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The Outlaw Josey Wales
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The Outlaw Josey Wales
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Clint Eastwood
Produced by
Robert Daley
Screenplay by
Philip Kaufman
Sonia Chernus
Based on
Gone to Texas
by Forrest Carter
Starring
Clint Eastwood
Chief Dan George
Sondra Locke
Music by
Jerry Fielding
Cinematography
Bruce Surtees
Edited by
Ferris Webster
Production
company
The Malpaso Company
Warner Bros.
Distributed by
Warner Bros.
Release date
June 30, 1976 (1976-06-30)
Running time
135 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$3.7 million[1]
Box office
$31,800,000[2]
The Outlaw Josey Wales is a 1976 American revisionist Western DeLuxe Color and Panavision film set during and after the American Civil War. It was directed by and starred Clint Eastwood (as the eponymous Josey Wales), with Chief Dan George, Sondra Locke, Sam Bottoms, and Geraldine Keams.[3] The film tells the story of Josey Wales, a Missouri farmer whose family is murdered by Union militants during the Civil War. Driven to revenge, Wales joins a Confederate guerrilla band and fights in the Civil War. After the war, all the fighters in Wales' group except for Wales surrender to Union officers, but they end up being massacred. Wales becomes an outlaw and is pursued by bounty hunters and Union soldiers.
The film was adapted by Sonia Chernus and Philip Kaufman from author Forrest Carter's 1972 novel The Rebel Outlaw: Josey Wales (republished, as shown in the movie's opening credits, as Gone to Texas).[4] The film was a commercial success, earning $31.8 million against a $3.7 million budget. In 1996, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress for being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Josey Wales was portrayed by Michael Parks in the film's 1986 sequel, The Return of Josey Wales.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
4.1 Awards
5 Meaning
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 External links
Plot[edit]
Josey Wales, a Missouri farmer, is driven to revenge by the murder of his wife and young son by a band of pro-Union Jayhawker militants. The murderers were from Senator James H. Lane's Kansas Brigade, led by Captain Terrill.
After grieving and burying his wife and son, Wales joins a group of pro-Confederate Missouri Bushwhackers led by William T. Anderson and fights in the Civil War. At the conclusion of the war, Captain Fletcher persuades the guerrillas to surrender, saying they have been granted amnesty. Wales refuses to surrender. As a result, he and one young man are the only survivors when Captain Terrill's Redlegs massacre the surrendering men. Wales intervenes and guns down several Redlegs with a Gatling gun.
Senator Lane forces Fletcher to work with Terrill in tracking down Wales and puts a $5,000 bounty on Wales, who is now on the run from Union militia and bounty hunters. Along the way, despite wishing to be left alone, he accumulates a diverse group of companions. They include an old Cherokee named Lone Watie, a young Navajo woman, and an elderly woman from Kansas and her granddaughter Laura Lee, whom Wales rescues from Comancheros. At Santo Rio, two men, Travis and Chato, join their group.
Wales and his companions find the abandoned ranch owned by Laura's father and inhabit it after Wales parleys and makes peace with the neighboring Comanche tribe leader, Ten Bears. Meanwhile, a bounty hunter who identified Wales at Santo Rio, guides Captain Terrill and his men to the town. The following morning, the ranch is attacked by the Redlegs. Wales' companions take shelter in the fortified ranch house and open fire, gunning down all of Terrill's men. A wounded Wales, despite being out of ammunition, pursues the fleeing Terrill. When he corners him, Wales dry fires his four pistols through all the empty chambers before stabbing and killing Terrill with his own cavalry sword.
At the bar in Santa Rio, Wales finds Fletcher with two Texas Rangers. The locals at the bar, who refer to Wales as "Mr. Wilson," tell the Rangers that Wales was killed in a shoot-out in Monterrey, Mexico. The Rangers accept this story and move on. Fletcher refuses to believe the story, but pretends to not recognize Wales and says that he will go to Mexico to look for Wales himself, and try to convince him that the war is over, because he owes him that. Wales says that they all died a little in the war, before riding off.
Cast[edit]
Clint Eastwood as Josey Wales
Chief Dan George as Lone Watie
Sondra Locke as Laura Lee
Bill McKinney as Terrill
John Vernon as Fletcher
Paula Trueman as Grandma Sarah
Sam Bottoms as Jamie
Charles Tyner as Zukie Limmer
Geraldine Keams as Little Moonlight
Woodrow Parfrey as Carpetbagger
Joyce Jameson as Rose
Sheb Wooley as Travis Cobb
Royal Dano as Ten Spot
Matt Clark as Kelly
Will Sampson as Ten Bears
John Quade as Comanchero Leader
John Russell as "Bloody Bill" Anderson
William O'Connell as Sim Carstairs
Production[edit]
Pahreah site in Utah, filming location of the film.
