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Star Light, Star Bright
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For the science fiction story collection by Alfred Bester, see Star Light, Star Bright (book) and Star Light, Star Bright (short story).
"Star Light, Star Bright"
Nursery rhyme
Published
Late 19th century
"Star Light, Star Bright" is an English language nursery rhyme. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 16339.
Lyrics[edit]
The lyrics usually conform to the following:
Star light, star bright,
The first star I see tonight;
I wish I may, I wish I might,
Have the (this) wish I wish tonight.[1]
Origins[edit]
The superstition of hoping for wishes granted when seeing a shooting or falling star may date back to the ancient world.[2] Wishing on the first star seen may also predate this rhyme, which first began to be recorded in late nineteenth-century America. "Star Light, Star Bright" is also found in Madonna's 1983 single Lucky Star.[3] The song and tradition seem to have reached Britain by the early twentieth century and have since spread worldwide.[2]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ R. Gerlings, Hey, Diddle, Diddle and Other Best-Loved Rhymes (Windmill Books, 2009), p. 32.
^ Jump up to: a b I. Opie and M. Tatem, A Dictionary of Superstitions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 175-6.
Jump up ^ R. Webster, The Encyclopedia of Superstitions (Llewellyn Worldwide, 2008), p. 245.
Children's literature portal
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Chandra X-ray Observatory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Chandra X-ray Observatory
Illustration of Chandra
Names
Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF)
Mission type
X-ray astronomy
Operator
NASA / SAO / CXC
COSPAR ID
1999-040B
SATCAT no.
25867
Website
http://chandra.harvard.edu/
Mission duration
Planned: 5 years
Elapsed: 18 years, 4 months, 28 days
Spacecraft properties
Manufacturer
TRW Inc.
Launch mass
5,860 kg (12,930 lb)[1]
Dry mass
4,790 kg (10,560 lb)[1]
Dimensions
13.8 × 19.5 m (45.3 × 64.0 ft)[2]
Power
2350 W[2]
Start of mission
Launch date
July 23, 1999, 04:31 (1999-07-23UTC04:31Z) UTC
Rocket
Space Shuttle Columbia (STS-93)
Launch site
Kennedy LC-39B
Orbital parameters
Reference system
Geocentric
Regime
Highly elliptical
Semi-major axis
80,795.9 km (50,204.2 mi)
Eccentricity
0.743972
Perigee
14,307.9 km (8,890.5 mi)
Apogee
134,527.6 km (83,591.6 mi)
Inclination
76.7156°
Period
3809.3 min
RAAN
305.3107°
Argument of perigee
267.2574°
Mean anomaly
0.3010°
Mean motion
0.3780 rev/day
Epoch
September 4, 2015, 04:37:54 UTC[3]
Revolution no.
1358
Main telescope
Type
Wolter type 1[4]
Diameter
1.2 m (3.9 ft)[2]
Focal length
10.0 m (32.8 ft)[2]
Collecting area
0.04 m2 (0.43 sq ft)[2]
Wavelengths
X-ray: 0.12–12 nm (0.1–10 keV)[5]
Resolution
0.5 arcsec[2]
[show]Instruments
ACIS
Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer
HRC
High Resolution Camera
HETG
High Energy Transmission Grating
LETG
Low Energy Transmission Grating
Great Observatories
← Compton
Spitzer →
The Chandra X-ray Observatory (CXO), previously known as the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF), is a Flagship-class space observatory launched on STS-93 by NASA on July 23, 1999. Chandra is sensitive to X-ray sources 100 times fainter than any previous X-ray telescope, enabled by the high angular resolution of its mirrors. Since the Earth's atmosphere absorbs the vast majority of X-rays, they are not detectable from Earth-based telescopes; therefore space-based telescopes are required to make these observations. Chandra is an Earth satellite in a 64-hour orbit, and its mission is ongoing as of 2017[update].
