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Microwave
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This article is about the electromagnetic wave. For the cooking appliance, see Microwave oven. For other uses, see Microwaves (disambiguation).
A telecommunications tower with a variety of dish antennas for microwave relay links on Frazier Peak, Ventura County, California. The apertures of the dishes are covered by plastic sheets (radomes) to keep out moisture.
The atmospheric attenuation of microwaves and far infrared radiation in dry air with a precipitable water vapor level of 0.001 mm. The downward spikes in the graph correspond to frequencies at which microwaves are absorbed more strongly. This graph includes a range of frequencies from 0 to 1 THz; the microwaves are the subset in the range between 0.3 and 300 gigahertz.
Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from one meter to one millimeter; with frequencies between 300 MHz (100 cm) and 300 GHz (0.1 cm).[1][2][3][4][5] Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves; the above broad definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter wave) bands. A more common definition in radio engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz (wavelengths between 300 and 3 mm).[2] In all cases, microwaves include the entire SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum. Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations: S, C, X, Ku, K, or Ka band, or by similar NATO or EU designations.
The prefix micro- in microwave is not meant to suggest a wavelength in the micrometer range. It indicates that microwaves are "small", compared to the radio waves used prior to microwave technology, in that they have shorter wavelengths. The boundaries between far infrared, terahertz radiation, microwaves, and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study.
Microwaves travel by line-of-sight; unlike lower frequency radio waves they do not diffract around hills, follow the earth's surface as ground waves, or reflect from the ionosphere, so terrestrial microwave communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles (64 km). At the high end of the band they are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, limiting practical communication distances to around a kilometer. Microwaves are extremely widely used in modern technology. They are used for point-to-point communication links, wireless networks, microwave radio relay networks, radar, satellite and spacecraft communication, medical diathermy and cancer treatment, remote sensing, radio astronomy, particle accelerators, spectroscopy, industrial heating, collision avoidance systems, garage door openers and keyless entry systems, and for cooking food in microwave ovens.
Contents
[hide]
1 Electromagnetic spectrum
2 Propagation
2.1 Troposcatter
3 Antennas
4 Difference between microwave and radio frequency technology
5 Microwave sources
6 Microwave uses
6.1 Communication
6.2 Navigation
6.3 Radar
6.4 Radio astronomy
6.5 Heating and power application
6.6 Spectroscopy
7 Microwave frequency bands
8 Microwave frequency measurement
9 Effects on health
10 History and research
11 See also
12 References
13 External links
Electromagnetic spectrum
Microwaves occupy a place in the electromagnetic spectrum with frequency above ordinary radio waves, and below infrared light:
Electromagnetic spectrum
Name
Wavelength
Frequency (Hz)
Photon energy (eV)
Gamma ray < 0.02 nm > 15 EHz > 62.1 keV
X-ray 0.01 nm – 10 nm 30 EHz – 30 PHz 124 keV – 124 eV
Ultraviolet 10 nm – 400 nm 30 PHz – 750 THz 124 eV – 3 eV
Visible light 390 nm – 750 nm 770 THz – 400 THz 3.2 eV – 1.7 eV
Infrared 750 nm – 1 mm 400 THz – 300 GHz 1.7 eV – 1.24 meV
Microwave 1 mm – 1 m 300 GHz – 300 MHz 1.24 meV – 1.24 µeV
Radio 1 mm – 100 km 300 GHz – 3 kHz 1.24 µeV – 12.4 feV
In descriptions of the electromagnetic spectrum, many sources classify microwaves as radio waves; microwaves are a subset of the radio wave band; while others classify microwaves and radio waves as distinct types of radiation. This is an arbitrary distinction.
Propagation
Main article: Radio propagation
Microwaves travel solely by line-of-sight paths; unlike lower frequency radio waves, they do not travel as ground waves which follow the contour of the Earth, or reflect off the ionosphere (skywaves).[6] Although at the low end of the band they can pass through building walls enough for useful reception, usually rights of way cleared to the first Fresnel zone are required. Therefore, on the surface of the Earth, microwave communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 30–40 miles (48–64 km). Microwaves are absorbed by moisture in the atmosphere, and the attenuation increases with frequency, becoming a significant factor (rain fade) at the high end of the band. Beginning at about 40 GHz, atmospheric gases also begin to absorb microwaves, so above this frequency microwave transmission is limited to a few kilometers. A spectral band structure causes absorption peaks at specific frequencies (see graph at right). Above 100 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth's atmosphere is so great that it is in effect opaque, until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the so-called infrared and optical window frequency ranges.
Troposcatter
Main article: Tropospheric scatter
In a microwave beam directed at an angle into the sky, a small amount of the power will be randomly scattered as the beam passes through the troposphere.[6] A sensitive receiver beyond the horizon with a high gain antenna focused on that area of the troposphere can pick up the signal. This technique has been used at frequencies between 0.45 and 5 GHz in tropospheric scatter (troposcatter) communication systems to communicate beyond the horizon, at distances up to 300 km.
Antennas
Waveguide is used to carry microwaves. Example of waveguides and a diplexer in an air traffic control radar
The short wavelengths of microwaves allow omnidirectional antennas for portable devices to be made very small, from 1 to 20 centimeters long, so microwave frequencies are widely used for wireless devices such as cell phones, cordless phones, and wireless LANs (Wifi) access for laptops, and Bluetooth earphones. Antennas used include rubber ducky antennas, sleeve dipoles, patch antennas, and increasingly the inverted F antenna (PIFA) used in cell phones.
Their short wavelength also allows narrow beams of microwaves to be produced by conveniently small high gain antennas from a half meter to 5 meters in diameter. Therefore, beams of microwaves are used for point-to-point communication links, and for radar. An advantage of narrow beams is that they don't interfere with nearby equipment using the same frequency, allowing frequency reuse by nearby transmitters. Parabolic ("dish") antennas are the most widely used directive antennas at microwave frequencies, but horn antennas, slot antennas and dielectric lens antennas are also used. Flat microstrip antennas are being increasingly used in consumer devices. Another directive antenna practical at microwave frequencies is the phased array, a computer-controlled array of antennas which produces a beam which can be electronically steered in different directions.
At microwave frequencies, the transmission lines which are used to carry lower frequency radio waves to and from antennas, such as coaxial cable and parallel wire lines, have excessive power losses, so when low attenuation is required microwaves are carried by metal pipes called waveguides. Due to the high cost and maintenance requirements of waveguide runs, in many microwave antennas the output stage of the transmitter or the RF front end of the receiver is located at the antenna.
