beach in Alabama after a winter storm.[62]
A Coast Guard report released on 17 December 2010, said that little oil remained on the sea floor except within a mile and a half (2.5 km) of the well. The report said that since 3 August 2010, only 1% of water and sediment samples had pollution above EPA-recommended limits. Charlie Henry of NOAA warned even small amounts of oil could cause "latent, long-term chronic effects". Ian R. MacDonald of Florida State University said even where the government claimed to find little oil, "We went to the same place and saw a lot of oil. In our samples, we found abundant dead animals."[63]
After Hurricane Isaac in September 2012, about 565,000 pounds of oiled material traced to the spill was brought to land. This was a greater amount than had been collected in the eight months prior. The Louisiana Coastal Protection Agency criticized BP and the USCG clean-up efforts, calling for more resources to deal with the roughly 1 million barrels (160×10^3 m3) of oil believed to remain below water. Huge[quantify] tar mats were also uncovered during the storm, prompting beach closures.[64][65][66]
Although some researchers thought that the damage from the spill would rapidly resolve, three years into the recovery dolphins continue to die, fish are showing strange lesions, corals in the gulf have died and oil still remains in some marsh areas.[67] Due to both its size and the way it was handled, there is little previous research to predict long-term effects. At the 2013 "Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill and Ecosystem Science Conference", oceanographer David Hollander presented data that showed as much as one-third of the oil released during the spill may still be in the gulf. Researchers described a phenomenon called "dirty blizzard": oil caused deep ocean sediments to clumped together, falling to the ocean floor at ten times the normal rate in an "underwater rain of oily particles". The result could have long-term effects on both humans and marine life. Commercially fished species feed on sediment creatures, meaning oil could remain in the food chain for generations.[68] Concern was expressed for commercially fished species such as tilefish which burrow in the sediment and feed on sediment dwelling creatures.[69] In 2013 researchers found that a tiny amoeba-like creatures, foraminifera, that live in sediment and form the bottom of the gulf food chain, have died off in the areas that were affected by the underwater plumes that stretched out miles beyond the spill site. The foraminifera have returned in some areas but in other areas they have burrowed into the sediments, stirring them up all over again. Noting that it took several years for the herring population to crash following the Exxon Valdez oil spill, the researchers expressed concerns that it may also take years for long-terms effects to become apparent in the gulf.[67]
See also[edit]
Environmental issues in the United States
Environmental impact of the petroleum industry
Health consequences of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b Sahagun, Louis (February 13, 2014). "Toxins released by oil spills send fish hearts into cardiac arrest". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 6 May 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Schleifstein, Mark (13 Feb 2014). "BP Deepwater Horizon spill oil causes heart damage that can kill tuna, new study finds". The Times-Picayune, New Orleans. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Wines, Michael (24 March 2014). "Fish Embryos Exposed to Oil From BP Spill Develop Deformities, a Study Finds". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 25 March 2014. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Oil spill full of methane, adding new concerns". MSNBC. 18 June 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-20.
Jump up ^ Polson, Jim (16 June 2010). "BP Gulf Well Gushing as Much as 60,000 Barrels a Day". Bloomberg Businessweek. Bloomberg. Archived from the original on June 19, 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-20.
Jump up ^ Biello, David (July 2010). "Lasting Menace: Gulf oil-spill disaster likely to exert environmental harm for decades". Scientific American. 303 (1): 16–16. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1210-16. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Oil from Deepwater Horizon disaster entered food chain in the Gulf of Mexico". Sciencedaily.com. 20 March 2012. doi:10.1029/2011GL049505. Retrieved 2012-06-01.
Jump up ^ Ortmann, Alice C.; Anders, Jennifer; Shelton, Naomi; Gong, Limin; Moss, Anthony G.; Condon, Robert H. (July 2012). "Dispersed Oil Disrupts Microbial Pathways in Pelagic Food Webs". PLOS ONE. 7 (7): 1–9. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...742548O. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042548. PMC 3409195  . PMID 22860136. e42548. Retrieved 2013-02-03.
Jump up ^ BP oil spill dispersants may have hurt Gulf of Mexico food chain, study finds | NOLA.com
Jump up ^ Bonisoli-Alquati, A.; Stouffer, P. C.; Turner, R. E.; Woltmann, S.; Taylor, S. S. (2016-01-01). "Incorporation of Deepwater Horizon oil in a terrestrial bird". Environmental Research Letters. 11 (11): 114023. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/11/114023. ISSN 1748-9326.
Jump up ^ "Toxic chemicals found deep at BP oil spill site". Yahoo health. Reuters. 2 November 2010. Archived from the original on 7 November 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-04.
