text:
If You Don't Know Me by Now
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"If You Don't Know Me by Now"
Single by Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes
from the album I Miss You
B-side
"Let Me Into Your World"
Released
September 1972
Format
7" 45 RPM
Genre
R&B, soul
Length
3:27
Label
Philadelphia International Records
Songwriter(s)
Kenny Gamble, Leon Huff
Producer(s)
Kenny Gamble, Leon Huff
Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes singles chronology
"I Miss You"
(1972) "If You Don't Know Me by Now"
(1972) "Yesterday I Had the Blues"
(1973)
"I Miss You"
(1972) "If You Don't Know Me by Now"
(1972) "Yesterday I Had the Blues"
(1973)
"If You Don't Know Me by Now" is a song written by Kenny Gamble and Leon Huff, and recorded by the Philly soul musical group Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes. It became their first hit after being released as a single in 1972, topping the US R&B chart and peaking at number 3 on the US Billboard Hot 100.[1]
"If You Don't Know Me by Now" was originally written for Labelle (a trio led by Patti LaBelle) but they never recorded it. Much like the issue with "I Miss You" and The Dells passing on it, the song's composers Kenny Gamble and Leon Huff gave it to Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes, which featured Teddy Pendergrass as lead vocalist. In addition to the single release, the track was included on their debut album I Miss You.
Patti LaBelle later made the song as part of her concert repertoire in 1982; a live version appears on her 1985 album, Patti.
"If You Don't Know Me by Now" has since been covered by a number of other artists, most notably the English pop/soul band Simply Red, who took their version to number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1989.
The song was chosen as one of the "Songs of the Century" by the RIAA.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Simply Red version
1.1 Track listings
1.2 Charts
1.2.1 Weekly charts
1.2.2 Year-end charts
2 Other cover versions
3 References
4 External links
Simply Red version[edit]
"If You Don't Know Me by Now"
Single by Simply Red
from the album A New Flame
B-side
"Move on Out"
Released
March 27, 1989
Format
7" single, 12-inch single, CD single
Genre
Blue-eyed soul, jazz
Length
3:24
Label
Elektra
Songwriter(s)
Kenny Gamble, Leon Huff
Producer(s)
Stewart Levine
A New Flame track listing
"She'll Have to Go"
(8) "If You Don't Know Me by Now"
(9) "Enough"
(10)
Simply Red's version of "If You Don't Know Me by Now" was a major commercial success on the charts in 1989, giving the band their second US number one (also topping the Adult Contemporary chart), and peaking at number 38 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart.[2] This version also won the Grammy Award for the Best R&B Song of 1989.[3]
The track was also a number one hit in Australia and New Zealand; in the latter, it was the best-selling single of 1989. It peaked at number 2 in the UK; the band's second Top 10 hit after the re-issue of "Holding Back the Years" in 1986, which also reached number 2.
According to the producer Stewart Levine, he didn't want too much orchestration on the record, and went with a two part-harmony instead of a three part-harmony. Mick Hucknall admitted he loved Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes' version, and stated he danced to their music when he was 13.[4]
This version can be heard in the film American Psycho (2000), and appears in the game Karaoke Revolution Presents: American Idol. It is also available to download for the Xbox 360 game Lips, which contains the music video.
Track listings[edit]
7" single
"If You Don't Know Me by Now" – 3:23
"Move on Out" (recorded Live Manchester on February 22, 1989) – 5:18
12" single
"If You Don't Know Me by Now" – 3:23
"Move on Out" (recorded live Manchester on February 22, 1989) – 5:18
"Shine" (recorded live Manchester on February 22, 1989) – 3:30
3" CD single
"If You Don't Know Me by Now" – 3:23
"Move on Out" (recorded live Manchester on February 22, 1989) – 5:18
"Shine" (recorded live Manchester on February 22, 1989) – 3:30
"Sugar Daddy" – 3:30
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1989)
Peak
position
Australia (ARIA)[5]
1
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[6]
9
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[7]
3
Canada Adult Contemporary (RPM)[8]
5
France (SNEP)[9]
11
Germany (Official German Charts)[10]
19
Ireland (IRMA)[11]
4
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[12]
1
Norway (VG-lista)[13]
2
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[14]
2
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[15]
2
US Billboard Hot 100[16]
1
US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs (Billboard)[17]
38
US Adult Contemporary (Billboard)[18]
1
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1989)
Position
Australia (ARIA)[19]
13
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[20]
29
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[21]
12
New Zealand (RIANZ)[22]
1
US Billboard Hot 100[23]
24
Other cover versions[edit]
Jamaican reggae artists Zap Pow recorded a cover version of the song in 1976.[24]
South African trumpeter Hugh Masekela included the song on his 1989 album Uptownship.
A cover by American country music artist Joe Stampley peaked at number 59 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart in 1989.[25]
Hong Kong Canto-pop artist, Sandy Lam released her cover on "The Story of Sandy Lam So Far" in 2002.
British actor/comedian Ricky Gervais covered the song as his character David Brent in the UK TV series The Office Christmas specials in December 2003. A music video was produced and released with the BBC's The Office DVD set.
American Idol contestant LaToya London additionally covered the song in the season compilation album American Idol Season 3: Greatest Soul Classics in 2004.
In 2004, saxophonist Gerald Albright covered the song for the album Kickin' It Up.[26][27]
The musician Seal recorded the song for his 2008 album Soul. In April 2009, it became his first Top 10 Adult Contemporary hit since "Love's Divine" in 2004.[28] He was also subsequently nominated for the Best Male Pop Vocal Performance Grammy.
R&B singer Ciara interpolated the chorus of the song for her 2009 single, "Never Ever", featuring Young Jeezy. The single is from her third album Fantasy Ride.
British artist Rod Stewart recorded a cover version for inclusion on his 2009 album Soulbook.
The Voice of Holland contestant Ben Saunders covered the song for the 2010-11 competition. His recorded version went straight to number one in the Netherlands.
American Idol season 10 contestant Stefano Langone interpreted in 2011 a cover on an episode in which contestants were required to sing songs from the year they were born. Langone was born in 1989.
American Idol season 11 contestant Joshua Ledet covered the song during the 1980s week in 2012.
Country music artist Martina McBride released a cover version on her studio album Everlasting in 2014.
English band Blue released a cover version on their 2015 album Colours.
American Idol season 15 winner Trent Harmon covered the song in 2016.

References[edit]
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-2004. Record Research. p. 393.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-2004. Record Research. p. 528.
Jump up ^ "Winners - 32nd Annual GRAMMY Awards (1989)". Recording Academy. Retrieved 24 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Bronson, Fred (1992). The Billboard Book of Number One Hits. p. 736. ISBN 0-8230-8298-9.
Jump up ^ "Australian-charts.com – Simply Red – If You Don't Know Me by Now". ARIA Top 50 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Austriancharts.at – Simply Red – If You Don't Know Me by Now" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40.
Jump up ^ "Top RPM Singles: Issue 6403." RPM. Library and Archives Canada.
Jump up ^ "Top RPM Adult Contemporary: Issue 6438." RPM. Library and Archives Canada.
Jump up ^ "Lescharts.com – Simply Red – If You Don't Know Me by Now" (in French). Les classement single.
Jump up ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Simply Red – If You Don't Know Me by Now". GfK Entertainment Charts.
Jump up ^ "The Irish Charts – Search Results – If You Don't Know Me by Now". Irish Singles Chart.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – Simply Red – If You Don't Know Me by Now". Top 40 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Norwegiancharts.com – Simply Red – If You Don't Know Me by Now". VG-lista.
