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Geography of Cuba
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Geography of Cuba
Geography
Archipelago
Greater Antilles
Area
109,884 km2 (42,426 sq mi)
Area rank
104th
Length
1,250 km (777 mi)
Width
191 km (118.7 mi)
Coastline
5,746 km (3,570.4 mi)
Highest elevation
1,974 m (6,476 ft)
Highest point
Pico Turquino
Administration
Cuba
Largest settlement
Havana (pop. 2,125,320 (2015))
Demographics
Population
11,239,004 (2015)
Pop. density
102 /km2 (264 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups
White: 64.1%, Mulatto / Mestizo: 26.6%, Black: 9.3%.
Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean Sea. Cuba has an official area (land area) of 109,884 km2 (42,426 sq mi). Its area is 110,860 km2 (42,800 sq mi) including coastal and territorial waters. The main island (Cuba) has 5,746 km (3,570 mi) of coastline and 28.5 km (17.7 mi) of land borders — all figures including the United States territory at Guantánamo Bay, where the U.S. Navy's Guantanamo Bay Naval Base is located.
Cuba lies west of the North Atlantic Ocean, east of the Gulf of Mexico, south of the Straits of Florida, northwest of the Windward Passage, and northeast of the Yucatán Channel. The main island (Cuba) makes up most of the land area 104,556 km2 (40,369 sq mi).[1]
The island is 1,250 km (780 mi) long and 191 km (119 mi) across its widest points and 31 km (19 mi) across its narrowest points.[1] The largest island outside the main island is the Isla de la Juventud (Isle of Youth) in the southwest, with an area of 2,200 km2 (850 sq mi).[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Physical geography
1.1 Terrain
1.2 Maritime claims
2 Extreme points
3 Natural resources
3.1 Climate
4 Administrative subdivisions
5 References
6 External links
Physical geography[edit]
Cuba from space.
Cuba is located 77 km (48 mi) west of Haiti across the Windward Passage, 21 km (13 mi) south of the Bahamas, 150 km (93 mi) south of Florida, 210 km (130 mi) east of Mexico, and 140 km (87 mi) north of Jamaica.
Cuba is the largest country by land area in the Caribbean. Its main island is the seventeenth-largest island in the world by land area. The island rises between the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean. It is bordered on the north by the Straits of Florida, on the northeast by Nicholas Channel and the Old Bahama Channel. The southern part is bounded by the Windward Passage and the Cayman Trench, while the southwest lies in the Caribbean Sea. To the west, it reaches to the Yucatán Channel, and the northwest is open to the Gulf of Mexico.
More than 4,000 islands and cays are found in the surrounding sea and bays. The southern coast includes such archipelagos as Jardines de la Reina and the Canarreos. The northeastern shore is lined by the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, which includes Jardines del Rey and is composed of approximately 2,517 cays and islands.[2] The Colorados Archipelago is developed on the north-western coast.
See also: List of islands of Cuba
Terrain[edit]
Terrain is mostly flat to rolling plains, with rugged hills and mountains in the southeast. The lowest point is the Caribbean Sea at 0 m (sea level) and the highest point is Pico Turquino at 1,974 m (6,476 ft), part of the Sierra Maestra mountain range, located in the southeast of the island.
Other mountain ranges are Sierra Cristal in the southeast, Escambray Mountains in the center of the island, and Sierra del Rosario in the northwest. White sand beaches (most notably in Varadero[3]), as well as mangroves and marshes can be found in the coastal area. The largest is the Zapata Swamp, with over 4,520 km2 (1,750 sq mi).
Cuba has negligible inland water area. The largest natural water mirror is Laguna de Leche at 67.2 km2 (25.9 sq mi), while the man-made Zaza Reservoir, at 113.5 km2 (43.8 sq mi), is the largest inland water surface by area in the country.
Maritime claims[edit]
Cuba makes maritime claims that include a territorial sea of 12 nautical miles (22.2 km; 13.8 mi) and an exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical miles (370.4 km; 230.2 mi).
Extreme points[edit]
Places in Cuba.
Extreme points in Cuba are:
Point
Name
Location
Remarks
North (on-shore)
Punta Hicacos 23°12′23″N 81°08′44″W / 23.20639°N 81.14556°W / 23.20639; -81.14556 (Punta Hicacos) On Hicacos Peninsula
North (off-shore)
Cayo Cruz del Padre 23°16′34″N 80°54′38″W / 23.27611°N 80.91056°W / 23.27611; -80.91056 (Cayo Cruz del Padre) Part of Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago
East
Punta Maisie 20°12′32″N 74°08′01″W / 20.20889°N 74.13361°W / 20.20889; -74.13361 (Punta Maisi) Near Maisí
West
Cape San Antonio 21°51′39″N 84°57′25″W / 21.86083°N 84.95694°W / 21.86083; -84.95694 (Cabo San Antonio) On Guanahacabibes Peninsula
South
Cape Cruz 19°49′37″N 77°40′30″W / 19.82694°N 77.67500°W / 19.82694; -77.67500 (Cape Cruz) Near Niquero
Highest point
Pico Turquino 19°59′22″N 76°50′09″W / 19.98944°N 76.83583°W / 19.98944; -76.83583 (Pico Turquino) Part of Sierra Maestra, 1,974 m (6,476 ft)
Lowest point
sea level Caribbean and Atlantic Ocean
Largest city
Havana 23°08′00″N 82°23′00″W / 23.13333°N 82.38333°W / 23.13333; -82.38333 (City of Havana) National capital, population 2,130,431
Oldest city
Baracoa 20°20′55″N 74°30′38″W / 20.34861°N 74.51056°W / 20.34861; -74.51056 (Baracoa) Founded in 1511
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Place data as RDF
Natural resources[edit]
Main article: Economy of Cuba
A tobacco field in Pinar del Río.
