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Electrical resistance and conductance
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The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a measure of the difficulty to pass an electric current through that conductor. The inverse quantity is electrical conductance, and is the ease with which an electric current passes. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of mechanical friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S).
An object of uniform cross section has a resistance proportional to its resistivity and length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. All materials show some resistance, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero.
The resistance (R) of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it (V) to current through it (I), while the conductance (G) is the inverse:
R = V I , G = I V = 1 R {\displaystyle R={V \over I},\qquad G={I \over V}={\frac {1}{R}}}
For a wide variety of materials and conditions, V and I are directly proportional to each other, and therefore R and G are constant (although they can depend on other factors like temperature or strain). This proportionality is called Ohm's law, and materials that satisfy it are called ohmic materials.
In other cases, such as a transformer, diode or battery, V and I are not directly proportional. The ratio V/I is sometimes still useful, and is referred to as a "chordal resistance" or "static resistance",[1][2] since it corresponds to the inverse slope of a chord between the origin and an I–V curve. In other situations, the derivative d V d I {\displaystyle {\frac {dV}{dI}}\,\!} may be most useful; this is called the "differential resistance".
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
2 Conductors and resistors
3 Ohm's law
4 Relation to resistivity and conductivity
4.1 What determines resistivity?
5 Measuring resistance
6 Typical resistances
7 Static and differential resistance
8 AC circuits
8.1 Impedance and admittance
8.2 Frequency dependence of resistance
9 Energy dissipation and Joule heating
10 Dependence of resistance on other conditions
10.1 Temperature dependence
10.2 Strain dependence
10.3 Light illumination dependence
11 Superconductivity
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
Introduction[edit]
The hydraulic analogy compares electric current flowing through circuits to water flowing through pipes. When a pipe (left) is filled with hair (right), it takes a larger pressure to achieve the same flow of water. Pushing electric current through a large resistance is like pushing water through a pipe clogged with hair: It requires a larger push (electromotive force) to drive the same flow (electric current).
In the hydraulic analogy, current flowing through a wire (or resistor) is like water flowing through a pipe, and the voltage drop across the wire is like the pressure drop that pushes water through the pipe. Conductance is proportional to how much flow occurs for a given pressure, and resistance is proportional to how much pressure is required to achieve a given flow. (Conductance and resistance are reciprocals.)
The voltage drop (i.e., difference between voltages on one side of the resistor and the other), not the voltage itself, provides the driving force pushing current through a resistor. In hydraulics, it is similar: The pressure difference between two sides of a pipe, not the pressure itself, determines the flow through it. For example, there may be a large water pressure above the pipe, which tries to push water down through the pipe. But there may be an equally large water pressure below the pipe, which tries to push water back up through the pipe. If these pressures are equal, no water flows. (In the image at right, the water pressure below the pipe is zero.)
The resistance and conductance of a wire, resistor, or other element is mostly determined by two properties:
geometry (shape), and
material
Geometry is important because it is more difficult to push water through a long, narrow pipe than a wide, short pipe. In the same way, a long, thin copper wire has higher resistance (lower conductance) than a short, thick copper wire.
Materials are important as well. A pipe filled with hair restricts the flow of water more than a clean pipe of the same shape and size. Similarly, electrons can flow freely and easily through a copper wire, but cannot flow as easily through a steel wire of the same shape and size, and they essentially cannot flow at all through an insulator like rubber, regardless of its shape. The difference between copper, steel, and rubber is related to their microscopic structure and electron configuration, and is quantified by a property called resistivity.
In addition to geometry and material, there are various other factors that influence resistance and conductance, such as temperature; see below.
Conductors and resistors[edit]
A 6.5 MΩ resistor, as identified by its electronic color code (blue–green–black-yellow-red). An ohmmeter could be used to verify this value.
Substances in which electricity can flow are called conductors. A piece of conducting material of a particular resistance meant for use in a circuit is called a resistor. Conductors are made of high-conductivity materials such as metals, in particular copper and aluminium. Resistors, on the other hand, are made of a wide variety of materials depending on factors such as the desired resistance, amount of energy that it needs to dissipate, precision, and costs.
Ohm's law[edit]
The current-voltage characteristics of four devices: Two resistors, a diode, and a battery. The horizontal axis is voltage drop, the vertical axis is current. Ohm's law is satisfied when the graph is a straight line through the origin. Therefore, the two resistors are ohmic, but the diode and battery are not.
