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Alexander Calder
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For other people named Alexander Calder, see Alexander Calder (disambiguation).
Alexander Calder
Alexander Calder, by Carl Van Vechten, 1947
Born
Lawnton, Pennsylvania, US
Died
November 11, 1976(1976-11-11) (aged 78)
New York City, New York, US
Nationality
American
Alma mater
Stevens Institute of Technology, Art Students League of New York
Known for
Sculpture
Movement
Kinetic art, Surrealism, Abstraction (art)
Awards
Presidential Medal of Freedom[1]
Alexander Calder (/ˈkɔːldər/) is widely considered to be one of the most important American sculptors of the 20th century. He is best known for his colorful, whimsical abstract public sculptures and his innovative mobiles, kinetic sculptures powered by motors or air currents, which embraced chance in their aesthetic. Born into a family of accomplished artists, Calder's work first gained attention in Paris in the 1930s and was soon championed by the Museum of Modern Art in New York, resulting in a retrospective exhibition in 1943. Major retrospectives were also held at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum (1964) and the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago (1974). Calder’s work is in many permanent collections, most notably in the Whitney Museum of American Art, but also the Guggenheim Museum; the Museum of Modern Art; the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.; and the Centre Georges Pompidou. He produced many large public works, including .125 (at JFK Airport, 1957), Pittsburgh (Carnegie International prize winner 1958, Pittsburgh International Airport) Spirale (UNESCO in Paris, 1958), Flamingo and Universe (both in Chicago, 1974), and Mountains and Clouds (Hart Senate Office Building, Washington, D.C., 1976). Although primarily known for his sculpture, Calder was a prodigious artist with a restless creative spirit, whose diverse practice included painting and printmaking, miniatures (such as his famous Cirque Calder), children’s book illustrations, theater set design, jewelry design, tapestries and rugs, and political posters.[2] Calder was honored by the US Postal Service with a set of five 32-cent stamps in 1998, and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, posthumously in 1977, after refusing to receive it from Gerald Ford one year earlier in protest of the Vietnam War.
Contents
1 Early life
2 Life and career
3 Artistic work
3.1 Sculpture
3.2 Monumental works
3.3 Theatrical productions
3.4 Painting and printmaking
3.5 Painted aircraft & automobile
3.6 Jewelry
4 Exhibitions
5 Collections
6 Recognition and awards
7 Art market
8 Legacy
8.1 Calder Foundation
8.2 Authenticity issues
8.3 Plans for a Calder Museum
9 Quotes
10 Gallery
11 Selected works
12 Notes
13 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
Early life[edit]
Alexander "Sandy" Calder was born in 1898 in Lawnton, Pennsylvania.[3] His actual birthday, however, remains a source of much confusion. According to Calder's mother, Nanette (née Lederer), Calder was born on August 22, yet his birth certificate at Philadelphia City Hall, based on a hand-written ledger, stated July 22. When Calder's family learned about the birth certificate, they reasserted with certainty that city officials had made a mistake.
Calder's grandfather, sculptor Alexander Milne Calder, was born in Scotland, had immigrated to Philadelphia in 1868, and is best known for the colossal statue of William Penn on top of Philadelphia City Hall's tower. His father, Alexander Stirling Calder, was a well-known sculptor who created many public installations, a majority of them in nearby Philadelphia. Calder's mother was a professional portrait artist, who had studied at the Académie Julian and the Sorbonne in Paris from around 1888 until 1893. She moved to Philadelphia, where she met Stirling Calder while studying at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Calder's parents married on February 22, 1895; his sister, Mrs. Margaret Calder Hayes, was instrumental in the development of the UC Berkeley Art Museum.[4]
In 1902, Calder posed nude for his father’s sculpture The Man Cub, a cast of which is now located in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. That same year he also completed his earliest sculpture, a clay elephant.[5] Three years later, Stirling Calder contracted tuberculosis, and Calder's parents moved to a ranch in Oracle, Arizona, leaving the children in the care of family friends for a year.[6] The children were reunited with their parents in late March 1906 and stayed at the ranch in Arizona until fall of the same year.[7]
After Arizona, the Calder family moved to Pasadena, California. The windowed cellar of the family home became Calder's first studio and he received his first set of tools. He used scraps of copper wire that he found in the street to make jewelry for his sister's dolls. On January 1, 1907, Nanette Calder took her son to the Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, where he observed a four-horse-chariot race. This style of event later became the finale of Calder's miniature circus performances.[8]
In the fall of 1909, the Calder family moved back to Philadelphia, where Calder briefly attended Germantown Academy, then moved to Croton-on-Hudson, New York.[9] That Christmas, he sculpted a dog and a duck out of sheet brass as gifts for his parents. The sculptures are three-dimensional and the duck is kinetic because it rocks when gently tapped.[10] In Croton, during his early high school years, Calder was befriended by his father's painter friend Everett Shinn with whom he built a gravity powered system of mechanical trains. Calder described it, "We ran the train on wooden rails held by spikes; a chunk of iron racing down the incline speeded [sic] the cars. We even lit up some cars with candle lights".[11] After Croton, the Calders moved to Spuyten Duyvil to be closer to New York City, where Stirling Calder rented a studio. While living in Spuyten Duyvil, Calder attended high school in nearby Yonkers. In 1912, Stirling Calder was appointed acting chief of the Department of Sculpture of the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco, California,[12] and began work on sculptures for the exposition that was held in 1915.
During Calder's high school years (1912–1915), the family moved back and forth between New York and California. In each new location, Calder's parents reserved cellar space as a studio for their son. Toward the end of this period, Calder stayed with friends in California while his parents moved back to New York, so that he could graduate from Lowell High School in San Francisco. Calder graduated with the class of 1915.[citation needed]
Life and career[edit]
Alexander Calder's parents did not want him to suffer the life of an artist, so he decided to study mechanical engineering. An intuitive engineer since childhood, Calder did not even know what mechanical engineering was. "I was not very sure what this term meant, but I thought I'd better adopt it," he later wrote in his autobiography. He enrolled at the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey in 1915.[13] When asked why he decided to study mechanical engineering instead of art Calder said, "I wanted to be an engineer because some guy I rather liked was a mechanical engineer, that's all." [14] At Stevens, Calder was a member of the Delta Tau Delta fraternity and excelled in mathematics.[15] He was well-liked and the class yearbook contained the following description, "Sandy is evidently always happy, or perhaps up to some joke, for his face is always wrapped up in that same mischievous, juvenile grin. This is certainly the index to the man's character in this case, for he is one of the best natured fellows there is." [14]
In the summer of 1916, Calder spent five weeks training at the Plattsburg Civilian Military Training Camp. In 1918, he joined the Student’s Army Training Corps, Naval Section, at Stevens and was made guide of the battalion.[16]
Calder received a degree from Stevens in 1919.[13] For the next several years, he held a variety of jobs, including working as a hydraulic engineer and a draughtsman for the New York Edison Company. In June 1922, Calder found work as a mechanic on the passenger ship H. F. Alexander. While the ship sailed from San Francisco to New York City, Calder slept on deck and awoke one early morning off the Guatemalan Coast and witnessed both the sun rising and the full moon setting on opposite horizons. He described in his autobiography, "It was early one morning on a calm sea, off Guatemala, when over my couch—a coil of rope—I saw the beginning of a fiery red sunrise on one side and the moon looking like a silver coin on the other."[17]
The H.F. Alexander docked in San Francisco and Calder traveled up to Aberdeen, Washington, where his sister lived with her husband, Kenneth Hayes. Calder took a job as a timekeeper at a logging camp. The mountain scenery inspired him to write home to request paints and brushes. Shortly after this, Calder decided to move back to New York to pursue a career as an artist.
Red Mobile, 1956, Painted sheet metal and metal rods, a signature work by Calder - Montreal Museum of Fine Arts
Calder moved to New York and enrolled at the Art Students League, studying briefly with Thomas Hart Benton, George Luks, Kenneth Hayes Miller, and John Sloan.[18] While a student, he worked for the National Police Gazette where, in 1925, one of his assignments was sketching the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus. Calder became fascinated with the action of the circus, a theme that would reappear in his later work.
