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History of the United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force became a separate military service on 18 September 1947 with the implementation of the National Security Act of 1947.[1][2] The Act created the National Military Establishment, later renamed the United States Department of Defense, which was composed of four of the five branches, the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and a newly created Air Force.[3] Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was divided between the Army for land-based operations and the Navy and Marine Corps for sea-based operations from aircraft carrier and amphibious aircraft. The Army created the first antecedent of the Air Force on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual separation 40 years later. The predecessor organizations leading up to today's U.S. Air Force are:
Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps (1 August 1907 – 18 July 1914)
Aviation Section, Signal Corps (18 July 1914 – 20 May 1918)
Division of Military Aeronautics (20 May 1918 – 24 May 1918)
Air Service, U.S. Army (24 May 1918 – 2 July 1926)
U.S. Army Air Corps (2 July 1926 – 20 June 1941)*
U.S. Army Air Forces (20 June 1941 – 17 September 1947)**
* The Air Corps became a subordinate element of the Army Air Forces on 20 June 1941, and was abolished as an administrative organization on 9 March 1942. It continued to exist as a branch of the Army (similar to the infantry, quartermaster, or artillery) until reorganization provisions of the National Security Act of 1947 (61 Stat. 495), 26 July 1947.[4]
**The Army Air Forces were abolished by Transfer Order 1, Office of the Secretary of Defense, 26 September 1947, implementing the same provisions. Transfer Order 1 was the first of 200 Army-Air Force transfer agreements drawn up in June and July 1947, and ordered the transfer of all military and civilian personnel of the Army Air Forces to the Department of the Air Force and the USAF.[4] The final transfer order was signed 22 June 1949.
Contents
[hide]
1 World War I and between wars
1.1 World War I
1.2 Billy Mitchell: Air power court martialed
1.3 Command structure
1.4 Technology
2 World War II
3 Cold War and war in Korea
4 Vietnam War
5 Combat operations since 1975
5.1 Gulf War
5.2 Bosnia and Kosovo
5.3 Global War on Terror
6 2010s
7 See also
8 Notes and references
9 Further reading
10 External links
World War I and between wars[edit]
U.S. aircraft cockade, or roundel, of late World War I
World War I[edit]
In 1917, upon the United States' entry into World War I, the first major U.S. aviation combat force was created when an Air Service was formed as part of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). Major General Mason Patrick commanded the Air Service of the AEF; his deputy was Brigadier General Billy Mitchell. These aviation units, some of which were trained in France, provided tactical support for the U.S. Army, especially during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel and the Meuse-Argonne offensives. Among the aces of the AEF Air Service were Captain Eddie Rickenbacker and 2nd Lieutenant Frank Luke. Concurrent with the creation of this combat force, the U.S. Army's aviation establishment in the United States was removed from control of the Signal Corps and placed directly under the United States Secretary of War. An assistant secretary was created to direct the Army Air Service, which had dual responsibilities for development and procurement of aircraft, and raising and training of air units. With the end of the First World War, the AEF's Air Service was dissolved and the Army Air Service in the United States largely demobilized.
In 1920, the Air Service became a branch of the Army and in 1926 was renamed the Army Air Corps. During this period, the Air Corps began experimenting with new techniques, including air-to-air refueling and the development of the B-9 and the Martin B-10, the first all-metal monoplane bombers, and new fighters.
Billy Mitchell: Air power court martialed[edit]
Americans were fascinated with aviation in the 1920s and 1930s and refused to allow War Department conservatism to block innovation. General Billy Mitchell, the deputy director of the Air Service sought to wrest control of coastal defense away from the Navy. He went public insisting that his planes could sink battleships any day, a claim proven with a series of tests that culminated in the sinking of the Ostfriesland. Mitchell lost his self-control in 1925 when he accused the Navy in a press release of "incompetency, criminal negligence and almost treasonable administration of the national defense."[5] He received the highly publicized court martial he wanted, and was allowed to expound his theory that air power alone would suffice to win the next big war. He was convicted, and resigned. He became a popular hero and public opinion forced the War Department to strengthen the Air Corps. Mitchell's main argument was air power had to be autonomous—had to be controlled by fliers who understood the new technology, new tactics, new strategies, and who would not waste precious air assets in trying to assist old-fashioned armies and navies. Until his death in 1936 Mitchell, as a civilian, was a tireless prophet of airpower before numerous civilian audiences, but he lost touch with aviation developments and ceased to be influential inside the services.[6] Indeed, his almost hysterical attacks made many generals hostile. The Air Corps managed a few publicity stunts, but always seemed to be overshadowed by glamorous civilians like Charles Lindbergh, Howard Hughes or Amelia Earhart. In 1934 President Franklin Roosevelt, feuding with the airline industry, suddenly turned the delivery of air mail over to the Air Corps. Multiple crashes by inexperienced Air Corps pilots in mediocre planes with poor navigation gear emphasized the fragility of the new service, and undercut its claims that in wartime it could perform miracles. Roosevelt, however, had become a firm believer in air power and had behind him both public opinion and Congress. When mobilization began in spring 1940 Roosevelt was as energetic as anyone in expanding the Air Corps role, calling for 50,000 planes a year, and sending the best new models to Britain for its war against the Luftwaffe.[7]
Command structure[edit]
In 1935, as a result of recommendations from two civilian review boards, the next advancement toward independence for the Air Force occurred when all flying units, which heretofore had been distributed to various ground commands, were grouped together as an aerial task force under one air commander as the General Headquarters Air Force. The Air Corps, headed by the Chief of the Air Corps, continued as before but now held responsibility only for supply, airfields, and training, in effect splitting the Air Force into two parts. Both were commanded by major generals (Frank Andrews and Oscar Westover, followed by Henry H. ("Hap") Arnold).
Technology[edit]
In 1937, the B-17 Flying Fortress made its first appearance. In a feat of navigation impressive for the time, three B-17s intercepted the Italian passenger liner Rex at sea. Though intended to demonstrate the ability of the Air Corps to defend the nation's coasts, the mission also indicated the emerging doctrine within the Air Corps of the supremacy of strategic bombing.
