text:
List of disasters by cost
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This article is incomplete. Please help to improve it, or discuss the issue on the talk page. (September 2017)
Disasters can be particularly notable for the high costs associated with responding to and recovering from them.
This page lists the economic costs of relatively recent disasters.
2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Japan: estimated more than $300 billion.[1]
Great Hanshin earthquake, Japan, January 1995: $200 billion.[2]
2008 Sichuan earthquake, China, $148 billion[3]
Hurricane Katrina, United States, August 2005: insurances compensated $45 billion. Total property damage is estimated at around $118 billion. [4]
Hurricane Sandy, multiple nations, October 2012, $75 billion.[5]
Hurricane Harvey, United States, August 2017, estimated $70[6] - $190 billion.[7]
Deepwater Horizon oil spill, Gulf of Mexico, 2010: Between $60 and $100 billion.[8]
Hurricane Irma, multiple nations, August to September 2017, estimated upwards of $62 billion.
1988–89 North American drought: $60 billion.[9]
2011 Thailand floods: $45.7 billion (World Bank estimate of total economic damages and losses).[10]
2011 Christchurch earthquake, New Zealand, $40 billion.[11]
Hurricane Ike, multiple nations, September 2008, $37.5 billion.[12]
Hurricane Wilma, multiple nations, October 2005, $29.4 billion.[13][14][15][16]
2004 Chūetsu earthquake, Japan, October 2004: $28 billion.[17][18]
Hurricane Andrew, United States, August 1992: $25 billion.[19]
Hurricane Ivan, multiple nations, September 2004: $23.3 billion.[20][21][22]
September 11 terrorist attacks, 2001: $20.7 billion.
1994 Northridge earthquake, CA, United States, January 1994: $20 billion.[23]
1999 İzmit earthquake, Turkey, August 1999: $20 billion.[17][24]
Hurricane Irene, multiple nations, August 2011: $16.6 billion.[25][26][27]
Hurricane Charley, multiple nations, August 2004: $16.3 billion.[28]
2012 Northern Italy earthquakes, Emilia, Italy, May 2012: $15.8 billion.[29]
Hurricane Matthew, multiple nations, September-October 2016: $15.09 billion.[30][31]
Chernobyl disaster, 1986: $15 billion estimated cost of direct loss. It is estimated that the damages could accumulate to €235 billion for Ukraine and €201 billion for Belarus in the thirty years following the accident.
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, many nations: $15 billion.[32]
Hurricane Rita, multiple nations, September 2005: $12 billion.[33]
Hurricane Hugo, multiple nations, September 1989: $10 billion.[20][34]
Typhoon Mireille, Japan, September-October 1991: $10 billion.[35]
Hurricane Frances, multiple nations, August-September 2004: $9.8 billion.[20][21][36][37]
Hurricane Georges, multiple nations, September-October 1998: $9.72 billion.[20][38][39][40][41][42]
Tropical Storm Allison, United States, June 2001: $9 billion.[20][43]
2016 Fort McMurray Wildfire, Canada, estimated $8.86 - 9.9 billion. (Direct and indirect costs) [44][45]
2010 Haiti earthquake, Haiti, estimated $7.8 - 8.5 billion.[46]
Hurricane Jeanne, multiple nations, September 2004: $7.66 billion.[20][21][47][48]
Hurricane Gilbert, multiple nations, September 1988: $7.1 billion.[49]
Armero tragedy, Colombia, 1985, $7 billion.[50]
Hurricane Floyd, multiple nations, September 1999: $6.9 billion.[20][51]
Hurricane Gustav, multiple nations, August-September 2008: $6.61 billion.[20][52]
Hurricane Mitch, multiple nations, October-November 1998: $6.2 billion.[53][54][55]
Hurricane Isabel, United States, September 2003: $5.37 billion.[20][56]
Hurricane Opal, multiple nations, September-October 1995: $5.1 billion.[20][57]
Hurricane Manuel, Mexico, September 2013: $4.2 billion.[58]
2013 Alberta floods, Canada, 2013, estimated $3 billion - $5 billion.[59]
2011 Joplin tornado, Missouri, May 2011: $2.8 billion.[60]
Cyclone Tracy, Darwin, Australia, December 1974: $2.64 billion.[61]
Exxon Valdez oil spill, 1989: The clean-up of the oil spill cost an estimated $2.5 billion; recovery for settlements, $1.1 billion; and the economic loss (fisheries, tourism, etc.) suffered due to the damage to the Alaskan ecosystem was estimated at $2.8 billion.
Cedar Fire, United States, 2003, $2 billion.
AZF chemical plant explosion, Toulouse, France, 2001: €1.8 billion.
2011 Slave Lake wildfire, Canada, $1.8 billion.[62]
The costs of disasters vary considerably depending on a range of factors, such as the geographical location where they occur. When a disaster occurs in a densely populated area in a wealthy country, the financial damage might be huge, but when a comparable disaster occurs in a densely populated area in a poorer country, the actual financial damage might be relatively small, in part due to a lack of insurance. For example, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, with a death toll of over 230,000 people, cost a 'mere' $15 billion,[32] whereas in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in which 11 people died, the damages were six-fold.
Disasters portal
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ http://cidbimena.desastres.hn/docum/crid/Abril2006/CD2/pdf/eng/doc8691/doc8691-a.pdf
Jump up ^ "FACTBOX-China's recent measures to spur growth". News.alibaba.com. November 6, 2008. Retrieved November 2, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Nuclear industry: Face your demons - towards full liability for nuclear power plant operators" (PDF). Friends of the Earth Europe. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Hurricane/Post-Tropical Cyclone Sandy, October 22–29, 2012 (PDF) (Service Assessment). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. May 2013. p. 10. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 2, 2013. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ Don Lee (September 1, 2017). "Harvey is likely to be the second-most costly natural disaster in U.S. history". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ Doyle Rice (August 30, 2017). "Harvey to be costliest natural disaster in U.S. history, with an estimated cost of $190 billion". USA Today.
