text:
Islamic art
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Detail of arabesque decoration at the Alhambra in Spain
The Ardabil Carpet, probably the finest surviving Persian carpet, Tabriz, mid-16th century
Hunters at a Stream - Riza `Abbasi, c.1625 Brooklyn Museum
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onward by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by or ruled by culturally Islamic populations.[1] It is thus a very difficult art to define because it covers many lands and various peoples over some 1,400 years; it is not art specifically of a religion, or of a time, or of a place, or of a single medium like painting.[2] The huge field of Islamic architecture is the subject of a separate article, leaving fields as varied as calligraphy, painting, glass, pottery, and textile arts such as carpets and embroidery.
Islamic art is not at all restricted to religious art, but includes all the art of the rich and varied cultures of Islamic societies as well. It frequently includes secular elements and elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, by some Islamic theologians.[3] Apart from the ever-present calligraphic inscriptions, specifically religious art is actually less prominent in Islamic art than in Western medieval art, with the exception of Islamic architecture where mosques and their complexes of surrounding buildings are the most common remains. Figurative painting may cover religious scenes, but normally in essentially secular contexts such as the walls of palaces or illuminated books of poetry. The calligraphy and decoration of manuscript Qur'ans is an important aspect, but other religious art such as glass mosque lamps and other mosque fittings such as tiles (e.g. Girih tiles), woodwork and carpets usually have the same style and motifs as contemporary secular art, although with religious inscriptions even more prominent.
"Islamic art developed from many sources: Roman, Early Christian art, and Byzantine styles were taken over in early Islamic art and architecture; the influence of the Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia was of paramount significance; Central Asian styles were brought in with various nomadic incursions; and Chinese influences had a formative effect on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles."[4] Though the whole concept of "Islamic art" has been criticised by some modern art historians,[5] calling it a "figment of imagination"[6] or a "mirage",[7] the similarities between art produced at widely different times and places in the Islamic world, especially in the Islamic Golden Age, have been sufficient to keep the term in wide use by scholars.[8]
There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the arabesque. The arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of God.[9] Mistakes in repetitions may be intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believe only God can produce perfection, although this theory is disputed.[10][11][12]
Typically, though not entirely, Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns, whether purely geometric or floral, and Arabic calligraphy, rather than on figures, because it is feared by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is idolatry[13] and thereby a sin against God, forbidden in the Qur'an. Human portrayals can be found in all eras of Islamic art, above all in the more private form of miniatures, where their absence is rare. Human representation for the purpose of worship is considered idolatry and is duly forbidden in some interpretations of Islamic law, known as Sharia law. There are also many depictions of Muhammad, Islam's chief prophet, in historical Islamic art.[14][15] Small decorative figures of animals and humans, especially if they are hunting the animals, are found on secular pieces in many media from many periods, but portraits were slow to develop.
Contents
[hide]
1 Calligraphy
2 Painting
3 Rugs and carpets
4 Ceramics
4.1 Tiling
5 Glass
6 Metalwork
7 Other applied arts
7.1 Precious stones
7.2 House and furniture
7.3 Ivory
7.4 Silk
7.5 Indonesian batik
8 History
8.1 Beginnings
8.1.1 Pre-dynastic
8.1.2 Umayyad
8.1.3 Abbasid
8.2 Medieval period (9th–15th centuries)
8.2.1 Spain and the Maghreb
8.2.2 Arab Mashriq
8.2.3 Iran and Central Asia
8.2.3.1 Ilkhanids
8.2.3.2 The Golden Horde and the Timurids
8.2.4 Syria, Iraq, Anatolia
8.2.5 South Asia
8.3 The Three Empires
8.3.1 Ottomans
8.3.2 Mughals
8.3.3 Safavids and Qajars
9 Modern period
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
Calligraphy[edit]
Part of a 15th-century ceramic panel from Samarkand with arabesque background
Main article: Islamic calligraphy
Calligraphic design is omnipresent in Islamic art, where, as in Europe in the Middle Ages, religious exhortations, including Qur'anic verses, may be included in secular objects, especially coins, tiles and metalwork, and most painted miniatures include some script, as do many buildings. Use of Islamic calligraphy in architecture extended significantly outside of Islamic territories; one notable example is the use of Chinese calligraphy of Arabic verses from the Qur'an in the Great Mosque of Xi'an.[16] Other inscriptions include verses of poetry, and inscriptions recording ownership or donation. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts, which can be found adorning and enhancing the visual appeal of the walls and domes of buildings, the sides of minbars, and metalwork.[9] Islamic calligraphy in the form of painting or sculptures are sometimes referred to as quranic art.[17]
East Persian pottery from the 9th to 11th centuries decorated only with highly stylised inscriptions, called "epigraphic ware", has been described as "probably the most refined and sensitive of all Persian pottery".[18] Large inscriptions made from tiles, sometimes with the letters raised in relief, or the background cut away, are found on the interiors and exteriors of many important buildings. Complex carved calligraphy also decorates buildings. For most of the Islamic period the majority of coins only showed lettering, which are often very elegant despite their small size and nature of production. The tughra or monogram of an Ottoman sultan was used extensively on official documents, with very elaborate decoration for important ones. Other single sheets of calligraphy, designed for albums, might contain short poems, Qur'anic verses, or other texts.
The main languages, all using Arabic script, are Arabic, always used for Qur'anic verses, Persian in the Persianate world, especially for poetry, and Turkish, with Urdu appearing in later centuries. Calligraphers usually had a higher status than other artists.
Painting[edit]
Scene from the Khamsa of Nizami, Persian, 1539–43
See also: Arabic miniature, Ottoman miniature, Persian miniature, and Mughal miniature
Although there has been a tradition of wall-paintings, especially in the Persianate world, the best-surviving and highest developed form of painting in the Islamic world is the miniature in illuminated manuscripts, or later as a single page for inclusion in a muraqqa or bound album of miniatures and calligraphy. The tradition of the Persian miniature has been dominant since about the 13th century, strongly influencing the Ottoman miniature of Turkey and the Mughal miniature in India. Miniatures were especially an art of the court, and because they were not seen in public, it has been argued that constraints on the depiction of the human figure were much more relaxed, and indeed miniatures often contain great numbers of small figures, and from the 16th century portraits of single ones. Although surviving early examples are now uncommon, human figurative art was a continuous tradition in Islamic lands in secular contexts, notably several of the Umayyad Desert Castles (c. 660-750), and during the Abbasid Caliphate (c. 749–1258).[19]
The largest commissions of illustrated books were usually classics of Persian poetry such as the epic Shahnameh, although the Mughals and Ottomans both produced lavish manuscripts of more recent history with the autobiographies of the Mughal emperors, and more purely military chronicles of Turkish conquests. Portraits of rulers developed in the 16th century, and later in Persia, then becoming very popular. Mughal portraits, normally in profile, are very finely drawn in a realist style, while the best Ottoman ones are vigorously stylized. Album miniatures typically featured picnic scenes, portraits of individuals or (in India especially) animals, or idealized youthful beauties of either sex.
Chinese influences included the early adoption of the vertical format natural to a book, which led to the development of a birds-eye view where a very carefully depicted background of hilly landscape or palace buildings rises up to leave only a small area of sky. The figures are arranged in different planes on the background, with recession (distance from the viewer) indicated by placing more distant figures higher up in the space, but at essentially the same size. The colours, which are often very well preserved, are strongly contrasting, bright and clear. The tradition reached a climax in the 16th and early 17th centuries, but continued until the early 19th century, and has been revived in the 20th.
Rugs and carpets[edit]
Main article: Oriental rugs
See also: Turkish carpet, Persian carpet, and Kilim
From the yarn fiber to the colors, every part of the Persian rug is traditionally handmade from natural ingredients over the course of many months
No Islamic artistic product has become better known outside the Islamic world than the pile carpet, more commonly referred to as the Oriental carpet (oriental rug). Their versatility is utilized in everyday Islamic and Muslim life, from floor coverings to architectural enrichment, from cushions to bolsters to bags and sacks of all shapes and sizes, and to religious objects (such as a prayer rug, which would provide a clean place to pray). They have been a major export to other areas since the late Middle Ages, used to cover not only floors but tables, for long a widespread European practice that is now common only in the Netherlands. Carpet weaving is a rich and deeply embedded tradition in Islamic societies, and the practice is seen in large city factories as well as in rural communities and nomadic encampments. In earlier periods, special establishments and workshops were in existence that functioned directly under court patronage.[20]