During World War I, aviation technology developed rapidly; however, the Army's reluctance to use the new technology began to make airmen think that as long as the Army controlled aviation, development would be stunted and a potentially valuable force neglected. Air Service senior officer Billy Mitchell began to campaign for an independent Air Force, co-equal to the Army and Navy. But his campaign offended many and resulted in a court martial in 1925 that effectively ended his career. His followers, including future aviation leaders "Hap" Arnold and Carl Spaatz, saw the lack of public, congressional, and military support that Mitchell received and decided that America was not ready for an independent air force. Under the leadership of its chief of staff Mason Patrick and, later, Arnold, the Air Corps waited until the time to fight for independence arose again.
World War II[edit]
Main article: United States Army Air Forces
U.S. aircraft roundel primarily of the interwar years to early World War II
1943 USAAF raid on ball-bearing works at Schweinfurt, Germany.
The Air Force came of age in World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt took the lead, calling for a vastly enlarged air force based on long-range strategic bombing. Organizationally it became largely independent from the Army in 1941, when the Army Air Corps became a part of the new U.S. Army Air Forces (AAF), and the GHQ Air Force was redesignated the subordinate Combat Command. In the major reorganization of the Army by War Department Circular 59, effective March 9, 1942, the newly created Army Air Forces gained equal voice with the Army and Navy on the Joint Chiefs of Staff and complete autonomy from the Army Ground Forces and the Services of Supply, serving as a separate service in all but name. The reorganization also eliminated both Combat Command and the Air Corps as organizations (the latter remained a combat branch of the Army until 1947) in favor of a streamlined system of commands and numbered air forces for decentralized management of the burgeoning Army Air Forces.
The reorganization merged all aviation elements of the former Air Corps into the Army Air Forces. Although the Air Corps still legally existed as an Army branch, the position and Office of the Chief of the Air Corps was dissolved.
Major General Carl A. Spaatz took command of the Eighth Air Force in London in 1942; with Brigadier General Ira Eaker as second in command, he supervised the strategic bombing campaign. In late 1943, Spaatz was made commander of the new U.S. Strategic Air Forces, reporting directly to the Combined Chiefs of Staff. Spaatz began daylight bombing operations using the prewar doctrine of flying bombers in close formations, relying on their combined defensive firepower for protection from attacking enemy aircraft rather than supporting fighter escorts. The doctrine proved flawed when deep-penetration missions beyond the range of escort fighters were attempted, because German fighter planes overwhelmed U.S. formations, shooting down bombers in excess of "acceptable" loss rates, especially in combination with the vast number of flak anti-aircraft batteries defending Germany's major targets. American fliers took heavy casualties during raids on the oil refineries of Ploieşti, Romania, and the ball-bearing factories at Schweinfurt and Regensburg, Germany, and it was the loss rate in crews and not materiel that brought about a pullback from the strategic offensive in the autumn of 1943.
The Eighth Air Force had attempted to use both the P-47 and P-38 as escorts, but while the Thunderbolt was a capable dog-fighter it lacked the range, even with the addition of drop tanks to extend its range, and the Lightning proved mechanically unreliable in the frigid altitudes at which the missions were fought. Bomber protection was greatly improved after the introduction of North American P-51 Mustang fighters in Europe. With its built-in extended range and competitive or superior performance characteristics in comparison to all existing German piston-engined fighters, the Mustang was an immediately available solution to the crisis. In January 1944 the Eighth Air Force obtained priority in equipping its groups, so that ultimately 14 of its 15 groups fielded Mustangs. P-51 escorts began operations in February 1944 and increased their numbers rapidly, so that the Luftwaffe suffered increasing fighter losses in aerial engagements beginning with Big Week in early 1944. Allied fighters were also granted free rein in attacking German fighter airfields, both in pre-planned missions and while returning to base from escort duties, and the major Luftwaffe threat against Allied bombers was severely diminished by D-Day.
In the Pacific Theater of Operations, the AAF provided major tactical support under General George Kenney to Douglas MacArthur in the Southwest Pacific theater. Kenney's pilots invented the skip-bombing technique against Japanese ships. Kenney's forces claimed destruction of 11,900 Japanese planes and 1.7 million tons of shipping. The first development and sustained implementation of airlift by American air forces occurred between May 1942 and November 1945 as hundreds of transports flew more than half a million tons of supplies from India to China over the Hump.
The AAF created the Twentieth Air Force to employ long-range B-29 Superfortress bombers in strategic attacks on Japanese cities. The use of forward bases in China (needed to be able to reach Japan by the heavily laden B-29's) was ineffective because of the difficulty in logistically supporting the bases entirely by air from its main bases in India, and because of a persistent threat against the Chinese airfields by the Japanese army. After the Mariana Islands were captured in mid-1944, providing locations for air bases that could be supplied by sea, Arnold moved all B-29 operations there by April 1945 and made General Curtis LeMay his bomber commander (reporting directly to Arnold, who personally commanded Twentieth Air Force until July). LeMay reasoned that the Japanese economy, much of which was cottage industry in dense urban areas where manufacturing and assembly plants were also located, was particularly vulnerable to area attack and abandoned inefficient high-altitude precision bombing in favor of low-level incendiary bombings aimed at destroying large urban areas. On the night of March 9–10, 1945, the bombing of Tokyo and the resulting conflagration resulted in the death of over 100,000 persons. 350,000 people died in 66 other Japanese cities as a result of this shift to incendiary bombing. At the same time, the B-29 was also employed in widespread mining of Japanese harbors and sea lanes. In early August 1945, the Twentieth Air Force conducted atomic bomb attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in response to Japan's rejection of the Potsdam Declaration which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan.[8][9] Both cities were destroyed with enormous loss of life and psychological shock. On August 15, Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender of Japan, stating:
Moreover, the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel bomb, the power of which to do damage is indeed incalculable, taking the toll of many innocent lives. Should We continue to fight, it would not only result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization. Such being the case, how are We to save the millions of Our subjects; or to atone Ourselves before the hallowed spirits of Our Imperial Ancestors? This is the reason why We have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the Joint Declaration of the Powers.
