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Sahitya Akademi Award
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Sahitya Academy Award
Award for individual contributions to Literature
Awarded for
Literary award in India
Sponsored by
Sahitya Akademi, Government of India
First awarded
1954
Last awarded
2017
Highlights
Total awarded
60
Website
www.sahitya-akademi.gov.in
The Sahitya Akademi Award is a literary honor in India, which the Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters, annually confers on writers of the most outstanding books of literary merit published in any of the major Indian languages (24 languages,[1] including the 22 listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, along with English and Rajasthani) recognised by the Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi.[2]
Established in 1954, the award comprises a plaque and a cash prize of ₹ 100000.[3] The award's purpose is to recognize and promote excellence in Indian writing and also acknowledge new trends. The annual process of selecting awardees runs for the preceding twelve months. The plaque awarded by the Sahitya Akademi was designed by the Indian film-maker Satyajit Ray.[4] Prior to this, the plaque occasionally was made of marble, but this practice was discontinued because of the excessive weight. During the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965, the plaque was substituted with national savings bonds.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Recipients
2 Other literary honors
2.1 Sahitya Akademi Fellowships
2.2 Bhasha Samman
2.3 Translation Awards
2.4 Ananda Coomarswamy Fellowships
2.5 Premchand Fellowships
3 Return and Decline of Sahitya Akademi Awards
3.1 1950s-1980s
3.2 1990s
3.3 2000s
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Recipients[edit]
Main article: Lists of Sahitya Akademi Award winners
Other literary honors[edit]
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Sahitya Akademi Fellowships[edit]
They form the highest honor which the Akademi confers through a system of electing Fellows and Honorary Fellows. (Sahitya Akademi Award is the second-highest literary honor next to a Sahitya Akademi Fellowship).
Bhasha Samman[edit]
Sahitya Akademy gives these special awards to writers for significant contribution to Indian languages other than the above 24 major ones and also for contribution to classical & medieval literature. Like the Sahitya Akademi Awards, Bhasha Samman too comprise a plaque and a cash prize of Rs. 1,00,000(from 2009)The Sahitya Akademi instituted Bhasha Samman in 1996 to be given to writers, scholars, editors, collectors, performers or translators who have made considerable contribution to the propagation, modernization or enrichment of the languages concerned.The Samman carries a plaque along with an amount equal to its awards for creative literature i.e. rupees 1,00,000.It was Rs.25,000 at the time of inception, increased to Rs.40,000 from 2001, Rs.50,000 from 2003 and to Rs. 1,00,000 from 2009.The Sammans are given to 3-4 persons every year in different languages on the basis of recommendation of experts' committees constituted for the purpose.
The first Bhasha Sammans were awarded in to Sri Dharikshan Mishra for Bhojpuri, Sri Bansi Ram Sharma and Sri M.R. Thakur for Pahari (Himachali), Sri K. Jathappa Rai and Sri Mandara Keshava Bhat for Tulu and Sri Chandra Kanta Mura Singh for Kokborok; for their contribution to the development of their respective languages.
Translation Awards[edit]
Awards for translations were instituted in 1989 at the instance of then-Prime Minister of India, P. V. Narasimha Rao.[6] The Sahitya Akademi annually gives these awards for outstanding translations of major works in other languages into one of the 24 major Indian languages. The awards comprise a plaque and a cash prize of Rs. 50,000. The initial proposal for translation prizes contained provisions for a prize for translations into each of the twenty-two languages recognised by the Akademi; however, this was soon found to be unviable for several reasons: the Akademi found that there were insufficient entries in all the languages, and there were difficulties in locating experts knowledgeable in both, the language of translation and the original language, to judge the translations.[6] Consequently, the Board decided to dispense with its original requirement for additional expert committees to evaluate the translations, and also ruled that it was not obligated to grant prizes in languages where suitable books were not nominated.[6] The Akademi also requires that both, the original author as well as the translator, are to be Indian nationals.[6]
Over time, the Akademi has modified and expanded the conditions for the Translation Prizes. In 1992, the Akademi began to allow translations made in link languages to be eligible for the Awards, although it noted that translations made directly from the original language would always be preferred.[6] In 1995, the Akademi also held that joint translations would be eligible, and in 1997, it dispensed with the process of advertising for nominations and replaced it with invitations for recommendations from advisory boards and Committee members.[6] As of 2002, 264 prizes have been awarded to 266 translators.[6]
Ananda Coomarswamy Fellowships[edit]
Named after the Ceylon Tamil writer Ananda Coomaraswamy, the fellowship was started in 1996. It is given to scholars from Asian countries to spend 3 to 12 months in India to pursue a literary project.
Premchand Fellowships[edit]
Named after Hindi writer Premchand, the fellowship was started in 2005. It is given to persons of eminence in the field of Culture from SAARC countries.
Return and Decline of Sahitya Akademi Awards[edit]
The Akademi has seen several instances of Awards being returned or declined as an act of protest.