Jump up ^ "Swedishcharts.com – Simply Red – If You Don't Know Me by Now". Singles Top 100.
Jump up ^ "Simply Red: Artist Chart History". Official Charts Company.
Jump up ^ "Simply Red Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Simply Red Chart History (Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Simply Red Chart History (Adult Contemporary)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "ARIA Charts - End Of Year Charts - Top 50 Singles 1989". ARIA. Retrieved 24 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "JAHRESHITPARADE 1989" (in German). Retrieved 24 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Top Singles - Volume 51, No. 8, December 23, 1989". RPM. December 23, 1999. Retrieved November 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ "End Of Year Charts 1989". Recorded Music NZ. Retrieved 24 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Songs of 1989 - Billboard Year End Charts". Retrieved 24 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Zap Pow - If You Don't Know Me By Now". YouTube. 2012-02-17. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2013). Hot Country Songs 1944–2012. Record Research, Inc. p. 319. ISBN 978-0-89820-203-8.
Jump up ^ "Kickin' It Up overview". Allmusic.com.
Jump up ^ "Gerald Albright Biography". VerveMusicGroup.com.
Jump up ^ Chart Beat, Billboard.com, April 15, 2009.
External links[edit]
Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes version song review on AllMusic
show
v
t
e
Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes
Harold Melvin
Bernard Williams
Roosevelt Brodie
Jesse Gillis, Jr.
Franklin Peaker
John Atkins
Teddy Pendergrass
Lawrence Brown
Bernard Wilson
Lloyd Parks
Jerry Cummings
Sharon Paige
David Ebo
Dwight Johnson
William Spratelly
Gil Saunders
Studio albums
I Miss You
Black & Blue
To Be True
Wake Up Everybody
Reaching for the World
Compilation albums
Collectors' Item: All Their Greatest Hits!
Singles
"If You Don't Know Me by Now"
"The Love I Lost"
"Bad Luck"
"Hope That We Can Be Together Soon"
"Wake Up Everybody"
"Don't Leave Me This Way"
Related articles
Discography
Philadelphia International Records
Book:Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes
show
v
t
e
Patti LaBelle
Studio albums
Patti LaBelle
Tasty
It's Alright with Me
Released
The Spirit's in It
I'm in Love Again
Patti
Winner in You
Be Yourself
Burnin'
Gems
Flame
When a Woman Loves
Timeless Journey
Classic Moments
The Gospel According to Patti LaBelle
Christmas albums
This Christmas
Miss Patti's Christmas
Live albums
Live! One Night Only
Singles
"You Are My Friend"
"Release (The Tension)"
"I Don't Go Shopping"
"The Best Is Yet To Come" (with Grover Washington Jr.)
"If Only You Knew"
"Love Has Finally Come at Last" (with Bobby Womack)
"Love, Need and Want You"
"New Attitude"
"Stir It Up"
"If You Don't Know Me by Now (Part 1)"
"On My Own" (with Michael McDonald)
"Oh, People"
"Kiss Away the Pain"
"If You Asked Me To"
"Yo Mister"
"Feels Like Another One"
"Somebody Loves You Baby (You Know Who It Is)"
"When You've Been Blessed (Feels Like Heaven)"
"The Right Kinda Lover"
"All This Love"
"When You Talk About Love"
"New Day"
Related articles
Discography
Labelle
Labelle discography
show
v
t
e
Simply Red singles
Picture Book
"Money's Too Tight (to Mention)"
"Come to My Aid"
"Holding Back the Years"
"Jericho"
"Open Up the Red Box"
Men and Women
"The Right Thing"
"Infidelity"
"Maybe Someday..."
"Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye"
"I Won't Feel Bad"
A New Flame
"It's Only Love"
"If You Don't Know Me by Now"
"A New Flame"
"You've Got It"
Stars
"Something Got Me Started"
"Stars"
"For Your Babies"
"Thrill Me"
"Your Mirror"
Life
"Fairground"
"Remembering the First Time"
"Never Never Love"
"We're in This Together"
Greatest Hits
"Angel"
Blue
"Night Nurse"
"Say You Love Me"
"The Air That I Breathe"
"Ghetto Girl"
"To Be Free"
Love and the Russian Winter
"Ain't That a Lot of Love"
"Your Eyes"
Home
"Sunrise"
"Fake"
"You Make Me Feel Brand New"
"Home"
Simplified
"Perfect Love"
"Something Got Me Started/A Song for You"
Stay
"Stay"
"So Not Over You"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=If_You_Don%27t_Know_Me_by_Now&oldid=844844024"
Categories:
1972 singles
1989 singles
Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes songs
Simply Red songs
Patti LaBelle songs
Joe Stampley songs
Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles
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Songs written by Leon Huff
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text:
A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Some of this article's listed sources may not be reliable. Please help this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged or deleted. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships
Studio album by The 1975
Released
October 2018
Recorded
September 2017 – present
Label
Dirty Hit
Polydor
The 1975 chronology
I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It
(2016) A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships
(2018) Notes on a Conditional Form
(2019)
Singles from A Brief Inquiry Into Online Relationships
"Give Yourself a Try"
Released: 31 May 2018[1]
A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships is the expected third studio album by the English rock band The 1975. It is the first of two albums to be released as part of the "Music for Cars" era, which shares its name with the eponymous extended play (EP), and it is scheduled to be released on October 2018 through Dirty Hit and Polydor.
The lead single, "Give Yourself a Try", was released on 31 May 2018.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Promotion and singles
2.1 "Music for Cars"
2.2 Tour
3 Recording and writing
4 Musical style
5 Release
6 Confirmed tracks
7 References
Background[edit]
Starting with the release of their self-titled debut album three years prior, The 1975 began to enjoy acclaim that continued on their second album, I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It. It was released on 26 February 2016 to mostly positive reviews from critics, as well as debuting atop the UK Albums Chart and the US Billboard 200.
However, in November that year, drummer George Daniel posted a video containing audio and frontman Matthew Healy playing keyboards; it was captioned "2018".[2] ln an interview for Dork for an end-of-the-year issue, Healy also stated that "I just know we'll definitely put out a single next year or an EP which will lead up to the album which I reckon will come out early summer 2018...."[3]
On 3 April 2017, Healy, on Twitter, declared that the second album's campaign was concluding before posting "Music For Cars".[4][5] The name was previously confirmed as the album with Zane Lowe on Beats 1 later that same month, as well as confirming the connection to the EP of the same name, the third of four EPs released to promote the band's eponymous debut album.[6] Another video released in July showed the pink neon sign on the second album's cover flickering off before stating "Music for Cars" and the year, 2018.[7]
Promotion and singles[edit]
The lead single of the album, "Give Yourself a Try" was presented by Annie Mac on BBC Radio 1 on 31 May 2018, as her "Hottest Record in the World".[8] It was subsequently released the same day,[1] along with a music video, which was released on 1 June.