Chandra is one of the Great Observatories, along with the Hubble Space Telescope, Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (1991–2000), and the Spitzer Space Telescope. The telescope is named after the Nobel Prize-winning Indian-American astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.[6] Its mission is similar to that of ESA's XMM-Newton spacecraft, also launched in 1999.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Example discoveries
3 Technical description
3.1 Instruments
4 Gallery
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
History[edit]
In 1976 the Chandra X-ray Observatory (called AXAF at the time) was proposed to NASA by Riccardo Giacconi and Harvey Tananbaum. Preliminary work began the following year at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO). In the meantime, in 1978, NASA launched the first imaging X-ray telescope, Einstein (HEAO-2), into orbit. Work continued on the AXAF project throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In 1992, to reduce costs, the spacecraft was redesigned. Four of the twelve planned mirrors were eliminated, as were two of the six scientific instruments. AXAF's planned orbit was changed to an elliptical one, reaching one third of the way to the Moon's at its farthest point. This eliminated the possibility of improvement or repair by the space shuttle but put the observatory above the Earth's radiation belts for most of its orbit. AXAF was assembled and tested by TRW (now Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems) in Redondo Beach, California.
STS-93 launches in 1999
AXAF was renamed Chandra as part of a contest held by NASA in 1998, which drew more than 6,000 submissions worldwide.[7] The contest winners, Jatila van der Veen and Tyrel Johnson (then a high school teacher and high school student, respectively), suggested the name in honor of Nobel Prize–winning Indian-American astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. He is known for his work in determining the maximum mass of white dwarf stars, leading to greater understanding of high energy astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars and black holes.[6] Fittingly, the name Chandra means "moon" in Sanskrit.[8]
Originally scheduled to be launched in December 1998,[7] the spacecraft was delayed several months, eventually being launched in July 1999 by Space Shuttle Columbia during STS-93. At 22,753 kilograms (50,162 lb), it was the heaviest payload ever launched by the shuttle, a consequence of the two-stage Inertial Upper Stage booster rocket system needed to transport the spacecraft to its high orbit.
Chandra has been returning data since the month after it launched. It is operated by the SAO at the Chandra X-ray Center in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with assistance from MIT and Northrop Grumman Space Technology. The ACIS CCDs suffered particle damage during early radiation belt passages. To prevent further damage, the instrument is now removed from the telescope's focal plane during passages.
Although Chandra was initially given an expected lifetime of 5 years, on September 4, 2001 NASA extended its lifetime to 10 years "based on the observatory's outstanding results."[9] Physically Chandra could last much longer. A 2004 study performed at the Chandra X-ray Center indicated that the observatory could last at least 15 years.[10]
In July 2008, the International X-ray Observatory, a joint project between ESA, NASA and JAXA, was proposed as the next major X-ray observatory but was later cancelled.[11] ESA later resurrected the project as the Advanced Telescope for High Energy Astrophysics (ATHENA) with a proposed launch in 2028.[12]
Example discoveries[edit]
Crew of STS-93 with a scale model
The data gathered by Chandra has greatly advanced the field of X-ray astronomy. Here are some examples of discoveries supported by observations from Chandra:
The first light image, of supernova remnant Cassiopeia A, gave astronomers their first glimpse of the compact object at the center of the remnant, probably a neutron star or black hole. (Pavlov, et al., 2000)
In the Crab Nebula, another supernova remnant, Chandra showed a never-before-seen ring around the central pulsar and jets that had only been partially seen by earlier telescopes. (Weisskopf, et al., 2000)
The first X-ray emission was seen from the supermassive black hole, Sagittarius A*, at the center of the Milky Way. (Baganoff, et al., 2001)
Chandra found much more cool gas than expected spiraling into the center of the Andromeda Galaxy.
Pressure fronts were observed in detail for the first time in Abell 2142, where clusters of galaxies are merging.
The earliest images in X-rays of the shock wave of a supernova were taken of SN 1987A.
Chandra showed for the first time the shadow of a small galaxy as it is being cannibalized by a larger one, in an image of Perseus A.
A new type of black hole was discovered in galaxy M82, mid-mass objects purported to be the missing link between stellar-sized black holes and super massive black holes. (Griffiths, et al., 2000)
X-ray emission lines were associated for the first time with a gamma-ray burst, Beethoven Burst GRB 991216. (Piro, et al., 2000)
High school students, using Chandra data, discovered a neutron star in supernova remnant IC 443.[13]
Observations by Chandra and BeppoSAX suggest that gamma-ray bursts occur in star-forming regions.
Chandra data suggested that RX J1856.5-3754 and 3C58, previously thought to be pulsars, might be even denser objects: quark stars. These results are still debated.
Sound waves from violent activity around a super massive black hole were observed in the Perseus Cluster (2003).
CXO image of the brown dwarf TWA 5B
TWA 5B, a brown dwarf, was seen orbiting a binary system of Sun-like stars.
