text:
Penalty card
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Yellow card shown in an association football match
Penalty cards are used in many sports as a means of warning, reprimanding or penalising a player, coach or team official. Penalty cards are most commonly used by referees or umpires to indicate that a player has committed an offense. The official will hold the card above his or her head while looking or pointing towards the player that has committed the offence. This action makes the decision clear to all players, as well as spectators and other officials in a manner that is language-neutral. The colour or shape of the card used by the official indicates the type or seriousness of the offence and the level of punishment that is to be applied. Yellow and red cards are the most common, typically indicating, respectively, cautions and dismissals.
Contents
1 History and origin
2 Commonly used penalty cards
2.1 Yellow card
2.2 Red card
3 Other types of penalty card
3.1 Green card
3.2 White card
3.3 Blue card
3.4 Black card
4 See also
5 References
History and origin[edit]
The idea of using language-neutral coloured cards to communicate a referee's intentions originated in association football, with English referee Ken Aston.[1] Aston had been appointed to the FIFA Referees' Committee and was responsible for all referees at the 1966 FIFA World Cup. In the quarter-finals, England met Argentina at the Wembley Stadium. After the match, newspaper reports stated that referee Rudolf Kreitlein had cautioned Englishmen Bobby and Jack Charlton, as well as sending off Argentinian Antonio Rattín. The referee had not made his decision clear during the game, and England manager Alf Ramsey approached FIFA representative for post-match clarification. This incident started Aston thinking about ways to make a referee's decisions clearer to both players and spectators. Aston realised that a colour-coding scheme based on the same principle as used on traffic lights (yellow – stop if safe to do so, red – stop) would transcend language barriers and make it clear that a player had been cautioned or expelled.[1] As a result, yellow cards to indicate a caution and red cards to indicate an expulsion were used for the first time in the 1970 FIFA World Cup in Mexico. The use of penalty cards has since been adopted and expanded by several sporting codes, with each sport adapting the idea to its specific set of rules or laws.
Commonly used penalty cards[edit]
Yellow card[edit]
A yellow card is used in several sports and most commonly indicates a warning or a temporary suspension
A yellow card is used in many different sporting codes. Its meaning differs among sports; however, it most commonly indicates a caution given to a player regarding his or her conduct, or indicates a temporary suspension. Examples include:
Association football: A yellow card is shown by the referee to indicate that a player has been officially cautioned.[2] The player's details are then recorded by the referee in a small notebook; hence a caution is also known as a "booking". A player who has been cautioned may continue playing in the game; however, a player who receives a second caution in a match is sent off (shown the yellow card again, and then a red card), meaning that he must leave the field immediately and take no further part in the game. The player may not be replaced by a substitute. Law 12 of the Laws of the Game (which are set by the International Football Association Board and used by FIFA) lists the types of offences and misconduct that may result in a caution or is cautionary. It also states that "only a player, substitute or substituted player" can be cautioned.[2]
Cristiano Ronaldo is shown the yellow card
In most tournaments, the accumulation of a certain number of yellow cards over several matches results in disqualification of the offending player for a certain number of subsequent matches, the exact number of cards and matches varying by jurisdiction.
For more details, see Yellow card (association football)
Athletics: In track events, a yellow card is as a personal warning in both track and field events used to indicate that a second yellow card would result in a disqualification.[3] IAAF rules have abolished false start warnings; false starts now result in immediate disqualification except in combined events where a diagonal yellow/black card indicates a warning for false start.[4] However, as of 2012, the false start rule is that an athlete's hands must leave the track or their feet must leave the starting blocks before the gunshot in order for a false start to be given. Therefore, if an athlete makes a twitch, while being in their final 'set' position, the maximum penalty is a yellow card.
Australian rules football: A yellow card is issued against a player for committing any reportable offence (such as striking an opponent, swearing at an official, amongst others), except those listed as 'serious' reportable offences. Any player issued a yellow card is unable to participate in the game for the length of a quarter of play, excluding breaks, although the player can be replaced. However, a yellow card may be issued against a player at the discretion of an umpire, despite the player not committing a reportable offence. Yellow cards and red cards are, however, not issued in the Australian Football League, the highest level of play in Australian rules football.[5]
Badminton: A yellow card is given to a singles player or doubles pair as a warning for breaching the Laws of Badminton. A yellow card can only be given once to a player or pair in a match, subsequent breaches are sanctioned with a red or black card.[6][7]
Bandy: A yellow card indicates a warning given to an entire team for technical fouls such as errors in the execution of goal-throws or free strokes, or the obstruction of a player without ball.[8] Subsequent technical fouls by the same team result in a five-minute penalty indicated by a white card.
Canoe polo: A yellow card indicates a player has received a two-minute temporary suspension.[9] A yellow card can be awarded for a deliberate or dangerous foul that prevents the scoring of a near certain goal, dangerous illegal play that is deliberate or repeated, foul or abusive language, continuously disputing a referee's decisions or receiving a third green card for any reason.
Equestrian sports: Yellow cards may be issued during FEI sanctioned events for abuse of a horse or incorrect behavior towards an official.[10] Abuse of the horse may include riding an obviously lame horse, riding an exhausted horse, excessive use of whip or spurs, and dangerous riding. Riders may choose not to accept issued cards, but doing so may lead to a disciplinary hearing. A rider receiving a yellow card can be disqualified from the event and subsequently fined or suspended.[10]
Fencing: A yellow card indicates a warning to a fencer and is valid for the remainder of the bout.[11] In some cases, an annulment of any hit scored by the fencer at fault may also occur. Yellow cards are awarded for Group 1 offences such as making bodily contact with the opposing fencer (in foil or sabre), leaving the piste without permission, or refusing to obey the referee. A yellow card can also be awarded when, at the first call by the referee, a fencer does not present himself on the piste ready to fence. Any person not on the piste who disturbs the good order of the competition may also receive a yellow card on the first infringement.[11]
Field hockey: A yellow card indicates a temporary suspension of at least 5 minutes. The length of the suspension is determined by the umpire.[12] It is possible for a player to receive two yellow cards for different offences during the same match; however, the period of suspension must be significantly longer with each yellow card. When an offence for which a yellow card has been awarded is repeated, the yellow card must not be used again and a more severe penalty must be awarded. There must also be a clear difference between the duration of a yellow card suspension for a minor offence and the duration for a major offence. The yellow card can be shown to a specific player or to the captain for misconduct by the entire team.[12] In this case, the captain is temporarily suspended.
Gaelic games: In camogie, Gaelic football, hurling and ladies' Gaelic football a yellow card (Irish: cárta buí) is given to players for moderate fouls. A player who receives two yellow cards in a single game is sent off and receives a red card.
Handball: A yellow card indicates a warning and can be given to a player or team official for unsportsmanlike conduct, or to a player whose actions are mainly or exclusively directed at the opponent and not at the ball. IHF rules also allow referees to use discretion to award a yellow card outside of these situations.[13]
Mixed martial arts promotions PRIDE (defunct), DEEP, and ZST: A warning, the third leads to disqualification.
Racewalking: A yellow card indicates a competitor's foot fails to be on the ground when the rear leg is being raised, or the front leg is not straightened when it makes contact with the ground.[14]
Rugby league: Yellow cards are not usually used in rugby league in the southern hemisphere with referees indicating a 10-minute suspension by raising both arms straight out with fingers spread (to indicate 10 minutes). This is otherwise known as a "sin bin". However, in the northern hemisphere it is common for a referee to use a yellow card in signaling a "sin bin" to indicate 10 minutes instead of using the arm and hand signal used in the southern hemisphere. It is possible for a player to receive seven yellow cards without receiving a red card (a player who receives eight yellow cards in a match will receive a red card, which results in ejection from the match). However, it is up to the referee's discretion at how bad the offences are, and in these cases, a red card may be commonly shown for a second major offence without the presence of a second yellow card.
Rugby union: According to the laws of the game published by World Rugby (WR), during international matches, any player who commits an offence under Law 9 – Foul Play may be shown a yellow card and suspended from the game for 10 minutes (2 minutes in rugby sevens[15]); the player cannot be replaced during that time.[16] Offences include obstruction, unfair play, repeated infringements, dangerous play and misconduct which is prejudicial to the game. Receiving a yellow card is known colloquially as being sent to the "sin bin". A player receiving a second yellow card in a game will also be shown a red card (see below) meaning that he or she has been sent-off and will be unable to take part in the remainder of the match.