1950s-1980s[edit]
In 1973, G.A. Kulkarni returned the Award for his collection of short stories in Marathi, Kajal Maya, because a controversy had arisen regarding the date of publication of the book and its consequent eligibility for the Award.[7] In 1969, Swami Anand declined the Award for contributions to Gujarati literature on the grounds that his religious beliefs precluded him from accepting any pecuniary benefits for public services.[7]
In 1981, Telugu writer V. R. Narla was given the Sahitya Akademi Award for his play, Sita Josyam, but returned it on the grounds that the Akademi had allowed an adverse review of the play to be published in their journal, Indian Literature.[8] In 1982, Deshbandhu Dogra Natan was given the Sahitya Akademi award for his Dogri novel, Qaidi ('Prisoner') but returned it on the grounds that he should have received the Award much earlier.[8] In 1983, Gujarati writer Suresh Joshi also returned the Award on the grounds that his book, Chintayami Manasa, did not, in his opinion, deserve the Award, and also expressed the opinion that the Award was generally granted to authors who were "spent forces".[8] This provoked a response from the then-President of the Akademi, Vinayaka Krishna Gokak, who said, concerning the awards that, "It is not possible to generalise on the basis of age. Nor can we expect the Akademi panels to be on the watch for a literary force on the upward curve and catch it at the moment before it starts going downwards. Panels change from year to year and they have to select not literary men but literary works which are adjudged to be the best among the publications of a particular period."[9]
1990s[edit]
In 1998, Gujarati writer Jayant Kothari also declined the Sahitya Akademi Award on the grounds that he had made a religious vow that precluded his acceptance of any competitive award, prize or position.[7] In 1991, Jagannatha Prasad Das who was given the Award for his poetry in Odia declined for 'personal reasons'.[7] In 1996, T Padmanabhan, who was given the Award for a book of short stories in Malayalam, declined on the grounds that the Akademi had not shown interest in supporting the short story form, although he noted that he was grateful to the Akademi for the honour.[7]
2000s[edit]
As of 2015[update], the award has been returned by many writers for various reasons. 38 recipients had announced their returning of the award in protest of the "rising intolerance in India" under the Modi government due to the incidences of murder of author M M Kalburgi and the Dadri lynching incident.[10][11] Among others, Ajmer Aulakh, Aman Sethi, Ganesh Devi, Kum Veerabhadrappa and Shashi Deshpande have publicly announced their return of the award.[12] To show their condemnation Deshpande, K Satchidanandan, PK Parakkadvu and Aravind Malagatti have also resigned their posts at the Sahitya Akademi institution.[11]
The recipients who announced to return the awards include: Ajmer Singh Aulakh (Punjabi),[13] Ambika Dutt (Hindi),[14] Anil R. Joshi (Gujarati),[15] Ashok Vajpeyi (Hindi),[16] Atamjit Singh (Punjabi),[13] Baldev Singh Sadaknama (Punjabi),[17] Bhoopal Reddy (Telugu),[18] Chaman Lal (Hindi),[19] Darshan Buttar (Punjabi),[20] Ganesh Devy (Gujarati/English),[21] Ghulam Nabi Khayal (Kashmiri),[22] GN Ranganatha Rao (Kannada),[23] Gurbachan Singh Bhullar (Punjabi),[24] Homen Borgohain (Assamese)[25] Jaswinder Singh (Punjabi),[17] K. Katyayani Vidhmahe (Telugu),[14] Kashi Nath Singh (Hindi),[26] Keki N. Daruwalla (English),[27] Krishna Sobti (Hindi),[14] Kumbar Veerabhadrappa (Kannada),[28] Mandakranta Sen (Bengali),[29] Manglesh Dabral (Hindi),[30] Marghoob Banihali (Kashmiri),[14] Mohan Bhandari (Punjabi),[14] Munawwar Rana (Urdu),[31] Nand Bhardwaj (Rajasthani),[32] Nayantara Sahgal (English),[33] Nirupama Borgohain (Assamese),[14] Rahman Abbas (Urdu),[34] Rahamat Tarikere (Kannada),[35] Rajesh Joshi (Hindi),[36] Sarah Joseph (Malayalam),[37] Srinath DN (Kannada),[38] Surjit Patar (Punjabi),[39] Uday Prakash (Hindi),[40][30] and Waryam Singh Sandhu (Punjabi).[13]
See also[edit]
Indian Literature
List of literary awards
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "..:: Welcome to Sahitya Akademi - About us ::." sahitya-akademi.gov.in. Retrieved 2017-03-31.
Jump up ^ "Akademi Awards". National Academy of Letters. Retrieved 23 December 2013.
Jump up ^ The Hindu. Article on the Awards for 2009
Jump up ^ Coppola, Carlo (1968). "The Sahitya Akademi Awards, 1967". Mahfil. 5 (1): 9–26.
Jump up ^ Coppola, Carlo (1968). "The Sahitya Akademi Award, 1967". Mahfil. 5 (1): 9–26.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Rao, D.S. (2004). Five Decades of The National Academy of Letters, India: A Short History of Sahitya Akademi. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 39–42.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Rao, D.S. (2004). Five Decades of The National Academy of Letters, India: A Short History of Sahitya Akademi. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 39.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rao, D. S. (2004). Five Decades of The National Academy of Letters, India: A Short History of Sahitya Akademi. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 37.
Jump up ^ Rao, D.S. (2004). Five Decades of The National Academy of Letters, India: A Short History of Sahitya Akademi. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 38.