The Outlaw Josey Wales was inspired by a 1972 novel by Forrest Carter, and was originally titled The Rebel Outlaw: Josey Wales and later retitled Gone to Texas. The script was worked on by Sonia Chernus and producer Bob Daley at Malpaso, and Eastwood himself paid some of the money to obtain the screen rights.[6] Michael Cimino and Philip Kaufman later oversaw the writing of the script, aiding Chernus. Kaufman wanted the film to stay as close to the novel as possible in style and retained many of the mannerisms in Wales's character which Eastwood would display on screen, such as his distinctive lingo with words like "reckon", "hoss" (instead of "horse"), and "ye" (instead of "you") and spitting tobacco juice on animals and victims.[6] The characters of Wales, the Cherokee chief, Navajo woman, and the old settler woman and her daughter all appeared in the novel.[7] Contrariwise, Kaufman was less happy with the novel's political stance; he felt that it had been "written by a crude fascist" and that "the man's hatred of government was insane".[4] He also felt that that element of the script needed to be severely toned down, but, he later said, "Clint didn't, and it was his film".[4] Kaufman was later fired by Eastwood, who took over the film's direction himself.
Cinematographer Bruce Surtees, James Fargo, and Fritz Manes scouted for locations and eventually found sites in Utah, Arizona, Wyoming, and Oroville, California even before they saw the final script.[7] Kaufman cast Chief Dan George, who had been nominated for an Academy Award for Supporting Actor in Little Big Man, as the old Cherokee Lone Watie. Sondra Locke, also a previous Academy Award nominee, was cast by Eastwood against Kaufman's wishes[8] as the granddaughter of the old settler woman, Laura Lee. This marked the beginning of a close relationship between Eastwood and Locke that would last six films and the beginning of a romance that would last into the late 1980s. The film also featured his real-life seven-year-old son Kyle Eastwood, with Ferris Webster hired as editor and Jerry Fielding as composer.
Principal photography began in mid-October 1975 in Lake Powell.[8] A rift between Eastwood and Kaufman developed during the filming. Kaufman insisted on filming with a meticulous attention to detail, which caused disagreements with Eastwood, not to mention the attraction the two shared towards Locke and apparent jealousy on Kaufman's part in regards to their emerging relationship.[9] One evening, Kaufman insisted on finding a beer can as a prop to be used in a scene, but while he was absent, Eastwood ordered Surtees to quickly shoot the scene as light was fading and then drove away, leaving before Kaufman had returned.[10] Soon after, filming moved to Kanab, Utah. On October 24, 1975, Kaufman was fired at Eastwood's command by producer Bob Daley.[11] The sacking caused an outrage amongst the Directors Guild of America and other important Hollywood executives, since the director had already worked hard on the film, including completing all of the pre-production.[11] Pressure mounted on Warner Bros. and Eastwood to back down, but their refusal to do so resulted in a fine, reported to be around $60,000 for the violation.[11] This resulted in the Director's Guild passing new legislation, known as 'the Eastwood Rule', which prohibits an actor or producer from firing the director and then becoming the director himself.[11] From then on, the film was directed by Eastwood himself with Daley second-in-command, but with Kaufman's planning already in place, the team were able to finish making the film efficiently.
Reception[edit]
"Eastwood is such a taciturn and action-oriented performer that it's easy to overlook the fact that he directs many of his movies—and many of the best, most intelligent ones. Here, with the moody, gloomily beautiful, photography of Bruce Surtees, he creates a magnificent Western feeling"
Roger Ebert, Chicago Sun-Times, January 1, 1976[12]
Upon release in August 1976, The Outlaw Josey Wales was widely acclaimed by critics, many of whom saw Eastwood's role as an iconic one, relating it with much of America's ancestral past and the destiny of the nation after the American Civil War.[13] The film was pre-screened at the Sun Valley Center for the Arts and Humanities in Idaho in a six-day conference entitled Western Movies: Myths and Images. Academics such as Bruce Jackson, critics such as Jay Cocks and Arthur Knight and directors such as King Vidor, Henry King, William Wyler and Howard Hawks were invited to the screening.[13] The film would later appear in Time magazine's Top 10 films of the year.[14] Roger Ebert compared the nature and vulnerability of Eastwood's portrayal of Josey Wales with his "Man with No Name" character in the Dollars Trilogy and praised the atmosphere of the film. On The Merv Griffin Show, Orson Welles lauded the film, calling Eastwood "one of America's finest directors."