"Music for Cars"[edit]
Within the end of April, posters titled "Music for Cars" appeared, with the catalogue number DH00327 amongst a black background.[9] A day later, a teaser poster was released by Dirty Hit, Obourne and the band, containing a poem headlined with "A Brief Inquiry Into Online Relationships", although the catalogue number was DH00325.[10][11] The band became active on May 2, when their website changed to show a countdown timer set to music.[12]
On Annie Mac's programme, Healy stated that the band would instead release two albums, A Brief Inquiry Into Online Relationships, for release in October 2018, and Notes on a Conditional Form, which will be released in May 2019.[13]
Tour[edit]
At the Latitude Festival in July 2017, it was announced that the band would begin touring again in October 2018.[14] In April 2018, Oborne commented that the band will deter from "surprise" or "pop-up" shows in order for the tour to be "the biggest live spectacle in the world". Upon the premiere of "Give Yourself A Try", Healy stated the band would start touring in January 2019.[citation needed]
The tour will start in the United Kingdom.[15]
Recording and writing[edit]
The recording sessions for the album started in September 2017, according to Oborne.[16] As of June 2018, the album is "not finished".[15]
Musical style[edit]
Healy talked to NME about the album's style, saying that "If you look at third albums, 'OK Computer' or 'The Queen Is Dead', that's what we need to do.... I want people to look back and think our records were the most important pop records that a band put out in this decade."[17]
Release[edit]
The album is confirmed for release in October 2018. Healy released two tweets on 9 July 2017; Whilst repeating "Music for Cars", he also tweeted "1st June – The 1975", a phrase from the Jack Kerouac beat poetry book that inspired the band's name.[18][19] However, since the band repeated this during their final show at Latitude Festival for I Like It When You Sleep, it was speculated that the album was going to be on released then.[20]
At the beginning of May, the band's website updated to display a countdown timer, which ended on 1 June.[12]
Confirmed tracks[edit]
"Jesus Christ 2005 God Bless America"[21][22]
"It's Not Living (If It's Not with You)"[23]
"I Always Wanna Die, Sometimes"[24]
"Give Yourself a Try"[25]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Copperman, Joshua (31 May 2018). "Listen to The 1975's New Single "Give Yourself a Try"". Spin. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Daniel, George (13 November 2016). "2018". Instagram. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "It looks like The 1975 might be about to drop a new EP". Dork. 6 November 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Matthew Healy [@Truman_Black] (3 April 2017). "I like it when you sleep is coming to an end" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ Matthew Healy [@Truman_Black] (3 April 2017). "Music For Cars" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ Gordon, Jeremy (27 April 2017). "The 1975 Announce New Album Music for Cars". Spin. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Video on Instagram". Instagram. 19 July 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
Jump up ^ The 1975 [@the1975] (28 May 2018). "// H O T T E S T R E C O R D I N T H E W O R L D – T H U R S D A Y 7 P M // @BBCR1 @ANNIEMAC L O V E". Twitter. Retrieved 28 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Murphy, Sam (29 April 2018). "The 1975 Tease Return With Cryptic Posters In The UK". Music Feeds. Retrieved 11 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "The 1975 have 'done a thing'". DIY. 29 April 2018. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Shutler, Ali (29 April 2018). "The 1975 have shared a new update, titled 'A Brief Inquiry Into Online Relationships'". Dork. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Cummings-Grady, Mackenzie (2 May 2018). "The 1975 Is Counting Down to Something on Their Website". Billboard. Retrieved 11 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Beats 1 [@Beats1] (31 May 2018). ".@Truman_Black says @the1975 are working on 2 albums: "We're doing 'A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships.' Then I think May next year, we're dropping 'Notes on a Conditional Form.'"". Twitter. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Daly, Rhian (15 July 2017). "This is when you'll next be able to catch The 1975 on tour". NME. Retrieved 11 May 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Trendell, Andrew (3 April 2018). "The 1975's UK comeback tour to be "the biggest live spectacle in the world"". NME. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Ackroyd, Stephen (17 September 2017). "The 1975 are starting their first 'Music For Cars' studio session "in a matter of days"". Dork. Retrieved 8 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Trendell, Andrew (14 March 2017). "The 1975: "Our next album needs to be like 'OK Computer' or 'The Queen Is Dead'"". NME. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Matthew Healy [@Truman_Black] (9 July 2017). "Music For Cars" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ Matthew Healy [@Truman_Black] (9 July 2017). "1st June - The 1975" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ "Matt Healy hints at new The 1975 EP". Green Valley News. 6 November 2017. Archived from the original on 6 November 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Connick, Tom (30 August 2017). "Matty Healy reveals track title from The 1975's new album". NME. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "the need to start editing". Instagram. 30 August 2017. Retrieved 10 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "MFCpic.twitter.com/NqzB38UGKw". Twitter. Retrieved 21 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "pic.twitter.com/UER3TXrQan". Twitter. Retrieved 21 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Matthew Healy [@Truman_Black] (28 May 2018). "The 1975 - Give Yourself A Try, This Thursday @BBCR1". Twitter. Retrieved 28 May 2018.
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Estimated number of guns per capita by country
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2017)
Map of civilian guns per capita by country from the Small Arms Survey 2007.[1]
This is a list of countries by estimated guns per capita (number of privately owned small firearms divided by number of residents).[1][2][3]
The Small Arms Survey 2007[1] provides an estimate of the total number of known civilian-owned guns in a country per 100 people. These numbers do not clarify which percentage of the population owns those guns.
The ownership rate reported is the average estimate taken from a survey from the Small Arms Survey 2007.[1] This survey also gives the minimum and maximum estimates, which are based on other surveys with estimations. Note that for some countries, this margin of error is considerable. For example, Iraq or the Middle Eastern countries, ranked near the top with an ownership rate of 54.8, has a low estimate of 28.6 and a high estimate of 81.1. While the United States is ranked for the highest gun ownership rate unambiguously, Yemen (based on the margin of error) may rank anywhere between 2nd and 18th.
Contents
[hide]
1 List of countries by estimated number of guns per capita
1.1 Notes
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
List of countries by estimated number of guns per capita[edit]
Data was acquired by GunPolicy.org and are mainly based on second-hand surveys from 2007 (Karp, Aaron. 2007. "Completing the Count: Civilian firearms - Annexe online." Small Arms Survey 2007: Guns and the City. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 27 August) and 1999 (United Nations. 1999. "Analysis of Country Responses." United Nations International Study on Firearm Regulation.) Updated figures are calculated figures by gunpolicy.org.[4] The figures cited are estimates for "private gun ownership (both licit and illicit)". The rate for the world overall is 10.2 guns per 100 residents.[citation needed]
Italics in this list indicate there are several states with limited recognition.
Row numbers on the left are fixed.
"Notes" column links to notes section below the chart.