Difference between microwave and radio frequency technology
The term microwave also has a more technical meaning in electromagnetics and circuit theory. Apparatus and techniques may be described qualitatively as "microwave" when the frequencies used are high enough that wavelengths of signals are roughly the same as the dimensions of the circuit, so that lumped-element circuit theory is inaccurate, and instead distributed circuit elements and transmission-line theory are more useful methods for design and analysis. As a consequence, practical microwave circuits tend to move away from the discrete resistors, capacitors, and inductors used with lower-frequency radio waves. Open-wire and coaxial transmission lines used at lower frequencies are replaced by waveguides and stripline, and lumped-element tuned circuits are replaced by cavity resonators or resonant stubs. In turn, at even higher frequencies, where the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves becomes small in comparison to the size of the structures used to process them, microwave techniques become inadequate, and the methods of optics are used.
Microwave sources
Cutaway view inside a cavity magnetron as used in a microwave oven (left). Antenna splitter: microstrip techniques become increasingly necessary at higher frequencies (right).
Disassembled radar speed gun. The grey assembly attached to the end of the copper-colored horn antenna is the Gunn diode which generates the microwaves.
High-power microwave sources use specialized vacuum tubes to generate microwaves. These devices operate on different principles from low-frequency vacuum tubes, using the ballistic motion of electrons in a vacuum under the influence of controlling electric or magnetic fields, and include the magnetron (used in microwave ovens), klystron, traveling-wave tube (TWT), and gyrotron. These devices work in the density modulated mode, rather than the current modulated mode. This means that they work on the basis of clumps of electrons flying ballistically through them, rather than using a continuous stream of electrons.
Low-power microwave sources use solid-state devices such as the field-effect transistor (at least at lower frequencies), tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, and IMPATT diodes.[7] Low-power sources are available as benchtop instruments, rackmount instruments, embeddable modules and in card-level formats. A maser is a solid state device which amplifies microwaves using similar principles to the laser, which amplifies higher frequency light waves.
All warm objects emit low level microwave black-body radiation, depending on their temperature, so in meteorology and remote sensing microwave radiometers are used to measure the temperature of objects or terrain.[8] The sun[9] and other astronomical radio sources such as Cassiopeia A emit low level microwave radiation which carries information about their makeup, which is studied by radio astronomers using receivers called radio telescopes.[8] The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR), for example, is a weak microwave noise filling empty space which is a major source of information on cosmology's Big Bang theory of the origin of the Universe.
Microwave uses
Microwave technology is extensively used for point-to-point telecommunications (i.e. non-broadcast uses). Microwaves are especially suitable for this use since they are more easily focused into narrower beams than radio waves, allowing frequency reuse; their comparatively higher frequencies allow broad bandwidth and high data transmission rates, and antenna sizes are smaller than at lower frequencies because antenna size is inversely proportional to transmitted frequency. Microwaves are used in spacecraft communication, and much of the world's data, TV, and telephone communications are transmitted long distances by microwaves between ground stations and communications satellites. Microwaves are also employed in microwave ovens and in radar technology.
Communication
A satellite dish on a residence, which receives satellite television over a Ku band 12–14 GHz microwave beam from a direct broadcast communications satellite in a geostationary orbit 35,700 kilometres (22,000 miles) above the Earth.
Main articles: Point-to-point (telecommunications), Microwave transmission, and Satellite communications
Before the advent of fiber-optic transmission, most long-distance telephone calls were carried via networks of microwave radio relay links run by carriers such as AT&T Long Lines. Starting in the early 1950s, frequency division multiplex was used to send up to 5,400 telephone channels on each microwave radio channel, with as many as ten radio channels combined into one antenna for the hop to the next site, up to 70 km away.
Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11 specifications used for Wi-Fi, also use microwaves in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, although 802.11a uses ISM band and U-NII frequencies in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless Internet Access services have been used for almost a decade in many countries in the 3.5–4.0 GHz range. The FCC recently[when?] carved out spectrum for carriers that wish to offer services in this range in the U.S. — with emphasis on 3.65 GHz. Dozens of service providers across the country are securing or have already received licenses from the FCC to operate in this band. The WIMAX service offerings that can be carried on the 3.65 GHz band will give business customers another option for connectivity.
Metropolitan area network (MAN) protocols, such as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) are based on standards such as IEEE 802.16, designed to operate between 2 and 11 GHz. Commercial implementations are in the 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz and 5.8 GHz ranges.
Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) protocols based on standards specifications such as IEEE 802.20 or ATIS/ANSI HC-SDMA (such as iBurst) operate between 1.6 and 2.3 GHz to give mobility and in-building penetration characteristics similar to mobile phones but with vastly greater spectral efficiency.[10]
Some mobile phone networks, like GSM, use the low-microwave/high-UHF frequencies around 1.8 and 1.9 GHz in the Americas and elsewhere, respectively. DVB-SH and S-DMB use 1.452 to 1.492 GHz, while proprietary/incompatible satellite radio in the U.S. uses around 2.3 GHz for DARS.
Microwave radio is used in broadcasting and telecommunication transmissions because, due to their short wavelength, highly directional antennas are smaller and therefore more practical than they would be at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies). There is also more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum than in the rest of the radio spectrum; the usable bandwidth below 300 MHz is less than 300 MHz while many GHz can be used above 300 MHz. Typically, microwaves are used in television news to transmit a signal from a remote location to a television station from a specially equipped van. See broadcast auxiliary service (BAS), remote pickup unit (RPU), and studio/transmitter link (STL).
Most satellite communications systems operate in the C, X, Ka, or Ku bands of the microwave spectrum. These frequencies allow large bandwidth while avoiding the crowded UHF frequencies and staying below the atmospheric absorption of EHF frequencies. Satellite TV either operates in the C band for the traditional large dish fixed satellite service or Ku band for direct-broadcast satellite. Military communications run primarily over X or Ku-band links, with Ka band being used for Milstar.
Navigation
Further information: Satellite navigation and Navigation
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) including the Chinese Beidou, the American Global Positioning System (introduced in 1978) and the Russian GLONASS broadcast navigational signals in various bands between about 1.2 GHz and 1.6 GHz.
Radar
The parabolic antenna (lower curved surface) of an ASR-9 airport surveillance radar which radiates a narrow vertical fan-shaped beam of 2.7–2.9 GHz (S band) microwaves to locate aircraft in the airspace surrounding an airport.
Main article: Radar
Radar is a radiolocation technique in which a beam of radio waves emitted by a transmitter bounces off an object and returns to a receiver, allowing the location, range, speed, and other characteristics of the object to be determined. The short wavelength of microwaves causes large reflections from objects the size of motor vehicles, ships and aircraft. Also, at these wavelengths, the high gain antennas such as parabolic antennas which are required to produce the narrow beamwidths needed to accurately locate objects are conveniently small, allowing them to be rapidly turned to scan for objects. Therefore, microwave frequencies are the main frequencies used in radar. Microwave radar is widely used for applications such as air traffic control, weather forecasting, navigation of ships, and speed limit enforcement. Long distance radars use the lower microwave frequencies since at the upper end of the band atmospheric absorption limits the range, but millimeter waves are used for short range radar such as collision avoidance systems.