Cold War and war in Korea[edit]
Special photo of Air Force bombers from the 1930s through the late 1940s. A Douglas B-18 "Bolo"; a Boeing B-17 "Flying Fortress"; a Boeing "B-29 Superfortress" and the B-36 "Peacemaker" dominating the group photo with a 230 Ft Wingspan. Taken at Carswell AFB, Texas after the receipt of the first B-36 in 1948. Note the Strategic Air Command 7th Bombardment Wing marking on the B-29.
In practice, the Army Air Forces became virtually independent of the Army during World War II, but its leaders wanted formal independence. In November 1945, General Dwight D. Eisenhower became Army Chief of Staff, while General Carl Spaatz began to assume the duties of Commanding General, Army Air Forces, in anticipation of General Arnold’s announced retirement. One of General Eisenhower’s first actions was to appoint a board of officers, headed by Lieutenant General William H. Simpson, to prepare a definitive plan for the reorganization of the Army and the Air Force that could be effected without enabling legislation and would provide for the separation of the Air Force from the Army. On 29 January 1946 "Generals Eisenhower and Spaatz agreed on an Air Force organization composed of Strategic Air Command, Air Defense Command, Tactical Air Command, Air Transport Command, Air Technical Service Command, Air Training Command, the Air University, and the Air Force Center."[10]
Over the continuing objections of the Navy, which feared losing its air arm and strategic role to the new service, the United States Department of the Air Force was created by the National Security Act of 1947. That act became effective 18 September 1947 when the first secretary of the Air Force, Stuart Symington, took office. In 1948, the service chiefs agreed on usage of air assets under the Key West Agreement.
"In 1947 President Truman signed the National Security Act which established this new defense organization, and along with it the creation of the US Air Force as an independent service, equal to the US Army and US Navy. The official birthday of the US Air Force is 18 September 1947."[11]
On 18 September 1947, the Army Air Forces became the United States Air Force as a separate and equal element of the United States Armed Forces. The fledgling Air Force quickly established its own identity. Army Air Fields were renamed Air Force Bases and personnel were soon being issued new uniforms with new rank insignia. Once the new Air Force was free of army domination, its first job was to discard the old and inadequate ground army organizational structure. This was the "Base Plan" where the combat group commander reported to the base commander, who was often regular army, with no flying experience.
General Carl A. Spaatz established a new policy, "No tactical commander should be subordinate to the station commander." This resulted in a search for a better arrangement. The commander of the 15th Air Force, Major General Charles Born,[12] proposed the Provisional Wing Plan, which basically reversed the situation and put the wing commander over the base commander. The USAF basic organizational unit became the Base-Wing.
Under this plan, the base support functions – supply, base operations, transportation, security, and medical were assigned to squadrons, usually commanded by a Major or Lieutenant Colonel. All of these squadrons were assigned to a Combat Support Group, commanded by a Base Commander, usually a Colonel. Combat fighter or bomber squadrons were assigned to the Combat Group, a retention of the USAAF Group. All of these groups, both combat and combat support, were in turn assigned to the Wing, commanded by a Wing Commander. This way the Wing Commander commanded both the combat operational elements on the base as well as the non-operational elements. The Wing Commander was an experienced air combat leader, usually a Colonel or Brigadier General. All of the hierarchical organizations carried the same numerical designation. In this manner, for example, the 28th became the designation for the Wing and all the subordinate groups and squadrons beneath it. As a result, the base and the wing became one and the same unit. On 16 June 1952, the legacy combat groups were inactivated and the operational Combat Squadrons were assigned directly to the Wing. The World War II history, lineage and honors of the combat group were bestowed on the Wing upon its inactivation.
The USAAF Wing then was redesignated as an Air Division, which was commanded Brigadier General or higher, who commanded two or more wings usually, but not always, on a single base. Numbered Air Forces (NAF) commanded both Air Divisions or Wings directly, and the NAF was under the Major Command (SAC, TAC, ADC, etc.).
After World War II, relations between the United States and the Soviet Union began to deteriorate, and the period in history known as the Cold War began. The United States entered an arms race with the Soviet Union and competition aimed at increasing each nation's influence throughout the world. In response, the United States expanded its military presence throughout the world. The USAF opened air bases throughout Europe, and later in Japan and South Korea. The United States also built air bases on the British overseas territories of British Indian Ocean Territory and Ascension Island in the South Atlantic.
The first test for the USAF during the Cold War came in 1948, when Communist authorities in East Germany cut off road and air transportation to West Berlin. The USAF, along with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and Commonwealth air forces, supplied the city during the Berlin airlift under Operation Vittles, using C-54 Skymasters. The efforts of these air forces saved the city from starvation and forced the Soviets to back down in their blockade.
Conflict over post-war military administration, especially with regard to the roles and missions to be assigned to the Air Force and the U.S. Navy, led to an episode called the "Revolt of the Admirals" in the late 1940s, in which high-ranking Navy officers argued unsuccessfully for the case for carrier-based aircraft rather than strategic bombers.
In 1947, the USAF began Project Sign, a study of unidentified flying objects what would be twice revived (first as Project Grudge and finally as Project Blue Book) and which would last until 1969.[13]
In 1948 the Women's Armed Services Integration Act gave women permanent status in the Regular and Reserve forces of the Air Force.[14] On 8 July 1948, Esther McGowin Blake became the first woman in the Air Force, enlisting the first minute of the first hour of the first day regular Air Force duty was authorized for women.[14][15][16]
During the Korean War, which began in June 1950, the Far East Air Forces (FEAF) were among the first units to respond to the invasion by North Korea, but quickly lost its main airbase at Kimpo, South Korea. Designated to provide close air support to the defenders of the Pusan pocket from bases in Japan, the FEAF also conducted a strategic bombing campaign against North Korea's war-making potential simultaneously. General Douglas MacArthur's landing at Inchon in September 1950 enabled the FEAF to return to Korea and develop bases from which they supported MacArthur's drive to the Korean-Chinese border.
