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Myanmar snub-nosed monkey
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Myanmar snub-nosed monkey
Conservation status

Critically Endangered (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Cercopithecidae
Genus: Rhinopithecus
Species: R. strykeri
Binomial name
Rhinopithecus strykeri
Geissmann et al., 2010
Distribution: Kachin State, Northern Burma (Myanmar), in black, contains the range of R. strykeri. A small population also exists in adjacent parts of Yunnan, China
The Myanmar snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus strykeri) is a critically threatened species of colobine monkey discovered in 2010 in northern Burma (Myanmar).[1] It was formally described as a novel species of primate in 2011 based on its fur, beard and tail.[2] A group of the species was discovered in China in 2011.[3]
The species is known in local dialects of Lisu people as mey nwoah and Law Waw people as myuk na tok te, both of which mean "monkey with an upturned face".[4] Rain allegedly causes it to sneeze due to the short upturned nasal flesh around its nostrils. People from the area report that it sits with its head directed downwards, hiding its face between its knees when it rains.[5]
Contents
1 Scientific identification and taxonomy
2 Physical characteristics
3 Distribution and habitat
4 Conservation status
5 Origin and Evolution
6 Recognition
7 See also
8 Notes
9 External links
Scientific identification and taxonomy[edit]
The species came to the attention of a team of scientists allied to the "Myanmar Primative Conservation Program"[6] researching the status of the hoolock gibbon in early 2010.[7] The team, led by Swiss primatologist Thomas Geissman and Ngwe Lwin of the Myanmar Biodiversity and Nature Conservation Association (BANCA), were supported by Fauna & Flora International (FFI)[6] and the People Resources and Conservation Foundation (PRCF). The specific name strykeri is given in honour of philanthropist Jon Stryker, president and founder of the Arcus Foundation, which also sponsored the project.[8][9]
The type specimen was identified from the Maw River area of northeastern Kachin state in northeastern Burma. The specimen most closely examined was the skull (with mandible) and skin of a gutted adult male obtained from hunters in Pade, subsequently deposited in the Anthropological Institute and Museum of the University of Zürich. Additional sample skulls of animals killed some three years earlier, one male and one female, were also collected along with a bag made out of the skin of a juvenile caught in January 2010, all obtained in Htantan village.[2]
The team encountered seven live specimens, including an infant, but these moved out of sight before they could be photographed or studied in detail.[5] A camera trap set by a team of FFI, BANCA and PRCF researchers captured the first known images of live snub-nosed monkeys in January 2012.[10]
Physical characteristics[edit]
The monkey's fur is mostly black. Its crown consists of a thin, high, forward-curved crest of long, black hairs. It has protruding white ear tufts, a mostly naked face with pale pink skin, a “moustache” of whitish hairs above the upper lip, and a distinct white chin beard. The perineal area is white and clearly defined, and the limbs are mostly black; the inner sides of the upper arms and upper legs are blackish brown. The lips are prominent, and the nose upturned, allegedly causing the animal to sneeze in rainy weather.[11] Its tail is approximately 1.4 times the body length: the first sample, an adult male, has a head-body length of 55.5 centimetres (21.9 in), and a tail 78 cm (31 in) long.[2]
Distribution and habitat[edit]
The species spend summer months in temperate mixed forests at upper altitudes of their range, and descend to lower ground in the winter to escape snow.[12]
When first discovered, the only known specimens existed in three or four groups within a 270 square kilometres (100 sq mi) range at 1,700 to 3,200 metres (5,600–10,500 ft) above sea level in the eastern Himalayas, in the north-eastern section of Kachin State, the northernmost part of Burma (Myanmar). In 2011, a population was discovered in Lushui County, Yunnan, China.[13] The species is isolated from other snub-nosed Rhinopithecus by the Mekong and the Salween rivers; the other 4 species, golden, black, gray and Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys, are found in China and Vietnam.[7] The species shares habitat with Shortridge's langur, stump-tailed macaque, Assam macaque, rhesus macaque, and northern pig-tailed macaque.[2]
On the morning of 16 October 2011, a forest guard at Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve (GNNR), China took photos of a group of snub-nosed monkeys which were later identified as R. strykery. This made a breaking headline in China especially on the urgent need for a conservation programme.[3]
Conservation status[edit]
Deforestation due to logging operations,[6] isolation and hunting by local humans for food are considered dangers[11] to the small extant population. The known Burmese population size is 260-330 individuals,[2] and it is believed less than 100 remain in China.[13] It is recognized as critically endangered by the IUCN.[1] The Chinese population is found within the Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve and it has been proposed to create a national park to protect this species in Burma.[3]
Origin and Evolution[edit]
Snub-nosed monkeys and the langurs are the two major groups of colobine monkeys in Asia. The monophyletic origin of these Asian monkeys are already established through molecular phylogeny using nuclear and mitochondrial DNAs.[14][15] To further resolve the evolutionary status of these monkeys with emphasis on R. strykery, primatologists at German Primate Center analysed the complete mitochondrial genomes and 12 nuclear loci, including one X chromosomal, six Y chromosomal and five autosomal loci, from all ten odd-nosed monkey species. Their findings in 2012 revealed that snub nosed Rhinopithecus group represent the most basal lineage, with Nasalis and Simias forming the closest group, which implies that these odd-nosed monkeys originated from northern Burma and a later expanded into Indochina and Sundaland. The snub-nosed group diverged from other Asian monkeys about 6.8-6 million years ago, and from Nasalis and Simia clade about 1.2 Ma. Further, various species of the snub-nosed group split from each other about 730,000-400,000 years ago.[16]
Recognition[edit]
Taxonomic experts at the International Institute for Species Exploration honoured the monkey species as one of the Top 10 New Species 2012 among new species described in 2011 throughout the world. Its unique appearance, behaviour and vulnerability make it outstanding and not only in novelty, but also in conservation issues. It has even earned a new nickname "the sneezing monkey" for its peculiar behaviour.[17] In 2012 it was also listed at no 9 of the Top 10 weirdest new species by the Chinese news portal, China.org.cn.[18]
See also[edit]
Snub-nosed monkey
Primates described in the 2000s
List of endangered and protected species of China
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Geissmann, T.; Momberg, F. & Whitten, T. (2012). "Rhinopithecus strykeri". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2012: e.T13508501A13508504. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012-1.RLTS.T13508501A13508504.en. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Geissmann T, Lwin N, Aung SS, Aung TN, Aung ZM, Hla TH, Grindley M, Momberg F (2012). "A new species of snub-nosed monkey, genus Rhinopithecus Milne-Edwards, 1872 (Primates, Colobinae), from northern Kachin state, northeastern Myanmar". Am J Primatol. 73 (1): 96–107. doi:10.1002/ajp.20894. PMID 20981682.
^ Jump up to: a b c Long Y, Momberg F, Ma J, Wang Y, Luo Y, Li H, Yang G, Li M (2012). "Rhinopithecus strykeri found in China!". Am J Primatol. 74 (10): 871–873. doi:10.1002/ajp.22041. PMID 22736378.
Jump up ^ Wheeler Q (18 December 2011). "New to Nature No 61: Rhinopithecus strykeri". The Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Kaufman, R. New Snub-Nosed Monkey Discovered, Eaten 27 Oct 2010 National Geographic Retrieved 28 Oct 2010
^ Jump up to: a b c "FFI discovers new species of snub-nosed monkey | News | Fauna & Flora International". Fauna-flora.org. Retrieved 2010-10-28.
