text:
Prolactin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
PRL
Available structures
PDB
Ortholog search: PDBe RCSB
[show]List of PDB id codes
1RW5, 2Q98, 3D48, 3EW3, 3MZG, 3N06, 3N0P, 3NCB, 3NCC, 3NCE, 3NCF, 3NPZ
Identifiers
Aliases
PRL, GHA1, prolactin
External IDs
MGI: 97762 HomoloGene: 732 GeneCards: PRL
[hide]Gene location (Human)
Chr.
Chromosome 6 (human)[1]
Band
6p22.3
Start
22,287,244 bp[1]
End
22,297,501 bp[1]
[show]Gene location (Mouse)
Chr.
Chromosome 13 (mouse)[2]
Band
13 A3.1|13 12.25 cM
Start
27,057,570 bp[2]
End
27,065,205 bp[2]
[show]Gene ontology
Molecular function
• prolactin receptor binding
• protein binding
• hormone activity
Cellular component
• extracellular region
• endosome lumen
Biological process
• female pregnancy
• cellular protein metabolic process
• cell surface receptor signaling pathway
• JAK-STAT cascade involved in growth hormone signaling pathway
• lactation
• cell proliferation
• positive regulation of JAK-STAT cascade
• regulation of multicellular organism growth
• regulation of receptor activity
• negative regulation of endothelial cell proliferation
• negative regulation of angiogenesis
• positive regulation of pri-miRNA transcription from RNA polymerase II promoter
Sources:Amigo / QuickGO
Orthologs
Species
Human Mouse
Entrez
5617
19109
Ensembl
ENSG00000172179
ENSMUSG00000021342
UniProt
P01236
P06879
RefSeq (mRNA)
NM_000948
NM_001163558
NM_001163530
NM_011164
RefSeq (protein)
NP_000939
NP_001157030
NP_001157002
NP_035294
Location (UCSC)
Chr 6: 22.29 – 22.3 Mb Chr 6: 27.06 – 27.07 Mb
PubMed search
[3] [4]
Wikidata
View/Edit Human View/Edit Mouse
Prolactin (PRL), also known as luteotropic hormone or luteotropin, is a protein that is best known for its role in enabling mammals, usually females, to produce milk. It is influential in over 300 separate processes in various vertebrates, including humans.[5] Prolactin is secreted from the pituitary gland in response to eating, mating, estrogen treatment, ovulation and nursing. Prolactin is secreted in pulses in between these events. Prolactin plays an essential role in metabolism, regulation of the immune system and pancreatic development.
Discovered in non-human animals around 1930 by Oscar Riddle[6] and confirmed in humans in 1970 by Henry Friesen[7] prolactin is a peptide hormone, encoded by the PRL gene.[8]
In mammals, prolactin is associated with milk production; in fish it is thought to be related to control of water and salt balance. Prolactin also acts in a cytokine-like manner and as an important regulator of the immune system. It has important cell cycle-related functions as a growth-, differentiating- and anti-apoptotic factor. As a growth factor, binding to cytokine-like receptors, it influences hematopoiesis, angiogenesis and is involved in the regulation of blood clotting through several pathways. The hormone acts in endocrine, autocrine and paracrine manner through the prolactin receptor and a large number of cytokine receptors.[5]
Pituitary prolactin secretion is regulated by endocrine neurons in the hypothalamus. The most important of these are the neurosecretory tuberoinfundibulum (TIDA) neurons of the arcuate nucleus that secrete dopamine (aka Prolactin Inhibitory Hormone) to act on the D2 receptors of lactotrophs, causing inhibition of prolactin secretion. Thyrotropin-releasing factor (thyrotropin-releasing hormone) has a stimulatory effect on prolactin release, however prolactin is the only adenohypophyseal hormone whose principal control is inhibitory.
Several variants and forms are known per species. Many fish have variants prolactin A and prolactin B. Most vertebrates including humans also have the closely related somatolactin. In humans, three smaller (4, 16 and 22 kDa) and several larger (so called big and big-big) variants exist.[not verified in body]
Contents
[hide]
1 Functions
2 Regulation
3 Structure and isoforms
4 Prolactin receptor
5 Diagnostic use
6 Units and unit conversions
7 Reference ranges
7.1 Inter-method variability
8 Conditions
8.1 Elevated levels
8.2 Decreased levels
9 In medicine
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Functions[edit]
Prolactin has a wide variety of effects. It stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk (lactation): increased serum concentrations of prolactin during pregnancy cause enlargement of the mammary glands and prepare for milk production, which normally starts when levels of progesterone fall by the end of pregnancy and a suckling stimulus is present. Prolactin plays an important role in maternal behavior.[9]
The hormone counteracts the effect of dopamine.[citation needed]
Elevated levels of prolactin decrease the levels of sex hormones — estrogen in women and testosterone in men.[10] The effects of mildly elevated levels of prolactin are much more variable, in women, substantially increasing or decreasing estrogen levels.
Prolactin is sometimes classified as a gonadotropin[11] although in humans it has only a weak luteotropic effect while the effect of suppressing classical gonadotropic hormones is more important.[12] Prolactin within the normal reference ranges can act as a weak gonadotropin, but at the same time suppresses GnRH secretion. The exact mechanism by which it inhibits GnRH is poorly understood. Although expression of prolactin receptors (PRL-R) have been demonstrated in rat hypothalamus, the same has not been observed in GnRH neurons.[13] Physiologic levels of prolactin in males enhance luteinizing hormone-receptors in Leydig cells, resulting in testosterone secretion, which leads to spermatogenesis.[14]
Prolactin also stimulates proliferation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells. These cells differentiate into oligodendrocytes, the cells responsible for the formation of myelin coatings on axons in the central nervous system.[15]
Other actions include contributing to pulmonary surfactant synthesis of the fetal lungs at the end of the pregnancy and immune tolerance of the fetus by the maternal organism during pregnancy. Prolactin delays hair regrowth in mice.[16] Prolactin promotes neurogenesis in maternal and fetal brains.[17][18]
Regulation[edit]
In humans, prolactin is produced at least in the anterior pituitary, decidua, myometrium, breast, lymphocytes, leukocytes and prostate.[19][20] A key regulator of prolactin production is estrogens that enhance growth of prolactin-producing cells and stimulate prolactin production directly, as well as suppressing dopamine.
In decidual cells and in lymphocytes the distal promoter and thus prolactin expression is stimulated by cAMP. Responsivness to cAMP is mediated by an imperfect cAMP–responsive element and two CAAT/enhancer binding proteins (C/EBP).[20] Progesterone upregulates prolactin synthesis in the endometrium and decreases it in myometrium and breast glandular tissue.[21] Breast and other tissues may express the Pit-1 promoter in addition to the distal promoter.
Extrapituitary production of prolactin is thought to be special to humans and primates and may serve mostly tissue specific paracrine and autocrine purposes. It has been hypothesized that in vertebrates such as mice a similar tissue specific effect is achieved by a large family of prolactin-like proteins controlled by at least 26 paralogous PRL genes not present in primates.[20]
