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Sugar packet
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Packets of brown and white sugar
A sugar packet is a delivery method for one 'serving' of sugar. Sugar packets are commonly supplied in restaurants, coffeehouses and tea houses in preference to sugar bowls or sugar dispensers for reasons of neatness, sanitation, spill control, and to some extent portion control.
Contents
1 Statistics
2 History
3 Collecting
4 References
Statistics[edit]
A typical sugar packet in the United States contains 2 to 4 grams of sugar. Some sugar packets in countries such as Poland contain 5 to 10 grams of sugar. Sugar packet sizes, shapes, and weights differ throughout different areas of the world.
History[edit]
The sugar cube was used in restaurants until it began to be replaced directly after World War II. At this time, machines were made that could produce small packets of sugar for nearly half the cost.
The sugar packet was invented by Benjamin Eisenstadt,[1] the founder of Cumberland Packing or better known today as the Sweet 'N Low company. Eisenstadt had been a tea bag factory worker, and became irritated by the task of refilling and unclogging all the sugar dispensers in his Brooklyn cafeteria across from the Brooklyn Navy Yard. He did not patent the idea, and after discussions with larger sugar companies, lost market share.
Because a gram of any carbohydrate contains 4 nutritional calories (also referred to as "food calories" or kilo-calories)), a typical four gram sugar packet has 16 nutritional calories.
Collecting[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sugar packets.
The hobby of collecting sugar packets is called sucrology. Collectors can, for example, focus on the variety of types of sugar or brand names. Sugar packets are also handy forms of advertisement for businesses.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Why are ketchup packets so... unsatisfying?". marketplace.org.
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Life Is Strange
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the 2015 video game. For the 2012 documentary film, see Life Is Strange (film).
Life Is Strange
Developer(s)
Dontnod Entertainment
Publisher(s)
Square Enix
Feral Interactive (OS X, Linux)
Director(s)
Raoul Barbet
Michel Koch
Producer(s)
Luc Baghadoust
Designer(s)
Baptiste Moisan
Sebastien Judit
Sebastien Gaillard
Artist(s)
Michel Koch
Kenny Laurent
Amaury Balandier
Writer(s)
Christian Divine
Jean-Luc Cano
Composer(s)
Jonathan Morali
Engine
Unreal Engine 3
Platform(s)
Linux
Microsoft Windows
OS X
PlayStation 3
PlayStation 4
Xbox 360
Xbox One
Release
Episode 1
WW: 30 January 2015
Episode 2
WW: 24 March 2015
Episode 3
WW: 19 May 2015
Episode 4
WW: 28 July 2015
Episode 5
WW: 20 October 2015
Genre(s)
Graphic adventure
Mode(s)
Single-player
Life Is Strange is an episodic graphic adventure video game developed by Dontnod Entertainment and published by Square Enix for Linux, Microsoft Windows, OS X, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, and Xbox One. The game was released in five episodic parts periodically throughout 2015.
The game's plot focuses on Max Caulfield, an 18-year-old photography student who discovers that she has the ability to rewind time at any moment, leading her every choice to enact the butterfly effect. After having foreseen an approaching storm, Max must take on the responsibility to prevent it from destroying her town. The player's actions will adjust the narrative as it unfolds, and reshape it once allowed to travel back in time. Fetch quests and making environmental changes represent the forms of puzzle solving in addition to using branching choices for conversation.
Development of Life Is Strange began in April 2013. It was formed with an episodic format in mind, for reasons both financial and creative. The developers conducted field research on the setting by travelling to the Pacific Northwest, and subverted known archetypes to make the characters. Player feedback influenced the adjustments made to the episodes. Story and character arc serve as the central point in the game rather than traditional graphic adventure tropes like point-and-click puzzles. The voice recording sessions took place in Los Angeles.
During its release, Life Is Strange received generally favourable reviews commending the character development, rewind game mechanic and tackling of taboo subjects. It won the BAFTA Games Award for Best Story, the Peabody-Facebook Futures of Media Award and The Game Awards' Games for Impact Award. Common criticisms included the slang that was used, poor lip-syncing in earlier episodes, and tonal inconsistencies in the story. It has sold over three million copies as of May 2017. A prequel—Before the Storm—was released on 31 August 2017. A digital series and a sequel—Life Is Strange 2—are in development.