^ Jump up to: a b "New snub-nosed monkey from Northern Myanmar: Rhinopithecus strykeri". Primatology.net. Retrieved 2010-10-28.
Jump up ^ New snub-nosed monkey discovered in Northern Myanmar Oct 26 2010 physorg.com Retrieved 28 Oct 2010
Jump up ^ http://www.arcusfoundation.org
Jump up ^ Catterick, Ally (10 January 2012). "First images of newly discovered primate: World's first look at the Myanmar snub-nosed monkey". Fauna & Flora International. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Ella Davies (27 October 2010). "New species of snub-nosed monkey discovered in Myanmar". BBC. Retrieved 28 October 2010. : "The monkeys allegedly sneeze audibly when rainwater gets in their noses and local people said they could be found with their heads tucked between their knees on rainy days.".
Jump up ^ 25 October 2010 Wiley - Blackwell. "New Snub-Nosed Monkey Discovered in Northern Myanmar". Alphagalileo.org. Retrieved 2010-10-28.
^ Jump up to: a b ScienceDaily (July 26, 2012). First Photo Evidence of Snub-Nosed Monkey Species in China. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Roos C, Zinner D, Kubatko LS, Schwarz C, Yang M, Meyer D, Nash SD, Xing J, Batzer MA, Brameier M, Leendertz FH, Ziegler T, Perwitasari-Farajallah D, Nadler T, Walter L, Osterholz M (2011). "A molecular phylogeny of living primates". BMC Evol Biol. 11 (3): 77. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-77. PMC 3068967  . PMID 21435245.
Jump up ^ Perelman P, Johnson WE, Roos C, Seuánez HN, Horvath JE, Moreira MA, Kessing B, Pontius J, Roelke M, Rumpler Y, Schneider MP, Silva A, O'Brien SJ, Pecon-Slattery J (2011). "A molecular phylogeny of living primates". PLOS Genetics. 7 (3): e1001342. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1001342. PMC 3060065  . PMID 21436896.
Jump up ^ Liedigk R, Yang M, Jablonski NG, Momberg F, Geissmann T, Lwin N, Hla TH, Liu Z, Wong B, Ming L, Yongcheng L, Zhang YP, Nadler T, Zinner D, Roos C (2012). "Evolutionary history of the odd-nosed monkeys and the phylogenetic position of the newly described Myanmar snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus strykeri". PLoS ONE. 7 (5): e37418. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0037418. PMC 3353941  . PMID 22616004.
Jump up ^ Murray R (23 May 2012). "Top 10 New Species list includes sneezing monkey, blue tarantula and night-blooming orchid". Daily News. NYDailyNews.com. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
Jump up ^ Lin X (15 August 2012). "Top 10 weirdest new species: #9 Myanmar snub-nosed monkey". China.org.cn. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
External links[edit]
IUCN Red List page
Top 10 New Species – 2012
Profile at Carnivora
Wikispecies has information related to Rhinopithecus strykeri
show
v
t
e
Extant species of family Cercopithecidae (Old World monkeys) (subfamily Colobinae)
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
African group
Colobus
(Black and white colobi)
Black colobus (C. satanas)
Angola colobus (C. angolensis)
King colobus (C. polykomos)
Ursine colobus (C. vellerosus)
Mantled guereza (C. guereza)
Procolobus
(Red & olive colobi)
Western red colobus (P. badius)
Pennant's colobus (P. pennantii)
Preuss's red colobus (P. preussi)
Thollon's red colobus (P. tholloni)
Central African red colobus (P. foai)
Ugandan red colobus (P. tephrosceles)
Udzungwa red colobus (P. gordonorum)
Zanzibar red colobus (P. kirkii)
Tana River red colobus (P. rufomitratus)
Niger Delta red colobus (P. epieni)
Olive colobus (P. verus)
Langur group
Semnopithecus
(Gray langurs)
Nepal gray langur (S. schistaceus)
Kashmir gray langur (S. ajax)
Tarai gray langur (S. hector)
Northern plains gray langur (S. entellus)
Black-footed gray langur (S. hypoleucos)
Southern plains gray langur (S. dussumieri)
Tufted gray langur (S. priam)
Trachypithecus
(Lutungs)
T. vetulus group: Purple-faced langur (T. vetulus)
Nilgiri langur (T. johnii)
T. cristatus group: Javan lutung (T. auratus)
Silvery lutung (T. cristatus)
Indochinese lutung (T. germaini)
Tenasserim lutung (T. barbei)
T. obscurus group: Dusky leaf monkey (T. obscurus)
Phayre's leaf monkey (T. phayrei)
T. pileatus group: Capped langur (T. pileatus)
Shortridge's langur (T. shortridgei)
Gee's golden langur (T. geei)
T. francoisi group: François' langur (T. francoisi)
Hatinh langur (T. hatinhensis)
White-headed langur (T. poliocephalus)
Laotian langur (T. laotum)
Delacour's langur (T. delacouri)
Indochinese black langur (T. ebenus)
Presbytis
(Surilis)
Sumatran surili (P. melalophos)
Banded surili (P. femoralis)
Sarawak surili (P. chrysomelas)
White-thighed surili (P. siamensis)
White-fronted surili (P. frontata)
Javan surili (P. comata)
Thomas's langur (P. thomasi)
Hose's langur (P. hosei)
Maroon leaf monkey (P. rubicunda)
Mentawai langur(P. potenziani)
Natuna Island surili (P. natunae)
Odd-nosed group
Pygathrix
(Doucs)
Red-shanked douc (P. nemaeus)
Black-shanked douc (P. nigripes)
Gray-shanked douc (P. cinerea)
Rhinopithecus
(Snub-nosed monkeys)
Golden snub-nosed monkey (R. roxellana)
Black snub-nosed monkey (R. bieti)
Gray snub-nosed monkey (R. brelichi)
Tonkin snub-nosed monkey (R. avunculus)
Myanmar snub-nosed monkey (R. strykeri)
Nasalis
Proboscis monkey (N. larvatus)
Simias
Pig-tailed langur (S. concolor)
Category
Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q1016718
Wikispecies: Rhinopithecus strykeri
EoL: 20405970
Fossilworks: 240794
iNaturalist: 144090
ITIS: 944262
IUCN: 13508501
NCBI: 1194336
Species+: 5919
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Myanmar_snub-nosed_monkey&oldid=845650915"
Categories:
IUCN Red List critically endangered species
Rhinopithecus
Primates of Southeast Asia
Mammals of Myanmar
Wildlife of Yunnan
Critically endangered fauna of Asia
Mammals described in 2010
Primates described in the 21st century
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text:
Ski jumping
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Ski jump" redirects here. For the aircraft takeoff ramp, see Ski-jump (aviation).