Jump up ^ http://www.rff.org/Documents/RFF-BCK-Cohen-DHCosts.pdf
Jump up ^ Weisenthal, Joe. "'THE GHOST OF TOM JOAD': Horrible Heat And Drought Conditions Are Creating The Worst Crop Conditions Since 1988". Business Insider. Retrieved 3 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "The World Bank Supports Thailand's Post-Floods Recovery Effort". World Bank. 13 December 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
Jump up ^ 2011 Christchurch earthquake
Jump up ^ Blake and Landsea, The Deadliest, Costliest, and most Intense United States Tropical Cyclones from 1851 To 2010, National Hurricane Center, p. 9
Jump up ^ Beven, John L; Avila, Lixion A; Blake, Eric S; Brown, Daniel P; Franklin, James L; Knabb, Richard D; Pasch, Richard J; Rhome, Jamie R; Stewart, Stacy R (March 1, 2008). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 2005". Monthly Weather Review. American Meteorological Society. 136 (3): 1109–1173. Bibcode:2008MWRv..136.1109B. doi:10.1175/2007MWR2074.1. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 25, 2010. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Comisión Nacional del Agua (2006). "Resumen del Huracán "Wilma"" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 27, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Royster, Amy (December 4, 2005). "Wilma's Waves Devastate Grand Bahama Communities". Palm Beach Post. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ "Hurricane Wilma exacts losses of 704 million dollars: Cuban government". Relief Web. Agence France-Presse. December 4, 2005. Archived from the original on November 27, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Significant Earthquake Database". NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Guha-Sapir, Debarati; Santos, Indhira; Borde, Alexandre (2013). The Economic Impacts of Natural Disasters. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 252. ISBN 978-0-19-984193-6.
Jump up ^ "Biscayne National Park Plaque Commemorates 10th Anniversary of Hurricane Andrew". National Weather Service. 2002. Retrieved 24 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Cite error: The named reference costliest was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Jump up to: a b c Hurricane Committee (August 12, 2005). Twenty-seventh Session (March 31 to April 5, 2005) (PDF) (Final Report). World Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 27, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Stewart, Stacy R; National Hurricane Center (December 16, 2004). Hurricane Ivan September 2 – 24, 2004 (Tropical Cyclone Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Archived from the original on November 28, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ 1994 Northridge earthquake
Jump up ^ Guha-Sapir, Debarati; Santos, Indhira; Borde, Alexandre (2013). The Economic Impacts of Natural Disasters. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 252. ISBN 978-0-19-984193-6.
Jump up ^ Avila, Lixion A; Cangialosi, John (December 14, 2011). Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Irene: August 21 – 28, 2011 (PDF). National Hurricane Center (Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 28, 2012. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ Fieser, Erza (August 25, 2011). "Hurricane Irene barrels toward US as Caribbean islands take stock of damage". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ Telling the Weather Story (PDF) (Report). Insurance Bureau of Canada. June 4, 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 5, 2012. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ Pasch, Richard J; Blake, Eric S; Brown, Daniel P; National Hurricane Center (October 18, 2004). Hurricane Charley August 9 - 15 (Tropical Cyclone Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Significant Earthquakes Full Search, sort by $Millions Damage, Date". www.ngdc.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2015-10-08.
Jump up ^ "Hurricane Matthew economic damage nears $6 billion". USA Today. Retrieved October 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ http://thoughtleadership.aonbenfield.com/Documents/20170117-ab-if-annual-climate-catastrophe-report.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b "Costs beyond measure". Retrieved 15 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Knabb, Richard D; Brown, Daniel P; Rhome, Jamie R; National Hurricane Center (March 17, 2006). Hurricane Rita: September 18 - 26, 2005 (PDF) (Tropical Cyclone Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Case, Bob; Mayfield, Max (May 1, 1990). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1989". Monthly Weather Review. American Meteorological Society. 118 (5): 1165, 1175. Bibcode:1990MWRv..118.1165C. ISSN 1520-0493. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1990)118<1165:AHSO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoon_Mireille
Jump up ^ Beven II, John L; National Hurricane Center (December 17, 2004). "Hurricane Frances August 24 – September 10" (Tropical Cyclone Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on August 1, 2013. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Hurricanes Charley, Frances, Ivan & Jeanne Caribbean Impact (PDF) (Speciality Property Briefing). Guy Carpenter and Company. August 12, 2005. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Guiney, John L; National Hurricane Center (January 5, 1999). Hurricane Georges: September 15 – October 1, 1998 (Preliminary Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Archived from the original on November 28, 2012. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (October 8, 1998). Eastern Caribbean, Dominican Republic, Haiti —Hurricane Georges Fact Sheet #9, Fiscal Year (FY) 1999 (Report). United States Agency for International Development. Archived from the original on November 28, 2012. Retrieved August 24, 2007.
Jump up ^ Pielke, Roger A; Rubiera, Jose; Landsea, Christopher; Fernández, Mario L; Klein, Roberta (August 1, 2003). "Hurricane Vulnerability in Latin America and The Caribbean: Normalized Damage and Loss Potentials" (PDF). Natural Hazards Review. 4 (3): 101–114. ISSN 1527-6988. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2003)4:3(101). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 28, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ International Federation of Red Cross And Red Crescent Societies (March 22, 1999). Caribbean — Hurricane Georges Situation Report No. 3 (PDF) (Report). ReliefWeb. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 28, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ Pan American Health Organisation (November 25, 1998). "Impact of Hurricane Georges on health sector response". Pan American Health Organisation. Archived from the original on January 14, 2006. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ Beven, John L; Stewart, Stacy R; Lawrence, Miles B; Avila, Lixion A; Franklin, James L; Pasch, Richard J (July 1, 2003). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 2001". Monthly Weather Review. American Meteorological Society. 131 (7): 1454–1484. Bibcode:2003MWRv..131.1454B. ISSN 1520-0493. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2003)131<1454:ASHSO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Quantifying disaster". MacEwan News. 2017-01-20. Retrieved 2017-08-30.