When the Chinese People's Liberation Army attacked in December 1950, the USAF provided tactical air support. The introduction of Soviet-made MiG-15 jet fighters caused problems for the B-29s used to bomb North Korea, but the USAF countered the MiGs with its new F-86 Sabre jet fighters. Although both air superiority and close air support missions were successful, a lengthy attempt to interdict communist supply lines by air attack was not as successful and was replaced by a systematic campaign to inflict as much economic cost to North Korea and the Chinese forces as long as war persisted, including attacks on the capital city of Pyongyang and against the North Korean hydroelectric system.
Vietnam War[edit]
A U.S. B-66 Destroyer and four F-105 Thunderchiefs dropping bombs on North Vietnam in 1966
The USAF was heavily deployed during the Vietnam War. The first bombing raids against North Vietnam occurred in 1964, following the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. In March 1965, a sustained bombing campaign began, code-named Operation Rolling Thunder. This campaign's purpose was to destroy the will of the North Vietnamese to fight, destroy industrial bases and air defenses, and to stop the flow of men and supplies down the Ho Chi Minh Trail, while forcing North Vietnam into peace negotiations. The USAF dropped more bombs in all combat operations in Vietnam during the period 1965–68 than it did during World War II,[17] and the Rolling Thunder campaign lasted until the U.S. presidential election of 1968. Except for heavily damaging the North Vietnamese economy and infrastructure, Rolling Thunder failed in its political and strategic goals.
The USAF also played a critical role in defeating the Easter Offensive of 1972. The rapid redeployment of fighters, bombers, and attack aircraft help the South Vietnamese Army repel the invasion. Operation Linebacker demonstrated to both the North and South Vietnamese that even without significant U.S. Army ground forces, the United States could still influence the war. The air war for the United States ended with Operation Linebacker II, also known as the "Christmas Bombings." These helped to finalize the Paris peace negotiations.
The insurgent nature of combat operations early in the war, and the necessity of interdicting the North Vietnamese regular army and its supply lines in third-party countries of Southeast Asia led to the development of a significant special operations capability within the USAF. Provisional and experimental concepts such as air commandos and aerial gunships, tactical missions such as the partially successful Operation Ivory Coast deep inside enemy territory, and a dedicated Combat Search and Rescue mission resulted in development of operational doctrines, units, and equipment.
Combat operations since 1975[edit]
The USAF modernized its tactical air forces in the late 1970s with the introduction of the F-15, A-10, and F-16 fighters, and the implementation of realistic training scenarios under the aegis of Red Flag. In turn, it also upgraded the equipment and capabilities of its Air Reserve Components (ARC) by the equipping of both the Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve with first-line aircraft.
Expanding its force structure in the 1980s to 40 fighter wings and drawing further on the lessons of the Vietnam War, the USAF also dedicated units and aircraft to Electronic Warfare (EW) and the Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD). The humiliating failure in April 1980 of the Operation Eagle Claw rescue mission in Iran resulted directly in an increased USAF emphasis on participation in the doctrine, equipment, personnel, and planning of Joint Special Operations.
The USAF provided attack, airlift, and combat support capability for operations in Grenada in 1983 (Operation Urgent Fury), Libya in 1986 (Operation El Dorado Canyon), and Panama in 1989 (Operation Just Cause). Lessons learned in these operations were applied to its force structure and doctrine, and became the basis for successful air operations in the 1990s and after September 11, 2001.
The development of satellite reconnaissance during the Cold War, the extensive use of both tactical and strategic aerial reconnaissance during numerous combat operations, and the nuclear war deterrent role of the USAF resulted in the recognition of space as a possible combat arena. An emphasis on "aerospace" operations and doctrine grew in the 1980s. Missile warning and space operations were combined to form Air Force Space Command in 1982. In 1991, Operation Desert Storm provided emphasis for the command's new focus on supporting combat operations.
The creation of the internet and the universality of computer technology as a basic warfighting tool resulted in the priority development of cyber warfare techniques and defenses by the USAF.
Gulf War[edit]
The USAF provided the bulk of the Allied air power during the Gulf War in 1991, flying alongside aircraft of the U.S. Navy and the RAF. The F-117 Nighthawk stealth fighter's capabilities were shown on the first night of the air war when it was able to bomb central Baghdad and avoid the sophisticated Iraqi anti-aircraft defenses. The USAF, along with the U.S. Navy and the RAF, later patrolled the skies of northern and southern Iraq after the war to ensure that Iraq's air defense capability could not be rebuilt. Operation Provide Comfort 1991-96 and Operation Northern Watch 1997-2003 - no-fly zones north of the 36th parallel north and Operation Southern Watch - no-fly zone south of the 33rd parallel north.
In 1996, Operation Desert Strike and 1998 Operation Desert Fox, the USAF bombed Saddam Hussein's Iraq.
Bosnia and Kosovo[edit]
The USAF led NATO action in Bosnia with no-fly zones (Operation Deny Flight) 1993-96 and in 1995 with air strikes against the Bosnian Serbs (Operation Deliberate Force). This was the first time that USAF aircraft took part in military action as part of a NATO mission. The USAF led the strike forces as the NATO Air Force (otherwise mainly composed of RAF and Luftwaffe aircraft) with the greatest capability to launch air strikes over a long period of time. In 1999, the USAF led NATO air strikes against Serbia during the Kosovo War (Operation Allied Force).
Global War on Terror[edit]
Aircraft of the 379th Air Expeditionary Wing and coalition counterparts stationed together at Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar, in southwest Asia, fly over the desert. April 14, 2003. Aircraft include KC-135 Stratotanker, F-15E Strike Eagle, F-117 Nighthawk, F-16CJ Falcon, British Tornado GR4, and Australian F/A-18 Hornet.
In 2001, the USAF was deployed against the Taliban forces in Afghanistan. Operating from Diego Garcia, B-52 Stratofortress and B-1 Lancer bombers attacked Taliban positions. The USAF deployed daisy cutter bombs, dropped from C-130 Hercules cargo planes, for the first time since the Vietnam War. During this conflict, the USAF opened up bases in Central Asia for the first time.