Natural resources include cobalt, nickel, iron ore, copper, salt, timber, silica, oil and petroleum. At one time, the whole island was covered with forests and there are still many cedar (Cedrela odorata), chechem (Metopium brownei), mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni), and other valuable trees. Large areas were cleared to grow more sugarcane, and so few trees remained that timber had to be imported.
The most important Cuban mineral economic resource is nickel. Cuba has the second largest nickel reserves in the world after Russia.[4] Sherritt International, a Canadian energy company, operates a large nickel mining facility in Moa, Cuba. Another leading mineral resource is cobalt, a byproduct of nickel mining operations. Cuba ranks as the fifth largest producer of refined cobalt in the world.
Petroleum is extracted on Cuba's northern shore, in the provinces of La Habana and Matanzas. Recent petroleum exploration has revealed that the North Cuba Basin could produce approximately 4.6 billion barrels (730,000,000 m3) to 9.3 billion barrels (1.48×109 m3) of petroleum. As of 2006[update], Cuba has now started to test-drill these locations for possible exploitation.[5][6][7] The petroleum is of low quality, and used for energy generation only.
Sugarcane was the most important part of the economy in Cuba's history, and is still grown on large areas. Extensive irrigation systems are developed in the south of Sancti Spíritus Province. Tobacco, used for some of the world's cigars, is grown especially in the Pinar del Río Province.
See also: Agriculture of Cuba
Climate[edit]
Cuba's climate is tropical savanna in the Koppen Climate classification. The dry season lasts from November to April and the rainy season from May to October.
Casa Blanca, Havana
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
64
26
19
69
26
19
46
28
20
54
29
21
98
30
22
182
31
23
106
31
24
100
32
24
144
31
24
181
29
23
88
28
21
58
27
20
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: Climate Charts[8]
[show]Imperial conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2.5
79
66
2.7
79
66
1.8
82
68
2.1
84
70
3.9
86
72
7.2
88
73
4.2
88
75
3.9
90
75
5.7
88
75
7.1
84
73
3.5
82
70
2.3
81
68
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
Cuba is an archipelago of islands located in the Caribbean Sea, with the geographic coordinates 21°3N, 80°00W. Cuba is the principal island, which is surrounded by four main groups of islands. These are the Colorados, the Sabana-Camagüey, the Jardines de la Reina and the Canarreos. The main island of Cuba constitutes most of the nation's land area or 104,556 km2 (40,369 sq mi) and is the seventeenth-largest island in the world by land area. The second largest island in Cuba is the Isla de la Juventud (Isle of Youth) in the southwest, with an area of 2,200 km2 (850 sq mi). Cuba has a total land area of 109,884 km2 (42,426 sq mi).
The main island consists mostly of flat to rolling plains. At the southeastern end is the Sierra Maestra, a range of steep mountains whose highest point is the Pico Real del Turquino at 1,974 metres (6,476 ft). The climate is tropical, though moderated by trade winds. In general (with local variations), there is a drier season from November to April, and a rainier season from May to October. The average temperature is 23.1 °C (73.6 °F) in January and 27 °C (80.6 °F) in July.
Cuba lies in the path of hurricanes, and these destructive storms are most common in September and October. Havana is the largest city and capital; other major cities include Santiago de Cuba and Camagüey. Better known smaller towns include Baracoa which was the first Spanish settlement on Cuba, Trinidad, a UNESCO world heritage site, and Bayamo.
Administrative subdivisions[edit]
Main article: Provinces of Cuba
Level-3 administrative divisions in Cuba.
Cuba is divided into 15 Provinces and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud). The provinces are further subdivided into level 3 subdivisions, called municipalities (Spanish: Municipios), of which there are 168 following the 2010 administrative redistribution.[9]
See also: Municipalities of Cuba and List of places in Cuba
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Stoner, K. Lynn. "Cuba" Encarta Online Encyclopedia. 2005. Archived 2009-11-01 at WebCite 2009-10-31.
Jump up ^ Mapping Interactivo (March 2005). "Mangroves variability in the Sabana-Camaguay Archipellago". Retrieved 2007-10-16.
Jump up ^ Varadero – YouTube
Jump up ^ http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/1997/9509097.pdf The Mineral Resources of Cuba 1997
Jump up ^ Cuban Oil, Gas Output Grow – Prensa Latina – Cuba Business News – Havana Journal
Jump up ^ theTrumpet.com
Jump up ^ Smith, Wayne S (2006-11-01). "After 46 years of failure, we must change course on Cuba". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2010-05-03.
Jump up ^ Cuba Climate data
Jump up ^ Fifth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, Vol. II, published by the United Nations, New York, 1991
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Geography of Cuba.
Map of the Complete Island of Cuba from 1639
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Argument
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the subject as it is studied in logic and philosophy. For other uses, see Argument (disambiguation).
In logic and philosophy, an argument is a series of statements typically used to persuade someone of something or to present reasons for accepting a conclusion.[1][2] The general form of an argument in a natural language is that of premises (typically in the form of propositions, statements or sentences) in support of a claim: the conclusion.[3][4][5] The structure of some arguments can also be set out in a formal language, and formally defined "arguments" can be made independently of natural language arguments, as in math, logic, and computer science.
In a typical deductive argument, the premises guarantee the truth of the conclusion, while in an inductive argument, they are thought to provide reasons supporting the conclusion's probable truth.[6] The standards for evaluating non-deductive arguments may rest on different or additional criteria than truth, for example, the persuasiveness of so-called "indispensability claims" in transcendental arguments,[7] the quality of hypotheses in retroduction, or even the disclosure of new possibilities for thinking and acting.[8]
The standards and criteria used in evaluating arguments and their forms of reasoning are studied in logic.[9] Ways of formulating arguments effectively are studied in rhetoric (see also: argumentation theory). An argument in a formal language shows the logical form of the symbolically represented or natural language arguments obtained by its interpretations.