Jump up ^ Schneyer, Joshua (27 September 2010). "U.S. oil spill waters contain carcinogens: report". Reuters. Retrieved 2010-10-01.
Jump up ^ Froomkin, Dan (30 September 2010). "Researchers Found 40-Fold Increase In Carcinogenic Compounds In Gulf". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2010-10-01.
Jump up ^ Rangoonwala, Amina; Jones, Cathleen E.; Ramsey, Elijah (2016-11-28). "Wetland shoreline recession in the Mississippi River Delta from petroleum oiling and cyclonic storms". Geophysical Research Letters. 43 (22): 2016GL070624. doi:10.1002/2016GL070624. ISSN 1944-8007.
Jump up ^ Bik, Holly M.; Halanych, Kenneth M.; Sharma, Jyotsna; Thomas, W. Kelley (June 2012). "Dramatic Shifts in Benthic Microbial Eukaryote Communities following the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill". PLOS ONE. 7 (6): e38550. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...738550B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038550. e38550. Retrieved 2013-02-03.
Jump up ^ Mark Schleifstein, The Times-Picayune. "BP oil spill disrupted microbes on Gulf Coast beaches, new research shows". NOLA.com. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
Jump up ^ New study finds microorganisms along Gulf Coast impacted by BP oil spill | wwltv.com New Orleans
Jump up ^ Zuijdgeest, Alissa; Huettel, Markus (November 2012). "Dispersants as Used in Response to the MC252-Spill Lead to Higher Mobility of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Oil-Contaminated Gulf of Mexico Sand". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): 1–13. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...750549Z. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0050549. PMC 3507788  . PMID 23209777. e50549. Retrieved 2013-02-03.
Jump up ^ Messy Cleanup of BP Oil Spill Damages the Gulf
Jump up ^ The presence of cleanup crews after oil or diesel spills often helps deter birds from (nesting in) the affected areas
Jump up ^ Hester, Mark W.; Willis, Jonathan M.; Rouhani, Shahrokh; Steinhoff, Marla A.; Baker, Mary C. (2016-09-01). "Impacts of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on the salt marsh vegetation of Louisiana". Environmental Pollution. 216: 361–370. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2016.05.065.
Jump up ^ Silliman, Brian R.; Dixon, Philip M.; Wobus, Cameron; He, Qiang; Daleo, Pedro; Hughes, Brent B.; Rissing, Matthew; Willis, Jonathan M.; Hester, Mark W. (2016-09-28). "Thresholds in marsh resilience to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill". Scientific Reports. 6: 32520. doi:10.1038/srep32520. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5040145  . PMID 27679956.
Jump up ^ Goovaerts, Pierre; Wobus, Cameron; Jones, Russell; Rissing, Matthew (2016-09-15). "Geospatial estimation of the impact of Deepwater Horizon oil spill on plant oiling along the Louisiana shorelines". Journal of Environmental Management. 180: 264–271. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.05.041.
Jump up ^ Chipman, Kim. (17 August 2010) Scientists Say as Much as 79% of Oil Remains in Gulf of Mexico. Bloomberg. Retrieved 2011-04-07.
Jump up ^ Jerry Cope: NASA Data Strengthens Reports of Toxic Rain on the Gulf Coast From BP Spill. Huffington Post. Retrieved 2011-04-07.
Jump up ^ Burdeau, Cain (17 December 2010). "Coast Guard: Little seafloor oil from Gulf spill". USA Today. Associated Press. Retrieved 2010-12-24.
Jump up ^ Tropical Storm Lee surge reveals tar mats on Fourchon Beach | NOLA.com
Jump up ^ Discovery of 'tar mat' prompts Gulf closure | Tracking the Tropics - WDSU Home Archived 2013-06-16 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ About 565,000 pounds of oiled material from Deepwater Horizon stirred up by Hurricane Isaac | NOLA.com
^ Jump up to: a b Three years after BP oil spill, USF research finds massive die-off | Tampa Bay Times
Jump up ^ "Study: "Dirty bathtub" buried oil from BP spill - CBS News". CBS News.
Jump up ^ Nature news report
Further reading[edit]
Hsing, P.; Fu, B.; Larcom, E. A.; Berlet, S. P.; Shank, T. M.; Govindarajan, A. F.; Lukasiewicz, A. J.; Dixon, P. M.; Fisher, C. R. (2013). "Evidence of lasting impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on a deep Gulf of Mexico coral community". Elementa. 1: 000012. doi:10.12952/journal.elementa.000012. ISSN 2325-1026.
External links[edit]
Deepwater Horizon oil spill at the Florida Department of Environmental Protection
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