Turkish Ushak carpet
Very early Islamic carpets, i.e. those before the 16th century, are extremely rare. More have survived in the West and oriental carpets in Renaissance painting from Europe are a major source of information on them, as they were valuable imports that were painted accurately.[21] The most natural and easy designs for a carpet weaver to produce consist of straight lines and edges, and the earliest Islamic carpets to survive or be shown in paintings have geometric designs, or centre on very stylized animals, made up in this way. Since the flowing loops and curves of the arabesque are central to Islamic art, the interaction and tension between these two styles was long a major feature of carpet design.
There are a few survivals of the grand Egyptian 16th century carpets, including one almost as good as new discovered in the attic of the Pitti Palace in Florence, whose complex patterns of octagon roundels and stars, in just a few colours, shimmer before the viewer.[22] Production of this style of carpet began under the Mamluks but continued after the Ottomans conquered Egypt.[23] The other sophisticated tradition was the Persian carpet which reached its peak in the 16th and early 17th century in works like the Ardabil Carpet and Coronation Carpet; during this century the Ottoman and Mughal courts also began to sponsor the making in their domains of large formal carpets, evidently with the involvement of designers used to the latest court style in the general Persian tradition. These use a design style shared with non-figurative Islamic illumination and other media, often with a large central gul motif, and always with wide and strongly demarcated borders. The grand designs of the workshops patronized by the court spread out to smaller carpets for the merely wealthy and for export, and designs close to those of the 16th and 17th centuries are still produced in large numbers today. The description of older carpets has tended to use the names of carpet-making centres as labels, but often derived from the design rather than any actual evidence that they originated from around that centre. Research has clarified that designs were by no means always restricted to the centre they are traditionally associated with, and the origin of many carpets remains unclear.
As well as the major Persian, Turkish and Arab centres, carpets were also made across Central Asia, in India, and in Spain and the Balkans. Spanish carpets, which sometimes interrupted typical Islamic patterns to include coats of arms, enjoyed high prestige in Europe, being commissioned by royalty and for the Papal Palace, Avignon, and the industry continued after the Reconquista.[24] Armenian carpet-weaving is mentioned by many early sources, and may account for a much larger proportion of East Turkish and Caucasian production than traditionally thought. The Berber carpets of North Africa have a distinct design tradition. Apart from the products of city workshops, in touch with trading networks that might carry the carpets to markets far away, there was also a large and widespread village and nomadic industry producing work that stayed closer to traditional local designs. As well as pile carpets, kelims and other types of flat-weave or embroidered textiles were produced, for use on both floors and walls. Figurative designs, sometimes with large human figures, are very popular in Islamic countries but relatively rarely exported to the West, where abstract designs are generally what the market expects.
Ceramics[edit]
Main article: Islamic pottery
10th-century dish from East Persia
Islamic art has very notable achievements in ceramics, both in pottery and tiles for walls, which in the absence of wall-paintings were taken to heights unmatched by other cultures. Early pottery is often unglazed, but tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics, originating from 9th century Iraq.[25] The first industrial complex for glass and pottery production was built in Raqqa, Syria, in the 8th century.[26] Other centers for innovative pottery in the Islamic world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550).[27] Lusterwares with iridescent colours may have continued pre-Islamic Roman and Byzantine techniques, but were either invented or considerably developed on pottery and glass in Persia and Syria from the 9th century onwards.[28]
Islamic pottery was often influenced by Chinese ceramics, whose achievements were greatly admired and emulated.[29] This was especially the case in the periods after the Mongol invasions and those of the Timurids. Techniques, shapes and decorative motifs were all affected. Until the Early Modern period Western ceramics had very little influence, but Islamic pottery was very sought after in Europe, and often copied. An example of this is the albarello, a type of maiolica earthenware jar originally designed to hold apothecaries' ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of pharmacy jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. Hispano-Moresque examples were exported to Italy, stimulating the earliest Italian examples, from 15th century Florence.
Iznik glazed pottery ca. 1575
The Hispano-Moresque style emerged in Al-Andaluz or Muslim Spain in the 8th century, under Egyptian influence, but most of the best production was much later, by potters presumed to have been largely Muslim but working in areas reconquered by the Christian kingdoms. It mixed Islamic and European elements in its designs, and much was exported across neighbouring European countries. It had introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Ottoman İznik pottery produced most of the best work in the 16th century, in tiles and large vessels boldly decorated with floral motifs influenced, once again, by Chinese Yuan and Ming ceramics. These were still in earthenware; there was no porcelain made in Islamic countries until modern times, though Chinese porcelain was imported and admired.[30]
The medieval Islamic world also had pottery with painted animal and human imagery. Examples are found throughout the medieval Islamic world, particularly in Persia and Egypt.[31]
Tiling[edit]
Further information: Islamic geometric patterns and Tessellation
Tiled exterior of the Friday Mosque of Herat, Afghanistan
The earliest grand Islamic buildings, like the Dome of the Rock, in Jerusalem had interior walls decorated with mosaics in the Byzantine style, but without human figures. From the 9th century onwards the distinctive Islamic tradition of glazed and brightly coloured tiling for interior and exterior walls and domes developed. Some earlier schemes create designs using mixtures of tiles each of a single colour that are either cut to shape or are small and of a few shapes, used to create abstract geometric patterns. Later large painted schemes use tiles painted before firing with a part of the scheme – a technique requiring confidence in the consistent results of firing.
Some elements, especially the letters of inscriptions, may be moulded in three-dimensional relief, and in especially in Persia certain tiles in a design may have figurative painting of animals or single human figures. These were often part of designs mostly made up of tiles in plain colours but with larger fully painted tiles at intervals. The larger tiles are often shaped as eight-pointed stars, and may show animals or a human head or bust, or plant or other motifs. The geometric patterns, such as modern North African zellige work, made of small tiles each of a single colour but different and regular shapes, are often referred to as "mosaic", which is not strictly correct.
The Mughals made much less use of tiling, preferring (and being able to afford) "parchin kari", a type of pietra dura decoration from inlaid panels of semi-precious stones, with jewels in some cases. This can be seen at the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort and other imperial commissions. The motifs are usually floral, in a simpler and more realistic style than Persian or Turkish work, relating to plants in Mughal miniatures.
Glass[edit]
Main article: Islamic glass
"The Luck of Edenhall", a 13th-century Syrian beaker, in England since the Middle Ages
For most of the Middle Ages Islamic glass was the most sophisticated in Eurasia, exported to both Europe and China. Islam took over much of the traditional glass-producing territory of Sassanian and Ancient Roman glass, and since figurative decoration played a small part in pre-Islamic glass, the change in style is not abrupt, except that the whole area initially formed a political whole, and, for example, Persian innovations were now almost immediately taken up in Egypt. For this reason it is often impossible to distinguish between the various centres of production, of which Egypt, Syria and Persia were the most important, except by scientific analysis of the material, which itself has difficulties.[32] From various documentary references glassmaking and glass trading seems to have been a speciality of the Jewish minority in several centres.[33]
Mamluk mosque lamp
Between the 8th and early 11th centuries the emphasis in luxury glass is on effects achieved by "manipulating the surface" of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief.[34] The very massive Hedwig glasses, only found in Europe, but normally considered Islamic (or possibly from Muslim craftsmen in Norman Sicily), are an example of this, though puzzlingly late in date.[35] These and other glass pieces probably represented cheaper versions of vessels of carved rock crystal (clear quartz), themselves influenced by earlier glass vessels,[36] and there is some evidence that at this period glass cutting and hardstone carving were regarded as the same craft.[37] From the 12th century the industry in Persia and Mesopotamia appears to decline, and the main production of luxury glass shifts to Egypt and Syria, and decorative effects of colour on smooth surfaced glass.[38] Throughout the period local centres made simpler wares such as Hebron glass in Palestine.
