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Neutrality Acts of 1930s
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For other Neutrality Acts, see Neutrality Act.
U.S. Congressional opposition
to American involvement in
wars and interventions
1812 North America
House Federalists’ Address
1847 Mexican–American War
Spot Resolutions
1917 World War I
Filibuster of the Armed Ship Bill
1935–1939
Neutrality Acts
1935–1940
Ludlow Amendment
1970 Vietnam
McGovern–Hatfield Amendment
1970 Southeast Asia
Cooper–Church Amendment
1971 Vietnam
Repeal of Tonkin Gulf Resolution
1973 Southeast Asia
Case–Church Amendment
1973
War Powers Resolution
1974
Hughes–Ryan Amendment
1976 Angola
Clark Amendment
1982 Nicaragua
Boland Amendment
2007 Iraq
House Concurrent Resolution 63
v
t
e
The Neutrality Acts were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s, in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia that eventually led to World War II. They were spurred by the growth in isolationism and non-interventionism in the US following its costly involvement in World War I, and sought to ensure that the US would not become entangled again in foreign conflicts.
The legacy of the Neutrality Acts is widely regarded as having been generally negative: they made no distinction between aggressor and victim, treating both equally as "belligerents"; and they limited the US government's ability to aid Britain and France against Nazi Germany. The acts were largely repealed in 1941, in the face of German submarine attacks on U.S. vessels and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Neutrality Act of 1935
3 Neutrality Act of 1936
4 Neutrality Act of 1937
5 Neutrality Act of 1939
6 End of neutrality policy
7 Subsequent application
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Background[edit]
The Nye Committee hearings between 1934 and 1936 and several best-selling books of the time, like H. C. Engelbrecht's The Merchants of Death (1934), supported the conviction of many Americans that the U.S. entry into World War I had been orchestrated by bankers and arms dealers for profit reasons. This strengthened the position of isolationists and non-interventionists in the country.
Powerful forces in United States Congress pushing for non-interventionism and strong Neutrality Acts were the Republican Senators William Edgar Borah, Arthur H. Vandenberg, Gerald P. Nye and Robert M. La Follette, Jr.,[1] but support of non-interventionism was not limited to the Republican party. The Ludlow Amendment, requiring a public referendum before any declaration of war except in cases of defense against direct attack, was introduced several times without success between 1935 and 1940 by Democratic Representative Louis Ludlow.
Democratic President Roosevelt and especially his Secretary of State Cordell Hull were critical of the Neutrality Acts, fearing that they would restrict the administration's options to support friendly nations. Even though both the House and Senate had large Democratic majorities throughout these years, there was enough support for the Acts among Democrats (especially those representing Southern states) to ensure their passage. Although Congressional support was insufficient to override a presidential veto, Roosevelt felt he could not afford to snub the South and anger public opinion, especially while facing re-election in 1936 and needing Congressional co-operation on domestic issues. With considerable reluctance, the president signed the Neutrality Acts into law.[2]
Neutrality Act of 1935[edit]
Roosevelt's State Department had lobbied for embargo provisions that would allow the President to impose sanctions selectively. This was rejected by Congress. The 1935 act,[3] signed on August 31, 1935, imposed a general embargo on trading in arms and war materials with all parties in a war. It also declared that American citizens traveling on warring ships traveled at their own risk. The act was set to expire after six months.
When Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1935, the State Department established an office to enforce the provisions of the Act. The Office of Arms and Munitions Control, renamed the Division of Controls in 1939 when the office was expanded, consisted of Joseph C. Green and Charles W. Yost.
Roosevelt invoked the act after Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in October 1935, preventing all arms and ammunition shipments to Italy and Ethiopia. He also declared a "moral embargo" against the belligerents, covering trade not falling under the Neutrality Act.[4]
Neutrality Act of 1936[edit]
The Neutrality Act of 1936,[5] passed in February of that year, renewed the provisions of the 1935 act for another 14 months. It also forbade all loans or credits to belligerents.
However, this act did not cover "civil wars," such as that in Spain (1936–1939), nor did it cover materials such as trucks and oil. U.S. companies such as Texaco, Standard Oil, Ford, General Motors, and Studebaker exploited this loophole to sell such items to General Franco on credit. By 1939, Franco owed these and other companies more than $100,000,000.[6]
Neutrality Act of 1937[edit]
In January 1937, the Congress passed a joint resolution outlawing the arms trade with Spain. The Neutrality Act of 1937[7] was passed in May and included the provisions of the earlier acts, this time without expiration date, and extended them to cover civil wars as well.[8] Furthermore, U.S. ships were prohibited from transporting any passengers or articles to belligerents, and U.S. citizens were forbidden from traveling on ships of belligerent nations.
In a concession to Roosevelt, a "cash-and-carry" provision that had been devised by his advisor Bernard Baruch was added: the President could permit the sale of materials and supplies to belligerents in Europe as long as the recipients arranged for the transport and paid immediately with cash, with the argument that this would not draw the U.S. into the conflict. Roosevelt believed that cash-and-carry would aid France and Great Britain in the event of a war with Germany, since they were the only countries that controlled the seas and were able to take advantage of the provision.[2] The cash-and-carry clause was set to expire after two years.