Jump up ^ "Sahitya Akademi in a fix as returned awards pile up". The Times of India. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sahitya Akademi protest: Complete list of writers who returned their awards". International Business Times, India Edition. 13 October 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Now, six more writers return Sahitya Akademi awards". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "5 Punjabi writers join protest, return awards". The Times of India. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Here are the 33 writers who returned their Sahitya Akademi awards". The Indian Express. 25 October 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Another Gujarat-based writer Anil Joshi to return Sahitya Akademi award". dna. 12 October 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sahitya Akademi is not a govt organisation: Chairperson responds to Sahgal, Vajpeyi". Firstpost. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Three more Punjabi writers give up Sahitya Akademi award". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Bhoopal, First Telugu Writer to Return Akademi Award". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Press Trust of India (13 October 2015). "Hindi translator Chaman Lal returns Sahitya award, Odia poet". business-standard.com. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Why nine Punjabi writers have returned their Sahitya Akademi award". dailyo.in. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Against 'silence on intolerance', Ganesh Devy returns Akademi award". The Indian Express. 12 October 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Kashmiri writer Ghulam Nabi Khayal joins protest, returns Sahitya Akademi award". Firstpost. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Bhaswar Kumar (13 October 2015). "Clueless Sahitya Akademi as authors return awards". business-standard.com. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Three eminent writers from Punjab return Sahitya Akademi awards". The Indian Express. 11 October 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "PM silence 'giving rise to thuggish violence'". Gulf-Times. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "UP writer Kashi Nath Singh returns Sahitya Akademi award". Zee News. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "'Buddhi Shuddhi' Puja For Authors Who Have Returned Their Awards". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ NYOOOZ. "Malagatti quits Akademi, Kumvee and D. N. Srinath to return awards". NYOOOZ. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Mandakranta Sen returns Sahitya Akademi Award". The Economic Times. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "SAHITYA : Akademi Awards". sahitya-akademi.gov.in. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Munawwar Rana, poet who returned award, to meet PM next week". The Times of India. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Nand Bhardwaj returns Sahitya Akademi award". The Times of India. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Why Nayantara Sahgal Is Returning Her Sahitya Akademi Award After 29 Years". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Rahman Abbas turns down Sahitya Akademi plea, won't take back award". Mumbai Mirror. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Did anyone return awards after attack on Taslima Nasreen, asks Anupam Kher". India TV News. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Latest to return Sahitya Akademi award: Hindi poet Rajesh Joshi". intoday.in. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Now, Malayalam novelist Sarah Joseph returns her Sahitya Academy award". The Indian Express. 10 October 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Sahitya Akademi protest: Know who all returned literary honour". www.oneindia.com. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Punjabi poet Surjit Patar returns Sahitya Akademi Award". The Financial Express. 13 October 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "PHOTOS: All The Dissenting Sahitya Akademi Awardees And Their Prize-Winning Works". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sahitya Akademi Award.
Complete List of Sahitya Akademi Awards Winners
Sahitya Akademi Awards and Fellowships, official website
"Sahitya Akademi Awards listings". Sahitya Akademi, Official website.
"From Nayantara Sahgal to Rajesh Joshi: Here's a list of noted authors who returned Sahitya Akademi awards". Firstpost. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
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Lexington Avenue/51st Street (New York City Subway)
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Lexington Avenue/51 Street

New York City Subway rapid transit station complex
50th Street entrance to IRT southbound platform
Station statistics
Address
East 53rd Street & Lexington Avenue
New York, NY 10022
Borough
Manhattan
Locale
Midtown Manhattan
Coordinates
40°45′25″N 73°58′19″W / 40.757075°N 73.971977°W / 40.757075; -73.971977Coordinates: 40°45′25″N 73°58′19″W / 40.757075°N 73.971977°W / 40.757075; -73.971977
Division
A (IRT), B (IND)
Line
IRT Lexington Avenue Line
IND Queens Boulevard Line
Services
4 (late nights)
 6 (all times) <6> (weekdays until 8:45 p.m., peak direction)
E (all times)
 M (weekdays until 11:00 p.m.)
Transit connections
NYCT Bus: M101, M102, M103, X2, X5, X22, X22A, X31
MTA Bus: BxM1
Structure
Underground
Levels
2
Other information
Opened
December 11, 1988; 29 years ago (1988-12-11)[1]
Station code
612[2]
Accessible
ADA-accessible
Wireless service
[3]
Traffic
Passengers (2016)
19,929,405 (station complex)[4]  2.7%
Rank
11 out of 422
[show]Station service legend
Symbol
Description
Stops all times
Stops late nights only
Stops rush hours in the peak direction only
Stops weekdays only
[show]Location
Show map of New York City Subway Show map of New York City Show map of New York Show map of the US Show all
Lexington Avenue/51st Street is a New York City Subway station complex on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line and IND Queens Boulevard Line. Located on Lexington Avenue and stretching from 51st Street to 53rd Street in Midtown Manhattan, it is served by the:
6 and E trains at all times
M trains during weekdays
<6> trains during weekdays in the peak direction
4 trains during late nights
The complex comprises two separate stations: 51st Street (Lexington Avenue Line) and Lexington Avenue–53rd Street (Queens Boulevard Line).
In 2016, the station complex was ranked eleventh in ridership, with 19,929,405 passengers entering the station.[4] It is planned for the 55th Street station from Phase 3 of the Second Avenue Subway to connect to this complex.
Originally two separate stations, the Lexington Avenue–53rd Street IND station and 51st Street IRT station are now connected via a transfer passage, which was opened in 1988 upon the completion of 599 Lexington Avenue.