Ski jumping
Peter Prevc in Titisee-Neustadt, 2016
Highest governing body
International Ski Federation (FIS)
First played
22 November 1808
Olaf Rye,
Eidsberg church, Eidsberg, Norway
Characteristics
Team members
M Individual (50)
L Individual (40)
Team event (4)
Type
Nordic skiing
Equipment
Skis
Venue
Ski jumping hill
Presence
Olympic
1924 (men)
2014 (women)
World Championships
1925 (men's nordic)
1972 (ski flying)
2009 (women's nordic)
Ski jumping is a winter sport in which competitors aim to achieve the longest jump after descending from a specially designed ramp on their skis. Along with jump length, competitor's style and other factors affect the final score. Ski jumping was first contested in Norway in the late 19th century, and later spread through Europe and North America in the early 20th century. Along with cross-country skiing, it constitutes the traditional group of Nordic skiing disciplines.
The ski jumping venue, commonly referred to as a hill, consists of the jumping ramp (in-run), take-off table, and a landing hill. Each jump is evaluated according to the distance traveled and the style performed. The distance score is related to the construction point (also known as the K-point), which is a line drawn in the landing area and serves as a "target" for the competitors to reach.[1] The score of each judge evaluating the style can reach a maximum of 20 points. The jumping technique has evolved over the years, from jumps with the parallel skis with both arms pointing forwards, to the "V-style", which is widely used today.
Ski jumping has been included at the Winter Olympics since 1924 and at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships since 1925. Women's participation in the sport began in the 1990s, while the first women's event at the Olympics has been held in 2014. All major ski jumping competitions are organised by the International Ski Federation. Stefan Kraft holds the official record for the world's longest ski jump with 253.5 metres (832 ft), set on the ski flying hill in Vikersund in 2017.[2] Ski jumping can also be performed in the summer on an in-run where the tracks are made from porcelain and the grass on the slope is covered with water-soaked plastic. The highest level summer competition is the FIS Ski Jumping Grand Prix, contested since 1994.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Rules
2.1 Hills
2.2 Scoring system
3 Techniques
4 Major competitions
4.1 Winter Olympic Games
4.2 World Ski Championships
4.3 Ski Flying World Championships
4.4 World Cup
4.5 Four Hills Tournament
4.6 Other competitions
4.7 Ranked by level
5 Women's participation
5.1 2014: Olympic Games
6 Historic jumps
6.1 Men
6.2 Women
6.3 Tandem
7 Perfect score jumps: 5 x 20
8 List of national records
8.1 Men
8.2 Women
9 Notable ski jumpers
10 See also
11 References
History[edit]
Olaf Rye
Like most of the Nordic skiing disciplines, the first ski jumping competitions were held in Norway in the 19th century, although there is evidence of ski jumping in the late 18th century. The recorded origins of the first ski jump trace back to 1808, when Olaf Rye reached 9.5 m (31 ft). Sondre Norheim, who is regarded as the "father" of the modern ski jumping, won the first-ever ski jumping competition with prizes, which was held in Høydalsmo in 1866.
The first larger ski jumping competition was held on Husebyrennet hill in Oslo, Norway, in 1875. The event was moved to Holmenkollen in 1892 due to the poor infrastructure and the weather conditions, and is today still one of the main ski jumping events in the season.
In the late 19th century, Sondre Norheim and Nordic skier Karl Hovelsen immigrated to the United States and started developing the sport in that country. In 1924, ski jumping was featured at the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France. The sport has been featured at the every Olympics since.
Ski jumping was brought to Canada by Norwegian immigrant Nels Nelsen. Starting with his example in 1915 until the late 1960s, annual ski jumping competitions were held on Mount Revelstoke — the ski hill Nelsen designed — the longest period of any Canadian ski jumping venue. Revelstoke's was the biggest natural ski jump hill in Canada and internationally recognized as one of the best in North America. The length and natural grade of its 600 m (2,000 ft) hill made possible jumps of over 60 m (200 ft)—the longest in Canada. It was also the only hill in Canada where world ski jumping records were set, in 1916, 1921, 1925, 1932, and 1933[3]
In 1935, the origins of the ski flying began in Planica, Slovenia, where Josef Bradl became the first competitor in history to jump over 100 m (330 ft). At the same venue, the first official jump over 200 m (660 ft) was achieved in 1994, when Toni Nieminen landed at 203 metres.[4]
In 1964 in Zakopane, Poland, the large hill event was introduced at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships. In the same year, the normal hill event was included on the Olympic programme at the 1964 Winter Olympics. The team event was added later, at the 1988 Winter Olympics.
In 1990, qualifiers for the main event were introduced to limit the number of competitors.
Rules[edit]
Hills[edit]
Main article: Ski jumping hill
Model of the ski jumping hill. A-B = point of departure ; t = take-off zone; HS = total length of the hill; P-L = landing area; K = K-point.
A ski jumping hill is located on a steep slope, and it consists of the jumping ramp (in-run), take-off table, and a landing hill. Competitors glide down from a common point at the top of the in'run, achieving considerable speeds at the take-off table, where they take off with help of speed and their own leap. While airborne, they maintain an aerodynamic position with their bodies and skis, that would allow them to maximize the length of the jump. The landing slope is constructed so that the jumper's trajectory is near-parallel with it, and the athlete's relative height to the ground is gradually lost, allowing for a gentle and safe landing. The landing space is followed by an out-run, a substantial flat or counter-inclined area that permits the skier to safely slow down.[5] The out-run area is fenced and surrounded by a public auditorium.
The slopes are classified according to the distance that the competitors travel in the air, between the end of the table and the landing. Each hill has a construction point (K-point), which serves as a "target" that the competitors should reach. The classification of the hills are as follows:[6]
Class
Construction point
Hill size
Small hill to 45 metres to 50 metres
Medium hill 45–74 m 50–84 m
Normal hill 75–99 m 85–109 m
Large hill 100–169 m 110–184 m
Ski flying hill over 170 m over 185 m
Scoring system[edit]
Competitors are ranked according to a numerical score obtained by adding up components based on distance, style, inrun length (gate factor) and wind conditions. In the individual event, the scores from each skier's two competition jumps are combined to determine the winner.
Distance score depends on the hill's K-point. For K-90 and K-120 competitions, the K-point is set at 90 metres and 120 metres, respectively. Competitors are awarded 60 points (normal and large hills) and 120 points (flying hills) if they land on the K-point. For every metre beyond the K-point, the competitor is awarded extra points; the typical value is 2 points per metre in small hills, 1.8 points in large hills and 1.2 points in ski flying hills. A competitor's distance is measured between the takeoff and the point where the feet came in full contact with the landing slope (for abnormal landings, touchpoint of one foot, or another body part is considered). Jumps are measured with accuracy of 0.5 metres for all competitions. [7]:64–65
Telemark landing
During the competition, five judges are based in a tower to the side of the expected landing point. They can award up to 20 points each for jumping style, based on keeping the skis steady during flight, balance, optimal body position, and landing. The highest and lowest style scores are disregarded, with the remaining three scores added to the distance score.[8]
Gate and wind factors were introduced by the 2009 rules, to allow fairer comparison of results for a scoring compensation for variable outdoor conditions. Aerodynamics and take-off speed are important variables that determine the value of a jump, and if weather conditions change during a competition, the conditions will not be the same for all competitors. Gate factor competitor can receive or lose points if the inrun (or start gate) length is adjusted to provide optimal take-off speed. Points are added when the starting gate is moved up, and subtracted when the gate is lowered. An advanced calculation also determines compensation points for the actual unequal wind conditions at the time of the jump. These points are added or withdrawn from the original scores of the individual jump according to the wind conditions; when there is back wind, the points are added, and when there is front wind, the points are subtracted. Wind speed and direction are measured at five different points based on average value, which is determined before every competition.[9]
If two or more competitors finish the competition with the same number of points, they are given the same placing and receive same prizes.[6] Ski jumpers below the minimum safe body mass index are penalized with a shorter maximum ski length, reducing the aerodynamic lift they can achieve. These rules have been credited with stopping the most severe cases of underweight athletes, but some competitors still lose weight to maximize the distance they can achieve.[10] In order to prevent an unfair advantage due to a "sailing" effect of the ski jumping suit, material, thickness and relative size of the suit are regulated.[11]
Techniques[edit]
For details, see Ski jumping techniques.