Japan invaded China in July 1937, starting the Second Sino-Japanese War. President Roosevelt, who supported the Chinese side, chose not to invoke the Neutrality Acts since the parties had not formally declared war. In so doing, he ensured that China's efforts to defend itself would not be hindered by the legislation: China was dependent on arms imports and only Japan would have been able to take advantage of cash-and-carry. This outraged the isolationists in Congress who claimed that the spirit of the law was being undermined. Roosevelt stated that he would prohibit American ships from transporting arms to the belligerents, but he allowed British ships to transport American arms to China.[9] Roosevelt gave his Quarantine Speech in October 1937, outlining a move away from neutrality and toward "quarantining" all aggressors. He then imposed a "moral embargo" on exports of aircraft to Japan.[4]
Neutrality Act of 1939[edit]
Early in 1939, after Nazi Germany had invaded Czechoslovakia, Roosevelt lobbied Congress to have the cash-and-carry provision renewed. He was rebuffed, the provision lapsed, and the mandatory arms embargo remained in place.
In September 1939, after Germany had invaded Poland, Great Britain and France declared war on Germany. Roosevelt invoked the provisions of the Neutrality Act but came before Congress and lamented that the Neutrality Acts may give passive aid to an aggressor/country.[10]
He prevailed over the isolationists, and on November 4 the Neutrality Act of 1939 was passed,[11] allowing for arms trade with belligerent nations (Great Britain and France) on a cash-and-carry basis, thus in effect ending the arms embargo. Furthermore, the Neutrality Acts of 1935 and 1937 were repealed, American citizens and ships were barred from entering war zones designated by the President, and the National Munitions Control Board (which had been created by the 1935 Neutrality Act) was charged with issuing licenses for all arms imports and exports. Arms trade without a license became a federal crime,[12] with a penalty of up to two years in prison.
End of neutrality policy[edit]
The end of neutrality policy came with the Lend-Lease Act of March 1941, which allowed the U.S. to sell, lend or give war materials to nations the US administration wanted to support.
After repeated attacks by German submarines on U.S. ships, Roosevelt announced on September 11, 1941, that he had ordered the U.S. Navy to attack German and Italian war vessels in the "waters which we deem necessary for our defense". Following the sinking of the U.S. destroyer Reuben James on October 31, many of the provisions of the Neutrality Acts were repealed on November 17, 1941: merchant vessels were allowed to be armed and to carry any cargoes to belligerent nations. The U.S. formally declared war on Japan on 8 December 1941 following the attack on Pearl Harbor of the previous day; Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S. on 11 December 1941, and the U.S. responded with a declaration of war on the same day.
Subsequent application[edit]
The provision against unlicensed arms trades of the 1939 act remains in force.[13]
In 1948, Charles Winters, Al Schwimmer and Herman Greenspun were convicted under the 1939 Act after smuggling B-17 Flying Fortress bombers from Florida to the nascent state of Israel during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.[14] All three received Presidential pardons in subsequent decades.[15]
At least one American foreign fighter in the YPG was told he had violated the Neutrality Acts by travelling to Syria to fight ISIS, but the DOJ was choosing not to seek legal action at the time.[when?]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Delaney, David G, Neutrality Acts, Novel guide, retrieved June 5, 2008 .
^ Jump up to: a b The Neutrality Acts, 1930s, US: State Department, retrieved June 5, 2008 .
Jump up ^ Public Resolution 67, 74th Congress, 49 Stat. 1081 of August 31, 1935
^ Jump up to: a b Combs, Jerald A. (2002). "Embargoes and Sanctions". Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy.
Jump up ^ Public Resolution 74, 74th Congress, 49 Stat. 1152 of February 29, 1936
Jump up ^ Anderson, James M. The Spanish Civil War: A History and Reference Guide. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-32274-0.
Jump up ^ Public Resolution 27, 75th Congress, 50 Stat. 121 of May 1, 1937
Jump up ^ Kennedy, David M. (1999). Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-503834-7.
Jump up ^ Powaski, Ronald E (1991), Toward an Entangling Alliance: American Isolationism, Internationalism, and Europe, 1901–1950, Westport: Greenwood, p. 72 .
Jump up ^ "September 21, 1939: FDR urges repeal of Neutrality Act embargo provisions". History.com. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
Jump up ^ Public Resolution 54, 76th Congress, 54 Stat. 4 of November 4, 1939
Jump up ^ Brinkley, Douglas; Rubel, David (2003). World War II: The Axis Assault, 1939-1942. Macmillan. pp. 99–106.
Jump up ^ 22 U.S.C. § 441 (notes)
Jump up ^ Lichtblau, Eric (24 December 2008). "Jailed for Aiding Israel, but Pardoned by Bush". The New York Times. p. A1. Retrieved 28 January 2010.
Jump up ^ "Pardon granted to man who flew planes to Israel". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. December 23, 2008. Retrieved December 23, 2008.