Contents
[hide]
1 Gameplay
2 Plot
3 Development
3.1 Release
4 Reception
4.1 Sales
4.2 Awards
5 Legacy
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Gameplay[edit]
Players are able to rewind an event within a certain interval of time
Life Is Strange is a graphic adventure played from a third-person view.[1] The mechanic of rewinding time allows the player to redo any action that has been taken.[2][3] The player can examine and interact with objects, which enables puzzle solving in the form of fetch quests and making changes to the environment.[1][4] Items that are collected before time travelling will be kept in the inventory after the fact.[5]
The player can explore various locations in the fictional setting of Arcadia Bay and communicate with non-playable characters.[6][7] Dialogue exchanges can be rewound while branching options are used for conversation.[8][9] Once an event is reset, the details provided earlier are permitted to avail themselves in the future.[10] In some instances, choices in dialogue will alter and affect the story through short or long-term consequences.[11] For each one of the choices, something good in the short-term could turn out worse later.[2]
Plot[edit]
Life Is Strange is set in the fictional town of Arcadia Bay, Oregon, and is told from the perspective of Maxine "Max" Caulfield (Hannah Telle), a twelfth grade student attending Blackwell Academy during October 2013. During photography class with her teacher Mark Jefferson (Derek Phillips), Max experiences a vision of a lighthouse being destroyed by a swelling tornado. Leaving for the restroom to regain her composure, she witnesses classmate Nathan Prescott (Nik Shriner) accidentally kill a woman in a fit of rage. In a single, sudden effort, she develops the ability to rewind time and rescues the girl; revealed to be her childhood friend Chloe Price (Ashly Burch). The two reunite and go for a walk at the lighthouse, where Max reveals to Chloe her capacity to travel back in time. It is established that the vision is rather the reckoning of a future event: a storm approaching the town.[12] The next day, Max observes fellow student Kate Marsh (Dayeanne Hutton) being bullied for a viral video depicting her kissing several students at a party. It is implied that she was drugged, and Max suspects Nathan as the perpetrator.[13]
Meeting Chloe at the diner where her mother Joyce (Cissy Jones) works, they decide to experiment with Max's power at Chloe's secret scrapyard hideout. However, strain causes Max to have a nosebleed and faint. Chloe takes her back to Blackwell, but class is halted when everyone is called out to the courtyard. Kate commits suicide by jumping off the roof of the girls' dorm. Max manages to rewind and time stops unexpectedly as she reaches Kate, giving Max the opportunity to convince her to come down. Max ultimately resolves to uncover what happened to Kate and Chloe's missing friend Rachel Amber.[13] Max and Chloe break into the principal's office that night to investigate and enter the pool for a swim before evading David Madsen (Don McManus), head of security at Blackwell and Chloe's stepfather, and fleeing back to Chloe's place. The next morning, they sneak into the motorhome of Frank Bowers (Daniel Bonjour), drug dealer and friend of Rachel, and learn that Rachel was in a relationship with Frank and lied to Chloe about it, causing Chloe to storm off feeling betrayed. Max returns to her dormitory and examines a childhood photo of her and Chloe, but is suddenly transported to the day the picture was taken. Max prevents Chloe's father William (Joe Ochman) from dying in a traffic collision, which inadvertently creates an alternative reality where William is alive but Chloe has been paralysed from the neck down as a result of a collision in her own car.[14]
Max uses the photo to undo her decision and return to the present day, restoring Chloe's health. Continuing their investigation, Max and Chloe obtain clues leading them to an abandoned barn owned by the influential Prescott family. They discover a hidden bunker containing pictures of Kate and Rachel tied up and intoxicated, with Rachel being buried at Chloe's secret hideout. They hurry back to the scrapyard and find Rachel's grave, much to Chloe's despair. Max follows Chloe at the school party to confront Nathan, believing he will target fellow student Victoria Chase (Dani Knights). They receive a text from Nathan threatening to destroy the evidence, returning them to the scrapyard. All of a sudden, the two are ambushed by Jefferson, who anaesthetises Max and kills Chloe with a shot to the head.[15] Max is kidnapped and held captive in the "Dark Room", a place Jefferson has been drugging and photographing young girls to capture their innocence. Max escapes into a photograph and emerges back at the beginning in Jefferson's class. She alerts David, getting Jefferson arrested.[16]
Max is given the opportunity to go to San Francisco and have one of her photos displayed in an art gallery. She calls Chloe from the event, realizing that, for all her effort, the storm has reached Arcadia Bay. Max travels back to the time at which she took the gallery photo, which eventually leads her to sojourn alternative realities as they devolve into a dreamscape nightmare. Max and Chloe finally return to the lighthouse and confront the fact that Max brought the storm into existence by availing herself of the time travel abilities in the first place. The only way to prevent it is for Max to go back to the beginning and allow Chloe to be killed by Nathan. Max must make a choice: sacrifice Chloe's life to save Arcadia Bay, or sacrifice Arcadia Bay in order to spare Chloe.[16]
Development[edit]
Co-game directors Raoul Barbet and Michel Koch present at the 2016 Game Developers Conference.