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Country
Guns per 100
residents
Notes
United States 101[5][6] [note 1]
Serbia 58.21[9]
Yemen 54.8
Cyprus 36.4[10]
Saudi Arabia 35
Iraq 34.2
Uruguay 31.8
Norway 31.3
France 31.2
Canada 30.8
Austria 30.4 [note 2]
Iceland 30.3
Germany 30.3 [note 3]
Finland 27.3 [note 4]
Oman 25.5
Bahrain 24.8
Kuwait 24.8
Switzerland 24.45 [note 5]
Republic of Macedonia 24.1
Montenegro 23.1
New Zealand 22.6
Greece 22.5
United Arab Emirates 22.1
Croatia 21.7
Panama 21.7
Sweden 21 [note 6]
Lebanon 21
Equatorial Guinea 19.9
Qatar 19.2
Latvia 19
Peru 18.8
Angola 17.3
Bosnia and Herzegovina 17.3
Belgium 17.2
Paraguay 17
Czech Republic 16.3
Thailand 15.6
Libya 15.5
Luxembourg 15.3
Mexico 15
Mauritius 14.7
Guyana 14.6
Gabon 14
Slovenia 13.5
Suriname 13.4
Guatemala 13.1
Australia 13.1[19] [note 7]
South Africa 12.7
Namibia 12.6
Armenia 12.5
Turkey 12.5
Denmark 12
Italy 11.9
Malta 11.9
Pakistan 11.6
Jordan 11.5
Chile 10.7
Venezuela 10.7 [note 8]
Spain 10.4
Argentina 10.2
Belize 10
Costa Rica 9.9
Estonia 9.2
Somalia 9.1
Transnistria 9.1
Russia 8.9
Zambia 8.9
Albania 8.6
Portugal 8.5
Slovakia 8.3
Jamaica 8.1
Brazil 8
Barbados 7.8
Nicaragua 7.7
Algeria 7.6
Belarus 7.3
Georgia 7.3
Iran 7.3
Israel 7.3
Moldova 7.1
Ukraine 6.6
United Kingdom 6.2 [note 9]
Maldives 6.5
Kenya 6.4
Swaziland 6.4
Bulgaria 6.2
Honduras 6.2
Colombia 5.9
El Salvador 5.8
Hungary 5.5
Sudan and South Sudan 5.5
Cape Verde 5.4
Seychelles 5.4
Bahamas 5.3
Dominican Republic 5.1
Mozambique 5.1
Morocco 5
Botswana 4.9
China 4.9
Cuba 4.8 [note 10]
Philippines 4.7
Afghanistan 4.6
Republic of China (Taiwan) 4.6
Zimbabwe 4.6
Cambodia 4.3
Ireland 4.3
India 4.2
Myanmar 4
Netherlands 3.9
Syria 3.9
Turkmenistan 3.8
Azerbaijan 3.5
Egypt 3.5
Bhutan 3.5
Palestine 3.4
Bolivia 2.8
Cameroon 2.8
Djibouti 2.8
Congo 2.7
Lesotho 2.7
Côte d'Ivoire 2.4
Senegal 2
Mongolia 1.9
Comoros 1.8
Vietnam 1.7
Guinea-Bissau 1.6
Liberia 1.6
Mauritania 1.6
Trinidad and Tobago 1.6
Malaysia 1.5
Nigeria 1.5
Sri Lanka 1.5
Uzbekistan 1.5
Benin 1.4
Brunei 1.4
Democratic Republic of the Congo 1.4
Tanzania 1.4
Uganda 1.4
Ecuador 1.3
Kazakhstan 1.3
Poland 1.3 [note 11]
Burundi 1.2
Laos 1.2
Guinea 1.2
Papua New Guinea 1.2
Burkina Faso 1.1
Chad 1.1
South Korea 1.1
Mali 1.1
Central African Republic 1
Tajikistan 1
Togo 1
Kyrgyzstan 0.9
Gambia 0.8
Madagascar 0.8
Nepal 0.8
Lithuania 0.7
Malawi 0.7
Niger 0.7
Romania 0.7
Haiti 0.6
Japan 0.6
North Korea 0.6
Rwanda 0.6
Sierra Leone 0.6
Bangladesh 0.5
Eritrea 0.5
Fiji 0.5
Indonesia 0.5
Singapore 0.5
Ethiopia 0.4
Ghana 0.4
Solomon Islands 0.4
Timor-Leste 0.3
Tunisia 0.1
Notes[edit]
Return to top of table.
Jump up ^ United States. According to the Congressional Research Service, as of 2009[update] there were roughly twice as many guns per capita in the United States as there were in 1968: more than 300 million guns in all.[5][7] 50% of U.S. guns are owned by 3% of the population.[8]
Jump up ^ Austria. The source for this number is a WFSA white paper from 2000,[1] which in turn cites "Personal communication from the head of Austrian Arms Traders Assoziation";[11] actual number may vary significantly.
Jump up ^ Germany. The number of legal guns in Germany is about 7 per 100 residents.[12] There are no reliable figures on the number of illegal guns in Germany.[13] The figure of 20 million illicit guns (~24 per 100 residents) that is often cited on the web is an estimate attributed to the GdP, Germany's largest police union.[14] This number is wildly out of range with the UN Office on Drugs and Crime's estimate on illicit guns (10% of the number of legal guns, corresponding to 0.5 million illicit guns or ~0.7 per 100 residents).[15]
Jump up ^ Finland. 1.5 million guns in 2016 in the official registry.[16]
Jump up ^ Switzerland. figures from 2016[17]
Jump up ^ Sweden. According to the Swedish National Police Agency in 2006, there were a total of 656,000 individuals who had a license for one or more guns;[18] 6.5% of the population. There were 2,032,000 guns or 21 guns per 100 residents. Of the 2,032,000 guns, 959,000 were rifles, 726,000 shotguns, 122,000 combination rifles, 88,000 pistols, 55,000 revolvers, 3,000 automatic guns and 78,000 weapons parts.
Jump up ^ Australia. The state of Tasmania has the highest gun ownership in Australia with 28 legal firearms for every 100 people.[20]
Jump up ^ Venezuela. The number displayed in this table is very likely a significant underestimation. The actual number of guns per 100 persons may vary to more, with an unestimated number of illegal firearms held by civilians, around to 9 to 15 million.[21]
Jump up ^ United Kingdom. Data for England and Wales only
Jump up ^ Cuba. The information appears to be incorrect. Private citizens in Cuba are not allowed to own guns. Only the military and police may carry weapons issued and owned by the government.
Jump up ^ Poland. According to police statistics there was 1 gun per 100 people as of 2015.[22]
See also[edit]
Gun politics
Small arms proliferation
List of countries by firearm-related death rate
Index of gun politics articles
List of countries by intentional homicide rate
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Keith Krause, Eric G. Berman, eds. (August 2007). "Small Arms Survey 2007 – Chapter 2. Completing the Count: Civilian Firearms". Geneva, Switzerland: Small Arms Survey. Retrieved 2013-06-20. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Vladeta Ajdacic-Gross, Martin Killias, Urs Hepp, Erika Gadola, Matthias Bopp, Christoph Lauber, Ulrich Schnyder, Felix Gutzwiller, Wulf Rössler (October 2006). "Firearm suicides and the availability of firearms: analysis of longitudinal international data". Rockville Pike, Bethesda MD, USA: US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. PMC 1586136  . CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Martin Killias (1993). "Gun Ownership, Suicide and Homicide: An International Perspective" (PDF). Turin, Italy: United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Armed violence and gun laws, country by country". Surry Hills, New South Wales, Australia: GunPolicy.org. Retrieved 2016-03-20. The figures by gunpolicy.org are still based mainly on 'Karp, Aaron. 2007' and 'United Nations. 1999'. They are only adjusted by calculation for more recent years, at best.
^ Jump up to: a b "Guns In America, By The Numbers". National Public Radio. January 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ "US Population by Year". multpl.com.
Jump up ^ "Gun Control Legislation" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. November 14, 2012: 9.
Jump up ^ Zhou, Youyou (2017-10-06). "Three percent of the population own half of the civilian guns in the US". Quartz. Retrieved 2017-11-13.
Jump up ^ "Serbia - South Eastern Europe: Weapons Possession Per 100 Inhabitants".
Jump up ^ Alpers, Philip. "Guns in Cyprus — Firearms, gun law and gun control".
Jump up ^ Császár, Franz (2000). "Gun Control and the Reduction of the Number of Arms" (PDF). Gun Owners of South Africa. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-07-21.
Jump up ^ "Deutschland, deine Waffen".
Jump up ^ "Illegale Waffe im Schrank? Zeit, sie loszuwerden Seite 2/2: Die Zahl Illegaler Waffen – nichts als eine Dunkelziffer".
Jump up ^ "Guns in Germany".
Jump up ^ "Number of Privately Owned Firearms".