Some of the dish antennas of the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) a radio telescope located in northern Chile. It receives microwaves in the millimeter wave range, 31 – 1000 GHz.
Maps of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR), showing the improved resolution which has been achieved with better microwave radio telescopes
Radio astronomy
Main article: radio astronomy
Microwaves emitted by astronomical radio sources; planets, stars, galaxies, and nebulas are studied in radio astronomy with large dish antennas called radio telescopes. In addition to receiving naturally occurring microwave radiation, radio telescopes have been used in active radar experiments to bounce microwaves off planets in the solar system, to determine the distance to the Moon or map the invisible surface of Venus through cloud cover.
A recently completed microwave radio telescope is the Atacama Large Millimeter Array, located at more than 5,000 meters (16,597 ft) altitude in Chile, observes the universe in the millimetre and submillimetre wavelength ranges. The world's largest ground-based astronomy project to date, it consists of more than 66 dishes and was built in an international collaboration by Europe, North America, East Asia and Chile.[11][12]
A major recent focus of microwave radio astronomy has been mapping the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) discovered in 1964 by radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson. This faint background radiation, which fills the universe and is almost the same in all directions, is "relic radiation" from the Big Bang, and is one of the few sources of information about conditions in the early universe. Due to the expansion and thus cooling of the Universe, the originally high-energy radiation has been shifted into the microwave region of the radio spectrum. Sufficiently sensitive radio telescopes can detected the CMBR as a faint signal that is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object.[13]
Heating and power application
Small microwave oven on a kitchen counter
Microwaves are widely used for heating in industrial processes. A microwave tunnel oven for softening plastic rods prior to extrusion.
A microwave oven passes microwave radiation at a frequency near 2.45 GHz (12 cm) through food, causing dielectric heating primarily by absorption of the energy in water. Microwave ovens became common kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late 1970s, following the development of less expensive cavity magnetrons. Water in the liquid state possesses many molecular interactions that broaden the absorption peak. In the vapor phase, isolated water molecules absorb at around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of the microwave oven.
Microwave heating is used in industrial processes for drying and curing products.
Many semiconductor processing techniques use microwaves to generate plasma for such purposes as reactive ion etching and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD).
Microwave frequencies typically ranging from 110 – 140 GHz are used in stellarators and tokamak experimental fusion reactors to help heat the fuel into a plasma state. The upcoming ITER thermonuclear reactor[14] is expected to range from 110–170 GHz and will employ electron cyclotron resonance heating (ECRH).[15]
Microwaves can be used to transmit power over long distances, and post-World War II research was done to examine possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970s and early 1980s to research the possibilities of using solar power satellite (SPS) systems with large solar arrays that would beam power down to the Earth's surface via microwaves.
Less-than-lethal weaponry exists that uses millimeter waves to heat a thin layer of human skin to an intolerable temperature so as to make the targeted person move away. A two-second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of 54 °C (129 °F) at a depth of 0.4 millimetres (1⁄64 in). The United States Air Force and Marines are currently using this type of active denial system in fixed installations.[16]
Spectroscopy
Microwave radiation is used in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR or ESR) spectroscopy, typically in the X-band region (~9 GHz) in conjunction typically with magnetic fields of 0.3 T. This technique provides information on unpaired electrons in chemical systems, such as free radicals or transition metal ions such as Cu(II). Microwave radiation is also used to perform rotational spectroscopy and can be combined with electrochemistry as in microwave enhanced electrochemistry.
Microwave frequency bands
Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. Microwaves are strongly absorbed at wavelengths shorter than about 1.5 cm (above 20 GHz) by water and other molecules in the air.
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from approximately 1 GHz to 100 GHz in frequency, but older use includes lower frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. One set of microwave frequency bands designations by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), is tabulated below:
ITU radio bands
1 (ELF) 2 (SLF) 3 (ULF) 4 (VLF)
5 (LF) 6 (MF) 7 (HF) 8 (VHF)
9 (UHF) 10 (SHF) 11 (EHF) 12 (THF)
EU / NATO / US ECM radio bands
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
IEEE radio bands
HF
VHF
UHF
L
S
C
X
Ku
K
Ka
V
W
mm
Other TV and radio bands
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
v
t
e
Microwave frequency bands
Designation
Frequency range
Wavelength range
Typical uses
L band 1 to 2 GHz 15 cm to 30 cm military telemetry, GPS, mobile phones (GSM), amateur radio
S band 2 to 4 GHz 7.5 cm to 15 cm weather radar, surface ship radar, and some communications satellites (microwave ovens, microwave devices/communications, radio astronomy, mobile phones, wireless LAN, Bluetooth, ZigBee, GPS, amateur radio)
C band 4 to 8 GHz 3.75 cm to 7.5 cm long-distance radio telecommunications
X band 8 to 12 GHz 25 mm to 37.5 mm satellite communications, radar, terrestrial broadband, space communications, amateur radio, molecular rotational spectroscopy
Ku band 12 to 18 GHz 16.7 mm to 25 mm satellite communications, molecular rotational spectroscopy
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz 11.3 mm to 16.7 mm radar, satellite communications, astronomical observations, automotive radar, molecular rotational spectroscopy
Ka band 26.5 to 40 GHz 5.0 mm to 11.3 mm satellite communications, molecular rotational spectroscopy
Q band 33 to 50 GHz 6.0 mm to 9.0 mm satellite communications, terrestrial microwave communications, radio astronomy, automotive radar, molecular rotational spectroscopy
U band 40 to 60 GHz 5.0 mm to 7.5 mm
V band 50 to 75 GHz 4.0 mm to 6.0 mm millimeter wave radar research, molecular rotational spectroscopy and other kinds of scientific research
W band 75 to 110 GHz 2.7 mm to 4.0 mm satellite communications, millimeter-wave radar research, military radar targeting and tracking applications, and some non-military applications, automotive radar
F band 90 to 140 GHz 2.1 mm to 3.3 mm SHF transmissions: Radio astronomy, microwave devices/communications, wireless LAN, most modern radars, communications satellites, satellite television broadcasting, DBS, amateur radio
D band 110 to 170 GHz 1.8 mm to 2.7 mm EHF transmissions: Radio astronomy, high-frequency microwave radio relay, microwave remote sensing, amateur radio, directed-energy weapon, millimeter wave scanner
P band is sometimes used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std 521.[17][18][19]
When radars were first developed at K band during World War II, it was not known that there was a nearby absorption band (due to water vapor and oxygen in the atmosphere). To avoid this problem, the original K band was split into a lower band, Ku, and upper band, Ka.[20]
Microwave frequency measurement
Absorption wavemeter for measuring in the Ku band.
Microwave frequency can be measured by either electronic or mechanical techniques.