Life Is Strange was Dontnod Entertainment's second title with a female protagonist. Dontnod published a developer diary that said most prospective publishers were unwilling to publish a game unless it had a male protagonist.[17][18] Most publishers had the same objection to Dontnod's first project, Remember Me.[19] Dontnod CEO Oskar Guilbert also challenged the idea at the start.[20] Square Enix was the only publisher with no intention to change the female protagonist.[21] Dontnod co-founder Jean-Maxime Moris said gender equality in video games was "a great debate to have",[22] but "we're not pretending to address the issue or use the issue to stand out from the rest".[23]
Development of Life Is Strange began in April 2013 with a team of 15, and more people were added when the collaboration with Square Enix began.[24][25] Dontnod told Square Enix about Life Is Strange only after Square Enix turned down a pitch for a larger game.[26][27] Before signing with Square Enix, Life Is Strange was imagined as a full-length video game that Dontnod would self-publish. However, the publisher surmised that it would be more successful as an episodic title.[20] The game was originally codenamed What If but then retitled to distinguish itself from the film of the same name.[28] Life Is Strange was born of the idea for the rewind mechanic, which the developer had already experimented on with their last game Remember Me. The lead character Max was created with the ability to rewind time to supplement this mechanism.[29] The episodic format was decided upon by the studio for creative reasons, financial restrictions[30] and marketing purposes,[31] allowing them to tell the story in its preferred slow pace.[32] The Pacific Northwest was picked as the setting for the purpose of conveying a nostalgic and autumnal feel to the game.[33] The development team visited the region,[11] took photographs, looked at local newspapers and used Google Street View to make sure the environment was accurately portrayed.[34][35]
It was decided early on that most of the budget be spent on the writing and voice actors.[36] The original story was written in French by Jean-Luc Cano, and converted into a game script by the co-directors and design team. It was subsequently handed over to Christian Divine and Cano to be fine tuned in English.[37][38] Story and character development were highlighted over point-and-click puzzles,[39] making choice and consequence integral to how the narrative unfolds.[40] Hannah Telle auditioned for Max Caulfield in July 2014 and was offered the part; Ashly Burch auditioned for both Max and her given role Chloe Price. The recording sessions were done in Los Angeles, California, with the French developer brought in via Skype.[41][42]
Key art for episode five from rough concept to final version.