Jump up ^ "Costs of Alberta wildfire reach $9.5 billion: Study". Business News Network. 2017-01-17. Retrieved 2017-08-30.
Jump up ^ https://www.thebalance.com/haiti-earthquake-facts-damage-effects-on-economy-3305660
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference em-dat was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ Lawrence, Miles B; Cobb, Hugh D; National Hurricane Center (November 22, 2004). Hurricane Jeanne: September 13 – 28 (Tropical Cyclone Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on August 1, 2013. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ name="1988 AHS"> Lawrence, Miles B; Gross, James M (October 1, 1989). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1988". Monthly Weather Review. American Meteorological Society. 117 (10): 2248–2259. Bibcode:1989MWRv..117.2248L. ISSN 1520-0493. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1989)117<2248:AHSO>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Camp, Vic. "How Volcanoes Work – the Nevado del Ruiz eruption". SDSU Department of Geological Sciences. San Diego State University. Retrieved July 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ Lawrence, Miles B; Avila, Lixion A; Beven, Jack L; Franklin, James L; Guiney, John L; Pasch, Richard J (December 1, 2001). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1999" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. American Meteorological Society. 129 (12): 3057–3084. Bibcode:2001MWRv..129.3057L. ISSN 1520-0493. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<3057:AHSO>2.0.CO;2. Archived from the original on April 10, 2002. Retrieved January 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference 2008_AHS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (1999). Mitch: The Deadliest Atlantic Hurricane Since 1780 (Report). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service. Retrieved January 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ Inter-American Development Bank. "Central America After Hurricane Mitch- Costa Rica". Archived from the original on December 19, 2005. Retrieved January 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ Inter-American Development Bank. "Central America After Hurricane Mitch- El Salvador". Archived from the original on October 26, 2005. Retrieved January 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ Lawrence, Miles B; Avila, Lixion A; Beven, John L; Franklin, James L; Pasch, Richard J; Stewart, Stacy R (June 1, 2005). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 2003". Monthly Weather Review. American Meteorological Society. 133 (6): 1744–1773. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133.1744L. doi:10.1175/MWR2940.1. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
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Jump up ^ Pasch, Richard J; Zelinsky, David A (January 6, 2014). Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Manuel: September 13 - 19, 2013 (PDF) (Report). United States National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 16, 2014. Retrieved May 16, 2014.
Jump up ^ http://www2.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/business/story.html?id=b089dd83-4d5a-401e-bbb9-2a10c51593e2
Jump up ^ http://www.sfgate.com/nation/article/Damage-from-Joplin-Mo-tornado-2-8-billion-3571524.php
Jump up ^ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_retired_Australian_cyclone_names
Jump up ^ "Slave Lake fires 2nd costliest insured disaster". CTV News. 2011-07-05. Retrieved 2011-07-05.
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text:
Social class in ancient Rome
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Status in Roman legal system.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The toga, shown here on a statue restored with the head of Nerva, was the distinctive garb of Roman male citizens.
Social class in ancient Rome was hierarchical, but there were multiple and overlapping social hierarchies, and an individual's relative position in one might be higher or lower than in another.[1] The status of freeborn Romans during the Republic was established by:
ancestry (patrician or plebeian);
census rank (ordo) based on wealth and political privilege, with the senatorial and equestrian ranks elevated above the ordinary citizen;
attainment of honors (the novus homo or self-made man established his family as nobilis (“noble”) and thus there were noble plebeians); and
citizenship, of which there were grades with varying rights and privileges.
For example, men who lived in towns outside Rome (such as municipia or colonies) might hold citizenship, but lack the right to vote (see ius Latinum); free-born Roman women were citizens, but could not vote or hold political office.
There were also classes of non-citizens with different legal rights, such as peregrini. Under Roman law, slaves were considered property and had no rights as such. However, some laws regulated slavery and offered slaves protections not extended to other forms of property such as animals. Slaves who had been manumitted were freedmen (liberti), and for the most part enjoyed the same legal rights and protections as free-born citizens.
Roman society was patriarchal in the purest sense; the male head of household (paterfamilias) held special legal powers and privileges that gave him jurisdiction (patria potestas) over all the members of his familia – a more encompassing term than its modern derivative "family" that included adult sons, his wife (but only in Rome's earlier history, when marriage cum manu was practiced), married daughters (in the Classical period of Roman history), various dependent relatives, and slaves. The patron-client relationship (clientela), with the word patronus deriving from pater (“father”), was another way in which Roman society was organized into hierarchical groups, though clientela also functioned as a system of overlapping social networks. A patron could be the client of a socially superior or more powerful patron; a client could have multiple patrons.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Patricians and plebeians
2 Property-based classes
3 Citizenship
3.1 Women
3.2 Latin Right
3.3 Peregrini
3.4 Slaves
3.5 Freed men
4 References
Patricians and plebeians[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main articles: Patrician (ancient Rome) and Plebs
The Patrician Torlonia bust believed to be of Cato the Elder. 1st century BC
Roman portraiture frescos from Pompeii, 1st century AD, depicting two different men wearing laurel wreaths, one holding the rotulus (blondish figure, left), the other a volumen (brunet figure, right), both made of papyrus
Roman portraiture fresco of a young man with a papyrus scroll, from Herculaneum, 1st century CE
In the Roman Kingdom and the early Roman Republic the most important division in Roman society was between the patricians and the plebeians. The patricians were a small elite whose ancestry was traced to the first Senate established by Romulus,[3] who monopolised political power. The plebeians comprised the majority of Roman citizens (see below). Adult males who were not Roman citizens, whether free or slave, fall outside this division. Women and children were also not citizens, but took the social status of their father or husband, which granted them various rights and protections not available to the women and children of men of lower rank.
The common assumptions that the patricians and the Roman elite were one and the same throughout the history of ancient Rome, and that all plebeians were of non-elite status throughout the history of ancient Rome, are entirely incorrect. From the Late Republic era onward many members of the elite, including an increasing proportion of senators, came from plebeian families. The first Roman Emperor, Augustus, was of plebeian origin, as were many of his successors. By the Late Empire, few members of the Senate were from the original patrician families, most of which had died out. Rome continued to have a hierarchical class system, but it was no longer dominated by the distinction between patricians and plebeians.