Volleyball: Under FIVB rules a yellow card is the second stage of a formal warning for a player(s)/coach for minor misconduct, the first being a verbal one given through the team captain. It is recorded on the scoresheet but has no immediate consequences - there is no loss of service (if applicable) and no point awarded to the opposition. It is shown together with a red card (in one hand) where a player(s)/coach is sanctioned with expulsion, and (with a card in each hand) separately with a red card where a player(s)/coach is sanctioned with disqualification, all such offences are recorded on the scoresheet.
Water polo: Given as an official warning for disrespectful conduct from the coach, individual players, or the entire bench.
Red card[edit]
A red card is used in several sports and most commonly indicates a serious offense and can often mean that a player has been removed from the game and may be barred from the next game as well.
A red card is used in several different sporting codes. Its meaning differs among sports, but it most commonly indicates a serious offence and often results in a player being permanently suspended from the game (commonly known as an ejection, dismissal, expulsion, removal, or sending-off, often with personal embarrassment). In many sports the ejected player's team cannot replace them and thus must continue the rest of the game with one fewer player, which may be a significant disadvantage. Examples include:
Association football: A red card is shown by a referee to signify that a player has been sent off.[2] A player who has been sent off is required to leave the field of play immediately and must take no further part in the game. The player who has been sent off cannot be replaced during the game; his team must continue the game with one player fewer. Only players, substitutes and substituted players may receive a red card. If a goalkeeper receives a red card another player will be allowed to assume goalkeeping duties (teams will usually substitute an outfield player for another goalkeeper if this option is available). A red card will be shown to a player who has committed a serious offense such as violent conduct or an illegal and purposeful obstruction of a goal scoring opportunity for the opposing team. A red card will also be shown to a player who accumulates two yellow cards for more minor offenses.
For more details, see Red card (association football).
Athletics: A red card indicates that the athlete is disqualified after receiving 2 yellow cards. A diagonal red/black card is issued if a false start has been made.[3]
Australian rules football: A red card is issued against a player who has accumulated two yellow cards over the course of a match, or has committed a 'serious reportable offence' (such as striking an umpire or kicking an opponent). A player issued with a red card may not participate for the remainder of the match; however, unlike most sports, the player can be replaced, although not until a length of time equivalent to one-quarter (excluding breaks) has elapsed. Yellow cards and red cards are, however, not issued in the Australian Football League, the highest level of play in Australian rules football.[5]
Badminton: A red card is given to a singles player or doubles pair to penalize subsequent infractions after receiving a yellow card. It counts as fault, meaning the opposing side is awarded a point. After a second red card, a player or pair may be disqualified with a black card at the tournament referee's discretion.[6][7]
Bandy: A red card indicates a match penalty, i.e. a player has been excluded for the remainder of the match and cannot be substituted.[8] Red card offenses include directly attacking an opponent or using abusive language. A coach or substitute may also be penalized with a red card. In this situation, a player currently on the rink also serves a ten-minute penalty, resulting in the number of players being reduced by one.
Canoe polo: A red card indicates a player has been sent off for the remainder of the match and cannot be substituted.[9] A red card can be awarded if a personal attack on a player occurs, repeated foul or abusive language, or when the award of a yellow card is disputed or has not had the desired effect of causing the player to control his play or attitude. A red card is also awarded when a player has received a second yellow card for any reason.
Cricket: In December 2016, it was announced that by October 2017 cricket umpires would be given the power to issue red cards to send off players who have committed the following: “threatening an umpire; physically assaulting another player, umpire, official or spectator; or any other act of violence”.[17]
Fencing: A red card is used to indicate that a fencer has committed an offence that warrants a penalty hit to be awarded to the opponent.[11] Second and subsequent Group 1 offences, all Group 2 offences and first Group 3 offences are penalised with a red card.[11] A red card may also be awarded when, at the second call by the referee, a fencer does not present himself on the piste ready to fence.
Field hockey: A red card results in a player being permanently suspended from the game. The player cannot take any further part in the game and cannot be substituted. Unlike other penalty cards in field hockey, the red card is never given to the captain for team misconduct. In addition to their colour, red cards in field hockey are often circular in shape.[12]
Floorball: A red card is results in the player being ejected from the game and his/her team being penalised with a 5 minute bench penalty. In floorball, the red card can be linked with 3 different types of Match Penalties (MP 1, 2 and 3). MP1 is linked with violent play during the game, such as heavy hits (pushing) against the goal-cage or boarding; this penalty does not cause additional suspension in the tournament. MP2 is linked with offences such as sabotage of the game, mild brawl (no punches), and is also given when a player receives his/her second 5 minute bench penalty; this match penalty causes an automatic 1 game suspension. MP3 is linked with vulgar conduct, such as insulting the referee, another player or spectators, violent conduct that is not directly linked with play (such as punching an opponent); this match penalty causes an automatic 1 game suspension, and is further reviewed by a disciplinary committee that can penalise the player with additional suspension.
A red card shown in a handball match
Gaelic games: In camogie, Gaelic football, hurling and ladies' Gaelic football a red card (Irish: cárta dearg) is given to players for serious fouls and violent conduct. A player who receives two yellow cards in a single game is sent off and receives a red card.
Handball: A red card indicates a disqualification of a player who has committed an offense such as unsportsmanlike conduct, serious foul play, or receiving a third two-minute suspension.[13] A red card prevents a player from playing for the remainder of the match and as a result reduces the number of players that are available to a team. A red card also carries a two-minute suspension for the team, meaning that a team cannot replace the disqualified player until the two-minute team suspension has expired.[13]
Racewalking: A red card indicates that a competitor's foot failed to be on the ground when the rear leg is being raised or that his front leg is not straightened when it makes contact with the ground. A judge would issue a yellow card for the first infraction committed by a competitor. And if the same judge detects the second infraction from the same competitor, a red card is issued. Three red cards, from three different judges, will result in a competitor's disqualification.[14]
Rugby league: Red cards are not usually used in rugby league in the southern hemisphere with referees indicating a player has been sent from the field for the rest of the match with one extended arm above the head with the index finger pointed in the direction of a sideline. However, in the northern hemisphere, it is common for a referee to use a red card in signaling a player has been sent from the field for the rest of the match, with no replacement allowed. It is possible for a player to receive seven yellow cards without receiving a red card (a player who receives eight yellow cards in a match will receive a red card, which results in ejection from the match). However, it is up to the referee's discretion at how bad the offenses are, and in these cases, a red card may be commonly shown for a second major offense without the presence of a second yellow card.
Rugby union: A red card is used to indicate that a player has been sent off and can take no further part in the game.[16] He cannot be replaced, leaving his team with one fewer player for the remainder of the game. During international matches, a player who commits an offense under Law 9 – Foul Play may be shown a red card. Red cards are normally issued for serious offenses. Any player receiving a second yellow card in a game will automatically be shown a red card.
Volleyball: A red card can be issued by the referee for the first instance of Rude Conduct. It is recorded on the scoresheet and results in loss of service (if applicable) and a penalty point to the opposition. Rude Conduct is the only category of sanction punished by a Red card alone, and which results in loss of service (if applicable) and a penalty point. For the sanctions of Expulsion and Disqualification, a Red and Yellow card is shown simultaneously, held together in one hand, or separately in each hand, respectively.
Two Man (beach): The rules vary in one aspect from the six-a-side competition. A red card is shown for the first and any second offense of Rude Conduct in the same set. It is recorded on the scoresheet, resulting in loss of service (if applicable) and a penalty point to the opposition. Otherwise the procedural use of cards is the same as for six-a-side.
Water polo: A red card is issued to a coach or player on the bench for a second incident of misconduct after receiving a yellow card or severe unsporting conduct. A person receiving a red card must leave the competition area.
Other types of penalty card[edit]
Green card[edit]
In field hockey, a triangular-shaped green card indicates a 2 minute suspension for field players and a warning for a coach.
A Penn State field hockey player receives a green card.
A green card is used in some sports to indicate an official warning to a player who has committed a minor offence that does not warrant a more serious sanction.
Athletics: A green card indicates that the recall did not warrant a warning, which most commonly happens when the machines used to catch false-starters make a mistake.[3]