Nearly all stars on the main sequence are X-ray emitters. (Schmitt & Liefke, 2004)
The X-ray shadow of Titan was seen when it transitted the Crab Nebula.
X-ray emissions from materials falling from a protoplanetary disc into a star. (Kastner, et al., 2004)
Hubble constant measured to be 76.9 km/s/Mpc using Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect.
2006 Chandra found strong evidence that dark matter exists by observing super cluster collision
2006 X-ray emitting loops, rings and filaments discovered around a super massive black hole within Messier 87 imply the presence of pressure waves, shock waves and sound waves. The evolution of Messier 87 may have been dramatically affected.[14]
Observations of the Bullet cluster put limits on the cross-section of the self-interaction of dark matter.[15]
"The Hand of God" photograph of PSR B1509-58.
Jupiter's x-rays coming from poles, not auroral ring.[16]
A large halo of hot gas was found surrounding the Milky Way.[17]
Extremely dense and luminous dwarf galaxy M60-UCD1 observed.[18]
On January 5, 2015, NASA reported that CXO observed an X-ray flare 400 times brighter than usual, a record-breaker, from Sagittarius A*, a supermassive black hole in the center of the Milky Way galaxy. The unusual event may have been caused by the breaking apart of an asteroid falling into the black hole or by the entanglement of magnetic field lines within gas flowing into Sagittarius A*, according to astronomers.[19]
In September 2016, it was announced that Chandra had detected X-ray emissions from Pluto, the first detection of X-rays from a Kuiper belt object. Chandra had made the observations in 2014 and 2015, supporting the New Horizons spacecraft for its July 2015 encounter.[20]
Technical description[edit]
Assembly of the telescope
The main mirror of AXAF (Chandra)
HRC flight unit of Chandra
Unlike optical telescopes which possess simple aluminized parabolic surfaces (mirrors), X-ray telescopes generally use a Wolter telescope consisting of nested cylindrical paraboloid and hyperboloid surfaces coated with iridium or gold. X-ray photons would be absorbed by normal mirror surfaces, so mirrors with a low grazing angle are necessary to reflect them. Chandra uses four pairs of nested mirrors, together with their support structure, called the High Resolution Mirror Assembly (HRMA); the mirror substrate is 2 cm-thick glass, with the reflecting surface a 33 nm iridium coating, and the diameters are 65 cm, 87 cm, 99 cm and 123 cm.[21] The thick substrate and particularly careful polishing allowed a very precise optical surface, which is responsible for Chandra's unmatched resolution: between 80% and 95% of the incoming X-ray energy is focused into a one-arcsecond circle. However, the thickness of the substrates limit the proportion of the aperture which is filled, leading to the low collecting area compared to XMM-Newton.
Chandra's highly elliptical orbit allows it to observe continuously for up to 55 hours of its 65-hour orbital period. At its furthest orbital point from Earth, Chandra is one of the most distant Earth-orbiting satellites. This orbit takes it beyond the geostationary satellites and beyond the outer Van Allen belt.[22]
With an angular resolution of 0.5 arcsecond (2.4 µrad), Chandra possesses a resolution over 1000 times better than that of the first orbiting X-ray telescope.
CXO uses mechanical gyroscopes,[23] which are sensors that help determine what direction the telescope is pointed.[24] Other navigation and orientation systems on board CXO include an aspect camera, Earth and Sun sensors, and reaction wheels. It also has two sets of thrusters, one for movement and another for offloading momentum.[24]
Instruments[edit]
The Science Instrument Module (SIM) holds the two focal plane instruments, the Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer (ACIS) and the High Resolution Camera (HRC), moving whichever is called for into position during an observation.
ACIS consists of 10 CCD chips and provides images as well as spectral information of the object observed. It operates in the photon energy range of 0.2–10 keV. HRC has two micro-channel plate components and images over the range of 0.1–10 keV. It also has a time resolution of 16 microseconds. Both of these instruments can be used on their own or in conjunction with one of the observatory's two transmission gratings.
The transmission gratings, which swing into the optical path behind the mirrors, provide Chandra with high resolution spectroscopy. The High Energy Transmission Grating Spectrometer (HETGS) works over 0.4–10 keV and has a spectral resolution of 60–1000. The Low Energy Transmission Grating Spectrometer (LETGS) has a range of 0.09–3 keV and a resolution of 40–2000.