Contents
[hide]
1 Station layout
2 IRT Lexington Avenue Line platforms
2.1 Exits
2.2 Image gallery
3 IND Queens Boulevard Line platform
3.1 Exits
3.2 Artwork
3.3 Image gallery
4 References
5 External links
Station layout[edit]
G Street Level Exit/ Entrance
(Elevator at NE corner of 52nd Street and Lexington Avenue)
B1
Lexington Avenue Line platforms Side platform, doors will open on the right
Northbound local ← toward Pelham Bay Park ( toward Parkchester rush hours and middays) (59th Street)
← toward Woodlawn (late nights) (59th Street)
Southbound local → toward Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall ( toward New Lots Avenue late nights) (Grand Central–42nd Street) →
Side platform, doors will open on the right
B2 Northbound express ← do not stop here
Southbound express → do not stop here →
B3
Queens Boulevard Line platforms Southbound ← toward World Trade Center (Fifth Avenue/53rd Street)
← toward Middle Village (Fifth Avenue/53rd Street)
Island platform, doors will open on the left
Northbound → toward Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer (Court Square–23rd Street) →
→ toward Forest Hills–71st Avenue (Court Square–23rd Street) →
A shopping arcade outside fare control leads to a staircase and elevator inside the south side of 132 East 53rd Street that go up to the northeast corner of East 52nd Street and Lexington Avenue. There is a token booth and turnstile bank leading to the passageway between the two lines, which was added in 1989. Outside fare control under the Citigroup Center, there are two stairs and an elevator. The passageway extends to the staircases and escalators going down to the IND platform and contains a turnstile bank in the center.[5] In 2003, as part of efforts to ease crowding in the station, a mezzanine was added to connect the passageway to the Third Avenue end of the IND station.[6] About 50,000 riders transfer between the Lexington Avenue and Queens Boulevard Lines each weekday.[7]
IRT Lexington Avenue Line platforms[edit]
51 Street

New York City Subway rapid transit station
Downtown local platform
Station statistics
Address
East 51st Street & Lexington Avenue
New York, NY 10022
40°45′25″N 73°58′19″W / 40.757075°N 73.971977°W / 40.757075; -73.971977
Division
A (IRT)
Line
IRT Lexington Avenue Line
Services
4 (late nights)
 6 (all times) <6> (weekdays until 8:45 p.m., peak direction)
Platforms
2 side platforms
Tracks
2
Other information
Opened
July 17, 1918; 99 years ago (1918-07-17)
Station code
401[2]
Accessible
ADA-accessible
Wireless service
[3]
Station succession
Next north
59th Street: 4 6 <6>
Next south
Grand Central–42nd Street: 4 6 <6>
Next north
125th Street: 4 6 <6>
Next south
Grand Central–42nd Street: 4 6 <6>
[show]Station service legend
Symbol
Description
Stops all times
Stops late nights only
Stops rush hours in the peak direction only
[hide]
[
v
t
e
]
Track layout
Legend
to 59 St
to 42 St
51st Street on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, opened on July 17, 1918, is a local station with two local tracks and two side platforms. The two express tracks, used by the 4 and 5 trains during daytime hours, pass through a lower level and are not visible from the platforms. Both platforms have emergency exits from the lower level express tracks.
The station features modern beige bricks over the original tiles, but the standard IRT-style mosaics remain intact. There is a crossunder at the extreme north end of the platforms with an elevator on each side and an up-only escalator on the Brooklyn Bridge-bound side. A ceramic artwork called Tunnel Vision by Nina Yankowitz was installed here in 1989.
The passageway to the IND Queens Boulevard Line is on the extreme north end of the northbound platform, with a crossunder to the southbound side. This crossunder features stairs and an up-only escalators.
The platforms are approximately 25 feet below street level and the station's full-time fare control areas are at the center of each. A staircase of seven steps goes up to a turnstile bank, with a token booth and two exits to each corner on each side outside fare control.
This station is the southernmost station on the Lexington Avenue Line to be directly under Lexington Avenue itself. South of here, the line shifts slightly westward to Park Avenue.
Exits[edit]
The southbound platform has a part-time fare control area near the south end. A seven-step staircase goes up to a turnstile bank. Outside fare control, there is a customer assistance booth and one staircase going up to the front entrance of the Doubletree Metropolitan Hotel on the southwest corner of Lexington Avenue and East 50th Street.[8][5] The New York Public Library's Terence Cardinal Cooke-Cathedral Branch is located within this exit, just outside of fare control. The 2,100-square-foot (200 m2) branch, the second smallest in the NYPL system, became part of the New York Public Library in 1992. Before that, it was a library for the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York.[9]
At Lexington Avenue and 51st Street, eight stairs go up to all four corners of that intersection (two to each corner). The eastern stairs serve the northbound platform, and the western stairs serve the southbound platform.[5]
Image gallery[edit]
51st Street tiles
Southbound street stair
IND Queens Boulevard Line platform[edit]
Lexington Avenue–53 Street

New York City Subway rapid transit station
Looking south on the platform leading to the transfer
Station statistics
Address
Lexington Avenue & East 53rd Street
New York, NY 10022
40°45′30″N 73°58′16″W / 40.758343°N 73.971033°W / 40.758343; -73.971033
Division
B (IND)
Line
IND Queens Boulevard Line
Services
E (all times)
 M (weekdays until 11:00 p.m.)
Platforms
1 island platform
Tracks
2
Other information
Opened
August 19, 1933; 84 years ago (1933-08-19)[10][11]
Station code
275[2]
Accessible
ADA-accessible
Wireless service
[3]
Former/other names
Lexington–3rd Avenues
Station succession
Next north
Court Square–23rd Street: E M
Next south
Fifth Avenue/53rd Street: E M
Next north
Queens Plaza: E M
Next south
50th Street (via Queens Blvd): E (southbound only)
47th–50th Streets–Rockefeller Center (via 6th): M
[show]Station service legend
Symbol
Description
Stops all times
Stops weekdays only
[hide]
Track layout
Legend
to Court Sq–23 St
to 5 Av/53 St
Lexington Avenue–53rd Street on the IND Queens Boulevard Line opened on August 19, 1933[10][11] and has two tracks and one island platform. It was built 70 feet (21 m) below street level, as the line had to pass beneath all of the north–south subway lines that were built before it. As a result, long escalators and staircases are required to reach the mezzanine from the platform.[10][11]
There are no tiles, trim line, or mosaics on the track walls. East of this station (railroad north), the line goes under the East River to Long Island City, Queens.