Canoe polo: A green card indicates an official warning that can be applied to an individual player or a whole team.[9] A green card can be awarded for deliberate unsporting behavior or unnecessary verbal communication to the referee.
Field hockey: A green card indicates an official warning when a minor offence has occurred. A second green card for the same player will result in a yellow card (5 minute suspension). In this case, the umpire will show a green card, followed by a yellow card. When an offence for which a green card has been awarded is repeated, a yellow card should be awarded. A green card can be given to a specific player or to the captain as a warning to the entire team. Cards shown to the captain as a warning to the team are treated separate from cards shown to the captain as a player. In addition to their colour, green cards in field hockey are triangular in shape.[12] Under FIH Rules of Hockey, the green card carries a two-minute suspension during which time that player's team plays with one fewer player.
White card[edit]
In bandy, a white card indicates a five-minute penalty while a blue card indicates a ten-minute penalty.
A white card is used in bandy to indicate a five-minute timed penalty given to a player.[8] The offending player must leave the playing area and wait on a penalty bench near the centre line until the penalty has expired. During the 5 minute period the player may not be replaced, although he or she may be replaced with a different player when the penalty has expired. Offences that can warrant a white card include trying to hinder the opponents from executing a free-stroke, illegal substitution or repeated illegal but non-violent attacks on an opponent.
In the 2012 Super Rugby season in rugby union, a White Card was introduced for incidents of suspected foul play where the referee is unsure of the identity of the perpetrator, or where the referee is unsure if a red card is warranted. The incident is later referred to the citing commissioner, and may result in a suspension for the offending player.[18] It is similar to a citation sign (arms crossed above the head) in rugby league. However, in 2013 the International Rugby Board, now known as World Rugby, extended the powers of the TMO to include reviewing suspected incidents of foul play.[19] As a result, no white cards were issued in 2013.[20]
Blue card[edit]
A blue card or 'Blue Disk' as pioneered by The Elms, is used in bandy to indicate a ten-minute timed penalty given to a player.[8] The offending player must leave the playing area and wait on a penalty bench near the centre line until the penalty has expired. During the 10 minute period the player may not be replaced, although he or she may be replaced with a different player when the penalty has expired. A blue card is typically shown for offences that are more serious than those warranting a white card including attacking an opponent in a violent or dangerous way, causing advantage by intentionally stopping the ball with a high stick or protesting a referee's decision.
A blue card is also frequently used in indoor soccer in the United States, signifying that the offender must leave the field and stay in a penalty box (usually 2–5 minutes), during which time their team plays down a man (identical to ice hockey and roller hockey). If a goal is scored by the team opposite of the offender, then the offender may return to the field immediately. It is also used in the Clericus Cup association football league for a 5-minute bench penalty for unsportsmanlike play. And it is also used in the beach soccer for a 2-minute bench penalty for unsportsmanlike play.
A Blue Card is also used in quidditch to indicate a technical foul. The fouling player is sent to the penalty box for one minute or until a goal is scored against the fouling player's team. Unlike a yellow card, there is no additional penalty for multiple blue cards.[21]
In European indoor soccer or Futsal, a Blue Card was used to send a player off the court; however the team was able to replace him with another player. The offending player could not return to play during the match. A blue card was shown directly for foul play or verbal abuse, if the same player had received two yellow cards, or if he had accumulated a total of 5 fouls during the game.
The Blue Card has been in use in Handball since the International Handball Federation announced a rule change that came into effect on July 1, 2016.[22] First the Red Card is shown, then the referee will after a short discussion show the blue card. Following that a written report will accompany the score sheet and the Disciplinary Commission will then decide on further actions against the player.[23]
Black card[edit]
A black card in fencing indicates an offense serious enough to warrant a suspension
A black card is used in fencing. It is issued by the director, or the referee for severe rule infractions.[11] A second instance of a Group 3 offence, and all Group 4 offences including deliberate brutality, refusal to fence, refusal to salute, and refusal to shake hands can be punished with a black card.[11] When the black card is issued, the offending fencer is excluded from the remainder of the competition and may be suspended from further tournaments. In the official record of the tournament, his or her name is replaced with the words "FENCER EXCLUDED".[24]
A black card is also used in the sport of badminton to indicate disqualification.[25]
In the Gaelic Games of Gaelic football and hurling, a tick or black book – was formerly recorded against a player for a minor infringement not warranting a yellow card, though multiple bookings will result in the issuance of a yellow card. The act of the referee physically holding up his black notebook in the same manner as a card has been discontinued by the GAA.[26]
Beginning January 1, 2014 a player in Gaelic football can be ordered off the pitch for the remainder of the game with a substitution allowed by being physically shown a Black Card (the referee's black notebook) in the same manner as any other penalty card for "cynical behaviour," including blatant tripping, pulling down and bodychecking. This forced substitution is an intermediate punishment between the yellow and red cards. A player who receives a yellow card and a black card in the same game is sent off without any substitute being permitted.[27]
See also[edit]
Racing instruction flags
Penalty flag
Walk of shame
Ejection
Shows red card to abuser
Show Racism the Red Card
Yellow Card Scheme
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Ken Aston – the inventor of yellow and red cards". fifa.com. Retrieved February 20, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Laws of the Game". fifa.com. Retrieved June 6, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c "IAAF Starting Guidelines" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "IAAF sanctions immediate disqualification for false starts come January". The Daily Telegraph. London. August 12, 2009. Retrieved August 25, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "AFL Laws of the Game" (PDF). AFL Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 22, 2012. Retrieved October 20, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Laws of badminton". bwfbadminton.org. Badminton World Federation. pp. 10–11. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Recommendations to technical officials". bwfbadminton.org. Badminton World Federation. pp. 8–9. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Bandy – Rules of Play". internationalbandy.com. Retrieved June 10, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c "International Canoe Polo – Rules of Play". canoepolonz.org.nz. Archived from the original on October 14, 2008. Retrieved June 12, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "FEI General Regulations" (PDF). fei.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 4, 2008. Retrieved September 17, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "FIE Competition Rules". britishfencing.com. Retrieved Sep 8, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Rules of Hockey" (PDF). FIH. Retrieved November 16, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "International Handball Federation – Rules of the Game 2005". ihf.info. Retrieved June 8, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Mike Rosenbaum. "Olympic Race Walking Basics". About.com Sports.
Jump up ^ "Law 9 – Foul Play (Sevens Variation)". Laws of the Game: Rugby Union. World Rugby. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Law 9 – Foul Play". Laws of the Game: Rugby Union. World Rugby. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "MCC recommends sendings off be introduced into laws of cricket". The Guardian. 7 December 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Super Rugby: White card set for Super Rugby bow - Live Rugby News - ESPN Scrum". ESPN scrum.
Jump up ^ "Rugby365 - New TMO protocol". rugby365.com.
Jump up ^ "Rennie apologises for bizarre semi incident". Stuff.
Jump up ^ "Quidditch Rulebook" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "IHF Announces Rule Changes Effective July 1st 2016 : Irish Olympic Handball Association". www.olympichandball.org.
Jump up ^ http://cms.eurohandball.com/PortalData/1/Resources/1_ehf_main/3_download_pdf/Rule_changes_2016_03_01.pdf
Jump up ^ "Fencing For Parents". U.S. Fencing – The Official Website of the U.S. Fencing Association. Archived from the original on 2008-06-25. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
Jump up ^ "8 badminton players tossed from Olympic doubles after being accused of throwing matches". New York Post. Associated Press. 1 August 2012. Retrieved August 1, 2012.
Jump up ^ Keys, Colm (May 8, 2009). "GAA throw caution to wind and abandon black books". Irish Independent.
Jump up ^ "GAA passcontroversial 'black card' rule". Irish Independent. 23 March 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2013.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Penalty_card&oldid=864810363"
Categories:
Sports terminology
Laws of association football
Terminology used in multiple sports
Association football terminology
Rugby league terminology
Rugby union terminology
Bandy rules
Fencing
Field hockey terminology
Handball terminology
Sports equipment
Water polo
Hidden categories:
Articles containing Irish-language text
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Azərbaycanca
Català
Deutsch
Eesti
Español
Euskara
Français
한국어
Bahasa Melayu
नेपाली
Slovenščina
Suomi
தமிழ்
Türkçe
Tiếng Việt
粵語
7 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 19 October 2018, at 16:25 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