In 1926, Calder moved to Paris, enrolled in the Académie de la Grande Chaumière, and established a studio at 22 rue Daguerre in the Montparnasse Quarter. In June 1929, while traveling by boat from Paris to New York, Calder met his future wife, Louisa James (1905-1996), grandniece of author Henry James and philosopher William James. They married in 1931. While in Paris, Calder met and became friends with a number of avant-garde artists, including Fernand Léger, Jean Arp, and Marcel Duchamp. Leger wrote a preface for the catalogue of Calder’s first exhibition of abstract constructions held at the Galerie Percier in 1931.[2] Calder and Louisa returned to America in 1933 to settle in a farmhouse they purchased in Roxbury, Connecticut, where they raised a family (first daughter, Sandra born 1935, second daughter, Mary, in 1939). During World War II, Calder attempted to join the Marines as a camofleur, but was rejected. In 1955 Alexander and Louisa Calder traveled around in India for three months, where Calder produced nine sculptures as well as some jewelry.[19]
In 1963, Calder settled into his new workshop, which overlooked the valley of the Lower Chevrière to Saché in Indre-et-Loire (France). He donated to the town a sculpture, which since 1974 has been situated in the town square. Throughout his artistic career, Calder named many of his works in French, regardless of where they were destined for eventual display.
In 1966, Calder published his Autobiography with Pictures with the help of his son-in-law, Jean Davidson.
Calder died unexpectedly on November 11, 1976 of a heart attack,[20] shortly after the opening of a major retrospective show at the Whitney Museum in New York.
Artistic work[edit]
Sculpture[edit]
Hi! (Two Acrobats) by Alexander Calder, c. 1928, brass wire and wood, Honolulu Museum of Art
In 1926, at the suggestion of a Serbian toy merchant in Paris, Calder began to make mechanical toys. At the urging of fellow sculptor Jose de Creeft, he submitted them to the Salon des Humoristes. Calder began to create his Cirque Calder, a miniature circus fashioned from wire, cloth, string, rubber, cork, and other found objects. Designed to be transportable (it eventually grew to fill five large suitcases), the circus was presented on both sides of the Atlantic. Soon, his Cirque Calder[21] (on view at the Whitney Museum of American Art at present) became popular with the Parisian avant-garde. He also invented wire sculpture, or "drawing in space," and in 1929 he had his first solo show of these sculptures in Paris at Galerie Billiet. Hi! (Two Acrobats) in the collection of the Honolulu Museum of Art is an early example of the artist's wire sculpture. The painter Jules Pascin, a friend of Calder's from the cafes of Montparnasse, wrote the preface to the catalog. A visit to Piet Mondrian's studio in 1930, where he was impressed by the environment-as-installation, "shocked" him into fully embracing abstract art, toward which he had already been tending.[22]
It was the mixture of his experiments to develop purely abstract sculpture following his visit with Mondrian that led to his first truly kinetic sculptures, manipulated by means of cranks and motors, that would become his signature artworks. Calder’s kinetic sculptures are regarded as being amongst the earliest manifestations of an art that consciously departed from the traditional notion of the art work as a static object and integrated the ideas of gesture and immateriality as aesthetic factors.[23]
Dating from 1931, Calder’s sculptures of discrete movable parts powered by motors were christened “mobiles” by Marcel Duchamp, a French pun meaning both "motion" and "motive."[24] However, Calder found that the motorized works sometimes became monotonous in their prescribed movements. His solution, arrived at by 1932, was hanging sculptures that derived their motion from touch or air currents. They were followed in 1934 by outdoor pieces which were set in motion by the open air.[25] The wind mobiles featured abstract shapes delicately balanced on pivoting rods that moved with the slightest current of air, allowing for a freer, more natural, shifting play of forms and spatial relationships.[26] At the same time, Calder was also experimenting with self-supporting, static, abstract sculptures, dubbed "stabiles" by Jean Arp in 1932 to differentiate them from mobiles. In 1935–1936, he produced a number of works made largely of carved wood. At Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937), the Spanish pavilion included Calder's sculpture Mercury Fountain.
Although Calder’s sculptures are not explicitly representational, many of his themes, symbols and shapes are related to the cosmos or suggestive of nature.[2] During World War II, Calder continued to sculpt, adapting to a scarcity of aluminum during the war by returning to carved wood in a new open form of sculpture called "constellations."[27] Once the war was over, Calder began to cut shapes from sheet metal into evocative forms and would hand-paint them in his characteristically pure hues of black, red, blue, and white.[28] Calder created a small group of works from around this period with a hanging base-plate, for example Lily of Force (1945), Baby Flat Top (1946), and Red is Dominant (1947). Calder also set about creating new works such as Seven Horizontal Discs (1946), which, like Lily of Force (1945) and Baby Flat Top (1946), he was able to dismantle and send by mail despite the stringent size restrictions imposed by the postal service at the time.[29] His 1946 show at the Galerie Louis Carré in Paris, composed mainly of hanging and standing mobiles, made a huge impact, as did the essay for the catalogue written, at the artist's invitation, by French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre.[30] In 1951, Calder devised a new kind of sculpture, related structurally to his constellations. These "towers," affixed to the wall with a nail, consist of wire struts and beams that jut out from the wall, with moving objects suspended from their armatures.[31]
While not denying Calder's power as a sculptor, an alternate view of the history of twentieth-century art[32] cites Calder's turning away in the early 1930s from his motor-powered works in favor of the wind-driven mobile as marking a decisive moment in Modernism's abandonment of its earlier commitment to the machine as a critical and potentially expressive new element in human affairs – and an abandonment, in effect, of its larger goal of a rapprochement with science and engineering – and this with unfortunate, if not to say disastrous, long-term implications for contemporary art:
The larger myth of the mobile is that it represents the triumph of kinetic sculpture, when in reality the mobile was as different as one could imagine from the original vision: passive rather than active; not at all mechanical; and random rather than directed in its motion. Indeed, the mobile drew upon none of the incredible technical resources of the twentieth century, the appropriation of which had of course been the principal inspiration of the original kineticists.
Monumental works[edit]
Trois disques, a sculpture by Alexander Calder for Expo 67, on Saint Helen's Island Parc Jean-Drapeau, Montréal, Quebec
In the 1950s, Calder increasingly concentrated his efforts on producing monumental sculptures (his self-described period of "agrandissements"), particularly as public commissions increasingly came his way in the 1960s.[33] Notable examples are .125 for JFK Airport in 1957, Spirale for UNESCO in Paris 1958 and Trois disques, commissioned for Expo 67 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Calder's largest sculpture at 25.7 meters high was El Sol Rojo, constructed outside the Aztec Stadium for the 1968 Summer Olympics "Cultural Olympiad" events in Mexico City. Many of his public works were commissioned by renowned architects; I.M. Pei commissioned his La Grande Voile (1966), a 25-ton, 40-foot high stabile for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
In 1934, Calder made his first outdoor works in his Roxbury, Connecticut studio, using the same techniques and materials as his smaller works. Exhibited outside, Calder's initial standing mobiles moved elegantly in the breeze, bobbing and swirling in natural, spontaneous rhythms. In fact, the first few outdoor works were too delicate for strong winds, which forced Calder to rethink his fabrication process.
In 1936, he responded to the problem, changing his working methods. He began to create smaller scale maquettes that he then enlarged to monumental size. The small metal maquette, the first step in the production of a monumental sculpture, was already for Calder a sculpture in its own right. The larger works were made under his direction, using the classic enlargement techniques used in different ways by traditional sculptors, including his father and grandfather. Calder began to draw his designs on brown craft paper, which he enlarged using a grid. His large-scale works were created according to his exact specifications, while also allowing him the liberty to adjust or correct a shape or line if necessary.[34]
Calders' La Grande Vitesse (1969), Grand Rapids, Michigan
He made most of his monumental stabiles and mobiles after 1962 at Etablissements Biémont in Tours, France. Calder would create a model of his work, the engineering department would scale it up to final size under Calder's direction, and then technicians would complete the actual metalwork — all under Calder's watchful eye. Stabiles were made in steel plate, then painted in black or in colors. An exception was Trois disques, in stainless steel at 24 meters tall, which was commissioned by International Nickel Company of Canada.