Exits[edit]
This station has an unstaffed entrance/exit at the east (railroad north) end. One escalator and one elevator from the platform goes up to a turnstile bank, where two staircases go up to either western corners of Third Avenue and 53rd Street. A larger staircase goes up to the entrance plaza of 205 East 53rd Street at the northeast corner, and there is also an entrance/exit from under the southeast-corner building. The original name, Lexington–3rd Avenues, came from this exit.[5]
At the extreme west (railroad south) end of the platform, a bank of two escalators and one staircase (which were once the longest in the world), a single escalator, and one ADA-accessible elevator go up to the full-time mezzanine with a token booth, where a turnstile bank provide entrance/exit from the station. One glass-enclosed staircase goes up to the entrance plaza of 132 East 53rd Street at the southeast corner of Lexington Avenue. A larger staircase goes up to a sunken shopping plaza of the Citigroup Center at the northeast corner of the aforementioned intersection.[5]
Artwork[edit]
In 1976, with funding from the Exxon Corporation, this station, as well as three others citywide, received new "artfully humorous graffiti" murals and artwork.[12] Local designer Sperling Elman Inc. received $5,000 to place a new coat of paint on the entrances. The paint was placed "in a variety of colors and in broad stripes."[12]
The 2004 artwork here is called Passing Through by Al Held. It features glass mosaic on the mezzanine walls.
Image gallery[edit]
Stair at the foot of 599 Lexington Avenue
Older signage, since removed from the station
Railfan window picture of E train entering Lexington Avenue–53rd Street station
An M train of R160As on the downtown track
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Guide to December 11, 1988, version of the New York City Subway map
^ Jump up to: a b c "Station Developers' Information". Metropolitan Transportation Authority. Retrieved June 13, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "NYC Subway Wireless – Active Stations". Transit Wireless Wifi. Retrieved May 18, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Facts and Figures: Annual Subway Ridership 2011–2016". Metropolitan Transportation Authority. May 31, 2017. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "MTA Neighborhood Maps: Midtown East/Grand Central" (PDF). mta.info. Metropolitan Transportation Authority. 2015. Retrieved December 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ Feldman, Jason. "Contractors Construct 200-ft.-long Mezzanine Under 53rd St". New York Construction. Retrieved November 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Potential East Midtown Transit Improvements" (PDF). www.cb5.org. Metropolitan Transportation Authority. October 2012. p. 28. Retrieved February 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ Station Reporter — 51st Street/Lexington Avenue Complex Archived July 26, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Kilgannon, Corey (2010-10-24). "A New York Public Library Branch That's a Commuter's Secret". The New York Times. Retrieved 2018-01-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c "New Queens Subway Service Will Be Launched Tonight; Tunnel From Manhattan Open to Jackson Heights; Service Will Eventually Be Extended Through To Jamaica". Long Island Daily Press. Fultonhistory.com. August 18, 1933. p. 20. Retrieved July 27, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "New Queens Tube To Open Saturday: Brooklyn-Long Island City Link of City Line Also to Be Put in Operation". New York Evening Post. Fultonhistory.com. August 17, 1933. p. 18. Retrieved July 27, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Burks, Edward C. (November 18, 1976). "A Subway Elongatomus? Why, It's Preposterous!". The New York Times. Retrieved September 21, 2016.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lexington Avenue / 51st – 53rd Streets (New York City Subway).
nycsubway.org – IRT East Side Line: 51st Street
nycsubway.org — Tunnel Vision Artwork by Nina Yankowitz (1989)
nycsubway.org — Passing Through Artwork by Al Held (2004)
Station Reporter — 51st Street/Lexington Avenue Complex
MTA's Arts For Transit — 51st Street/Lexington Avenue-53rd Street Page 1
MTA's Arts For Transit — Lexington Avenue-53rd Street Page 2
nycsubway.org – IND Queens Boulevard Line: Lexington Avenue/53rd Street
MTA's Arts For Transit — Lexington Avenue–53rd Street
MTA's Arts For Transit — 51st Street/Lexington Avenue - 53rd Street
Lexington Avenue and 53rd Street entrance from Google Maps Street View
Lexington Avenue and 52nd Street entrance from Google Maps Street View
Lexington Avenue and 51st Street entrance from Google Maps Street View
Lexington Avenue and 50th Street entrance from Google Maps Street View
Third Avenue and 53rd Street entrance from Google Maps Street View
IND platform from Google Maps Street View
IRT platforms from Google Maps Street View
Lobby from Google Maps Street View
[show]
v
t
e
Stations of the New York City Subway, by service
Lex Av./Pelham Local &
Lex Av. Lcl./Pelham Exp.