Originally, all public offices were open only to patricians, and the classes could not intermarry. Plebeians and Patricians were always at odds due to the fact that Plebeians wanted to increase their power.[4] A series of social struggles (see Conflict of the Orders) saw the plebs secede from the city on three occasions, the last in 297 BC, until their demands were met. They won the right to stand for office, the abolition of the intermarriage law, and the creation of office of tribune of the plebs. This office, founded in 494 BC as a result of a plebeian secession, was the main legal bulwark against the powers of the patrician class, and only plebeians were eligible. The tribunes originally had the power to protect any plebeian from a patrician magistrate. Later revolts forced the Senate to grant the tribunes additional powers, such as the right to veto legislation. A tribune’s person was sacrosanct, and he was obliged to keep an open house at all times while in office. Some patricians, notably Clodius Pulcher in the late 60s BC, petitioned to be assigned plebeian status, in order to accumulate the political influence among the people that the office of tribune afforded. The conflict between the classes came to a climax in 287 BC when patricians and plebeians were declared equal under the law.
Following these changes the distinction between patrician and plebeian status became less important, and by the Late Republic the only patrician prerogatives were certain priesthoods. Over time, some patrician families declined, some plebeian families rose in status, and the composition of the ruling class changed. A plebeian who was the first of his line to become consul was known as a novus homo (“new man”), and he and his descendants became “noble” (nobiles). Notable examples of novi homines are the seven-time consul Marius, and Cicero, whose rise was unusual in that it was driven by his oratorical and intellectual abilities rather than, as with Marius, military success. During the Empire, patricius became a title of nobility bestowed by emperors.[5][6]
A young woman sits while a servant fixes her hair with the help of a cupid, who holds up a mirror to offer a reflection, detail of a fresco from the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, c. 50 BC
Property-based classes[edit]
Further information: Roman Senate and Equestrian order
The census divided citizens into six complex classes based on property. The richest were the senatorial class, who during the Late Republic had to be worth at least 400,000 sestertii, the same as the equites; when Augustus reformed the senate during the first years of the Principate, he raised the property requirement to 1,000,0000 sestertii.[7] The wealth of the senatorial class was based on ownership of large agricultural estates, and by custom members did not engage in commercial activity.
Below the senatores in rank, but above others were the equites (“equestrians” or “knights”), with 400,000 sestertii, who could engage in commerce and formed an influential business class. Certain political and quasi-political positions were filled by equites, including tax farming and, under the Principate, leadership of the Praetorian Guard. Below the equites were three more classes of property-owning citizens; and lastly the proletarii, whose property was valued below 11,000 asses.[8]
Analysis of Roman Centuriate Organisation 509-241 BC *[9]
Class
Census property rating
money (property)
Electoral
assembly
votes per
person
Military Equipment
(self-supplied)
Patricians (historical aristocracy)
Senatores 400,000 sestertii (1,000,0000 sestertii)
Equites** 400,000 sestertii Horse, ...
Plebeians (commoners)
First 100,000 As (100 iugera) 2 Helm, round shield, cuirass, greaves, sword, and spear.
Second 75,000 As (75 iugera) 1 Helm, round shield, greaves, sword and spear.
Third 50,000 As (50 iugera) 1 Helm, oblong shield, sword and spear.
Fourth 25,000 As (25 iugera) 1 Oblong shield, spear or sword, javelin
Fifth 11,000 As (11 iugera)
12,500 As (12 iugera) 1 Slings or javelins (velites)
Proles (landless poor)
Proletarii below 11,000 asses Fleets (oarsmen)
* This was the system of the Centuriate Assembly and was the practice of the Servian constitution. Information arranged by Tim Cornell based on the works of Livy, Polybius, and Dionysius of Hallicarnasus.
For a contrasting version of the same or similar data, see the table in the Equites article.
** The equites class was available for both plebeians and patricians, and favored by ambitious young men in both groups.
At the period this was valid 1 Denarius was worth about 10 As; Luuk de Ligt puts the value of an iugerium at 1,000 As or 100 denarii as a recommended baseline because values fluctuate a lot and because of many factors.[10]
Citizenship[edit]
Main article: Roman citizenship
The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze sculpture depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman toga while engaged in rhetoric; the statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabet
Women[edit]
Free-born women in ancient Rome were citizens (cives), but could not vote or hold political office.[11] The form of Roman marriage called conubium, for instance, requires that both spouses be citizens; like men from towns granted civitas sine suffragio, women eligible for legal marriage were citizens without suffrage. The legal status of a mother as a citizen affected her son's citizenship.[12] The phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos (“children born of two Roman citizens”) indicates that a Roman woman was regarded as having citizen status, in specific contrast to a peregrina.
Latin Right[edit]
The Latin Right was a form of citizenship with limited rights. It was conferred originally on the allied towns of Latium in the Republican era, and gradually extended to communities throughout the Empire. Latin citizens had rights, but not the vote, although their leading magistrates could become full citizens.
Peregrini[edit]
Free-born foreign subjects were known as peregrini, and special laws existed to govern their conduct and disputes. These distinctions continued until 212 AD, when Caracalla extended full Roman citizenship to all free-born men in the empire.
Slaves[edit]
Main article: Slavery in ancient Rome
Slaves (servi) were not citizens, and lacked even the legal standing accorded free-born foreigners. For the most part, slaves descended from debtors and from prisoners of war, especially women and children captured during sieges and other military campaigns in Greece, Italy, Spain, and Carthage. In the later years of the Republic and into the Empire, more slaves came from newly conquered areas of Gaul, Britain, North Africa, and Asia Minor. Many slaves were created as the result of Rome's conquest of Greece, but Greek culture was considered in some respects superior to that of Rome: hence Horace's famous remark Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Captured Greece took her savage conqueror captive"). The Roman playwright Terence is thought to have been brought to Rome as a slave. Thus slavery was regarded as a circumstance of birth, misfortune, or war; it was defined in terms of legal status, or rather the lack thereof, and was neither limited to or defined by ethnicity or race, nor regarded as an inescapably permanent condition.