attrs: href title

attrs: class style

value: b

values: /wiki/Umpire mw-redirect Umpire

value: input

attrs: type role id class style

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

value: label

attrs: class for

values: toctogglelabel toctogglecheckbox

value: span

values: Edit section: Commonly used penalty cards

values:
/wiki/Red_card_(association_football)
mw-redirect
Red card (association football)

values:
/wiki/Misconduct_(association_football)
mw-redirect
Misconduct (association football)

values:
/wiki/Equestrian_sports
mw-redirect
Equestrian sports

values: International Federation for Equestrian Sports

values:
/wiki/Fencing_(sport)
mw-redirect
Fencing (sport)

values: Edit section: Other types of penalty card

values:
/wiki/Athletics_(sport)
mw-redirect
Athletics (sport)

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Gaelic_Games
mw-redirect
Gaelic Games

values:
/wiki/Racing_instruction_flags
mw-redirect
Racing instruction flags

values:
nofollow
http://www.internationalbandy.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.ihf.info/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://laws.worldrugby.org/?law=9

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:Terminology used in multiple sports

values: Category:Articles containing Irish-language text

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Penalty_card
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: 페널티 카드 – Korean

values: पेनाल्टी कार्ड – Nepali

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ne
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values: தண்டனை அட்டை – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Penalty_card rootpage-Penalty_card skin-vector action-view