In 1958, Calder asked Jean Prouvé to construct the steel base of Spirale in France, a monumental mobile for the UNESCO site in Paris, while the top was fabricated in Connecticut. In June 1969, Calder attended the dedication of his monumental stabile La Grande Vitesse in Grand Rapids, Michigan. This sculpture is notable for being the first civic sculpture in the United States to receive funding from the National Endowment for the Arts.[35]
Calder created a sculpture called Bent Propeller, which in 1971 was installed at the entrance of the World Trade Center's North Tower in New York City. When Battery Park City opened, the sculpture was moved to Vesey and Church Streets.[36] The sculpture stood in front of 7 World Trade Center until it was destroyed on September 11, 2001.[37]
In 1974 Calder unveiled to the public two sculptures, Flamingo at Federal Plaza and Universe at Sears Tower,[38] in Chicago, Illinois. The exhibition Alexander Calder: A Retrospective Exhibition at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, opened simultaneously with the unveiling of the sculptures.[39] Originally meant to be constructed in 1977 for the Hart Senate Office Building, Mountains and Clouds was not built until 1985 due to government budget cuts. The massive project, constructed of sheet steel and weighing 35 tons, spans the entire nine-story height of the building's atrium in Washington, D.C. Calder designed the maquette in the last year of his life for the US Senate.[40]
Theatrical productions[edit]
Part of Calder's repertoire includes pivotal stage sets for more than a dozen theatrical productions, including Nucléa, Horizon, and most notably, Martha Graham’s Panorama (1935), a production of the Erik Satie symphonic drama Socrate (1936), and later, Works in Progress (1968). The production of the Socrate set was a decisive moment in Calder's artistic development that he described as "an indication of a good deal of my subsequent work."[41] Works in Progress was a “ballet” conceived by Calder himself and produced at the Rome Opera House, featuring an array of mobiles, stabiles, and large painted backdrops.[42] Calder would describe some of his stage sets as dancers performing a choreography due to their rhythmic movement.[42]
Painting and printmaking[edit]
In addition to sculptures, Calder painted throughout his career, beginning in the early 1920s. He picked up his study of printmaking in 1925, and continued to produce illustrations for books and journals.[43] His many projects from this period include pen-and-ink line drawings of animals for a 1931 publication of Aesop’s fables. As Calder’s sculpture moved into the realm of pure abstraction in the early 1930s, so did his prints. The thin lines used to define figures in the earlier prints and drawings began delineating groups of geometric shapes, often in motion. Calder also used prints for advocacy, as in poster prints from 1967 and 1969 protesting the Vietnam War.[44]
As Calder’s professional reputation expanded in the late 1940s and 1950s, so did his production of prints. Masses of lithographs based on his gouache paintings hit the market, and deluxe editions of plays, poems, and short stories illustrated with fine art prints by Calder became available for sale.[43]
Painted aircraft & automobile[edit]
Calder's South American-themed design applied to a Braniff Douglas DC-8-62 taken at Miami Airport in 1975
One of Calder's most celebrated and unconventional undertakings was a commission from Dallas-based Braniff International Airways to paint a full-size Douglas DC-8-62 four-engined jet as a "flying canvas." George Stanley Gordon, founder of the New York City advertising agency Gordon and Shortt, first approached Calder with the idea of painting a jet in 1972, but Calder responded that he did not paint toys. When Gordon told him it was a real, full-sized airliner he was proposing that Calder paint, the artist immediately gave his approval. Gordon felt that Braniff, known for melding the worlds of fashion and design with the world of aviation, would be the perfect company to carry out the idea. Braniff Chairman Harding Lawrence was highly receptive and a contract was drawn up in 1973 calling for the painting of one Douglas DC-8-62 jet liner, dubbed Flying Colors, and 50 gouaches for a total price of $100,000.[45] Two years later, Braniff asked Calder to design a flagship for their fleet celebrating the U.S. Bicentennial. That piece, a 727-200 jet called the Flying Colors of the United States, featured a rippled image of red, white and blue echoing a waving American flag.[2]
1975 BMW 3.0 CSL painted by Calder
In 1975, Calder was commissioned to paint a BMW 3.0 CSL, which would be the first vehicle in the BMW Art Car Project.[46]
Jewelry[edit]
Calder created over 2,000 pieces of jewelry over the course of his career, many of them as gifts for friends and relatives. Several pieces reflect Calder's fascination with art from Africa and other continents.[47] They were mostly made of brass and steel, with bits of ceramic, wood and glass. Calder rarely used solder; when he needed to join strips of metal, he linked them with loops, bound them with snippets of wire or fashioned rivets.[48] Calder created his first pieces in 1906 at the age of eight for his sister's dolls using copper wire that he found in the street.[47]
For his lifelong friend Joan Miró, he set a shard of a broken porcelain vessel in a brass ring. Peggy Guggenheim received enormous silver mobile earrings and later commissioned a hammered silver headboard that shimmered with dangling fish.[49] In 1942, Guggenheim wore one Calder earring and one by Yves Tanguy to the opening of her New York gallery, The Art of This Century, to demonstrate her equal loyalty to Surrealist and abstract art, examples of which she displayed in separate galleries.[50] Others who were presented with Calder's pieces were the artist's close friend, Georgia O'Keeffe; Teeny Duchamp, wife of Marcel Duchamp; Jeanne Rucar, wife of the filmmaker Luis Buñuel; and Bella Rosenfeld, wife of Marc Chagall.[51]
Exhibitions[edit]
Calder room at National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.
Calder's first solo exhibition came in 1927, at the Gallery of Jacques Seligmann in Paris.[52] In 1928, his first solo show in a US commercial gallery was at the Weyhe Gallery in New York City. In 1933, he exhibited with the Abstraction-Création group in Paris.
In 1935, he had his first solo museum exhibition in the United States at The Renaissance Society at the University of Chicago. In New York, he was championed from the early 1930s by the Museum of Modern Art, and was one of three Americans to be included in Alfred H. Barr Jr.'s 1936 exhibition Cubism and Abstract Art.[53]
Calder's first retrospective was held in 1938 at George Walter Vincent Smith Gallery in Springfield, Massachusetts. In 1943, the Museum of Modern Art hosted a well-received Calder retrospective, curated by James Johnson Sweeney and Marcel Duchamp; the show had to be extended due to the sheer number of visitors.[54] Calder was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the 3rd Sculpture International held at the Philadelphia Museum of Art in the summer of 1949. His mobile, International Mobile was the centerpiece of the exhibition. Calder also participated in documentas I (1955), II (1959), III (1964). Major retrospectives of his work were held at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York (1964), the Fondation Maeght in Saint-Paul-de-Vence, France (1969), and the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago (1974). In addition, both of Calder's dealers, Galerie Maeght in Paris and the Perls Galleries in New York, averaged about one Calder show each per year.
Collections[edit]
Calder's work is in many permanent collections across the world. The Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, has the largest body of work by Alexander Calder.[55] Other important museum collections include the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York; the Museum of Modern Art, New York; the Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris; the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid; and the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.[56]
The Philadelphia Museum of Art offers a view of works by three generations of Alexander Calders. From the second floor window on the east side of the Great Stair Hall (on the opposite side from the armor collection) there is behind the viewer the Ghost mobile from the 3rd generation (born 1898),[57] ahead on the street is the Swann Memorial Fountain by the 2nd generation (born 1870), and beyond that the statue of William Penn atop City Hall from the 1st generation (born 1846).