Contents
[hide]
1 Formal and informal
2 Standard types
2.1 Deductive arguments
2.2 Inductive arguments
3 Deductive
3.1 Validity
3.2 Soundness
4 Inductive
5 Defeasible arguments and argumentation schemes
6 By analogy
7 Other kinds
7.1 In informal logic
7.1.1 Logical status
7.2 World-disclosing
8 Explanations
9 Fallacies and nonarguments
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
Formal and informal
Further information: Informal logic and Formal logic
Informal arguments as studied in informal logic, are presented in ordinary language and are intended for everyday discourse. Conversely, formal arguments are studied in formal logic (historically called symbolic logic, more commonly referred to as mathematical logic today) and are expressed in a formal language. Informal logic may be said to emphasize the study of argumentation, whereas formal logic emphasizes implication and inference. Informal arguments are sometimes implicit. That is, the rational structure – the relationship of claims, premises, warrants, relations of implication, and conclusion – is not always spelled out and immediately visible and must sometimes be made explicit by analysis.
Standard types
Argument terminology
There are several kinds of arguments in logic, the best-known of which are "deductive" and "inductive." An argument has one or more premises but only one conclusion. Each premise and the conclusion are truth bearers or "truth-candidates", each capable of being either true or false (but not both). These truth values bear on the terminology used with arguments.
Deductive arguments
A deductive argument asserts that the truth of the conclusion is a logical consequence of the premises. Based on the premises, the conclusion follows necessarily (with certainty). For example, given premises that A=B and B=C, then the conclusion follows necessarily that A=C. Deductive arguments are sometimes referred to as "truth-preserving" arguments.
A deductive argument is said to be valid or invalid. If one assumes the premises to be true (ignoring their actual truth values), would the conclusion follow with certainty? If yes, the argument is valid. Otherwise, it is invalid. In determining validity, the structure of the argument is essential to the determination, not the actual truth values. For example, consider the argument that because bats can fly (premise=true), and all flying creatures are birds (premise=false), therefore bats are birds (conclusion=false). If we assume the premises are true, the conclusion follows necessarily, and thus it is a valid argument.
If a deductive argument is valid and its premises are all true, then it is also referred to as sound. Otherwise, it is unsound, as in the "bats are birds" example.
Inductive arguments
An inductive argument, on the other hand, asserts that the truth of the conclusion is supported to some degree of probability by the premises. For example, given that the U.S. military budget is the largest in the world (premise=true), then it is probable that it will remain so for the next 10 years (conclusion=true). Arguments that involve predictions are inductive, as the future is uncertain.
An inductive argument is said to be strong or weak. If the premises of an inductive argument are assumed true, is it probable the conclusion is also true? If so, the argument is strong. Otherwise, it is weak.
A strong argument is said to be cogent if it has all true premises. Otherwise, the argument is uncogent. The military budget argument example above is a strong, cogent argument.
Deductive
Main article: Deductive argument
A deductive argument is one that, if valid, has a conclusion that is entailed by its premises. In other words, the truth of the conclusion is a logical consequence of the premises—if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. It would be self-contradictory to assert the premises and deny the conclusion, because the negation of the conclusion is contradictory to the truth of the premises.
Validity
Main article: Validity
Deductive arguments may be either valid or invalid. If an argument is valid, it is a valid deduction, and if its premises are true, the conclusion must be true: a valid argument cannot have true premises and a false conclusion.
An argument is formally valid if and only if the denial of the conclusion is incompatible with accepting all the premises.
The validity of an argument depends, however, not on the actual truth or falsity of its premises and conclusion, but solely on whether or not the argument has a valid logical form. The validity of an argument is not a guarantee of the truth of its conclusion. Under a given interpretation, a valid argument may have false premises that render it inconclusive: the conclusion of a valid argument with one or more false premises may be either true or false.
Logic seeks to discover the valid forms, the forms that make arguments valid. A form of argument is valid if and only if the conclusion is true under all interpretations of that argument in which the premises are true. Since the validity of an argument depends solely on its form, an argument can be shown to be invalid by showing that its form is invalid. This can be done by giving a counter example of the same form of argument with premises that are true under a given interpretation, but a conclusion that is false under that interpretation. In informal logic this is called a counter argument.
The form of argument can be shown by the use of symbols. For each argument form, there is a corresponding statement form, called a corresponding conditional, and an argument form is valid if and only if its corresponding conditional is a logical truth. A statement form which is logically true is also said to be a valid statement form. A statement form is a logical truth if it is true under all interpretations. A statement form can be shown to be a logical truth by either (a) showing that it is a tautology or (b) by means of a proof procedure.
The corresponding conditional of a valid argument is a necessary truth (true in all possible worlds) and so the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises, or follows of logical necessity. The conclusion of a valid argument is not necessarily true, it depends on whether the premises are true. If the conclusion, itself, just so happens to be a necessary truth, it is so without regard to the premises.
Some examples:
All Greeks are human and all humans are mortal; therefore, all Greeks are mortal. : Valid argument; if the premises are true the conclusion must be true.
Some Greeks are logicians and some logicians are tiresome; therefore, some Greeks are tiresome. Invalid argument: the tiresome logicians might all be Romans (for example).
Either we are all doomed or we are all saved; we are not all saved; therefore, we are all doomed. Valid argument; the premises entail the conclusion. (Remember that this does not mean the conclusion has to be true; it is only true if the premises are true, which they may not be!)
Some men are hawkers. Some hawkers are rich. Therefore, some men are rich. Invalid argument. This can be easier seen by giving a counter-example with the same argument form:
Some people are herbivores. Some herbivores are zebras. Therefore, some people are zebras. Invalid argument, as it is possible that the premises be true and the conclusion false.