Kongsberger technique
Each jump is divided into four parts: in-run, take-off (jump), flight, and landing.
By using the V-style, firstly pioneered by Swedish ski jumper Jan Boklöv in the mid-1980s,[12] skiers are able to exceed the distance of the take-off hill by about 10% compared to the previous technique with parallel skis.[citation needed] Previous techniques included the Kongsberger technique, the Däescher technique and the Windisch technique.[12] Until the mid-1960s, the ski jumper came down the in-run of the hill with both arms pointing forwards. This changed when the Däscher technique was pioneered by Andreas Däscher in the 1950s, as a modification of the Kongsberger and Windisch techniques. A lesser-used technique as of 2017 is the H-style which is essentially a combination of the parallel and V-styles, in which the skis are spread very wide apart and held parallel in an "H" shape. It is prominently used by Domen Prevc.
The landing requires the skiers to touch the ground in the Telemark landing style (Norwegian: telemarksnedslag), named after the Norwegian county of Telemark. This involves the jumper landing with one foot in front of the other, mimicking the style of Telemark skiing. Failure to comply with this regulation leads to the deduction of style points, issued by the judges.[6][13]
Major competitions[edit]
All major ski jumping competitions are organized by the International Ski Federation.
Winter Olympic Games[edit]
The large hill ski jumping event was included at the Winter Olympic Games for the first time in 1924, and has been contested at every Winter Olympics since then.[14] The normal hill event was added in 1964. Since 1992, the normal hill event is contested at the K-90 size hill; previously, it was contested at the K-60 hill.[14] Women's debuted at the Winter Olympics in 2014.[15]
World Ski Championships[edit]
A ski jumper after landing on a hill equipped for summer events
The ski jumping at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships was firstly contested in 1925. The team event was introduced in 1982, while the women's event was firstly held in 2009.
Ski Flying World Championships[edit]
The FIS Ski Flying World Championships was firstly contested in 1972 in Planica.[16]
World Cup[edit]
The FIS Ski Jumping World Cup is contested since the 1979–80 season.[17]
Four Hills Tournament[edit]
The Four Hills Tournament is contested since the 1952–53 season.[18]
Other competitions[edit]
Other competitions, organised by the International Ski Federation, include the FIS Ski Jumping Grand Prix, Continental Cup, FIS Cup, FIS Race, and Alpen Cup.
Ranked by level[edit]
Rank
Competition
Since
Men
Women
1 Winter Olympic Games 1924 2014
2 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1925 2009
3 FIS Ski Flying World Championships 1972 N/A
4 World Cup 1979 2011
5 Four Hills Tournament 1952 N/A
6 Summer Grand Prix 1994 2012
7 Continental Cup (1991)
1993 2004
8 FIS Cup 2005 2012
9 FIS Race 1953 1999
10 Alpen Cup 1990 2001
Women's participation[edit]
In January 1863 in Trysil, Norway, at that time 16 years old Norwegian Ingrid Olsdatter Vestby, became the first-ever known female ski jumper, who participated in the competition. Her distance is not recorded.[19]
Women began competing at the high level since the 2004–05 Continental Cup season.[20] International Ski Federation organized three women's team events in this competition and so far the only team events in history of women's ski jumping.
Sara Takanashi is the most successful female ski jumper, winning the World Cup title on four occasions.
Women's made a premiere FIS Nordic World Ski Championships performance in 2009 in Liberec.[20] The first world champion became American ski jumper Lindsey Van.[21]
In the 2011–12 season, women competed for the first time in the World Cup. The first event was held on 3 December 2011 at Lysgårdsbakken at normal hill in Lillehammer, Norway. The first-ever female World Cup winner was Sarah Hendrickson,[22] who also became the inaugural women's World Cup overall champion.[23] Previously, women had only competed in Continental Cup seasons.
2014: Olympic Games[edit]
In 2006, the International Ski Federation proposed that women could compete at the 2010 Winter Olympics,[24] but the proposal was rejected by the IOC because of the low number of athletes and participating countries at the time.[25]
A group of fifteen competitive female ski jumpers later filed a suit against the Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games on the grounds that it violated the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms since men were competing.[26][27] The suit failed, with the judge ruling that the situation was not governed by the charter.
A further milestone was reached when women's ski jumping was included as part of the 2014 Winter Olympics at normal hill event. The first Olympic champion was Carina Vogt.[15]
Historic jumps[edit]
Sepp Bradl became the first ski jumper to surpass 100 metres in 1936.
In 2003, Daniela Iraschko became the only female ski jumper in history to reach 200 metres.
Note: Only official results are listed, invalid jumps are not included.
Men[edit]
First jump
Date
Country
Hill
Place
Meters
Yards
Feet
in history 22/11/1808 Olaf Rye Denmark–Norway Eidsberg church Eidsberg, Norway 9.5 10.4 31
over 50 metres 16/02/1913 Ragnar Omtvedt United States Wolverine Hill Ironwood, Michigan, United States 51.5 56.3 169
over 100 metres 15/03/1936 Sepp Bradl Austria Bloudkova velikanka Planica, Kingdom of Yugoslavia 101.5 111.0 340
over 150 metres 11/02/1967 Lars Grini Norway Heini-Klopfer-Skiflugschanze Oberstdorf, West Germany 150.0 164.0 492
over 200 metres 17/03/1994 Toni Nieminen Finland Velikanka bratov Gorišek Planica, Slovenia 203.0 222.0 666
over 250 metres 14/02/2015 Peter Prevc Slovenia Vikersundbakken Vikersund, Norway 250.0 273.4 820
Women[edit]
First jump
Date
Country
Hill
Place
Meters
Yards
Feet
in history 1863 Ingrid Olsdatter Vestby Norway Nordbybakken Trysil, Norway unknown
over 50 meters 1932 Johanne Kolstad Norway Gråkallbakken Trondheim, Norway 62.0 67.8 203
over 100 meters 29/03/1981 Tiina Lehtola Finland Rukatunturi Kuusamo, Finland 110.0 120.3 361
over 150 meters 05/02/1994 Eva Ganster Austria Kulm Tauplitz/Bad Mitterndorf, Austria 161.0 176.1 528
over 200 meters 29/01/2003 Daniela Iraschko Austria Kulm Tauplitz/Bad Mitterndorf, Austria 200.0 218.7 656
Tandem[edit]
First jump
Date
Country
Hill
Place
Meters
Yards
Feet
in history[28] 18/02/2016 Rok Urbanc
Jaka Rus Slovenia
Slovenia Planica Nordic Center HS45 Planica, Slovenia 35.0 38.3 115
Perfect score jumps: 5 x 20[edit]
Those who have managed to show a perfect jump, which means that all five judges attributed the maximum style score of 20 points for their jumps. Kazuyoshi Funaki, Sven Hannawald and Wolfgang Loitzl were attributed 4x20 (plus another 19.5) style score points for their second jump, thus receiving nine times the maximum score of 20 points within one competition. Kazuyoshi Funaki is the only one in history who achieved this more than once. So far only seven jumpers are recorded to have achieved this score in total of ten times:
No.