The USAF was deployed in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Following the defeat of Saddam Hussein’s regime, the USAF took over Baghdad International Airport as a base. USAF aircraft are used to provide support to Coalition and Iraqi forces in major operations to eliminate insurgent centers of activity and supply in north and west Iraq. Operations in both Afghanistan and Iraq demonstrated the effective utility of Unmanned air vehicles, the most prominent of which was the MQ-1 Predator. Fifty-four USAF personnel died in the Iraq War.[18]
The USAF maintains a Combined Air & Space Operations Center in Qatar to direct air combat operations and Predator actions.[19][20][21]
In March 2011, USAF jets bombed military targets in Libya as part of the international effort to enforce a United Nations resolution that imposed no-fly zone over the country and protected its people from the civil war that occurred when its dictator, Muammar Gaddafi suppressed the protests calling for the end of his regime. Protests were inspired by the revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt.
In the summer of 2014 President Obama announced the return of US Forces to Iraq. The US Air Force is undertaking a significant humanitarian effort in order to assist Iraq's imperiled minority groups.[22] When permission was later granted for USAF airstrikes, it was on condition that the types of aircraft not be announced so as to obscure which countries they were based in.[23]
2010s[edit]
U.S. Air Force F-22A and F-35A over Florida's Emerald Coast
Today, the United States Air Force is the largest, most capable, and most technologically advanced air force in the world, with about 5,778 manned aircraft in service, approximately 156 Unmanned Combat Air Vehicles, 2,130 Air-Launched Cruise Missiles, and 450 intercontinental ballistic missiles. The USAF has 328,439 personnel on active duty, 74,000 in the Selected and Individual Ready Reserves, and 106,000 in the Air National Guard. In addition, the Air Force employs 168,900 civilian personnel including indirect hire of foreign nationals. However, after two decades of failure to recapitalize its aircraft under Clinton and the two Bushes, the USAF has its oldest and most outdated fleet ever. Tactical aircraft purchases were put off while Fifth-generation jet fighters were facing delays, cost overruns and cutbacks and the programs to replace the 1950s bomber and tanker fleets have just been started over again after many aborted attempts.[24]
An Air Force fighter pilot died 20 February 2008 after two F-15C jets collided during a training exercise over the Gulf of Mexico.[25]
The U.S. Air Force on 29 February 2008 announced one of the largest military acquisition programs in U.S. history, saying the service had chosen Northrop Grumman over Boeing to replace its aging air refueling tanker fleet.[26]
The pilot of an F-16C fighter General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon#F-16C/D jet that crashed in a remote area about 80 miles northwest of Phoenix, Arizona was killed when his plane went down. The plane was spotted late 13 March 2008. Rescuers could reach the site only by helicopter and arrived at daybreak 15 March 2008. There have been 17 other crashes of Luke Air Force Base F-16s since 1998, and only one of those resulted in a fatality. That crash happened in May 2004, when a pilot with the Republic of Singapore Air Force died after his jet went down during a training mission at an Air Force bombing range in southwest Arizona. The most recent crashes came in 2006. A pilot ejected safely from an F-16 in April 2006 after the lone engine on the jet exploded just after takeoff from the base. The aircraft came down in a cornfield.[27]
On 5 June 2008 Robert Gates announced the results of an investigation into the misshipment of four MK-12 forward-section reentry vehicle assemblies to Taiwan. The investigation, conducted by Admiral Kirkland H. Donald, director of the US Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program, found that the Taiwan missile incident was, in Gates' words, "A degradation of the authority, standards of excellence and technical competence within the nation's ICBM force. Similar to the bomber-specific August 2007 Minot-Barksdale nuclear weapons transfer incident, this incident took place within the larger environment of declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance" and that "the investigation identified commonalities between the August 2007 Minot incident and this [the Taiwan] event." In his investigation report, Donald stated that the issues identified by his investigation were, "Indicative of an overall decline in Air Force nuclear weapons stewardship, a problem that has been identified but not effectively addressed for over a decade. Both the Minot-Barksdale nuclear weapons transfer incident and the Taiwan misshipment, while different in specifics, have a common origin: the gradual erosion of nuclear standards and a lack of effective oversight by Air Force leadership"[28]
As a result of the investigation, Gates announced that, "A substantial number of Air Force general officers and colonels have been identified as potentially subject to disciplinary measures, ranging from removal from command to letters of reprimand," and that he had accepted the resignations of USAF Secretary Michael Wynne and USAF Chief of Staff Michael Moseley. Gates added that he had asked James R. Schlesinger to lead a senior-level task force to recommend improvements in the stewardship and operation of nuclear weapons, delivery vehicles and sensitive components by the US DoD. Members of the task force came from the Defense Policy Board and the Defense Science Board.[29]
In 2012, the USAF discovered that their billion dollar investment in the Expeditionary Combat Support System "has not yielded any significant military capability" and that it would take another billion dollar investment to gain even one quarter of the planned capability.[30]
In 2012 the USAF received push back from the Congress over a plan to retire multiple reserve squadrons, leading to the formation of the National Commission on the Structure of the Air Force to resolve the proper balance between active and reserve air forces.[31] This was followed in 2013 by the Total Force Task Force in an attempt to handle budget disagreements between the active and reserve forces.[32]
In 2014, the USAF's 30 year strategy document cited a need for both low end and high end capabilities, and so called for cuts in high demand UAVs in favor of retaining "outdated fighter aircraft that would not be survivable in a high end conflict".[33]
See also[edit]
United States Air Force portal
National Museum of the United States Air Force
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ The primary source for the history of the USAF prior to 1946 is Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History of the United States Air Force Vol. I (1997) ISBN 0-16-049009-X , an Air University publication
Jump up ^ U.S. Intelligence Community (October 2004). National Security Act of 1947 Archived 10 May 2008 at WebCite. Retrieved April 14, 2006.
Jump up ^ U.S. Department of State(2006). National Security Act of 1947. Retrieved April 14, 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b "Records of the Army Air Forces (AAF)". National Archives.gov. Retrieved 22 November 2010.
Jump up ^ Jeffery S. Underwood (1991). The Wings of Democracy: The Influence of Air Power on the Roosevelt Administration, 1933-1941. Texas A&M U.P. p. 17.