Vasoactive intestinal peptide and peptide histidine isoleucine help to regulate prolactin secretion in humans, but the functions of these hormones in birds can be quite different.[22]
Prolactin follows diurnal and ovulatory cycles. Prolactin levels peak during REM sleep and in the early morning. Many mammals experience a seasonal cycle.
During pregnancy, high circulating concentrations of estrogen and progesterone increase prolactin levels by 10- to 20-fold. Estrogen and progesterone inhibit the stimulatory effects of prolactin on milk production. The abrupt drop of estrogen and progesterone levels following delivery allow prolactin—which temporarily remains high—to induce lactation.[verification needed]
Sucking on the nipple offsets the fall in prolactin as the internal stimulus for them is removed. The sucking activates mechanoreceptors in and around the nipple. These signals are carried by nerve fibers through the spinal cord to the hypothalamus, where changes in the electrical activity of neurons that regulate the pituitary gland increase prolactin secretion. The suckling stimulus also triggers the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland, which triggers milk let-down: Prolactin controls milk production (lactogenesis) but not the milk-ejection reflex; the rise in prolactin fills the breast with milk in preparation for the next feed.
In usual circumstances, in the absence of galactorrhea, lactation ceases within one or two weeks following the end of breastfeeding.
Levels can rise after exercise, high-protein meals, minor surgical procedures,[23] following epileptic seizures[24] or due to physical or emotional stress.[25][26] In a study on female volunteers under hypnosis, prolactin surges resulted from the evocation, with rage, of humiliating experiences, but not from the fantasy of nursing.[26]
Prolactin levels have also been found to rise with use of the drug MDMA.[27]
Hypersecretion is more common than hyposecretion. Hyperprolactinemia is the most frequent abnormality of the anterior pituitary tumors, termed prolactinomas. Prolactinomas may disrupt the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis as prolactin tends to suppress the secretion of GnRH from the hypothalamus and in turn decreases the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary, therefore disrupting the ovulatory cycle.[28] Such hormonal changes may manifest as amenorrhea and infertility in females as well as impotence in males. Inappropriate lactation (galactorrhoea) is another important clinical sign of prolactinomas.
Structure and isoforms[edit]
The structure of prolactin is similar to that of growth hormone and placental lactogen. The molecule is folded due to the activity of three disulfide bonds. Significant heterogeneity of the molecule has been described, thus bioassays and immunoassays can give different results due to differing glycosylation, phosphorylation and sulfation, as well as degradation. The non-glycosylated form of prolactin is the dominant form at is secreted by the pituitary gland. MM,,KK,LLLL The three different sizes of prolactin are:
Little prolactin—the predominant form.[29] It has a molecular weight of appxoximately 22-kDa.[29] It is a single-chain polypeptide of 198 amino acids and is apparently the result of removal of some amino acids.
Big prolactin—approximately 48 kDa.[29] It may be the product of interaction of several prolactin molecules. It appears to have little, if any, biological activity.[30]
Big big prolactin—approximately 150 kDa.[29] It appears to have a low biological activity.[31]
The levels of larger ones are somewhat higher during the early postpartum period.[32]
Prolactin receptor[edit]
Main article: Prolactin receptor
Prolactin receptors are present in the mammillary glands, ovaries, pituitary glands, heart, lung, thymus, spleen, liver, pancreas, kidney, adrenal gland, uterus, skeletal muscle, skin and areas of the central nervous system.[33] When prolactin binds to the receptor, it causes it to dimerize with another prolactin receptor. This results in the activation of Janus kinase 2, a tyrosine kinase that initiates the JAK-STAT pathway. Activation also results in the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and Src kinase.[33]
Human prolactin receptors are insensitive to mouse prolactin.[34]
Diagnostic use[edit]
Prolactin levels may be checked as part of a sex hormone workup, as elevated prolactin secretion can suppress the secretion of FSH and GnRH, leading to hypogonadism and sometimes causing erectile dysfunction.
Prolactin levels may be of some use in distinguishing epileptic seizures from psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. The serum prolactin level usually rises following an epileptic seizure.[35]
Units and unit conversions[edit]
The serum concentration of prolactin can be given in mass concentration (µg/L or ng/mL), molar concentration (nmol/L or pmol/L) or in international units (typically mIU/L). The current IU is calibrated against the third International Standard for Prolactin, IS 84/500.[36][37] Reference ampoules of IS 84/500 contain 2.5 µg of lyophilized human prolactin[38] and have been assigned an activity of .053 International Units.[36][37] Measurements that are calibrated against the current international standard can be converted into mass units using this ratio of grams to IUs;[39] prolactin concentrations expressed in mIU/L can be converted to µg/L by dividing by 21.2. Previous standards use other ratios.[40][41][42][43]
The first International Reference Preparation (or IRP) of human Prolactin for Immunoassay was established in 1978 (75/504 1st IRP for human Prolactin) at a time when purified human prolactin was in short supply.[39][40] Previous standards relied on prolactin from animal sources.[43] Purified human prolactin was scarce, heterogeneous, unstable and difficult to characterize. A preparation labelled 81/541 was distributed by the WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization without official status and given the assigned value of 50 mIU/ampoule based on an earlier collaborative study.[39][41] It was determined that this preparation behaved anomalously in certain immunoassays and was not suitable as an IS.[39]
Three different human pituitary extracts containing prolactin were subsequently obtained as candidates for an IS. These were distributed into ampoules coded 83/562, 83/573 and 84/500.[36][37][39][42] Collaborative studies involving 20 different laboratories found little difference between these three preparations. 83/562 appeared to be the most stable. This preparation was largely free of dimers and polymers of prolactin. On the basis of these investigations 83/562 was established as the Second IS for human Prolactin.[42] Once stocks of these ampoules were depleted, 84/500 was established as the Third IS for human Prolactin.[36][39]
Reference ranges[edit]