Frequency counters or high frequency heterodyne systems can be used. Here the unknown frequency is compared with harmonics of a known lower frequency by use of a low frequency generator, a harmonic generator and a mixer. Accuracy of the measurement is limited by the accuracy and stability of the reference source.
Mechanical methods require a tunable resonator such as an absorption wavemeter, which has a known relation between a physical dimension and frequency.
In a laboratory setting, Lecher lines can be used to directly measure the wavelength on a transmission line made of parallel wires, the frequency can then be calculated. A similar technique is to use a slotted waveguide or slotted coaxial line to directly measure the wavelength. These devices consist of a probe introduced into the line through a longitudinal slot, so that the probe is free to travel up and down the line. Slotted lines are primarily intended for measurement of the voltage standing wave ratio on the line. However, provided a standing wave is present, they may also be used to measure the distance between the nodes, which is equal to half the wavelength. Precision of this method is limited by the determination of the nodal locations.
Effects on health
Further information: Electromagnetic radiation and health and Microwave burn
Microwaves do not contain sufficient energy to chemically change substances by ionization, and so are an example of non-ionizing radiation.[21] The word "radiation" refers to energy radiating from a source and not to radioactivity. It has not been shown conclusively that microwaves (or other non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation) have significant adverse biological effects at low levels. Some, but not all, studies suggest that long-term exposure may have a carcinogenic effect.[22] This is separate from the risks associated with very high-intensity exposure, which can cause heating and burns like any heat source, and not a unique property of microwaves specifically.
During World War II, it was observed that individuals in the radiation path of radar installations experienced clicks and buzzing sounds in response to microwave radiation. This microwave auditory effect was thought to be caused by the microwaves inducing an electric current in the hearing centers of the brain.[23] Research by NASA in the 1970s has shown this to be caused by thermal expansion in parts of the inner ear. In 1955 Dr. James Lovelock was able to reanimate rats frozen at 0 °C using microwave diathermy.[24]
When injury from exposure to microwaves occurs, it usually results from dielectric heating induced in the body. Exposure to microwave radiation can produce cataracts by this mechanism,[25] because the microwave heating denatures proteins in the crystalline lens of the eye (in the same way that heat turns egg whites white and opaque). The lens and cornea of the eye are especially vulnerable because they contain no blood vessels that can carry away heat. Exposure to heavy doses of microwave radiation (as from an oven that has been tampered with to allow operation even with the door open) can produce heat damage in other tissues as well, up to and including serious burns that may not be immediately evident because of the tendency for microwaves to heat deeper tissues with higher moisture content.
Eleanor R. Adair conducted microwave health research by exposing herself, animals and humans to microwave levels that made them feel warm or even start to sweat and feel quite uncomfortable. She found no adverse health effects other than heat.
History and research
Electromagnetic spectrum (visible-light range highlighted).
The existence of radio waves was predicted by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864 from his equations. In 1888, Heinrich Hertz was the first to demonstrate the existence of radio waves by building a spark gap radio transmitter that produced 450 MHz microwaves, in the UHF region. The equipment he used was primitive, including a horse trough, a wrought iron point spark, and Leyden jars. He also built the first parabolic antenna, using a zinc gutter sheet. In 1894, Indian radio pioneer Jagdish Chandra Bose publicly demonstrated radio control of a bell using millimeter wavelengths, and conducted research into the propagation of microwaves.[26]
Perhaps the first, documented, formal use of the term microwave occurred in 1931:
"When trials with wavelengths as low as 18 cm were made known, there was undisguised surprise that the problem of the micro-wave had been solved so soon." Telegraph & Telephone Journal XVII. 179/1
In 1943, the Hungarian engineer Zoltán Bay sent ultra-short radio waves to the moon, which, reflected from there, worked as a radar, and could be used to measure distance, as well as to study the moon.[citation needed]
Perhaps the first use of the word microwave in an astronomical context occurred in 1946 in an article "Microwave Radiation from the Sun and Moon" by Robert Dicke and Robert Beringer. This same article also made a showing in the New York Times issued in 1951. Ernst Weber pioneered microwave technologies.
In the history of electromagnetic theory, significant work specifically in the area of microwaves and their applications was carried out by researchers including:
Specific work on microwaves
Names
Area of work
Barkhausen and Kurz Positive grid oscillators
Hull Smooth bore magnetron
Russell and Sigurd Varian Velocity-modulated electron beam (→ klystron tube)
Randall and Boot Cavity magnetron
See also
Electromagnetism portal
Electronics portal
Telecommunication portal
Block upconverter (BUC)
Cosmic microwave background
Electron cyclotron resonance
International Microwave Power Institute
Lens Antenna / klystron / magnetron / radar gun
Low-noise block converter (LNB)
Maser
Microwave auditory effect
Microwave cavity
Microwave chemistry
Microwave radio relay
Microwave transmission
Orthomode transducer (OMT)
Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
Rain fade
RF switch matrix
The Thing (listening device)
Tropospheric scatter
References
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^ Jump up to: a b Seybold, John S. (2005). Introduction to RF Propagation. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 55–58. ISBN 0471743682.
Jump up ^ Microwave Oscillator notes by Herley General Microwave
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Jump up ^ For other definitions see Letter Designations of Microwave Bands.
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Jump up ^ Philip L. Stocklin, U.S. Patent 4,858,612, December 19, 1983
Jump up ^ Andjus, R.K.; Lovelock, J.E. (1955). "Reanimation of rats from body temperatures between 0 and 1 °C by microwave diathermy". The Journal of Physiology. 128 (3): 541–546. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1955.sp005323. PMC 1365902  . PMID 13243347.
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Jump up ^ Emerson, D.T. (February 1998). "The work of Jagdish Chandra Bose: 100 years of MM-wave research". National Radio Astronomy Observatory.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Microwaves (radio).
EM Talk, Microwave Engineering Tutorials and Tools
Millimeter Wave and Microwave Waveguide dimension chart.
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Links to related articles
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v
t
e
Radio spectrum (ITU)
ELF
3 Hz/100 Mm
30 Hz/10 Mm
SLF
30 Hz/10 Mm
300 Hz/1 Mm
ULF
300 Hz/1 Mm
3 kHz/100 km
VLF
3 kHz/100 km
30 kHz/10 km
LF
30 kHz/10 km
300 kHz/1 km
MF
300 kHz/1 km
3 MHz/100 m
HF
3 MHz/100 m
30 MHz/10 m
VHF
30 MHz/10 m
300 MHz/1 m
UHF
300 MHz/1 m
3 GHz/100 mm
SHF
3 GHz/100 mm
30 GHz/10 mm
EHF
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300 GHz/1 mm
THF
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3 THz/0.1 mm
[show]
v
t
e
Wireless video and data distribution methods
Advanced Wireless Services
Amateur television
Analog television
Digital radio
Digital television
Digital terrestrial television (DTT or DTTV)
Digital Video Broadcasting
Terrestrial (DVB-T)
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HomeRF
Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS; now known as Educational Broadband Service (EBS))
Ku band
Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS)
Microwave
Mobile broadband
Mobile television
Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e)
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UWB (IEEE 802.15.3)
Visual sensor network
Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
WiMAX (IEEE 802.16)
WRAN (IEEE 802.22)
Wireless local loop (WLL)
Wireless broadband
Wireless USB
3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE)
4G
[show]
v
t
e
Electromagnetic spectrum
Gamma rays
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Visible
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Radio
← higher frequencies longer wavelengths →
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[show]
v
t
e
Radiation (physics and health)
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Half-life
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List of civilian radiation accidents
1996 Costa Rica accident
1987 Goiânia accident
1984 Moroccan accident
1990 Zaragoza accident
See also: the categories Radiation effects, Radioactivity, Radiobiology, and Radiation protection.