Date
Rank
Hill
Location
Competition
Metres
Yards
Feet
1 07/03/1976 Anton Innauer 1st Heini-Klopfer-Skiflugschanze K175 Oberstdorf KOP International Ski Flying Week 176.0 192.5 577
2 24/01/1998 Kazuyoshi Funaki 2nd Heini-Klopfer-Skiflugschanze K185 Oberstdorf World Cup / Ski Flying World Championships 187.5 205.0 615
3 25/01/1998 Kazuyoshi Funaki 1st Heini-Klopfer-Skiflugschanze K185 Oberstdorf World Cup / Ski Flying World Championships 205.5 224.7 674
4 15/02/1998 Kazuyoshi Funaki 1st Hakuba K120 Nagano Olympic Games 132.5 149.9 438
5 17/01/1999 Kazuyoshi Funaki 2nd Wielka Krokiew K116 Zakopane World Cup 119.0 130.1 390
6 08/02/2003 Sven Hannawald 1st Mühlenkopfschanze K130 Willingen World Cup 142.0 155.3 466
7 08/02/2003 Hideharu Miyahira 6th Mühlenkopfschanze K130 Willingen World Cup 135.5 148.2 445
8 06/01/2009 Wolfgang Loitzl 1st Paul-Ausserleitner-Schanze HS140 (night) Bischofshofen Four Hills Tournament 142.5 155.8 468
9 20/03/2015 Peter Prevc 1st Letalnica bratov Gorišek HS225 Planica World Cup 233.0 254.8 764
10 22/03/2015 Jurij Tepeš 1st Letalnica bratov Gorišek HS225 Planica World Cup 244.0 266.8 801
List of national records[edit]
For the world records, see List of the longest ski jumps.
The all-time longest jump was achieved in Vikersund in 2017.
Men[edit]
Nation
Athlete
Metres
Feet
Place
Year
Source
Austria Stefan Kraft (WR) 253.5 831 Vikersund 2017 [2][29]
Norway Robert Johansson 252.0 826 Vikersund 2017 [2][29]
Poland Kamil Stoch 251.5 825 Planica 2017 [30][29]
Slovenia Peter Prevc 250.0 820 Vikersund 2015 [31]
Germany Markus Eisenbichler 248.0 814 Planica 2017 [29]
United States Kevin Bickner 244.5 802 Vikersund 2017 [29]
Japan Daiki Ito 243.0 797 Vikersund 2017 [29]
Finland Janne Happonen 240.0 787 Vikersund 2011 [29]
Switzerland Simon Ammann 239.5 785 Vikersund 2017 [29]
Czech Republic Antonín Hájek 236.0 774 Planica 2010 [29]
Russia Dimitry Vassiliev 233.5 766 Vikersund 2015 [29]
Italy Alex Insam 232.5 763 Planica 2017 [29]
France Vincent Descombes Sevoie 230.5 756 Vikersund 2016
Canada Mackenzie Boyd-Clowes 224.0 735 Planica 2016 [32]
Bulgaria Vladimir Zografski 213.5 700 Planica 2013
Estonia Kaarel Nurmsalu 213.0 698 Planica 2017 [29]
Sweden Isak Grimholm 207.5 681 Planica 2007 [29]
South Korea Choi Heung-chul Planica 2008 [29]
Belarus Petr Chaadaev 197.5 648 Kulm 2006 [29]
Kazakhstan Radik Zhaparov 196.5 645 Planica 2007 [29]
Slovakia Martin Mesik 195.5 641 Kulm 2006 [29]
Ukraine Vitaliy Shumbarets 189.5 622 Planica 2009
Greece Nico Polychronidis 186.0 610 Oberstdorf 2013 [29]
Netherlands Christoph Kreuzer 162.0 531 Planica 2002 [29]
Turkey Muhammed Munir Gungen 145.0 475 Rukatunturi 2016 [29]
Georgia Koba Tsakadze 142.0 466 Vikersund 1967 [33]
Spain Bernat Sola 141.0 463 Tauplitz 1986 [29]
Hungary Gábor Gellér 139.0 456 Harrachov 1980s [29]
Denmark Andreas Bjelke Nygaard 137.0 449 Lillehammer 2000s [29]
United Kingdom Robert Lock 130.0 427 Park City 2015 [34]
Romania Eduard Torok 128.0 420 Engelberg 2013 [29]
Kyrgyzstan Dmitry Chvykov 124.0 407 Innsbruck 2002 [35]
China Tian Zhandong 121.5 399 Bischofshofen 2004 [36]
Croatia[a] Josip Šporer 102.0 335 Planica 1940s [37]
Latvia Kristaps Nežborts Liberec 2012 [38]
Lithuania[b] Zbigniew Kiwert 86.0 282 Nizhny Novgorod 1960 [39]
Iceland Skarphéðinn Guðmundsson 80.0 262 Squaw Valley 1960 [40]
Macedonia[a] Goga Popov junior 62.0 203 Planica 1952 [41]
Australia Hal Nerdal 53.0 174 Squaw Valley 1960 [29]
Chris Hellerud Falun 1974 [42]
Uganda Dunstan Odeke 50.0 164 Oslo 1990s [42]
Montenegro[a] Božo Čvorović 46.0 151 Žabljak 1960s [43]
Serbia[a] Vid Černe 40.0 131 Jahorina 1949 [44]
Bosnia and Herzegovina[a] Džemo Zahirović 36.0 118 Jahorina 1949 [45]
Belgium Rembert Notten 35.0 115 Rückershausen 2012 [46][47][48]
Ireland Richard Brown Gothenburg 2002 [29]
Greenland Hans Holm 23.3 76 Nuuk 1949 [49]
New Zealand Brian MacMillan 18.6 61 Mount Cook 1937 [50]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Part of Yugoslavia at the time.
Jump up ^ Part of the Soviet Union at the time.