Jump up ^ "Aseiden määrä Suomessa vähenee – katso, missä ovat maan 1,5 miljoonaa asetta". Yle Uutiset.
Jump up ^ "Guns in Switzerland: Facts, Figures and Firearm Law". Gunpolicy.org. University of Sydney School of Public Health. 2016. Retrieved 2017-04-20. External link in |work= (help)
Jump up ^ "Arms legislation etc" (PDF) (in Swedish). National Police control ice. 2006-05-31. CS1 maint: Unrecognized language (link)
Jump up ^ "Licensed gun owners are stockpiling extra weapons, more than a million guns have been registered since 2012". Adelaide Now. 2012. Retrieved 2017-10-03.
Jump up ^ Alpers, Philip. "Guns in Tasmania — Firearms, gun law and gun control". www.gunpolicy.org. Retrieved 2017-08-11.
Jump up ^ P.G. (7 July 2014). "Crime in Venezuela: Guns and money". The Economist. The Economist. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Liczba osób posiadających pozowlenie na broń - stan na dzień 31 grudnia 2015 r" (in Polish). Police. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
External links[edit]
Interactive map of gun ownership
[hide]
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estimated_number_of_guns_per_capita_by_country&oldid=843313021"
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Rhizosphere
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An illustration of the rhizosphere.[1] A=Amoeba consuming bacteria; BL=Energy limited bacteria; BU=Non-energy limited bacteria; RC=Root derived carbon; SR=Sloughed root hair cells; F=Fungal hyphae; N=Nematode worm
The rhizosphere is the narrow region of soil that is directly influenced by root secretions and associated soil microorganisms.[2] The rhizosphere contains many bacteria and other microorganisms that feed on sloughed-off plant cells, termed rhizodeposition,[3] and the proteins and sugars released by roots. This symbiosis leads to more complex interactions, influencing plant growth and competition for resources. Much of the nutrient cycling and disease suppression needed by plants occurs immediately adjacent to roots due to root exudants and communities of microorganisms.[4] The rhizosphere also provides space to produce allelochemicals to control neighbors and relatives.[5] The plant-soil feedback loop and other physical factors are important selective pressures for the communities and growth in the rhizosphere.
Contents
[hide]
1 Chemical interactions
1.1 Chemical availability
1.2 Allelochemicals
2 Ecology of the rhizosphere
2.1 Predation
2.2 Competition
2.3 Mutualism
2.4 Community structure
3 Methods
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
Chemical interactions[edit]
Chemical availability[edit]
Exudates, such as organic acids, change the chemical structure of the rhizosphere in comparison with the bulk soil. Concentrations of organic acids and saccharides affect the ability of the plant to uptake phosphorus, nitrogen,[6][7] potassium and water through the root cap,[8] and the total availability of iron to the plant and to its neighbors.[9] The ability of the plant to affect the availability of iron and other minerals for its neighbors by providing specific transport proteins affects the composition of the community and fitness.
Exudates come in the form of chemicals released into the rhizosphere by cells in the roots and cell waste referred to as "rhizodeposition." This rhizodeposition comes in various forms of organic carbon and nitrogen that provide for the communities around plant roots and dramatically affect the chemistry surrounding the roots.[10] Exopolysaccharides, such as PGA, affect the ability of roots to uptake water by maintaining the stability of the rhizosphere and controlling the flow of water.[11] In potato cultivars, phenols and lignins comprise the greatest number of ion influencing compounds produced as plant exudates regardless of location; however, the intensity of different compounds was found to be influenced by soils and environmental conditions, resulting in variation amongst nitrogen compounds, lignins, phenols, carbohydrates, and amines.[12]
Allelochemicals[edit]
Chemicals connected to allelopathy: flavinols [13] carbohydrates and application by root hairs[14] phenols[15] Positive allelopathic pathways and definitions of interactions between plant-plant and plant-microbe,[16] positive plant-microbe in the form of systematic resistance[17]
Although it goes beyond the rhizosphere area, it is notable that some plants secrete allelochemicals from their roots which inhibit the growth of other organisms. For example, garlic mustard produces a chemical which is believed to prevent mutualisms forming between the surrounding trees and mycorrhiza in mesic North American temperate forests where it is an invasive species.[18]
Ecology of the rhizosphere[edit]
Rhizodeposition allows for the growth of communities of microorganisms directly surrounding and inside plant roots. This leads to complex interactions between species including mutualism, predation/parasitism, and competition.
Predation[edit]
Predation is considered to be top-down because these interactions decrease the population, but the closeness of the interactions of species directly effects the availability of resources causing the population to also be affected by bottom-up controls.[19] Without soil fauna, microbes that directly prey upon competitors of plants and plant mutualists, interactions within the rhizosphere would be antagonistic toward the plants. Soil fauna provide the top-down component of the rhizosphere while also allowing for the bottom-up increase in nutrients from rhizodeposition and inorganic nitrogen. The complexity of these interactions have also been shown through experiments with common soil fauna, such as nematodes and protists. Predation by bacterial-feeding nematodes was shown to influence nitrogen availability and plant growth.[20] There was also an increase in the populations of bacteria in which nematodes were added. Predation upon Pseduomonas by amoeba shows predators are able to upregulate toxins produced by prey without direct interaction using supernatant.[21] The ability of predators to control the expression and production of biocontrol agents in prey without direct contact is related to the evolution of prey species to signals of high predator density and nutrient availability.
The food web in the rhizosphere can be considered as three different channels with two different sources of energy; the detritus-dependent channels are fungi and bacterial species and the root energy dependent channel consists of nematodes, symbiotic species, and some arthropods.[19] This food web is constantly in flux as the amount of detrius available and the rate of root sloughing changes as roots grow and age. This bacterial channel is considered to be a faster channel because of the ability of species to focus on more accessible resources in the rhizosphere and have faster regeneration times compared with the fungal channel. All three of these channels are also interrelated to the roots that form the base of the rhizosphere ecosystem and the predators, such as the nematodes and protists, that prey upon many of the same species of mircroflora.
Competition[edit]
Allelopathy and autotoxicity and negative root-root communications[22][9]
The competition between plants due to released exudates is dependent geometrical properties, which determine the capacity of interception of exudates from any point in relation to the plants’ roots, and physicochemical properties, which determine the capacity of each root to take up exudates in the area.[23] Geometrical properties are the density of roots, root diameter, and distribution of the roots and physicochemical properties are exudation rate, decay rate of exudates, and the properties of the environment that affect diffusion. These properties define the rhizosphere of roots and the likelihood that plants can directly compete with neighbors.
Plants and soil microflora indirectly compete against one another by tying up limiting resources, such as carbon and nitrogen, into their biomass.[24] This competition can occur at varying rates due to the ratio of carbon to nitrogen in detritus and the ongoing mineralization of nitrogen in the soil. Mycorrhizae and heterotrophic soil microorganisms compete for both carbon and nitrogen depending upon which is limiting at the time, which itself heavily depends on the species, scavenging abilities, and the environmental conditions affecting nitrogen input. Plants are less successful at uptake of organic nitrogen, such as amino acids, than the soil microflora that exist in the rhizosphere.[25] This informs other mutualistic relationships formed by plants with relation to nitrogen uptake.
Competition over other resources, such as oxygen in limited environments, are directly affected by the spatial and temporal locations of species and the rhizosphere. In methanotrophs, proximity to higher density roots and the surface are important and help to determine where they are dominant over heterotrophs in rice paddies.[26]
The weak connection between the various channels of energy is important in regulation in the populations of both predator and prey and the availability of resources to the biome. Strong connections between resource-consumer and consumer-consumer create coupled systems of oscillators which are then determined by the nature of the available resources.[27] These systems can then be considered cyclical, quasi-periodic, or chaotic.