In the above second to last case (Some men are hawkers...), the counter-example follows the same logical form as the previous argument, (Premise 1: "Some X are Y." Premise 2: "Some Y are Z." Conclusion: "Some X are Z.") in order to demonstrate that whatever hawkers may be, they may or may not be rich, in consideration of the premises as such. (See also, existential import).
The forms of argument that render deductions valid are well-established, however some invalid arguments can also be persuasive depending on their construction (inductive arguments, for example). (See also, formal fallacy and informal fallacy).
Soundness
Main article: Soundness
A sound argument is a valid argument whose conclusion follows from its premise(s), and the premise(s) of which is/are true.
Inductive
Main article: Inductive argument
Non-deductive logic is reasoning using arguments in which the premises support the conclusion but do not entail it. Forms of non-deductive logic include the statistical syllogism, which argues from generalizations true for the most part, and induction, a form of reasoning that makes generalizations based on individual instances. An inductive argument is said to be cogent if and only if the truth of the argument's premises would render the truth of the conclusion probable (i.e., the argument is strong), and the argument's premises are, in fact, true. Cogency can be considered inductive logic's analogue to deductive logic's "soundness." Despite its name, mathematical induction is not a form of inductive reasoning. The lack of deductive validity is known as the problem of induction.
Defeasible arguments and argumentation schemes
In modern argumentation theories, arguments are regarded as defeasible passages from premises to a conclusion. Defeasibility means that when additional information (new evidence or contrary arguments) is provided, the premises may be no longer lead to the conclusion (non-monotonic reasoning). This type of reasoning is referred to as defeasible reasoning. For instance we consider the famous Tweedy example:
Tweedy is a bird.
Birds generally fly.
Therefore, Tweedy (probably) flies.
This argument is reasonable and the premises support the conclusion unless additional information indicating that the case is an exception comes in. If Tweedy is a penguin, the inference is no longer justified by the premise. Defeasible arguments are based on generalizations that hold only in the majority of cases, but are subject to exceptions and defaults. In order to represent and assess defeasible reasoning, it is necessary to combine the logical rules (governing the acceptance of a conclusion based on the acceptance of its premises) with rules of material inference, governing how a premise can support a given conclusion (whether it is reasonable or not to draw a specific conclusion from a specific description of a state of affairs). Argumentation schemes have been developed to describe and assess the acceptability or the fallaciousness of defeasible arguments. Argumentation schemes are stereotypical patterns of inference, combining semantic-ontological relations with types of reasoning and logical axioms and representing the abstract structure of the most common types of natural arguments.[10] The argumentation schemes provided in (Walton, Reed & Macagno, 2008) describe tentatively the patterns of the most typical arguments. However, the two levels of abstraction are not distinguished. For this reason, under the label of “argumentation schemes” fall indistinctly patterns of reasoning such as the abductive, analogical, or inductive ones, and types of argument such as the ones from classification or cause to effect. A typical example is the argument from expert opinion, which has two premises and a conclusion.[11]
Major Premise: Source E is an expert in subject domain S containing proposition A.
Minor Premise: E asserts that proposition A is true (false).
Conclusion: A is true (false).
Each scheme is associated to a set of critical questions, namely criteria for assessing dialectically the reasonableness and acceptability of an argument. The matching critical questions are the standard ways of casting the argument into doubt.
CQ1: Expertise Question. How credible is E as an expert source?
CQ2: Field Question. Is E an expert in the field that A is in?
CQ3: Opinion Question. What did E assert that implies A?
CQ4: Trustworthiness Question. Is E personally reliable as a source?
CQ5: Consistency Question. Is A consistent with what other experts assert?
CQ6: Backup Evidence Question. Is E's assertion based on evidence?
If an expert says that a proposition is true, this provides a reason for tentatively accepting it, in the absence of stronger reasons to doubt it. But suppose that evidence of financial gain suggests that the expert is biased, for example by evidence showing that he will gain financially from his claim.
By analogy
Argument by analogy may be thought of as argument from the particular to particular. An argument by analogy may use a particular truth in a premise to argue towards a similar particular truth in the conclusion. For example, if A. Plato was mortal, and B. Socrates was like Plato in other respects, then asserting that C. Socrates was mortal is an example of argument by analogy because the reasoning employed in it proceeds from a particular truth in a premise (Plato was mortal) to a similar particular truth in the conclusion, namely that Socrates was mortal.[12]
Other kinds
Other kinds of arguments may have different or additional standards of validity or justification. For example, Charles Taylor writes that so-called transcendental arguments are made up of a "chain of indispensability claims" that attempt to show why something is necessarily true based on its connection to our experience,[13] while Nikolas Kompridis has suggested that there are two types of "fallible" arguments: one based on truth claims, and the other based on the time-responsive disclosure of possibility (see world disclosure).[14] The late French philosopher Michel Foucault is said to have been a prominent advocate of this latter form of philosophical argument.[15]
In informal logic
Argument is an informal calculus, relating an effort to be performed or sum to be spent, to possible future gain, either economic or moral. In informal logic, an argument is a connection between
an individual action
through which a generally accepted good is obtained.
Ex :
You should marry Jane (individual action, individual decision)
because she has the same temper as you. (generally accepted wisdom that marriage is good in itself, and it is generally accepted that people with the same character get along well).
You should not smoke (individual action, individual decision)
because smoking is harmful (generally accepted wisdom that health is good).
The argument is neither a) advice nor b) moral or economical judgement, but the connection between the two. An argument always uses the connective because. An argument is not an explanation. It does not connect two events, cause and effect, which already took place, but a possible individual action and its beneficial outcome. An argument is not a proof. A proof is a logical and cognitive concept; an argument is a praxeologic concept. A proof changes our knowledge; an argument compels us to act.[citation needed]
Logical status
Argument does not belong to logic, because it is connected to a real person, a real event, and a real effort to be made.