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively gave the film a 95% rating based on reviews from 38 critics.[15]
Awards[edit]
The Outlaw Josey Wales was nominated for the Academy Award for Original Music Score. In 1996, it was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. It was also one of the few Western films to receive critical and commercial success in the 1970s at a time when the Western was thought to be dying as a major genre in Hollywood.
Clint Eastwood says on the 1999 DVD release that the movie is "certainly one of the high points of my career... in the Western genre of filmmaking."[citation needed]
Meaning[edit]
Eastwood has called The Outlaw Josey Wales an anti-war film.[16] In an interview with The Wall Street Journal, he said:
As for Josey Wales, I saw the parallels to the modern day at that time. Everybody gets tired of it, but it never ends. A war is a horrible thing, but it's also a unifier of countries... Man becomes his most creative during war. Look at the amount of weaponry that was made in four short years of World War II—the amount of ships and guns and tanks and inventions and planes and P-38s and P-51s, and just the urgency and the camaraderie, and the unifying. But that's kind of a sad statement on mankind, if that's what it takes.[16]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Munn, p. 156
Jump up ^ "The Outlaw Josey Wales". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved January 23, 2012.
Jump up ^ Variety film review; June 30, 1976.
^ Jump up to: a b c Barra, Allen."The Education of Little Fraud", Salon.com, December 20, 2001.
Jump up ^ "The Return of Josey Wales". The New York Times.
^ Jump up to: a b McGilligan (1999), p. 257
^ Jump up to: a b McGilligan (1999), p.258
^ Jump up to: a b McGilligan (1999), p.261
Jump up ^ McGilligan (1999), p. 262
Jump up ^ McGilligan (1999), p. 263
^ Jump up to: a b c d McGilligan (1999), p. 264
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (January 1, 1976). "The Outlaw Josey Wales". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved January 29, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b McGilligan (1999), p.266
Jump up ^ McGilligan (1999), p.267
Jump up ^ "The Outlaw Josey Wales". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved September 26, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Judge, Michael (2011-01-29). "A Hollywood Icon Lays Down the Law". Wall Street Journal.
Bibliography[edit]
McGilligan, Patrick (1999). Clint: The Life and Legend. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-638354-8.
Munn, Michael (1992). Clint Eastwood: Hollywood's Loner. London: Robson Books. ISBN 0-86051-790-X.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Outlaw Josey Wales.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Outlaw Josey Wales
The Outlaw Josey Wales on IMDb
The Outlaw Josey Wales at the TCM Movie Database
The Outlaw Josey Wales at AllMovie
The Outlaw Josey Wales at the American Film Institute Catalog
The Outlaw Josey Wales at Rotten Tomatoes
The Outlaw Josey Wales at Box Office Mojo
[hide]
v
t
e
Films directed by Clint Eastwood
Play Misty for Me (1971)
High Plains Drifter (1973)
Breezy (1973)
The Eiger Sanction (1975)
The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976)
The Gauntlet (1977)
Bronco Billy (1980)
Firefox (1982)
Honkytonk Man (1982)
Sudden Impact (1983)
Pale Rider (1985)
Heartbreak Ridge (1986)
Bird (1988)
White Hunter Black Heart (1990)
The Rookie (1990)
Unforgiven (1992)
A Perfect World (1993)
The Bridges of Madison County (1995)
Absolute Power (1997)
Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil (1997)
True Crime (1999)
Space Cowboys (2000)
Blood Work (2002)
Piano Blues (2003)
Mystic River (2003)
Million Dollar Baby (2004)
Flags of Our Fathers (2006)
Letters from Iwo Jima (2006)
Changeling (2008)
Gran Torino (2008)
Invictus (2009)
Hereafter (2010)
J. Edgar (2011)
Jersey Boys (2014)
American Sniper (2014)
Sully (2016)
The 15:17 to Paris (2018)
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Garibi Hatao
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Garibi Hatao desh bachao ("Abolish poverty, save the nation") was the theme and slogan of Indira Gandhi's 1971 election bid and later also used by her son Rajiv Gandhi.[1] The slogan and the proposed anti-poverty programs that came with it were designed to give Gandhi an independent national support, based on rural and urban poor, which would allow her to by-pass the dominant rural castes both in and out of state and local government; likewise the urban commercial class. And, for their part, the previously voiceless poor would at last gain both political worth and political weight.
The programs created through garibi hatao, though carried out locally, were funded, developed, supervised, and staffed by Government officials in New Delhi and Congress Party officials. All in all, garibi hatao did little and accomplished less: only about 4% of all funds allocated for economic development went to the three main anti-poverty programs, and precious few of these ever reached the 'poorest of the poor', but it did help secure Gandhi's election.[citation needed] It was part of the 5th Five-Year Plan.

References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The original aam aadmi leader". www.hindustantimes.com. 2009-11-01. Retrieved 2017-07-20.