text:
Structure of the Earth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Structure of the Earth
The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells: an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core. Scientific understanding of the internal structure of the Earth is based on observations of topography and bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanoes or volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through the Earth, measurements of the gravitational and magnetic fields of the Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of the Earth's deep interior.
Contents
[hide]
1 Mass
2 Structure
2.1 Crust
2.2 Mantle
2.3 Core
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
Mass[edit]
The force exerted by Earth's gravity can be used to calculate its mass. Astronomers can also calculate Earth's mass by observing the motion of orbiting satellites. Earth’s average density can be determined through gravitometric experiments, which have historically involved pendulums.
The mass of Earth is about 7024600000000000000♠6×1024 kg.[1]
Structure[edit]
Earth's radial density distribution according to the preliminary reference earth model (PREM).[2]
Earth's gravity according to the preliminary reference earth model (PREM).[2] Comparison to approximations using constant and linear density for Earth's interior.
Mapping the interior of Earth with earthquake waves.
Schematic view of the interior of Earth. 1. continental crust – 2. oceanic crust – 3. upper mantle – 4. lower mantle – 5. outer core – 6. inner core – A: Mohorovičić discontinuity – B: Gutenberg Discontinuity – C: Lehmann–Bullen discontinuity.
The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties such as rheology, or chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle, outer core, and the inner core. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core. The geologic component layers of Earth[3][not in citation given] are at the following depths below the surface:
Depth
Layer
Kilometres
Miles
0–60 0–37 Lithosphere (locally varies between 5 and 200 km)
0–35 0–22 … Crust (locally varies between 5 and 70 km)
35–60 22–37 … Uppermost part of mantle
35–2,890 22–1,790 Mantle
210-270 130-168 … Upper mesosphere (upper mantle)
660–2,890 410–1,790 … Lower mesosphere (lower mantle)
2,890–5,150 1,790–3,160 Outer core
5,150–6,360 3,160–3,954 Inner core
The layering of Earth has been inferred indirectly using the time of travel of refracted and reflected seismic waves created by earthquakes. The core does not allow shear waves to pass through it, while the speed of travel (seismic velocity) is different in other layers. The changes in seismic velocity between different layers causes refraction owing to Snell's law, like light bending as it passes through a prism. Likewise, reflections are caused by a large increase in seismic velocity and are similar to light reflecting from a mirror.
Crust[edit]
Main article: Crust (geology)
The crust ranges from 5–70 kilometres (3.1–43.5 mi) in depth and is the outermost layer. The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlie the ocean basins (5–10 km) and are composed of dense (mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks, like basalt. The thicker crust is continental crust, which is less dense and composed of (felsic) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like granite. The rocks of the crust fall into two major categories – sial and sima (Suess,1831–1914). It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the Conrad discontinuity (a second order discontinuity). The uppermost mantle together with the crust constitutes the lithosphere. The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different events. First, there is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity, which is most commonly known as the Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho. The cause of the Moho is thought to be a change in rock composition from rocks containing plagioclase feldspar (above) to rocks that contain no feldspars (below). Second, in oceanic crust, there is a chemical discontinuity between ultramafic cumulates and tectonized harzburgites, which has been observed from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been obducted onto the continental crust and preserved as ophiolite sequences.
Many rocks now making up Earth's crust formed less than 100 million (1×108) years ago; however, the oldest known mineral grains are about 4.4 billion (4.4×109) years old, indicating that Earth has had a solid crust for at least 4.4 billion years.[4]
Mantle[edit]
World map showing the position of the Moho.
Main article: Mantle (geology)
Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of Earth. The mantle is divided into upper and lower mantle. The upper and lower mantle are separated by the transition zone. The lowest part of the mantle next to the core-mantle boundary is known as the D″ (pronounced dee-double-prime[5]) layer. The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is ≈140 GPa (1.4 Matm). The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust. Although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile that it can flow on very long timescales. Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the motions of tectonic plates. As there is intense and increasing pressure as one travels deeper into the mantle, the lower part of the mantle flows less easily than does the upper mantle (chemical changes within the mantle may also be important). The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 1021 and 1024 Pa·s, depending on depth.[6] In comparison, the viscosity of water is approximately 10−3 Pa·s and that of pitch is 107 Pa·s. The source of heat that drives plate tectonics is the primordial heat left over from the planet’s formation as well as the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.[7]
Core[edit]
Main articles: inner core and outer core
The average density of Earth is 5,515 kg/m3. Because the average density of surface material is only around 3,000 kg/m3, we must conclude that denser materials exist within Earth's core. Seismic measurements show that the core is divided into two parts, a "solid" inner core with a radius of ≈1,220 km[8] and a liquid outer core extending beyond it to a radius of ≈3,400 km. The densities are between 9,900 and 12,200 kg/m3 in the outer core and 12,600–13,000 kg/m3 in the inner core.[9]
The inner core was discovered in 1936 by Inge Lehmann and is generally believed to be composed primarily of iron and some nickel. It is not necessarily a solid, but, because it is able to deflect seismic waves, it must behave as a solid in some fashion. Experimental evidence has at times been critical of crystal models of the core.[10] Other experimental studies show a discrepancy under high pressure: diamond anvil (static) studies at core pressures yield melting temperatures that are approximately 2000 K below those from shock laser (dynamic) studies.[11][12] The laser studies create plasma,[13] and the results are suggestive that constraining inner core conditions will depend on whether the inner core is a solid or is a plasma with the density of a solid. This is an area of active research.
In early stages of Earth's formation about four and a half billion (4.5×109) years ago, melting would have caused denser substances to sink toward the center in a process called planetary differentiation (see also the iron catastrophe), while less-dense materials would have migrated to the crust. The core is thus believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with nickel and one or more light elements, whereas other dense elements, such as lead and uranium, either are too rare to be significant or tend to bind to lighter elements and thus remain in the crust (see felsic materials). Some have argued that the inner core may be in the form of a single iron crystal.[14][15]
Under laboratory conditions a sample of iron–nickel alloy was subjected to the corelike pressures by gripping it in a vise between 2 diamond tips (diamond anvil cell), and then heating to approximately 4000 K. The sample was observed with x-rays, and strongly supported the theory that Earth's inner core was made of giant crystals running north to south.[16][17]
The liquid outer core surrounds the inner core and is believed to be composed of iron mixed with nickel and trace amounts of lighter elements.
Recent speculation suggests that the innermost part of the core is enriched in gold, platinum and other siderophile elements.[18]
The matter that comprises Earth is connected in fundamental ways to matter of certain chondrite meteorites, and to matter of outer portion of the Sun.[19][20] There is good reason to believe that Earth is, in the main, like a chondrite meteorite. Beginning as early as 1940, scientists, including Francis Birch, built geophysics upon the premise that Earth is like ordinary chondrites, the most common type of meteorite observed impacting Earth, while totally ignoring another, albeit less abundant type, called enstatite chondrites. The principal difference between the two meteorite types is that enstatite chondrites formed under circumstances of extremely limited available oxygen, leading to certain normally oxyphile elements existing either partially or wholly in the alloy portion that corresponds to the core of Earth.
Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field. The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (see Curie temperature) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core. The average magnetic field strength in Earth's outer core is estimated to be 25 Gauss (2.5 mT), 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface.[21][22]