General guidelines for diagnosing prolactin excess (hyperprolactinemia) define the upper threshold of normal prolactin at 25 µg/L for women and 20 µg/L for men.[33] Similarly, guidelines for diagnosing prolactin deficiency (hypoprolactinemia) are defined as prolactin levels below 3 µg/L in women[44][45] and 5 µg/L in men.[46][47][48] However, different assays and methods for measuring prolactin are employed by different laboratories and as such the serum reference range for prolactin is often determined by the laboratory performing the measurement.[33][49] Furthermore, prolactin levels also vary factors including age,[50] sex,[50] menstrual cycle stage[50] and pregnancy.[50] The circumstances surrounding a given prolactin measurement (assay, patient condition, etc.) must therefore be considered before the measurement can be accurately interpreted.[33]
The following chart illustrates the variations seen in normal prolactin measurements across different populations. Prolactin values were obtained from specific control groups of varying sizes using the IMMULITE assay.[50]
Typical prolactin values
Proband
Prolactin, µg/L
women, follicular phase (n = 803)
12.1
women, luteal phase (n = 699)
13.9
women, mid-cycle (n = 53)
17
women, whole cycle (n = 1555)
13.0
women, pregnant, 1st trimester (n = 39)
16
women, pregnant, 2nd trimester (n = 52)
49
women, pregnant, 3rd trimester (n = 54)
113
Men, 21–30 (n = 50)
9.2
Men, 31–40 (n = 50)
7.1
Men, 41–50 (n = 50)
7.0
Men, 51–60 (n = 50)
6.2
Men, 61–70 (n = 50)
6.9
Inter-method variability[edit]
The following table illustrates variability in reference ranges of serum prolactin between some commonly used assay methods (as of 2008), using a control group of healthy health care professionals (53 males, age 20–64 years, median 28 years; 97 females, age 19–59 years, median 29 years) in Essex, England:[49]
Assay method
Mean
Prolactin
Lower limit
2.5th percentile
Upper limit
97.5th percentile
µg/L mIU/L µg/L mIU/L µg/L mIU/L
Females
Centaur 7.92 168 3.35 71 16.4 348
Immulite 9.25 196 3.54 75 18.7 396
Access 9.06 192 3.63 77 19.3 408
AIA 9.52[51] 257[51] 3.89[51] 105[51] 20.3[51] 548[51]
Elecsys 10.5 222 4.15 88 23.2 492
Architect 10.6 225 4.62 98 21.1 447
Males
Access 6.89 146 2.74 58 13.1 277
Centaur 7.88 167 2.97 63 12.4 262
Immulite 7.45 158 3.30 70 13.3 281
AIA 7.81[51] 211[51] 3.30[51] 89[51] 13.5[51] 365[51]
Elecsys 8.49 180 3.40 72 15.6 331
Architect 8.87 188 4.01 85 14.6 310
An example usage of table above is, if using the Centaur assay to estimate prolactin values in µg/L for females, the mean is 7.92 µg/L and the reference range is 3.35–16.4 µg/L.
Conditions[edit]
Elevated levels[edit]
Hyperprolactinaemia, or excess serum prolactin, is associated with hypoestrogenism, anovulatory infertility, oligomenorrhoea, amenorrhoea, unexpected lactation and loss of libido in women and erectile dysfunction and loss of libido in men.[52]
Physiological
Coitus
Exercise
Lactation
Pregnancy
Sleep
Stress
Depression
Pharmacological
Anesthetics
Anticonvulsant
Antihistamines (H2)
Antihypertensives
Cholinergic agonist
Drug-induced hypersecretion
Catecholamine depletor
Dopamine receptor blockers
Dopamine synthesis inhibitor
Estrogens
Oral contraceptives
Oral contraceptive withdrawal
Neuroleptics
Antipsychotics
Neuropeptides
Opiates and opiate antagonists
Pathological
Hypothalamic-pituitary stalk damage
Granulomas
Infiltrations
Radiation
Rathke's cyst
Trauma
Pituitary stalk resection
Suprasellar surgery
Tumors
Craniopharyngioma
Germinoma
Hypothalamic metastases
Meningioma
Suprasellar pituitary mass extension
Surgery
Pituitary
Acromegaly
Idiopathic
Lymphocytic hypophysitis or parasellar mass
Macroadenoma (compressive)
Macroprolactinemia
Plurihumoral adenoma
Prolactinoma
Systemic disorders
Chest-neurologic chest wall trauma
Herpes Zoster
Chronic renal failure
Cirrhosis
Cranial radiation
Epileptic seizures
Polycystic ovarian disease
Pseudocyesis
Chronic low levels of thyroid hormone
Decreased levels[edit]
Main article: Hypoprolactinemia
Hypoprolactinemia, or serum prolactin deficiency, is associated with ovarian dysfunction in women,[44][45] and arteriogenic erectile dysfunction, premature ejaculation,[46] oligozoospermia, asthenospermia, hypofunction of seminal vesicles and hypoandrogenism[47] in men. In one study, normal sperm characteristics were restored when prolactin levels were raised to normal values in hypoprolactinemic men.[48]
Hypoprolactinemia can result from hypopituitarism, excessive dopaminergic action in the tuberoinfundibular pathway and ingestion of D2 receptor agonists such as bromocriptine.
While there is evidence that women who smoke tend to breast feed for shorter periods, there is a wide variation of breast-feeding rates in women who do smoke. This suggest that psychosocial factors rather than physiological mechanisms (e.g., nicotine suppressing prolactin levels) are responsible for the lower rates of breast feeding in women who do smoke.[53][54]
In medicine[edit]
Prolactin is available commercially for use in animals, but not in humans.[55] It is used to stimulate lactation in animals.[55] The biological half-life of prolactin in humans is around 15–20 minutes.[56] The D2 receptor is involved in the regulation of prolactin secretion, and agonists of the receptor such as bromocriptine and cabergoline decrease prolactin levels while antagonists of the receptor such as domperidone, metoclopramide, haloperidol, risperidone, and sulpiride increase prolactin levels.[57] D2 receptor antagonists like domperidone, metoclopramide, and sulpiride are used as galactogogues to increase prolatin secretion and induce lactation in humans.[58]
See also[edit]
Breast-feeding
Epileptic seizure
Hyperprolactinaemia
Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis
Male lactation
Prolactin modulator
Prolactin receptor
Prolactin-releasing hormone
Prolactinoma
Weaning
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000172179 - Ensembl, May 2017
^ Jump up to: a b c GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000021342 - Ensembl, May 2017
Jump up ^ "Human PubMed Reference:".
Jump up ^ "Mouse PubMed Reference:".
^ Jump up to: a b Bole-Feysot C, Goffin V, Edery M, Binart N, Kelly PA (Jun 1998). "Prolactin (PRL) and its receptor: actions, signal transduction pathways and phenotypes observed in PRL receptor knockout mice". Endocrine Reviews. 19 (3): 225–68. doi:10.1210/er.19.3.225. PMID 9626554.
Jump up ^ Bates R, Riddle O (November 1935). "The preparation of prolactin". Journal of Pharmacolgy and Experimental Therapeutics. 55 (3): 365–371.
Jump up ^ Friesen H, Guyda H, Hardy J (Dec 1970). "The biosynthesis of human growth hormone and prolactin". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 31 (6): 611–24. doi:10.1210/jcem-31-6-611. PMID 5483096.
Jump up ^ Evans AM, Petersen JW, Sekhon GS, DeMars R (May 1989). "Mapping of prolactin and tumor necrosis factor-beta genes on human chromosome 6p using lymphoblastoid cell deletion mutants". Somatic Cell and Molecular Genetics. 15 (3): 203–13. doi:10.1007/BF01534871. PMID 2567059.
Jump up ^ Lucas BK, Ormandy CJ, Binart N, Bridges RS, Kelly PA (Oct 1998). "Null mutation of the prolactin receptor gene produces a defect in maternal behavior". Endocrinology. 139 (10): 4102–7. doi:10.1210/endo.139.10.6243. PMID 9751488.
Jump up ^ Prolactinoma—Mayo Clinic
Jump up ^ Hoehn K, Marieb EN (2007). Human Anatomy & Physiology. San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings. p. 605. ISBN 0-8053-5909-5.