[1]
Jump up ^ http://planningcommission.nic.in4planrelwelcome.html
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Garibi_Hatao&oldid=828713345"
Categories:
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Ruah
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Ruah may refer to:
Daniela Ruah (born 1983), Portuguese-American actress from the NCIS TV series
Maurice Ruah (born 1971), Venezuelan tennis player
Rûaħ or ruach, a Hebrew word meaning ‘breath, spirit’
See also[edit]
T'ruah, a non-profit organization of Rabbis for Human Rights
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Cross country running
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Cross country running
A men's cross country competition with a large leading pack in Minnesota, United States.
Highest governing body
IAAF
Presence
Olympic
1912-1924
World Championships
1973-
Cross country running is a sport in which teams and individuals run a race on open-air courses over natural terrain such as dirt or grass. Sometimes the runners are referred to as harriers (dogs).[1] The course, typically 4–12 kilometres (2.5–7.5 mi) long, may include surfaces of grass, and earth, pass through woodlands and open country, and include hills, flat ground and sometimes gravel road. It is both an individual and a team sport; runners are judged on individual times and teams by a points-scoring method. Both men and women of all ages compete in cross country, which usually takes place during autumn and winter, and can include weather conditions of rain, sleet, snow or hail, and a wide range of temperatures.
Cross country running is one of the disciplines under the umbrella sport of athletics, and is a natural terrain version of long-distance track and road running. Although open-air running competitions are pre-historic, the rules and traditions of cross country racing emerged in Britain. The English championship became the first national competition in 1876 and the International Cross Country Championships was held for the first time in 1903. Since 1973 the foremost elite competition has been the IAAF World Cross Country Championships.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Race course
1.1 Course design
1.2 Distances
1.3 Start
1.4 Finish
2 Scoring
3 Strategy
4 Equipment
5 History
5.1 Olympic Games
5.2 World championships
5.3 Notable athletes
5.3.1 Men
5.3.2 Women
6 Regional organizations
6.1 Australia
6.2 Canada
6.3 United Kingdom
6.4 United States
7 Variations
8 References
9 Further reading
Race course
Cross country courses are laid out on an open or woodland area. The IAAF recommends that courses be grass-covered, and have rolling terrain with frequent but smooth turns. Courses consist of one or more loops, with a long straight at the start and another leading to the finish line.
Course design
Terrain can vary from open fields to forest hills and even across rivers. It also includes running down and up hills. Because of variations in conditions, international standardization of cross country courses is impossible, and not necessarily desirable. Part of cross country running's appeal is the distinct characteristics of each venue's terrain and weather, as in other outdoor sports like motor racing, cycling and golf.
According to the IAAF, an ideal cross country course has a loop of 1,750 to 2,000 metres (1,910 to 2,190 yd) laid out on an open or wooded land. It should be covered by grass, as much as possible, and include rolling hills "with smooth curves and short straights". While it is perfectly acceptable for local conditions to make dirt or snow the primary surface, courses should minimize running on roads or other macadamized paths. Parks and golf courses often provide suitable locations.
While a course may include natural or artificial obstacles, cross country courses support continuous running, and do not require climbing over high barriers, through deep ditches, or fighting through the underbrush, as do military-style assault courses.[3]
A course at least 5 metres (5.5 yd) full allows competitors to pass others during the race. Clear markings keep competitors from making wrong turns, and spectators from interfering with the competition. Markings may include tape or ribbon on both sides of the course, chalk or paint on the ground, or cones. Some classes use colored flags to indicate directions: red flags for left turns, yellow flags for right turns, and blue flags can mean continue straight ahead or stay within ten feet (of the flag). Courses also commonly include distance markings, usually at each kilometer or each mile.[4]
The course should have 400 to 1,200 m (440 to 1,310 yd) of level terrain before the first turn, to reduce contact and congestion at the start. However, many courses at smaller competitions have their first turn after a much shorter distance.[5]
Distances
Courses for international competitions consist of a loop between 1750 and 2000 meters. Athletes complete three to six loops, depending on the race. Senior men compete on a 12-kilometre course. Senior women and junior men compete on an 8-kilometre course. Junior women compete on a 6-kilometre course.[3]
In the United States, college men typically compete on 8 km (5.0 mi) or 10 km (6.2 mi) courses, while college women race for 5 km (3.1 mi) or 6 km (3.7 mi).[5] High school courses are generally 5 km (3.1 mi).
Start
Start of a typical cross country race as official fires a gun to signal start.
All runners start at the same time, from a starting arc (or line) marked with lines or boxes for each team or individual. An official, 50 meters or more in front of the starting line, fires a pistol to indicate the start. If runners collide and fall within the first 100 meters, officials can call the runners back and restart the race, however this is done only once. Crossing the line or starting before the starting pistol is fired is considered a false start and most often results in disqualification of the runner.