Recent evidence has suggested that the inner core of Earth may rotate slightly faster than the rest of the planet;[23] however, more recent studies in 2011[which?] found this hypothesis to be inconclusive. Options remain for the core which may be oscillatory in nature or a chaotic system.[citation needed] In August 2005 a team of geophysicists announced in the journal Science that, according to their estimates, Earth's inner core rotates approximately 0.3 to 0.5 degrees per year faster relative to the rotation of the surface.[24][25]
The current scientific explanation for Earth's temperature gradient is a combination of heat left over from the planet's initial formation, decay of radioactive elements, and freezing of the inner core.
See also[edit]
Earth sciences portal
Geological history of Earth
Lehmann discontinuity
Rain-out model
Travel to the Earth's center
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "2016 Selected Astronomical Constants" in The Astronomical Almanac Online, USNO–UKHO, ME = 5·9722×1024 kg ± 6×1020 kg
^ Jump up to: a b A. M. Dziewonski, D. L. Anderson (1981). "Preliminary reference Earth model" (PDF). Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. 25 (4): 297–356. doi:10.1016/0031-9201(81)90046-7. ISSN 0031-9201.
Jump up ^ T. H. Jordan (1979). "Structural Geology of the Earth's Interior" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 76 (9): 4192–4200. Bibcode:1979PNAS...76.4192J. doi:10.1073/pnas.76.9.4192. PMC 411539  . PMID 16592703.
Jump up ^ Breaking News | Oldest rock shows Earth was a hospitable young planet. Spaceflight Now (2001-01-14). Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
Jump up ^ Krieger, Kim (24 March 2004). "D Layer Demystified". Science News. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 5 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Uwe Walzer, Roland Hendel, John Baumgardner Mantle Viscosity and the Thickness of the Convective Downwellings.
Jump up ^ Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) is a Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Science lab managed by University of California., What Keeps the Earth Cooking? News Release by Paul Preuss, July 17, 2011
Jump up ^ Monnereau, Marc; Calvet, Marie; Margerin, Ludovic; Souriau, Annie (May 21, 2010). "Lopsided Growth of Earth's Inner Core". Science. 328 (5981): 1014–1017. Bibcode:2010Sci...328.1014M. doi:10.1126/science.1186212. PMID 20395477.
Jump up ^ Hazlett, James S.; Monroe, Reed; Wicander, Richard (2006). Physical geology : exploring the earth (6. ed.). Belmont: Thomson. p. 346. ISBN 9780495011484.
Jump up ^ Stixrude, Lars; Cohen, R.E. (January 15, 1995). "Constraints on the crystalline structure of the inner core: Mechanical instability of BCC iron at high pressure". Geophysical Research Letters. 22 (2): 125–128. Bibcode:1995GeoRL..22..125S. doi:10.1029/94GL02742.
Jump up ^ Benuzzi-Mounaix, A.; Koenig, M.; Ravasio, A.; Vinci, T. (2006). "Laser-driven shock waves for the study of extreme matter states". Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion. 48 (12B). Bibcode:2006PPCF...48B.347B. doi:10.1088/0741-3335/48/12B/S32.
Jump up ^ Remington, Bruce A.; Drake, R. Paul; Ryutov, Dmitri D. (2006). "Experimental astrophysics with high power lasers and Z pinches". Reviews of Modern Physics. 78. Bibcode:2006RvMP...78..755R. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.78.755.
Jump up ^ Benuzzi-Mounaix, A.; Koenig, M.; Husar, G.; Faral, B. (June 2002). "Absolute equation of state measurements of iron using laser driven shocks". Physics of Plasmas. 9 (6). Bibcode:2002PhPl....9.2466B. doi:10.1063/1.1478557.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Ronald; Stixrude, Lars. "Crystal at the Center of the Earth". Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2007-02-05.
Jump up ^ Stixrude, L.; Cohen, R. E. (1995). "High-Pressure Elasticity of Iron and Anisotropy of Earth's Inner Core". Science. 267 (5206): 1972–5. Bibcode:1995Sci...267.1972S. doi:10.1126/science.267.5206.1972. PMID 17770110.
Jump up ^ BBC News, "What is at the centre of the Earth?. Bbc.co.uk (2011-08-31). Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
Jump up ^ Ozawa, H.; al., et (2011). "Phase Transition of FeO and Stratification in Earth's Outer Core". Science. 334 (6057): 792–794. Bibcode:2011Sci...334..792O. doi:10.1126/science.1208265.
Jump up ^ Wootton, Anne (2006). "Earth's Inner Fort Knox". Discover. 27 (9): 18.
Jump up ^ Herndon, J. M. (1980). "The chemical composition of the interior shells of the Earth". Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A372 (1748): 149–154. JSTOR 2398362.
Jump up ^ Herndon, J. M. (2005). "Scientific basis of knowledge on Earth's composition" (PDF). Current Science. 88 (7): 1034–1037.
Jump up ^ First Measurement Of Magnetic Field Inside Earth's Core. Science20.com. Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
Jump up ^ Buffett, Bruce A. (2010). "Tidal dissipation and the strength of the Earth's internal magnetic field". Nature. 468 (7326): 952–4. Bibcode:2010Natur.468..952B. doi:10.1038/nature09643. PMID 21164483.
Jump up ^ Chang, Kenneth (2005-08-25). "Earth's Core Spins Faster Than the Rest of the Planet". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-24.
Jump up ^ Kerr, R. A. (2005). "Earth's Inner Core Is Running a Tad Faster Than the Rest of the Planet". Science. 309 (5739): 1313a. doi:10.1126/science.309.5739.1313a. PMID 16123276.
Jump up ^ Chang, Kenneth (26 August 2005) "Scientists Say Earth's Center Rotates Faster Than Surface" The New York Times Sec. A, Col. 1, p. 13.
Further reading[edit]
Drollette, Daniel (October 1996). "A Spinning Crystal Ball". Scientific American. 275 (4): 28–33.
Kruglinski, Susan (June 2007). "Journey to the Center of the Earth". Discover. Retrieved 9 July 2016.
Lehmann, I (1936). "Inner Earth". Bur. Cent. Seismol. Int. 14: 3–31.
Wegener, Alfred (1966). The origin of continents and oceans. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486617084.
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Structure of the Earth
Media related to Structure of the Earth at Wikimedia Commons
Down To The Earth's Core (HD) on YouTube
[show]
v
t
e
Earth
Continents
Africa
Antarctica
Asia
Australia
Europe
North America
South America
Oceans
Arctic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Southern Ocean
Earth
Geography
Geology
Future of Earth
Geological history of Earth
History of Earth
Plate tectonics
Structure of the Earth
Environment
Biome
Ecology
Ecosystem
Nature
Wilderness
Related
Earth Day
Earth science
Geologic record
Geology of solar terrestrial planets
Location in Universe
Solar System
World
Category
Portal
Earth sciences
[show]
Links to related articles
[show]
v
t
e
Structure of the Earth
Shells
Crust
Lithosphere
Mesosphere
Mantle
Asthenosphere
Lithospheric mantle
Subcontinental lithospheric mantle
Oceanic lithospheric mantle
Outer core
Inner core
Discontinuities
Conrad (continental crust)
Mohorovičić (crust–mantle)
Lehmann (upper mantle)
Gutenberg (mantle–core)
Lehmann (core)
Arguments
Plate tectonics
[show]
v
t
e
Earth-related topics
History
Age of the Earth
Evolutionary history of life
Faint young Sun paradox
Formation and evolution of the Solar System
Future of Earth
Geologic time scale
Geological history of Earth
History of Earth
Timeline of evolution
Geography
Geology
Clairaut's theorem
Continents
Earthquake
Equatorial bulge
Extremes on Earth
Geology of solar terrestrial planets
Geophysics
Plate tectonics
Structure of the Earth
Time zones
Ecology
Earth Day
Global warming
Human impact on the environment
Imaging
Apple Maps
Baidu Maps
Bhuvan
Bing Maps
Global Map
Google Earth
Google Maps
MapmyIndia
NASA World Wind
Here
OpenStreetMap
Wikimapia
Remote sensing
Yahoo! Maps
Yandex Maps
Arts
Culture
Society
Earth in culture
Earth in science fiction
Etymology of the word "Earth"
History of the world
International law
Landscape painting
List of countries
World economy
Other topics
Biosphere
Earth's orbit
Earth trojan
The ecliptic
Flag of Earth
Gravity
Magnetic field
The Moon
Claimed moons of Earth
2006 RH120
Kordylewski cloud
Solar System
Earth's location in the Universe
Theia
Earth sciences portal
Solar System portal
[show]
v
t
e
Elements of nature
Universe
Space
Time
Energy
Matter
Change
Earth
Earth science
History (geological)
Structure
Geology
Plate tectonics
Oceans
Gaia hypothesis
Future
Weather
Meteorology
Atmosphere (Earth)
Climate
Clouds
Sunlight
Tides
Wind
Natural environment
Ecology
Ecosystem
Field
Radiation
Wilderness
Wildfires
Life
Origin (abiogenesis)
Evolutionary history
Biosphere
Hierarchy
Biology (astrobiology)
Organism
Eukaryota
flora
plants
fauna
animals
fungi
protista
Prokaryotes
archaea
bacteria
Viruses
Category:Nature
Portal:Science
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Structure_of_the_Earth&oldid=815436704"
Categories:
Structure of the Earth
Hidden categories:
All articles with failed verification
Articles with failed verification from January 2017
All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from April 2013
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from April 2013
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
भोजपुरी
Български
Català
Čeština
Deutsch
Español
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Lëtzebuergesch
Македонски
മലയാളം
Bahasa Melayu
Монгол
Nederlands
Patois
Plattdüütsch
Português
Română
Русский
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
தமிழ்
తెలుగు
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 14 December 2017, at 20:42.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href class title