Pelham Bay Park
Buhre Avenue
Middletown Road
Westchester Square–East Tremont Avenue
Zerega Avenue
Castle Hill Avenue
Parkchester
St. Lawrence Avenue
Morrison Avenue–Soundview
Elder Avenue
Whitlock Avenue
Hunts Point Avenue
Longwood Avenue
East 149th Street
East 143rd Street–St. Mary's Street
Cypress Avenue
Brook Avenue
Third Avenue–138th Street
125th Street
116th Street
110th Street
103rd Street
96th Street
86th Street
77th Street
68th Street–Hunter College
59th Street
51st Street
Grand Central–42nd Street
33rd Street
28th Street
23rd Street
14th Street
Astor Place
Bleecker Street
Spring Street
Canal Street
Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall
8 Av. Local
Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer
Sutphin Boulevard–Archer Avenue–JFK Airport
Jamaica–Van Wyck
Briarwood*
Kew Gardens–Union Turnpike
75th Avenue*
71st Avenue
67th Avenue*
63rd Drive–Rego Park*
Woodhaven Boulevard*
Grand Avenue–Newtown*
Elmhurst Avenue*
Jackson Heights–Roosevelt Avenue
65th Street*
Northern Boulevard*
46th Street*
Steinway Street*
36th Street*
Queens Plaza
Court Square
Lexington Avenue–53rd Street
Fifth Avenue/53rd Street
Seventh Avenue
50th Street
42nd Street–Port Authority Bus Terminal
34th Street–Penn Station
23rd Street–Eighth Avenue
14th Street
West Fourth Street–Washington Square
Spring Street
Canal Street
World Trade Center
6 Av. Local
71st Avenue
67th Avenue
63rd Drive–Rego Park
Woodhaven Boulevard
Grand Avenue–Newtown
Elmhurst Avenue
Jackson Heights–Roosevelt Avenue
65th Street
Northern Boulevard
46th Street
Steinway Street
36th Street
Queens Plaza
Court Square
Lexington Avenue–53rd Street
Fifth Avenue/53rd Street
47th–50th Streets–Rockefeller Center
42nd Street–Bryant Park
34th Street–Herald Square
23rd Street–Sixth Avenue
14th Street/Sixth Avenue
West Fourth Street–Washington Square
Broadway–Lafayette Street
Essex Street
Marcy Avenue
Hewes Street
Lorimer Street
Flushing Avenue
Myrtle Avenue
Central Avenue
Knickerbocker Avenue
Myrtle–Wyckoff Avenues
Seneca Avenue
Forest Avenue
Fresh Pond Road
Middle Village–Metropolitan Avenue
See also
Lists by borough (The Bronx
Brooklyn
Manhattan
Queens)
Accessible
Closed
Terminals
Transfer
Commons category
Note: Temporary station closures and reroutes, including on the 2 or 5 trains are not reflected here.
Stations with asterisks are served by that service during off-peak hours only. See linked articles for more information.
[show]
v
t
e
Stations of the New York City Subway, by line (physical trackage)
Lexington Ave. Line
[← to 138th Street–Grand Concourse, Jerome Ave. Line / ← to Third Avenue–138th Street, Pelham Line]
125th Street
116th Street
110th Street
103rd Street
96th Street
86th Street
77th Street
68th Street–Hunter College
59th Street
51st Street
Grand Central–42nd Street
33rd Street
28th Street
23rd Street
18th Street
14th Street
Astor Place
Bleecker Street
Spring Street
Canal Street
Worth Street
Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall
←City Hall
Fulton Street
Wall Street
Bowling Green
[to Borough Hall, Eastern Pkwy. Line →]
South Ferry loops
Queens Blvd. Line
[← to 42nd Street–Port Authority Bus Terminal, 8th Ave. Line]
50th Street
Seventh Avenue
[← to 47th–50th Streets–Rockefeller Center, 6th Ave. Line]
Fifth Avenue/53rd Street
Lexington Avenue–53rd Street
Court Square–23rd Street
[← to Lexington Avenue/59th Street, Broadway Line via 60th Street Tunnel and connection / ← to Court Square, Crosstown Line]
Queens Plaza
[← to 21st Street–Queensbridge, 63rd Street Lines]
36th Street
Steinway Street
46th Street
Northern Boulevard
65th Street
Jackson Heights–Roosevelt Avenue
Elmhurst Avenue
Grand Avenue–Newtown
Woodhaven Boulevard
63rd Drive–Rego Park
67th Avenue
71st Avenue
75th Avenue
Kew Gardens–Union Turnpike
Briarwood
[to Jamaica–Van Wyck, Archer Avenue Lines →]
Sutphin Boulevard
Parsons Boulevard
169th Street
Jamaica–179th Street
See also
Lists by borough (The Bronx
Brooklyn
Manhattan
Queens)
Accessible
Closed
Terminals
Transfer
Commons category
Stations and line segments in italics are closed, demolished, or planned. Track connections to other lines' terminals are displayed in brackets. Struck through passenger track connections are closed or unused in regular service.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lexington_Avenue/51st_Street_(New_York_City_Subway)&oldid=833019101"
Categories:
Accessible New York City Subway stations
IRT Lexington Avenue Line stations
IND Queens Boulevard Line stations
New York City Subway transfer stations
New York City Subway stations in Manhattan
New York City Subway stations located underground
Railway stations opened in 1918
1918 establishments in New York (state)
Midtown Manhattan
Hidden categories:
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Use mdy dates from August 2017
Coordinates on Wikidata
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Evolution of nervous systems
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Neuroevolution.
For a theory of evolution in nervous systems, see Neural Darwinism.
The evolution of nervous systems dates back to the first development of nervous systems in animals (or metazoans). Neurons developed as specialized electrical signaling cells in multicellular animals, adapting the mechanism of action potentials present in motile single-celled and colonial eukaryotes. Simple nerve nets seen in animals like cnidaria evolved first, followed by nerve cords in bilateral animals – ventral nerve cords in invertebrates and dorsal nerve cords supported by a notochord in chordates. Bilateralization led to the evolution of brains, a process called cephalization.