Finish
The course ends at a finish line located at the beginning of a funnel or chute (a long walkway marked with flags) that keeps athletes single-file in order of finish and facilitates accurate scoring.
Depending on the timing and scoring system, finish officials may collect a small slip from each runner's bib, to keep track of finishing positions. An alternative method (standard in the UK) is to have four officials in two pairs. In the first pair, one official reads out numbers of finishers and the other records them. In the second pair, one official reads out times for the other to record. At the end of the race, the two lists are joined along with information from the entry information. The primary disadvantage of this system is that distractions can easily upset the results, particularly when scores of runners finish close together.
Chip timing has grown in popularity to increase accuracy and decrease the number of officials required at the finish line. Each runner attaches a transponder with RFID to his or her shoe. When the runner crosses the finish line, an electronic pad records the chip number and matches the runner to a database. Chip timing allows officials to use checkpoint mats throughout the race to calculate split times, and to ensure runners cover the entire course. This is by far the most efficient method, although it is also the most expensive. The drawback to chip timing is its inability to separate a close finish properly. Chips times the feet, when the rule books say it is the torso that counts. It is technically possible for an athlete to fall across the finish line, legally crossing the finish line, but with their feet too far away from the sensor to have their finish recorded.
Contemporary races have now started to use fully automatic timing systems for photo finish accuracy to their results. This has dramatically improved the timing mechanisms of Cross Country over the last few years.
Scoring
Scores are determined by summing the top four or five individual finishing places on each team. In international competition, a team typically consists of six runners, with the top four scoring. In the United States, the most common scoring system is seven runners, with the top five scoring. Points are awarded to the individual runners of eligible teams, equal to the position in which they cross the finish line (first place gets 1 point, second place gets 2 points, etc.). The points for these runners are summed, and the lowest score wins. Individual athletes, and athletes from incomplete teams ( teams consisting of less than 5 athletes or teams and individuals who have been disqualified are excluded from scoring.) Ties are usually broken by the position of each team's sixth runner.
The lowest possible score in a five-to-score match is 15 (1+2+3+4+5), achieved by a team's runners finishing in each of the top five positions. If there is a single opposing team then they would have a score of 40 (6+7+8+9+10), which can be considered a "sweep" for the winning team. In some competitions a team's sixth and seventh runner are scored in the overall field and are known as "pushers" or "displacers" as their place can count ahead of other runners, giving other teams more points. In the above match, if there are two non-scoring runners and they came 6th and 7th overall, the opponent's score would be 50 (8+9+10+11+12). Accordingly, the official score of a forfeited dual meet is 15–50.
Strategy
Because of differences between courses in running surface, frequency and tightness of turns, and amount of up and downhill, cross country strategy does not necessarily simplify to running a steady pace from start to finish. Coaches and cross country runners debate the relative merits of fast starts to get clear of the field, versus steady pacing to maximize physiological efficiency. Some teams emphasize running in a group in order to provide encouragement to others on the team, while others hold that every individual should run his or her own race. In addition, whether you run ahead 'of the pack' or behind it and pull ahead in the end is important, but can vary according to the runner's individual skill, endurance, and the length of the race. Runners should also account for food intake prior to the race. Most important, however, is the training beforehand.[6][7][8]
Equipment
Cross country running involves very little specialized equipment. Most races are run in shorts and vests or singlets, usually in club or school colours. In particularly cold conditions, long-sleeved shirts and tights can be worn to retain warmth without losing mobility. The most common footwear are cross country spikes, lightweight racing shoes with a rubber sole and five or more metal spikes screwed into the forefoot part of the sole. Spike length depends on race conditions, with a muddy course appropriate for spikes as long as 25 millimetres (0.98 in). If a course has a harder surface, spikes as short as 6 millimetres (0.24 in) may be most effective. While spikes are suitable for grassy, muddy, or other slippery conditions, runners may choose to wear racing flats, rubber-soled racing shoes without spikes, if the course includes significant portions of paved surfaces or dirt road.[9]
History
Runners at the 2010 European Cross Country Championships in Portugal.
Formal cross country competition traces its history to the 19th century and an English game called "hare and hounds" or "the paper chase". English schools started competing in cross country races in 1837, and established a national championship on December 7, 1867. It was held on Wimbledon Common in south-west London. It was the first cross country race that was considered "open", or could be run by anyone. Its original purpose was to imitate steeplechase for off-season training, and was considered a bit of a joke.[citation needed] The race was about 3.5 miles long, and went through very boggy and hilly terrain. The course was not well marked, and many competitors got lost. Matters were not helped by the fact that the race was run in the dark, as it began at 5 pm.[10]
This article needs editing for compliance with Wikipedia's Manual of Style. Please help improve it if you can. (September 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Olympic Games
Individual cross country race at the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris, France. The left trio is Edvin Wide, Ville Ritola and Paavo Nurmi. Due to the hot weather (over 40 °C (104 °F)) only 15 out of 38 competitors (elite long-distance runners) could finish the race.