[show]
v
t
e
Telecommunications
History
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GND: 4039246-6
NDL: 00567395
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microwave&oldid=834492441"
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Microscope slide
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"Glass slide" redirects here. The term may also refer to photographic slides..
A set of standard 75 by 25 mm microscope slides. The white area can be written on to label the slide.
A microscope slide (top) and a cover slip (bottom)
A microscope slide is a thin flat piece of glass, typically 75 by 26 mm (3 by 1 inches) and about 1 mm thick, used to hold objects for examination under a microscope. Typically the object is placed or secured ("mounted") on the slide, and then both are inserted together in the microscope for viewing. This arrangement allows several slide-mounted objects to be quickly inserted and removed from the microscope, labeled, transported, and stored in appropriate slide cases or folders.
Microscope slides are often used together with a cover slip or cover glass, a smaller and thinner sheet of glass that is placed over the specimen. Slides are held in place on the microscope's stage by slide clips, slide clamps or a cross-table which is used to achieve precise, remote movement of the slide upon the microscope's stage (such as in an automated / computer operated system, or where touching the slide with fingers is inappropriate either due to the risk of contamination or lack of precision)
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Dimensions and types
3 Mounting
3.1 Dry mount
3.2 Wet mount or temporary mount
3.3 Prepared mount or permanent mount
3.4 Strew mount
3.5 Mounting media
3.5.1 Examples of mounting media
3.5.1.1 Aqueous
3.5.1.2 Non-Aqueous
4 Contrasting with other types/meanings of "mounting"
5 See also
6 References
History[edit]
A microscope slide prepared in 1855 containing reference specimens from the inner mucosa of the small intestine of a cholera victim.
The origin of the concept was pieces of ivory or bone, containing specimens held between disks of transparent mica, that would slide into the gap between the stage and the objective.[1] These "sliders" were popular in Victorian England until the Royal Microscopical Society introduced the standardized glass microscope slide.[citation needed]
Dimensions and types[edit]
Common dimensions of microscope slides (in mm).
A standard microscope slide measures about 75 mm by 25 mm (3″ by 1″) and is about 1 mm thick. A range of other sizes are available for various special purposes, such as 75 x 50 mm and for geological use, 46 x 27 mm for petrographic studies, and 48 x 28 mm for thin sections. Slides are usually made of common glass and their edges are often finely ground or polished.
Microscope slides are usually made of optical quality glass, such as soda lime glass or borosilicate glass, but specialty plastics are also used. Fused quartz slides are often used when ultraviolet transparency is important, e.g. in fluorescence microscopy.[2][3]
While plain slides are the most common, there are several specialized types. A concavity slide or cavity slide has one or more shallow depressions ("wells"), designed to hold slightly thicker objects, and certain samples such as liquids and tissue cultures.[4] Slides may have rounded corners for increased safety or robustness, or a cut-off corner for use with a slide clamp or cross-table, where the slide is secured by a spring-loaded curved arm contacting one corner, forcing the opposing corner of the slide against a right angled arm which does not move. If this system were used with a slide which did not incorporate these cut-off corners, the corners would chip and the slide could shatter.[4]
A graticule slide is marked with a grid of lines (for example, a 1 mm grid) that allows the size of objects seen under magnification to be easily estimated and provides reference areas for counting minute objects. Sometimes one square of the grid will itself be subdivided into a finer grid. Slides for specialized applications, such as cell counting, may have various reservoirs, channels and barriers etched or ground on their upper surface.[citation needed] Various permanent markings or masks may be printed, sand-blasted, or deposited on the surface by the manufacturer, usually with inert materials such as PTFE.[5]
A Neubauer slide for cell counting.
Microscope image of a Neubauer slide's graticule being used to count cells.
A Neubauer slide held in place on a microscope stand by a slide clamp on a cross-table.
Some slides have a frosted or enamel-coated area at one end, for labeling with a pencil or pen.[4] Slides may have special coatings applied by the manufacturer, e.g. for chemical inertness or enhanced cell adhesion. The coating may have a permanent electric charge to hold thin or powdery samples. Common coatings include poly-L-lysine, silanes, epoxy resins,[4][5] or even gold.[6]
Mounting[edit]
Blood smears for pathological examination, an example of wet mount.
Microscope slides with prepared, stained, and labeled tissue specimens in a standard 20-slide folder.
The mounting of specimens on microscope slides is often critical for successful viewing. The problem has been given much attention in the last two centuries and is a well-developed area with many specialized and sometimes quite sophisticated techniques.
Dry mount[edit]
In a dry mount, the simplest kind of mounting, the object is merely placed on the slide. A cover slip may be placed on top to protect the specimen and the microscope's objective and to keep the specimen still and pressed flat. This mounting can be successfully used for viewing specimens like pollen, feathers, hairs, etc. It is also used to examine particles caught in transparent membrane filters (e.g., in analysis of airborne dust).
Wet mount or temporary mount[edit]
In a wet mount, the specimen is placed in a drop of water or other liquid held between the slide and the cover slip by surface tension. This method is commonly used, for example, to view microscopic organisms that grow in pond water or other liquid media, especially when studying their movement and behavior. Care must be taken to exclude air bubbles that would interfere with the viewing and hamper the organisms' movements. An example of a temporary wet mount is a lactofuchsin mount, which provides both a sample mounting, as well as a fuchsine staining.
Prepared mount or permanent mount[edit]
For pathological and biological research, the specimen usually undergoes a complex histological preparation that involves fixing it to prevent decay, removing any water contained in it, replacing the water with paraffin, cutting it into very thin sections using a microtome, placing the sections on a microscope slide, staining the tissue using various stains to reveal specific tissue components, clearing the tissue to render it transparent and covering it with a coverslip and mounting medium.