Further reading[edit]
Divine, Robert A. (1962), The Illusion of Neutrality, University of Chicago Press, OCLC 186301491
Garner, James W. (1937), "Recent American Neutrality Legislation", International Affairs, 16 (6): 853–869, JSTOR 2602764
External links[edit]
Neutrality Act of August 31, 1935
Neutrality Act of February 29, 1936
Neutrality Act of May 1, 1937
Neutrality Act of November 4, 1939
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neutrality_Acts_of_1930s&oldid=792359715"
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text:
Parliamentary franchise in the United Kingdom 1885–1918
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The total registered electorate in the United Kingdom grew from 5.7 million in 1885 to over 21 million in 1918. Much of the growth was result of the Reform Act 1918, which expanded franchise by abolished property qualifications for men and introduced female suffrage for some women over the age of 30.
Changes in parliamentary franchise from 1885 to 1918 in the United Kingdom were the result of centuries of development in different kinds of constituencies.[1] The three Reform Acts of the nineteenth century brought about some order by amending franchises in a uniform manner (see Reform Act 1832, Reform Act 1867 and Representation of the People Act 1884).
After 1885 the occupation franchise (under which most of the electors qualified in this period) was similar in all types of constituency, throughout the United Kingdom, but there were some surviving ownership and reserved Borough franchises which applied differently in particular seats.
The major distinction was between county constituencies and borough constituencies. All county constituencies had the same mix of franchises. Some of the older boroughs were still affected by the different franchises that had applied to them before 1832 (see the Unreformed House of Commons for details of the position before the Reform Act 1832). The Reform Acts had preserved some of the unreformed borough franchises, as well as introducing new rules for all boroughs.
The contents of the section on the Parliamentary franchise below, are taken from The Constitutional Year Book 1900, a publication issued by Conservative Central Office in 1900 and thus out of copyright. They were intended to guide Conservative agents and other activists, so can be assumed to be an accurate summary of the law for the period 1885-1918, between the implementation of the Representation of the People Act 1884 and the coming into force of the Representation of the People Act 1918.
The exact period when this pattern of franchises applied was between the dissolution of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom (18 November 1885) and that of the 30th Parliament (25 November 1918). Note that the local government franchise was different; in particular, single women ratepayers could vote in municipal elections from 1869 following the Municipal Franchise Act, confirmed and extended to some married women by the Local Government Act 1894.[2][3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Numbers enfranchised
2 The Parliamentary franchise
2.1 Counties
2.2 Boroughs
3 See also
4 References
Numbers enfranchised[edit]
The first table below shows the total registered electorate (including university electors), between the 1880 general election (the last election before the Third Reform Act) and the 1918 general election (the first after that Act was replaced).
The increase in Ireland between 1880 and 1885 was particularly significant, as the Irish county franchise was brought into line with that in Great Britain.
The 1885 general election and the 1886 general election were fought on the same register.
The January 1910 and December 1910 general elections were fought on the same register, except in Scotland. The voters in the second election differed from the 1910 figures in the table with Scotland 779,012 and Universities 46,566 contributing to a total of 7,709,981 registered voters.
Country
1880
1885
1892
1895
1900
1906
1910
1918
England 2,338,809 4,094,674 4,478,524 4,620,320 4,929,485 5,416,537 5,774,892 16,021,600
Wales 149,841 282,242 314,647 322,784 340,290 387,535 425,744 1,170,974
Scotland 293,581 560,580 589,520 616,178 661,748 728,725 762,184 2,205,383
Ireland 229,204 737,965 740,536 732,046 757,849 686,661 683,767 1,926,274
Universities 28,615 32,569 37,314 39,191 41,563 45,150 48,154 68,091
Total 3,040,050 5,708,030 6,160,541 6,330,519 6,730,935 7,264,608 7,694,741 21,392,322
(Source: Adapted from Craig)
The table below provides figures (taken from Parliamentary Papers in 1886 and 1902) for those qualified by various franchises, in England and Wales, after the 1884 reforms and again in 1902.
Qualification
1885
1902
Occupation voters in counties 2,020,650 2,570,928
Occupation voters in boroughs 1,749,441 2,229,381
Ownership voters in counties 508,554 493,694
Lodgers in boroughs 57,684 93,421
Ancient right voters in boroughs 35,066 26,038
Lodgers in counties 8,937 32,894
(Source: Adapted from Seymour)
By comparison when universal manhood suffrage was introduced for the 1918 general election, there were 12,913,166 registered male electors in the United Kingdom (including University electors), as opposed to the registration at the December 1910 general election of 7,709,981 (again including University electors).
The available figures suggest that the 1885-1918 electorate comprised about sixty percent of the adult male population.
The Parliamentary franchise[edit]
This section contains too-lengthy quotations for an encyclopedic entry. Please help improve the article by presenting facts as a neutrally-worded summary with appropriate citations. Consider transferring direct quotations to Wikiquote. (March 2016)
The following are the classes of persons who, being males of full age, are entitled to be registered, and when registered to vote at Parliamentary Elections, provided they are not under any legal incapacity, such as alienage or conviction for corrupt practices, and have not within 12 months preceding 15 July received parochial relief (other than medical relief) or other disqualifying alms:-
Counties[edit]
1. THE OWNERSHIP FRANCHISE.
(a) FREEHOLDERS:-
(1) Persons possessed in fee simple or fee tail of a freehold estate in land or tenements of the annual value of 40s.