Lustre painting, by techniques similar to lustreware in pottery, dates back to the 8th century in Egypt, and became widespread in the 12th century. Another technique was decoration with threads of glass of a different colour, worked into the main surface, and sometimes manipulated by combing and other effects. Gilded, painted and enamelled glass were added to the repertoire, and shapes and motifs borrowed from other media, such as pottery and metalwork. Some of the finest work was in mosque lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man. As decoration grew more elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it "often has a brownish-yellow tinge, and is rarely free from bubbles".[39] Aleppo seems to have ceased to be a major centre after the Mongol invasion of 1260, and Timur appears to have ended the Syrian industry about 1400 by carrying off the skilled workers to Samarkand. By about 1500 the Venetians were receiving large orders for mosque lamps.[40]
Metalwork[edit]
Detail of the "Baptistère de Saint-Louis," c. 1300, a Mamluk basin of engraved brass with gold, silver and niello inlay
Medieval Islamic metalwork offers a complete contrast to its European equivalent, which is dominated by modelled figures and brightly coloured decoration in enamel, some pieces entirely in precious metals. In contrast surviving Islamic metalwork consists of practical objects mostly in brass, bronze, and steel, with simple, but often monumental, shapes, and surfaces highly decorated with dense decoration in a variety of techniques, but colour mostly restricted to inlays of gold, silver, copper or black niello. The most abundant survivals from medieval periods are fine brass objects, handsome enough to preserve, but not valuable enough to be melted down. The abundant local sources of zinc compared to tin explains the rarity of bronze. Household items, such as ewers or water pitchers, were made of one or more pieces of sheet brass soldered together and subsequently worked and inlaid.[41]
The use of drinking and eating vessels in gold and silver, the ideal in ancient Rome and Persia as well as medieval Christian societies, is prohibited by the Hadiths, as was the wearing of gold rings.[42] One thing Islamic metalworkers shared with European ones was high social status compared to other artists and craftsmen, and many larger pieces are signed.
Islamic work includes some three-dimensional animal figures as fountainheads or aquamaniles, but only one significant enamelled object is known, using Byzantine cloisonne techniques.[43] The Pisa Griffin is the largest surviving bronze animal, probably from 11th century Al-Andaluz. More common objects given elaborate decoration include massive low candlesticks and lamp-stands, lantern lights, bowls, dishes, basins, buckets (these probably for the bath),[44] and ewers, as well as caskets, pen-cases and plaques. Ewers and basins were brought for hand-washing before and after each meal, so are often lavishly treated display pieces. A typical 13th century ewer from Khorasan is decorated with foliage, animals and the Signs of the Zodiac in silver and copper, and carries a blessing.[45] Specialized objects include knives, arms and armour (always of huge interest to the elite) and scientific instruments such as astrolabes, as well as jewellery. Decoration is typically densely packed and very often includes arabesques and calligraphy, sometimes naming an owner and giving a date.[46]
Other applied arts[edit]
Mughal dagger with hilt in jade, gold, rubies and emeralds. Blade of damascened steel inlaid with gold.
High levels of achievement were reached in other materials, including hardstone carvings and jewellery, ivory carving, textiles and leatherwork. During the Middle Ages, Islamic work in these fields was highly valued in other parts of the world and often traded outside the Islamic zone. Apart from miniature painting and calligraphy, other arts of the book are decorative illumination, the only type found in Qur'an manuscripts, and Islamic book covers, which are often highly decorative in luxury manuscripts, using either the geometric motifs found in illumination, or sometimes figurative images probably drawn for the craftsmen by miniature painters. Materials include coloured, tooled and stamped leather and lacquer over paint.[47]
Precious stones[edit]
Egyptian carving of rock crystal into vessels appears in the late 10th century, and virtually disappears after about 1040. There are a number of these vessels in the West, which apparently came on the market after the Cairo palace of the Fatimid Caliph was looted by his mercenaries in 1062, and were snapped up by European buyers, mostly ending up in church treasuries.[48] From later periods, especially the hugely wealthy Ottoman and Mughal courts, there are a considerable number of lavish objects carved in semi-precious stones, with little surface decoration, but inset with jewels. Such objects may have been made in earlier periods, but few have survived.[49]
House and furniture[edit]
Ottoman marquetry and tile-top table, about 1560
Older wood carving is typically relief or pierced work on flat objects for architectural use, such as screens, doors, roofs, beams and friezes. An important exception are the complex muqarnas and mocárabe designs giving roofs and other architectural elements a stalactite-like appearance. These are often in wood, sometimes painted on the wood but often plastered over before painting; the examples at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain are among the best known. Traditional Islamic furniture, except for chests, tended to be covered with cushions, with cupboards rather than cabinets for storage, but there are some pieces, including a low round (strictly twelve-sided) table of about 1560 from the Ottoman court, with marquetry inlays in light wood, and a single huge ceramic tile or plaque on the tabletop.[50] The fine inlays typical of Ottoman court furniture may have developed from styles and techniques used in weapons and musical instruments, for which the finest craftsmanship available was used.[51] There are also intricately decorated caskets and chests from various periods. A spectacular and famous (and far from flat) roof was one of the Islamic components of the 12th century Norman Cappella Palatina in Palermo, which picked from the finest elements of Catholic, Byzantine and Islamic art. Other famous wooden roofs are in the Alhambra in Granada.
Ivory[edit]
Ivory with traces of paint, 11th–12th century, Egypt
Ivory carving centred on the Mediterranean, spreading from Egypt, where a thriving Coptic industry had been inherited; Persian ivory is rare. The normal style was a deep relief with an even surface; some pieces were painted. Spain specialized in caskets and round boxes, which were probably used to keep jewels and perfumes. They were produced mainly in the approximate period 930–1050, and widely exported. Many pieces are signed and dated, and on court pieces the name of the owner is often inscribed; they were typically gifts from a ruler. As well as a court workshop, Cordoba had commercial workshops producing goods of slightly lower quality. In the 12th and 13th century workshops in Norman Sicily produced caskets, apparently then migrating to Granada and elsewhere after persecution. Egyptian work tended to be in flat panels and friezes, for insertion into woodwork and probably furniture – most are now detached from their settings. Many were calligraphic, and others continued Byzantine traditions of hunting scenes, with backgrounds of arabesques and foliage in both cases.[52]
Ilkhanid piece in silk, cotton and gold, Iran or Iraq, early 14th century
Silk[edit]
Despite Hadithic sayings against the wearing of silk, the Byzantine and Sassanian traditions of grand figured silk woven cloth continued under Islam. Some designs are calligraphic, especially when made for palls to cover a tomb, but more are surprisingly conservative versions of the earlier traditions, with many large figures of animals, especially majestic symbols of power like the lion and eagle. These are often enclosed in roundels, as found in the pre-Islamic traditions. The majority of early silks have been recovered from tombs, and in Europe reliquaries, where the relics were often wrapped in silk. European clergy and nobility were keen buyers of Islamic silk from an early date and, for example, the body of an early bishop of Toul in France was wrapped in a silk from the Bukhara area in modern Uzbekistan, probably when the body was reburied in 820.[53] The Shroud of St Josse is a famous samite cloth from East Persia, which originally had a carpet-like design with two pairs of confronted elephants, surrounded by borders including rows of camels and an inscription in Kufic script, from which the date appears to be before 961.[54] Other silks were used for clothes, hangings, altarcloths, and church vestments, which have nearly all been lost, except for some vestments.
Javanese court batik
Ottoman silks were less exported, and the many surviving royal kaftans have simpler geometric patterns, many featuring stylized "tiger-stripes" below three balls or circles. Other silks have foliage designs comparable to those on Iznik pottery or carpets, with bands forming ogival compartments a popular motif. Some designs begin to show Italian influence. By the 16th century Persian silk was using smaller patterns, many of which showed relaxed garden scenes of beautiful boys and girls from the same world as those in contemporary album miniatures, and sometimes identifiable scenes from Persian poetry. A 16th-century circular ceiling for a tent, 97 cm across, shows a continuous and crowded hunting scene; it was apparently looted by the army of Suleiman the Magnificent in his invasion of Persia in 1543–45, before being taken by a Polish general at the Siege of Vienna in 1683. Mughal silks incorporate many Indian elements, and often feature relatively realistic "portraits" of plants, as found in other media.[55]
Indonesian batik[edit]
Main article: Batik
The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam. The Islamic prohibition on certain images encouraged batik design to become more abstract and intricate. Realistic depictions of animals and humans are rare on traditional batik. However, mythical serpents, humans with exaggerated features and the Garuda of pre-Islamic mythology are common motifs.