Strew mount[edit]
Strew mounting describes the production of palynological microscope slides by suspending a concentrated sample in distilled water, placing the samples on a slide, and allowing the water to evaporate.[7]
Mounting media[edit]
The mounting medium is the solution in which the specimen is embedded, generally under a cover glass. Simple liquids like water or glycerol can be considered mounting media, though the term generally refers to compounds that harden into a permanent mount. Popular mounting media include Permount, glycerol jelly, and Hoyer's mounting medium. Properties of a good mounting medium include having a refractive index close to that of glass (1.518), non-reactivity with the specimen, stability over time without crystallizing, darkening, or changing refractive index, solubility in the medium the specimen was prepared in (either aqueous or non-polar, such as xylene or toluene), and not causing the specimen stain to fade or leach.[8]
Examples of mounting media[edit]
Aqueous[edit]
Popularly used in immunofluorescent cytochemistry where the fluorescence cannot be archived. The temporary storage must be done in a dark moist chamber. Common examples are:
Glycerol-PBS (9:1) with antiquench e.g. any of the following[9]
p-phenylenediamine
propyl gallate
1,4-Diazabicyclo (2,2,2)-octane (DABCO) (very popular)
Ascorbic acid
Mowiol or Gelvatol
Gelatin
Mount™
Vectashield
Prolong Gold
CyGEL / CyGEL Sustain (to immobilize living, unfixed cells and organisms)
Non-Aqueous[edit]
Slide of 60-year-old holotype specimen of a flatworm (Lethacotyle fijiensis) permanently mounted in Canada balsam
Used when a permanent mount is required
Permount™ (toluene and a polymer of a-pinene, b-pinene, dipentene, b-phellandrene)
Canada balsam
DPX (Distrene 80 - a commercial polystyrene, a Plasticizer e.g. dibutyl phthalate and Xylene)
DPX new (with Xylene but free of carcinogenic Dibutyl phthalate)
Entellan™ (with Toluene)
Entellan™ new
Hempstead Halide™ Hoyer's Medium (a proprietary-formulation of the water-based permanent mounting medium containing Chloral)
Neo-Mount™ (compatible with aliphatic Neo-Clear® but not compatible with aromatic solvents like Xylene)
Contrasting with other types/meanings of "mounting"[edit]
In contrast to mounting necessary for glass coverslips, somewhat similar mounting can be done for bulkier specimen preservation in glass containers in museums. However an entirely different type of mounting is done for sample preparation, which can be for biological or nonbiological materials and is further subdivided into "hot"(compressive) and "cold" (castable) type mounting processes.[10][11] Though named "mounting", it is more akin to embedding in histology and should not be confused with the mounting described above. The term mounting in other fields has numerous other meanings.
See also[edit]
Petri dish
Mount (disambiguation), numerous meanings of "mounting"
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Adam, George. Essays on the microscope. 1798
Jump up ^ Quartz Microscospe Slides and Cover Slips from a commercial website (Ted Pella). Accessed on 2010-01-23.
Jump up ^ Quartz Microscope Slides and Cover Slips catalog page from a commercial website (SPI Supplies). Accessed on 2010-01-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Histology and Light Microscopy catalog page from a commercial website (EMS). Accessed on 2010-01-23.
^ Jump up to: a b Microscope Slides catalog page from a commercial website (TEKDON). Accessed on 2010-01-23.
Jump up ^ Gold Coated Microscope Slides and DNA Imaging Kit catalog page from a commercial website (Asylum Research). Accessed on 2011-08-31.
Jump up ^ Zippi, Pierre A. (1991). "SEM and Light Microscope Mounting and Specimen Location Technique for Same-Specimen Study of Palynological Strew Mounts". Micropaleontology. 37 (4): 407–413. doi:10.2307/1485913. JSTOR 1485913.
Jump up ^ Medical Laboratory Science : Theory And Practice By Ochei & Kolkatker, p. 446.
Jump up ^ Fluorescence specimen mounting, mounting medium, and antiquench agents- UCLA Brain Research Institute
Jump up ^ Cold and Hot Mounting Media, Molds, and Pressure Chamber - Electron Microscopy Sciences
Jump up ^ Allied High Tech - Allied High Tech Products | Metallographic Mounting Equipment
The Wikibook School Science has a page on the topic of: Microscope slide
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List of Batman television series cast members
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Batman, a fictional superhero appearing in publications by DC Comics, has appeared in numerous filmed works, with a variety of casts. The list below presents the casts of the television series in which Batman was the eponymous starring character.
Television series[edit]
Character
Series (all except Batman (1966-1968) are animated)
Batman
(1966-1968)
The Adventures of Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder
(1968-1969)
The New Adventures of Batman
(1977-1978)
Batman: The Animated Series
(1992-1995)
The New Batman Adventures
(1997-1999)
Batman Beyond
(1999-2001)
The Batman
(2004-2008)
Batman: The Brave and the Bold
(2008-2011)
Beware the Batman
(2013-2014)
CAST
Bruce Wayne
Batman
Adam West Olan Soule Adam West Kevin Conroy Rino Romano Diedrich Bader
Zachary Gordon (young)
Mikey Kelley (pre-teen)
Dee Bradley Baker (infant) Anthony Ruivivar
Terry McGinnis
Batman
Will Friedle
Alfred Pennyworth
Alan Napier Olan Soule Clive Revill
Efrem Zimbalist, Jr. Alastair Duncan James Garrett J.B. Blanc
Commissioner James Gordon
Neil Hamilton Ted Knight Lennie Weinrib Bob Hastings Mitch Pileggi Kurtwood Smith
Dick Grayson
Robin
Burt Ward Casey Kasem Burt Ward Loren Lester
Brianne Siddall Evan Sabara Jeremy Shada
Crawford Wilson
Grey DeLisle
Jason Marsden
Nightwing
Loren Lester Jerry O'Connell Crawford Wilson
Tim Drake
Robin
Mathew Valencia
Carry Kelly
Robin
Anndi McAfee
Barbara Gordon
Batgirl
Yvonne Craig Jane Webb Melendy Britt Melissa Gilbert
Tara Strong Stockard Channing Danielle Judovits Mae Whitman Tara Strong
Katana
Vyvan Pham
Kim Mai Guest Sumalee Montano
The Joker
Cesar Romero Larry Storch Lennie Weinrib Mark Hamill
Michael McKean Kevin Michael Richardson Jeff Bennett
Corey Burton
The Penguin
Burgess Meredith Ted Knight Lennie Weinrib Paul Williams Tom Kenny Stephen Root
Jeff Bennett
The Riddler
Frank Gorshin
John Astin Ted Knight John Glover Robert Englund John Michael Higgins
Two-Face
Richard Moll James Remar
Richard Moll
Catwoman
Julie Newmar
Eartha Kitt
Lee Meriwether Jane Webb Melendy Britt Adrienne Barbeau Gina Gershon Nika Futterman
Mr. Freeze
George Sanders
Otto Preminger
Eli Wallach Lennie Weinrib Michael Ansara Clancy Brown John Di Maggio
Ra's al Ghul
David Warner Peter Woodward Lance Reddick
Clock King
Walter Slezak Alan Rachins Dee Bradley Baker
Scarecrow
Henry Polic II Dee Bradley Baker
Mad Hatter
David Wayne Roddy McDowall
False Face
Malachi Throne Townsend Coleman Corey Burton
Harley Quinn
Arleen Sorkin Hynden Walch Meghan Strange
Man-Bat
Marc Singer Peter MacNicol
Killer Moth
Jeff Bennett Corey Burton
Killer Croc
Aron Kincaid Ron Perlman Stephen Root
Poison Ivy
Diane Pershing Piera Coppola Jennifer Hale
Scarface / The Ventriloquist
George Dzundza Dan Castellaneta
Bane
Henry Silva Joaquim de Almeida
Ron Perlman
Clancy Brown Michael Dorn
Firefly
Mark Rolston Jason Marsden
Dr. Hugo Strange
Ray Buktenica Frank Gorshin
Richard Green
Rupert Thorne
John Vernon Victor Brandt
Tony Zucco
Thomas F. Wilson Mark Hamill
Fox
Bill Mumy David Faustino Phil Morris
Shark
Peter Scolari Googy Gress
Vulture
David Jolliffe Grey DeLisle Edoardo Ballerini
Count Vertigo
Michael York Greg Ellis
Spellbinder
Jon Cypher Michael Massee
Blockbuster
Kevin Michael Richardson Gary Anthony Williams
Black Mask
James Remar John Di Maggio
Thomas Wayne
Kevin Conroy Corey Burton
Greg Ellis
Adam West
Martha Wayne
Adrienne Barbeau Pat Musick
Julie Newmar
Chief O'Hara
Stafford Repp
Harvey Bullock
Robert Costanzo
Renee Montoya
Ingrid Oliu
Liane Schirmer
Aunt Harriet Cooper
Madge Blake
Lucius Fox
Brock Peters
Mel Winkler Louis Gossett, Jr.