Slaves who lacked skills or education performed agricultural or other forms of manual labor. Those who were violent or disobedient, or who for whatever reason were considered a danger to society, might be sentenced to labor in the mines, where they suffered under inhumane conditions. Slaves subjected to harsh labor conditions also had few if any opportunities to obtain their freedom.
Since slaves were legally property, they could be disposed of by their owners at any time. All children born to female slaves were slaves. Some slave owners, as for instance Tacitus,[citation needed] freed slaves whom they believed to be their natural children. Slaves who had the education or skills to earn a living were often manumitted upon the death of their owner as a condition of his will. Slaves who conducted business for their masters were also permitted to earn and save money for themselves, and some might be able to buy their own freedom.
Over time, legislation was passed to protect the lives and health of slaves. Although many prostitutes were slaves, for instance, the bill of sale for some slaves stipulated that they could not be used for commercial prostitution.[13]
Freed men[edit]
Freed men (libertieu) were freed slaves, whose free-born children were full citizens. The status of liberti developed throughout the Republic as their number increased. Livy states[citation needed] that freedmen in the Early Republic mainly joined the lower classes of the plebeians. Juvenal, writing during the Empire when financial Freedmen were often highly educated and made up the bulk of the civil service during the early Empire. The Augustan poet Horace was himself the child of a freedman from Venusia in southern Italy. Many became enormously wealthy as the result of bribes, fraud, or other forms of corruption, or were given large estates by the Emperor they served.[citation needed] Other freedmen engaged in commerce, amassing vast fortunes often only rivalled by those of the wealthiest nobiles. Many of the Satires of Juvenal contain angry denouncements of the pretensions of wealthy freedmen, some 'with the chalk of the slave market still on their heel'. Juvenal saw these successful men as nouveaux riches who were far too ready to show off their (often ill-gotten) wealth. Another famous caricature is seen in the absurdly extravagant character of Trimalchio in Satyricon. The majority of freedmen, however, joined the plebeian classes, and often worked as farmers or tradesmen.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Koenraad Verboven. (2007). The Associative Empire. Athenaeum 95, p. 861.
Jump up ^ Carlin A. Barton. (1993). The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster, pp. 176–177. Princeton University Press.
Jump up ^ Livy, Ab Urbe Condita 1:8
Jump up ^ McKay, John P. (2013). Study guide for a History of World Societies, Volume A: To 1500, 51. Content Technologies.
Jump up ^ "patricians." World History: Ancient and Medieval Eras. ABC-CLIO, 2011. Web. 16 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "plebeians." World History: Ancient and Medieval Eras. ABC-CLIO, 2011. Web. 16 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Peter Garnsey & Richard Saller. (1987) The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture, pp. 112f. Berkeley: University of California.
Jump up ^ Joseph Wells, A Short History of Rome to the Death of Augustus (Plymouth: William Brendan and Sons, 1896), p. 16.
Jump up ^ Based on Livy 1.43; Dionysius of Halicarnassus IV, 16-18. First referenced by Cornell, T.J. (1995). The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from Bronze Age to the Punic Wars 1000-264 BCE, 179.
Jump up ^ Ligt, Luuk /de; Northwood, S. J. (2008-01-01). People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy 300 BC-AD 14. BRILL. ISBN 9004171185.
Jump up ^ Bruce W. Frier & Thomas A.J. McGinn. (2004). A Casebook on Roman Family Law, pp. 31–32, 457, et passim. Oxford University Press: American Philological Association.
Jump up ^ See Frier and McGinn, passim, and A.N. Sherwin-White. (1979). Roman Citizenship, pp. 211 & 268. Oxford University Press.online (on male citizenship as it relates to marrying citizen women) et passim.
Jump up ^ McGinn, Thomas A.J. (1998). Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome, p. 293. Oxford University Press.
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Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)
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Cherokee Nation ᏣᎳᎩᎯ ᎠᏰᎵ
Tsalagihi Ayeli[1]
Autonomous region of the United States.
1794–1907
Southeastern U.S. and Indian territories, including Cherokee, Creek, and Chickasaw; 1806
Status
Autonomous region of the United States.
Capital
New Echota 1825-1839
Tahlequah 1839-1907
Common languages
Cherokee
Government
Autonomous tribal government
Principal Chief
• 1794-1907
Principal Chief
• 1794-1905
Tribal Council
• Created with the Treaty of Tellico Blockhouse
7 November 1794 (1794-11-07) 1794
• New Echota officially designated capital city
12 November 1825
• Treaty of New Echota
29 December 1835
• Cherokee Trail of Tears
1838-1839
• Tahlequah becomes new official capital
6 September 1839
• Officially disbanded by US Federal Government
16 November 1907 (1907-11-16) 1907
Currency
US dollar
Preceded by Succeeded by
Overhill Cherokee
Georgia (U.S. state)
North Carolina
South Carolina
Oklahoma
Cherokee Nation
Today part of
United States
- Oklahoma
This article contains Cherokee syllabic characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Cherokee syllabics.
The Cherokee Nation (ᏣᎳᎩᎯ ᎠᏰᎵ, pronounced Tsalagihi Ayeli[1]) from 1794–1907 was a legal, autonomous, tribal government in North America recognized from 1794 to 1907. Often referred to simply as "The Nation" by its inhabitants, it should not be confused with what is known in the 21st century also as the Cherokee Nation.
It consisted of the Cherokee (ᏣᎳᎩ —pronounced Tsalagi or Cha-la-gee) people of the Qualla Boundary and the southeastern United States;[2] those who relocated voluntarily from the southeastern United States to the Indian Territory (circa 1820 —known as the "Old Settlers"); those who were forced by the Federal government of the United States to relocate (through the Indian Removal Act) by way of the Trail of Tears (1830s); Cherokee Freedmen (freed slaves); as well as many descendants of the Natchez, the Delaware and the Shawnee peoples.