Jump up ^ Gonadotropins at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Jump up ^ Grattan DR, Jasoni CL, Liu X, Anderson GM, Herbison AE (Sep 2007). "Prolactin regulation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons to suppress luteinizing hormone secretion in mice". Endocrinology. 148 (9): 4344–51. doi:10.1210/en.2007-0403. PMID 17569755.
Jump up ^ Hair WM, Gubbay O, Jabbour HN, Lincoln GA (Jul 2002). "Prolactin receptor expression in human testis and accessory tissues: localization and function". Molecular Human Reproduction. 8 (7): 606–11. doi:10.1093/molehr/8.7.606. PMID 12087074.
Jump up ^ Gregg C, Shikar V, Larsen P, Mak G, Chojnacki A, Yong VW, Weiss S (Feb 2007). "White matter plasticity and enhanced remyelination in the maternal CNS". The Journal of Neuroscience. 27 (8): 1812–23. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4441-06.2007. PMID 17314279.
Jump up ^ Craven AJ, Nixon AJ, Ashby MG, Ormandy CJ, Blazek K, Wilkins RJ, Pearson AJ (Nov 2006). "Prolactin delays hair regrowth in mice". The Journal of Endocrinology. 191 (2): 415–25. doi:10.1677/joe.1.06685. PMID 17088411.
Jump up ^ Shingo T, Gregg C, Enwere E, Fujikawa H, Hassam R, Geary C, Cross JC, Weiss S (Jan 2003). "Pregnancy-stimulated neurogenesis in the adult female forebrain mediated by prolactin". Science. 299 (5603): 117–20. doi:10.1126/science.1076647. PMID 12511652.
Jump up ^ Larsen CM, Grattan DR (Feb 2012). "Prolactin, neurogenesis, and maternal behaviors". Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 26 (2): 201–9. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2011.07.233. PMID 21820505.
Jump up ^ Ben-Jonathan N, Mershon JL, Allen DL, Steinmetz RW (Dec 1996). "Extrapituitary prolactin: distribution, regulation, functions, and clinical aspects". Endocrine Reviews. 17 (6): 639–69. doi:10.1210/edrv-17-6-639. PMID 8969972.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gerlo S, Davis JR, Mager DL, Kooijman R (October 2006). Norman AW, Henry HL, eds. "Prolactin in man: a tale of two promoters". BioEssays (Hormones). Academic Press. 28 (10): 1051–5. doi:10.1002/bies.20468. ISBN 9780080919065. PMC 1891148  . PMID 16998840. |chapter= ignored (help)
Jump up ^ Zinger M, McFarland M, Ben-Jonathan N (Feb 2003). "Prolactin expression and secretion by human breast glandular and adipose tissue explants". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 88 (2): 689–96. doi:10.1210/jc.2002-021255. PMID 12574200.
Jump up ^ Kulick RS, Chaiseha Y, Kang SW, Rozenboim I, El Halawani ME (Jul 2005). "The relative importance of vasoactive intestinal peptide and peptide histidine isoleucine as physiological regulators of prolactin in the domestic turkey". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 142 (3): 267–73. doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2004.12.024. PMID 15935152.
Jump up ^ Melmed S, Jameson JL (2005). "333 Disorders of the Anterior Pituitary and Hypothalamus". In Jameson JN, Kasper DL, Harrison TR, Braunwald E, Fauci AS, Hauser SL, Longo DL. Harrison's principles of internal medicine (16th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division. ISBN 0-07-140235-7.
Jump up ^ Mellers JD (Aug 2005). "The approach to patients with "non-epileptic seizures"". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 81 (958): 498–504. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2004.029785. PMC 1743326  . PMID 16085740.
Jump up ^ "Prolactin". MedLine plus. Retrieved 2014-10-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Sobrinho LG (2003). "Prolactin, psychological stress and environment in humans: adaptation and maladaptation". Pituitary. 6 (1): 35–9. doi:10.1023/A:1026229810876. PMID 14674722.
Jump up ^ Passie T, Hartmann U, Schneider U, Emrich HM, Krüger TH (2005). "Ecstasy (MDMA) mimics the post-orgasmic state: impairment of sexual drive and function during acute MDMA-effects may be due to increased prolactin secretion". Med Hypotheses. 64 (5): 899–903. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2004.11.044. PMID 15780482.
Jump up ^ "Etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of secondary amenorrhea". Retrieved 7 November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Sabharwal P, Glaser R, Lafuse W, Varma S, Liu Q, Arkins S, Kooijman R, Kutz L, Kelley KW, Malarkey WB (Aug 1992). "Prolactin synthesized and secreted by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells: an autocrine growth factor for lymphoproliferation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 89 (16): 7713–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.89.16.7713. PMC 49781  . PMID 1502189. , in turn citing: Kiefer KA, Malarkey WB (Jan 1978). "Size heterogeneity of human prolactin in CSF and serum: experimental conditions that alter gel filtration patterns". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 46 (1): 119–24. doi:10.1210/jcem-46-1-119. PMID 752015.
Jump up ^ Garnier PE, Aubert ML, Kaplan SL, Grumbach MM (Dec 1978). "Heterogeneity of pituitary and plasma prolactin in man: decreased affinity of "Big" prolactin in a radioreceptor assay and evidence for its secretion". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 47 (6): 1273–81. doi:10.1210/jcem-47-6-1273. PMID 263349.
Jump up ^ Leite V, Cosby H, Sobrinho LG, Fresnoza MA, Santos MA, Friesen HG (Oct 1992). "Characterization of big, big prolactin in patients with hyperprolactinaemia". Clinical Endocrinology. 37 (4): 365–72. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.1992.tb02340.x. PMID 1483294.
Jump up ^ Kamel MA, Neulen J, Sayed GH, Salem HT, Breckwoldt M (Sep 1993). "Heterogeneity of human prolactin levels in serum during the early postpartum period". Gynecological Endocrinology. 7 (3): 173–7. doi:10.3109/09513599309152499. PMID 8291454.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Mancini T, Casanueva FF, Giustina A (Mar 2008). "Hyperprolactinemia and prolactinomas". Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America. 37 (1): 67–99, viii. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2007.10.013. PMID 18226731.
Jump up ^ Utama FE, LeBaron MJ, Neilson LM, Sultan AS, Parlow AF, Wagner KU, Rui H (Mar 2006). "Human prolactin receptors are insensitive to mouse prolactin: implications for xenotransplant modeling of human breast cancer in mice". The Journal of Endocrinology. 188 (3): 589–601. doi:10.1677/joe.1.06560. PMID 16522738.
Jump up ^ Banerjee S, Paul P, Talib VJ (Aug 2004). "Serum prolactin in seizure disorders". Indian Pediatrics. 41 (8): 827–31. PMID 15347871.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Schulster D, Gaines Das RE, Jeffcoate SL (Apr 1989). "International Standards for human prolactin: calibration by international collaborative study". The Journal of Endocrinology. 121 (1): 157–66. doi:10.1677/joe.0.1210157. PMID 2715755.
^ Jump up to: a b c "WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization" (PDF). Thirty-ninth Report, WHO Technical Report Series. World Health Organization. 1989. Retrieved 2009-06-03. 86.1520, WHO/BS documents: 86.1520 Add 1, 88.1596