If you, John, will buy this stock, it will become twice as valuable in a year.
If you, Mary, study dance, you will become a famous ballet dancer.
The value of the argument is connected to the immediate circumstances of the person spoken to. If, in the first case,(1) John has no money, or knows he has only one year to live, he will not be interested in buying the stock. If, in the second case (2) she is too heavy, or too old, she will not be interested in studying and becoming a dancer. The argument is not logical, but profitable.
World-disclosing
Main article: World disclosure
World-disclosing arguments are a group of philosophical arguments that are said to employ a disclosive approach, to reveal features of a wider ontological or cultural-linguistic understanding – a "world," in a specifically ontological sense – in order to clarify or transform the background of meaning and "logical space" on which an argument implicitly depends.[16]
Explanations
Main article: Explanation
While arguments attempt to show that something was, is, will be, or should be the case, explanations try to show why or how something is or will be. If Fred and Joe address the issue of whether or not Fred's cat has fleas, Joe may state: "Fred, your cat has fleas. Observe, the cat is scratching right now." Joe has made an argument that the cat has fleas. However, if Joe asks Fred, "Why is your cat scratching itself?" the explanation, "...because it has fleas." provides understanding.
Both the above argument and explanation require knowing the generalities that a) fleas often cause itching, and b) that one often scratches to relieve itching. The difference is in the intent: an argument attempts to settle whether or not some claim is true, and an explanation attempts to provide understanding of the event. Note, that by subsuming the specific event (of Fred's cat scratching) as an instance of the general rule that "animals scratch themselves when they have fleas", Joe will no longer wonder why Fred's cat is scratching itself. Arguments address problems of belief, explanations address problems of understanding. Also note that in the argument above, the statement, "Fred's cat has fleas" is up for debate (i.e. is a claim), but in the explanation, the statement, "Fred's cat has fleas" is assumed to be true (unquestioned at this time) and just needs explaining.[17]
Arguments and explanations largely resemble each other in rhetorical use. This is the cause of much difficulty in thinking critically about claims. There are several reasons for this difficulty.
People often are not themselves clear on whether they are arguing for or explaining something.
The same types of words and phrases are used in presenting explanations and arguments.
The terms 'explain' or 'explanation,' et cetera are frequently used in arguments.
Explanations are often used within arguments and presented so as to serve as arguments.[18]
Likewise, "...arguments are essential to the process of justifying the validity of any explanation as there are often multiple explanations for any given phenomenon."[17]
Explanations and arguments are often studied in the field of Information Systems to help explain user acceptance of knowledge-based systems. Certain argument types may fit better with personality traits to enhance acceptance by individuals.[19]
Fallacies and nonarguments
Main article: Formal fallacy
Fallacies are types of argument or expressions which are held to be of an invalid form or contain errors in reasoning. There is not as yet any general theory of fallacy or strong agreement among researchers of their definition or potential for application but the term is broadly applicable as a label to certain examples of error, and also variously applied to ambiguous candidates.[20]
In Logic types of fallacy are firmly described thus: First the premises and the conclusion must be statements, capable of being true or false. Secondly it must be asserted that the conclusion follows from the premises. In English the words therefore, so, because and hence typically separate the premises from the conclusion of an argument, but this is not necessarily so. Thus: Socrates is a man, all men are mortal therefore Socrates is mortal is clearly an argument (a valid one at that), because it is clear it is asserted that Socrates is mortal follows from the preceding statements. However I was thirsty and therefore I drank is NOT an argument, despite its appearance. It is not being claimed that I drank is logically entailed by I was thirsty. The therefore in this sentence indicates for that reason not it follows that.
Elliptical arguments
Often an argument is invalid because there is a missing premise—the supply of which would render it valid. Speakers and writers will often leave out a strictly necessary premise in their reasonings if it is widely accepted and the writer does not wish to state the blindingly obvious. Example: All metals expand when heated, therefore iron will expand when heated. (Missing premise: iron is a metal). On the other hand, a seemingly valid argument may be found to lack a premise – a 'hidden assumption' – which if highlighted can show a fault in reasoning. Example: A witness reasoned: Nobody came out the front door except the milkman; therefore the murderer must have left by the back door. (Hidden assumptions- the milkman was not the murderer, and the murderer has left by the front or back door).
See also
Logic portal
Thinking portal
Abductive reasoning
Argument map
Argumentation theory
Argumentative dialogue
Belief bias
Boolean logic
Deductive reasoning
Defeasible reasoning
Evidence
Evidence-based policy
Fallacy
Dialectic
Formal fallacy
Inductive reasoning
Informal fallacy
Inquiry
Practical arguments
Soundness theorem
Soundness
Truth
Validity
Notes
Jump up ^ "Argument", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy." "In everyday life, we often use the word "argument" to mean a verbal dispute or disagreement. This is not the way this word is usually used in philosophy. However, the two uses are related. Normally, when two people verbally disagree with each other, each person attempts to convince the other that his/her viewpoint is the right one. Unless he or she merely results to name calling or threats, he or she typically presents an argument for his or her position, in the sense described above. In philosophy, "arguments" are those statements a person makes in the attempt to convince someone of something, or present reasons for accepting a given conclusion."
Jump up ^ Ralph H. Johnson, Manifest Rationality: A pragmatic theory of argument (New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum, 2000), 46-49.
Jump up ^ Ralph H. Johnson, Manifest Rationality: A pragmatic theory of argument (New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum, 2000), 46.