Mutualism[edit]
Plants secrete many compounds through their roots to serve symbiotic functions in the rhizosphere. Strigolactones, secreted and detected by mycorrhizal fungi, stimulate the germination of spores and initiate changes in the mycorrhiza that allow it to colonize the root. The parasitic plant, Striga also detects the presence of strigolactones and will germinate when it detects them; they will then move into the root, feeding off the nutrients present.[28][29]
Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, such as Rhizobium species, detect compounds like flavonoids secreted by the roots of leguminous plants and then produce nod factors which signal to the plant that they are present and will lead to the formation of root nodules. In these nodules bacteria, sustained by nutrients from the plant, convert nitrogen gas to a form that can be used by the plant.[30] Non-symbiotic (or "free-living") nitrogen-fixing bacteria may reside in the rhizosphere just outside the roots of certain plants (including many grasses), and similarly "fix" nitrogen gas in the nutrient-rich plant rhizosphere. Even though these organisms are thought to be only loosely associated with plants they inhabit, they may respond very strongly to the status of the plants. For example, nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the rhizosphere of the rice plant exhibit diurnal cycles that mimic plant behavior, and tend to supply more fixed nitrogen during growth stages when the plant exhibits a high demand for nitrogen.[31]
In exchange for the resources and shelter that plants and roots provide, fungi and bacteria control pathogenic microbes.[32] The fungi that perform such activities also serve close relationships with species of plants in the form of mycorrhizal fungi, which are diverse in how they relate to plants. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and the bacteria that make the rhizosphere their home also form close relationships in order to be more competitive.[33] which plays into the bigger cycles of nutrients that impact the ecosystem, such as biogeochemical pathways.[9]
Community structure[edit]
Bais et al. (2004) call the rhizosphere an information super highway because of the proximity of data points, which include roots and other organisms in the soil, and the methods for transferring data using exudates and communities.[22] This description has been used to explain the complex interactions that plants, their fungal mutualists, and the bacterial species that live in the rhizosphere have entered into over the course of their evolution. Certain species like Trichoderma are interesting because of their ability to select for species in this complex web. Trichoderma is a biological control agent because of evidence that it can reduce plant pathogens in the rhizosphere.[34] Plants themselves also impact which bacterial species are in the rhizosphere which are selected against because of the introduction of exudates and the relationships that it maintains. The control of which species are in these small diversity hotspots can drastically affect the capacity of these spaces and future conditions for future ecologies.[32][5]
Methods[edit]
The following are methods that are commonly used or of interest to the topics discussed in this article. Many of these methods include both field testing of the root systems and in lab testing using simulated environments to perform experiments, such as pH determination.[35]
High-throughput screening
Mini rhizotron camera
Various methods used to determine water movement in the rhizosphere e.g. microelectrodes and agar techniques for pH and microsampling of rhizosphere materials[35]
Pyrolysis–field ionization mass spectrometry allows for spectrometry of agricultural fields to find fulvic and humic acids and the extraction residues (humins) in certain studies and expanded to general organic compounds in other recent work.[36][12]
See also[edit]
Root microbiome
Soil respiration
Allelopathy
Bulk soil
Root mucilage
Mycorrhiza
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Giri, B.; Giang, P. H.; Kumari, R.; Prasad, R.; Varma, A. (2005). "Microbial Diversity in Soils". Microorganisms in Soils: Roles in Genesis and Functions. Soil Biology. 3. pp. 19–55. doi:10.1007/3-540-26609-7_2. ISBN 3-540-22220-0.
Jump up ^ "Microbial Health of the Rhizosphere". Archived from the original on March 12, 2007. Retrieved 5 May 2006.
Jump up ^ Hütsch, Birgit W.; Augustin, Jürgen; Merbach, Wolfgang (2002). "Plant rhizodeposition – an important source for carbon turnover in soils" (PDF). Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science. 165 (4): 397–407. doi:10.1002/1522-2624(200208)165:4<397::AID-JPLN397>3.0.CO;2-C – via Research Gate.
Jump up ^ Elaine R. Ingham. "The Soil Food Web". USDA-NRCS. Retrieved 3 July 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b Grayston, Susan J.; Wang, Shenquiang; Campbell, Colin D.; Edwards, Anthony C. (March 1998). "Selective influence of plant species on microbial diversity in the rhizosphere". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 30 (3): 369–378. doi:10.1016/S0038-0717(97)00124-7.
Jump up ^ Jones, David L. (August 1998). "Organic acids in the rhizosphere – a critical review". Plant and Soil. 205 (1): 25–44. doi:10.1023/A:1004356007312.
Jump up ^ Hinsinger, Philippe (December 2001). "Bioavailability of soil inorganic P in the rhizosphere as affected by root-induced chemical changes: a review". Plant and Soil. 237 (2): 173–195. doi:10.1023/A:1013351617532.
Jump up ^ Walker, Travis S.; Bais, Harsh Pal; Grotewold, Erich; Vivanco, Jorge M. (May 2003). "Root Exudation and Rhizosphere Biology". Plant Physiol. 132 (1): 44–51. doi:10.1104/pp.102.019661. PMC 1540314  . PMID 12746510.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lambers, Hans; Mougel, Christophe; Jaillard, Benoît; Hinsinger, Philippe (August 2009). "Plant-microbe-soil interactions in the rhizosphere: an evolutionary perspective". Plant Soil. 321 (1–2): 83–115. doi:10.1007/s11104-009-0042-x.
Jump up ^ Hinsinger, Philippe; Gobran, George R.; Gregory, Peter J.; Wenzel, Walter W. (November 2005). "Rhizosphere geometry and heterogeneity arising from root-mediated physical and chemical processes". New Phytologist. 168 (2): 293–303. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01512.x. ISSN 1469-8137. PMID 16219069.
Jump up ^ Czarnes, S.; Hallett, P. D.; Bengough, A. G.; Young, I. M. (2000). "Root- and microbial-derived mucilages affect soil structure and water transport". European Journal of Soil Sciences. 51 (3): 435. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2389.2000.00327.x.
^ Jump up to: a b Schlichting, André; Leinweber, Peter (2009). "New evidence for the molecular–chemical diversity of potato plant rhizodeposits obtained by pyrolysis–field Ionisation mass spectrometry". Phytochemical Analysis. 20 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1002/pca.1080. ISSN 1099-1565. PMID 18618895.
Jump up ^ Leslie A. Weston & Ulrike Mathesius (2013). "Flavonoids: Their Structure, Biosynthesis and Role in the Rhizosphere, Including Allelopathy". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 39 (2): 283–297. doi:10.1007/s10886-013-0248-5.
Jump up ^ Cecile Bertin, Xiaohan Yang, Leslie A. Weston (2003). "The role of root exudates and allelochemicals in the rhizosphere". Plant and Soil. 256: 67–83. doi:10.1023/A:1026290508166. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Glass, Anthony D. M. (1976). "The allelopathic potential of phenolic acids associated with the rhizosphere of Pteridium aquilinum". Canadian Journal of Botany. 54 (21): 2440–2444. doi:10.1139/b76-259.
Jump up ^ Bais, Harsh P.; Weir, Tiffany L.; Perry, Laura G.; Gilroy, Simon; Vivanco, Jorge M. (2006). "The Role of Root Exudates in Rhizosphere Interactions with Plants and Other Organisms". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 57 (1): 233–266. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.57.032905.105159.