Main article: Ohm's law
For many materials, the current I through the material is proportional to the voltage V applied across it:
I ∝ V {\displaystyle I\propto V}
over a wide range of voltages and currents. Therefore the resistance and conductance of objects or electronic components made of these materials is constant. This relationship is called Ohm's law, and materials which obey it are called ohmic materials. Examples of ohmic components are wires and resistors. The current-voltage (IV) graph of an ohmic device consists of a straight line through the origin with positive slope.
Other components and materials used in electronics do not obey Ohm's law; the current is not proportional to the voltage, so the resistance varies with the voltage and current through them. These are called nonlinear or nonohmic. Examples include diodes and fluorescent lamps. The IV curve of a nonohmic device is a curved line.
Relation to resistivity and conductivity[edit]
A piece of resistive material with electrical contacts on both ends.
Main article: Electrical resistivity and conductivity
The resistance of a given object depends primarily on two factors: What material it is made of, and its shape. For a given material, the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area; for example, a thick copper wire has lower resistance than an otherwise-identical thin copper wire. Also, for a given material, the resistance is proportional to the length; for example, a long copper wire has higher resistance than an otherwise-identical short copper wire. The resistance R and conductance G of a conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, can be computed as
R = ρ ℓ A , G = σ A ℓ . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}R&=\rho {\frac {\ell }{A}},\\G&=\sigma {\frac {A}{\ell }}.\end{aligned}}}
where ℓ {\displaystyle \ell } is the length of the conductor, measured in metres [m], A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor measured in square metres [m²], σ (sigma) is the electrical conductivity measured in siemens per meter (S·m−1), and ρ (rho) is the electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance) of the material, measured in ohm-metres (Ω·m). The resistivity and conductivity are proportionality constants, and therefore depend only on the material the wire is made of, not the geometry of the wire. Resistivity and conductivity are reciprocals: ρ = 1 / σ {\displaystyle \rho =1/\sigma } . Resistivity is a measure of the material's ability to oppose electric current.
This formula is not exact, as it assumes the current density is totally uniform in the conductor, which is not always true in practical situations. However, this formula still provides a good approximation for long thin conductors such as wires.
Another situation for which this formula is not exact is with alternating current (AC), because the skin effect inhibits current flow near the center of the conductor. For this reason, the geometrical cross-section is different from the effective cross-section in which current actually flows, so resistance is higher than expected. Similarly, if two conductors near each other carry AC current, their resistances increase due to the proximity effect. At commercial power frequency, these effects are significant for large conductors carrying large currents, such as busbars in an electrical substation,[3] or large power cables carrying more than a few hundred amperes.
What determines resistivity?[edit]
Main article: Electrical resistivity and conductivity
The resistivity of different materials varies by an enormous amount: For example, the conductivity of teflon is about 1030 times lower than the conductivity of copper. Why is there such a difference? Loosely speaking, a metal has large numbers of "delocalized" electrons that are not stuck in any one place, but free to move across large distances, whereas in an insulator (like teflon), each electron is tightly bound to a single molecule, and a great force is required to pull it away. Semiconductors lie between these two extremes. More details can be found in the article: Electrical resistivity and conductivity. For the case of electrolyte solutions, see the article: Conductivity (electrolytic).
Resistivity varies with temperature. In semiconductors, resistivity also changes when exposed to light. See below.
Measuring resistance[edit]
Main article: ohmmeter
An instrument for measuring resistance is called an ohmmeter. Simple ohmmeters cannot measure low resistances accurately because the resistance of their measuring leads causes a voltage drop that interferes with the measurement, so more accurate devices use four-terminal sensing.
Typical resistances[edit]
See also: Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page) and Electrical resistivity and conductivity
Component
Resistance (Ω)
1 meter of copper wire with 1 mm diameter 0.02[4]
1 km overhead power line (typical) 0.03[5]
AA battery (typical internal resistance) 0.1[6]
Incandescent light bulb filament (typical) 200–1000[7]
Human body 1000 to 100,000[8]
Static and differential resistance[edit]
The IV curve of a non-ohmic device (purple). The static resistance at point A is the inverse slope of line B through the origin. The differential resistance at A is the inverse slope of tangent line C.
The IV curve of a component with negative differential resistance, an unusual phenomenon where the IV curve is non-monotonic.