Jump up ^ The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, 2nd Ed. CUM, 1995 "Argument: a sequence of statements such that some of them (the premises) purport to give reason to accept another of them, the conclusion"
Jump up ^ Stanford Enc. Phil., Classical Logic
Jump up ^ "Deductive and Inductive Arguments," Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Jump up ^ hCharles Taylor, "The Validity of Transcendental Arguments", Philosophical Arguments (Harvard, 1995), 20-33. "[Transcendental] arguments consist of a string of what one could call indispensability claims. They move from their starting points to their conclusions by showing that the condition stated in the conclusion is indispensable to the feature identified at the start… Thus we could spell out Kant's transcendental deduction in the first edition in three stages: experience must have an object, that is, be of something; for this it must be coherent; and to be coherent it must be shaped by the understanding through the categories."
Jump up ^ Kompridis, Nikolas (2006). "World Disclosing Arguments?". Critique and Disclosure. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 116–124. ISBN 0262277425.
Jump up ^ "Argument", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy."
Jump up ^ Macagno, Fabrizio; Walton, Douglas (2015). "Classifying the patterns of natural arguments". Philosophy & Rhetoric . 48 (1): 26–53.
Jump up ^ Walton, Douglas; Reed, Chris; Macagno, Fabrizio (2008). Argumentation Schemes. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 310.
Jump up ^ Shaw 1922: p. 74.
Jump up ^ Charles Taylor, "The Validity of Transcendental Arguments", Philosophical Arguments (Harvard, 1995), 20-33.
Jump up ^ Nikolas Kompridis, "Two Kinds of Fallibilism", Critique and Disclosure (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006), 180-183.
Jump up ^ In addition, Foucault said of his own approach that "My role ... is to show people that they are much freer than they feel, that people accept as truth, as evidence, some themes which have been built up at a certain moment during history, and that this so-called evidence can be criticized and destroyed." He also wrote that he was engaged in "the process of putting historico-critical reflection to the test of concrete practices… I continue to think that this task requires work on our limits, that is, a patient labor giving form to our impatience for liberty." (emphasis added) Hubert Dreyfus, "Being and Power: Heidegger and Foucault" and Michel Foucault, "What is Enlightenment?"
Jump up ^ Nikolas Kompridis, "World Disclosing Arguments?" in Critique and Disclosure, Cambridge:MIT Press (2006), 118-121.
^ Jump up to: a b JONATHAN F. OSBORNE, ALEXIS PATTERSON School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA Received 27 August 2010; revised 22 November 2010; accepted 29 November 2010 DOI 10.1002/sce.20438 Published online 23 May 2011 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com)
Jump up ^ Critical Thinking, Parker and Moore
Jump up ^ Justin Scott Giboney, Susan Brown, and Jay F. Nunamaker Jr. (2012). "User Acceptance of Knowledge-Based System Recommendations: Explanations, Arguments, and Fit" 45th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Hawaii, January 5–8.
Jump up ^ [1]
References
Shaw, Warren Choate (1922). The Art of Debate. Allyn and Bacon. p. 74.
Robert Audi, Epistemology, Routledge, 1998. Particularly relevant is Chapter 6, which explores the relationship between knowledge, inference and argument.
J. L. Austin How to Do Things With Words, Oxford University Press, 1976.
H. P. Grice, Logic and Conversation in The Logic of Grammar, Dickenson, 1975.
Vincent F. Hendricks, Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in Reflection and Expression, New York: Automatic Press / VIP, 2005, ISBN 87-991013-7-8
R. A. DeMillo, R. J. Lipton and A. J. Perlis, Social Processes and Proofs of Theorems and Programs, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 22, No. 5, 1979. A classic article on the social process of acceptance of proofs in mathematics.
Yu. Manin, A Course in Mathematical Logic, Springer Verlag, 1977. A mathematical view of logic. This book is different from most books on mathematical logic in that it emphasizes the mathematics of logic, as opposed to the formal structure of logic.
Ch. Perelman and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca, The New Rhetoric, Notre Dame, 1970. This classic was originally published in French in 1958.
Henri Poincaré, Science and Hypothesis, Dover Publications, 1952
Frans van Eemeren and Rob Grootendorst, Speech Acts in Argumentative Discussions, Foris Publications, 1984.
K. R. Popper Objective Knowledge; An Evolutionary Approach, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.
L. S. Stebbing, A Modern Introduction to Logic, Methuen and Co., 1948. An account of logic that covers the classic topics of logic and argument while carefully considering modern developments in logic.
Douglas Walton, Informal Logic: A Handbook for Critical Argumentation, Cambridge, 1998.
Walton, Douglas; Christopher Reed; Fabrizio Macagno, Argumentation Schemes, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Carlos Chesñevar, Ana Maguitman and Ronald Loui, Logical Models of Argument, ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 32, num. 4, pp. 337–383, 2000.
T. Edward Damer. Attacking Faulty Reasoning, 5th Edition, Wadsworth, 2005. ISBN 0-534-60516-8
Charles Arthur Willard, A Theory of Argumentation. 1989.
Charles Arthur Willard, Argumentation and the Social Grounds of Knowledge. 1982.
Further reading
Salmon, Wesley C. Logic. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall (1963). Library of Congress Catalog Card no. 63-10528.
Aristotle, Prior and Posterior Analytics. Ed. and trans. John Warrington. London: Dent (1964)
Mates, Benson. Elementary Logic. New York: OUP (1972). Library of Congress Catalog Card no. 74-166004.
Mendelson, Elliot. Introduction to Mathematical Logic. New York: Van Nostran Reinholds Company (1964).
Frege, Gottlob. The Foundations of Arithmetic. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press (1980).
Martin, Brian. The Controversy Manual (Sparsnäs, Sweden: Irene Publishing, 2014).
External links
Argument at PhilPapers
Argument at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
"Argument". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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Jaimie Alexander
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Jaimie Alexander
Alexander at the London premiere of The Last Stand in January 2013.