Recognition and awards[edit]
1952 – Calder represented the United States at the Venice Biennale and was awarded the main prize for sculpture
1958 – First Prize for Sculpture at the Pittsburgh International[25]
1974 – Grand Prix National des Art et Lettres, Ministry of Culture, France
1975 – U.N. Peace Medal
1983 – United States Mint issues a one half ounce gold medallion honoring Calder[58]
1998 – US Postal Service issues a set of five 32-cent stamps honoring Calder[59]
Art market[edit]
In the late 1930s and early 1940s, even as Calder’s international acclaim was growing, his works were still not highly sought after, and when they sold, it was often for relatively little money. A copy of a Pierre Matisse sales ledger in the foundation’s files shows that only a few pieces in the 1941 show found buyers, one of whom, Solomon R. Guggenheim, paid only $233.34 (about $3,500 in 2014 dollars) for a work. The Museum of Modern Art had bought its first Calder in 1934 for $60, after talking Calder down from $100.[27] In 2010, his metal mobile Untitled (Autumn Leaves), sold at Sotheby's New York for $3.7 million. Another mobile brought $6.35 million at Christie's later that year.[60] Also at Christie's, a standing mobile called Lily of Force (1945), which was expected to sell for $8 to $12 million, was bought for $18.5 million in 2012.[61] Calder’s 7 1/2-foot-long hanging mobile Poisson volant (Flying Fish) (1957) fetched $25.9 million, setting an auction record for the sculptor at Christie's New York in 2014.[62][63]
Galerie Maeght in Paris became Calder's exclusive Parisian dealer in 1950 and for the rest of Calder's life. After his New York dealer Curt Valentin died unexpectedly in 1954, Calder selected the Perls Galleries in New York as his new American dealer, and this alliance also lasted until the end of his life.[64]
Legacy[edit]
Eagle (1971). Olympic Sculpture Park, Seattle, Washington
From 1966 through the present, winners of the National Magazine Awards are awarded an "Ellie", a copper-colored stabile resembling an elephant, which was designed by Calder. Two months after his death, the artist was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States' highest civilian honor, by President Gerald Ford. However, representatives of the Calder family boycotted the January 10, 1977 ceremony "to make a statement favoring amnesty for Vietnam War draft resisters".
Calder Foundation[edit]
In 1987, the Calder Foundation was established by Calder's family. The foundation "is dedicated to collecting, exhibiting, preserving, and interpreting the art and archives of Alexander Calder and is charged with an unmatched collection of his works."[65] The foundation has large holdings, with some works owned by family members and others by foundation supporters. The art includes more than 600 sculptures (including mobiles, stabiles, standing mobiles, and wire sculptures), and 22 monumental outdoor works, as well as thousands of oil paintings, works on paper, toys, pieces of jewelry, and domestic objects.[66] The US copyright representative for the Calder Foundation is the Artists Rights Society.[67]
After having worked mainly on cataloging Calder’s works, the Calder Foundation is now focusing on organizing global exhibitions for the artist.[68]
Authenticity issues[edit]
The Calder Foundation does not authenticate artworks; rather, owners can submit their works for registration in the Foundation's archive and for examination.[69] The committee that performs examinations includes experts, scholars, museum curators, and members of the Calder family.[70] The Calder Foundation's website provides details on the current policies and guidelines governing examination procedures.[71]
In 1993, the owners of Rio Nero (1959), a sheet-metal and steel-wire mobile ostensibly by Calder, went to the United States District Court for the District of Columbia charging that it was not by Alexander Calder, which the dealer who had sold it to them had claimed.[72] That same year, a federal judge ruled that for Rio Nero the burden of proof had not been fulfilled.[further explanation needed] Despite the decision, the owners of the mobile could not sell it because the recognized expert, Klaus Perls, had declared it a copy. The judge recognized the problem at the time, noting that Perls’ pronouncement would make Rio Nero unsellable. In 1994, the Calder Foundation declined to include the mobile in the catalogue raisonné on the artist.[73]
Referring to the Rio Nero case, the Appellate Division of the New York Supreme Court in 2009 rejected the appeal of an art collector who wished to sell a couple of stage sets that Calder had designed but did not live to see completed, which had been unsuccessfully submitted to the Calder Foundation for authentication.[74] The court found that it did not have the power to declare the purported Calder work authentic, nor to order the Calder Foundation to include it in the catalogue raisonné.
In 1995, questions arose about another purported Calder, Two White Dots (this piece is distinguished from a similarly-named piece, Two White Dots in the Air, created by Calder in 1958). Calder created a 1-foot (0.30 m) high sheet metal maquette in 1973 for an unrealized stabile he called Two White Dots. He gave this maquette to Carmen Segretario, founder and owner of the Segré Foundry of Waterbury, Connecticut. For decades, Calder had utilized the services of Segré Foundry in manufacturing his mobiles and stabiles. Each piece (no matter how many copies were made) would be initialled personally by Calder in white chalk, after which a welder would follow the chalk marks to burn the initials into the work. Calder died in 1976, without a full-size version of Two White Dots ever having been made. In 1982, Segretario constructed a full-size version of Two White Dots, and sold it in 1983 to art dealer Shirley Teplitz for $70,000. Segetario's documentation claimed that the work had been fabricated around 1974 "under the supervision and direction of Artist".[75] Two White Dots was then sold at auction in May 1984 for $187,000.[76] Over the next decade, the piece was sold repeatedly. In 1995, Jon Shirley (the former president of Microsoft and a Calder collector) purchased Two White Dots for $1 million. When Shirley submitted the work to the Calder Foundation for inclusion in their catalogue raisonné, the Foundation contested the work's authenticity. The André Emmerich Gallery refunded Shirley's money, and sued the Segré Foundry, which sought bankruptcy protection. The suit was settled out of court in the late 1990s. Two White Dots now resides outdoors on a farm near a river outside the small town of Washington, Connecticut.[75]
Plans for a Calder Museum[edit]
After similar ideas were developed for New York in 1998,[66] plans for a museum devoted to Calder in Philadelphia were announced in 2000. The proposed 35,000-square-foot Calder museum, designed by Japanese architect Tadao Ando, was to be located on a two-acre lot. The facility, which was slated for a 2008 opening, would have cost an estimated $70 million.[77] The late sculptor's heirs had agreed to an unprecedented gift to the museum but in 2005, the plans were abandoned over failed fundraising efforts.[78]
Quotes[edit]
"How can art be realized?
Out of volumes, motion, spaces bounded by the great space, the universe.
Out of different masses, tight, heavy, middling—indicated by variations of size or color—directional line—vectors which represent speeds, velocities, accelerations, forces, etc. . . .—these directions making between them meaningful angles, and senses, together defining one big conclusion or many.
Spaces, volumes, suggested by the smallest means in contrast to their mass, or even including them, juxtaposed, pierced by vectors, crossed by speeds.
Nothing at all of this is fixed.
Each element able to move, to stir, to oscillate, to come and go in its relationships with the other elements in its universe.
It must not be just a fleeting moment but a physical bond between the varying events in life.
Not extractions,
But abstractions
Abstractions that are like nothing in life except in their manner of reacting."[79]
– From Abstraction-Création, Art Non Figuratif, no. 1, 1932.
Gallery[edit]
L'empennage (The Empennage) (1953), Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art
Acoustic Ceiling (1953),
Aula Magna, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
The Four Elements (1961), Moderna Museet, installation in front of the museum entrance
Le tamanoir (The Anteater) (1963),
Rotterdam, Netherlands
Têtes et queue (Heads and tail) (1965),
Berlin, Germany
De tre vingarna (The Three Wings) (1967), Blå Stället, Angered, Gothenburg, Sweden.
Untitled (1968), Centro Cultural de Belém, Lisbon, Portugal
Three Disks, One Lacking (1968), Franklin Parkway, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Bobine (Bobbin) (1970), National Gallery of Australia, Canberra, Australia
Le hallebardier (The Halberdier) (1971), Sprengel Museum, Hannover, Germany
Crinkly avec disque rouge (Crinkly with Red Disk) (1973), Schlossplatz in Stuttgart, Germany
Feuille d'arbre (Tree leaf) (1974),
Tel Aviv, Israel
La Ciudad (1960), Galería de Arte Nacional, Caracas - Venezuela
Selected works[edit]
Dog (1909), folded brass sheet; this was made as a present for Calder's parents
The Flying Trapeze (1925), oil on canvas, 36 x 42 in.