Jump up ^ Douglas C. Waller, A Question of Loyalty: Gen. Billy Mitchell and the Court-Martial That Gripped the Nation (2004) excerpt and text search
Jump up ^ Underwood (1991). The Wings of Democracy. pp. 155–56.
Jump up ^ Derrick Wright (February 25, 2001). Iwo Jima 1945: The Marines Raise the Flag on Mount Suribachi. Osprey Publishing. p. 76. ISBN 1-8417-6178-8.
Jump up ^ Dennis D. Wainstock (February 8, 2011). The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb: Hiroshima and Nagasaki: August 1945. Enigma Books. p. 95. ISBN 1-9362-7400-0.
Jump up ^ Leonard, Barry (2009). History of Strategic Air and Ballistic Missile Defense (PDF). Vol II, 1955-1972. Fort McNair: Center for Military History. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-4379-2131-1.
Jump up ^ Pawlyk, Oriana (1947-09-18). "Air Force Birthday, Air Force History". Military.com. Retrieved 2017-04-09.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Unidentified Flying Objects and Air Force Project Blue Book (USAF Fact Sheet 95-03 Archived 2003-06-24 at the Wayback Machine., updated October, 2005); URL retrieved 25 June 2007
^ Jump up to: a b "Women In Military Service For America Memorial". Womensmemorial.org. 1950-07-27. Archived from the original on 2013-06-22. Retrieved 2015-08-09.
Jump up ^ Women of the U.S. Air Force: Aiming High By Heather E. Schwartz, p.14
Jump up ^ Rose Eveleth (July 8, 2013). "Today in 1948, the U.S. Air Force Accepted Its First Female Member". Smithsonianmag.com. Retrieved 2015-08-12.
Jump up ^ DoD release January 1968, cited in CIA estimate of damage to North Vietnam infrastructure
Jump up ^ Hampson, Rick, "West Point's Quiet Place Of Honor, Lost Dreams", USA Today, 28 December 2011, p. 1.
Jump up ^ "AFTEREFFECTS: BASES; U.S. Will Move Air Operations To Qatar Base" New York Times, April 28, 2003
Jump up ^ "Qatar base population hits 7,000" Air Force Times staff report, November 03, 2006
Jump up ^ "Killing 'Bubba' from the skies" by Mark Benjamin, Salon.com, February 15, 2008
Jump up ^ Larter, David (16 August 2014). "Navy fighter jets ended Afghan sorties to go to Iraq". www.militarytimes.com. Gannett. Retrieved 17 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Schogol, Jeff (19 August 2014). "U.S. military stops identifying planes involved in Iraq airstrikes". www.armytimes.com. Gannett. Retrieved 19 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Talmadge, Eric. "US Air Force struggles with aging fleet." Huff Post, 4 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Air Force: 1 pilot dies, another survives after F15Cs collide, February 20, 2008
Jump up ^ Northrop Grumman gets $40B deal to replace Air Force tankers, February 29, 2008
Jump up ^ Pilot killed in F-16 combat training, March 16, 2008
Jump up ^ US DoD, "DoD News Briefing with Secretary Gates from the Pentagon", Military Times, "Moseley and Wynne forced out", Shanker, "2 Leaders Ousted From Air Force in Atomic Errors".
Jump up ^ US DoD, "DoD News Briefing with Secretary Gates from the Pentagon", June 5, 2008, Military Times, "Moseley and Wynne forced out", Shanker, "2 Leaders Ousted From Air Force in Atomic Errors".
Jump up ^ Kanaracus, Chris. "Air Force scraps massive ERP project after racking up $1B in costs." Computerworld, 14 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "USAF Commission Struggling With Cost Figures."
Jump up ^ MEHTA, AARON (16 January 2014). "USAF Creates Office To Guide Integration of Active, Reserve Units". www.defensenews.com. Gannett Government Media Corporation. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Scharre, Paul (11 September 2014). "Is the U.S. Air Force Set for a "Crash Landing"?". nationalinterest.org. The National Interest. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
Further reading[edit]
John T. Correll, The Air Force and the Cold War (2002), short official history of USAF
Correll, John T. "The EAF in Peace and War." Air Force Magazine 85:24-31 July 2002 on World War I
Craven, Wesley and James Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces In World War II official history. (1948–55; also reprinted)
Volume One: Plans and Early Operations January 1939 to August 1942
Volume Two: Europe: Torch to Pointblank August 1942 to December 1943
Volume Three: Europe: Argument to V-E Day January 1944 to May 1945
Volume Four: The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan August 1942 to July 1944
Volume Five: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki June 1944 to August 1945
Volume Six: Men and Planes
Volume Seven: Services Around the World
Futrell, Robert F. The United States Air Force in Korea; 1950–1953 (1983).
Futrell, Robert F. Ideas, Concepts, Doctrine: A History of Basic Thinking in the United States Air Force, 1907-1984 (2 vols., Air University) vol 1, vol 2 comprehensive history of doctrine
Alfred Goldberg. A History of the United States Air Force, 1907-1957 (ISBN 0-405-03763-5) (1972)
Maj Roger F. Kropf, "The US Air Force in Korea: Problems That Hindered the Effectiveness of Air Power," Airpower Journal (spr 1990)
United States Air Force: History and Guide to Resources (ISBN 1-4116-3638-4)
Paul Conners, "The AEF Concept has been successful," May 5, 2004, [2]</ref>
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
A Concise History of the U.S. Air Force
Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of the United States Air Force.
"United States Air Force And Its Antecedents: Published And Printed Unit Histories, A Bibliography" (PDF).
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This article is about the 2001 film. For the story from The Canterbury Tales, see The Knight's Tale.