(2) Persons possessed of a freehold estate for life or lives in land or tenements of the annual value of 40s. who actually or bona fide occupy the premises or were seised of such estate on 7 June 1832, or have acquired such estate after that day by marriage, marriage settlement, devise, or promotion to a benefice or office.
Persons possessed of a freehold estate for life or lives in lands or tenements of the clear yearly value of £5.
Note.-Residence on the property is not required from freeholders. A freehold situate in a Parliamentary borough qualifies the owner for the county vote, unless it is in his own occupation. See also N.B. below.
(b) COPYHOLDERS:-
Persons possessed of an estate for life or lives in land or tenements of copyhold or any other tenure of the clear yearly value of £5.
Note.-Residence on the property is not required from copyholders. A copyhold situate in a Parliamentary borough does not qualify the owner for the county vote if it would qualify him or any other person (i.e., his tenant) for the borough vote. See also N.B. below.
(c) LEASEHOLDERS:-
Lessees, their assignees, and sub-lessees (if in actual occupation) of a term originally created for not less than 60 years, of the value of £5 per annum. Not less than 20 years of the value of £50 per annum.
Note.-Residence on the property is not required from leaseholders. A leasehold situate in a Parliamentary borough does not qualify the owner for the county vote if it would qualify him or any other person (i.e., his tenant) for the borough vote. See also N.B. below.
N.B.-Joint Ownership. - One only of several joint owners can claim a vote, unless they have acquired the property by inheritance, marriage, or will, or are bona fide carrying on business thereon as partners, in which case all can claim votes if the value is sufficient.
Possession. - The claimant must have been in actual possession or in receipt of the rents and profits for his own use for 6 months (in the case of (c) leaseholders, 12 months) preceding 15 July, unless the property has been acquired by descent, marriage or will.
Rentcharge. - A rentcharge does not now qualify to vote, except the whole of the tithe rentcharge of a living; but a person registered before 1885 retains his vote.
Claims - Freeholders, Copyholders and Leaseholders in order to obtain a vote must, if not already registered, send in a notice of claim to the Overseers of the Parish in which the property is situated on or before 20 July.
2. THE OCCUPATION FRANCHISE.
(a) £10 OCCUPIERS:-
The occupier as owner or tenant for 12 months preceding 15 July in any year of any land or tenement within the county of a clear yearly value of not less than £10.
Note - The word "tenement" includes a warehouse, counting-house, shop, or any part of a house separately occupied for the purpose of any business, trade or profession. Such part may be described in claims as "offices," "chambers," "studios," or by any other applicable term. Sole occupation of one part will qualify, although another part may be occupied jointly. "Residence" on the qualification is not required from £10 occupiers.
Joint Occupation. - Only two joint occupiers under the £10 qualification can be registered, unless they derive the property by inheritance, marriage, or will, or are bona-fide engaged in carrying on business as partners. See also N.B. below.
(b) HOUSEHOLDERS:-
The inhabitant occupier as owner or tenant for 12 months preceding 15 July in any year of any dwelling-house within the county.
Note - A "dwelling-house" includes, for the purposes of the franchise, any "part of a house which is separately occupied as a dwelling," and where the landlord lets out the whole of the house in apartments, retaining no control. A single room may thus be considered a dwelling-house. Sole occupation of one "part of a house" qualifies, notwithstanding joint occupation of another part. Residence is required. Joint occupation under this head confers no qualification. A man does not lose his vote by letting his house furnished during a part of the qualifying period not exceeding 4 months in the whole.
The Service Franchise.* - Any man who himself inhabits a dwelling-house (as above defined) by virtue of any office, service, or employment, is entitled to a vote in respect of the same, provided that the person under whom he serves does not inhabit the house. The overseers are bound to place the names of all such upon the rate-book as inhabitant householders, notwithstanding that the rent or rates may be paid by their employer. See also N.B. below.
N.B.- Occupation of premises in a Parliamentary borough cannot qualify to vote for the county.
Successive Occupation. - If two or more premises in the same division of a county, or in the same county if it is undivided, are occupied in immediate succession, the vote is not thereby lost. If the occupier is omitted from the list, a claim should be sent to the overseer by 20 August, giving particulars of all the premises so occupied.
Poor Rates. - The occupier must have been rated in respect of the premises to all poor rates made during the qualifying period. All poor rates due on 5 January must have been paid on or before 20 July. If the owner is liable for the rates, and has not paid them, the tenant may pay them, and deduct the amount from the rent. Wherever the landlord pays the rates, the overseers are bound to insert the occupier's name in the rate-book.
Claims. - The names of qualified householders and occupiers must be placed by the overseers on the list published by them on 1 August. No claim is necessary in their casem but if any names are omitted by the overseers, a notice of claim must be sent on or before 20 August.
3. - LODGERS.
The inhabitant occupier, for the 12 months preceding 15 July in any year of lodgings in the same house within the county (or division) of the clear yearly value, if let unfurnished, of £10 or upwards.
Note. - The term "lodgings" comprises any apartment or place of residence, whether furnished or unfurnished, in a dwelling-house, where the landlord resides and retains control over the passages and outer doors.
Residence is required.