See also: Small-signal model
Many electrical elements, such as diodes and batteries do not satisfy Ohm's law. These are called non-ohmic or non-linear, and their I–V curves are not straight lines through the origin.
Resistance and conductance can still be defined for non-ohmic elements. However, unlike ohmic resistance, non-linear resistance is not constant but varies with the voltage or current through the device; i.e., its operating point. There are two types of resistance:[1][2]
Static resistance (also called chordal or DC resistance) - This corresponds to the usual definition of resistance; the voltage divided by the current
R s t a t i c = V I {\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {static} }={\frac {V}{I}}\,} .
It is the slope of the line (chord) from the origin through the point on the curve. Static resistance determines the power dissipation in an electrical component. Points on the IV curve located in the 2nd or 4th quadrants, for which the slope of the chordal line is negative, have negative static resistance. Passive devices, which have no source of energy, cannot have negative static resistance. However active devices such as transistors or op-amps can synthesize negative static resistance with feedback, and it is used in some circuits such as gyrators.
Differential resistance (also called dynamic, incremental or small signal resistance) - Differential resistance is the derivative of the voltage with respect to the current; the slope of the IV curve at a point
R d i f f = d V d I {\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {diff} }={\frac {dV}{dI}}\,} .
If the IV curve is nonmonotonic (with peaks and troughs), the curve has a negative slope in some regions—so in these regions the device has negative differential resistance. Devices with negative differential resistance can amplify a signal applied to them, and are used to make amplifiers and oscillators. These include tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes, magnetron tubes, and unijunction transistors.
AC circuits[edit]
Impedance and admittance[edit]
The voltage (red) and current (blue) versus time (horizontal axis) for a capacitor (top) and inductor (bottom). Since the amplitude of the current and voltage sinusoids are the same, the absolute value of impedance is 1 for both the capacitor and the inductor (in whatever units the graph is using). On the other hand, the phase difference between current and voltage is -90° for the capacitor; therefore, the complex phase of the impedance of the capacitor is -90°. Similarly, the phase difference between current and voltage is +90° for the inductor; therefore, the complex phase of the impedance of the inductor is +90°.
Main articles: Electrical impedance and Admittance
When an alternating current flows through a circuit, the relation between current and voltage across a circuit element is characterized not only by the ratio of their magnitudes, but also the difference in their phases. For example, in an ideal resistor, the moment when the voltage reaches its maximum, the current also reaches its maximum (current and voltage are oscillating in phase). But for a capacitor or inductor, the maximum current flow occurs as the voltage passes through zero and vice versa (current and voltage are oscillating 90° out of phase, see image at right). Complex numbers are used to keep track of both the phase and magnitude of current and voltage:
V ( t ) = Re ( V 0 e j ω t ) , I ( t ) = Re ( I 0 e j ω t ) , Z = V 0 I 0 , Y = I 0 V 0 {\displaystyle V(t)={\text{Re}}(V_{0}e^{j\omega t}),\quad I(t)={\text{Re}}(I_{0}e^{j\omega t}),\quad Z={\frac {V_{0}}{I_{0}}},\quad Y={\frac {I_{0}}{V_{0}}}}
where:
t is time,
V(t) and I(t) are, respectively, voltage and current as a function of time,
V0, I0, Z, and Y are complex numbers,
Z is called impedance,
Y is called admittance,
Re indicates real part,
ω {\displaystyle \omega } is the angular frequency of the AC current,
j = − 1 {\displaystyle j={\sqrt {-1}}} is the imaginary unit.
The impedance and admittance may be expressed as complex numbers that can be broken into real and imaginary parts:
Z = R + j X , Y = G + j B {\displaystyle Z=R+jX,\quad Y=G+jB}
where R and G are resistance and conductance respectively, X is reactance, and B is susceptance. For ideal resistors, Z and Y reduce to R and G respectively, but for AC networks containing capacitors and inductors, X and B are nonzero.
Z = 1 / Y {\displaystyle Z=1/Y} for AC circuits, just as R = 1 / G {\displaystyle R=1/G} for DC circuits.
Frequency dependence of resistance[edit]
Another complication of AC circuits is that the resistance and conductance can be frequency-dependent. One reason, mentioned above is the skin effect (and the related proximity effect). Another reason is that the resistivity itself may depend on frequency (see Drude model, deep-level traps, resonant frequency, Kramers–Kronig relations, etc.)
Energy dissipation and Joule heating[edit]
Running current through a material with high resistance creates heat, in a phenomenon called Joule heating. In this picture, a cartridge heater, warmed by Joule heating, is glowing red hot.