A Knight's Tale
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Brian Helgeland
Produced by
Todd Black
Brian Helgeland
Tim Van Rellim
Written by
Brian Helgeland
Based on
The Knight's Tale
by Geoffrey Chaucer
Starring
Heath Ledger
Shannyn Sossamon
Mark Addy
Rufus Sewell
Paul Bettany
Laura Fraser
Alan Tudyk
Music by
Carter Burwell
Cinematography
Richard Greatrex
Production
company
Columbia Pictures[1]
Escape Artists[2]
Distributed by
Sony Pictures Releasing[1]
Release date
May 11, 2001 (2001-05-11)
Running time
132 minutes[3]
138 minutes[4] (Extended cut)
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$65 million[5]
Box office
$117.5 million[5]
A Knight's Tale is a 2001 American medieval adventure-comedy film written, produced, and directed by Brian Helgeland. The film stars Heath Ledger, Shannyn Sossamon, Mark Addy, Alan Tudyk, Rufus Sewell, Laura Fraser, Paul Bettany as Geoffrey Chaucer, and James Purefoy as Sir Thomas Colville / Edward the Black Prince.
The story is told in an anachronistic style with many modern references. It follows a peasant named William who poses as a knight and competes in tournaments, winning accolades and acquiring friendships with such historical figures as Edward the Black Prince and Geoffrey Chaucer.
The film takes its title from Chaucer's "The Knight's Tale" in his The Canterbury Tales, though the plot is not similar. It was a modest success at the box office, garnering $117,487,473 with a budget of $65 million.
Contents
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Epigrams
4 Music
5 Reception
5.1 Critical reception
5.2 Awards
5.3 Box office
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
At a jousting tournament in 14th-century Europe, young squires William Thatcher, Roland, and Wat discover that their master, Sir Ector, has died. If he had completed one final pass he would have won the tournament. Destitute, William wears Ector's armour to impersonate him, winning the tournament and taking the prize.
Although only nobles are allowed in tournaments, William is now inspired to compete and win more prizes. Roland and Wat would rather take their winnings and leave, but William convinces them to stay and train him to joust. Along the way to his first tournament in Rouen, the trio encounters a young Geoffrey Chaucer, who is also destitute and agrees to forge the patent of nobility that will allow William to enter under the assumed name of "Sir Ulrich von Liechtenstein" from Gelderland. At the tournament, William is brought before Simon the Summoner and Peter the Pardoner: Chaucer has a gambling problem and is in their debt. William demands Chaucer be released and promises payment.
In the course of competition, William's armor is damaged. He goads Kate, a blacksmith, to repair it without payment and goes on to win the tournament's sword event. In the joust, he faces a Sir Thomas Colville, who withdraws from the tournament after being injured by William, though they exchange a ceremonial pass so that Colville can retain the honor of never having failed to complete a match. The proceedings are observed by Jocelyn, a noblewoman with whom William has become infatuated, and Count Adhemar, a rival both in the joust and for Jocelyn's heart. In the final joust, Adhemar defeats William.
Kate joins William's party and forges new lightweight armor. In the following tournament, Adhemar and William are both assigned to tilt against Sir Thomas Colville, but they learn that he is actually Edward, the Black Prince. While Adhemar does not dare to endanger the future King of England, William continues the match and then addresses Edward by name, further earning his respect.
Adhemar is called away to the Battle of Poitiers, and William achieves several victories in his absence. William proves his love for Jocelyn by complying when she first asks him to deliberately lose (in contrast to the countless knights who promise to win in her name), and then, just before he would be eliminated, to win the tournament in her name after all.
The group travels to London for the World Championship. William recalls leaving his father to squire for Sir Ector and learn to become a knight, hoping to "change his stars". Adhemar has also arrived in London and announces that he is in negotiations with Jocelyn's father for her hand in marriage. William dominates at the tournament, but when he returns to visit his father, now blind and living alone in Cheapside, Adhemar discovers his true identity and alerts the authorities.
William is placed in the pillory, but is defended from the hostile crowd by his friends. Just as the mob reaches its frenzy, Prince Edward emerges from the crowd. He acknowledges William's honor and an ability to inspire his friends' dedication that is in the best traditions of knighthood. Edward then announces that, William is in fact, "beyond contestation", descended from an ancient noble family, and knights him "Sir William".
William returns to the tournament to face Adhemar in the final match, but Adhemar cheats with an illegally sharpened lance, seriously injuring William. Entering the final pass, William is losing by two lances and must unhorse Adhemar to win. He demands to be stripped of his armor while Chaucer buys time by performing the introduction of William that he omitted earlier. William, unable to hold the lance due to his injuries, asks Wat to strap it to his arm. Finally he tilts against Adhemar, with his father and Jocelyn in attendance. Bellowing his true name as he charges, he knocks Adhemar to the ground with a crushing blow.
Over his defeat, Adhemar experiences a vision of William and his friends mocking him that he has been weighted, measured and found wanting (like Adhemar did to William before). In the ensuing celebration, as Jocelyn and William embrace, Chaucer remarks that he should write this whole story down.
Cast[edit]
Heath Ledger as William Thatcher
Leagh Conwell as young William Thatcher
Rufus Sewell as Count Adhemar
Shannyn Sossamon as Jocelyn
Mark Addy as Roland
Alan Tudyk as Wat
Paul Bettany as Geoffrey Chaucer
Laura Fraser as Kate
Bérénice Bejo as Christiana
James Purefoy as Sir Thomas Colville / Edward the Black Prince
Christopher Cazenove as John Thatcher
Nick Brimble as Sir Ector
Roger Ashton-Griffiths as Old Bishop
Steven O'Donnell as Simon
Jonathan Slinger as Peter
Alice Connor as Lone Girl in Cheapeside
Berwick Kaler as Man in Stocks
Production[edit]
The entire film was shot at the Barrandov Studios in Prague, Czech Republic.[6]
The film includes a great deal of jousting footage. The initial scene of the two knights jousting is actually footage of Heath Ledger's stunt double in an accident. During filming of a later scene in the film, the lance of the stunt double's opponent moved off target and hit him in the head. The double fell to the ground unconscious. In another incident, Ledger knocked out one of director Helgeland's front teeth with a broomstick when the two were demonstrating a jousting move. It took several months for Helgeland's mouth to heal enough to repair the damage.