Joint Occupation. - The inhabitant occupier, jointly with others, of lodgings of such clear yearly value, if let unfurnished, as gives a sum of not less than £10 for each occupier is entitled to claim a vote; but no more than two such joint occupiers may be registered in respect of one set of lodgings.
Occupation of lodgings in a Parliamentary borough cannot qualify to vote for a county.
The occupation in immediate succession of different lodgings of sufficient value in the same house will qualify. But removal from one house to another disqualifies for the year.
Additional rooms may be taken during the year without vitiating the qualification.
Claims. - Lodgers not already registered must send to the overseers claims to vote on or before 20 August. Those already registered must renew their claims yearly, on or before 25 July.
Boroughs[edit]
1. - RESERVED RIGHTS.
Persons possessing rights permanently or temporarily reserved by the Reform Act of 1832, such as
(1) Freeholders and burgage tenants in cities and towns which are counties of themselves; e.g., Bristol, Exeter, Norwich, and Nottingham.
(2) Freemen and burgesses by servitude (except in London).
Freemen and liverymen in the City of London.
Inhabitants, inhabitant householders, inhabitants paying scot and lot, potwallers. (These rights are now merged in the occupation franchise.)
2. THE OCCUPATION FRANCHISE.
(a) £10 OCCUPIERS:-
The occupier as owner or tenant for 12 months preceding 15 July in any year of any land or tenement within the borough of a clear yearly value of not less than £10.
Note - The word "tenement" includes a warehouse, counting-house, shop, or any part of a house separately occupied for the purpose of any business, trade or profession. Such part may be described in claims as "offices," "chambers," "studios," or by any other applicable term. Sole occupation of one part will qualify, although another part may be occupied jointly.
The voter must have resided in the borough or within 7 miles (City of London 25 miles) of its boundary for the 6 months preceding 15 July.
Joint Occupation qualifies all the joint occupiers wherever the clear yearly value is enough to give a sum of £10 for each occupier.
Assessed Taxes. - The occupier must also have paid on or before 20 July all assessed taxes due in respect of the premises up to 5 January. See also N.B., post.
(b) HOUSEHOLDERS:-
The inhabitant occupier as owner or tenant for 12 months preceding 15 July in any year of any dwelling-house within the borough.
Note - A "dwelling-house" includes, for the purposes of the franchise, any "part of a house which is separately occupied as a dwelling," and where the landlord lets out the whole of the house in apartments, retaining no control. A single room may thus be considered a dwelling-house. Sole occupation of one "part of a house" qualifies, notwithstanding joint occupation of another part. Residence is required. Joint occupation under this head confers no qualification. A man does not lose his vote by letting his house furnished during a part of the qualifying period not exceeding 4 months in the whole.
The Service Franchise.* - Any man who himself inhabits a dwelling-house (as above defined) by virtue of any office, service, or employment, is entitled to a vote in respect of the same, provided that the person under whom he serves does not inhabit the house. The overseers are bound to place the names of all such upon the rate-book as inhabitant householders, notwithstanding that the rent or rates may be paid by their employer. See also N.B. below.
N.B.- Successive Occupation. - If two or more premises in the same borough (whether in the same division or not is immaterial) are occupied in immediate succession, the vote is not thereby lost. If the occupier is omitted from the list, a claim should be sent to the overseer by 20 August, giving particulars of all the premises so occupied.
Poor Rates. - The occupier must have been rated in respect of the premises to all poor rates made during the qualifying period. All poor rates due on 5 January must have been paid on or before 20 July. If the owner is liable for the rates, and has not paid them, the tenant may pay them, and deduct the amount from the rent. Wherever the landlord pays the rates, the overseers are bound to insert the occupier's name in the rate-book.
Claims. - The names of qualified householders and occupiers must be placed by the overseers on the list published by them on 1 August. No claim is necessary in their casem but if any names are omitted by the overseers, a notice of claim must be sent on or before 20 August.
3. - LODGERS.
The inhabitant occupier, for the 12 months preceding 15 July in any year of lodgings in the same house within the borough, of the clear yearly value, if let unfurnished, of £10 or upwards.
Note. - The term "lodgings" comprises any apartment or place of residence, whether furnished or unfurnished, in a dwelling-house, where the landlord resides and retains control over the passages and outer doors.
Residence is required.
Joint Occupation. - The inhabitant occupier, jointly with others, of lodgings of such clear yearly value, if let unfurnished, as gives a sum of not less than £10 for each occupier is entitled to claim a vote; but no more than two such joint occupiers may be registered in respect of one set of lodgings.
The occupation in immediate succession of different lodgings of sufficient value in the same house will qualify. But removal from one house to another disqualifies for the year.
Additional rooms may be taken during the year without vitiating the qualification.
Claims. - Lodgers not already registered must send to the overseers claims to vote on or before 20 August. Those already registered must renew their claims yearly, on or before 25 July.
See also[edit]
List of Parliaments of the United Kingdom
Duration of English, British and United Kingdom Parliaments from 1660
Parliamentary Boroughs and associated County Constituencies 1832-1918
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The History of the Parliamentary Franchise". House of Commons Library. 1 March 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Heater, Derek (2006). Citizenship in Britain: A History. Edinburgh University Press. p. 136. ISBN 9780748626724.