Although its existence pre-dates Islam, batik reached its zenith in royal Muslim courts such as Mataram and Yogyakarta, whose sultans encouraged and patronised batik production. Today, batik is undergoing a revival, and cloths are used for additional purposes such as wrapping the Quran.
History[edit]
Beginnings[edit]
Pre-dynastic[edit]
Palace facade from Mshatta in Jordan, now in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin, c. ?740
The period of a rapid expansion of the Islamic era forms a reasonably accurate beginning for the label of Islamic art. Early geographical boundaries of the Islamic culture were in present-day Syria. It is quite difficult to distinguish the earliest Islamic objects from their predecessors in Persian or Sassanid and Byzantine art, and the conversion of the mass of the population, including artists, took a significant period, sometimes centuries, after the initial Muslim conquest. There was, notably, a significant production of unglazed ceramics, witnessed by a famous small bowl preserved in the Louvre, whose inscription assures its attribution to the Islamic period. Plant motifs were the most important in these early productions.
Influences from the Sassanian artistic tradition include the image of the king as a warrior and the lion as a symbol of nobility and virility. Bedouin tribal traditions mixed with the more sophisticated styles of the conquered territories. For an initial period coins had human figures in the Byzantine and Sassanian style, perhaps to reassure users of their continued value, before the Islamic style with lettering only took over.
Umayyad[edit]
Mosaics from the riwaq (portico) of the Great Mosque of Damascus
Religious and civic architecture were developed under the Umayyad dynasty (661–750), when new concepts and new plans were put into practice.
The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture, marked by a strong Byzantine influence (mosaic against a gold background, and a central plan that recalls that of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), but already bearing purely Islamic elements, such as the great epigraphic frieze. The desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for example, Mshatta, Qasr Amra, and Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated, including some wall-paintings, to promote an image of royal luxury.
Work in ceramics was still somewhat primitive (unglazed) during this period. Some metal objects have survived from this time, but it remains rather difficult to distinguish these objects from those of the pre-Islamic period.
'Abd al-Malik introduced standard coinage that featured Arabic inscriptions, instead of images of the monarch. The quick development of a localized coinage around the time of the Dome of the Rock's construction demonstrates the reorientation of Umayyad acculturation. This period saw the genesis of a particularly Islamic art.
In this period, Umayyad artists and artisans did not invent a new vocabulary, but began to prefer those received from Mediterranean and Iranian late antiquity, which they adapted to their own artistic conceptions. For example, the mosaics in the Great Mosque of Damascus are based on Byzantine models, but replace the figurative elements with images of trees and cities. The desert palaces also bear witness to these influences. By combining the various traditions that they had inherited, and by readapting motifs and architectural elements, artists created little by little a typically Muslim art, particularly discernible in the aesthetic of the arabesque, which appears both on monuments and in illuminated Qur'āns.
Abbasid[edit]
Lusterware bowl from Susa, 9th century, today in the Louvre
The Abbasid dynasty (750 AD – 1258[56]) witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, and then from Baghdad to Samarra. The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. Art historian Robert Hillenbrand (1999) likens the movement to the foundation of an "Islamic Rome", because the meeting of Eastern influences from Iranian, Eurasian steppe, Chinese, and Indian sources created a new paradigm for Islamic art. Classical forms inherited from Byzantine Europe and Greco-Roman sources were discarded in favor of those drawn from the new Islamic hub. Even the design of the city of Baghdad placed it in the "navel of the world", as 9th-century historian al-Ya'qubi wrote.[57]
The ancient city of Baghdad cannot be excavated well, as it lies beneath the modern city. However, Abbasid Samarra, which was largely abandoned, has been well studied, and is known for its surviving examples of stucco reliefs, in which the prehistory of the arabesque can be traced. Motifs known from the stucco at Samarra permit the dating of structures built elsewhere, and are furthermore found on portable objects, particular in wood, from Egypt through to Iran.
Samarra witnessed the "coming of age" of Islamic art. Polychrome painted stucco allowed for experimentation in new styles of moulding and carving. The Abbasid period also coincided with two major innovations in the ceramic arts: the invention of faience, and of metallic lusterware. Hadithic prohibition of the use of golden or silver vessels led to the development of metallic lusterware in pottery, which was made by mixing sulphur and metallic oxides to ochre and vinegar, painted onto an already glazed vessel and then fired a second time. It was expensive, and difficult to manage the second round through the kiln, but the wish to exceed fine Chinese porcelain led to the development of this technique.[58]
Tiraz Textile Fragment, 946–974 Brooklyn Museum
Though the common perception of Abbasid artistic production focuses largely on pottery, the greatest development of the Abbasid period was in textiles. Government-run workshops known as tiraz produced silks bearing the name of the monarch, allowing for aristocrats to demonstrate their loyalty to the ruler. Other silks were pictorial. The utility of silk-ware in wall decor, entrance adornment, and room separation was not as important as its cash value along the "silk route".
Calligraphy began to be used in surface decoration on pottery during this period. Illuminated Qur'ans gained attention, letter-forms now more complex and stylized to the point of slowing down the recognition of the words themselves.[59]
Medieval period (9th–15th centuries)[edit]
Beginning in the 9th century, Abbasid sovereignty was contested in the provinces furthest removed from the Iraqi center. The creation of a Shi'a dynasty, that of the north African Fatimids, followed by the Umayyads in Spain, gave force to this opposition, as well as small dynasties and autonomous governors in Iran.
Spain and the Maghreb[edit]
Moroccan Embroidery fly mask
Pyxis of al-Mughira, Madinat al-Zahra, Spain, 968
The first Islamic dynasty to establish itself in Spain (or al-Andalus) was that of the Spanish Umayyads. As their name indicates, they were descended from the great Umayyads of Syria. After their fall, the Spanish Umayyads were replaced by various autonomous kingdoms, the taifas (1031–91), but the artistic production from this period does not differ significantly from that of the Umayyads. At the end of the 11th century, two Berber tribes, the Almoravids and the Almohads, captured the head of the Maghreb and Spain, successively, bringing Maghrebi influences into art. A series of military victories by Christian monarchs had reduced Islamic Spain by the end of the 14th century to the city of Granada, ruled by the Nasirid dynasty, who managed to maintain their hold until 1492.
Al-Andalus was a great cultural center of the Middle Ages. Besides the great universities, which taught philosophies and sciences yet unknown in Christendom (such as those of Averroes), the territory was an equally vital center for art.
Many techniques were employed in the manufacture of objects. Ivory was used extensively for the manufacture of boxes and caskets. The pyxis of al-Mughira is a masterwork of the genre. In metalwork, large sculptures in the round, normally rather scarce in the Islamic world, served as elaborate receptacles for water or as fountain spouts. A great number of textiles, most notably silks, were exported: many are found in the church treasuries of Christendom, where they served as covering for saints’ reliquaries. From the periods of Maghrebi rule one may also note a taste for painted and sculpted woodwork.
The art of north Africa is not as well studied. The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties are characterized by a tendency toward austerity, for example in mosques with bare walls. Nevertheless, luxury arts continued to be produced in great quantity. The Marinid and Hafsid dynasties developed an important, but poorly understood, architecture, and a significant amount of painted and sculpted woodwork.
Arab Mashriq[edit]
The Fatimid dynasty, which reigned in Egypt from 909 and 1171 introduced crafts and knowledge from politically troubled Baghdad to Cairo.
By the year 1070, the Seljuks emerged as the dominant political force in the Muslim world after they liberated Baghdad and defeated the Byzantines at Manzikert. During the rule of Malik Shah the Seljuks excelled in architecture at the same time in Syria, the atabegs (governors of Seljuk princes) assumed power. Quite independent, they capitalized on conflicts with the Frankish crusaders. In 1171, Saladin seized Fatimid Egypt, and installed the transitory Ayyubid dynasty on the throne. This period is notable for innovations in metallurgy and the widespread manufacture of the Damascus steel swords and daggers and the production ceramics, glass and metalwork of a high quality were produced without interruption, and enameled glass became another important craft.
In 1250, the Mamluks seized control of Egypt from the Ayyubids, and by 1261 had managed to assert themselves in Syria as well their most famous ruler was Baibars. The Mamluks were not, strictly speaking, a dynasty, as they did not maintain a patrilineal mode of succession; in fact, Mamluks were freed Turkish and Caucasian slaves, who (in theory) passed the power to others of like station. This mode of government persevered for three centuries, until 1517, and gave rise to abundant architectural projects (many thousands of buildings were constructed during this period), while patronage of luxury arts favored primarily enameled glass and metalwork, and is remembered as the golden age of medieval Egypt. The "Baptistère de Saint-Louis" in the Louvre is an example of the very high quality of metalwork at this period.