Contents
1 History
1.1 The Removal
1.2 Constitutional governments
1.3 Removal
1.3.1 Cherokee Nation districts in Indian Territory
1.3.2 Cherokee Capital
1.4 Civil War and Reconstruction
1.5 Nation's demise
2 People
2.1 Additional peoples
2.1.1 The Delaware
2.1.2 Natchez people
2.1.3 The Shawnee
2.1.4 Swan Creek and Black River Chippewa
2.1.5 Cherokee Freedmen
3 Notable Cherokee Nation citizens
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Main article: Cherokee history
The Cherokee called themselves the Ani-Yun' wiya. In their language this meant "leading" or "principal" people. Before 1794, the Cherokee had no standing national government. The people dwelt in "towns" located in scattered autonomous tribal areas related by kinship throughout the southern Appalachia region. Various leaders were periodically appointed (by mutual consent of the towns) to represent the tribes to French, British and, later, American authorities as was needed. The title this leader carried among the Cherokee was "First Beloved Man"[3] —being the true translation of the title Uku, which the English translated as "chief". The chief's function was to serve as focal point for negotiations with the encroaching Europeans, such as the case of Hanging Maw, who was recognized as chief by the United States government, but not by the majority of Cherokee peoples.[4]
At the end of the Cherokee–American wars (1794), Little Turkey was recognized as "Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation" by all the towns. At that time, Cherokee tribes could be found in lands nominally under the jurisdiction of Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and the Overhill area that was to become part of the state of Tennessee. The break-away Chickamauga band (or Lower Cherokee), under chief Dragging Canoe (Tsiyugunsini, 1738–1792), had retreated to and now inhabited an area that would be the northern area of the future state of Alabama.[5]
The Cherokee Nation Lands in 1830 Georgia, before the Trail of Tears
U.S. president George Washington sought to "civilize" the southeastern American Indians, through programs overseen by US Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins. Facilitated by the destruction of many Indian towns during the American Revolutionary War, U.S. land agents convinced many Native Americans to abandon their historic communal-land tenure and settle on isolated farmsteads. Over-harvesting by the deerskin trade had brought white-tailed deer in the region to the brink of extinction; therefore, pig and cattle raising were introduced, becoming the principal sources of meat. The tribes were supplied with spinning wheels and cotton-seed, and men were taught to fence and plow the land (in contrast with their traditional division of labor in which most cultivation for farming was considered woman's work). Women were instructed in weaving. Eventually blacksmiths, gristmills and cotton plantations (along with slave labor) were established.[6]
Succeeding Little Turkey as Principal Chief were Black Fox (1801–1811) and Pathkiller (1811–1827), both former warriors of Dragging Canoe. "The separation", a phrase which the Cherokee used to describe the period after 1776 when the Chickamauga had removed themselves from the other tribes which were in close proximity to the Anglo-American settlements, officially ended at the reunification council of 1809.
Three important Cherokee–American wars veterans of the time, James Vann (a successful Scots-Cherokee businessman) and his two protégés, The Ridge (also called Ganundalegi or "Major" Ridge) and Charles R. Hicks, made up the 'Cherokee Triumvirate' —advocating acculturation of the people, formal education of the young, and the introduction of modern farming methods. In 1801 they invited Moravian missionaries to their territory from North Carolina to teach Christianity and the 'arts of civilized life.' The Moravian, and later Congregationalist, missionaries ran boarding schools, with a select few students chosen to be educated at the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions school in Connecticut.
These men continued to be leaders in the tribe. Hicks participated in the Red Stick War, which coincided with part of US involvement in the War of 1812. He was the de facto Principal Chief from 1813–1827.
The Removal[edit]
See also: Cherokee removal and Trail of Tears
The Arkansaw Territory division: showing the progression of Indian Territory separation from Arkansas Territory, 1819–1836
In 1802, the U.S. federal government promised to extinguish Native American titles to internal Georgia lands in return for the state's formal cession of its unincorporated western claim (which was made part of the Mississippi Territory). In 1815, the US government established a Cherokee Reservation in the Arkansaw district of the Missouri Territory and tried to convince the Cherokee to move there voluntarily. The reservation boundaries extended from north of the Arkansas River to the southern bank of the White River. The Cherokee who moved to this reservation became known as the "Old Settlers".[7]
Map of Southern United States during the time of the Indian Removals (Trail of Tears), 1830–1838, showing the historic lands of the Five Civilized Tribes. The destination Indian Territory is depicted in light yellow-green.
Additional treaties signed with the U.S., in 1817 and 1819, exchanged remaining Cherokee lands in Georgia (north of the Hiwassee River) for lands in the Arkansaw Territory west of the Mississippi River. A majority of the remaining Cherokee resisted these treaties and refused to leave their lands east of the Mississippi. Finally, in 1830, the United States Congress enacted the Indian Removal Act to bolster the treaties and forcibly free up title to the sought over state lands. At this time, one-third of the remaining Native Americans left voluntarily, especially because now the act was being enforced by government troops and the Georgia militia.
Most of the settlements were established in the area around the western capital of Tahlontiskee (near present-day Gore, Oklahoma).
Constitutional governments[edit]
The Cherokee Nation—East had first created electoral districts in 1817. By 1822, the Cherokee Supreme Court was founded. Lastly, the Cherokee Nation adopted a written constitution in 1827 creating a government with three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. The Principal Chief was elected by the National Council, which was the legislature of the Nation. A similar constitution was adopted by the Cherokee Nation—West in 1833.
The Constitution of the reunited Cherokee Nation was ratified at Tahlequah, Oklahoma on September 6, 1839, at the conclusion of "The Removal". The signing is commemorated every Labor Day weekend with the celebration of the Cherokee National Holiday.
Removal[edit]
Main article: Tahlequah, Oklahoma
Founded in 1838, Tahlequah was developed as the new capital of a united Cherokee Nation. (It was named after the historic Great Tellico —an important Cherokee town and cultural center in present-day Tennessee that was one of the largest Cherokee towns ever established. The mostly European-American settlement of Tellico Plains developed later at that site.