Although it holds significant differences from Remember Me, the game addresses similar themes of memory and identity.[43] Life Is Strange was specified as an analogue look at human identity in contrast to Remember Me, the digital view of the same theme.[44] Running on an improved version of Unreal Engine 3, it makes use of the tools and special effects like lighting and depth of field engineered for Remember Me as well as subsequent advances.[23][30] Visual effects like post-processes, double exposure and overlapping screen space particles were used as an artistic approach to be displayed while the lead character rewinds time.[45] The textures seen in the game were entirely hand painted, adapted to achieve what art director Michel Koch called "impressionistic rendering".[1] Elements were adjusted based on player feedback,[29] with influences like The Walking Dead, Gone Home1 and Heavy Rain in mind.[44][46] The Catcher in the Rye was an additional source of inspiration, whose protagonist Holden Caulfield shares a surname with Max, the game's lead.[47] The characters were created using known archetypes, at first to establish an entry point for the player, and then to subvert them.[34] For the sake of serving the realism, the supernatural elements were designed as a metaphor for the characters' inner conflict,[48] and experts were consulted to tackle the subject of teen suicide.[49]
The score was composed by Jonathan Morali of the band Syd Matters.[50] Inspired by modern indie folk music,[22][39] the soundtrack was intended to inform the mood of the game.[2] The music contains a blend of licensed tracks and composed pieces.[22] Featured artists include José González, Mogwai, Breton, Amanda Palmer, Brian Viglione, Bright Eyes, Message to Bears, Local Natives, Syd Matters, Sparklehorse, Angus & Julia Stone, alt-J, Mud Flow[51] and Foals.[52]
Release[edit]
Square Enix and Dontnod announced Life Is Strange on 11 August 2014.[53] The episodes were released digitally on PC via Steam, PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 via PlayStation Network, and Xbox 360 and Xbox One via Xbox Live between 30 January 2015 and 20 October 2015.[54][55] In November 2014, the publisher said they were interested in releasing physical copies of the game, but said that at that time they were "100 per cent focused on the digital release".[56] One year later, the retail edition was set to be released for the PC, PS4 and Xbox One in North America on 19 January 2016 and in Europe on 22 January 2016; the limited edition had an artbook, the soundtrack, score, and a director's commentary.[52][57]
A Japanese version was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 on 3 March 2016.[58] Feral Interactive ported Life Is Strange for OS X, released on 16 June 2016,[59] and Linux,[60] released on 21 July 2016.[61] That same day, the first episode was made indefinitely available for free on Linux,[61] Windows, OS X, PS3, PS4, Xbox 360 and Xbox One.[62] Life Is Strange was included on PlayStation Plus for the month of June 2017, along with Killing Floor 2.[63]
Episode
Release date
"Episode 1: Chrysalis"2 30 January 2015[54]
"Episode 2: Out of Time" 24 March 2015[64]
"Episode 3: Chaos Theory" 19 May 2015[65]
"Episode 4: Dark Room" 28 July 2015[66]
"Episode 5: Polarized" 20 October 2015[55]
Reception[edit]
The developers accept the audience award at the 2016 Game Developers Choice Awards.
Life Is Strange received generally favourable reviews, with a Metacritic score of 85/100 on PlayStation 4 and Xbox One.[31] While reviewers criticised the games's lip-syncing[67][68][69] and use of dated slang,[69][70][71] they lauded the character development[69][72][73] and time travel component,[69][74][75] suggesting that there should be more games like it.[76][77] Eurogamer said it was "one of the best interactive story games of this generation"[78] and Hardcore Gamer said it was it the sleeper hit of 2015.[69] Life Is Strange received over 75 Game of the Year awards and listings.[79] In April 2017, Xbox One UK ranked Life Is Strange first in its list of Xbox One games priced under GB£20.[80] Game director Yoko Taro listed it as one of his favourite PlayStation 4 games.[81]
Aggregate review scores
Game
Metacritic
Episode 1: Chrysalis
(PC) 77/100[82]
(PS4) 75/100[83]
(XOne) 77/100[84]
Episode 2: Out of Time
(PC) 77/100[85]
(PS4) 78/100[86]
(XOne) 73/100[87]
Episode 3: Chaos Theory
(PC) 80/100[88]
(PS4) 81/100[89]
(XOne) 80/100[90]
Episode 4: Dark Room
(PC) 76/100[91]
(PS4) 81/100[92]
(XOne) 74/100[93]
Episode 5: Polarized
(PC) 83/100[94]
(PS4) 81/100[95]
(XOne) 80/100[96]
Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot said Episode 1: Chrysalis is "an involving slice of life that works because its situations eloquently capture a peculiar early-college state of mind",[97] while Game Informer's Kimberley Wallace said the game's tackling of "subjects that are usually taboo for video games" was impressive.[98] Destructoid's Brett Makedonski said the episode's strongest characteristic was exploration—both "self- and worldly".[99] Mitch Dyer of IGN said the story was ultimately obstructed by its "laughable" script and "worse performances".[100] In response to Episode 2: Out of Time, Polygon's Megan Farokhmanesh also said that the emphasis on self-exploration had considerable impact on the enjoyment of the game.[101] Other critics said the ending was an "emotional high point" and that it brought meaning to the choices from both the first and second episodes.[102][103] Mike Williams said in USgamer that the pacing of Episode 2: Out of Time was "slower and less exciting" than that of episode one.[104]