Green Arrow
Chris Hardwick James Arnold Taylor
Hal Jordan
Green Lantern
Dermot Mulroney Loren Lester
Zatanna
Julie Brown Jennifer Hale
Hawkman
Robert Patrick William Katt
Rex Mason
Metamorpho
Scott Menville Adam Baldwin
Sinestro
Miguel Ferrer Xander Berkeley
Solomon Grundy
Kevin Grevioux Diedrich Bader
Jason Blood
Etrigan
Billy Zane Dee Bradley Baker
Jonah Hex
Bill McKinney Phil Morris
Summer Gleeson
Mari Devon
Mayor Hamilton Hill
Lloyd Bochner
Dr. Leslie Thompkins
Diana Muldaur
Bat-Mite
Lou Scheimer Paul Reubens
Ace the Bat-Hound
Frank Welker Dee Bradley Baker
Dana Tan
Lauren Tom
Mrs. Mary McGinnis
Teri Garr
Delia & Deidre Dennis
Melissa Joan Hart
[hide]
v
t
e
1966–1968 Batman television series
Characters adapted
for the series
Alfred
Batgirl / Barbara Gordon
Batman / Bruce Wayne
Catwoman
Clock King
Commissioner James Gordon
Green Hornet
The Joker
Kato
The Mad Hatter
Mr. Freeze
The Penguin
The Riddler
Robin / Richard "Dick" Grayson
Characters created
for the series
Egghead
Vehicles & gadgetry
Batmobile
Batboat
Batcopter
Batcycle
Batsuit
Bat phone
Batcomputer
Batbelt
In-story locations
Gotham City
Batcave
Wayne Manor
Londinium
Related topics
Shows
Legends of the Superheroes
The New Adventures of Batman
Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt
The Green Hornet
The Man from U.N.C.L.E.
Films
Batman
Batman: Return of the Caped Crusaders
Batman vs. Two-Face
Music
"Batman Theme"
Lists
List of Batman television episodes
List of Batman television series cast members
Holy...
Other
Batman '66
Batman XXX: A Porn Parody
Bat Pussy
Batusi
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Batman_television_series_cast_members&oldid=797277430"
Categories:
Batman lists
Batman television series
Lists of actors by crime television series
Lists of actors by science fiction television series
Lists of DC Comics television characters
Lists of DC Comics animated television characters
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My Two Dads
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
My Two Dads
Genre
Family sitcom
Created by
Michael Jacobs
Danielle Alexandra
Starring
Paul Reiser
Greg Evigan
Staci Keanan
Florence Stanley
Dick Butkus
Giovanni Ribisi
Chad Allen
Theme music composer
Greg Evigan,
Lenny Macaluso &
Michael Jacobs
Opening theme
"You Can Count on Me,"
performed by Greg Evigan
Ending theme
"You Can Count on Me" (instrumental)
Composer(s)
Don Peake (1987–1988)
Ray Colcord (1988–1990)
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
3
No. of episodes
60 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Michael Jacobs
Camera setup
Videotape; Multi-camera
Running time
22 mins. (approx)
Production company(s)
Michael Jacobs Productions
Tri-Star Television (1987–1988)
Columbia Pictures Television (1988–1990)
Distributor
TeleVentures (1990)
Columbia Pictures Television (1991–1996)
Columbia TriStar Television (1996–2002)
Sony Pictures Television (2002–present)
Release
Original network
NBC
Picture format
480i (SDTV)
Original release
September 20, 1987 (1987-09-20) – April 30, 1990 (1990-04-30)
My Two Dads is an American sitcom that was produced by Michael Jacobs Productions in association with Tri-Star Television (later Columbia Pictures Television) and distributed by TeleVentures. It starred Paul Reiser, Greg Evigan, and Staci Keanan. The series premiered on NBC on September 20, 1987,[1] airing three seasons through April 30, 1990.
Contents
[hide]
1 Synopsis
2 Cast and characters
2.1 Cast
2.2 Characters
2.3 Night Court crossover
3 Episodes
4 Broadcast
5 DVD release
6 Awards
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Synopsis[edit]
The show begins after Marcy Bradford (played by Emma Samms in the second-season episode "In Her Dreams"), the mother of 12-year-old Nicole Bradford (Keanan), has died. The two men who had competed for the woman's affections before Nicole was born during a summer spent in Key West back in 1974 — Michael Taylor (Reiser), a successful financial advisor; and struggling artist Joey Harris (Evigan), former friends who hated one another because of their mutual interest in Marcy — are awarded joint custody of Nicole.[2]
The mix-ups of two single men raising a teenage daughter provided the story each week. Judge Margaret W. Wilbur (Florence Stanley), a family court judge who awarded custody of Nicole to Michael and Joey, would frequently visit the new family. This was because she had bought the building in which Joey lived and was now the live-in landlord. Michael had originally had his own condo uptown, but Nicole staged a sit in at school in Episode 2 because she felt she had no home, and the men decided it would be better to all live in one home and chose Joey's loft.