Women[edit]
Nation
Athlete
Metres
Feet
Place
Year
Source
Austria Daniela Iraschko-Stolz (WR) 200.0 656 Kulm 2003 [51]
Norway Anette Sagen 174.5 484 Vikersund 2004 [51]
Sweden Helena Olsson 174.5 484 Vikersund 2004 [51]
United States Lindsey Van 171.0 561 Vikersund 2004 [51]
Germany Ulrike Gräßler 146.0 479 Willingen 2010 [51]
Japan Sara Takanashi 141.0 463 Sapporo 2011 [51]
Slovenia Špela Rogelj 140.0 459 Klingenthal 2012 [51]
Russia Irina Taktayeva 137.0 449 [51]
Switzerland Bigna Windmüller 133.0 436 Oberstdorf 2008 [51]
France Julia Clair 131.5 431 Planica 2014 [51]
Canada Atsuko Tanaka 130.0 426 Courchevel 2013 [51]
Italy 130.0 426 Oslo 2016 [51]
Finland Julia Kykkänen 125.0 410 Oslo 2016 [51]
China Chang Xinyue 125.0 410 Lillehammer 2017 [51]
Czech Republic Michaela Doleželová 116.5 382 Courchevel 2013 [51]
Romania Daniela Haralambie 115.0 377 Oslo 2016 [51]
Poland Kinga Raida 111.0 364 Planica 2016 [51]
Netherlands Wendy Vuik 107.0 351 Oslo 2013 [51]
Hungary Virág Vörös 101.0 331 Predazzo 2016 [51]
Latvia Šarlote Šķēle 85.0 279 Predazzo 2013 [51]
Estonia Anemarii Bendi 83.0 272 Otepää 2014 [51]
Kazakhstan Valentina Sderzhikova 80.0 262 Szczyrk 2015 [51]
South Korea Park Guy-lim 79.5 261 Notodden 2015 [51]
Ukraine Khrystyna Droniak 77.0 253 Szczyrk 2016 [51]
Notable ski jumpers[edit]
To be included in the list, the male athlete needs to either win at least 20 individual World Cup events, have at least 400 individual starts in the World Cup, or win three or more medals at the Winter Olympics.[52][53] The female athlete needs to either win at least 10 individual World Cup events or win a medal at the Winter Olympics.[54][55]
Male
Gregor Schlierenzauer
Thomas Morgenstern
Andreas Goldberger
Andreas Felder
Andreas Kofler
Andreas Widhölzl
Martin Höllwarth
Heinz Kuttin
Matti Nykänen
Toni Nieminen
Jari Puikkonen
Janne Ahonen
Matti Hautamäki
Sven Hannawald
Dieter Thoma
Jens Weißflog
Severin Freund
Martin Schmitt
Andreas Wellinger
Kazuyoshi Funaki
Masahiko Harada
Noriaki Kasai
Lars Bystøl
Birger Ruud
Robert Johansson
Kamil Stoch
Adam Małysz
Peter Prevc
Simon Ammann
Gregor Schlierenzauer is the most successful male athlete in the World Cup, winning 53 individual World Cup events.
Carina Vogt has won the women's first-ever gold medal at the Winter Olympic Games in 2014.
Female
Daniela Iraschko-Stolz
Coline Mattel
Carina Vogt
Katharina Althaus
Sara Takanashi
Maren Lundby
Sarah Hendrickson
See also[edit]
Ski flying
List of FIS Nordic World Ski Championships medalists in ski jumping
List of FIS Ski Jumping World Cup team events
List of Olympic medalists in ski jumping
List of Four Hills Tournament winners
Medicinernes Skiklub Svartor
FIS Ski Flying World Cup
References[edit]
General
"Ski Jumping History". olympic.org. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
"The history of ski jumping". skijumping-info.com. Archived from the original on 2 December 2014. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
"Ski Jumping – History". abc-of-skiing.com. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
Specific
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Jump up ^ "Ski Jumping 101". Women's Ski Jumping USA. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
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text:
Four Great Inventions
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Four Great Inventions
Traditional Chinese
四大發明
Simplified Chinese
四大发明
Literal meaning
four great inventions
showTranscriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
sì dà fā míng
Wade–Giles
ssu⁴ ta⁴ fa¹ ming²
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
sei³ daai⁶ faat³ ming⁴
Jyutping
sei³ daai⁶ faat³ ming⁴
Further information: List of Chinese inventions
The Four Great Inventions (simplified Chinese: 四大发明; traditional Chinese: 四大發明) are inventions from ancient China that are celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance and as symbols of ancient China's advanced science and technology.[1]
The Four Great Inventions are:
Compass[2]
Gunpowder[3]
Papermaking[4]
Printing[5]
These four discoveries had a large impact on the development of civilization throughout the world. However, some modern Chinese scholars have opined that other Chinese inventions were perhaps more sophisticated and had a greater impact on Chinese civilization – the Four Great Inventions serve merely to highlight the technological interaction between East and West.[6]
Contents
1 Name
2 Inventions
2.1 Compass
2.2 Gunpowder
2.3 Papermaking
2.4 Printing
3 Cultural influence
3.1 2005 Hong Kong stamp issue
3.2 2008 Beijing Olympics
4 Scholarly critiques
5 Four Great New Inventions
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Citations
7.2 Sources
Name[edit]
History of science and
technology in China
Inventions
Four Great Inventions
Discoveries
By subject
Mathematics
Astronomy
Calendar
Units of measurement
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Geography
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Ceramics
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sericulture
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Architecture
classic gardens
bridges
Transport
navigation
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By era
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Tang
Song
Yuan
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agriculture
space
v
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Although Chinese culture is replete with lists of significant works or achievements (e.g. Four Great Beauties, Four Great Classical Novels, Four Books and Five Classics, etc.), the concept of the Four Great Inventions originated from the West, and is adapted from the European intellectual and rhetorical commonplace of the Three Great (or, more properly, Greatest) Inventions. This commonplace spread rapidly throughout Europe in the 16th century and was appropriated only in modern times by sinologists and Chinese scholars. The origin of the Three Great Inventions—these being the printing press, firearms, and the nautical compass—was originally ascribed to Europe, and specifically to Germany in the case of the printing press and firearms. These inventions were a badge of honor to modern Europeans, who proclaimed that there was nothing to equal them among the ancient Greeks and Romans. After reports by Portuguese sailors and Spanish missionaries began to filter back to Europe beginning in the 1530s, the notion that these inventions had existed for centuries in China took hold. By 1620, when Francis Bacon wrote in his Instauratio magna that "printing, gunpowder, and the nautical compass . . . have altered the face and state of the world: first, in literary matters; second, in warfare; third, in navigation," this was hardly an original idea to most learned Europeans.[7]
In the 19th century, Karl Marx commented on the importance of gunpowder, the compass and printing, "Gunpowder, the compass, and the printing press were the three great inventions which ushered in bourgeois society. Gunpowder blew up the knightly class, the compass discovered the world market and found the colonies, and the printing press was the instrument of Protestantism and the regeneration of science in general; the most powerful lever for creating the intellectual prerequisites."[8]
Western writers and scholars from the 19th century onwards commonly attributed these inventions to China. The missionary and sinologist Joseph Edkins (1823–1905), comparing China with Japan, noted that for all of Japan's virtues, it did not make inventions as significant as paper-making, printing, the compass and gunpowder.[9] Edkins' notes on these inventions were mentioned in an 1859 review in the journal Athenaeum, comparing the contemporary science and technology in China and Japan.[10] Other examples include, in Johnson's New Universal Cyclopædia: A Scientific and Popular Treasury of Useful Knowledge in 1880,[11] The Chautauquan in 1887,[12] and by the sinologist, Berthold Laufer in 1915.[13] None of these, however, referred to four inventions or called them "great."
In the 20th century, this list was popularized and augmented by the noted British biochemist, historian, and sinologist Joseph Needham, who devoted the later part of his life to studying the science and civilization of ancient China.[14]
Inventions[edit]
See also: List of Chinese inventions
Compass[edit]
Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass
Main article: Compass
A lodestone compass was used in China during the Han Dynasty between the 2nd century BCE and 1st century CE, where it was called the "south-governor" (sīnán 司南).[15] It was not used for navigation, but rather for geomancy and fortune-telling.[15] The earliest reference to a magnetic device used for navigation is in a Song Dynasty book dated to 1040-1044, where there is a description of an iron "south-pointing fish" floating in a bowl of water, aligning itself to the south. The device is recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night."[16] The first suspended magnetic needle compass was written of by Shen Kuo in his book of 1088.