Contents
[hide]
1 Neural precursors
2 Sponges
3 Nerve nets
4 Nerve cords
4.1 Worms
4.2 Arthropods
4.3 In amphibians
4.3.1 Evolution of innate behaviors
5 Evolution of central nervous systems
5.1 Evolution of the human brain
6 See also
7 References
Neural precursors[edit]
See also: Action potential § Taxonomic distribution and evolutionary advantages
Action potentials, which are necessary for neural activity, evolved in single-celled eukaryotes. These use calcium rather than sodium action potentials, but the mechanism was probably adapted into neural electrical signaling in multicellular animals. In some colonial eukaryotes such as Obelia electrical signals do propagate not only through neural nets, but also through epithelial cells in the shared digestive system of the colony.[1]
Sponges[edit]
Sponges have no cells connected to each other by synaptic junctions, that is, no neurons, and therefore no nervous system. They do, however, have homologs of many genes that play key roles in synaptic function. Recent studies have shown that sponge cells express a group of proteins that cluster together to form a structure resembling a postsynaptic density (the signal-receiving part of a synapse).[2] However, the function of this structure is currently unclear. Although sponge cells do not show synaptic transmission, they do communicate with each other via calcium waves and other impulses, which mediate some simple actions such as whole-body contraction.[3]
Nerve nets[edit]
Main article: Nerve net
Jellyfish, comb jellies, and related animals have diffuse nerve nets rather than a central nervous system. In most jellyfish the nerve net is spread more or less evenly across the body; in comb jellies it is concentrated near the mouth. The nerve nets consist of sensory neurons that pick up chemical, tactile, and visual signals, motor neurons that can activate contractions of the body wall, and intermediate neurons that detect patterns of activity in the sensory neurons and send signals to groups of motor neurons as a result. In some cases groups of intermediate neurons are clustered into discrete ganglia.[4]
The development of the nervous system in radiata is relatively unstructured. Unlike bilaterians, radiata only have two primordial cell layers, endoderm and ectoderm. Neurons are generated from a special set of ectodermal precursor cells, which also serve as precursors for every other ectodermal cell type.[5]
Nerve cords[edit]
Nervous system of a bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front
The vast majority of existing animals are bilaterians, meaning animals with left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other. All bilateria are thought to have descended from a common wormlike ancestor that appeared in the Ediacaran period, 550–600 million years ago.[6] The fundamental bilaterian body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from mouth to anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a "ganglion") for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the "brain".
Area of the human body surface innervated by each spinal nerve
Even mammals, including humans, show the segmented bilaterian body plan at the level of the nervous system. The spinal cord contains a series of segmental ganglia, each giving rise to motor and sensory nerves that innervate a portion of the body surface and underlying musculature. On the limbs, the layout of the innervation pattern is complex, but on the trunk it gives rise to a series of narrow bands. The top three segments belong to the brain, giving rise to the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.[7]
Bilaterians can be divided, based on events that occur very early in embryonic development, into two groups (superphyla) called protostomes and deuterostomes.[8] Deuterostomes include vertebrates as well as echinoderms, hemichordates (mainly acorn worms), and Xenoturbellidans.[9] Protostomes, the more diverse group, include arthropods, molluscs, and numerous types of worms. There is a basic difference between the two groups in the placement of the nervous system within the body: protostomes possess a nerve cord on the ventral (usually bottom) side of the body, whereas in deuterostomes the nerve cord is on the dorsal (usually top) side. In fact, numerous aspects of the body are inverted between the two groups, including the expression patterns of several genes that show dorsal-to-ventral gradients. Most anatomists now consider that the bodies of protostomes and deuterostomes are "flipped over" with respect to each other, a hypothesis that was first proposed by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire for insects in comparison to vertebrates. Thus insects, for example, have nerve cords that run along the ventral midline of the body, while all vertebrates have spinal cords that run along the dorsal midline.[10]
Worms[edit]
Earthworm nervous system. Top: side view of the front of the worm. Bottom: nervous system in isolation, viewed from above
Worms are the simplest bilaterian animals, and reveal the basic structure of the bilaterian nervous system in the most straightforward way. [11] As an example, earthworms have dual nerve cords running along the length of the body and merging at the tail and the mouth. These nerve cords are connected by transverse nerves like the rungs of a ladder. These transverse nerves help coordinate the two sides of the animal. Two ganglia at the head end function similar to a simple brain. Photoreceptors on the animal's eyespots provide sensory information on light and dark.[12]
The nervous system of one very small worm, the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, has been mapped out down to the synaptic level. Every neuron and its cellular lineage has been recorded and most, if not all, of the neural connections are known. In this species, the nervous system is sexually dimorphic; the nervous systems of the two sexes, males and hermaphrodites, have different numbers of neurons and groups of neurons that perform sex-specific functions. In C. elegans, males have exactly 383 neurons, while hermaphrodites have exactly 302 neurons.[13]
Arthropods[edit]
Internal anatomy of a spider, showing the nervous system in blue
Arthropods, such as insects and crustaceans, have a nervous system made up of a series of ganglia, connected by a ventral nerve cord made up of two parallel connectives running along the length of the belly.[14] Typically, each body segment has one ganglion on each side, though some ganglia are fused to form the brain and other large ganglia. The head segment contains the brain, also known as the supraesophageal ganglion. In the insect nervous system, the brain is anatomically divided into the protocerebrum, deutocerebrum, and tritocerebrum. Immediately behind the brain is the subesophageal ganglion, which is composed of three pairs of fused ganglia. It controls the mouthparts, the salivary glands and certain muscles. Many arthropods have well-developed sensory organs, including compound eyes for vision and antennae for olfaction and pheromone sensation. The sensory information from these organs is processed by the brain.
In insects, many neurons have cell bodies that are positioned at the edge of the brain and are electrically passive—the cell bodies serve only to provide metabolic support and do not participate in signalling. A protoplasmic fiber runs from the cell body and branches profusely, with some parts transmitting signals and other parts receiving signals. Thus, most parts of the insect brain have passive cell bodies arranged around the periphery, while the neural signal processing takes place in a tangle of protoplasmic fibers called neuropil, in the interior.[15]
In amphibians[edit]
Amphibian Metamorphosis
Iodine and T4 stimulate the spectacular apoptosis (programmed cell death) of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins, and also stimulate the evolution of the nervous system transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog with better neurological, visuospatial, olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting. Contrary to amphibian metamorphosis, thyroidectomy and hypothyroidism in mammals may be considered a sort of phylogenetic, metabolic and neurologic regression to a former stage of reptilian life. Indeed, many disorders that seem to afflict hypothyroid humans have reptilian-like features, such as a general slowdown of nervous reflexes with lethargic cerebration, metabolism, digestion, heart rate, hypothermia and a dry, hairless, scaly, cold skin.[16] [17]
Evolution of innate behaviors[edit]
Main article: Caridoid escape reaction § Evolution of the tail flip escape mechanism
Behaviors such as the "tail-flip" escape reaction in crustacea such as crayfish and lobsters are fixed action patterns that may have evolved from earlier ancestral patterns.