Adnan Riaz of Hardcore Gamer said Episode 3: Chaos Theory was a dramatic improvement that presented a "thrilling, poignant, fascinating and ... enticing" narrative whose outcome from past decisions also added a sense of realism.[105] Peter Paras of Game Revolution complimented the character beats, particularly the development of Chloe Price, who he said "really comes into her own as [a] fully-formed character".[106] Though GameSpot's Alexa Ray Corriea said that the fetch quests interfered with its emotional quality,[4] the episode built up to a "killer cliffhanger" according to Farokhmanesh.[107] GameZone's Matt Liebl said Episode 4: Dark Room was "easily the most emotional episode" and that the mystery of Rachel Amber had done a "tremendous job in keeping us hooked".[108] Tom Hoggins of The Telegraph said the developer's venture into subjects like social division, online bullying, parental conflict and suicide as "bold".[109] Critics said there were tonal problems, caused by the game's "cheap ways" of progressing the plot, such as character inconsistency and superfluous shocks.[110][111] Critics were more favorable towards the episode's puzzles and relationships.[112][113] They said the final episode, Polarized, was had a "fitting conclusion" to the coming of age story of Max Caulfield and the relationship between the two leads was carried out successfully.[114][115] One stealth sequence was described as "tedious" and "out-of-place" while other aspects inhabiting the same course of events were favoured.[116][117] Reviewers were essentially divided on the ending,[118][119][120][121] citing the episode's subtitle as something that mirrored their own feelings toward it.[122][123]
Sales[edit]
The first episode was ranked fifth among the best selling PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 video games of February 2015.[124] Life Is Strange reached one million sales in July 2015,[125] having accumulated over 1.2 million unique players worldwide; the attach rate to units between the complete season and season pass proved to be "extremely strong", divulged Square Enix.[126] The retail edition made seventh place in the top ten UK game sales chart for the week ending 23 January 2016.[127] Life Is Strange was one of the top 100 best-selling games on Steam in 2016.[128] As of May 2017, more than three million copies have been sold.[129][130]
Awards[edit]
Date
Award
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref.
2015 Develop Industry Excellence Awards New Games IP – PC/console Life Is Strange Won [131]
Use of Narrative Won
Golden Joystick Awards Best Original Game Runner-Up [132]
Best Storytelling Runner-Up
Best Audio Runner-Up
Best Gaming Moment Saving Kate Third
Performance of the Year Ashly Burch as Chloe Won
Game of the Year Life Is Strange Third
Global Game Awards Best Adventure Life Is Strange – Episode 1 Won [133]
Best Story Second
Best Original Game Won
Game of the Year Second
The Game Awards Best Narrative Life Is Strange Nominated [134]
Best Performance Ashly Burch as Chloe Nominated
Games for Impact Life Is Strange Won
PlayStation Official Magazine Best Episodic Adventure Won [135]
Best Moment Episode 2 conclusion Won
Vice Canada's Top 20 video games of 2015 Best Game Life Is Strange Fourth [136]
Vulture's Top 10 video games of 2015 Won [137]
Red Bull Games' Top 10 video games of 2015 Second [138]
Polygon's Games of the Year 2015 Game of the Year Seventh [139]
Destructoid's Best of 2015 Best Xbox One Game Nominated [140][141]
Eurogamer's Top 10 video games of 2015 Best Game Tenth [142]
Ars Technica Eighth [143]
Giant Bomb Best Moment or Sequence End of Episode 2 Runner-Up [144]
2016 New Statesman's Top 10 video games of 2015 Best Game Life Is Strange Won [145]
Hardcore Gamer's Best of 2015 Best Adventure Game Runner-Up [146]
PlayStation Blog's Best of 2015 Best PS4 Game Nominated [147][148]
Best Story Runner-Up
Best Soundtrack Runner-Up
Best Digital-Only Release Runner-Up
D.I.C.E. Awards Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction Nominated [149][150]
Adventure Game of the Year Nominated
Outstanding Achievement in Character Max Caulfield Nominated
Game Developers Choice Awards Audience Award Life Is Strange Won [151]
SXSW Gaming Awards Excellence in Narrative Nominated [152][153]
Most Promising New Intellectual Property Nominated
Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award Nominated
National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers Art Direction, Contemporary Nominated [154]
Character Design Won
Direction in a Game Cinema Nominated
Game Design, New IP Nominated
Original Light Mix Score, New IP Won
Song, Original or Adapted Life Is Strange – "To All of You" Won
Song Collection Life Is Strange Nominated
Writing in a Drama Nominated
Game, Original Adventure Nominated
British Academy Games Awards Best Game Nominated [155]
Game Innovation Nominated
Original Property Nominated
Performer Ashly Burch Nominated
Story Life Is Strange Won
Peabody-Facebook Futures of Media Awards Excellence and Innovation in Digital Storytelling Won [156]
The Games for Change Awards Game of the Year Won [157][158]
Most Significant Impact Won
Best Gameplay Nominated
Most Innovative Nominated
Japan Game Awards Game Designers Award Won [159]
Apple's Best of 2016 Game of the Year Won [160]