For most of Chinese history, the compass that remained in use was in the form of a magnetic needle floating in a bowl of water.[17] According to Needham, the Chinese in the Song Dynasty and continuing Yuan Dynasty did make use of a dry compass, although this type never became as widely used in China as the wet compass.[18]
The dry compass used in China was a dry suspension compass, a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax, and if rotated, the needle at the tail would always point in the northern cardinal direction.[18] Although the 14th-century European compass-card in box frame and dry pivot needle was adopted in China after its use was taken by Japanese pirates in the 16th century (who had in turn learned of it from Europeans), the Chinese design of the suspended dry compass persisted in use well into the 18th century.[14]
Gunpowder[edit]
Handgun from the Yuan dynasty, circa 1300s (decade).
Main article: Gunpowder
Gunpowder was discovered in the 9th century by Chinese alchemists searching for an elixir of immortality.[19] By the time the Song Dynasty treatise, Wujing Zongyao (武经总要), was written by Zeng Gongliang and Yang Weide in 1044, the various Chinese formulas for gunpowder held levels of nitrate in the range of 27% to 50%.[20] By the end of the 12th century, Chinese formulas of gunpowder had a level of nitrate capable of bursting through cast iron metal containers, in the form of the earliest hollow, gunpowder-filled grenade bombs.[21]
In 1280, the bomb store of the large gunpowder arsenal at Weiyang accidentally caught fire, which produced such a large explosion that a team of inspectors at the site a week later deduced that 100 guards had been killed instantly, with wooden beams and pillars blown sky high and landing at a distance of over 10 li (~2 mi. or ~3.2 km) away from the explosion.[22]
By the time of Hanzo Yu and his Huolongjing (which describes military applications of gunpowder in great detail) in the mid-14th century, the explosive potential of gunpowder was perfected, as the level of nitrate in gunpowder formulas had risen to a range of 12% to 91%,[20] with at least 6 different formulas in use that are considered to have maximum explosive potential for gunpowder.[20] By that time, the Chinese had discovered how to create explosive round shot by packing their hollow shells with this nitrate-enhanced gunpowder.[23] An excavated trove of early Ming land mines showed that corned gunpowder was present in China by 1370. There is evidence suggesting that corned powder may have been used in East Asia from as far back as the thirteenth century. [24]
Papermaking[edit]
Hemp wrapping paper, China, circa 100 BC
Main article: Papermaking
Further information: Science and technology of the Han Dynasty
Papermaking has traditionally been traced to China about AD 105, when Cai Lun, an official attached to the Imperial court during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-AD 220), created a sheet of paper using mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste.[25] However, a recent archaeological discovery has been reported from Gansu of paper with Chinese characters on it dating to 8 BC.[26]
While paper used for wrapping and padding was used in China since the 2nd century BC,[27] paper used as a writing medium only became widespread by the 3rd century.[28] By the 6th century in China, sheets of paper were beginning to be used for toilet paper as well.[29] During the Tang Dynasty (618–907) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea.[27] The Song Dynasty (960–1279) that followed was the first government to issue paper currency.
Printing[edit]
Main article: History of printing in East Asia
The Chinese invention of woodblock printing, at some point before the first dated book in 868 (the Diamond Sutra), produced the world's first print culture. According to A. Hyatt Mayor, curator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, "it was the Chinese who really discovered the means of communication that was to dominate until our age."[30] Woodblock printing was better suited to Chinese characters than movable type, which the Chinese also invented, but which did not replace woodblock printing. Western printing presses, although introduced in the 16th century, were not widely used in China until the 19th century. China, along with Korea, was one of the last countries to adopt them.[31]
The intricate frontispiece of the Diamond Sutra from Tang Dynasty China, 868 (British Museum)
Woodblock printing for textiles, on the other hand, preceded text printing by centuries in all cultures, and is first found in China at around 220.[32] It reached Europe by the 14th century or before, via the Islamic world, and by around 1400 was being used on paper for old master prints and playing cards.[33][34]
Printing in Northern China was further advanced by the 11th century, as it was written by the Song Dynasty scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095) that the common artisan Bi Sheng (990-1051) invented ceramic movable type printing.[35] Then there were those such as Wang Zhen (fl. 1290-1333) who invented respectively wooden type setting, which later influenced developing metal moveable type printing in Korea (1372-1377). Movable type printing was a tedious process if one were to assemble thousands of individual characters for the printing of simply one or a few books, but if used for printing thousands of books, the process was efficient and rapid enough to be successful and highly employed. Indeed, there were many cities in China where movable type printing, in wooden and metal form, was adopted by the enterprises of wealthy local families or large private industries. The Qing Dynasty court sponsored enormous printing projects using woodblock movable type printing during the 18th century. Although superseded by western printing techniques, woodblock movable type printing remains in use in isolated communities in China.[36]
Cultural influence[edit]
2005 Hong Kong stamp issue[edit]
In 2005, the Hong Kong postal service created a special stamp issue that featured the Four Great Inventions.[37] The stamp series was first issued on August 18, 2005 during a ceremony where an enlarged first day cover was stamped.[38] Allan Chiang (Postmaster General) and Prof. Chu Ching-wu (President of the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) marked the issue of the special stamps by personally stamping the first day cover.[38]
2008 Beijing Olympics[edit]
Dancing boxes representing movable-type printing blocks at the 2008 Olympics opening ceremony.
The Four Great Inventions was featured as one of the main themes of the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics.[39] Paper making was represented with a dance and an ink drawing on a huge piece of paper, printing by a set of dancing printing blocks, a replica of an ancient compass was showcased, and gunpowder by the extensive firework displays during the ceremony. A survey by the Beijing Social Facts & Public Opinion Survey Center found that Beijing residents found the program on the Four Great Inventions the most moving part of the opening ceremony.[40]
Scholarly critiques[edit]
Recently, scholars have questioned the importance placed on the inventions of paper, printing, gunpowder, and the compass. Chinese scholars in particular question if too much emphasis is given to these inventions, over other significant Chinese inventions. They have pointed out that other inventions in China were perhaps more sophisticated and had a greater impact within China.[6]
In the chapter "Are the Four Major Inventions the Most Important?" of his book Ancient Chinese Inventions, Chinese historian Deng Yinke writes:[41]
The four inventions do not necessarily summarize the achievements of science and technology in ancient China. The four inventions were regarded as the most important Chinese achievements in science and technology, simply because they had a prominent position in the exchanges between the East and the West and acted as a powerful dynamic in the development of capitalism in Europe. As a matter of fact, ancient Chinese scored much more than the four major inventions: in farming, iron and copper metallurgy, exploitation of coal and petroleum, machinery, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, porcelain, silk, and wine making. The numerous inventions and discoveries greatly advanced China's productive forces and social life. Many are at least as important as the four inventions, and some are even greater than the four.