Iran and Central Asia[edit]
Bibi-Khanym Mosque, Samarkand, Uzbekistan, built by Timur in 1399
In Iran and the north of India, the Tahirids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, and Ghurids struggled for power in the 10th century, and art was a vital element of this competition. Great cities were built, such as Nishapur and Ghazni, and the construction of the Great Mosque of Isfahan (which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated. Funerary architecture was also cultivated, while potters developed quite individual styles: kaleidoscopic ornament on a yellow ground; or marbled decorations created by allowing colored glazes to run; or painting with multiple layers of slip under the glaze.
The Seljuqs, nomads of Turkic origin from present-day Mongolia, appeared on the stage of Islamic history toward the end of the 10th century. They seized Baghdad in 1048, before dying out in 1194 in Iran, although the production of "Seljuq" works continued through the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th century under the auspices of smaller, independent sovereigns and patrons. During their time, the center of culture, politics and art production shifted from Damascus and Baghdad to Merv, Nishapur, Rayy, and Isfahan, all in Iran.[60]
Ceramic bowl decorated with slip beneath a transparent glaze, Gorgan, 9th century CE, Early Islamic period, National Museum of Iran
Popular patronage expanded because of a growing economy and new urban wealth. Inscriptions in architecture tended to focus more on the patrons of the piece. For example, sultans, viziers or lower ranking officials would receive often mention in inscriptions on mosques. Meanwhile, growth in mass market production and sale of art made it more commonplace and accessible to merchants and professionals.[61] Because of increased production, many relics have survived from the Seljuk era and can be easily dated. In contrast, the dating of earlier works is more ambiguous. It is, therefore, easy to mistake Seljuk art as new developments rather than inheritance from classical Iranian and Turkic sources.[62]
Innovations in ceramics from this period include the production of minai ware and the manufacture of vessels, not out of clay, but out of a silicon paste ("fritware"), while metalworkers began to encrust bronze with precious metals. Across the Seljuk era, from Iran to Iraq, a unification of book painting can be seen. These paintings have animalistic figures that convey strong symbolic meaning of fidelity, treachery, and courage.[63]
During the 13th century, the Mongols under the leadership of Genghis Khan swept through the Islamic world. After his death, his empire was divided among his sons, forming many dynasties: the Yuan in China, the Ilkhanids in Iran and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and southern Russia.
Ilkhanids[edit]
A rich civilization developed under these "little khans", who were originally subservient to the Yuan emperor, but rapidly became independent. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary, and retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north-south orientation of the buildings. At the same time a process of "iranisation" took place, and construction according to previously established types, such as the "Iranian plan" mosques, was resumed. The art of the Persian book was also born under this dynasty, and was encouraged by aristocratic patronage of large manuscripts such as the Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani. New techniques in ceramics appeared, such as the lajvardina (a variation on luster-ware), and Chinese influence is perceptible in all arts.
The Golden Horde and the Timurids[edit]
The early arts of the nomads of the Golden Horde are poorly understood. Research is only beginning, and evidence for town planning and architecture has been discovered. There was also a significant production of works in gold, which often show a strong Chinese influence. Much of this work is preserved today in the Hermitage.
The beginning of the third great period of medieval Iranian art, that of the Timurids, was marked by the invasion of a third group of nomads, under the direction of Timur. During the 15th century this dynasty gave rise to a golden age in Persian manuscript painting, including renowned painters such as Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, but also a multitude of workshops and patrons.
Syria, Iraq, Anatolia[edit]
Çifte Minareli Medrese in Erzurum. Before 1265
The Seljuq Turks pushed beyond Iran into Anatolia, winning a victory over the Byzantine Empire in the Battle of Manzikert (1071), and setting up a sultanate independent of the Iranian branch of the dynasty. Their power seems largely to have waned following the Mongol invasions in 1243, but coins were struck under their name until 1304. Architecture and objects synthesized various styles, both Iranian and Syrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions difficult. The art of woodworking was cultivated, and at least one illustrated manuscript dates to this period.
Caravanserais dotted the major trade routes across the region, placed at intervals of a day's travel. The construction of these caravanserai inns improved in scale, fortification, and replicability. Also, they began to contain central mosques.
The Turkmen were nomads who settled in the area of Lake Van. They were responsible for a number of mosques, such as the Blue Mosque in Tabriz, and they had a decisive influence after the fall of the Anatolian Seljuqs. Starting in the 13th century, Anatolia was dominated by small Turkmen dynasties, which progressively chipped away at Byzantine territory. Little by little a major dynasty emerged, that of the Ottomans, who, after 1450, are referred to as the "first Ottomans". Turkmen artworks can be seen as the forerunners of Ottoman art, in particular the "Milet" ceramics and the first blue-and-white Anatolian works.
Islamic book painting witnessed its first golden age in the thirteenth century, mostly from Syria and Iraq. Influence from Byzantine visual vocabulary (blue and gold coloring, angelic and victorious motifs, symbology of drapery) combined with Mongoloid facial types in 12th-century book frontispieces.
Earlier coinage necessarily featured Arabic epigraphs, but as Ayyubid society became more cosmopolitan and multi-ethnic, coinage began to feature astrological, figural (featuring a variety of Greek, Seleucid, Byzantine, Sasanian, and contemporary Turkish rulers' busts), and animal images.
Hillenbrand suggests that the medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat, copied and illustrated by Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti were some of the earliest "coffee table books". They were among the first texts to hold up a mirror to daily life in Islamic art, portraying humorous stories and showing little to no inheritance of pictorial tradition.[64]
South Asia[edit]
Mughal Arabesque inlays at the Agra Fort
The Indian subcontinent, some northern parts of which conquered by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in the 9th century, did not become autonomous until 1206, when the Muizzi, or slave-kings, seized power, marking the birth of the Delhi Sultanate. Later other competing sultanates were founded in Bengal, Kashmir, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Malwa, and in the north Deccan (the Bahmanids). They separated themselves little by little from Persian traditions, giving birth to an original approach to architecture and urbanism, marked in particular by interaction with Hindu art. Study of the production of objects has hardly begun, but a lively art of manuscript illumination is known. The period of the sultanates ended with the arrival of the Mughals, who progressively seized their territories.
The Three Empires[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Ottomans[edit]
16th century İznik pottery
The Ottoman Empire, whose origins lie in the 14th century, continued in existence until shortly after World War I. This impressive longevity, combined with an immense territory (stretching from Anatolia to Tunisia), led naturally to a vital and distinctive art, including plentiful architecture, mass production of ceramics for both tiles and vessels, most notably Iznik ware, important metalwork and jewellery, Turkish paper marbling Ebru, Turkish carpets as well as tapestries and exceptional Ottoman miniatures and decorative Ottoman illumination.
Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two "books of festivals" (Surname-I Hümayun), one dating from the end of the 16th century, and the other from the era of Sultan Murad III. These books contain numerous illustrations and exhibit a strong Safavid influence; thus they may have been inspired by books captured in the course of the Ottoman-Safavid wars of the 16th century.
The Ottomans are also known for their development of a bright red pigment, "Iznik red", in ceramics, which reached their height in the 16th century, both in tile-work and pottery, using floral motifs that were considerably transformed from their Chinese and Persian models. From the 18th century, Ottoman art came under considerable European influence, the Turks adopting versions of Rococo which had a lasting and not very beneficial effect, leading to over-fussy decoration.
Mughals[edit]
An illustrated manuscript of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan attending the marriage procession of his eldest son Dara Shikoh. Mughal-Era fireworks brightened the night throughout the wedding ceremony.
The Mughal Empire in India lasted from 1526 until (technically) 1858, although from the late 17th century power flowed away from the emperors to local rulers, and later European powers, above all the British Raj, who were the main power in India by the late 18th century. The period is most notable for luxury arts of the court, and Mughal styles heavily influenced local Hindu and later Sikh rulers as well. The Mughal miniature began by importing Persian artists, especially a group brought back by Humayun when in exile in Safavid Persia, but soon local artists, many Hindu, were trained in the style. Realistic portraiture, and images of animals and plants, was developed in Mughal art beyond what the Persians had so far achieved, and the size of miniatures increased, sometimes onto canvas. The Mughal court had access to European prints and other art, and these had increasing influence, shown in the gradual introduction of aspects of Western graphical perspective, and a wider range of poses in the human figure. Some Western images were directly copied or borrowed from. As the courts of local Nawabs developed, distinct provincial styles with stronger influence from traditional Indian painting developed in both Muslim and Hindu princely courts.