Steam Awards "I'm Not Crying, There's Something In My Eye" Nominated [161][162]
Legacy[edit]
After Life Is Strange achieved financial and commercial success, Dontnod Entertainment started to become more prominent in the video game industry; publishers pursued the studio for the first time, whereas they previously had to pursue publishers themselves. CEO Oskar Guilbert said that the game saved his company financially after the mediocre sales of Remember Me.[26]
In July 2016, Legendary Digital Studios and Square Enix, in conjunction with dj2 Entertainment announced that they would be adapting Life Is Strange as a digital series.[163] Legendary said that, at the time of the announcement, they were meeting with potential writers for the series adaptation, which will be set in Arcadia Bay.[79]
On 18 May 2017, Dontnod Entertainment said Life Is Strange 2 was in the works.[129][164][130] It will have a new location and cast of characters.[165]
In early June 2017, developer Deck Nine said they had "signed a partnership deal with a leading AAA videogame publisher" and were developing a title for a "critically acclaimed franchise", and images of Life Is Strange characters appeared on Deck Nine's website. The website Kotaku said this probably meant Square Enix was the publisher and Life Is Strange the game alluded to.[166] Later that month, Square Enix announced Life Is Strange: Before the Storm, a three-part episodic title that launched for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on 31 August 2017.[167]
Notes[edit]
^ Dontnod started working on the game before Gone Home was released.[168]
^ The subtitle Chrysalis alludes to the transitional stage of butterflies as pupae, before they emerge into adulthood.[169]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Gaca, Christian (22 August 2014). "One of the oddest reveals of Gamescom also proved to be one of the most interesting. Here's what the Remember Me developers did next.". Gamereactor. Archived from the original on 21 December 2014. Retrieved 11 November 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Purchese, Robert (12 September 2014). "Life is Strange: It takes time to be different". Eurogamer. Archived from the original on 6 February 2015. Retrieved 11 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Colin (9 January 2015). "It's time to pay attention to Life is Strange". Polygon. Archived from the original on 10 January 2015. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Corriea, Alexa Ray (20 May 2015). "Life is Strange, Episode Three Review". GameSpot. Archived from the original on 2 November 2015. Retrieved 31 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Martin, Liam (23 January 2015). "Life Is Strange developer diary explores rewind feature". Digital Spy. Archived from the original on 28 January 2015. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Paras, Peter (31 March 2015). "Life is Strange: Episode 2 – Out of Time Review". Game Revolution. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Dyer, Mitch (19 May 2015). "Life Is Strange – Episode 3 Review". IGN. Archived from the original on 29 October 2015. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Makedonski, Brett (13 August 2014). "Life is Strange is a world you'll want to lose yourself in". Destructoid. Archived from the original on 12 November 2014. Retrieved 11 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Wong, Steven (14 October 2014). "Life is Strange impressions: Stranger by the minute". Shacknews. Archived from the original on 16 October 2014. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Futter, Mike (23 January 2015). "Life Is Strange Has Strict Time Travel Rules And A Unique Photography Aesthetic". Game Informer. Archived from the original on 27 January 2015. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
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Human reproductive system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The human reproductive system usually involves internal fertilization by sexual intercourse. During this process, the male inserts his erect penis into the female's vagina and ejaculates semen, which contains sperm. A small portion of the sperm pass through the cervix into the uterus, and then into the fallopian tubes for fertilization of the ovum. Only one sperm is required to fertilize the ovum. Upon successful fertilization, the fertilized ovum, or zygote, travels out of the fallopian tube and into the uterus, where it implants in the uterine wall. This marks the beginning of gestation, better known as pregnancy, which continues for nine months as the foetus develops. When the foetus has developed to a certain point, pregnancy is concluded with childbirth or labor. During labor, the muscles of the uterus contract and the cervix dilates over the course of hours, and the baby passes out of the vagina. Human infants are nearly helpless and require high levels of parental care. Infants rely on their caregivers for comfort, cleanliness, and food. Food may be provided by breastfeeding or formula feeding.[1]
The female reproductive system has two functions: The first is to produce egg cells, and the second is to protect and nourish the fetus until birth. The male reproductive system has one function, and it is to produce and deposit sperm. Humans have a high level of sexual differentiation. In addition to differences in nearly every reproductive organ, numerous differences typically occur in secondary sexual characteristics [reproduction].