Jump up ^ "Women's rights". The National Archives. Retrieved 11 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Which Act Gave Women the Right to Vote in Britain?". Synonym. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
British Electoral Facts 1832-1987, compiled and edited by F.W.S. Craig (Parliamentary Research Services 1989)
The Constitutional Year Book 1900 (William Blackstone & Sons 1900) out of copyright
Electoral Reform in England and Wales, by Charles Seymour (David & Charles Reprints 1970)
The Statutes: Second Revised Edition, Vol. XVI 1884-1886 (printed by authority in 1900)
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Structure of the Earth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Structure of the Earth
The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells: an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous asthenosphere and mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core. Scientific understanding of the internal structure of the Earth is based on observations of topography and bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanoes or volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through the Earth, measurements of the gravitational and magnetic fields of the Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of the Earth's deep interior.
Contents
[hide]
1 Mass
2 Structure
2.1 Crust
2.2 Mantle
2.3 Core
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
Mass[edit]
The force exerted by Earth's gravity can be used to calculate its mass. Astronomers can also calculate Earth's mass by observing the motion of orbiting satellites. Earth’s average density can be determined through gravimetric experiments, which have historically involved pendulums.
The mass of Earth is about 7024600000000000000♠6×1024 kg.[1]
Structure[edit]
Earth's radial density distribution according to the preliminary reference earth model (PREM).[2]
Earth's gravity according to the preliminary reference earth model (PREM).[2] Comparison to approximations using constant and linear density for Earth's interior.
Mapping the interior of Earth with earthquake waves.
Schematic view of the interior of Earth. 1. continental crust – 2. oceanic crust – 3. upper mantle – 4. lower mantle – 5. outer core – 6. inner core – A: Mohorovičić discontinuity – B: Gutenberg Discontinuity – C: Lehmann–Bullen discontinuity.
The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties such as rheology, or chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle, outer core, and the inner core. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core. The geologic component layers of Earth[3][not in citation given] are at the following depths below the surface:
Depth
Layer
Kilometres
Miles
0–60 0–37 Lithosphere (locally varies between 5 and 200 km)
0–35 0–22 … Crust (locally varies between 5 and 70 km)
35–60 22–37 … Uppermost part of mantle
35–2,890 22–1,790 Mantle
210-270 130-168 … Upper mesosphere (upper mantle)
660–2,890 410–1,790 … Lower mesosphere (lower mantle)
2,890–5,150 1,790–3,160 Outer core
5,150–6,360 3,160–3,954 Inner core
The layering of Earth has been inferred indirectly using the time of travel of refracted and reflected seismic waves created by earthquakes. The core does not allow shear waves to pass through it, while the speed of travel (seismic velocity) is different in other layers. The changes in seismic velocity between different layers causes refraction owing to Snell's law, like light bending as it passes through a prism. Likewise, reflections are caused by a large increase in seismic velocity and are similar to light reflecting from a mirror.
Crust[edit]
Main article: Crust (geology)
The crust ranges from 5–70 kilometres (3.1–43.5 mi) in depth and is the outermost layer. The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlie the ocean basins (5–10 km) and are composed of dense (mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks, like basalt. The thicker crust is continental crust, which is less dense and composed of (felsic) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like granite. The rocks of the crust fall into two major categories – sial and sima (Suess,1831–1914). It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the Conrad discontinuity (a second order discontinuity). The uppermost mantle together with the crust constitutes the lithosphere. The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different events. First, there is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity, which is most commonly known as the Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho. The cause of the Moho is thought to be a change in rock composition from rocks containing plagioclase feldspar (above) to rocks that contain no feldspars (below). Second, in oceanic crust, there is a chemical discontinuity between ultramafic cumulates and tectonized harzburgites, which has been observed from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been obducted onto the continental crust and preserved as ophiolite sequences.
Many rocks now making up Earth's crust formed less than 100 million (1×108) years ago; however, the oldest known mineral grains are about 4.4 billion (4.4×109) years old, indicating that Earth has had a solid crust for at least 4.4 billion years.[4]
Mantle[edit]
World map showing the position of the Moho.