Jump up ^ van Loon, L. C.; Bakker, P. A. H. M.; Pieterse, C. M. J. (28 November 2003). "Systemic Resistance Induced by Rhizosphere Bacteria". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 36 (1): 453–483. doi:10.1146/annurev.phyto.36.1.453.
Jump up ^ Stinson KA, Campbell SA, Powell JR, Wolfe BE, Callaway RM, Thelen GC, Hallett SG, Prati D, Klironomos JN; Campbell; Powell; Wolfe; Callaway; Thelen; Hallett; Prati; Klironomos (2006). "Invasive plant suppresses the growth of native tree seedlings by disrupting belowground mutualisms". PLoS Biology. 4 (5): e140. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040140. PMC 1440938  . PMID 16623597. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Moore, John C.; McCann, Kevin; Setälä, Heikki; De Ruiter, Peter C. (2003). "Top-Down is Bottom-Up: Does Predation in the Rhizosphere Regulate Aboveground Dynamics?". Ecology. 84 (4): 846. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[0846:TIBDPI]2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Ingham, Russell E.; Trofymow, J. A.; Ingham, Elaine R.; Coleman, David C. (1985). "Interactions of Bacteria, Fungi, and their Nematode Grazers: Effects on Nutrient Cycling and Plant Growth". Ecological Monographs. 55 (1): 119–140. doi:10.2307/1942528. JSTOR 1942528.
Jump up ^ Jousset, Alexandre; Rochat, Laurène; Scheu, Stefan; Bonkowski, Michael; Keel, Christoph (August 2010). "Predator-Prey Chemical Warfare Determines the Expression of Biocontrol Genes by Rhizosphere-Associated Pseudomonas fluorescens". Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 76 (15): 5263–5268. doi:10.1128/AEM.02941-09. PMC 2916451  . PMID 20525866.
^ Jump up to: a b Bais, Harsh Pal; Park, Sang-Wook; Weir, Tiffany L; Callaway, Ragan M; Vivanco, Jorge M (2004). "How plants communicate using the underground information superhighway". Trends in Plant Science. 9 (1): 26–32. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2003.11.008. PMID 14729216.
Jump up ^ Raynaud, Xavier; Jaillard, Benoît; Leadley, Paul W. (2008). "Plants May Alter Competition by Modifying Nutrient Bioavailability in Rhizosphere: A Modeling Approach". The American Naturalist. 171 (1): 44–58. doi:10.1086/523951. ISSN 0003-0147. PMID 18171150.
Jump up ^ Kaye, Jason P.; Hart, Stephen C. (1997). "Competition for nitrogen between plants and soil microorganisms". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 12 (4): 139. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01001-X.
Jump up ^ Owen, A.G; Jones, D.L (2001). "Competition for amino acids between wheat roots and rhizosphere microorganisms and the role of amino acids in plant N acquisition". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 33 (4–5): 651–657. doi:10.1016/s0038-0717(00)00209-1.
Jump up ^ Bodegom, Peter van; Stams, Fons; Mollema, Liesbeth; Boeke, Sara; Leffelaar, Peter (August 2001). "Methane Oxidation and the Competition for Oxygen in the Rice Rhizosphere". Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67 (8): 3586–3597. doi:10.1128/AEM.67.8.3586-3597.2001. PMC 93059  . PMID 11472935.
Jump up ^ McCann, Kevin; Hastings, Alan; Huxel, Gary R. (22 October 1998). "Weak trophic interactions and the balance of nature". Nature. 395 (6704): 794–798. doi:10.1038/27427.
Jump up ^ Arnaud Besserer, Virginie Puech-Pagès, Patrick Kiefer, Victoria Gomez-Roldan, Alain Jauneau, Sébastien Roy, Jean-Charles Portais, Christophe Roux, Guillaume Bécard, Nathalie Séjalon-Delmas (2006). "Strigolactones Stimulate Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi by Activating Mitochondria". PLOS Biology. 4 (7): e226. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040226. PMC 1481526  . PMID 16787107. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Andreas Brachmann, Martin Parniske (2006). "The Most Widespread Symbiosis on Earth". PLOS Biology. 4 (7): e239. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040239. PMC 1489982  . PMID 16822096.
Jump up ^ Tian, C. F.; Garnerone, A.-M.; Mathieu-Demaziere, C.; Masson-Boivin, C.; Batut, J. (2012). "Plant-activated bacterial receptor adenylate cyclases modulate epidermal infection in the Sinorhizobium meliloti-Medicago symbiosis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (17): 6751–6756. doi:10.1073/pnas.1120260109. PMC 3340038  .
Jump up ^ Sims GK, Dunigan EP; Dunigan (1984). "Diurnal and seasonal variations in nitrogenase activity (C2H2 reduction) of rice roots". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 16 (1): 15–18. doi:10.1016/0038-0717(84)90118-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Weller, D. M. (1988). "Biological Control of Soilborne Plant Pathogens in the Rhizosphere with Bacteria". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 26 (1): 379–407. doi:10.1146/annurev.py.26.090188.002115.
Jump up ^ Bianciotto, V.; Minerdi, D.; Perotto, S.; Bonfante, P. (1996). "Cellular interactions between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and rhizosphere bacteria". Protoplasm. 193: 123. doi:10.1007/BF01276640.
Jump up ^ Howell, C. R. (2003). "Mechanisms Employed by Trichoderma Species in the Biological Control of Plant Diseases: The History and Evolution of Current Concepts". Plant Disease. 87: 4. doi:10.1094/PDIS.2003.87.1.4.
^ Jump up to: a b Gregory, P.J.; Hinsinger, P. (1999). "New approaches to studying chemical and physical changes in the rhizosphere: an overview". Plant and Soil. 211: 1. doi:10.1023/A:1004547401951.
Jump up ^ Schlten, Hans-Rolf; Leinweber, Peter (April 1993). "Pyrolysis-field ionization mass spectrometry of agricultural soils and humic substances: Effect of cropping systems and influence of the mineral matrix". Plant and Soil. 151 (1): 77–90. doi:10.1007/BF00010788. ISSN 0032-079X.
Further reading[edit]
"The Soil Habitat". University of Western Australia. Archived from the original on 20 August 2006. Retrieved 3 July 2006.
Andrew Wylie (2006). "Digging in the Dirt: Is the Study of the Rhizosphere Ripe for a Systems Biology Approach?". Science Creative Quarterly. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
McNear Jr., D. H. (2013). "The Rhizosphere – Roots, Soil and Everything In Between". Nature Education Knowledge. 4 (3): 1. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
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Gizzard
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the open source sharding framework, see Gizzard (Scala framework).
Gizzard of a chicken
The gizzard, also referred to as the ventriculus, gastric mill, and gigerium, is an organ found in the digestive tract of some animals, including archosaurs (pterosaurs, crocodiles, alligators, and dinosaurs, including birds), earthworms, some gastropods, some fish, and some crustaceans. This specialized stomach constructed of thick muscular walls is used for grinding up food, often aided by particles of stone or grit. In certain insects and molluscs, the gizzard features chitinous plates or teeth.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Structure
2.1 In birds
2.2 Gizzard stones
3 Animals with gizzards
3.1 Fish
3.2 Reptiles
3.3 Birds
3.4 Crustaceans
3.5 Non-avian dinosaurs
3.6 Pterosaurs
4 In cuisine
5 Generic meaning
6 References
6.1 Sources
Etymology[edit]
The word gizzard comes from the Middle English giser, which derives from a similar word in Old French, which itself evolved from the Latin gigeria, meaning giblets.[1]
Structure[edit]
The gizzard (serial 8) of a pigeon, seen at the right of the duodenum between the legs.