Jump up ^ "WHO International Standard, Prolactin, Human. NIBSC code: 84/500, Instructions for use" (PDF). WHO International Standard, Prolactin, Human. NIBSC code: 84/500, Instructions for use. NIBSC / Health Protection Agency. 1989. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-03. Retrieved 2011-03-21.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Canadian Society of Clinical Chemists (Dec 1992). "Canadian Society of Clinical Chemists position paper: standardization of selected polypeptide hormone measurements". Clinical Biochemistry. 25 (6): 415–24. doi:10.1016/0009-9120(92)90030-V. PMID 1477965.
^ Jump up to: a b Gaines Das RE, Cotes PM (Jan 1979). "International Reference Preparation of human prolactin for immunoassay: definition of the International Unit, report of a collaborative study and comparison of estimates of human prolactin made in various laboratories". The Journal of Endocrinology. 80 (1): 157–68. doi:10.1677/joe.0.0800157. PMID 429949.
^ Jump up to: a b "WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization" (PDF). Thirty-fifth Report, WHO Technical Report Series. World Health Organization. 1985. Retrieved 2011-03-21.
^ Jump up to: a b c "WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization" (PDF). Thirty-seventh Report, WHO Technical Report Series. World Health Organization. 1987. Retrieved 2011-03-21.
^ Jump up to: a b Bangham DR, Mussett MV, Stack-Dunne MP (1963). "THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL STANDARD FOR PROLACTIN". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 29 (6): 721–8. PMC 2555104  . PMID 14107744.
^ Jump up to: a b Kauppila A, Martikainen H, Puistola U, Reinilä M, Rönnberg L (Mar 1988). "Hypoprolactinemia and ovarian function". Fertility and Sterility. 49 (3): 437–41. doi:10.1016/s0015-0282(16)59769-6. PMID 3342895.
^ Jump up to: a b Schwärzler P, Untergasser G, Hermann M, Dirnhofer S, Abendstein B, Berger P (Oct 1997). "Prolactin gene expression and prolactin protein in premenopausal and postmenopausal human ovaries". Fertility and Sterility. 68 (4): 696–701. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(97)00320-8. PMID 9341613.
^ Jump up to: a b Corona G, Mannucci E, Jannini EA, Lotti F, Ricca V, Monami M, Boddi V, Bandini E, Balercia G, Forti G, Maggi M (May 2009). "Hypoprolactinemia: a new clinical syndrome in patients with sexual dysfunction". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 6 (5): 1457–66. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.01206.x. PMID 19210705.
^ Jump up to: a b Gonzales GF, Velasquez G, Garcia-Hjarles M (1989). "Hypoprolactinemia as related to seminal quality and serum testosterone". Archives of Andrology. 23 (3): 259–65. doi:10.3109/01485018908986849. PMID 2619414.
^ Jump up to: a b Ufearo CS, Orisakwe OE (Sep 1995). "Restoration of normal sperm characteristics in hypoprolactinemic infertile men treated with metoclopramide and exogenous human prolactin". Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 58 (3): 354–9. doi:10.1016/0009-9236(95)90253-8. PMID 7554710.
^ Jump up to: a b Table 2 in Beltran L, Fahie-Wilson MN, McKenna TJ, Kavanagh L, Smith TP (Oct 2008). "Serum total prolactin and monomeric prolactin reference intervals determined by precipitation with polyethylene glycol: evaluation and validation on common immunoassay platforms". Clinical Chemistry. 54 (10): 1673–81. doi:10.1373/clinchem.2008.105312. PMID 18719199.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Prolaktin Archived 28 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. at medical.siemens.com—reference ranges as determined from the IMMULITE assay method
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l The AIA essay values are also from Table 2 in Beltran 2008, like the other values, but it uses a different conversion factor of 27.0 mIU/L per µg/L, taken from the second international standard, IS 83/562).
Jump up ^ Melmed S, Kleinberg D 2008 Anterior pituitary. 1n: Kronenberg HM, Melmed S, Polonsky KS, Larsen PR, eds. Willams textbook of endocrinology. 11th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 185-261
Jump up ^ Amir LH (2001). "Maternal smoking and reduced duration of breastfeeding: a review of possible mechanisms". Early Human Development. 64 (1): 45–67. doi:10.1016/S0378-3782(01)00170-0. PMID 11408108.
Jump up ^ Amir LH, Donath SM (2002). "Does maternal smoking have a negative physiological effect on breastfeeding? The epidemiological evidence". Birth (Berkeley, Calif.). 29 (2): 112–23. doi:10.1046/j.1523-536X.2002.00152.x. PMID 12000412.
^ Jump up to: a b Coutts RT, Smail GA (12 May 2014). Polysaccharides Peptides and Proteins: Pharmaceutical Monographs. Elsevier. pp. 153–. ISBN 978-1-4831-9612-1.
Jump up ^ D.F. Horrobin (6 December 2012). Prolactin: Physiology and Clinical Significance. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 13–. ISBN 978-94-010-9695-9.
Jump up ^ Martin H. Johnson (14 December 2012). Essential Reproduction. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 40–. ISBN 978-1-118-42388-2.
Jump up ^ Jan Riordan (January 2005). Breastfeeding and Human Lactation. Jones & Bartlett Learning. pp. 468–. ISBN 978-0-7637-4585-1.
External links[edit]
Pathophysiology of Endocrine System—Prolactin at colostate.edu
MedlinePlus Encyclopedia Prolactin
Prolactin - Lab Tests Online
med/1098 at eMedicine—"Hyperprolactinemia"
med/1914 at eMedicine—"Prolactin Deficiency"
[1] - "Endocrine Society Guidelines"
[show]
v
t
e
Hormones
Endocrine
glands
Hypothalamic-
pituitary
Hypothalamus
GnRH
TRH
Dopamine
CRH
GHRH
Somatostatin (GHIH)
MCH
Posterior pituitary
Oxytocin
Vasopressin
Anterior pituitary
FSH
LH
TSH
Prolactin
POMC
CLIP
ACTH
MSH
Endorphins
Lipotropin
GH
Adrenal axis
Adrenal cortex
aldosterone
cortisol
cortisone
DHEA
DHEA-S
androstenedione
Adrenal medulla
epinephrine
norepinephrine
Thyroid
Thyroid hormone
T3
T4
Calcitonin
Thyroid axis
Parathyroid
PTH
Gonadal axis
Testis
testosterone
AMH
inhibin
Ovary
estradiol
progesterone
activin and inhibin
relaxin
Placenta
hCG
HPL
estrogen
progesterone
Pancreas
glucagon
insulin
amylin
somatostatin
pancreatic polypeptide
Pineal gland
melatonin
N,N-dimethyltryptamine
5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine
Other
Thymus
Thymosins
Thymosin α1
Beta thymosins
Thymopoietin
Thymulin
Digestive system
Stomach
gastrin
ghrelin
Duodenum
CCK
Incretins
GIP
GLP-1
secretin
motilin
VIP
Ileum
enteroglucagon
peptide YY
Liver/other
Insulin-like growth factor
IGF-1
IGF-2
Adipose tissue
leptin
adiponectin
resistin
Skeleton
Osteocalcin
Kidney
renin
EPO
calcitriol
prostaglandin
Heart
Natriuretic peptide
ANP
BNP
[show]
v
t
e
Amyloidosis (E85, 277.3)
Common amyloid forming proteins
AA
ATTR
Aβ2M
AL
Aβ/APP
AIAPP
ACal
APro
AANF
ACys
ABri
Systemic amyloidosis
AL amyloidosis
AA amyloidosis
Aβ2M/Haemodialysis-associated
AGel/Finnish type
AA/Familial Mediterranean fever
ATTR/Transthyretin-related hereditary
Organ-limited amyloidosis
Heart
AANF/Isolated atrial
Brain
Familial amyloid neuropathy
ACys+ABri/Cerebral amyloid angiopathy
Aβ/Alzheimer's disease
Kidney
AApoA1+AFib+ALys/Familial renal
Skin
Primary cutaneous amyloidosis
Amyloid purpura
Endocrine
Thyroid
ACal/Medullary thyroid cancer
Pituitary
APro/Prolactinoma
Pancreas
AIAPP/Insulinoma
AIAPP/Diabetes mellitus type 2
[show]
v
t
e
Signaling peptide/protein receptor modulators
Adiponectin
AdipoR1
Agonists: Peptide: Adiponectin
ADP-355
ADP-399; Non-peptide: AdipoRon
(–)-Arctigenin
Arctiin
Gramine
Matairesinol
Antagonists: Peptide: ADP-400
AdipoR2