Main article: Joule heating
Resistors (and other elements with resistance) oppose the flow of electric current; therefore, electrical energy is required to push current through the resistance. This electrical energy is dissipated, heating the resistor in the process. This is called Joule heating (after James Prescott Joule), also called ohmic heating or resistive heating.
The dissipation of electrical energy is often undesired, particularly in the case of transmission losses in power lines. High voltage transmission helps reduce the losses by reducing the current for a given power.
On the other hand, Joule heating is sometimes useful, for example in electric stoves and other electric heaters (also called resistive heaters). As another example, incandescent lamps rely on Joule heating: the filament is heated to such a high temperature that it glows "white hot" with thermal radiation (also called incandescence).
The formula for Joule heating is:
P = I 2 R {\displaystyle P=I^{2}R}
where P is the power (energy per unit time) converted from electrical energy to thermal energy, R is the resistance, and I is the current through the resistor.
Dependence of resistance on other conditions[edit]
Temperature dependence[edit]
Main article: Electrical resistivity and conductivity § Temperature dependence
Near room temperature, the resistivity of metals typically increases as temperature is increased, while the resistivity of semiconductors typically decreases as temperature is increased. The resistivity of insulators and electrolytes may increase or decrease depending on the system. For the detailed behavior and explanation, see Electrical resistivity and conductivity.
As a consequence, the resistance of wires, resistors, and other components often change with temperature. This effect may be undesired, causing an electronic circuit to malfunction at extreme temperatures. In some cases, however, the effect is put to good use. When temperature-dependent resistance of a component is used purposefully, the component is called a resistance thermometer or thermistor. (A resistance thermometer is made of metal, usually platinum, while a thermistor is made of ceramic or polymer.)
Resistance thermometers and thermistors are generally used in two ways. First, they can be used as thermometers: By measuring the resistance, the temperature of the environment can be inferred. Second, they can be used in conjunction with Joule heating (also called self-heating): If a large current is running through the resistor, the resistor's temperature rises and therefore its resistance changes. Therefore, these components can be used in a circuit-protection role similar to fuses, or for feedback in circuits, or for many other purposes. In general, self-heating can turn a resistor into a nonlinear and hysteretic circuit element. For more details see Thermistor#Self-heating effects.
If the temperature T does not vary too much, a linear approximation is typically used:
R ( T ) = R 0 [ 1 + α ( T − T 0 ) ] {\displaystyle R(T)=R_{0}[1+\alpha (T-T_{0})]}
where α {\displaystyle \alpha } is called the temperature coefficient of resistance, T 0 {\displaystyle T_{0}} is a fixed reference temperature (usually room temperature), and R 0 {\displaystyle R_{0}} is the resistance at temperature T 0 {\displaystyle T_{0}} . The parameter α {\displaystyle \alpha } is an empirical parameter fitted from measurement data. Because the linear approximation is only an approximation, α {\displaystyle \alpha } is different for different reference temperatures. For this reason it is usual to specify the temperature that α {\displaystyle \alpha } was measured at with a suffix, such as α 15 {\displaystyle \alpha _{15}} , and the relationship only holds in a range of temperatures around the reference.[9]
The temperature coefficient α {\displaystyle \alpha } is typically +3×10−3 K−1 to +6×10−3 K−1 for metals near room temperature. It is usually negative for semiconductors and insulators, with highly variable magnitude.[10]
Strain dependence[edit]
Main article: Strain gauge
Just as the resistance of a conductor depends upon temperature, the resistance of a conductor depends upon strain. By placing a conductor under tension (a form of stress that leads to strain in the form of stretching of the conductor), the length of the section of conductor under tension increases and its cross-sectional area decreases. Both these effects contribute to increasing the resistance of the strained section of conductor. Under compression (strain in the opposite direction), the resistance of the strained section of conductor decreases. See the discussion on strain gauges for details about devices constructed to take advantage of this effect.
Light illumination dependence[edit]
Main articles: Photoresistor and Photoconductivity
Some resistors, particularly those made from semiconductors, exhibit photoconductivity, meaning that their resistance changes when light is shining on them. Therefore, they are called photoresistors (or light dependent resistors). These are a common type of light detector.