Main article: Mantle (geology)
Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of Earth. The mantle is divided into upper and lower mantle. The upper and lower mantle are separated by the transition zone. The lowest part of the mantle next to the core-mantle boundary is known as the D″ (pronounced dee-double-prime[5]) layer. The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is ≈140 GPa (1.4 Matm). The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust. Although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile that it can flow on very long timescales. Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the motions of tectonic plates. As there is intense and increasing pressure as one travels deeper into the mantle, the lower part of the mantle flows less easily than does the upper mantle (chemical changes within the mantle may also be important). The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 1021 and 1024 Pa·s, depending on depth.[6] In comparison, the viscosity of water is approximately 10−3 Pa·s and that of pitch is 107 Pa·s. The source of heat that drives plate tectonics is the primordial heat left over from the planet’s formation as well as the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.[7]
Core[edit]
Main articles: inner core and outer core
The average density of Earth is 7000551499999999999♠5.515 g/cm3.[8] Because the average density of surface material is only around 7000300000000000000♠3.0 g/cm3, we must conclude that denser materials exist within Earth's core. This result has been known since the Schiehallion experiment, performed in the 1770s. Charles Hutton in his 1778 report concluded that the mean density of the Earth must be about 9 5 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {9}{5}}} that of surface rock, concluding that the interior of the Earth must be metallic. Hutton estimated this metallic portion to occupy some 65% of the diameter of the Earth.[9] Hutton's estimate on the mean density of the Earth was still about 20% too low, at 7000450000000000000♠4.5 g/cm3 Henry Cavendish in his torsion balance experiment of 1798 found a value of 7000545000000000000♠5.45 g/cm3, within 1% of the modern value.[10] Seismic measurements show that the core is divided into two parts, a "solid" inner core with a radius of ≈1,220 km[11] and a liquid outer core extending beyond it to a radius of ≈3,400 km. The densities are between 9,900 and 12,200 kg/m3 in the outer core and 12,600–13,000 kg/m3 in the inner core.[12]
The inner core was discovered in 1936 by Inge Lehmann and is generally believed to be composed primarily of iron and some nickel. Since this layer is able to transmit shear waves (transverse seismic waves), it must be solid. Experimental evidence has at times been critical of crystal models of the core.[13] Other experimental studies show a discrepancy under high pressure: diamond anvil (static) studies at core pressures yield melting temperatures that are approximately 2000 K below those from shock laser (dynamic) studies.[14][15] The laser studies create plasma,[16] and the results are suggestive that constraining inner core conditions will depend on whether the inner core is a solid or is a plasma with the density of a solid. This is an area of active research.
In early stages of Earth's formation about 4.6 billion years ago, melting would have caused denser substances to sink toward the center in a process called planetary differentiation (see also the iron catastrophe), while less-dense materials would have migrated to the crust. The core is thus believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with nickel and one or more light elements, whereas other dense elements, such as lead and uranium, either are too rare to be significant or tend to bind to lighter elements and thus remain in the crust (see felsic materials). Some have argued that the inner core may be in the form of a single iron crystal.[17][18]
Under laboratory conditions a sample of iron–nickel alloy was subjected to the corelike pressures by gripping it in a vise between 2 diamond tips (diamond anvil cell), and then heating to approximately 4000 K. The sample was observed with x-rays, and strongly supported the theory that Earth's inner core was made of giant crystals running north to south.[19][20]
The liquid outer core surrounds the inner core and is believed to be composed of iron mixed with nickel and trace amounts of lighter elements.
Recent speculation suggests that the innermost part of the core is enriched in gold, platinum and other siderophile elements.[21]
The matter that comprises Earth is connected in fundamental ways to matter of certain chondrite meteorites, and to matter of outer portion of the Sun.[22][23] There is good reason to believe that Earth is, in the main, like a chondrite meteorite. Beginning as early as 1940, scientists, including Francis Birch, built geophysics upon the premise that Earth is like ordinary chondrites, the most common type of meteorite observed impacting Earth, while totally ignoring another, albeit less abundant type, called enstatite chondrites. The principal difference between the two meteorite types is that enstatite chondrites formed under circumstances of extremely limited available oxygen, leading to certain normally oxyphile elements existing either partially or wholly in the alloy portion that corresponds to the core of Earth.
Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field. The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (see Curie temperature) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core. The average magnetic field strength in Earth's outer core is estimated to be 25 Gauss (2.5 mT), 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface.[24][25]
Recent evidence has suggested that the inner core of Earth may rotate slightly faster than the rest of the planet;[26] however, more recent studies in 2011[which?] found this hypothesis to be inconclusive. Options remain for the core which may be oscillatory in nature or a chaotic system.[citation needed] In August 2005 a team of geophysicists announced in the journal Science that, according to their estimates, Earth's inner core rotates approximately 0.3 to 0.5 degrees per year faster relative to the rotation of the surface.[27][28]
The current scientific explanation for Earth's temperature gradient is a combination of heat left over from the planet's initial formation, decay of radioactive elements, and freezing of the inner core.
See also[edit]
Earth sciences portal
Geological history of Earth
Lehmann discontinuity
Rain-out model
Travel to the Earth's center
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "2016 Selected Astronomical Constants" in The Astronomical Almanac Online, USNO–UKHO, ME = 5·9722×1024 kg ± 6×1020 kg
^ Jump up to: a b A. M. Dziewonski, D. L. Anderson (1981). "Preliminary reference Earth model" (PDF). Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. 25 (4): 297–356. Bibcode:1981PEPI...25..297D. doi:10.1016/0031-9201(81)90046-7. ISSN 0031-9201.
Jump up ^ T. H. Jordan (1979). "Structural Geology of the Earth's Interior" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 76 (9): 4192–4200. Bibcode:1979PNAS...76.4192J. doi:10.1073/pnas.76.9.4192. PMC 411539  . PMID 16592703.
Jump up ^ Breaking News | Oldest rock shows Earth was a hospitable young planet. Spaceflight Now (2001-01-14). Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
Jump up ^ Krieger, Kim (24 March 2004). "D Layer Demystified". Science News. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 5 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Uwe Walzer, Roland Hendel, John Baumgardner Mantle Viscosity and the Thickness of the Convective Downwellings.