In birds[edit]
Birds swallow food and store it in their crop if necessary. Then the food passes into their glandular stomach, also called the proventriculus, which is also sometimes referred to as the true stomach. This is the secretory part of the stomach. Then the food passes into the gizzard (also known as the muscular stomach or ventriculus). The gizzard can grind the food with previously swallowed stones and pass it back to the true stomach, and vice versa. Bird gizzards are lined with a tough layer made of the carbohydrate-protein complex koilin, to protect the muscles in the gizzard.
By comparison, while in birds the stomach occurs in the digestive tract prior to the gizzard, in grasshoppers the gizzard occurs prior to the stomach, while in earthworms there is only a gizzard, and no stomach.
Gizzard stones[edit]
Some animals that lack teeth will swallow stones or grit to aid in fragmenting hard foods. All birds have gizzards, but not all will swallow stones or grit. Those that do employ the following method of chewing:
"A bird swallows small bits of gravel that act as 'teeth' in the gizzard, breaking down hard food such as seeds and thus helping digestion." (Solomon et al., 2002).
These stones are called gizzard stones or gastroliths and usually become round and smooth from the polishing action in the animal's stomach. When too smooth to do their required work, they may be excreted or regurgitated.
Animals with gizzards[edit]
Fish[edit]
The mullet (Mugilidae) found in estuarine waters worldwide, and the gizzard or mud shad, found in freshwater lakes and streams from New York to Mexico, have gizzards. The gillaroo (Salmo stomachius), a richly colored species of trout found in Lough Melvin, a lake in the north of Ireland, has a gizzard which is used to aid the digestion of water snails, the main component of its diet.
Reptiles[edit]
Alligators and crocodiles also have gizzards.
Birds[edit]
All birds have gizzards. The gizzards of emus, turkeys, chickens and ducks are most notable in cuisine (see below).
Crustaceans[edit]
Body structure of a typical crustacean – krill
Some crustaceans have a gizzard although this is usually referred to as a gastric mill.[2]
Non-avian dinosaurs[edit]
Dinosaurs that are believed to have had gizzards based on the discovery of gizzard stones recovered near fossils include:
Psittacosaurus
Massospondylus
Sellosaurus
Omeisaurus
Apatosaurus
Barosaurus
Dicraeosaurus
Seismosaurus
The belief that Claosaurus had a gizzard has been discredited on the grounds that the fossil remains this claim was based on were another species and the stones merely from a stream.[3]
Pterosaurs[edit]
At least some pterosaurs seemingly had gizzards. The most notable cases are Pterodaustro (inferred via gastroliths) and Rhamphorhynchus (directly preserved).[4][5]
In cuisine[edit]
Fried gizzards and livers
Poultry gizzards are a popular food throughout the world.[citation needed]
Grilled chicken gizzards are sold as street food in Haiti and throughout Southeast Asia. In Indonesia, gizzard and liver are considered part of a complete fried poultry dish.
In Mexico they are eaten with rice or with chicken soup. They are also served grilled and prepared scrambled with eggs, onions, garlic, and salsa; and served with beans and tortillas for breakfast and other meals.
Stewed gizzards are eaten as a snack in Portugal.
In Hungary it is made with paprika.
In Ghana, it is eaten in a variety of forms (boiled, fried or grilled), but one of the most common is as a local khebab (brochette/skewers), with spices and optional green peppers and onions
In Nigeria gizzard is either grilled or fried and served with stew and fried plantain.
Pickled turkey gizzards are a traditional food in some parts of the Midwestern United States. In Chicago, gizzard is battered, deep fried and served with french fries and sauce. The Chamber of Commerce in Potterville, Michigan has held a Gizzard Fest each June since 2000; a gizzard-eating contest is among the weekend's events.[6] In the Southern United States, the gizzard is typically served fried, sometimes eaten with hot sauce or honey mustard, or added to crawfish boil along with crawfish sauce, and it is also used in traditional New Orleans gumbo.
Gizzard and mashed potato is a popular food in many European countries.
In France, especially the Dordogne region, duck gizzards are eaten in the traditional Périgordian salad, along with walnuts, croutons and lettuce.
In Iran some kebab restaurants mix chicken gizzards in their koobideh kebabs to increase the meat content.
In Italy gizzards are often used mixed with other offal.
In Japan, gizzard is called zuri or sunagimo; usually it is cooked in yakitori (Japanese style skewered barbecue). In Kyushu (southern Japan), gizzard is fried into karaage.
In Korea, chicken gizzard, called dak-ttongjip, is stir-fried and eaten as anju or yasik.
The word Sangdana is commonly used to refer to chicken gizzards in Northern India and Pakistan. The word is derived from Persian (Sang = stone and dana = grain). Another name for it is Pathri. It may be served cooked in a curry while barbecued skewered gizzards are also popular.
In Nepal, gizzard is called jaatey or pangra. It is eaten most often with drinks.
In Yiddish, gizzards are referred to as pipik'lach, literally meaning navels. The gizzards of kosher species of birds have a green or yellowish membrane lining the inside, which must be peeled off before cooking, as it lends a very bitter taste to the food. In traditional Eastern European Jewish cuisine, the gizzards, necks, and feet of chickens were often cooked together, although not the liver, which per Kosher law must be broiled. Kosher butchers often sell roasting chickens with the gizzard, neck, and feet butchered and left in the cavity to be used for making chicken soup.
In Uganda, Cameroon and Nigeria, the gizzard of a cooked chicken is traditionally set aside for the oldest or most respected male at the table.
Giblets consist of the heart, liver and gizzard of a bird, and are often eaten themselves or used as the basis for a soup or stock.
In Taiwan, gizzards are often slow-cooked and served hot or cold in slices, with green onions and soy sauce.
In Trinidad and Tobago, gizzards are curried and served with rice or roti bread, it can also be stewed.
In Mainland China, duck gizzard is a common snack, eaten alongside other duck parts such as feet, neck, heart, tongue, or head.[7] Areas famous for their gizzard are Sichuan and Hubei provinces. Wuhan city in Hubei is famous for its brand of spicy gizzard, called Jiujiuya (Simplified Chinese:久久鸭). In Northern China, one can find barbecued duck gizzard.
Generic meaning[edit]
The term "gizzard" can also, by extension, refer to the general guts, innards or entrails of animals.[1]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Gizzard". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
Jump up ^ K. Sakai (2004). "The diphyletic nature of the Infraorder Thalassinidea (Decapoda, Pleocyemata) as derived from the morphology of the gastric mill". Crustaceana. 77 (9): 1117–1129. doi:10.1163/1568540042900268. JSTOR 20107419.
Jump up ^ Creisler, Benjamin S (2007). Horns and Beaks: Ceratopsian and Ornithopod Dinosaurs. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0253348173.
Jump up ^ Codorniú et al. 2009
Jump up ^ Wilton, Mark P. (2013). Pterosaurs: Natural History, Evolution, Anatomy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691150613.
Jump up ^ "Gizzard Fest". Potterville Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
Jump up ^ Victor Mair (2015), Chinese words and characters for "gizzard", Language Log, 7 January 2015.
Sources[edit]
Solomon, E.P., Berg L.P., and Martin D.W., 2002. Biology Sixth Edition. Thomson Learning Inc., Australia, Canada, Mexico, Singapore, Spain, United Kingdom, United States pp. 664
Dyce, Sack, Wensing, 2002. Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy Third Edition, Saunders. ISBN 0-7216-8966-3
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gizzard&oldid=811161974"
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