Elephant (c. 1928), wire and wood, 11½ x 5¾ x 29.2 in.
Hi! (ca. 1928), brass wire, painted wood base, Honolulu Museum of Art
Policeman (ca. 1928) Wire and wood.
Aztec Josephine Baker (1930), wire, 53" x 10" x 9". A representation of Josephine Baker, the exuberant lead dancer from La revue nègre at the Folies Bergère.
Untitled (1931), wire, wood and motor; one of the first kinetic mobiles
Small Feathers (1931), wire, wood and paint; first true mobile, although designed to stand on a desktop
Cône d'ébène (1933), ebony, metal bar and wire; early suspended mobile (first was made in 1932)
Object with Yellow Background (1936), Painted wood, metal, string, Honolulu Museum of Art
Mercury Fountain (1937), sheet metal and liquid mercury metal
Devil Fish (1937), sheet metal, bolts and paint; first piece made from a model
1939 New York World's Fair (maquette) (1938), sheet metal, wire, wood, string and paint
Necklace (c. 1938), brass wire, glass and mirror
Sphere Pierced by Cylinders (1939), wire and paint; the first of many floor standing, life size "stabiles" (predating Anthony Caro's "plinthless" sculptures by two decades)
Lobster Trap and Fish Tail (1939), sheet metal, wire and paint (suspended mobile); design for the stairwell of the Museum of Modern Art, New York
Black Beast (1940), sheet metal, bolts and paint (freestanding plinthless stabile)
S-Shaped Vine (1946), sheet metal, wire and paint (suspended mobile)
Sword Plant (1947) sheet metal, wire and paint (standing mobile)
Snow Flurry (1948), sheet metal, wire and paint (suspended mobile)
Stillman House Mural (1952), (pool mural) http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/images/detail/stillman-house-i-881
.125 (1957), steel plate, rods and paint
Spirale (1958), steel plate, rod and paint, 360" high; public monumental mobile for Maison de l'UNESCO, Paris
Guillotine pour huit (Guillotine for eight), (1962), at the LaM, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
Teodelapio (1962), steel plate and paint, monumental stabile, Spoleto, Italy
Sky Hooks (1962)
La Grande voile (1966), a 33-ton metal sculpture composed of five intersecting forms, four planes, and one curve. It stands 40 feet (12 m) tall, on the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Trois disques (1967) stainless steel plate, bolts and paint, 65' x 83' x 53', monumental stabile, Montreal Canada
Gwenfritz (1968) National Museum of American History
Spinal Column (1968), San Diego Museum of Art
La Grande Vitesse, (1969), steel plate, bolts and paint, 43' x 55' x 25', Grand Rapids, Michigan
Bent Propeller, [destroyed in the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001] 1970-71, 7 World Trade Center, New York City
Peau Rouge Indiana (Red Skin Indiana) (1970), steel plate, bolts and paint, 40' x 32' x 33', Bloomington, Indiana
Reims, Croix du Sud (Reims, Cross of the South) (1970), at the LaM, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
Eagle (1971), steel plate, bolts and paint, 38'9" x 32'8" x 32'8", Olympic Sculpture Park, Seattle, Washington
White and Red Boomerang (1971), Painted metal, wire, Honolulu Museum of Art
Stegosaurus (1973), steel plate, bolts and paint, 50' tall, Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut
Cheval Rouge (Red Horse) (1974), red painted sheet metal, at the National Gallery, Washington, D.C.
Flamingo (1974), red painted steel, at the Federal Plaza, Chicago, Illinois
Universe (1974), motorized "wallmobile," black, red, yellow, and blue painted steel, Willis Tower, Chicago, Illinois
The Red Feather (1975), black and red painted steel, 11' x 6'3" x 11'2", The Kentucky Center
Flying Dragon (1975), red painted steel, believed to be the final stabile personally created by Alexander Calder, Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
Untitled (1976), aluminum honeycomb, tubing and paint, 358½ x 912", National Gallery of Art Washington, D.C.
L'Araignée Rouge (The Red Spider) (1976), 15m tall, monumental sculpture, Paris La Défense France
Mountains and Clouds (1976), painted aluminum and steel, 612 inches x 900 inches, Hart Senate Office Building
Calder's set for Socrate (1976), Pivotal stage sets presented in New York on the first anniversary of Calder's death
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Award won by Alexander Calder http://m.thelmagazine.com/TheMeasure/archives/2011/02/15/jasper-johns-gets-his-presidential-medal-of-freedom-tonight
^ Jump up to: a b c d Postiglione, Corey. "Alexander Calder," Dictionary of American Biography, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, Supplement 10 (1976-1980), 1994, p. 89-92.
Jump up ^ "Alexander Calder Chronology". Calder Foundation. Retrieved July 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Hayes, Margaret Calder. Three Alexander Calders: A Family Memoir. Middlebury, VT: Paul S. Eriksson, 1977.
Jump up ^ Calder 1966, p. 13.
Jump up ^ Calder 1966, p. 15.
Jump up ^ "Calder Foundation". Calder.org. Archived from the original on July 24, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2011.
Jump up ^ Calder 1966, pp. 21–22.
Jump up ^ Calder 1966, pp. 28–29.
Jump up ^ Hayes, Margaret Calder, Three Alexander Calders: A Family Memoir. Middlebury, VT: Paul S. Eriksson, 1977, p. 41.
Jump up ^ Calder 1966, p. 31
Jump up ^ "Panama Pacific International Exposition". calder.org. Archived from the original on 2008-05-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Petroski, Henry (September–October 2012). Schoonmaker, David, ed. "Portrait of the Artist as a Young Engineer". American Scientist. New Haven, Connecticut: Sigma Xi. 100 (5): 368–373. ISSN 0003-0996. OCLC 645082957.
^ Jump up to: a b "My Way, Calder in Paris" (PDF). Seymour I Toll.
Jump up ^ Calder 1966, p. 47.
Jump up ^ "Calder Biography". Calder Foundation. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved July 31, 2011.
Jump up ^ Calder 1966, pp. 54–55.
Jump up ^ Calder Guggenheim Collection.
Jump up ^ Calder in India, 31 May – 3 August 2012 Ordovas, London.
Jump up ^ https://www.nytimes.com/1976/11/12/archives/alexander-calder-leading-us-artist-dies-alexander-calder-major.html?mcubz=1
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-07-10. Retrieved 2007-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Alexander Calder: The Great Discovery". Gemeentemuseum Den Haag. Gemeentemuseum Den Haag. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder Archived 2011-09-12 at the Wayback Machine. Fondation Beyeler, Riehen.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder, Romulus and Remus (1928) Guggenheim Collection.
^ Jump up to: a b Alexander Calder Tate Collection.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder, Ghost (1964) Philadelphia Museum of Art.
^ Jump up to: a b Randy Kennedy (October 18, 2011), A Year in the Work of Calder The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder, Untitled (1948) Christie's Post-War and Contemporary Evening Sale, 10 November 2010, New York.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder, Seven Horizontal Discs (1946) Christie's Post-War and Contemporary Evening Sale, 8 November 2011, New York.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder, Lily of Force (1945) Christie's Post-War and Contemporary Evening Sale, 8 May 2012, New York.
Jump up ^ Calder. Gravity and Grace, March 18, 2003 – October 07, 2003 Archived February 5, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. Guggenheim Museum Bilbao.
Jump up ^ Smith, G.W. (July 7, 2015). "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot: Kinetic Sculpture and the Crisis of Western Technocentrism". Arts. Retrieved May 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder, Le Rouge de Saché (1954) Christie's Post-War and Contemporary Evening Sale, 8 May 2012, New York.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder, Red Curlicue (1973) Christie's Post-War and Contemporary Evening Sale, 10 November 2010, New York.