Cherokee Nation districts in Indian Territory[edit]
After moving to Indian Territory, the Cherokee Nation was divided into nine districts for administrative purposes. Those were named:[1]
The Cherokee Nation Capitol Building and Courthouse, Tahlequah, Oklahoma. Built in 1869, it functioned as the political center of "The Nation" until 1907, and is the oldest public building standing in Oklahoma.[8]
Canadian
Cooweescoowee
Delaware
Flint
Goingsnake
Illinois
Saline
Sequoyah
Tahlequah
Cherokee Capital[edit]
The Cherokee National Capitol Building was constructed from 1867-1869.[9] The brick building was designed by architect C. W. Goodlander in the 'late Italianate' style, which was unusual for Oklahoma. Originally it housed the nation's court as well as other offices. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961.[9][10][11]
Indications of Cherokee and Native American influence are easily found in and about Tahlequah. For instance, street signs appear in the Cherokee language—in the syllabary alphabet created by Sequoyah (ca. 1767–1843)[12]—as well as in English.
Civil War and Reconstruction[edit]
Main articles: Indian Territory in the American Civil War and Cherokee in the American Civil War
Further information: Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War § Indian Territory
The Cherokee Braves Flag, as flown by Stand Watie's troop.
The Trans-Mississippi area, which included the Cherokee Nation–West, hosted numerous skirmishes and seven officially recognized battles involving Native American units either allied with the Confederate States of America or loyal to the United States government.
Several prominent members of the Cherokee Nation made contributions during the war: William Penn Adair (1830–1880), a Cherokee senator and diplomat, was a Confederate colonel; Nimrod Jarrett Smith, Tsaladihi (1837–1893), a future Principal Chief of the Eastern Band, also served during the war; and hold-out Confederate Brig. General Stand Watie (also known as Degataga, (1806–1871), a signer of the Treaty of New Echota) raided Union positions in the Indian Territory with his 1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles Regiment of the Army of Trans-Mississippi well after the Confederacy had abandoned the area. He became the last Confederate general to surrender—on June 25, 1865.[13]
The main body of the Cherokee people had sided with the Confederacy during the American Civil War. After the war, the United States negotiated a peace treaty with them, requiring them to emancipate their slaves and to offer them citizenship and territory within the reservation if the freedmen chose to stay with the tribe. The area also became part of the reconstruction of the former Confederate States overseen by military and appointed governors.
Nation's demise[edit]
Main article: Cherokee Nation
President Benjamin Harrison September 19, 1890, stopped the leasing of land in the Cherokee Outlet to cattlemen. The lease income had supported the Cherokee Nation in its efforts to prevent further encroachments on tribal lands.[14]
Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory, along with No Man's Land (also known as the Oklahoma Panhandle). The division of the two territories is shown with a heavy purple line. Together, these three areas would become the State of Oklahoma in 1907
From 1898–1906, beginning with the Curtis Act of 1898, the US federal government set about the dismantling of the Cherokee Nation's governmental and civic institutions, in preparation for the incorporation of the Indian Territory into the new state of Oklahoma. In response, the leaders of the Five Civilized Tribes sought to gain approval for a new State of Sequoyah in 1905 that would have a Native American constitution and government. The proposal received a cool reception in Congress and failed. The tribal government of the Cherokee Nation was dissolved in 1906. After this the structure and function of the tribal government were not formally defined. The federal government occasionally designated chiefs of a provisional "Cherokee Nation", but usually just long enough to sign treaties.[15]
As the shortcomings of the arrangement became increasingly evident to the Cherokee, demand arose for the formation of a more permanent and accountable tribal government. New administrations at the federal level also recognized this issue, and the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration gained passage of the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, encouraging tribes to re-establish governments and supporting more self-determination. The Cherokee convened a general convention on 8 August 1938 in Fairfield, Oklahoma, to elect a new Chief, and reconstitute a modern, Cherokee Nation, to be a "successor in interest" to the historic Cherokee Nation.[16]
People[edit]
The Nation was made up of scattered peoples mostly living in the Cherokee Nation–West and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians (both residing in the Indian Territory by the 1840s), and the Cherokee Nation–East (Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians); these became the three federally recognized tribes of Cherokee in the 20th century.
Additional peoples[edit]
The Delaware[edit]
Main article: Delaware Tribe of Indians
In 1866, some Delaware (Lenape) were relocated to the Cherokee Nation from Kansas, where they had been sent in the 1830s. Assigned to the northeast area of the Indian Territory, they united with the Cherokee Nation in 1867. The Delaware Tribes operated autonomously within the lands of the Cherokee Nation.[17]
Natchez people[edit]
Tahlequah, Oklahoma stop sign, written in English and Cherokee
Main article: Natchez people
The Natchez are a Native American people who originally lived in the Natchez Bluffs area. The present-day city of Natchez, Mississippi developed in their former territory. By the mid-eighteenth century, the Natchez people were defeated by French colonists and dispersed from there. Many survivors had been sold (by the French) into slavery in the West Indies. Others took refuge with allied tribes, one of which was the Cherokee.
The Shawnee[edit]
Main article: Shawnee Tribe
Known as the Loyal Shawnee or Cherokee Shawnee, one band of Shawnee people relocated to Indian Territory with the Seneca people (Iroquois) in July 1831. The term "Loyal" came from their serving in the Union army during the American Civil War. European Americans encroached and settled on their lands after the war.
In 1869, the Cherokee Nation and Loyal Shawnee agreed that 722 of the Shawnee would be granted Cherokee citizenship. They settled in Craig and Rogers counties.[18]
Swan Creek and Black River Chippewa[edit]
The Anishinaabe-speaking Swan Creek and Black River Chippewa bands were removed from southeast Michigan to Kansas in 1839. After Kansas became a state and the Civil War ended, European-American settlers pushed out the Native Americans. Like the Delaware, the two Chippewa bands were relocated to the Cherokee Nation in 1866. They were so few in number that they eventually merged with the Cherokee.