Cross country was contested as a team and individual event at the 1912, 1920 and 1924 Summer Olympics. Sweden took gold in 1912, and Finland, led by Paavo Nurmi, captured the gold in 1920 and 1924. During the 1924 race in the Paris heat wave, only 15 of the 38 competitors reached the finish.[11] Eight of those were taken away on stretchers.[11] One athlete began to run in tight circles after reaching the stadium and later knocked himself unconscious,[12] while another fainted 50 meters from the finish.[13] José Andía and Edvin Wide were reported dead,[14] and medics spent hours trying to find all the competitors who had blacked out along the course.[13] Although the reports of deaths were unfounded, spectators were shocked by the attrition rate and Olympic officials decided to ban cross country running from future Games.[14] Since 1928, cross country has been contested only as the fifth discipline of the modern pentathlon, and until 2016 it was the only discipline where the Olympic competition was only part of the modern pentathlon.[15] The sport will have a separate medal event at the 2018 Youth Olympic Games in Buenos Aires.
World championships
Europeans dominated early International Cross Country Championships, first held at the Hamilton Park Racecourse in Scotland on 28 March 1903. England won the first 14 titles, and 43 of 59 until the IAAF took over the competition in 1973. France was the next most successful country in the early years, winning 12 championships between 1922 and 1956. Belgium is the only other country to win at the International Cross Country Championship, capturing titles in 1948, 1957, 1961 and 1963. The English also dominated the individual competition, with an Englishman winning the individual title 35 times, including three wins by Jack Holden (1933–1935).
The first international cross country championship for women was held in 1931, and thirteen more times through 1972. England won 12 of these early championships, losing only in 1968 and 1969 (to the United States). American Doris Brown won five consecutive individual titles between 1967 and 1971.
Beginning in 1973, the IAAF began hosting the renamed World Cross Country Championships each year. In 1975, the New Zealand men and United States women won, marking the first championships by non-European countries. In 1981 an African nation (Ethiopia) won the men's race for the first time, and a decade later an African nation (Kenya) won the women's race for the first time. Ethiopia or Kenya has captured every men's title since 1981 and every women's title since 2001. Through 2010, Kenya has won 40 World Cross Country Championships and Ethiopia has won 23.[16]
Notable athletes
Men
Kenenisa Bekele won both short and long World Cross Country course titles in the same year five times (2002–2006), after a junior men victory and senior long course silver in 2001. The IAAF calls him the "greatest ever male cross country runner to have graced the sport."[17]
Carlos Lopes – first man to win World Cross Country title three times.
John Ngugi – first man to win five World Cross Country titles, including four consecutively in the late 1980s.
Paavo Nurmi was a four-time Olympic gold medalist and undefeated throughout his 19-year career in cross country running
Gaston Roelants – four-time champion at the International Cross Country Championship between 1962 and 1972.
Paul Tergat – long course champion five years in a row (1995–1999), plus a bronze medal finish in 2000.
Women
Doris Brown – won the International Cross Country Championship for five consecutive years (1967–1971).
Zola Budd – young prodigy who twice won women's World championship (1985–1986), known for running barefooted.
Tirunesh Dibaba – won three times at the World long course and once at the short.
Lynn Jennings – won World title three times.
Edith Masai – won the World short race three times.
Derartu Tulu – won World titles three times in six years (1995, 1997, 2000).
Grete Waitz – first athlete to win five IAAF World Cross Country titles.
Gete Wami – won twice at the World long course and once at the short.
Sonia O'Sullivan – was the first person who achieved wins in both the short and long races in the World Cross-Country Championships (1998)
Regional organizations
In addition to the World Cross Country Championships, the IAAF sponsors six annual area-level competitions: the African Cross Country Championships, Asian Cross Country Championships, European Cross Country Championships, NACAC Cross Country Championships, Oceania Cross Country Championships and South American Cross Country Championships.
Beyond championships, IAAF world cross country meetings include the Great Edinburgh International Cross Country, Cross Internacional de Itálica, Antrim International Cross Country, Cinque Mulini, Nairobi Cross, Chiba International Cross Country, Fukuoka International Cross Country meet, Eurocross and Almond Blossom Cross Country.[18]
Australia
Cross country running is organized at the state level by the athletics association for each state. In Queensland this Queensland Athletics.[19] In the Masters category (over 30), this is organized by Australian Masters Athletics. Brisbane will host the Australian Masters Nationals Championships,[20] April 21–24, 2011 with the Cross Country hosted by Thompson Estate and Eastern Suburbs Athletics [21] at Minnippi Parklands.