Jump up ^ "Initial Public Art Project Becomes a Landmark". 40th Anniversary Highlights. National Endowment for the Arts. Archived from the original on 15 October 2009. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Wenegrat, Saul (February 28, 2002). "Public Art at the World Trade Center". International Foundation for Art Research. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved July 27, 2007.
Jump up ^ Lives and Treasures Taken, The Library of Congress Retrieved 27 July 2007.
Jump up ^ Cynthia Dizikes (October 04, 2010), Lawsuit: Sears wants Willis Tower artwork back Chicago Tribune.
Jump up ^ "History of the MCA". Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved August 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder, Mountains and Clouds (1985) Christie's Post-War & Contemporary Art Evening Sale, 14 November 2012, New York.
Jump up ^ “Mobiles” by Alexander Calder, in The Painter’s Object, edited by Myfanwy Evans (London: Gerold Howe, 1937), 62–67.
^ Jump up to: a b Calder's Universe P.172
^ Jump up to: a b Alexander Calder: Printmaker, October 30, 2009 – January 31, 2010 Bruce Museum, Greenwich, CT.
Jump up ^ Bejamin Genocchio (December 18, 2009) Beyond the Mobiles The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Gordon, George Stanley. "My Pal, Alexander Calder". www.brownalumnimagazine.com. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Bissett, Mark. "The First BMW Art Car". primotipo.com. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Cheryl Lu-Lien Tan (December 11, 2008), The Intimate Side of Alexander Calder Wall Street Journal.
Jump up ^ Karen Rosenberg (December 11, 2008), Calder’s Precious Metals: Who Needs Diamonds? The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Carol Kino (December 2, 2007), Precious Metals The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Roberta Smith (May 13, 2010), Shedding New Light on Old Friends The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Calder Jewelry Archived 2012-04-02 at the Wayback Machine. The San Diego Museum of Art, San Diego.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder L&M Arts, New York/Los Angeles.
Jump up ^ Roberta Smith (March 27, 1998) All Calder, High and Low The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder, Seven Horizontal Discs (1946) Christie's Post-War and Contemporary Evening Sale, 8 November 2011, New York.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder: The Paris Years, 1926–1933, October 16, 2008 – February 15, 2009 Whitney Museum of American Art, New York.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder at the National Gallery of Art.
Jump up ^ "Ghost". Philadelphia Museum of Art. Retrieved February 7, 2012.
Jump up ^ "1983 Alexander Calder American Arts Gold Medallion". My Coin Guides. Retrieved Jan 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Stamp Series". United States Postal Service. Archived from the original on 2013-08-10. Retrieved Sep 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ Souren Melikian (November 11, 2010), At Christie's, Mockery Brings in Millions The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Carol Vogel (May 8, 2012), Record Sales for a Rothko and Other Art at Christie’s The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Carol Vogel (May 14, 2014), Asian Collectors Give Christie’s a High-Yield Night The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Katya Kazakina (May 14, 2014), Billionaires Help Christie’s to Record $745 Million Sale Bloomberg.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder - Biography Calder Foundation.
Jump up ^ "Calder Foundation website: Trustees page". Calder.org. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Carol Vogel (October 2, 1998) Calder Works On the Move The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "Calder Foundation website: Copyright and Disclaimers page". Calder.org. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2011.
Jump up ^ Jacob Hale Russell (July 29, 2006), Look Who’s Selling --- Once-quiet artists’ foundations are becoming power players, The Wall Street Journal.
Jump up ^ Patricia Cohen (June 19, 2012), In Art, Freedom of Expression Doesn’t Extend to ‘Is It Real?’, The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Daniel Grant (September 29, 1996), The tricky art of authentication Baltimore Sun.
Jump up ^ http://www.calder.org/contact/registration-and-examination
Jump up ^ Stuart Jeffries (March 13, 2003), Cover up The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Barbara Mathes Gallery records pertaining to "Rio Nero" lawsuit, 1989-1995 Archives of American Art, Washington DC
Jump up ^ Patricia Cohen (August 5, 2012), Ruling on Artistic Authenticity: The Market vs. the Law, The New York Times.
^ Jump up to: a b Somma, Ann Marie (March 12, 2006). "The Calder Work That Wasn't". Hartford Courant. Retrieved April 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Hogrefe, Jeffrey (May 10, 1984). "Top Price For Calder". The Washington Post. Retrieved April 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Scott Timberg (September 15, 2005), Impasse apparently scuttles Philadelphia's Calder project Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ Joann Loviglio (2005), Philadelphia Calder Museum Plans Cancelled ARTINFO.
Jump up ^ Alexander Calder, "Comment réaliser l'art?" from Abstraction-Création, Art Non Figuratif, no. 1, 1932
References[edit]
Baal-Teshuva, Jacob. Alexander Calder 1898–1976. Taschen, Cologne 2002, ISBN 3-8228-7915-0.
Calder, Alexander. An Autobiography With Pictures. Pantheon Books, 1966, ISBN 978-0-394-42142-1
Calder Hayes, Margaret. Three Alexander Calders: A Family Memoir. Paul S. Eriksson, 1977, ISBN 0-8397-8017-6.
Guerrero, Pedro E. Calder at Home. The Joyous Environment of Alexander Calder. Stewart, Tabori & Chang, New York, 1998, ISBN 978-1-55670-655-4
Prather, Marla. Alexander Calder 1898–1976. National Gallery of Art, Washington DC, 1998, ISBN 978-0-89468-228-5, ISBN 978-0-300-07518-2
Rosenthal, Mark, and Alexander S. C. Rower. The Surreal Calder. The Menil Collection, Houston, 2005, ISBN 978-0-939594-60-3
Rower, Alexander S. C. Calder Sculpture. Universe Publishing, 1998, ISBN 978-0-7893-0134-5
Barbara Zabel, Calder's Portraits 'A New Language' (Washington, Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2012).
Thalacker, Donald W. The Place of Art in the World of Architecture. Chelsea House Publishers, New York, 1980.
Dec. 19th, 2014. "Famous Artists Send Greeting Cards: An exhibit in New York showcases nearly 60 holiday cards from major artists", The Wall Street Journal. By Alexandra Wolfe.[1]
Further reading[edit]
Jed Perl: Calder : the conquest of time : the early years, 1898-1940, New York : Alfred A. Knopf, 2017, ISBN 978-0-307-27272-0
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Alexander Calder
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alexander Calder.
Calder Foundation website
Atelier Calder website
National Gallery of Art – Alexander Calder
Alexander Calder at the Museum of Modern Art
Smithsonian holdings of artworks by Alexander Calder
Guggenheim collection Alexander Calder bio.
Alexander Calder toys at the Berkshire Museum in Pittsfield, MA
A finding aid to the Alexander Calder papers in the Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution
Guide to the Calder-Hayes Family Papers at The Bancroft Library
Calder and Braniff Airways
Braniff Flying Colors Historical Page
hide
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Alexander Calder
Sculptures
Cirque Calder (1926)
Lobster Trap and Fish Tail (1939)
Floating Clouds (1953)
The Four Elements (1961)
Teodelapio (1962)
The Crab (1962)
Sky Hooks (1962)
Gwenfritz (1968)
Spinal Column (1968)
La Grande Vitesse (1969)
Bent Propeller (1970)
Eagle (1971)
Flamingo (1974)
Cheval Rouge (1974)
Flying Dragon (1975)
Calder's set for Socrate (1976)
Mountains and Clouds (1986)
Related
Mobile
Wire sculpture
Mercury fountain
Alexander Stirling Calder (father)
Alexander Milne Calder (grandfather)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BNE: XX1102262
BNF: cb12402694f (data)
GND: 118666592
ISNI: 0000 0001 2117 3240
LCCN: n79112975
NDL: 00435079
NKC: jn20000700268
RKD: 14770
SELIBR: 180873
SNAC: w6t43vgd
SUDOC: 033129398
ULAN: 500007824
VIAF: 96096
Jump up ^ "Famous Artists Send Greeting Cards". MutualArt. Retrieved 2015-01-13.