Superconductivity[edit]
Main article: Superconductivity
Superconductors are materials that have exactly zero resistance and infinite conductance, because they can have V=0 and I≠0. This also means there is no joule heating, or in other words no dissipation of electrical energy. Therefore, if superconductive wire is made into a closed loop, current flows around the loop forever. Superconductors require cooling to temperatures near 4 K with liquid helium for most metallic superconductors like NbSn alloys, or cooling to temperatures near 77K with liquid nitrogen for the expensive, brittle and delicate ceramic high temperature superconductors. Nevertheless, there are many technological applications of superconductivity, including superconducting magnets.
See also[edit]
Electronics portal
Electrical measurements
Resistor
Electrical conduction for more information about the physical mechanisms for conduction in materials.
Voltage divider
Voltage drop
Thermal resistance
Sheet resistance
SI electromagnetism units
Quantum Hall effect, a standard for high-accuracy resistance measurements.
Conductance quantum and its reciprocal, the Von Klitzing constant (under Von Klitzing)
Series and parallel circuits
Johnson–Nyquist noise
Letter and digit code for resistance values
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Forbes T. Brown (2006). Engineering System Dynamics. CRC Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8493-9648-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Kenneth L. Kaiser (2004). Electromagnetic Compatibility Handbook. CRC Press. pp. 13–52. ISBN 978-0-8493-2087-3.
Jump up ^ Fink and Beaty, Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 11th Edition, page 17-19
Jump up ^ The resistivity of copper is about 1.7×10−8 Ωm. See [1].
Jump up ^ Electric power substations engineering by John Douglas McDonald, p 18-37, google books link
Jump up ^ [2] For a fresh Energizer E91 AA alkaline battery, the internal resistance varies from 0.9 Ω at -40 °C, to 0.1 Ω at +40 °C.
Jump up ^ A 60 W light bulb in the USA (120 V mains electricity) draws RMS current 60 W/120 V=500 mA, so its resistance is 120 V/500 mA=240 Ω. The resistance of a 60 W light bulb in Europe (230 V mains) is 900 Ω. The resistance of a filament is temperature-dependent; these values are for when the filament is already heated up and the light is already glowing.
Jump up ^ 100,000 Ω for dry skin contact, 1000 Ω for wet or broken skin contact. High voltage breaks down the skin, lowering resistance to 500 Ω. Other factors and conditions are relevant as well. For more details, see the electric shock article, and: "Publication No. 98-131: Worker Deaths by Electrocution" (PDF). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 2014-11-02.
Jump up ^ Ward, MR, Electrical Engineering Science, pp36–40, McGraw-Hill, 1971.
Jump up ^ See Electrical resistivity and conductivity for a table. The temperature coefficient of resistivity is similar but not identical to the temperature coefficient of resistance. The small difference is due to thermal expansion changing the dimensions of the resistor.
External links[edit]
Clemson Vehicular Electronics Laboratory: Resistance Calculator
Electron Conductance Models Using Maximal Entropy Random Walks Wolfram Demonstrantions Project
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Bantu peoples
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Bantu
Regions with significant populations
African Great Lakes, Central Africa, Southern Africa
Languages
Bantu languages (over 535), English, French, Portuguese, Spanish
Religion
predominantly: Christianity, traditional faiths; minority: Islam
Related ethnic groups
Other Niger–Congo-speaking groups
Bantu languages divided into zones according to the Guthrie classification of Bantu languages
Bantu peoples is used as a general label for the 300–600 ethnic groups in Africa who speak Bantu languages.[1] They inhabit a geographical area stretching east and southward from Central Africa across the African Great Lakes region down to Southern Africa.[1] Bantu is a major branch of the Niger–Congo language family spoken by most populations in Africa. There are about 650 Bantu languages by the criterion of mutual intelligibility,[2] though the distinction between language and dialect is often unclear, and Ethnologue counts 535 languages.[3]
Around 3,000 years ago, speakers of the Proto-Bantu language group began a millennia-long series of migrations eastward from their homeland between West Africa and Central Africa, at the border of eastern Nigeria and Cameroon.[4] This Bantu expansion first introduced Bantu peoples to central, southern and southeastern Africa, regions they had previously been absent from. The proto-Bantu migrants in the process assimilated and/or displaced a number of earlier inhabitants that they came across, such as Pygmy and Khoisan populations in the centre and south, respectively. They also encountered some Afro-Asiatic outlier groups in the southeast who had been there for centuries, having migrated from Northeast Africa.[5][6]