Cherokee Freedmen[edit]
Main article: Cherokee freedmen controversy
The second Cherokee Female Seminary was opened in 1889 by the original Cherokee Nation.
The Cherokee Freedmen, were former African American slaves who had been owned by citizens of the Cherokee Nation during the Antebellum Period. President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 that granted citizenship to all freedmen in the Confederate States, including those held by the Cherokee. In reaching peace with the Cherokee — who had sided with the Confederacy — the U.S. government required that they free their slaves and offer full Cherokee citizenship to those who wanted to stay with the nation. The freedmen were first guaranteed Cherokee citizenship under a treaty with the United States following the Civil War (1866).[19]
Notable Cherokee Nation citizens[edit]
This list of historic people includes only documented Cherokee living in, or born into, the original Cherokee Nation who are not mentioned in the main article:
Elias Boudinot, Galagina (1802–1839), statesman, orator, and editor; founded the first Cherokee newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix. Assassinated by opponents for signing the New Echota Treaty to cede lands in the East.
Ned Christie (1852–1892), statesman, Cherokee Nation senator, infamous outlaw[20]
Rear Admiral Joseph J. Clark (1893–1971), United States Navy, highest-ranking Native American in US military history.
Doublehead, Taltsuska (d. 1807), a war leader during the Cherokee–American wars, led the Lower Cherokee, and signed land deals with the U.S.
Junaluska (ca. 1775–1868), veteran of the Creek War, who saved President Andrew Jackson's life.
John Ridge, Skatlelohski (1792–1839), son of Major Ridge, statesman and signer of New Echota Treaty signer, assassinated by opponents.
John Rollin Ridge, Cheesquatalawny, or "Yellow Bird" (1827–1867), grandson of Major Ridge, first Native American novelist.
Clement V. Rogers (1839–1911), Cherokee senator, judge, cattleman, member of the Oklahoma Constitutional Convention.
Will Rogers, (November 4, 1879 – August 15, 1935) Cherokee entertainer, roper, journalist, and author.[21]
John Ross, Guwisguwi (1790–1866), veteran of the Red Stick War, Principal Chief in the east during Removal, and in the west.
Redbird Smith (1850–1918), traditionalist, political activist, and chief of the Keetoowah Nighthawk Society.
William Holland Thomas, Wil' Usdi (1805–1893), non-Native who was adopted into tribe, founding Principal Chief of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, commanding officer of the Thomas Legion of Cherokee Indians and Highlanders.
Nancy Ward, Nanye-hi (ca. 1736–1822/4), Beloved Woman, diplomat.
See also[edit]
Indigenous peoples of North America portal
Cherokee military history
Cherokee Commission
Timeline of Cherokee removal
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b The James Scrolls
Jump up ^ Indians, Eastern Band of Cherokees of North Carolina; Donaldson, Thomas; 1892; 11th Census of the United States; Robert P. Porter, Superintendent, U.S. Printing Office, Washington, D.C.; published online at Eastern Band of Cherokees of North Carolina; retrieved October 1, 2010.
Jump up ^ Hoig, pp. 36, 37, 80
Jump up ^ A Small Lexicon of Tsalagi words at Web Citations; A Few Words in Cherokee/Tsalagi; Tsalagi resources; accessdate January 18, 2010.
Jump up ^ Evans, E. Raymond. "Notable Persons in Cherokee History: Dragging Canoe"; Journal of Cherokee Studies, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 170–190; (Cherokee: Museum of the Cherokee Indian); 1977.
Jump up ^ Perdue, Theda; Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700–1835; Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press; 1999. ISBN 978-0-8032-8760-0.
Jump up ^ Lowery, Charles D. "The Great Migration to the Mississippi Territory, 1798–1819," Journal of Mississippi History, 1968 30(3): 173–192
Jump up ^ Moser, George W. A Brief History of Cherokee Lodge #10., Retrieved 26 June 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Francine Weiss (1980). "National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Cherokee National Capitol" (PDF). National Park Service. Archived from the original (pdf) on May 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Cherokee National Capitol". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service, added = October 15, 1966. Retrieved 2008-01-15.
Jump up ^ National Park Service (2007-01-23). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
Jump up ^ Sequoyah, "New Georgia Encyclopedia"; retrieved 8 Aug 2010.
Jump up ^ Confer, Clarissa; The Cherokee Nation in the Civil War; University of Oklahoma Press; 2007; pg. 4.
Jump up ^ Rennard Strickland, "Cherokee (tribe)," Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Accessed April 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ Cherokee Archived October 8, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.; article; Oklahoma Historical Society; "Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture."
Jump up ^ Indian Country Today article Archived October 7, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ McCollum, Timothy James. Delaware, Western. Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History & Culture. . Retrieved 5 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Smith, Pamela A. "Shawnee Tribe (Loyal Shawnee)." Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. . Retrieved 25 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Halliburton, R., Jr.: Red over Black – Black Slavery among the Cherokee Indians, Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut 1977 ISBN 978-0-8371-9034-1
Jump up ^ "The Case of Ned Christie", Fort Smith Historic Site, National Park Service. Retrieved 3 February 2009.
Jump up ^ Carter JH. "Father and Cherokee Tradition Molded Will Rogers". Archived from the original on November 10, 2006. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
External links[edit]
Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, official site
United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians, official site
Cherokee Heritage Center, Park Hill, OK
Compiled laws of the Cherokee Nation, published by authority of the National Council = ᏗᎦᏟᏌᏅᎯ ᏗᎧᎿᏩᏛᏍᏗ ᏣᎳᎩ ᎠᏰᎵ ᏕᎤᎲᎢ, ᎠᏰᎵ ᏗᏂᎳᏫᎩᏱ ᎤᎵᏁᏨᎯ ᏗᎦᏃᏣᎶᏗᏱ. 1881
Coordinates: 35°54′N 94°58′W / 35.900°N 94.967°W / 35.900; -94.967
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cherokee_Nation_(1794–1907)&oldid=844846332"
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