Summary:[25]
High Resolution Camera (HRC)
Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer (ACIS)
High Energy Transmission Grating Spectrometer (HETGS)
Low Energy Transmission Grating Spectrometer (LETGS)
Gallery[edit]
Labeled diagram of CXO
X-Rays from Pluto.
Jupiter in X-ray light.
Tycho Supernova remnant in X-ray light.
SN 2006gy (upper right) and parent galaxy NGC 1260.
CXO orbit as of January 7, 2014.
M31 Core in X-ray light.
PSR B1509-58 - red, green and blue/max energy.
Turbulence may prevent galaxy clusters from cooling.
Bright X-ray flare from Sagittarius A*, supermassive black hole in the Milky Way.[19]
SNR 0519-69.0 - remains of an exploding star in the Large Magellanic Cloud.
Images released to celebrate the International Year of Light 2015.
Cluster of newly formed stars in Orion Nebula.
GK Persei: Nova of 1901.
X-ray light rings from a neutron star in Circinus X-1.
Cygnus X-1, first strong black hole discovered.
See also[edit]
X-ray astronomy portal
Spaceflight portal
AGILE (satellite), an Italian orbital X-ray telescope
Great Observatories program
List of space observatories
NuSTAR
X-ray astronomy
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Chandra X-ray Observatory Quick Facts". Marshall Space Flight Center. Retrieved 2017-09-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Chandra Specifications". NASA/Harvard. Retrieved September 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Chandra X-Ray Observatory - Orbit". Heavens Above. September 3, 2015. Retrieved September 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Chandra X-ray Observatory: Overview". Chandra X-ray Center. Retrieved September 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ Ridpath, Ian (2012). The Dictionary of Astronomy (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-19-960905-5.
^ Jump up to: a b "And the co-winners are.." Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. 1998. Retrieved January 12, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Tucker, Wallace (October 31, 2013). "Tyrel Johnson & Jatila van der Veen - Winners of the Chandra-Naming Contest - Where Are They Now?". Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. Retrieved January 12, 2014.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Mike. "Meaning, origin and history of the name Chandra". Behind the Name.
Jump up ^ "Chandra's Mission Extended to 2009". Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. September 28, 2001.
Jump up ^ Schwartz, Daniel A. (August 2004). "The Development and Scientific Impact of the Chandra X-Ray Observatory". International Journal of Modern Physics D. 13 (7): 1239–1248. arXiv:astro-ph/0402275  . Bibcode:2004IJMPD..13.1239S. doi:10.1142/S0218271804005377.
Jump up ^ "International X-ray Observatory". NASA.gov.
Jump up ^ Howell, Elizabeth (November 1, 2013). "X-ray Space Telescope of the Future Could Launch in 2028". Space.com. Retrieved January 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Students Using NASA and NSF Data Make Stellar Discovery; Win Science Team Competition" (Press release). NASA. December 12, 2000. Release 00-195. Archived from the original on May 10, 2013. Retrieved April 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ Roy, Steve; Watzke, Megan (October 2006). "Chandra Reviews Black Hole Musical: Epic But Off-Key" (Press release). Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
Jump up ^ Madejski, Greg (2005). Recent and Future Observations in the X-ray and Gamma-ray Bands: Chandra, Suzaku, GLAST, and NuSTAR. Astrophysical Sources of High Energy Particles and Radiation. June 20–24, 2005. Torun, Poland. AIP Conference Proceedings. 801. p. 21. arXiv:astro-ph/0512012  . doi:10.1063/1.2141828.
Jump up ^ "Puzzling X-rays from Jupiter". NASA.gov. March 7, 2002.
Jump up ^ Harrington, J. D.; Anderson, Janet; Edmonds, Peter (September 24, 2012). "NASA's Chandra Shows Milky Way is Surrounded by Halo of Hot Gas". NASA.gov.
Jump up ^ "M60-UCD1: An Ultra-Compact Dwarf Galaxy". NASA.gov. September 24, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Chou, Felicia; Anderson, Janet; Watzke, Megan (January 5, 2015). "RELEASE 15-001 - NASA's Chandra Detects Record-Breaking Outburst from Milky Way's Black Hole". NASA. Retrieved January 6, 2015.
Jump up ^ "X-Ray Detection Sheds New Light on Pluto". Applied Physics Laboratory. September 14, 2016. Retrieved November 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ Gaetz, T. J.; Jerius, Diab (January 28, 2005). "The HRMA User's Guide" (PDF). Chandra X-ray Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 10, 2006.