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text:
Open Door Policy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the economic policy in China. For the managerial practice of leaving your office door open, see Open door policy (business).
"Putting his foot down" Uncle Sam in 1899 demands Open Door while major powers plan to cut up China for themselves; Germany, Italy, England, Austria, Russia & France are represented by Wilhelm II, Umberto I, John Bull, Franz Joseph I (in rear), Uncle Sam, Nicholas II, and Emile Loubet. Punch Aug 23, 1899 by J. S. Pughe
The Open Door Policy is a term in foreign affairs initially used to refer to the United States policy established in the late 19th century and the early 20th century that would allow for a system of trade in China open to all countries equally. It was used mainly to mediate the competing interests of different colonial powers in China. In more recent times, Open Door policy describes the economic policy initiated by Deng Xiaoping in 1978 to open up China to foreign businesses that wanted to invest in the country. This later policy set into motion the economic transformation of modern China.[1]
The late 19th policy was enunciated in Secretary of State John Hay's Open Door Note, dated September 6, 1899 and dispatched to the major European powers.[2] It proposed to keep China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis, keeping any one power from total control of the country, and calling upon all powers, within their spheres of influence, to refrain from interfering with any treaty port or any vested interest, to permit Chinese authorities to collect tariffs on an equal basis, and to show no favors to their own nationals in the matter of harbor dues or railroad charges. Open Door policy was rooted in the desire of U.S. businesses to trade with Chinese markets, though it also tapped the deep-seated sympathies of those who opposed imperialism, with the policy pledging to protect China's sovereignty and territorial integrity from partition. It had little legal standing, and served in the main the interests of competing colonial powers without much meaningful input from the Chinese, creating lingering resentment and causing it to later be seen as a symbol of national humiliation by Chinese historians.
There was an essential conflict in the policy. The U.S. announced its Open Door Policy with the dual intentions of avoiding the actual political division of China and taking financial advantage, but only in a fair way, acknowledging equal rights for all nations to trade with China. All the imperial nations gave a green light to the American decision except Russia. The next result was that China remained undivided, but in the coming years the imperial nations continued to exploit China to a large extent.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 A principle only
3 The second Open Door Policy
4 Formation of the policy
5 Subsequent development
6 In modern China
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Background[edit]
As a theory, the United States' Open Door Policy originated with British commercial practice as reflected in treaties concluded with the Qing dynasty China after the First Opium War (1839–42).[3]
The Open Door concept was first seen at the Berlin Conference of 1885, which declared that no power could levy preferential duties in the Congo.
A principle only[edit]
The Open Door Policy was a principle, never formally adopted via treaty or international law. It was invoked or alluded to but never enforced as such. Starting with the 1931 Japanese seizure of Manchuria and the creation of Manchukuo, however, the policy was broken with impunity and with increasing frequency.
The second Open Door Policy[edit]
Technically, the term Open Door Policy was only applicable before the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949. After Deng Xiaoping took office in 1978, the term referred to China's policy of opening up to foreign business that wanted to invest in the country, setting into motion the economic transformation of modern China.
Formation of the policy[edit]
During the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, China faced imminent threat of being partitioned and colonized by imperialist powers such as Britain, France, Russia, Japan and Germany. After winning the Spanish–American War of 1898, with the newly acquired territory the Philippine Islands, the United States increased its Asian presence and was expecting to further its commercial and political interest in China. It felt threatened by other powers' much larger spheres of influence in China and worried that it might lose access to the Chinese market should the country be partitioned. As a response, William Woodville Rockhill formulated the Open Door Policy to safeguard American business opportunities and other interests in China.[4] On September 6, 1899, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to the major powers (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia), asking them to declare formally that they would uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and would not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports within their spheres of influence in China.[5] The Open Door Policy stated that all nations, including the United States, could enjoy equal access to the Chinese market.[6]
In reply, each country tried to evade Hay's request, taking the position that it could not commit itself until the other nations had complied. However, by July 1900, Hay announced that each of the powers had granted consent in principle. Although treaties made after 1900 refer to the Open Door Policy, competition among the various powers for special concessions within China for railroad rights, mining rights, loans, foreign trade ports, and so forth, continued unabated.[6]
On October 6, 1900 Britain and Germany signed the Yangtze Agreement, providing that they would oppose the partition of China into spheres of influence. The agreement, signed by Lord Salisbury and Ambassador Paul von Hatzfeldt was an endorsement of the Open Door Policy proposed by the United States for free trade in China.[7][8][9] However, Germany's failure to keep up the agreement led to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902.[10]
Subsequent development[edit]
In 1902, the United States government protested that Russian incursion into Manchuria after the Boxer Rebellion was a violation of the Open Door Policy. When Japan replaced Russia in southern Manchuria after the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) the Japanese and U.S. governments pledged to maintain a policy of equality in Manchuria. In finance, American efforts to preserve the Open Door Policy led (1909) to the formation of an international banking consortium through which all Chinese railroad loans would agree (1917) to another exchange of notes between the United States and Japan in which there were renewed assurances that the Open Door Policy would be respected, but that the United States would recognize Japan's special interests in China (the Lansing–Ishii Agreement). The Open Door Policy had been further weakened by a series of secret treaties (1917) between Japan and the Allied Triple Entente, which promised Japan the German possessions in China on successful conclusion of World War I.[6] The subsequent realization of such promise in the Versailles Treaty of 1919 angered the Chinese public and sparked the protest known as May Fourth Movement. The Nine-Power Treaty, signed in 1922, expressly reaffirmed the Open Door Policy.
Since the policy in effect hindered Chinese sovereignty, the government of the Republic of China endeavored to revise related treaties with foreign powers in the twenties and thirties. Only after the conclusion of World War II did China manage to regain its full sovereignty.
In modern China[edit]
Main article: Chinese economic reform
In China's modern day economic history the Open Door Policy refers to the new policy announced by Deng Xiaoping in December 1978 to open the door to foreign businesses that wanted to set up in China.[1][11] Special Economic Zones (SEZ) were set up in 1980 in his belief that in order to modernize China's industry and boost its economy, it needed to welcome foreign direct investment. Chinese economic policy then shifted to encouraging and supporting foreign trade & investment. It is the turning point in China economic fortune that started China on the path to becoming 'The World's Factory'.[12]
Four SEZs were initially set up in 1980, namely Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Shantou in Guangdong, and Xiamen in Fujian. These SEZs were strategically located near Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, but with a favorable tax regime and low wages in order to attract capital and business from these overseas Chinese communities.[1][13] Shenzhen was the first to be established and it showed the most rapid growth, averaging at a very high growth rate of 40% per annum between 1981 and 1993, compared to the average GDP growth of 9.8% for the country as a whole.[14] Further SEZs were later set up in other parts of China.
In 1978, China was ranked 32nd in the world in export volume, but by 1989, it had doubled its world trade and became the 13th largest exporter. Between 1978 and 1990, the average annual rate of trade expansion was above 15 percent,[15] and a high rate of growth continued for the next decade. In 1978, its exports in the world market share was negligible, in 1998 it still had less than 2%, but by 2010, it had a world market share of 10.4% according to the World Trade Organization (WTO), with merchandise export sales of more than $1.5 trillion, the highest in the world.[16] In 2013, China overtook the USA and became the world's biggest trading nation in goods with a total for imports and exports valued at US $4.16 trillion for the year.[17]
See also[edit]
Boxer Rebellion
New Imperialism#China
Nine-Power Treaty#Open Door Policy
Russian invasion of Manchuria
Economic history of China before 1912
Economic history of China (1912–49)
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Open Door Policy". BBC.