Nicole's actual paternity was never revealed on the show. In the episode "Pop, the Question", Michael and Joey — after a falling out — had a DNA test run to determine which of them was Nicole's biological father. The test was conducted against Nicole's wishes, and she destroyed the results before opening them since she was happier not knowing who her father was. Michael and Joey later resolve their differences and reconcile. Judge Wilbur looked at the results, but threw them away without revealing them to the audience.
The series came to an end (in the episode called "See You in September?") when Joey reconnected with a former girlfriend named Sarah and eventually moved to San Francisco to live with her and her daughter, Grace. He keeps in contact with Nicole, Michael and Judge Wilbur, all of whom remained in New York. Nicole made reference to her coming out to San Francisco and visiting him, then she ended her letter to Joey by saying that no matter what or where he was or who he was with, she would always be happy with him as one of her two dads.
Cast and characters[edit]
Cast[edit]
The lead cast of My Two Dads: Paul Reiser and Greg Evigan (top); Staci Keanan (bottom)
Paul Reiser – Michael Taylor
Greg Evigan – Joey Harris
Staci Keanan – Nicole Bradford
Florence Stanley – Judge Margaret W. Wilbur
Giovanni Ribisi (credited as Vonni Ribisi) – Cory Kupkus
Dick Butkus – Ed Klawicki (seasons 1–2)
Chad Allen – Zach Nichols (seasons 2–3)
Characters[edit]
The series regularly featured Giovanni Ribisi and Chad Allen as two boys (Cory Kupkus and Zach Nichols, respectively) who competed for Nicole's affections just as her two dads had done for her mother's. Florence Stanley appeared as Judge Margaret Wilbur, who was responsible for assigning Nicole's custody, and who regularly looked over the family; she was also their landlady, being the resident owner of the apartment building where the family lived. Amy Hathaway played Nicole's worldly best friend, Shelby Haskell. The cast was rounded out by former football player Dick Butkus, who managed the cafe in the building's first floor. The cafe (Klawicki's) was the second spot in the show where the plot usually revolved; the first being the family's apartment. In the third season, when Dick Butkus left the series, the diner was then run by cook Julian (Don Yesso), but there was no explanation as to what happened to Ed Klawicki. Ownership of the diner was explained to have been taken over by Judge Wilbur at this point, and it was renamed The Judge's Court Cafe.
Night Court crossover[edit]
My Two Dads had crossovers with another NBC show, Night Court. Judge Margaret W. Wilbur, played by Florence Stanley, appeared on Night Court. In turn, Richard Moll guest starred as his Night Court character Bull Shannon in the "Playing with Fire" episode of My Two Dads, protecting Judge Wilbur from a recently released criminal that she had sent to prison years before.
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of My Two Dads episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 22 September 20, 1987 (1987-09-20) August 14, 1988 (1988-08-14)
2 16 January 11, 1989 (1989-01-11) July 29, 1989 (1989-07-29)
3 22 September 24, 1989 (1989-09-24) April 30, 1990 (1990-04-30)
Broadcast[edit]
In August 1990 USA Network paid Columbia Pictures Television Distribution about $250,000 an episode, for as many as 15 runs over a three-year period, a price that was the syndication record until Major Dad surpassed that price two years later.[3] Reruns of the show aired on the USA Network through the 1990s and again in the early 2000s.
The show was not aired again until it returned in January 2017, airing on both Antenna TV[4] and Up.[citation needed] Several episodes from the first season can be streamed for free online on Crackle.[citation needed]
DVD release[edit]
Shout! Factory (under license from Sony Pictures Home Entertainment) has released the first two seasons of My Two Dads on DVD in Region 1. Season 2 was released as a Shout! Factory Exclusives title, available exclusively through their online store.[5]
Mill Creek Entertainment released a 10 episode best-of set entitled My Two Dads- You Can Count on Me on March 22, 2011. The single disc release features episodes from the first 2 seasons.[6]
DVD name
Ep #
Release date
Special Features
The Complete First Season 22 March 3, 2009 A look back at My Two Dads with Greg Evigan and Staci Keanan.
The Complete Second Season 16 March 16, 2010♦ N/A
♦- Shout! Factory Exclusives title, sold exclusively through Shout's online store
Awards[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Year
Award
Category
Recipient
Result
Refs
1988 Young Artist Awards The Most Promising New Fall Television Series My Two Dads Won
Best Young Actress Featured, Co-starring, Supporting, Recurring Role in a Comedy or Drama Series or Special Staci Keanan Won
People's Choice Awards Favorite New TV Comedy Program My Two Dads Won
1989 Young Artist Awards Best Young Actor Guest Starring in a Drama or Comedy Series Chad Allen Won
See also[edit]
My Sister Sam (1986)
Three Men and a Baby (1987)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Howard Rosenberg (September 19, 1987). "The New Fall TV Season : Television Reviews : 'My Two Dads'". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "BBC – Comedy Guide – My Two Dads". BBC. January 29, 2005. Archived from the original on January 29, 2005. Retrieved July 6, 2016. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
Jump up ^ Jim Benson; John Dempsey (October 28, 1992). "'Dad' shipped off to cable". Variety. Retrieved June 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Episode". My Two Dads. November 12, 2017. Event occurs at 20:00. Antenna TV. WLUK digital subchannel 11.2. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "My Two Dads – Retailers May Spurn Stocking a 2nd Season, but Shout! Keeps Going Anyway". TVShowsonDVD.com.
Jump up ^ "My Two Dads – You Can Count on Me!". 18 January 2011. Retrieved July 6, 2016 – via Amazon.
External links[edit]
My Two Dads on IMDb
My Two Dads at TV.com
My Two Dads at epguides.com
[show]
v
t
e
People's Choice Awards for Favorite New TV Comedy
The Love Boat (1978)
Mork & Mindy (1979)
Too Close for Comfort (1981)
Private Benjamin (1982)
Cheers (1983)
Webster (1984)
The Cosby Show (1985)
The Golden Girls (1986)
ALF (1987)
A Different World / My Two Dads (1988)
Roseanne (1989)
Doogie Howser, M.D. (1990)
In Living Color / The Simpsons (1991)
Home Improvement (1992)
Martin (1993)
Frasier / Grace Under Fire (1994)
Ellen / Friends (1995)
Caroline in the City (1996)
Cosby (1997)
Veronica's Closet / Dharma & Greg (1998)
Jesse / Will & Grace (1999)
Stark Raving Mad (2000)
Ed (2001)
My Wife and Kids (2002)
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Two and a Half Men (2004)
Joey (2005)
My Name Is Earl (2006)
The Class (2007)
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Glee (2010)
$h*! My Dad Says (2011)
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Scream Queens (2016)
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