values: /wiki/Viscous mw-redirect Viscous

values:
/wiki/Volcanic_activity
mw-redirect
Volcanic activity

values:
/wiki/Earth%27s_gravity
mw-redirect
Earth's gravity

values:
/wiki/Gutenberg_Discontinuity
mw-redirect
Gutenberg Discontinuity

values: The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (January 2017)

values:
/wiki/Seismic_velocity
mw-redirect
Seismic velocity

values:
/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle
mw-redirect
Earth's mantle

values:
/wiki/Core-mantle_boundary
mw-redirect
Core-mantle boundary

values:
/wiki/Tectonic_plates
mw-redirect
Tectonic plates

values:
/wiki/Upper_mantle
mw-redirect
Upper mantle

values:
/wiki/Pascal_second
mw-redirect
Pascal second

values:
/wiki/Siderophile_element
mw-redirect
Siderophile element

values:
/wiki/Coriolis_effect
mw-redirect
Coriolis effect

values: The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (April 2013)

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words
mw-redirect
Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2013)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Inner_Core#Dynamics
mw-redirect
Inner Core

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
nofollow
http://asa.usno.navy.mil/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9201

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.76.9.4192

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16592703

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1186212

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20395477

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1029%2F94GL02742

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.78.755

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1478557

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17770110

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14678004

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1208265

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2398362

values:
nofollow
external text
http://nuclearplanet.com/CS50410.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature09643

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21164483

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16123276

values: -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-width: 35em; column-width: 35em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: wikibooks:Historical Geology/Structure of the Earth

values:
collapseButton0
#
color: rgb(255, 255, 255);

values:
col
navbox-title
3
background:#0009ff; color:#ffffff;

values:
navbox-image
5
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
navbox-abovebelow
3
background:#0009ff; color:#ffffff

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Oceanic lithospheric mantle (page does not exist)

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
row
navbox-group
text-align: center;;width:1%

values: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

values: Timeline of evolutionary history of life

values:
/wiki/Etymology_of_the_word_%22Earth%22
mw-redirect
Etymology of the word "Earth"

values:
navbox-abovebelow
2
text-align: center;;font-weight:bold;

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: Category:All articles with failed verification

values: Category:Articles with failed verification from January 2017

values: Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases

values: Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from April 2013

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2013

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Structure_of_the_Earth
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: بنية الأرض – Arabic

values: পৃথিবীর গঠন – Bangla

values: पृथ्वी के अंदरूनी बनावट – Bhojpuri

values: Вътрешен строеж на Земята – Bulgarian

values: Estructura interna de la Terra – Catalan

values: Estructura interna de la Tierra – Spanish

values: ساختار زمین – Persian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-fa badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values: 지구의 구조 – Korean

values: Երկրաբանական կտրվածք – Armenian

values: पृथ्वी की आतंरिक संरचना – Hindi

values: დედამიწის სტრუქტურა – Georgian

values: Жер құрылымы – Kazakh

values: Земјин состав – Macedonian

values: അന്തർഭൗമഘടന – Malayalam

values: Дэлхийн цөм – Mongolian

values: Intiiria chokcha a di hOert – Jamaican Creole English

values:
https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eerdopbo
Eerdopbo – Low German
nds
nds
interlanguage-link-target

values: Структура Земли – Russian

values: Грађа Земље – Serbian

values: புவியின் கட்டமைப்பு – Tamil

values: భూమి నిర్మాణం – Telugu

values: โครงสร้างของโลก – Thai

values: Будова Землі – Ukrainian

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Structure_of_the_Earth rootpage-Structure_of_the_Earth skin-vector action-view