Jump up ^ Gott, J. Richard; Juric, Mario (2006). "Logarithmic Map of the Universe". Princeton University.
Jump up ^ "Technical Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)". James Webb Space Telescope. NASA. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Spacecraft: Motion, Heat, and Energy". Chandra X-ray Observatory. NASA. 17 March 2014. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Science Instruments". Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. Retrieved November 17, 2016.
Further reading[edit]
Griffiths, R. E.; Ptak, A.; Feigelson, E. D.; Garmire, G.; Townsley, L.; Brandt, W. N.; Sambruna, R.; Bregman, J. N. (2000). "Hot plasma and black hole binaries in starburst galaxy M82". Science. 290 (5495): 1325–1328. Bibcode:2000Sci...290.1325G. doi:10.1126/science.290.5495.1325. PMID 11082054.
Pavlov, G. G.; Zavlin, V. E.; Aschenbach, B.; Trumper, J.; Sanwal, D. (2000). "The Compact Central Object in Cassiopeia A: A Neutron Star with Hot Polar Caps or a Black Hole?". The Astrophysical Journal. 531 (1): L53–L56. arXiv:astro-ph/9912024  . Bibcode:2000ApJ...531L..53P. doi:10.1086/312521. PMID 10673413.
Piro, L.; Garmire, G.; Garcia, M.; Stratta, G.; Costa, E.; Feroci, M.; Meszaros, P.; Vietri, M.; Bradt, H.; et al. (2000). "Observation of X-ray lines from a gamma-ray burst (GRB991216): evidence of moving ejecta from the progenitor". Science. 290 (5493): 955–958. arXiv:astro-ph/0011337  . Bibcode:2000Sci...290..955P. doi:10.1126/science.290.5493.955. PMID 11062121.
Weisskopf, M. C.; Hester, J. J.; Tennant, A. F.; Elsner, R. F.; Schulz, N. S.; Marshall, H. L.; Karovska, M.; Nichols, J. S.; Swartz, D. A.; et al. (2000). "Discovery of Spatial and Spectral Structure in the X-Ray Emission from the Crab Nebula". The Astrophysical Journal. 536 (2): L81–L84. arXiv:astro-ph/0003216  . Bibcode:2000ApJ...536L..81W. doi:10.1086/312733. PMID 10859123.
Baganoff, F. K.; Bautz, M. W.; Brandt, W. N.; Chartas, G.; Feigelson, E. D.; Garmire, G. P.; Maeda, Y.; Morris, M.; Ricker, G. R.; et al. (2001). "Rapid X-ray flaring from the direction of the supermassive black hole at the Galactic Centre". Nature. 413 (6851): 45–48. arXiv:astro-ph/0109367  . Bibcode:2001Natur.413...45B. doi:10.1038/35092510. PMID 11544519.
Kastner, J. H.; Richmond, M.; Grosso, N.; Weintraub, D. A.; Simon, T.; Frank, A.; Hamaguchi, K.; Ozawa, H.; Henden, A. (2004). "An X-ray outburst from the rapidly accreting young star that illuminates McNeil's nebula". Nature. 430 (6998): 429–431. arXiv:astro-ph/0408332  . Bibcode:2004Natur.430..429K. doi:10.1038/nature02747. PMID 15269761.
Swartz, Douglas A.; Wolk, Scott J.; Fruscione, Antonella (April 20, 2010). "Chandra's first decade of discovery". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (16): 7127–7134. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.7127S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0914464107. PMC 2867717  . PMID 20406906.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chandra X-ray Observatory.
Chandra X-ray Observatory at NASA.gov
Chandra X-ray Observatory at Harvard.edu
Chandra podcast (2010) by Astronomy Cast
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Hakucho (CORSA-ｂ) (1979–85)
HALCA (MUSES-B) (1997–2005)
HEAO-1 (1977–79)
Herschel (2009–13)
Hinotori (Astro-A) (1981–91)
HEAO-2 (Einstein Obs.) (1978–82)
HEAO-3 (1979–81)
HETE-2 (2000–07?)