The arts of jewelry and hardstone carving of gemstones, such as jasper, jade, adorned with rubies, diamonds and emeralds are mentioned by the Mughal chronicler Abu'l Fazl, and a range of examples survive; the series of hard stone daggers in the form of horses’ heads is particularly impressive.
The Mughals were also fine metallurgists they introduced Damascus steel and refined the locally produced Wootz steel, the Mughals also introduced the "bidri" technique of metalwork in which silver motifs are pressed against a black background. Famous Mughal metallurgists like Ali Kashmiri and Muhammed Salih Thatawi created the seamless celestial globes.
Safavids and Qajars[edit]
Entrance to Sheykh Lotfollah mosque, Naqsh-e Jahan Square, Isfahan
The Iranian Safavids, a dynasty stretching from 1501 to 1786, is distinguished from the Mughal and Ottoman Empires, and earlier Persian rulers, in part through the Shi'a faith of its shahs, which they succeeded in making the majority denomination in Persia. Ceramic arts are marked by the strong influence of Chinese porcelain, often executed in blue and white. Architecture flourished, attaining a high point with the building program of Shah Abbas in Isfahan, which included numerous gardens, palaces (such as Ali Qapu), an immense bazaar, and a large imperial mosque.
Bou Inania Madrasa, Fes, Morocco, zellige mosaic tiles forming elaborate geometric tessellations
The art of manuscript illumination also achieved new heights, in particular in the Shah Tahmasp Shahnameh, an immense copy of Ferdowsi’s poem containing more than 250 paintings. In the 17th century a new type of painting develops, based around the album (muraqqa). The albums were the creations of conoisseurs who bound together single sheets containing paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists, sometimes excised from earlier books, and other times created as independent works. The paintings of Reza Abbasi figure largely in this new art of the book, depicting one or two larger figures, typically idealized beauties in a garden setting, often using the grisaille techniques previously used for border paintings for the background.
After the fall of the Safavids, the Qajars, a Turkmen tribe established from centuries on the banks of the Caspian Sea, assumed power. Qajar art displays an increasing European influence, as in the large oil paintings portraying the Qajar shahs. Steelwork also assumed a new importance. Like the Ottomans, the Qajar dynasty survived until 1925, a few years after the First World War.
Modern period[edit]
From the 15th century, the number of smaller Islamic courts began to fall, as the Ottoman Empire, and later the Safavids and European powers, swallowed them up; this had an effect on Islamic art, which was usually strongly led by the patronage of the court. From at least the 18th century onwards, elite Islamic art was increasingly influenced by European styles, and in the applied arts either largely adopted Western styles, or ceased to develop, retaining whatever style was prevalent at some point in the late 18th or early 19th centuries. Many industries with very long histories, such as pottery in Iran, largely closed, while others, like metalwork in brass, became generally frozen in style, with much of their production going to tourists or exported as oriental exotica.
The carpet industry has remained large, but mostly uses designs that originated before 1700, and competes with machine-made imitations both locally and around the world. Arts and crafts with a broader social base, like the zellige mosaic tiles of the Maghreb, have often survived better. Islamic countries have developed modern and contemporary art, with very vigorous art worlds in some countries, but the degree to which these should be grouped in a special category as "Islamic art" is questionable, although many artists deal with Islam-related themes, and use traditional elements such as calligraphy. Especially in the oil-rich parts of the Islamic world much modern architecture and interior decoration makes use of motifs and elements drawn from the heritage of Islamic art.
See also[edit]
Calligraffiti
Islamic culture
Islamic graffiti
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghausen and Oleg Grabar, 2001, Islamic Art and Architecture: 650–1250, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-08869-4, p.3; Brend, 10
Jump up ^ J. M. Bloom; S. S. Blair (2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture, Vol. II. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. vii. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
Jump up ^ Davies, Penelope J.E. Denny, Walter B. Hofrichter, Frima Fox. Jacobs, Joseph. Roberts, Ann M. Simon, David L. Janson's History of Art, Prentice Hall; 2007, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Seventh Edition, ISBN 0-13-193455-4 pg. 277
Jump up ^ MSN Encarta: Islamic Art and architecture. Archived from the original on 2009-11-01.
Jump up ^ Melikian, Souren (December 5, 2008). "Qatar's Museum of Islamic Art: Despite flaws, a house of masterpieces". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved September 6, 2011. This is a European construct of the 19th century that gained wide acceptance following a display of Les Arts Musulmans at the old Trocadero palace in Paris during the 1889 Exposition Universelle. The idea of "Islamic art" has even less substance than the notion of "Christian art" from the British Isles to Germany to Russia during the 1000 years separating the reigns of Charlemagne and Queen Victoria might have.
Jump up ^ Melikian, Souren (April 24, 2004). "Toward a clearer vision of 'Islamic' art". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved September 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ Blair, Shirley S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (2003). "The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of an Unwieldy Field". The Art Bulletin. 85 (1): 152–184. JSTOR 3177331.
Jump up ^ De Guise, Lucien. "What is Islamic Art?". Islamica Magazine. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Madden (1975), pp.423–430
Jump up ^ Thompson, Muhammad; Begum, Nasima. "Islamic Textile Art: Anomalies in Kilims". Salon du Tapis d'Orient. TurkoTek. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Alexenberg, Melvin L. (2006). The future of art in a digital age: from Hellenistic to Hebraic consciousness. Intellect Ltd. p. 55. ISBN 1-84150-136-0.
Jump up ^ Backhouse, Tim. "Only God is Perfect". Islamic and Geometric Art. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
Jump up ^ John L. Esposito (2010), The future of Islam, Oxford University Press, page 42
Jump up ^ The Arab Contribution to Islamic Art: From the Seventh to the Fifteenth Centuries, Wijdan Ali, American Univ in Cairo Press, December 10, 1999, ISBN 977-424-476-1
Jump up ^ From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art Archived 2004-12-03 at the Wayback Machine., Wijdan Ali, EJOS (Electronic Journal of Oriental Studies), volume IV, issue 7, p. 1-24, 2001
Jump up ^ Bondak, Marwa. "Islamic Art History: An Influential Period". Mozaico. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Islamic Archaeology in the Sudan - Page 22, Intisar Soghayroun Elzein - 2004
Jump up ^ Arts, p. 223. see nos. 278–290
Jump up ^ J. Bloom; S. Blair (2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. pp. 192 and 207. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
Jump up ^ Davies, Penelope J.E. Denny, Walter B. Hofrichter, Frima Fox. Jacobs, Joseph. Roberts, Ann M. Simon, David L. Janson's History of Art, Prentice Hall; 2007, Upper Saddle, New Jersey. Seventh Edition, ISBN 0-13-193455-4 pg. 298
Jump up ^ King and Sylvester, throughout, but 9–28, 49–50, & 59 in particular
Jump up ^ King and Sylvester, 27, 61–62, as "The Medici Mamluk Carpet"
Jump up ^ King and Sylvester, 59–66, 79–83
Jump up ^ King and Sylvester: Spanish carpets: 11–12, 50–52; Balkans: 77 and passim
Jump up ^ Mason (1995), p. 5
Jump up ^ Henderson, J.; McLoughlin, S. D.; McPhail, D. S. (2004). "Radical changes in Islamic glass technology: evidence for conservatism and experimentation with new glass recipes from early and middle Islamic Raqqa, Syria". Archaeometry. 46 (3): 439–68. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2004.00167.x.
Jump up ^ Mason (1995), p. 7
Jump up ^ Arts, 206–207
Jump up ^ See Rawson throughout; Canby, 120–123, and see index; Jones & Mitchell, 206–211
Jump up ^ Savage, 175, suggests that the Persians had made some experiments towards producing it, and the earliest European porcelain, Medici porcelain, was made in the late 16th century, perhaps with a Persian or Levantine assistant on the team.
Jump up ^ Baer, Eva (1983). Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art. State University of New York Press. pp. 58, 86, 143, 151, 176, 201, 226, 243, 292, 304. ISBN 0-87395-602-8.
Jump up ^ Arts, 131, 135. The Introduction (pp. 131–135) is by Ralph Pinder-Wilson, who shared the catalogue entries with Waffiya Essy.
Jump up ^ Encyclopaedia Judaica, "Glass", Online version
Jump up ^ Arts, 131–133
Jump up ^ Arts, 131, 141
Jump up ^ Arts, 141
Jump up ^ Endnote 111 in Roman glass: reflections on cultural change, Fleming, Stuart. see also endnote 110 for Jewish glassworkers
Jump up ^ Arts, 131, 133–135
Jump up ^ Arts, 131–135, 141–146; quote, 134
Jump up ^ Arts, 134–135
Jump up ^ Baer, Eva (1983). Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art. SUNY Press. pp. whole book. ISBN 978-0-87395-602-4.
Jump up ^ Hadithic texts against gold and silver vessels
Jump up ^ Arts, 201, and earlier pages for animal shapes.
Jump up ^ But see Arts, 170, where the standard view is disputed