Agonists: Peptide: Adiponectin
ADP-355
ADP-399; Non-peptide: AdipoRon
Deoxyschizandrin
Parthenolide
Syringing
Taxifoliol
Antagonists: Peptide: ADP-400
Angiotensin
See here instead.
Bradykinin
Agonists: Bradykinin
Kallidin
Antagonists: FR-173657
Icatibant
LF22-0542
CGRP
Agonists: Amylin
CGRP
Pramlintide
Antagonists: Atogepant
BI 44370 TA
CGRP (8-37)
MK-3207
Olcegepant
Rimegepant
SB-268262
Telcagepant
Ubrogepant
Antibodies: Eptinezumab
Erenumab
Fremanezumab
Galcanezumab
Cholecystokinin
CCKA
Agonists: Cholecystokinin
Antagonists: Amiglumide
Asperlicin
Devazepide
Dexloxiglumide
Lintitript
Lorglumide
Loxiglumide
Pranazepide
Proglumide
Tarazepide
Tomoglumide
CCKB
Agonists: Cholecystokinin
CCK-4
Gastrin
Pentagastrin (CCK-5)
Antagonists: Ceclazepide
CI-988 (PD-134308)
Itriglumide
L-365,360
Netazepide
Proglumide
Spiroglumide
Unsorted
Antagonists: Nastorazepide
CRH
CRF1
Agonists: Cortagine
Corticorelin
Corticotropin releasing hormone
Sauvagine
Stressin I
Urocortin
Antagonists: Antalarmin
Astressin-B
CP-154,526
Emicerfont
Hypericin
LWH-234
NBI-27914
Pexacerfont
R-121919
TS-041
Verucerfont
CRF2
Agonists: Corticorelin
Corticotropin releasing hormone
Sauvagine
Urocortin
Antagonists: Astressin-B
Cytokine
See here instead.
Endothelin
Agonists: Endothelin 1
Endothelin 2
Endothelin 3
IRL-1620
Antagonists: A-192621
ACT-132577
Ambrisentan
Aprocitentan
Atrasentan
Avosentan
Bosentan
BQ-123
BQ-788
Clazosentan
Darusentan
Edonentan
Enrasentan
Fandosentan
Feloprentan
Macitentan
Nebentan
Sitaxentan
Sparsentan
Tezosentan
Zibotentan
Galanin
GAL1
Agonists: Galanin
Galanin (1-15)
Galanin-like peptide
Galmic
Galnon
NAX 810-2
Antagonists: C7
Dithiepine-1,1,4,4-tetroxide
Galantide (M15)
M32
M35
M40
SCH-202596
GAL2
Agonists: Galanin
Galanin (1-15)
Galanin (2-11)
Galanin-like peptide
Galmic
Galnon
J18
NAX 810-2
Antagonists: C7
Galantide (M15)
M32
M35
M40
M871
GAL3
Agonists: Galanin
Galanin (1-15)
Galmic
Galnon
Antagonists: C7
Galantide (M15)
GalR3ant
HT-2157
M32
M35
M40
SNAP-37889
SNAP-398299
Ghrelin/GHS
See here instead.
GH
See here instead.
GHRH
See here instead.
GLP
GLP-1
Agonists: Albiglutide
Beinaglutide
Dulaglutide
Efpeglenatide
Exenatide
GLP-1
Langlenatide
Liraglutide
Lixisenatide
Oxyntomodulin
Semaglutide
Taspoglutide
GLP-2
Agonists: Apraglutide
Elsiglutide
Glepaglutide
GLP-2
Teduglutide
Others
Propeptides: Preproglucagon
Proglucagon
Glucagon
Agonists: Dasiglucagon
Glucagon
Oxyntomodulin
Antagonists: Adomeglivant
L-168,049
LGD-6972
Propeptides: Preproglucagon
Proglucagon
GnRH
See here instead.
Gonadotropin
See here instead.
Growth factor
See here instead.
Insulin
Agonists: Chaetochromin (4548-G05)
Insulin-like growth factor 1
Insulin-like growth factor 2
Insulin
Insulin aspart
Insulin degludec
Insulin detemir
Insulin glargine
Insulin glulisine
Insulin lispro
Mecasermin
Mecasermin rinfabate
Antagonists: BMS-754807
S661
S961
Kinase inhibitors: Linsitinib
Antibodies: Xentuzumab (against IGF-1 and IGF-2)
Kisspeptin
Agonists: Kisspeptin
Kisspeptin-10
Antagonists: Kisspeptin-234
Leptin
Agonists: Leptin
Metreleptin
MCH
MCH1
Agonists: Melanin concentrating hormone
Antagonists: ATC-0065
ATC-0175
GW-803430
NGD-4715
SNAP-7941
SNAP-94847
MCH2
Agonists: Melanin concentrating hormone
Melanocortin
See here instead.
Neuropeptide FF
Agonists: Neuropeptide AF
Neuropeptide FF
Neuropeptide SF (RFRP-1)
Neuropeptide VF (RFRP-3)
Antagonists: BIBP-3226
RF9
Neuropeptide S
Agonists: Neuropeptide S
Antagonists: ML-154
SHA-68
Neuropeptide Y
Y1
Agonists: Neuropeptide Y
Peptide YY
Antagonists: BIBO-3304
BIBP-3226
BVD-10
GR-231118
PD-160170
Y2
Agonists: 2-Thiouridine 5'-triphosphate
Neuropeptide Y
Neuropeptide Y (13-36)
Peptide YY
Peptide YY (3-36)
Antagonists: BIIE-0246
JNJ-5207787
SF-11
Y4
Agonists: GR-231118
Neuropeptide Y
Pancreatic polypeptide
Peptide YY
Antagonists: UR-AK49
Y5
Agonists: BWX-46
Neuropeptide Y
Peptide YY
Antagonists: CGP-71683
FMS-586
L-152,804
Lu AA-33810
MK-0557
NTNCB
Velneperit (S-2367)
Neurotensin
NTS1
Agonists: Neurotensin
Neuromedin N
Antagonists: Meclinertant
SR-142948
NTS2
Agonists: Neurotensin
Antagonists: Levocabastine
SR-142948
Opioid
See here instead.
Orexin
OX1
Agonists: Orexin (A, B)
Antagonists: ACT-335827
ACT-462206
Almorexant
Filorexant
Lemborexant
SB-334867
SB-408124
SB-649868
Suvorexant
TCS-1102
OX2
Agonists: Orexin (A, B)
SB-668875
Antagonists: ACT-335827
ACT-462206
Almorexant
EMPA
Filorexant
JNJ-10397049
Lemborexant
MK-1064
SB-649868
Seltorexant
Suvorexant
TCS-1102
TCS-OX2-29
Oxytocin
See here instead.
Prolactin
Agonists: Growth hormone
Human placental lactogen
Placental growth hormone (growth hormone variant)
Prolactin
S179D-hPRL
Somatotropin
Antagonists: Δ1–9-G129R-hPRL
Δ1–14-G129R-hPRL
G120K-hGH
G129R-hPRL
Prolactin modulators: Prolactin inhibitors: D2 receptor agonists (e.g., bromocriptine, cabergoline); Prolactin releasers: D2 receptor antagonists (e.g., domperidone, metoclopramide, risperidone)
Estrogens (e.g., estradiol)
Progestogens (e.g., progesterone)
PTH
Agonists: Abaloparatide
Parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP)
Semparatide
Teriparatide
Relaxin
Agonists: Insulin-like factor 3
Relaxin (1, 2, 3)
Serelaxin
Somatostatin
See here instead.
Tachykinin
See here instead.
TRH
Agonists: Azetirelin
Fertirelin
Montirelin
Orotirelin
Posatirelin
Protirelin
Rovatirelin
Taltirelin
TRH (TRF)
TSH
Agonists: Thyrotropin alfa
TSH (thyrotropin)
Vasopressin
See here instead.
VIP/PACAP
VIPR1
Agonists: Peptide: Bay 55-9837
LBT-3393
PACAP
VIP
VIPR2
Agonists: Peptide: LBT-3627
PACAP
VIP
PAC1
Agonists: PACAP
PACAP (1-27)
PACAP (1-38)
Antagonists: PACAP (6-38)
Unsorted
PHI
PHM
PHV
Others
Endogenous: Adrenomedullin
Apelin
Asprosin
Bombesin
Calcitonin
Carnosine
CART
CLIP
DSIP
Enteroglucagon
Formyl peptide
GALP
GIP
GRP
Integrin ligands (collagens, fibrinogen, fibronectin, laminins, ICAM-1, ICAM-2, osteopontin, VCAM-1, vitronectin)
Kininogens
Motilin
Natriuretic peptides (ANP, BNP, CNP, urodilatin)
Nesfatin-1
Neuromedin B
Neuromedin N
Neuromedin S
Neuromedin U
Obestatin
Osteocalcin
Resistin
Secretin
Thymopoietin
Thymosins
Thymulin
Urotensin-II
VGF
Exogenous: Lifitegrast (LFA-1 antagonist)
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prolactin&oldid=831818581"
Categories:
Genes on human chromosome 6
Peptide hormones
Anterior pituitary hormones
Breastfeeding
Hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-prolactin axis
Hormones of the pregnant female
Human hormones
Human female endocrine system
Hidden categories:
CS1 errors: chapter ignored
Webarchive template wayback links
Use dmy dates from December 2017
Use American English from December 2017
All Wikipedia articles written in American English
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2012
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017
All pages needing factual verification
Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from July 2014
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Български
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Deutsch
ދިވެހިބަސް
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
پښتو
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Shqip
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
中文
39 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 22 March 2018, at 10:12.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: th