Individual Bantu groups today often comprise millions of people. Among these are the Ndebele and Shona of Zimbabwe with 14.2 million people; the Luba of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, with over 13.5 million people; the Zulu of South Africa, with over 10 million people; the Sukuma of Tanzania, with around eight million people; and the Kikuyu of Kenya, with over six million people. Although only around five million individuals speak the Arabic-influenced Swahili language as their mother tongue,[7] it is used as a lingua franca by over 100 million people throughout Southeast Africa.[8] Swahili also serves as one of the official languages of the African Union.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Origins and expansion
2.2 Kingdoms
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 External links
Etymology[edit]
The word Bantu, and its variations, means "people" or "humans". The root in Proto-Bantu is reconstructed as *-ntu. Versions of the word Bantu (that is, the root plus the class 2 noun class prefix *ba-) occur in all Bantu languages: for example, as watu in Swahili; bantu in Kikongo; anthu in Chichewa; batu in Lingala; bato in Kiluba; bato in Duala; abanto in Gusii; andũ in Kamba and Kikuyu; abantu in Kirundi, Kinyarwanda, Zulu, Xhosa, Runyakitara,[9] and Ganda; wandru in Shingazidja; abantru in Mpondo and Ndebele; bãtfu in Phuthi; bantfu in Swati; banu in Lala; vanhu in Shona and Tsonga; batho in Sesotho, Tswana and Northern Sotho; antu in Meru; andu in Embu; vandu in some Luhya dialects; vhathu in Venda; and bhandu in Nyakyusa.
History[edit]
Origins and expansion[edit]
Main article: Bantu expansion
1 = 2000–1500 BC origin
2 = ca. 1500 BC first migrations
2.a = Eastern Bantu, 2.b = Western Bantu
3 = 1000–500 BC Urewe nucleus of Eastern Bantu
4–7 = southward advance
9 = 500 BC–0 Congo nucleus
10 = 0–1000 AD last phase[10][11][12]
Current scholarly understanding places the ancestral proto-Bantu homeland in West Africa near the present-day southwestern border of Nigeria and Cameroon c. 4,000 years ago (2000 B.C.), and regards the Bantu languages as a branch of the Niger–Congo language family.[13] This view represents a resolution of debates in the 1960s over competing theories advanced by Joseph Greenberg and Malcolm Guthrie, in favor of refinements of Greenberg's theory. Based on wide comparisons including non-Bantu languages, Greenberg argued that Proto-Bantu, the hypothetical ancestor of the Bantu languages, had strong ancestral affinities with a group of languages spoken in Southeastern Nigeria. He proposed that Bantu languages had spread east and south from there, to secondary centers of further dispersion, over hundreds of years.
Using a different comparative method focused more exclusively on relationships among Bantu languages, Guthrie argued for a single Central African dispersal point spreading at a roughly equal rate in all directions. Subsequent research on loanwords for adaptations in agriculture and animal husbandry and on the wider Niger–Congo language family rendered that thesis untenable. In the 1990s, Jan Vansina proposed a modification of Greenberg's ideas, in which dispersions from secondary and tertiary centers resembled Guthrie's central node idea, but from a number of regional centers rather than just one, creating linguistic clusters.[14]
It is unclear exactly when the spread of Bantu-speakers began from their core area as hypothesized c. 4,000 years ago (2000 B.C.). By 3,500 years ago (1500 B.C.) in the west, Bantu-speaking communities had reached the great Central African rain forest, and by 2,500 years ago (500 B.C.) pioneering groups had emerged into the savannahs to the south, in what are now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, and Zambia. Another stream of migration, moving east, by 3,000 years ago (1000 B.C.) was creating a major new population center near the Great Lakes of East Africa, where a rich environment supported a dense population. Movements by small groups to the southeast from the Great Lakes region were more rapid, with initial settlements widely dispersed near the coast and near rivers, due to comparatively harsh farming conditions in areas farther from water. Pioneering groups had reached modern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa by 300 A.D. along the coast, and the modern Northern Province (encompassed within the former province of the Transvaal) by 500 A.D.[15]
Before the expansion of farming and herding peoples, including those speaking Bantu languages, Africa south of the equator was populated by neolithic hunting and foraging peoples. Some of them were ancestral to proto-Khoisan-speaking peoples, whose modern hunter-forager and linguistic descendants, the Khoekhoe and San, occupy the arid regions around the Kalahari desert. The Hadza and Sandawe populations in Tanzania comprise the other modern hunter-forager remnant in Africa of these proto-Khoisan-speaking peoples.