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Male
1.2 Female
2 Development
3 Reproduction
3.1 Production of gametes
4 Disease
5 References
Structure[edit]
Male[edit]
Main article: Human male reproductive system
The male reproductive system is a series of organs located outside of the body and around the pelvis region of a male that contribute towards the reproduction process. The primary direct function of the male reproductive system is to provide the male sperm for fertilization of the ovum.
The major reproductive organs of the male can be grouped into three categories. The first category is sperm production and storage. Production takes place in the testes which are housed in the temperature regulating scrotum, immature sperm then travel to the epididymis for development and storage. The second category are the ejaculatory fluid producing glands which include the seminal vesicles, prostate, and the vas deferens. The final category are those used for copulation, and deposition of the spermatozoa (sperm) within the male, these include the penis, urethra, vas deferens, and Cowper's gland also called bulbo-urethral gland.
Major secondary sexual characteristics includes: larger, more muscular stature, deepened voice, facial and body hair, broad shoulders, and development of an adam's apple. An important sexual hormone of males is androgen, and particularly testosterone.
The testes release a hormone that controls the development of sperm. This hormone is also responsible for the development of physical characteristics in men such as facial hair and a deep voice.
Female[edit]
Main article: Human female reproductive system
The human female reproductive system is a series of organs primarily located inside of the body and around the pelvic region of a female that contribute towards the reproductive process. The human female reproductive system contains three main parts: the vulva, which leads to the vagina, the vaginal opening, to the uterus; the uterus, which holds the developing fetus; and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. The breasts are involved during the parenting stage of reproduction, but in most classifications they are not considered to be part of the female reproductive system.
The vagina meets the outside at the vulva, which also includes the labia, clitoris and urethra; during intercourse this area is lubricated by mucus secreted by the Bartholin's glands. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the fallopian tubes. Each ovary contains hundreds of egg cells or ova (singular ovum).
Approximately every 28 days, the pituitary gland releases a hormone that stimulates some of the ova to develop and grow. One ovum is released and it passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus. Hormones produced by the ovaries prepare the uterus to receive the ovum. The lining of the uterus, called the endometrium, and unfertilized ova are shed each cycle through the process of menstruation. If the ovum is fertilized by sperm, it attaches to the endometrium and the fetus develops.
Development[edit]
Main article: Development of the reproductive system
The development of the reproductive system and the development of the urinary system are closely tied in the development of the human fetus. Despite the differences between the adult female and male are derived from the intermediate mesoderm. The three main fetal precursors of the reproductive organs are the Wolffian duct, Müllerian ducts, and the gonad. Endocrine hormones are a well known and critical controlling factor in the normal differentiation of the reproductive system.[2]
The Wolffian duct forms the epididymis, vas deferens, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and seminal vesicle in the male reproductive system and essentially disappears in the female reproductive system. For the Müllerian Duct this process is reversed as it essentially disappears in the male reproductive system and forms the fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina in the female system. In both sexes the gonad goes on to form the testes and ovaries, because they are derived from the same undeveloped structure they are considered homologous organs. There are a number of other homologous structures shared between male and female reproductive systems. However, despite the similarity in function of the female fallopian tubes and the male epididymis and vas deferens, they are not homologous but rather analogous structures as they arise from different fetal structures.