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

value: td

attrs: href title

attrs: rowspan style

attrs: rel class href

value: span

values:
/wiki/Chromosome_6_(human)
mw-redirect
Chromosome 6 (human)

values:
/wiki/File:HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg
image
Genomic location for PRL

values: position: absolute; left: 32.988157706218px; top: 2px; padding: 0;

attrs: alt src width height data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/File:Red_rectangle_2x18.png
image
Genomic location for PRL

values: position: absolute; left: 39px; top: 19px; padding: 0;

values:
center
position: relative; width: 300px;

values: position: absolute; left: 60.698191055305px; top: 2px; padding: 0;

values: position: absolute; left: 66.7px; top: 19px; padding: 0;

values:
nofollow
http://amigo.geneontology.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://www.ebi.ac.uk/QuickGO/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/P01236

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/P06879

values:
/wiki/D2_receptor
mw-redirect
D2 receptor

values:
/wiki/Thyrotropin-releasing_factor
mw-redirect
Thyrotropin-releasing factor

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources in the body of the article. (February 2012)

values:
/wiki/Maternal_behavior
mw-redirect
Maternal behavior

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Leydig_cells
mw-redirect
Leydig cells

values:
/wiki/Oligodendrocyte_precursor_cell
mw-redirect
Oligodendrocyte precursor cell

values:
/wiki/Peptide_histidine_isoleucine
mw-redirect
Peptide histidine isoleucine

values: The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (July 2014)

values:
/wiki/Posterior_pituitary_gland
mw-redirect
Posterior pituitary gland

values:
/wiki/Epileptic_seizures
mw-redirect
Epileptic seizures

values:
/wiki/Stress_(psychological)
mw-redirect
Stress (psychological)

values:
/wiki/Disulfide_bond
mw-redirect
Disulfide bond

values:
/wiki/Molecular_weight
mw-redirect
Molecular weight

values:
/wiki/JAK-STAT_pathway
mw-redirect
JAK-STAT pathway

values:
/wiki/Mitogen-activated_protein_kinases
mw-redirect
Mitogen-activated protein kinases

values:
/wiki/Sex_hormone
mw-redirect
Sex hormone

values: Edit section: Units and unit conversions

values: WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization

values: position: absolute; background-color: rgb(206, 223, 242); width:3.7em; height: 1.25em; margin: 0 0 0 0; z-index: 0;

values: position: absolute; height:1.25em; width: 35em; padding: 0 0 0 2em; z-index: 10;

values: position: absolute; background-color: rgb(206, 223, 242); width:4.3em; height: 1.25em; margin: 0 0 0 0; z-index: 0;