Evolution of central nervous systems[edit]
Main articles: Evolution of the brain, Cephalization, and Brain size
Further information: Evolution of the eye
Evolution of the human brain[edit]
Further information: Evolution of human intelligence and Human brain § Comparative anatomy
There has been a gradual increase in brain volume as the ancestors of modern humans progressed along the human timeline of evolution (see Homininae), starting from about 600 cm3 in Homo habilis up to 1736 cm3 in Homo neanderthalensis. Thus, in general there is a correlation between brain volume and intelligence.[18] However, modern Homo sapiens have a smaller brain volume (brain size 1250 cm3) than neanderthals; women have a brain volume slightly smaller than men, and the Flores hominids (Homo floresiensis), nicknamed "hobbits", had a cranial capacity of about 380 cm3, about a third of the Homo erectus average and considered small for a chimpanzee. It is proposed that they evolved from H. erectus as a case of insular dwarfism. In spite of their threefold smaller brain there is evidence that H. floresiensis used fire and made stone tools as sophisticated as those of their proposed ancestor, H. erectus.[19] Iain Davidson summarizes the opposite evolutionary constraints on human brain size as "As large as you need and as small as you can".[20]
Brain evolution can be studied using endocasts, a branch of neurology and paleontology called paleoneurology.
See also[edit]
Evolutionary developmental biology
Evolutionary neuroscience
Noogenesis
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Matthews, Gary G. (2001). "Evolution of nervous systems". Neurobiology: molecules, cells, and systems. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 21. ISBN 0-632-04496-9.
Jump up ^ Sakarya O, Armstrong KA, Adamska M, et al. (2007). Vosshall L, ed. "A post-synaptic scaffold at the origin of the animal kingdom". PLoS ONE. 2 (6): e506. PMC 1876816  . PMID 17551586. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000506.
Jump up ^ Jacobs DK, Nakanishi N, Yuan D, et al. (2007). "Evolution of sensory structures in basal metazoa". Integr Comp Biol. 47 (5): 712–723. PMID 21669752. doi:10.1093/icb/icm094.
Jump up ^ Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD (2004). Invertebrate Zoology (7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. 111–124. ISBN 0-03-025982-7.
Jump up ^ Sanes DH, Reh TA, Harris WA (2006). Development of the nervous system. Academic Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-12-618621-5.
Jump up ^ Balavoine G (2003). "The segmented Urbilateria: A testable scenario". Int Comp Biology. 43 (1): 137–47. doi:10.1093/icb/43.1.137.
Jump up ^ Ghysen A (2003). "The origin and evolution of the nervous system". Int. J. Dev. Biol. 47 (7–8): 555–62. PMID 14756331.
Jump up ^ Erwin DH, Davidson EH (July 2002). "The last common bilaterian ancestor". Development. 129 (13): 3021–32. PMID 12070079.
Jump up ^ Bourlat SJ, Juliusdottir T, Lowe CJ, et al. (November 2006). "Deuterostome phylogeny reveals monophyletic chordates and the new phylum Xenoturbellida". Nature. 444 (7115): 85–8. PMID 17051155. doi:10.1038/nature05241.
Jump up ^ Lichtneckert R, Reichert H (May 2005). "Insights into the urbilaterian brain: conserved genetic patterning mechanisms in insect and vertebrate brain development". Heredity. 94 (5): 465–77. PMID 15770230. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800664.
Jump up ^ "Ediacaran fauna worms". Walter Jahn. Retrieved 9 January 2017. – Suny Orange
Jump up ^ ADEY WR (February 1951). "The nervous system of the earthworm Megascolex". J. Comp. Neurol. 94 (1): 57–103. PMID 14814220. doi:10.1002/cne.900940104.
Jump up ^ "Wormbook: Specification of the nervous system".
Jump up ^ Chapman RF (1998). "Ch. 20: Nervous system". The insects: structure and function. Cambridge University Press. pp. 533–568. ISBN 978-0-521-57890-5.
Jump up ^ Chapman, p. 546
Jump up ^ Venturi, Sebastiano (2011). "Evolutionary Significance of Iodine". Current Chemical Biology-. 5 (3): 155–162. ISSN 1872-3136. doi:10.2174/187231311796765012.
Jump up ^ Venturi, Sebastiano (2014). "Iodine, PUFAs and Iodolipids in Health and Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective". Human Evolution-. 29 (1-3): 185–205. ISSN 0393-9375.
Jump up ^ Ko, Kwang Hyun (2016). "Origins of human intelligence: The chain of tool-making and brain evolution" (PDF). Anthropological Notebooks. 22 (1): 5–22.
Jump up ^ Brown P, Sutikna T, Morwood MJ, et al. (2004). "A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia". Nature. 431 (7012): 1055–61. PMID 15514638. doi:10.1038/nature02999.
Jump up ^ Davidson, Iain. "As large as you need and as small as you can'--implications of the brain size of Homo floresiensis, (Iain Davidson)". Une-au.academia.edu. Retrieved 2011-10-30.
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p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

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uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

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