Jump up ^ "Base of a ewer with Zodiac medallions [Iran] (91.1.530)". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, July 2011; see also on astrology, Carboni, Stefano. Following the Stars: Images of the Zodiac in Islamic Art. (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1997), 16. The inscription reads: “Bi-l-yumn wa al-baraka…” meaning “With bliss and divine grace…”
Jump up ^ Arts, 157–160, and exhibits 161–204
Jump up ^ See the relevant sections in "Arts"
Jump up ^ Fatimid Rock Crystal Ewers, Most Valuable Objects in Islamic Art
Jump up ^ Arts, 120–121
Jump up ^ Table in the Victoria & Albert Museum
Jump up ^ Rogers and Ward, 156
Jump up ^ Arts, 147–150, and exhibits following
Jump up ^ Arts, 65–68; 74, no. 3
Jump up ^ Louvre, Suaire de St-Josse Archived 2011-06-23 at the Wayback Machine.. Exhibited as no. 4 in Arts, 74.
Jump up ^ Arts, 68, 71, 82–86, 106–108, 110–111, 114–115
Jump up ^ Gruber, World of Art
Jump up ^ Hillenbrand (1999), p.40
Jump up ^ Hillenbrand (1999), p.54
Jump up ^ Hillenbrand (1999), p.58
Jump up ^ Hillenbrand (1999), p.89
Jump up ^ Hillenbrand (1999), p.91
Jump up ^ Hillenbrand (1999), Chapter 4
Jump up ^ Hillenbrand, p.100
Jump up ^ Hillenbrand, p.128-131
References[edit]
History of art
Prehistoric
Ancient
European
Asian
Islamic
Painting (Western)
Art history
v
t
e
Books and journals
Ali, Wijdan (2001). "From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art" (PDF). EJOS. 4 (7). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2004-12-03.
Blair, S. Bloom, J. 'The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of an Unwieldy Field'. The Art Bulletin, 2003, 85, 1, 152-184, PDF
Bloom, Sheila and Jonathan, eds., Rivers of Paradise: Water in Islamic Art and Culture, Yale University Press, 2009.
Canby, Sheila R. (ed). Shah Abbas; The Remaking of Iran, 2009, British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0-7141-2452-0
Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2003). Islamic Art and Architecture 650–1250 (2nd ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-08869-4.
"Arts": Jones, Dalu & Michell, George, (eds); The Arts of Islam, Arts Council of Great Britain, 1976, ISBN 0-7287-0081-6
King, Donald and Sylvester, David eds. The Eastern Carpet in the Western World, From the 15th to the 17th century, Arts Council of Great Britain, London, 1983, ISBN 0-7287-0362-9
Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978-0-500-20305-7
Levey, Michael; The World of Ottoman Art, 1975, Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0-500-27065-1
Madden, Edward H. (1975). "Some Characteristics of Islamic Art". Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 33 (4).
Mason, Robert B. (1995). "New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. XII. ISBN 90-04-10314-7.
Rawson, Jessica, Chinese Ornament: The lotus and the dragon, 1984, British Museum Publications, ISBN 0-7141-1431-6
Rogers J.M. and Ward R.M.; Süleyman the Magnificent, 1988, British Museum Publications ISBN 0-7141-1440-5
Savage, George. Porcelain Through the Ages, Penguin, (2nd edn.) 1963
Sinclair, Susan. Bibliography of Art and Architecture in the Islamic World. Volume 1: Art. 2012, BRILL
Further reading[edit]
Abdullahi Y.; Embi M. R. B (2015). Evolution Of Abstract Vegetal Ornaments On Islamic Architecture. International Journal of Architectural Research: Archnet-IJAR.
Carboni, Stefano; Whitehouse, David (2001). Glass of the sultans. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0-87099-986-9.
Dodds, J.D. (1992). Al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-636-8.
Wilkinson, Charles K. (1973). Nishapur: pottery of the early Islamic period. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0-87099-076-4.
Yahya Abdullahi; Mohamed Rashid Bin Embi (2013). Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns. Frontiers of Architectural Research: Elsevier.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Islamic art.
Play media
Video:Islamic art at the Freer Gallery of Art; 0:57
Wikisource has the text of a 1905 New International Encyclopedia article about Islamic art.
ARCHNET: Islamic Architecture Community: Extensive archive of scholarly articles, full publications and pictures
Museum With No Frontiers: extensive site on Islamic art
Victoria & Albert Museum: Islamic Middle East Collections including contemporary pieces
Museum of Islamic Art, Doha, Qatar:
MATHAF: Arab Museum of Modern Art Qatar
CalligraphyIslamic: Extensive site on Islamic calligraphy
Palace and Mosque: Islamic Art from the Victoria and Albert Museum at the National Gallery of Art, Washington
Artistic Exchange: Europe and the Islamic World Selections from the Permanent Collection at the National Gallery of Art
Islamic Art Network – Thesaurus Islamicus Foundation
Islamic Arts & Architecture
Islamic Art in Modern Architecture
The Kirkor Minassian Collection at the Library of Congress has decorative Islamic book bindings.
show
v
t
e
Islamic art
Architecture
Regional styles
Ayyubid
Azerbaijani
Chinese
Indo-Islamic
Indonesian
Moorish
Moroccan
Mudéjar
Mughal
Ottoman
Pakistani
Persian
Somali
Sudano-Sahelian
Tatar
Timurid
Umayyad
Elements
Ablaq
Banna'i
Iwan
Jali
Mashrabiya
Mihrab
Minaret
Mocárabe
Muqarnas
Yeseria
See also Decoration
Arts
Regional styles
Persian (Early, Qajar, Safavid)
Turkish (Ottoman)
Carpets
Gul
Kilim
Motifs
Persian
Turkish
Prayer
Pottery
Azulejo
Fritware
Hispano-Moresque
İznik
Lustreware
Persian
Chinese influence
Textiles
Batik
Damask
Ikat
Embroidery
Soumak
Suzani
Woodwork
Khatam
Minbar
Other media
Brass
Damascus steel
Glass
Hardstone carving
Ivory carving
Stained glass
Shabaka
Arts of
the book
Miniatures
Arabic
Mughal
Ottoman
Persian
Calligraphy
Arabic
Diwani
Kufic
Muhaqqaq
Naskh
Nastaʿlīq
Persian
Sini
Taʿlīq
Thuluth
Tughra
Other arts
Muraqqa
Hilya
Ottoman illumination
Decoration
Arabesque
Geometric patterns
Girih (tiles)
Zellige
The garden
Charbagh
Mughal
Ottoman
Paradise
Persian
Museums
Berlin
Cairo
Doha
Ghazni
Istanbul (Arts, Calligraphy Art)
Jerusalem (Islamic Museum, L. A. Mayer Institute)
Kuala Lumpur
London (British Museum, V&A)
Los Angeles
Marrakech (Museum, Majorelle Garden)
Melbourne
Paris (Arab World Institute, Louvre)
Singapore
Toronto (Aga Khan)
Tripoli
Principles,
influences
Islamic Art: Mirror of the Invisible World
Aniconism in Islam
Indo-Saracenic Revival
Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe
Influences on Western art
Grotesque
Moresque
Mathematics and architecture
Moorish Revival
Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting
Pseudo-Kufic
Stilfragen
Topkapı Scroll
show
v
t
e
Islamic studies
Arts
Arabesque
Architecture
Calligraphy
The garden
Geometric pattern
Literature
Music
Poetry
Pottery
Influences on Western art
Economics
History
Agency
Banking
Capitalism
Poverty
Socialism
Trust
Usury
Welfare
History
Timeline
Historiography
Early social change
Early conquests
Golden Age
World contributions to Medieval Europe
Reception in Early Modern Europe
Law and politics
Anarchism
Democracy
consensus
consultation
Feminism
Jurisprudence
use of analogy
decision-making
schools
Peace
Quietism
Secularism
Early social change
State
Philosophy
Early
Contemporary
Theology
dialectic
Ethics
Logic
Astrology
Early sociology
solidarity
Medieval science
Timeline
Alchemy and chemistry
Astronomy
cosmology
Geography and cartography
Inventions
Mathematics
Medicine
ophthalmology
Physics
Psychology
Other fields
Arab Agricultural Revolution
Education
teaching permission
elementary school
Sufi studies
mysticism
cosmology
philosophy
show
v
t
e
Islam topics
Outline of Islam
Beliefs
God in Islam
Tawhid
Muhammad
In Islam
Prophets of Islam
Angels
Revelation
Predestination
Judgement Day
Five Pillars
Shahada
Salah
Sawm
Zakat
Hajj
History
Leaders
Timeline of Islamic history
Early conquests
Golden Age
Historiography
Sahaba
Ahl al-Bayt
Shi'a Imams
Caliphates
Rashidun
Umayyad
Abbasid
Córdoba
Fatimid
Almohad
Sokoto
Ottoman
Religious texts
Quran
Sunnah
Hadith
Tafsir
Seerah
Denominations
Sunni
Shia
Ibadi
Nation of Islam
Ahmadiyya
Quranism
Non-denominational
Life
Culture
Animals
Art
Calendar
Children
Clothing
Holidays
Mosques
Madrasas
Moral teachings
Music
Philosophy
Political aspects
Qurbani
Science
medieval
Social welfare
Women
LGBT
Islam by country
show
Law
Jurisprudence
Economics
Banking
Economic history
Sukuk
Takaful
Murabaha
Riba
Hygiene
Ghusl
Miswak
Najis
Tayammum
Toilet
Wudu
Marriage
Sex
Marriage contract
Mahr
Mahram
Masturbation
Nikah
Nikah mut'ah
Zina
Other aspects
Cleanliness
Criminal
Dhabiĥa
Dhimmi
Divorce
Diet
Ethics
Etiquette
Gambling
Gender segregation
Honorifics
Hudud
Inheritance
Jizya
Leadership
Ma malakat aymanukum
Military
POWs
Slavery
Sources of law
Theological
baligh
kalam
hide
Islamic studies
Arts
Arabesque
Architecture
Calligraphy
Carpets
Gardens
Geometric patterns
Music
Pottery
Medieval science
Alchemy and chemistry
Astronomy
Cosmology
Geography and cartography
Mathematics
Medicine
Ophthalmology
Physics
Philosophy
Early
Contemporary
Eschatology
Theological
Other areas
Astrology
Creationism (evolution)
Feminism
Inventions
Liberalism and progressivism
Literature
poetry
Psychology
Shu'ubiyya
Conversion to mosques
Other religions
Christianity
Mormonism
Protestantism
Hinduism
Jainism
Judaism
Sikhism
Related topics
Apostasy
Criticism of Islam
Cultural Muslim
Islamism
Criticism
Post-Islamism
Qutbism
Salafi movement
Islamophobia
Incidents
Islamic terrorism
Islamic view of miracles
Domestic violence
Nursing
Persecution of Muslims
Quran and miracles
Symbolism
Islam portal
Category
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&oldid=843007020"
Categories:
Islamic art
Art genres
Hidden categories:
Pages using web citations with no URL
Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL
Webarchive template wayback links
Articles needing additional references from May 2013
All articles needing additional references
Articles containing video clips
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Asturianu
বাংলা
Беларуская
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
ދިވެހިބަސް
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
Қазақша
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
ଓଡ଼ିଆ
پښتو
Polski
Português
Русский
Shqip
Slovenčina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
中文
40 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 26 May 2018, at 06:27.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Arabesque_(Islamic_art)
mw-redirect
Arabesque (Islamic art)