Over a period of many centuries, most hunting-foraging peoples were displaced and absorbed by incoming Bantu-speaking communities, as well as by Ubangian, Nilotic, and Sudanic language-speakers in North Central and Eastern Africa. The Bantu expansion was a long series of physical migrations, a diffusion of language and knowledge out into and in from neighboring populations, and a creation of new societal groups involving inter-marriage among communities and small groups moving to communities and small groups moving to new areas.
After their movements from their original homeland in West Africa, Bantus also encountered in East Africa peoples of Afro-Asiatic (mainly Cushitic) and Nilo-Saharan (mainly Nilotic and Sudanic) ancestral origin. As cattle terminology in use amongst the few modern Bantu pastoralist groups suggests, the Bantu migrants would acquire cattle from their new Cushitic neighbors. Linguistic evidence also indicates that Bantus likely borrowed the custom of milking cattle directly from Cushitic peoples in the area.[16] Later interactions between Bantu and Cushitic peoples resulted in Bantu groups with significant Cushitic ethnic admixture, such as the Tutsi of the African Great Lakes region; and culturo-linguistic influences, such as the Herero herdsmen of southern Africa.[17][18]
On the coastal section of East Africa, another mixed Bantu community developed through contact with Muslim Arab and Persian traders. The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many Afro-Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people. With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of Zanzibar, Kenya, and Tanzania – a seaboard referred to as the Swahili Coast – the Bantu Swahili language contains many Arabic loan-words as a result of these interactions.[19]
Between the 14th and 15th centuries, Bantu-speaking states began to emerge in the Great Lakes region in the savannah south of the Central African rain forest. On the Zambezi river, the Monomatapa kings built the famous Great Zimbabwe complex, a civilisation of what are today referred to as the Shona people. From the 16th century onward, the processes of state formation amongst Bantu peoples increased in frequency. This was probably due to denser population (which led to more specialized divisions of labor, including military power, while making emigration more difficult); to increased interaction amongst Bantu-speaking communities with Chinese, European, Indonesian, and Arab traders on the coasts; to technological developments in economic activity; and to new techniques in the political-spiritual ritualization of royalty as the source of national strength and health.[20]
Kongo youth and adults in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo
A Kikuyu woman in Kenya
A Makua mother and child in Mozambique
Bubi girls in Equatorial Guinea
Kingdoms[edit]
The Bantu Kingdom of Kongo, c. 1630
Between the 14th and 15th centuries, Bantu states began to emerge in the Great Lakes region in the savanna south of the Central African rain-forest. In Southern Africa on the Zambezi river, the Monomatapa kings built the famous Great Zimbabwe complex, the largest of over 200 such sites in Southern Africa, such as Bumbusi in Zimbabwe and Manyikeni in Mozambique. From the 16th century onward, the processes of state formation among Bantu peoples increased in frequency. Some examples of such Bantu states include: in Central Africa, the Kingdom of Kongo,[21] Lunda Empire,[22] and Luba Empire[23] of Angola, the Republic of Congo, and the Democratic Republic of Congo; in the Great Lakes Region, the Buganda[24] and Karagwe[24] Kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania; and in Southern Africa, the Mutapa Empire,[25] Rozwi Empire,[26] and the Danamombe, Khami, and Naletale Kingdoms of Zimbabwe and Mozambique.[25]
Toward the 18th and 19th centuries, the flow of Zanj (Bantu) slaves from Southeast Africa increased with the rise of the Omani Sultanate of Zanzibar, based in Zanzibar, Tanzania. With the arrival of European colonialists, the Zanzibar Sultanate came into direct trade conflict and competition with Portuguese and other Europeans along the Swahili Coast, leading eventually to the fall of the Sultanate and the end of slave trading on the Swahili Coast in the mid-20th century.
See also[edit]
Bantu Educational Kinema Experiment
Centre International des Civilisations Bantu
Shona people
Zulu people
Luba people
Sukuma people
Kikuyu people
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Butt, John J. (2006). The Greenwood Dictionary of World History. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 39. ISBN 0-313-32765-3.
Jump up ^ Derek Nurse, 2006, "Bantu Languages", in the Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
Jump up ^ Ethnologue report for Southern Bantoid. The figure of 535 includes the 13 Mbam languages considered Bantu in Guthrie's classification and thus counted by Nurse (2006)
Jump up ^ Philip J. Adler, Randall L. Pouwels, World Civilizations: To 1700 Volume 1 of World Civilizations, (Cengage Learning: 2007), p.169.