text:
Hampstead Ponds
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Hampstead Ponds is a generic term often used for the various Hampstead and Highgate ponds on the West and East sides respectively of Hampstead Heath, North London, England. These ponds are fed by the headwater springs of the River Fleet, and three of them are now large freshwater swimming ponds — two designated single sex, and one for mixed bathing. The swimming ponds are three out of some thirty ponds in total on Hampstead Heath. They were originally dug in the 17th and 18th centuries as reservoirs. A malarial marsh was drained by the Hampstead Water Company in 1777 to meet London's growing water demand.
In 2004, the City of London Corporation, which holds the Heath in trust since the abolition of the Greater London Council in 1986, tried to close the ponds on the grounds that they were an unsustainable drain on their expenses and posed a health risk to swimmers. The swimmers challenged this and won a victory in the High Court. To defray costs, the Corporation introduced a charge for admission of £2 per session, £1 for concessions. There was some opposition to this on the grounds that swimming there had been free since at least the 1920s, and some ticket machines were vandalised.
Contents
1 Swimming ponds
2 Proposals for the ponds and dams
3 Location
4 Controversies
5 References
Swimming ponds[edit]
Hampstead has three different ponds for swimming: one for men, one for women and one mixed. Only swimmers over eight years of age are allowed; those between eight and 15 years old must be in the care of an adult. Winter swimming is sometimes available at the ponds, which remain popular with users.
The men's pond had a diving tower, but this was dismantled following an accident in the 1970s and only a low level board remains, along with showers and a small sunbathing and changing area.
Quality of water tests — which comply with EU regulations — are routinely performed on all three swimming ponds, and results are available through the official City of London website. The three ponds are not to be confused with Parliament Hill Lido, built in 1938, now with a stainless steel lining.
Proposals for the ponds and dams[edit]
In 2011, it was announced that the City of London was proposing extensive works on the ponds and dams, which it claimed were necessary for safety reasons in the event of a rare major storm. The proposals included measures to improve the water quality of the ponds as well as improvements to the pipes and weirs that allow water to cascade from one pond to the other. These initial recommendations followed engineers' reports in 2005 that the hydrology of the ponds was poorly understood. These same engineering reports resulted in engineering works in 2006 on the two ponds in the grounds of Kenwood House, to make their overflow structures and dams safer. Since 2011 there has been strong opposition from the swimming clubs and the Protect Our Ponds campaign. In 2013 a united campaign was launched called Dam Nonsense to oppose the works, which the campaign claimed unnecessary and in conflict with the Hampstead Heath Act 1871. The campaign includes all the groups opposed to the proposals. The proposed work on the Hampstead Heath dams is further complicated by the regulations embodied in the 1975 Reservoir Act, which only relate to three dams on the Heath, and the proposed regulations under the Flood and Water Management Act 2010 which potentially relate to all 14 dams on the Heath. The Heath and Hampstead Society took the engineering decisions of the City of London to judicial review in November 2014: the interpretation of the 1975 Reservoir Act was challenged and thereby the nature of the proposed engineering works to the dams. The case was heard by The Honourable Mrs Justice Lang (DBE) and a ruling, in favour of the City of London, was issued on 28 November 2014 (case number CO/4175/2014). The judgement also addressed the status of the proposed engineering works relative to the provisions of the 1871 Act, again ruling that the engineers had shown due consideration for the provisions of the Act. Following the judicial review, the City of London now awaits the decision on the planning application for the engineering works, which is being opposed by The Heath and Hampstead Society and the Dam Nonsense campaign.
If the work goes ahead it is likely to involve the closure of all three swimming ponds for a prolonged period of time to enable higher dams to be built which will raise their heights, in the case of the dam above the Men's Swimming Pond by 18 feet. The City of London Corporation has said the work should be carried out urgently to reduce danger of flooding in surrounding built-up residential areas in the event of one of the dams bursting. The initial estimate of the number of lives which might be lost, in the event of a dam collapse in an extreme flood event, was over 2000 [1] (2006 estimate). This figure has been reduced to less than 400,[1] still a large number. However the chance of such an event is one in 400,000 years.[2] At a public meeting to launch the Dam Nonsense Campaign held on 25 November 2013, more than 200 people voted in favour of the campaign with only one vote against.[3]
The regulated dams under the 1975 Reservoir Act are the Model Pond and the Men's Bathing Pond in the Highgate Chain. Highgate Number 1 pond would have been covered by the Act but the water level was lowered by the GLC in 1984. In the Hampstead chain, Hampstead Number 1 pond is also regulated under the 1975 Act.
Location[edit]
The men and women's ponds are on the eastern side of the park, off of Millfield Lane. The mixed bathing pond is in the centre of the Heath, and is a 10-15 minute walk from Hampstead Heath railway station and from South End Green, at the junction of Pond Street and East Heath Road, which is served by several bus routes.
Controversies[edit]
Controversy broke out in December of 2017 after the City of London corporation, in charge of running the pools, officially announced that transgender women would be allowed to use the women's pool. Multiple swimmers including Julie Bindel criticised the rule change, although reaction was more positive from other groups.[4][5][6][7]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "soul - Definition of soul in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries - English.
Jump up ^ Ponds and dams, City of London Corporation.
Jump up ^ Protect Our Ponds documents the debate since 2011 until the present time[when?] regarding the proposed works to the dams on the Heath ponds, including the three swimming ponds.
Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/09/debate-over-inclusion-of-trans-women-in-women-only-spaces-intensifies
Jump up ^ https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/row-erupts-after-hampstead-heath-womens-pool-allows-transgender-bathers-a3729056.html
Jump up ^ https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/transgender-women-hampstead-heath-ladies-pond-kenwood-kate-moss-a8136581.html
Jump up ^ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5376309/Feminists-outraged-Hampstead-ladies-pond-change.html
[1] Highgate Men's Pond Association (HMPA) is an organisation of swimmers set up in 2012. It has a chair, secretary and treasurer plus a committee of 12, all democratically elected. It currently (Dec 2013) has 550 supporters on email list, many of whom pay an annual subscription.
Protect Our Ponds
The London Encyclopaedia, Ben Weinreb and Christopher Hibbert, Macmillan.
City of London Corporation, Swimming on Hampstead Heath, also gives water temperatures.
Diving at Highgate Ponds on the Lost Lidos website.
Coordinates: 51°33′47″N 0°09′25″W / 51.563°N 0.157°W / 51.563; -0.157
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hampstead_Ponds&oldid=849811717"
Categories:
Drinking water reservoirs in England
Parks and open spaces in the London Borough of Camden
Swimming venues in London
Lidos
Ponds of Europe
Reservoirs in London
Hidden categories:
All articles with vague or ambiguous time
Vague or ambiguous time from November 2015
Articles needing additional references from August 2012
All articles needing additional references
Coordinates on Wikidata
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 11 July 2018, at 14:18 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: td

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

value: i

value: small

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/Diving_tower
mw-redirect
Diving tower

values: Edit section: Proposals for the ponds and dams

values: Transgender rights in the United Kingdom

values:
nofollow
http://www.protectourponds.org.uk/
external text

values: The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (November 2015)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external autonumber
http://highgatemenspond.com

values: Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location

values: Category:Drinking water reservoirs in England

values: Category:Parks and open spaces in the London Borough of Camden

values: Category:All articles with vague or ambiguous time

values: Category:Vague or ambiguous time from November 2015

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from August 2012

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Hampstead_Ponds
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Hampstead_Ponds rootpage-Hampstead_Ponds skin-vector action-view