attrs: href title

attrs: class style

values:
/wiki/The_Ardabil_Carpet
mw-redirect
The Ardabil Carpet

values:
/wiki/Early_Christian_art
mw-redirect
Early Christian art

values:
/wiki/Sassanian_Empire
mw-redirect
Sassanian Empire

values:
/wiki/Arabic_language
mw-redirect
Arabic language

values:
/wiki/Khamsa_of_Nizami
mw-redirect
Khamsa of Nizami

values:
/wiki/Mughal_miniature
mw-redirect
Mughal miniature

values:
/wiki/Umayyad_Desert_Castles
mw-redirect
Umayyad Desert Castles

values:
/wiki/Persian_poetry
mw-redirect
Persian poetry

values:
/wiki/Oriental_rugs
mw-redirect
Oriental rugs

values:
/wiki/Turkish_carpet
mw-redirect
Turkish carpet

attrs: alt src width height class data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Persian_rug
mw-redirect
Persian rug

values: Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting

values:
/wiki/Pitti_Palace
mw-redirect
Pitti Palace

values:
/wiki/Coats_of_arms
mw-redirect
Coats of arms

values:
/wiki/Papal_Palace,_Avignon
mw-redirect
Papal Palace, Avignon

values:
/wiki/Mongol_invasion
mw-redirect
Mongol invasion

values:
/wiki/Early_Modern
mw-redirect
Early Modern

values:
/wiki/%C4%B0znik_pottery
mw-redirect
İznik pottery

values:
/wiki/Friday_Mosque_of_Herat
mw-redirect
Friday Mosque of Herat

values:
/wiki/Sassanian_glass
mw-redirect
Sassanian glass

values:
/wiki/Ancient_Roman_glass
mw-redirect
Ancient Roman glass

values:
/wiki/Norman_Sicily
mw-redirect
Norman Sicily

values:
/wiki/Rock_crystal
mw-redirect
Rock crystal

values:
/wiki/Signs_of_the_Zodiac
mw-redirect
Signs of the Zodiac

values:
/wiki/Granada,_Spain
mw-redirect
Granada, Spain

values:
/wiki/Shroud_of_St_Josse
mw-redirect
Shroud of St Josse

values:
/wiki/Mshatta_facade
mw-redirect
Mshatta facade

values:
/wiki/Pergamon_Museum,_Berlin
mw-redirect
Pergamon Museum, Berlin

values:
/wiki/Muslim_conquest
mw-redirect
Muslim conquest

values:
/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Damascus
mw-redirect
Great Mosque of Damascus

values:
/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty
mw-redirect
Abbasid dynasty

values:
/wiki/Chinese_porcelain
mw-redirect
Chinese porcelain

values: Edit section: Medieval period (9th–15th centuries)

values:
/wiki/Shi%27a_Islam
mw-redirect
Shi'a Islam

values:
/wiki/Caliph_of_C%C3%B3rdoba
mw-redirect
Caliph of Córdoba

values:
/wiki/Almohad_dynasty
mw-redirect
Almohad dynasty

values:
/wiki/Great_Seljuq_Empire
mw-redirect
Great Seljuq Empire

values:
/wiki/Malik_Shah_I
mw-redirect
Malik Shah I

values:
/wiki/Yuan_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Yuan Dynasty

values: Edit section: The Golden Horde and the Timurids

values:
/wiki/Turkmen_people
mw-redirect
Turkmen people

values:
/wiki/The_Blue_Mosque_of_Tabriz
mw-redirect
The Blue Mosque of Tabriz

values:
/wiki/Ottoman_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Ottoman Dynasty

values:
/wiki/Kashmir_region
mw-redirect
Kashmir region

values:
/wiki/Malwa_(Madhya_Pradesh)
mw-redirect
Malwa (Madhya Pradesh)

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced

values:
/wiki/Surname-I_H%C3%BCmayun
mw-redirect
Surname-I Hümayun

values:
/wiki/Mughal_Emperor
mw-redirect
Mughal Emperor

values:
/wiki/Dara_Shikoh
mw-redirect
Dara Shikoh

values:
/wiki/Graphical_perspective
mw-redirect
Graphical perspective

values: Muhammed Salih Thatawi (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Celestial_globes
mw-redirect
Celestial globes

values:
/wiki/Sheykh_Lotfollah_mosque
mw-redirect
Sheykh Lotfollah mosque

values:
/wiki/Blue_and_white_porcelain
mw-redirect
Blue and white porcelain

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/3177331

values:
/wiki/Levantines_(Latin_Christians)
mw-redirect
Levantines (Latin Christians)

values: File:WLA vanda Ottoman marquetry and tile-top table 2.jpg

values:
/wiki/Victoria_%26_Albert_Museum
mw-redirect
Victoria & Albert Museum

values: -moz-column-width: 28em; -webkit-column-width: 28em; column-width: 28em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/File:Lascaux2.jpg
image
Detail from the Lascaux Caves paintings

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;padding-top:0.15em;border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-spacing:0.2em;

values: <video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/854px--Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" autoplay="" style="width:854px;height:480px" class="kskin" data-durationhint="57.517" data-startoffset="0" data-mwtitle="Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.480p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="SD WebM (480P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 480P" data-transcodekey="480p.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" data-bandwidth="1167920" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.720p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="HD WebM (720P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 720P" data-transcodekey="720p.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" data-bandwidth="1841032" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.1080p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Full HD WebM (1080P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 1080P" data-transcodekey="1080p.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" data-bandwidth="4987376" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Original WebM file, 1,920 × 1,080 (10.34 Mbps)" data-shorttitle="WebM source" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" data-bandwidth="10344529" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.160p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Low bandwidth WebM (160P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 160P" data-transcodekey="160p.webm" data-width="284" data-height="160" data-bandwidth="229864" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.240p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Small WebM (240P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="358272" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="WebM (360P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 360P" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" data-bandwidth="621376" data-framerate="29.97"/></video>

values: s:The New International Encyclopædia/Mohammedan Art

values:
nofollow
http://archnet.org/library/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.mia.org.qa/en/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.mathaf.org.qa/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.islamic-art.org

values:
nofollow
http://www.islamic-arts.org/
external text

values:
/wiki/Chinese_mosques
mw-redirect
Chinese mosques

values:
/wiki/Persian_architecture
mw-redirect
Persian architecture

values: Samarkand Shah-i Zinda Tuman Aqa complex cropped2.jpg

values:
navbox-image
7
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
/wiki/Islamic_lustreware
mw-redirect
Islamic lustreware

values:
/wiki/Ottoman_gardens
mw-redirect
Ottoman gardens

values: Islamic Art: Mirror of the Invisible World

values: Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values: Reception of Islam in Early Modern Europe

values: Timeline of science and engineering in the Islamic world

values: Geography and cartography in medieval Islam

values: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values:
LawJurisprudence
font-size:114%;margin:0 4em
hlist hlist-separated

values:
/wiki/Islamic_theological_jurisprudence
mw-redirect
Islamic theological jurisprudence

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values: Liberalism and progressivism within Islam

values: Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques

values: nowraplinks collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: Category:Pages using web citations with no URL

values: Category:Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from May 2013

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:Articles containing video clips

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Islamic_art
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: فن إسلامي – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values: ইসলামী শিল্প – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values: Ісламскае мастацтва – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values: ފައްނު – Divehi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-dv
display: none;

values: Ισλαμική τέχνη – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: هنر اسلامی – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: इस्लामी कला – Hindi

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-id
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: אמנות מוסלמית – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

values: Ислам өнері – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Исламска уметност – Macedonian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ms
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values: ଇସ୍ଲାମୀ କଳା – Odia

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-or
display: none;

values: اسلامي هنر – Pashto

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

values: Исламское искусство – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ru
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-sq badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values: Исламска уметност – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: Санъати исломӣ – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Ісламське мистецтво – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: اسلامی فنون – Urdu

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Islamic_art rootpage-Islamic_art skin-vector action-view