Reproduction[edit]
Further information: Human reproduction
Production of gametes[edit]
Main articles: Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis
The production of gametes takes place within the gonads through a process known as gametogenesis. Gametogenesis occurs when certain types of germ cells undergo meiosis to split the normal diploid number of chromosome(n=46) into haploids cells containing only 23 chromosomes.[3]
In males, this process is known as spermatogenesis and takes place only after puberty in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. The immature spermatozoon or sperm are then sent to the epididymis where they gain a tail and motility. Each of the original diploid germs cells or primary spermatocytes forms four functional gametes which is each forever young. The production and survival of sperms require a temperature that is lower than the normal core body temperature. Since the scrotum, where the testes is present, is situated outside the body cavity, it provides a temperature about 3 °C below normal body temperature.
In females, gametogenesis is known as oogenesis which occurs in the ovarian follicles of the ovaries. This process does not produce mature ovum until puberty. In contrast with males, each of the original diploid germ cells or primary oocytes will form only one mature ovum, and three polar bodies which are not capable of fertilization It has long been understood that in females, unlike males, all of the primary oocytes ever found in a female will be created prior to birth, and that the final stages of ova production will then not resume until puberty.[3] However, recent scientific data has challenged that hypothesis.[4] This new data indicates that in at least some species of mammal oocytes continue to be replenished in females well after birth.[5]
Disease[edit]
Main article: Reproductive system disease
Like all complex organ systems the human reproductive system is affected by many diseases. There are four main categories of reproductive diseases in humans. They are: 1) genetic or congenital abnormalities, 2) cancers, 3) infections which are often sexually transmitted diseases, and 4) functional problems cause by environmental factors, physical damage, psychological issues, autoimmune disorders, or other causes. The best known type of functional problems include sexual dysfunction and infertility which are both broad terms relating to many disorders with many causes. The human reproductive system usually involves internal fertilization by sexual intercourse. During this process, the male inserts his erect penis into the female's vagina and ejaculates semen, which contains sperm. The sperm then travels through the vagina and cervix into the uterus or fallopian tubes for fertilization of the ovum. Upon successful fertilization and implantation, gestation of the fetus then occurs within the female's uterus for approximately nine months, this process is known as pregnancy in humans. Gestation ends with birth, the process of birth is known as labor. Labor consists of the muscles of the uterus contracting, the cervix dilating, and the baby passing out the vagina (the female genital organ). Human's babies and children are nearly helpless and require high levels of parental care for many years. One important type of parental care is the use of the mammary glands in the female breasts to nurse the baby.[1]
Specific reproductive diseases are often symptoms of other diseases and disorders, or have multiple, or unknown causes making them difficult to classify. Examples of unclassifiable disorders include Peyronie's disease in males and endometriosis in females. Many congenital conditions cause reproductive abnormalities but are better known for their other symptoms, these include: Turner syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, Cystic fibrosis, and Bloom syndrome.[6]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Sexual Reproduction in Humans. 2006. John W. Kimball. Kimball's Biology Pages, and online textbook.
Jump up ^ EDRI Federal Project Inventory: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Abnormal Reproductive Development US EPA. Dr. William R. Kelce. 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b Development of sex cells in Reproductive system, Body Guide. Adam.
Jump up ^ Tilly JL, Niikura Y, Rueda BR (August 2008). "The Current Status of Evidence for and Against Postnatal Oogenesis in Mammals: A Case of Ovarian Optimism Versus Pessimism?". Biol. Reprod. 80 (1): 2–12. doi:10.1095/biolreprod.108.069088. PMC 2804806  . PMID 18753611.
Jump up ^ Johnson J, Canning J, Kaneko T, Pru JK, Tilly JL (March 2004). "Germline stem cells and follicular renewal in the postnatal mammalian ovary". Nature. 428 (6979): 145–50. doi:10.1038/nature02316. PMID 15014492.
Jump up ^ Genetic Conditions > Reproductive system. 2007. Genetics Home Reference. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
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