Jump up ^ Toyin Falola, Aribidesi Adisa Usman, Movements, borders, and identities in Africa, (University Rochester Press: 2009), pp.4-5.
Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick, Mary (1999). Tanzania, Zanzibar & Pemba. Lonely Planet. p. 39. ISBN 0-86442-726-3.
Jump up ^ Peek, Philip M.; Kwesi Yankah (2004). African folklore: an encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. p. 699. ISBN 0-415-93933-X.
Jump up ^ Irele 2010
Jump up ^ Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom; ARKBK CLBG. "Banyoro – Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom (Rep. Uganda) – The most powerful Kingdom in East Africa!". Retrieved 13 May 2015.
Jump up ^ The Chronological Evidence for the Introduction of Domestic Stock in Southern Africa Archived March 25, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Botswana History Page 1: Brief History of Botswana". Retrieved 13 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "5.2 Historischer Überblick". Retrieved 13 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Erhet & Posnansky, eds. (1982), Newman (1995)
Jump up ^ Vansina (1995)
Jump up ^ Newman (1995), Ehret (1998), Shillington (2005)
Jump up ^ J. D. Fage, A history of Africa, Routledge, 2002, p.29
Jump up ^ Was there an interchange between Cushitic pastoralists and Khoisan speakers in the prehistory of Southern Africa and how can this be detected? Archived January 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Robert Gayre, Ethnological elements of Africa, (The Armorial, 1966), p. 45
Jump up ^ Daniel Don Nanjira, African Foreign Policy and Diplomacy: From Antiquity to the 21st Century, ABC-CLIO, 2010, p.114
Jump up ^ Shillington (2005)
Jump up ^ Roland Oliver, et al. "Africa South of the Equator," in Africa Since 1800. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 21
Jump up ^ Roland Oliver, et al. "Africa South of the Equator," in Africa Since 1800. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 23
Jump up ^ Roland Oliver, et al. "Africa South of the Equator," in Africa Since 1800. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 23.
^ Jump up to: a b Roland Oliver, et al. "Africa South of the Equator," in Africa Since 1800. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 24-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Roland Oliver, et al. "Africa South of the Equator," in Africa Since 1800. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 25.
Jump up ^ Isichei, Elizabeth Allo, A History of African Societies to 1870 Cambridge University Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0-521-45599-2 page 435
References[edit]
Christopher Ehret, An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 400, James Currey, London, 1998
Christopher Ehret and Merrick Posnansky, eds., The Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1982
April A. Gordon and Donald L. Gordon, Understanding Contemporary Africa, Lynne Riener, London, 1996
John M. Janzen, Ngoma: Discourses of Healing in Central and Southern Africa, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1992
James L. Newman, The Peopling of Africa: A Geographic Interpretation, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1995. ISBN 0-300-07280-5.
Kevin Shillington, History of Africa, 3rd ed. St. Martin's Press, New York, 2005
Jan Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1990
Jan Vansina, "New linguistic evidence on the expansion of Bantu", Journal of African History 36:173–195, 1995
External links[edit]
Media related to Bantu peoples at Wikimedia Commons

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values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values: بانتويون – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantular
Bantular – Azerbaijani
az
az
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu
Bantu – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu
Bantu – Shona
sn
sn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu
Bantu – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu
Bantu – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantud
Bantud – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Μπαντού – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantuoj
Bantuoj – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu
Bantu – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantous
Bantous – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Բանտու (ժողովուրդ) – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: बांटु – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu
Bantu – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: בנטו (עמים) – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: ბანტუს ხალხი – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values: Бантулар – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babantu
Babantu – Kongo
kg
kg
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kg
display: none;

values: Бантулар – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj
display: none;

values: Банту халкьру – Lak

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantai
Bantai – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantuk
Bantuk – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: バントゥー系民族 – Japanese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu
Bantu – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu
Bantu – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu
Bantu – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantus
Bantus – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu
Bantu – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Банту (группа народов) – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantuovia
Bantuovia – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu
Bantu – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantut
Bantut – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu
Bantu – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantular
Bantular – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Народності банту – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu
Bantu – Venetian
vec
vec
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vec
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Bantu_peoples rootpage-Bantu_peoples skin-vector action-view