Jump up ^ Commercial Rights in China ("Open Door" Policy): Declarations by France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, and Russia accepting United States proposal for "open door" policy in China, September 6, 1899-March 20, 1900, 1 Bevans 278
Jump up ^ Philip Joseph, Foreign diplomacy in China, 1894-1900
Jump up ^ Shizhang Hu, Stanley K. Hornbeck and the Open Door Policy, 1919-1937 (1977) ch 1-2
Jump up ^ "Secretary of State John Hay and the Open Door in China, 1899–1900". Milestones: 1899–1913. Office of the Historian, US Department of State. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sugita (2003)
Jump up ^ "Yangtze Agreement", Historical Dictionary of the British Empire (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996), pp1176
Jump up ^ Holstein, Friedrich von (1961-01-01). The Holstein Papers, Correspondence. CUP Archive.
Jump up ^ Gardner, Professor Hall (2015-02-28). The Failure to Prevent World War I: The Unexpected Armageddon. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 9781472430564.
Jump up ^ Ricci, Gabriel R. (2013-01-23). Culture and Civilization: Cosmopolitanism and the Global Polity. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 9781412849289.
Jump up ^ Yun-Wing Sung (16 January 1992). The China-Hong Kong Connection: The Key to China's Open Door Policy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521382458. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Xuedong Ding, Chen Meng (ed.). From World Factory to Global Investor: Multi-perspective Analysis on China's Outward Direct Investment. Routledge. ISBN 9781315455792.
Jump up ^ Swee-Hock Saw, John Wong (ed.). Regional Economic Development in China. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-981-230-941-9.
Jump up ^ Wei Ge (1999). "Chapter 4: The Performance of Special Economic Zones". Special Economic Zones and the Economic Transition in China. World Scientific Publishing Co Pte Ltd. pp. 67–108. ISBN 978-9810237905.
Jump up ^ Shang-Jin Wei. "The Open Door Policy and China's Rapid Growth: Evidence from City-Level Data". Missing or empty |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Steven Husted and Shuichiro Nishioka. "China's Fare Share? The Growth of Chinese Exports in World Trade" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Katherine Rushton (10 Jan 2014). "China overtakes US to become world's biggest goods trading nation". The Telegraph.
References[edit]
Esthus, Raymond A. "The Changing Concept of the Open Door, 1899-1910," Mississippi Valley Historical Review Vol. 46, No. 3 (Dec., 1959), pp. 435–454 JSTOR
Hu, Shizhang (1995). Stanley K. Hornbeck and the Open Door Policy, 1919-1937. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-29394-5.
Kolko, Gabriel (1972). The Limits of Power: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1945–1954. New York, NY: The Free Press. ISBN 978-0-060-12447-2.
Mark Atwood Lawrence, “Open Door Policy”, Encyclopedia of the New American Nation, (online)[1].
McKee, Delber (1977). Chinese Exclusion Versus the Open Door Policy, 1900-1906: Clashes over China Policy in the Roosevelt Era. Wayne State Univ Press. ISBN 0-8143-1565-8.
Otte, Thomas G. (2007). The China question: great power rivalry and British isolation, 1894-1905. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921109-8.
Sugita, Yoneyuki, "The Rise of an American Principle in China: A Reinterpretation of the First Open Door Notes toward China" in Richard J. Jensen, Jon Thares Davidann, and Yoneyuki Sugita, eds. Trans-Pacific relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the twentieth century (Greenwood, 2003) pp 3–20 online
External links[edit]
Look up open-door policy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Text of the First Open Door Note
Text of the First and Second Open Door Note
"Milestones: Secretary of State John Hay and the Open Door Policy in China" (U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian) [2]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Open_Door_Policy&oldid=842121038"
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Calico Acts
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Calico Acts (1700, 1721) banned the import of most cotton textiles into England, followed by the restriction of sale of most cotton textiles. It was a form of economic protectionism, largely in response to India (particularly Bengal), which dominated world cotton textile markets at the time. The Acts were a precursor to the Industrial Revolution, when Britain eventually surpassed India as the world's leading textile manufacturer in the 19th century.[1]
The English East India Company introduced Britain to cheap calico and chintz cloth after the restoration of the monarchy in the 1660s. Initially imported as a novelty side line, from its spice trading posts in Asia, the cheap colourful cloth proved popular and overtook the EIC's spice trade by value in the late 17th century. The EIC embraced the demand, particularly for calico, by expanding its factories in Asia and producing and importing cloth in bulk, creating competition for domestic woollen and linen textile producers. The impacted weavers, spinners, dyers, shepherds and farmers objected, with parliament petitioned, the EIC offices stormed by a mob, the fashion conscious assaulted for wearing imported cloth, making the calico question one of the major issues of National politics between the 1680s and the 1730s. Parliament began to see a decline in domestic textile sales, and an increase in imported textiles from places like China and India. Seeing the East India Company and their textile importation as a threat to domestic textile businesses, Parliament passed the 1700 Calico Act, blocking the importation of cotton cloth. As there was no punishment for continuing to sell cotton cloth, smuggling of the popular material became commonplace. So, dissatisfied with the outcome of the first act, in 1721 Parliament passed a stricter addition, this time, prohibiting the sale of most cottons, imported and domestic (exempting only thread Fustian and raw cotton). The exemption of raw cotton from the prohibition initially saw 2 thousand bales of raw cotton imported annually, to become the basis of a new indigenous industry, initially producing Fustian for the domestic market, though more importantly triggering the development of a series of mechanised spinning and weaving technologies, to process the material. This mechanised production was concentrated in new cotton mills, which slowly expanded till by the beginning of the 1770s seven thousand bales of cotton were imported annually, and pressure was put on Parliament, by the new mill owners, to remove the prohibition on the production and sale of pure cotton cloth, as they wished to compete with the EIC for the British cotton market.
The acts were repealed in 1774, triggering a wave of investment in mill based cotton spinning and production, doubling the demand for raw cotton within a couple of years, and doubling it again every decade, till the 1840s.[2]
Acts[edit]
1685 – 10% tariff on import of East Indian goods[1]
1690 – The Impost of 1690 - upon East India Goods, wrought silk, and other foreign commodities, in all 55 in number - 20% tariff on import of East Indian goods[1]
1700 (11th and 12th of King William)- An act for the more effectual employing the poor, by encouraging the Manufacturers of this Kingdom.[3] - banned most imports
"that from Michaelmas 1701, all wrought silks, Bengals and stuffs, mixed with silk or herba, of the manufacture of Persia, China or East India; and also all printed calicoes, and all painted, dyed or stained there, shall be locked up in warehouses appointed by the commissioners of the customs, till re-exported; so none of the said goods should be worn or used, in either apparel or furniture, in England, on forfeiture thereof, and also of two hundred pound penalty on th persons having or selling any of them"[4]
1700 - 15% duty on Muslins, a duty on East India Goods, laid on in.
1700 - export duty on English woolen produce abolished.
1707 - 50% tariff on Indian goods[1]
1721 - Calico Act - banned the sale of most cotton textiles.
“An Act to Preserve and Encourage the Woollen and Silk Manufactures of this Kingdom, and for more Effectual Employing the Poor, by Prohibiting the Use and Wear of all Printed, Painted, Stained or Dyed Callicoes in Apparel, Household Stuff, Furniture, or otherwise, after the twenty fifth Day of December one thousand seven hundred and seventy two"
1730's - modified, with an exemption to the sale of British printed fabrics
1774 - repealed
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Early British Industrial Revolution and Infant Industry Protectionism: The Case of Cotton Textiles".
Jump up ^ Gupta, Bishnupriya. "COTTON TEXTILES AND THE GREAT DIVERGENCE: LANCASHIRE, INDIA AND SHIFTING COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE, 1600-1850" (PDF). International Institute of Social History. Department of Economics, University of Warwick. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Eacott, Jonathan P. "Making an Imperial Compromise: The Calico Acts, the Atlantic Colonies, and the Structure of the British Empire". Jstor. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Walter, J (1787). An Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce, from the Earliest Accounts. Logographic Press. pp. 646–647. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
1.) Woodruff Smith, Consumption and the Making of Respectability, 1600–1800
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