Plenty of effort was expended creating lances that would convincingly explode upon impact without injuring the stunt riders. The body of each lance was scored so it would break easily, and the tips were made of balsa wood. Each was also hollowed out, with the holes filled with balsa splinters and uncooked linguine.[7] Jousting armor was made by Rod Vass and his company Armordillo Ltd. using a unique sprayed polyurethane system that they invented for the film Gladiator. Onscreen, it is almost impossible to distinguish between the polyurethane stunt armor and steel armor, much of which was also made by Armordillo. Heath Ledger's armour was originally made in steel along with three polyurethane stunt replicas.
In the DVD commentary, director Helgeland, co-commentating with Bettany, states that the film was intended to have occurred sometime in the 1370s during a six-month period in which Chaucer had apparently gone missing and show what he might have done during this time, which Helgeland says later on in the commentary inspired Chaucer to write The Canterbury Tales. (The first Canterbury Tale is The Knight's Tale. There is some oversight in that a scene showing Count Adhemar in a war camp features a caption declaring it to be the Battle of Poitiers, which took place in 1356. Chaucer also threatens two men he meets in the film with undying humiliation through fiction; these characters seem to have inspired the vitriolic descriptions of the Tales' Pardoner and Summoner.)
The scene in which the lady Jocelyn asks William to lose a joust to prove his love and then reverses her proposal for him to suddenly win, is also a direct reference to the classic tale of Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, in which Queen Guinevere asks Lancelot to do the same during a tournament.
Epigrams[edit]
The script is notable for its use of epigrams.
"Love should end with hope" (Kate)
"If he believes enough, a man can do anything!" (William's father)
"Your men love you. If I knew nothing else about you, that would be enough" (Prince Edward)
"Better a silly girl with a flower than a silly boy with a horse and a stick" (Jocelyn)
"I was naked for a day; you will be naked for eternity" (Chaucer)
Music[edit]
The film, which notionally took place during the Middle Ages, is notable for its deliberate use of classic rock songs in its soundtrack. The ten that were credited in the film are listed in order of appearance:[8]
"We Will Rock You" – Queen
"Low Rider" – War
"Takin' Care of Business" – Bachman–Turner Overdrive
"Golden Years" – David Bowie
"Further on Up the Road" – Eric Clapton
"Get Ready" – Rare Earth
"I Want to Take You Higher" – Sly and the Family Stone
"The Boys Are Back in Town" – Thin Lizzy
"You Shook Me All Night Long" – AC/DC
"We Are the Champions" – Robbie Williams & Queen
Reception[edit]
Critical reception[edit]
Critical reception was mixed, with complaints about the anachronisms (the classic rock in a film that takes place during the Middle Ages), the many jousting scenes, and the thin plot. Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 and argued that the anachronisms made little difference, writing that the director himself "pointed out that an orchestral score would be equally anachronistic, since orchestras hadn't been invented in the 1400s."[9][10]
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 59% based on reviews from 147 critics. "Once you get past the anachronism," according to the site, "A Knight's Tale becomes a predictable, if spirited, Rocky on horseback."[11] On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 54 out of 100, sampled from 32 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[12]
Newsweek revealed in June 2001 that print ads contained glowing comments from a film reviewer who did not exist for at least four films released by Columbia Pictures, including A Knight's Tale and The Animal (2001).[13] The fake critic was named David Manning and was created by a Columbia employee who worked in the advertising department.[13] "Manning" was misrepresented as a reviewer for The Ridgefield Press, a small Connecticut weekly.[13]
Awards[edit]
Despite the mixed critical reception, the film won four cinematic awards:
The 2002 Golden Trailer Best Action Award,
The 2002 London Critic Circle Film Awards British Supporting Actor of the Year (Paul Bettany),
The 2002 World Stunts Awards' Best Work with an Animal, and
The 2002 World Stunts Awards' Hardest Hit.[14]
Box office[edit]
The film earned $56,569,702 at the North American domestic box office, and an additional $60,917,771 internationally for a worldwide total of $117,487,473.[5]
See also[edit]
List of historical period drama films
Film portal
Middle Ages portal
Comedy portal
2000s portal
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "A Knight's Tale". AFI Catalog of Feature Films. Retrieved December 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ McCarthy, Todd (April 19, 2001). "A Knight's Tale". Variety. Retrieved December 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ "A KNIGHT'S TALE (PG)". British Board of Film Classification. 2001-04-27. Retrieved 2012-01-02.
Jump up ^ "A KNIGHT'S TALE (PG)". British Board of Film Classification. 2005-07-13. Retrieved 2013-01-02.
^ Jump up to: a b c "A Knight's Tale (2001) – Box Office Mojo". boxofficemojo.com.
Jump up ^ "A Knight's Tale". Sony Movie Channel. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Interview with Brian Helgeland". moviehabit.com.
Jump up ^ "IMDb".
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger. "A Knight's Tale". Chicago Sun-Times.
Jump up ^ "Reel McCoy".
Jump up ^ A Knight's Tale at Rotten Tomatoes
Jump up ^ "A Knight's Tale". Metacritic. Retrieved November 19, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Horn, John (2 June 2001). "The Reviewer Who Wasn't There". MSNBC. Newsweek. Archived from the original on June 9, 2001. Retrieved 3 October 2014.
Jump up ^ https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0183790/awards
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: A Knight's Tale
Wikimedia Commons has media related to A Knight's Tale.
A Knight's Tale on IMDb
A Knight's Tale at AllMovie
A Knight's Tale at Box Office Mojo
A Knight's Tale at Rotten Tomatoes
A Knight's Tale at Metacritic
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Films by Brian Helgeland
Writer and director
Payback (1999)
A Knight's Tale (2001)
The Order (2003)
42 (2013)
Legend (2015)
Writer only
A Nightmare on Elm Street 4: The Dream Master (1988)
976-EVIL (1988)
Highway to Hell (1992)
Assassins (1995)
L.A. Confidential (1997)
Conspiracy Theory (1997)
The Postman (1997)
Blood Work (2002)
Mystic River (2003)
Man on Fire (2004)
The Taking of Pelham 123 (2009)
Cirque du Freak: The Vampire's Assistant (2009)
Green Zone (2010)
Robin Hood (2010)
Gemini Man (2019)
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