values: position: absolute; background-color: rgb(206, 223, 242); width:5.3em; height: 1.25em; margin: 0 0 0 0; z-index: 0;

values: position: absolute; background-color: rgb(206, 223, 242); width:4em; height: 1.25em; margin: 0 0 0 0; z-index: 0;

values: position: absolute; background-color: rgb(206, 223, 242); width:5em; height: 1.25em; margin: 0 0 0 0; z-index: 0;

values: position: absolute; background-color: rgb(206, 223, 242); width:15.2em; height: 1.25em; margin: 0 0 0 0; z-index: 0;

values: position: absolute; background-color: rgb(206, 223, 242); width:35em; height: 1.25em; margin: 0 0 0 0; z-index: 0;

values: position: absolute; background-color: rgb(206, 223, 242); width:2.8em; height: 1.25em; margin: 0 0 0 0; z-index: 0;

values: position: absolute; background-color: rgb(206, 223, 242); width:2.2em; height: 1.25em; margin: 0 0 0 0; z-index: 0;

values: position: absolute; background-color: rgb(206, 223, 242); width:1.9em; height: 1.25em; margin: 0 0 0 0; z-index: 0;

values: position: absolute; background-color: rgb(206, 223, 242); width:2.1em; height: 1.25em; margin: 0 0 0 0; z-index: 0;

values: border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:#c0c0c0; background-color:#fdfdfd; text-align:left;

values:
/wiki/Cholinergic_agonist
mw-redirect
Cholinergic agonist

values:
/wiki/Oral_contraceptive
mw-redirect
Oral contraceptive

values:
/wiki/Rathke%27s_cyst
mw-redirect
Rathke's cyst

values:
/wiki/Lymphocytic_hypophysitis
mw-redirect
Lymphocytic hypophysitis

values: Macroprolactinemia (page does not exist)

values: Plurihumoral adenoma (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Herpes_Zoster
mw-redirect
Herpes Zoster

values:
/wiki/Renal_failure
mw-redirect
Renal failure

values:
/wiki/Polycystic_ovarian_disease
mw-redirect
Polycystic ovarian disease

values:
/wiki/Thyroid_hormone
mw-redirect
Thyroid hormone

values: border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; border: 0; background:transparent; width:100%;

values:
/wiki/Seminal_vesicles
mw-redirect
Seminal vesicles

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1210%2Fer.19.3.225

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9626554

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1210%2Fjcem-31-6-611

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5483096

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01534871

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2567059

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1210%2Fendo.139.10.6243

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9751488

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1210%2Fen.2007-0403

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17569755

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolehr%2F8.7.606

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12087074

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17314279

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.1.06685

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17088411

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1076647

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12511652

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bbi.2011.07.233

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21820505

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1210%2Fedrv-17-6-639

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8969972

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fbies.20468

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16998840

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1210%2Fjc.2002-021255

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12574200

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ygcen.2004.12.024

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15935152

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1136%2Fpgmj.2004.029785

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16085740

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1026229810876

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14674722

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mehy.2004.11.044

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15780482

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.89.16.7713

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1502189

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1210%2Fjcem-46-1-119

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/752015

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1210%2Fjcem-47-6-1273

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/263349

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1483294

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8291454

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecl.2007.10.013

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18226731

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.1.06560

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16522738

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15347871

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.0.1210157

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2715755

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1477965

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.0.0800157

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/429949

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14107744

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3342895

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9341613

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19210705

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2619414

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7554710

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18719199

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11408108

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12000412

values:
/wiki/Hypothalamic-pituitary_hormone
mw-redirect
Hypothalamic-pituitary hormone

values:
/wiki/Growth_hormone_releasing_hormone
mw-redirect
Growth hormone releasing hormone

values:
/wiki/Melanin_concentrating_hormone
mw-redirect
Melanin concentrating hormone

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: ICD-10 Chapter IV: Endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases

values: List of ICD-9 codes 240–279: endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases, and immunity disorders

values:
/wiki/Beta_amyloid
mw-redirect
Beta amyloid

values:
/wiki/Finnish_type_amyloidosis
mw-redirect
Finnish type amyloidosis

values:
/wiki/Human_heart
mw-redirect
Human heart

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Template:Signaling peptide/protein receptor modulators

values: Template talk:Signaling peptide/protein receptor modulators

values:
/wiki/Peptide_receptor
mw-redirect
Peptide receptor

values:
/wiki/Angiotensin_receptor
mw-redirect
Angiotensin receptor

values: Calcitonin gene-related peptide receptor

values: Corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1

values:
/wiki/Corticotropin_releasing_hormone
mw-redirect
Corticotropin releasing hormone

values: Corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 2

values: Dithiepine-1,1,4,4-tetroxide (page does not exist)

values: Template:GH/IGF-1 axis signaling modulators

values:
/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide_1
mw-redirect
Glucagon-like peptide 1

values:
/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide_2
mw-redirect
Glucagon-like peptide 2

values: Template:GnRH and gonadotropin receptor modulators

values: Template:Growth factor receptor modulators

values: Melanin-concentrating hormone receptor 1

values: Melanin-concentrating hormone receptor 2

values: 2-Thiouridine 5'-triphosphate (page does not exist)

values: Neuropeptide Y (13-36) (page does not exist)

values: Template:Oxytocin and vasopressin receptor modulators

values:
/wiki/Placental_growth_hormone
mw-redirect
Placental growth hormone

values:
/wiki/Thyrotropin_alfa
mw-redirect
Thyrotropin alfa

values: Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide

values: Peptide histidine isoleucineamide (page does not exist)

values: Peptide histidine methionineamide (page does not exist)

values: Peptide histidine valine (page does not exist)

values: Cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript

values:
/wiki/Formyl_peptide
mw-redirect
Formyl peptide

values:
/wiki/C-type_natriuretic_peptide
mw-redirect
C-type natriuretic peptide

values: Category:Hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-prolactin axis

values: Category:Hormones of the pregnant female

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Use dmy dates from December 2017

values: Category:Use American English from December 2017

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2012

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017

values: Category:All pages needing factual verification

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from July 2014

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Prolactin
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: برولاكتين – Arabic

values: Пролактин – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolaktin
Prolaktin – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolaktin
Prolaktin – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolaktin
Prolaktin – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values: ޕްރޯލެކްޓިން – Divehi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-dv
display: none;

values: Προλακτίνη – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: پرولاکتین – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Պրոլակտին – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: प्रोलेक्टिन – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolaktin
Prolaktin – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laktogen
Laktogen – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: פרולקטין – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolaktin
Prolaktin – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Пролактин – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values: പ്രോലാക്ടിൻ – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolaktin
Prolaktin – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: پرولاکټين – Pashto

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Пролактин – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolaktin
Prolaktin – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolaktin
Prolaktin – Serbian
sr
sr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolaktin
Prolaktin – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolaktin
Prolaktin – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: புரோலாக்டின் – Tamil

values: โพรแลกติน – Thai

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolaktin
Prolaktin – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values: Пролактин – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Prolactin rootpage-Prolactin skin-vector action-view