Born
Jaimie Lauren Tarbush
(1984-03-12) March 12, 1984 (age 33)
Greenville, South Carolina, U.S.
Residence
New York City
Occupation
Actress
Years active
2001–present
Signature
Jaimie Alexander (born Jaimie Lauren Tarbush; March 12, 1984)[1] is an American actress best known for portraying Jessi on the TV series Kyle XY and Sif in the 2011 superhero film Thor, its 2013 sequel, and Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Since 2015 she stars in the NBC series Blindspot.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
2.1 Other projects
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
4.1 Film
4.2 Television
4.3 Video game
5 Awards and nominations
6 References
7 External links
Early life[edit]
Alexander was born in Greenville, South Carolina, and moved to Grapevine, Texas when she was four years old. She is the only girl in a family of five children.[2] Alexander first got into acting in grade school, where she took theater for fun. Alexander stated that she was actually kicked out of theater when she was in high school because she could not sing, so she instead went into sports.[3] When she was 17, she substituted for a friend at a meeting with a scouting agency and she met her manager, Randy James, who sent her some scripts. After her graduation from Colleyville Heritage High School, a year and a half later, she moved to Los Angeles to pursue acting.[4]
Career[edit]
Her career was launched in 2003, when she was cast in the leading role of Hanna Thompson in the low budget award-winning film The Other Side. According to the movie's commentary, she was originally at the audition to help out by reading against the male actors, but the director Gregg Bishop decided to cast her in the leading role after hearing her perform the lines.[5] Alexander’s second role was in the movie Squirrel Trap where she played Sara, the love interest of the main character, David, who is a socially introverted genius portrayed by Keith Staley. This was soon followed by a guest appearance in It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, where she portrayed a femme fatale in the role of 'Tammy', who through a combination of seduction and threats manipulates one of the main characters. She also has a small part in an episode of Standoff.
From there she proceeded to more significant roles. She appeared in the series Watch Over Me where she portrayed the controversial character of 'Caitlin Porter'. In 2006, she had her first lead role in the horror film Rest Stop where she portrayed 'Nicole Carrow', a girl who escapes from home and goes on a trip with her boyfriend, which is unexpectedly interrupted at a rest stop by a deranged serial killer. In 2007, she had her second lead role, also in a horror film. In Hallowed Ground she played 'Elizabeth Chambers', a girl stranded in a small town inhabited by a sect that plans to use her as a vessel for the rebirth of their founder. In both movies, her character is a strong character who fights back against her aggressors.
Alexander at the 2008 San Diego Comic Con
Her most famous role so far was that of 'Jessi' on the ABC Family television show Kyle XY. She portrays a troubled, show off girl with superhuman powers who is trying to find her way in the world, with increasing cooperation and eventual romance with her male counterpart Kyle. Her role generated a large fan base hoping to see a spin-off show for her character. She also has had guest roles on the show CSI: Miami where she played 'Jenna York', a flight attendant involved in a murder case; and in Bones where she played 'Molly Briggs', a student connected to the victim of the episode.
In September 2009, it was reported that Alexander would portray Sif in the live-action superhero film, Thor, directed by Kenneth Branagh and released in May 2011.[6] She reprised the role in the sequel Thor: The Dark World, released in November 2013. She reprised the role twice in special crossover guest appearances on the TV series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. on March 11, 2014 and again on March 10, 2015.
In July 2010, it was reported that Alexander had been cast in the independent comedy-drama film, Loosies co-starring Peter Facinelli and directed by Michael Corrente.[7] In October 2010 it was reported that Alexander joined the cast of Nurse Jackie in a sizeable story arc as Jackie’s (Edie Falco) wild, immature sister-in-law, Tunie Peyton.[8] In 2011, she joined the cast of Covert Affairs for three episodes of the second season.[9]
Alexander appeared in the 2013 film Savannah directed by Annette Haywood-Carter, about Ward Allen (Jim Caviezel), a real-life early 1900s aristocrat who starts an unexpected partnership with Christmas Moultrie (Chiwetel Ejiofor), a freed slave.[10] Also in 2013, she portrayed deputy sheriff Sarah Torrance in The Last Stand, alongside Arnold Schwarzenegger.[11]
In 2015, Alexander began starring as 'Jane Doe' in the NBC series Blindspot.[12]
Other projects[edit]
Alexander has done a photo shoot with her co-star Matt Dallas from Kyle XY for the photographer Tyler Shields.