Jump up ^ Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) is a Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Science lab managed by University of California., What Keeps the Earth Cooking? News Release by Paul Preuss, July 17, 2011
Jump up ^ "Planetary Fact Sheet". Lunar and Planetary Science. NASA. Retrieved 2 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Hutton, C. (1778). "An Account of the Calculations Made from the Survey and Measures Taken at Schehallien". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 68 (0). doi:10.1098/rstl.1778.0034.
Jump up ^ Tretkoff, Ernie (June 2008). "June 1798: Cavendish Weighs the World". APS News. 17 (6). American Physical Society. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Monnereau, Marc; Calvet, Marie; Margerin, Ludovic; Souriau, Annie (May 21, 2010). "Lopsided Growth of Earth's Inner Core". Science. 328 (5981): 1014–1017. Bibcode:2010Sci...328.1014M. doi:10.1126/science.1186212. PMID 20395477.
Jump up ^ Hazlett, James S.; Monroe, Reed; Wicander, Richard (2006). Physical geology : exploring the earth (6. ed.). Belmont: Thomson. p. 346. ISBN 9780495011484.
Jump up ^ Stixrude, Lars; Cohen, R.E. (January 15, 1995). "Constraints on the crystalline structure of the inner core: Mechanical instability of BCC iron at high pressure". Geophysical Research Letters. 22 (2): 125–128. Bibcode:1995GeoRL..22..125S. doi:10.1029/94GL02742.
Jump up ^ Benuzzi-Mounaix, A.; Koenig, M.; Ravasio, A.; Vinci, T. (2006). "Laser-driven shock waves for the study of extreme matter states". Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion. 48 (12B). Bibcode:2006PPCF...48B.347B. doi:10.1088/0741-3335/48/12B/S32.
Jump up ^ Remington, Bruce A.; Drake, R. Paul; Ryutov, Dmitri D. (2006). "Experimental astrophysics with high power lasers and Z pinches". Reviews of Modern Physics. 78. Bibcode:2006RvMP...78..755R. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.78.755.
Jump up ^ Benuzzi-Mounaix, A.; Koenig, M.; Husar, G.; Faral, B. (June 2002). "Absolute equation of state measurements of iron using laser driven shocks". Physics of Plasmas. 9 (6). Bibcode:2002PhPl....9.2466B. doi:10.1063/1.1478557.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Ronald; Stixrude, Lars. "Crystal at the Center of the Earth". Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2007-02-05.
Jump up ^ Stixrude, L.; Cohen, R. E. (1995). "High-Pressure Elasticity of Iron and Anisotropy of Earth's Inner Core". Science. 267 (5206): 1972–5. Bibcode:1995Sci...267.1972S. doi:10.1126/science.267.5206.1972. PMID 17770110.
Jump up ^ BBC News, "What is at the centre of the Earth?. Bbc.co.uk (2011-08-31). Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
Jump up ^ Ozawa, H.; al., et (2011). "Phase Transition of FeO and Stratification in Earth's Outer Core". Science. 334 (6057): 792–794. Bibcode:2011Sci...334..792O. doi:10.1126/science.1208265.
Jump up ^ Wootton, Anne (2006). "Earth's Inner Fort Knox". Discover. 27 (9): 18.
Jump up ^ Herndon, J. M. (1980). "The chemical composition of the interior shells of the Earth". Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A372 (1748): 149–154. JSTOR 2398362.
Jump up ^ Herndon, J. M. (2005). "Scientific basis of knowledge on Earth's composition" (PDF). Current Science. 88 (7): 1034–1037.
Jump up ^ First Measurement Of Magnetic Field Inside Earth's Core. Science20.com. Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
Jump up ^ Buffett, Bruce A. (2010). "Tidal dissipation and the strength of the Earth's internal magnetic field". Nature. 468 (7326): 952–4. Bibcode:2010Natur.468..952B. doi:10.1038/nature09643. PMID 21164483.
Jump up ^ Chang, Kenneth (2005-08-25). "Earth's Core Spins Faster Than the Rest of the Planet". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-24.
Jump up ^ Kerr, R. A. (2005). "Earth's Inner Core Is Running a Tad Faster Than the Rest of the Planet". Science. 309 (5739): 1313a. doi:10.1126/science.309.5739.1313a. PMID 16123276.
Jump up ^ Chang, Kenneth (26 August 2005) "Scientists Say Earth's Center Rotates Faster Than Surface" The New York Times Sec. A, Col. 1, p. 13.
Further reading[edit]
Drollette, Daniel (October 1996). "A Spinning Crystal Ball". Scientific American. 275 (4): 28–33.
Kruglinski, Susan (June 2007). "Journey to the Center of the Earth". Discover. Retrieved 9 July 2016.
Lehmann, I (1936). "Inner Earth". Bur. Cent. Seismol. Int. 14: 3–31.
Wegener, Alfred (1966). The origin of continents and oceans. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486617084.
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Structure of the Earth
Media related to Structure of the Earth at Wikimedia Commons
Down To The Earth's Core (HD) on YouTube
The Earth's Core on In Our Time at the BBC
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