The cross country season in Brisbane is usually March – September. During the season there is usually one race each week in a different park, generally organized and hosted by one of the participating clubs. Photos of such events can be found here.[22]
Canada
Cross country running is a far-reaching sport in Canada. In middle school, races are more serious and are divided by grade and gender. In high school, the races are far-reaching and tend to be the main talent pool (especially at the senior level) for university or national-level runners. At the university level, the sport is administered by Canadian Interuniversity Sport.[23]
United Kingdom
The organization of cross country running in the United Kingdom has continued to be mostly devolved to the four national associations: England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. The sport is based around the clubs, which usually are mixed cross country and road running clubs. The current position (which is changing) is that in England, the English Cross Country Association is part of the Amateur Athletic Association.
Cross country running takes place from roughly September until March. Most matches are parts of different cross country leagues, which are organized on an ad hoc basis. These vary from large, high quality leagues, such as the London Metropolitan Cross Country League, Birmingham League, Hampshire League, Essex League and Surrey League (which is unusual in requiring ten runners to score) to small, local leagues (such as the Gloucestershire AA league), and individual clubs can (and typically are) member of several leagues.
Typically there will be four or five fixtures a season. Also, there are county championships, area championships (north, south, and Midlands), the national championship (whose location rotates around the three areas), and the Inter-Counties Championship (which is often the best quality race owing to its restricted entry and its role as the trial for the World Championships).
Also there can be many inter-club matches, particularly among the older clubs. Most league matches are around 10 km (6.2 mi) long, and most championships 12 to 15 km (c. 7½ to 9 miles) long. Most clubs are mixed, though men's and women's races tend to be run separately.
Secondary school aged students are also to compete at local schools races, with a set number of students qualifying for county level, at which there is a further race to be eligible for the relevant national schools cross country race (e.g. the English Schools Cross Country).
At University level, there is considerable competition available. University clubs typically compete both locally (via English Athletics) as well as between universities - with larger fixtures organized through BUCS (formerly known as BUSA).
Primary schools, although more often the juniors, also participate in cross country events and some areas of England have done so since the late 1960s. An example would be schools near Ouston, County Durham which compete as part of Chester-le-Street & District Primary Cross Country Association.[24]
United States
Roy Griak Invitational cross country meet, University of Minnesota
USA Track & Field hosts four annual national cross country championships. The USA Cross Country Championships, first held in 1890, include six races: masters women (8 km), masters men (8 km), junior women (6 km), junior men (8 km), open women (8 km) and open men (12 km). In addition to crowning national champions, the championships serve as the trials race to select the Team USA squad for the IAAF World Cross Country Championships. The USA Masters 5 a km Cross Country Championships, first held in 2002, incl men's race and a women's race. The USATF National Club Cross Country Championships, first held in 1998, feature the top clubs from across the United States as they vie for honors and bragging rights as the nation's top cross country team. The USATF National Junior Olympic Cross Country Championships, first held in 2001, has raced for boys and girls in five different two-year age divisions.[25]
The New York State Federation Championship cross country meet
Most American universities and colleges field men's and women's cross country teams as part of their athletic program. Over 900 men's cross country teams and over 1000 women's cross country teams compete in the three divisions of the National Collegiate Athletic Association.[26] Men usually race 10 km (6.2 mi) or 8 km (5.0 mi), and women usually race 6 km (3.7 mi) or 5 km (3.1 mi).[5] The season culminates in men's and women's championships. Jr. College men often race 4 miles.