She also appeared in a Matthew Perryman Jones music video of the song "Save You" released in September 2009.[13]
In 2010, Alexander appeared in a web series for MSN entitled Ultradome produced by Milo Ventimiglia. In the series Alexander portrayed Han Solo in battle against Indiana Jones for the title of best Harrison Ford character.[14]
In 2011, Alexander reunited with writer/director Gregg Bishop for The Birds of Anger for NBCUniversal G4Films. The film was based on the best-selling mobile game, Rovio's Angry Birds, told in the style of the 1963 film The Birds by Alfred Hitchcock.[15]
Personal life[edit]
Alexander began dating actor Peter Facinelli in 2012 after they met on the set of Loosies.[16][17] They became engaged in March 2015.[18] In February 2016, Alexander and Facinelli announced they had called off their engagement.[19]
Filmography[edit]
Alexander at the Hollywood premiere of Thor in May 2011
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2004 Squirrel Trap Sara
2006 Rest Stop Nicole Carrow
2006 The Other Side Hanna Thompson
2007 Hallowed Ground Liz Chambers
2010 Love & Other Drugs Carol Uncredited[20]
2011 Thor Sif
2012 Loosies Lucy Atwood
2013 Savannah Lucy Stubbs
2013 The Last Stand Sarah Torrance
2013 Collision Taylor Dolan
2013 Thor: The Dark World Sif
2016 Broken Vows Tara Bloom
2017 London Fields Hope Clinch Completed
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2005 It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia Tammy Episode: "Underage Drinking: A National Concern"
2006 Standoff Barrista Episode: "Pilot"
2006–07 Watch Over Me Caitlin Porter Main role, 58 episodes
2007–09 Kyle XY Jessi Hollander Main role (seasons 2–3), 33 episodes
2009 Bones Molly Briggs Episode: "The Beaver in the Otter"
2009 CSI: Miami Jenna York Episode: "Flight Risk"
2011 Nurse Jackie Tunie Peyton 3 episodes
2011 Covert Affairs Reva Kline 2 episodes
2011 The Birds of Anger Annie Short
2012 Perception Nikki Atkins Episode: "Messenger"
2014 Under the Gunn Herself, Judge Episode: "Superhero Fashion"
2014–15 Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Sif 2 episodes
2015–present Blindspot Jane Doe Lead role
2015 The Brink Lt. Gail Sweet Recurring role
Video game[edit]
Year
Title
Voice role
2011 Thor: God of Thunder Sif[21]
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Work
Result
2008 Saturn Awards Best Supporting Actress on Television[22] Kyle XY Nominated
2011 Scream Awards Best Supporting Actress[23] Thor Nominated
2011 Breakout Performance – Female[23] Nominated
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rose, Lacey; O'Connell, Michael; Sandberg, Bryn Elise; Stanhope, Kate; Goldberg, Lesley (August 28, 2015). "Next Gen Fall TV: 10 Stars Poised for Breakouts". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved December 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Pejkovic, Matthew. "Interview with Thor actors Jaimie Alexander and Tom Hiddleston". Trespass Magazine. Retrieved August 16, 2011.
Jump up ^ VanAirsdale, S.T. (May 23, 2011). "Jaimie Alexander on Her Thor Breakthrough and Visions of Lara Croft". Movieline. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Jaimie Alexander Fan » Jaimie". jaimie-alexander.com. Retrieved March 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Thor Poster, Jaimie Alexander as Sif". Retrieved November 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ George 'El Guapo' Roush (September 22, 2009). "Thor, Iron Man And The Fighter Are Facebook Friends With David Fincher". Latino Review. Retrieved September 23, 2009.
Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (July 12, 2010). "'Loosies' film tight with thesp trio". Variety. Retrieved November 29, 2010.
Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael (October 8, 2010). "'Nurse Jackie' Scoop: 'Kyle XY' beauty Jaimie Alexander cast as [spoiler alert]!". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved November 29, 2010.
Jump up ^ Ng, Philiana (June 6, 2011). "Jaimie Alexander will appear in at least three episodes in the new season with Stormare in one". Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved June 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ Dimako, Peter (February 1, 2011). "Jim Caviezel and Chiwetel Ejiofor to star in 'SAVANNAH' historical drama". Movie Jungle. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Thor's Jaimie Alexander joins Schwarzenegger's Last Stand". October 6, 2011. Retrieved October 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ Alston, Joshua (October 6, 2015). "Blindspot turns around a disastrous episode with a twisty final act". The A.V. Club. Retrieved October 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PnGNWFV6Rak Save You Matthew Perryman Jones OFFICIAL MUSIC VIDEO (HD)
Jump up ^ "Welcome to Milo Ventimiglia's Ultradome!". ComicAttack. Retrieved March 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Mixing video games and horror for short movie magic". USA Today. October 12, 2011.
Jump up ^ Michelle Ward (30 November 2012). "Peter Facinelli Finds Love with Costar Jaimie Alexander". People. Retrieved 23 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Cynthia Littleton (25 August 2014). "Inside the Emmy Parties: MPTF's Evening Before, Showtime, NBC, ICM Partners Cap Emmy Eve". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 23 September 2014. Jaimie Alexander has reunited with her "Kyle XY" producer Julie Plec, and the two are animatedly chatting along with Alexander's beau Peter Facinelli
Jump up ^ Andriakos, Jacqueline (March 18, 2015). "Peter Facinelli Is Engaged to Jaimie Alexander". People. Retrieved March 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-3466110/Blindspot-s-Jaimie-Alexander-makes-public-appearance-calling-engagement-Twilight-star-Peter-Facinelli.html
Jump up ^ Martin, Michael (January 3, 2010). "Jaimie Alexander". Interview Magazine.
Jump up ^ "Q&A - Thor's Jaimie Alexander on Marvel Spoilers, Her Geeky Roots, and Wonder Woman's Breasts". FilmCritic.com. May 4, 2011. Retrieved May 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Kyle XY Nominated for Several Saturn Awards". March 10, 2008. Retrieved October 9, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "'Scream Awards 2011' Nominations". Retrieved October 9, 2011.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jaimie Alexander.
Jaimie Alexander on IMDb
Jaimie Alexander on Twitter
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 208733833
LCCN: no2011178826
ISNI: 0000 0001 3959 3139
GND: 1074897633
BNF: cb16696475b (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jaimie_Alexander&oldid=807269518"
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values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: جيمي ألكسندر – Arabic

values: جیمی الکساندر – Persian

values: 제이미 알렉산더 – Korean

values: Ջեյմի Ալեքսանդր – Armenian

values: ג'יימי אלכסנדר – Hebrew

values: ジェイミー・アレクサンダー – Japanese

values: Александр, Джейми – Russian

values: جەیمی ئەلێکساندەر – Central Kurdish

values: Џејми Александер – Serbian

values: Джеймі Александер – Ukrainian

values: جیمی الیگزینڈر – Urdu

values: 杰米·亚历山大 – Chinese

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values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Jaimie_Alexander rootpage-Jaimie_Alexander vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view