Hipparcos (1989–93)
IUE (1978–96)
IRAS (1983)
IRTS (1995–96)
ISO (1996–98)
IXAE (1996–2004)
Kristall (1990–2001)
LEGRI (1997–2002)
LISA Pathfinder (2015–17)
MSX (1996–97)
OAO-2 (1968–73)
OAO-3 (Copernicus) (1972–81)
Orion 1/2 (1971/1973)
Planck (2009–13)
RELIKT-1 (1983–84)
ROSAT (1990–99)
RXTE (1995–2012)
SAMPEX (1992–2004)
SAS-B (1972–73)
SAS-C (1975–79)
Suzaku (Astro-EII) (2005–15)
Taiyo (SRATS) (1975-80)
Tenma (Astro-B) (1983–1985)
Uhuru (1970–73)
WMAP (2001–10)
WISE (first mission: 2009–11)
Yokoh (Solar-A) (1991–2001)
Hibernating
(Mission completed)
SWAS (1998–2005)
TRACE (1998–2010)
Lost
OAO-1/OAO-B (1966/1970)
CORSA (1976)
ABRIXAS (1999)
HETE (1996)
WIRE (1999)
Astro-E (2000)
Tsubame (2014–)
Hitomi (Astro-H) (2016)
Cancelled
Astro-G
Constellation-X
Darwin
Destiny
EChO
Eddington
FAME
GEMS
IXO
JDEM
LOFT
SIM & SIMlite
SNAP
TAUVEX
TPF
XEUS
See also
Great Observatories program
List of space telescopes
List of proposed space observatories
List of X-ray space telescopes
Category
[show]
v
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← 1998 · Orbital launches in 1999 · 2000 →
Mars Polar Lander | ROCSAT-1 | Stardust | Globalstar 23 · Globalstar 36 · Globalstar 38 · Globalstar 40 | Telstar 6 | JCSAT-6 | Soyuz TM-29 | ARGOS · Ørsted · SUNSAT | Arabsat 3A · Skynet 4E | Globus No.15 | Wide Field Infrared Explorer | Globalstar 23 · Globalstar 37 · Globalstar 41 · Globalstar 46 | AsiaSat 3S | DemoSat | Progress M-41 · Sputnik 99 | INSAT-2E | USA-142 | Eutelsat W3 | Globalstar 19 · Globalstar 42 · Globalstar 44 · Globalstar 45 | Landsat 7 | UoSAT-12 | Ikonos-1 | ABRIXAS · Megsat-0 | USA-143 | Orion 3 | Feng Yun 1C · Shijian 5 | TERRIERS · MUBLCOM | Nimiq 1 | USA-144 | Oceansat-1 · Kitsat-3 · DLR-Tubsat | STS-96 (Starshine 1) | Globalstar 25 · Globalstar 47 · Globalstar 49 · Globalstar 52 | Iridium 14A · Iridium 21A | Astra 1H | QuikSCAT | FUSE | Gran' No.45 | Molniya 3-50 | Globalstar 30 · Globalstar 32 · Globalstar 35 · Globalstar 51 | Progress M-42 | Okean-O No.1 | STS-93 (Chandra) | Globalstar 26 · Globalstar 28 · Globalstar 43 · Globalstar 48 | Telkom 1 · Globalstar 24 · Globalstar 27 · Globalstar 53 · Globalstar 54 | Kosmos 2365 | Kosmos 2366 | Koreasat 3 | Yamal-101 · Yamal-102 | Foton 12 | Globalstar 33 · Globalstar 50 · Globalstar 55 · Globalstar 58 | EchoStar V | Ikonos 2 | Telstar 7 | LMI-1 | Resurs F-1M | USA-145 | DirecTV-1R | CBERS-1 · SACI-1 | Globalstar 31 · Globalstar 56 · Globalstar 57 · Globalstar 59 | Orion 2 | Ekspress A1 | GE-4 | MTSAT-1 | Shenzhou 1 | Globalstar 29 · Globalstar 34 · Globalstar 39 · Globalstar 61 | USA-146 | Hélios 1B · Clémentine | Orbcomm FM30 · Orbcomm FM31 · Orbcomm FM32 · Orbcomm FM33 · Orbcomm FM34 · Orbcomm FM35 · Orbcomm FM36 | XMM-Newton | SACI-2 | USA-147 | Terra | STS-103 | Arirang-1 · ACRIMSAT · Millennial | Galaxy 11 | Kosmos 2367 | Kosmos 2368
Payloads are separated by bullets ( · ), launches by pipes ( | ). Manned flights are indicated in bold text. Uncatalogued launch failures are listed in italics. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are denoted in brackets.
[show]
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