Every state offers cross country as a high school sport for boys and girls. Over 440,000 high school students compete in cross country each year, making it the sixth-most popular sport for girls, and seventh most popular for boys.[27] The standard high school cross country race distance is 5 km (3.1 mi) for most states with California high schools running 3 mile races, though some counties run a shorter, 3- to 4-kilometer course for girls. Beginning in 1979, the Foot Locker Cross Country Championships have offered a national championship for high school cross country runners. Since 2004, the Nike Cross Nationals have offered an alternative national championship, focused on teams rather than individuals. A 2008 film, The Long Green Line, documented the success of Joe Newton, cross country coach at York Community High School in Elmhurst, Illinois.[28]
While many middle schools (grades 6–8) in the U.S. offer cross country as a school sport, youth running clubs dominate in this age group. A typical middle school course is 3 km (1.9 mi) or 2 mi (3.2 km), and races may not split up boys and girls. Few elementary schools in the U.S. have school teams, but many running clubs exist for youth runners. Youth running clubs compete in local, regional, and national championships sanctioned by the AAU or USATF. Course distances for this age group vary depending on the age of the athlete. Common championship distances are:
Group
Ages
Race Distance
Bantam Under 10 3 km (1.9 mi)
Midget 10 to 12 3 km (1.9 mi)
Youth 12 to 14 4 km (2.5 mi)
Intermediate 14 to 16 5 kilometres (3.1 miles)
Young 16 to 18 5 kilometres (3.1 miles)
Mt. San Antonio College in Walnut, California hosts the largest cross country invitational in the United States, with over 22,000 runners from community colleges, high schools and elementary schools competing. The meet started in 1948 and continued today.[29]
Outstanding American cross country runners include Don Lash, who won seven consecutive national championships from 1934 to 1940, Pat Porter, who won eight titles from 1982 to 1989, and Steve Prefontaine, who won three NCAA national titles in cross country. Only two American athletes have won the IAAF World Cross Country Championships: Craig Virgin, who won in 1980 and again in 1981 and Lynn Jennings from 1990–1992.
The 2015 Disney movie McFarland, USA revolves around a cross-country team at a small high school.
A children's cross country competition in Croatia
Variations
One variation on traditional cross country is mountain running, which incorporates significant uphill and/or downhill sections as an additional challenge to the course.
References
Jump up ^ Runners World. Accessed 9 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Cross country – Introduction. IAAF. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b IAAF Competition Rules 2010–2011 Archived December 17, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.. IAAF. Retrieved 27 February 2011.
Jump up ^ USA Track & Field 2011 Competition Rules. USATF. Retrieved 27 February 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c 2011/2012 NCAA Men's and Women's Track & Field and Cross Country Rules. NCAA. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Groves, Harry. Tactics & Strategy. Cross Country Journal Vol II, Num 2. July–August 1984.
Jump up ^ Mackenzie, Brian. Cross Country – Tactical approach. Retrieved 4 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Newton, Joe with Joe Henderson (1998). Coaching Cross Country Successfully. Human Kinetics. pp. 83–88. ISBN 978-0-88011-701-2.
Jump up ^ 2011 NFHS Track & Field and Cross Country Rules Book. NFHS.
Jump up ^ Burfoot, Amby (July 2006). "Common Ground". Runners World. 92.
^ Jump up to: a b "Paavo Nurmi at the Olympic Games – Paris 1924". The Sports Museum of Finland. Archived from the original on 13 February 2013. Retrieved 23 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Burnton, Simon (18 May 2012). "50 stunning Olympic moments No31: Paavo Nurmi wins 5,000m in 1924". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 September 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Raevuori, Antero (1997). Paavo Nurmi, juoksijoiden kuningas (in Finnish) (2nd ed.). WSOY. pp. 179–180. ISBN 978-9510218501.
^ Jump up to: a b Lovesey, Peter (1968). The Kings of Distance: A Study of Five Great Runners. Taylor & Francis. pp. 111–112. ISBN 978-3540002383.
Jump up ^ Olympic.org Medallists database Olympic Movement.
Jump up ^ USATF Cross Country Championships Media Handbook. USATF. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Cross country – Landmarks IAAF.
Jump up ^ IAAF Calendar. IAAF.
Jump up ^ Queensland Athletics. Qldathletics.org.au. Retrieved on 2015-08-20.
Jump up ^ Australian Masters Nationals Championships. Australianmastersathletics.org.au (2013-01-24). Retrieved on 2015-08-20.
Jump up ^ Thompson Estate Athletics, Brisbane athletics and cross country running club. Thompsonestateathletics.com.au. Retrieved on 2015-08-20.
Jump up ^ Thompson Estate Athletics, Brisbane athletics and cross country running club photos. thompsonestateathletics.com.au
Jump up ^ CIS Cross Country Championships. CIS. Retrieved 27 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Chester-le-street schools. Retrieved November 2011.
Jump up ^ USA Track & Field – Cross Country USATF.
Jump up ^ NCAA Sports Sponsorship. NCAA. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
Jump up ^ National Federation of State High School Associations NFHS.
Jump up ^ The Long Green Line (2008) – IMDb IMDB.
Jump up ^ About The Mt. SAC Cross Country Invitational Mt. San Antonio College.
Further reading
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cross country running.
Havitz, Mark E., and Eric D. Zemper, "'Worked Out in Infinite Detail': Michigan State College's Lauren P. Brown and the Origins of the NCAA Cross Country Championships," Michigan Historical Review, (Spring 2013) 39#1 pp. 1–39.
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See also: Modern pentathlon • International Cross Country Championships (1903–1972)
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