Four Great New Inventions[edit]
In August 2017, Xinhua described high-speed rail, electronic payments, bike sharing and online shopping as China's "four great new inventions".[42] However others pointed out that none of the four were actually invented in China, with modern high-speed rail originating in Japan in 1964, e-payment systems originating in the United States in the 1990s, bike sharing invented in Europe in the 1960s and online shopping invented by Englishman Michael Aldrich in 1979.[43]
See also[edit]
History of Imperial China portal
Technology portal
Dream Pool Essays
Gunpowder warfare
History of science and technology in China
List of Chinese inventions
Science and technology of the Han Dynasty
Technology of the Song Dynasty
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Four Great Inventions". China.org.cn. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
Jump up ^ "Four Great Inventions of Ancient China -- Compass". ChinaCulture.org. Archived from the original on 2007-04-09. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
Jump up ^ "Four Great Inventions of Ancient China -- Gunpowder". ChinaCulture.org. Archived from the original on 2007-08-28. Retrieved 2007-11-11. External link in |publisher= (help)
Jump up ^ "Four Great Inventions of Ancient China -- Paper". ChinaCulture.org. Archived from the original on 2007-10-18. Retrieved 2007-11-11. External link in |publisher= (help)
Jump up ^ "Four Great Inventions of Ancient China -- Printing". ChinaCulture.org. Archived from the original on 2007-08-25. Retrieved 2007-11-11. External link in |publisher= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b "Do We Need to Redefine the Top Four Inventions?". Beijing Review (35). 2008-08-26. Retrieved 2008-11-04.
Jump up ^ Boruchoff, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marx, Karl. "Division of Labour and Mechanical Workshop. Tool and Machinery". Economic Manuscripts of 1861-63.
Jump up ^ Edkins, Joseph (1859). The religious condition of the Chinese: With observations on the prospects of christian conversion amongst that people. Routledge-Warnes and Routledge. p. 2. [1]
Jump up ^ Maurice, Frederick Denison, Charles Wentworth Dilke, Thomas Kibble Hervey, William Hepworth Dixon; et al. (1859). The Athenæum: a journal of literature, science, the fine arts, music, and the drama. J. Francis. p. 839. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard, Arnold Guyot (1880). Johnson's New universal cyclopædia: a scientific and popular treasury of useful knowledge ... Volume 1, Part 2 of Johnson's New Universal Cyclopædia: A Scientific and Popular Treasury of Useful Knowledge. A.J. Johnson & Co. p. 924. Retrieved 2011-11-28. Though the Chinese are skilled in imitative workmanship, they seem at present to be singularly destitute of inventive genius. Anciently, however, it must have been otherwise, for the mariner's compass, gunpowder, printing, and the manufacture of porcelain, paper, silk, and clocks, all were certainly first invented in China. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Theodore L. Flood, Frank Chapin Bray, Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, Chautauqua Institution (1887). The Chautauquan: a weekly newsmagazine, Volume 8. 8. p. 59. Retrieved 2011-11-28. 10. "The mariner's compass." The Chinese, doubtless, originated the compass, as more than one thousand years B. C, they were able to guide themselves by the use of the loadstone, and soon after the Christian era they navigated their vessels by the use of the magnetic needle. The compasses which came into use among the Italians in the 13th century were exactly like those used in China. The earliest mention to be found of this instrument, is made by Guyot, of Provence, in 1190. The date and the author of the invention of gunpowder are lost in obscurity. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "Some Fundamental Ideas of Chinese Culture, Clark University (Worcester, Mass.) (1915). The Journal of international relations, Volume 5. p. 171. Retrieved 2011-11-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Needham, IV 1, p. 290
^ Jump up to: a b Merrill, Ronald T.; McElhinny, Michael W. (1983). The Earth's magnetic field: Its history, origin and planetary perspective (2nd printing ed.). San Francisco: Academic press. p. 1. ISBN 0-12-491242-7.
Jump up ^ Shu-hua, Li (July 1954). "Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Bousso". Isis. Oxford: Oxford Student Publications. 45: 175–196. doi:10.1086/348315.
Jump up ^ Kreutz, p. 373
^ Jump up to: a b Needham, IV 1, p. 255
Jump up ^ Buchanan (2006), p. 42
^ Jump up to: a b c Needham, V 7, pp. 345
Jump up ^ Needham, V 7, pp. 347
Jump up ^ Needham, V 7, pp. 209-210
Jump up ^ Needham, V 7, pp. 264.
Jump up ^ Andrade (2016), p. 110
Jump up ^ "Papermaking". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
Jump up ^ "World Archaeological Congress eNewsletter". 2006-08-11. Archived from the original on 2007-11-06. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
^ Jump up to: a b Needham, V 1, p. 122
Jump up ^ Needham, V 1
Jump up ^ Needham, V 1, p. 123
Jump up ^ A Hyatt Mayor (1971). Prints and People. Nos 1-4. Princeton: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0-691-00326-2.
Jump up ^ McGovern, Melvin (1967). "Early Western Presses in Korea". Korea Journal: 21–23.
Jump up ^ Shelagh Vainker in Anne Farrer (ed) (1990). Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. British Museum publications. p. 112. ISBN 0-7141-1447-2. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ A Hyatt Mayor (Nos 5-18). Prints and People. Princeton: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0-691-00326-2. Check date values in: |year= (help)
Jump up ^ Arthur M. Hind (1963) [1935]. An Introduction to a History of Woodcut. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 64–127. ISBN 0-486-20952-0.
Jump up ^ Needham, V 1, p. 201.
Jump up ^ Olympics bring unexpected luck to China's sole village using age-old movable-type printing, People's Daily
Jump up ^ "Four Great Inventions of Ancient China" stamp issue, Hongkong Post
^ Jump up to: a b "Four Great Inventions of Ancient China" Special Stamps Issuing Ceremony, Hongkong Post
Jump up ^ Beijing Olympics opening features four inventions of ancient China, China Daily
Jump up ^ "Four great inventions" at Olympic opening warmly-welcomed, People's Daily
Jump up ^ Deng (2005), pp. 14.
Jump up ^ http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-08/08/c_136507975.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2106865/talent-invention-chinas-media-tries-lay-claim-other-countries
Sources[edit]
Andrade, Tonio, ed. (2016). The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Boruchoff, David A. (2012), "The Three Greatest Inventions of Modern Times: An Idea and Its Public", in Hock, Klaus, Gesa; Mackenthun, Entangled Knowledge: Scientific Discourses and Cultural Difference, Münster: Waxmann, pp. 133–163, ISBN 978-3-8309-2729-7
Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006). Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A Technological History. Aldershot: Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-5259-9.
Deng Yinke (2005). Ancient Chinese Inventions. Translated by Wang Pingxing. Beijing: China Intercontinental Press. ISBN 7-5085-0837-8.
Li Shu-hua (1954). "Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole". Isis. Vol. 45 no. 2: July. Oxford. pp. 175–196.
Needham, Joseph (1962). Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics. Science and Civilisation in China. Volume 4. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Needham, Joseph, ed. (1985). Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Tsien Hsuen-Hsuin, Paper and Printing. Science and Civilisation in China. Volume 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Needham, Joseph, ed. (1994). Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Robin D.S. Yates, Krzysztof Gawlikowski, Edward McEwen, Wang Ling (collaborators) Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Science and Civilisation in China. Volume 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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