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Ancient Egyptian technology
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Ancient Egyptian technology describes devices and technologies invented or used in Ancient Egypt. The Egyptians invented and used many simple machines, such as the ramp and the lever, to aid construction processes. They used rope trusses to stiffen the beam of ships. Egyptian paper, made from papyrus, and pottery were mass-produced and exported throughout the Mediterranean basin. The wheel was used for a number of purposes, but chariots only came into use after the Second Intermediate period. The Egyptians also played an important role in developing Mediterranean maritime technology including ships and lighthouses.
Ancient Egyptian depiction of women engaged in mechanical rope making, the first graphic evidence of the craft, shown in the two lower rows of the illustration
Contents
[hide]
1 Technology in Dynastic Egypt
1.1 Paper and writing
1.2 Structures and construction
1.2.1 Tools
1.2.2 Buildings
1.2.3 Monuments
1.2.4 Obelisks and pillars
1.3 Navigation and ship building
1.4 Irrigation and agriculture
1.5 Glassworking
1.6 Astronomy
1.7 Medicine
1.8 The Wheel
1.9 Other developments
2 Later technology in Egypt
2.1 Greco-Roman Egypt
2.2 Arabic-Islamic Egypt
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Technology in Dynastic Egypt[edit]
Significant advances in ancient Egypt during the dynastic period include astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Their geometry was a necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile river. The 3,4,5 right triangle and other rules of thumb served to represent rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt also was a center of alchemy research for much of the western world.
Paper and writing[edit]
A section of the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which is written and drawn on papyrus
The word paper comes from the Greek term for the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which was formed from beaten strips of papyrus plants. Papyrus was produced as early as 3000 BC in Egypt, and sold to ancient Greece and Rome. The establishment of the Library of Alexandria limited the supply of papyrus for others. As a result, according to the Roman historian Pliny (Natural History records, xiii.21), parchment was invented under the patronage of Eumenes II of Pergamon to build his rival library at Pergamon. This however is a myth; parchment had been in use in Anatolia and elsewhere long before the rise of Pergamon.
Egyptian hieroglyphs, a phonetic writing system, served as the basis for the Phoenician alphabet from which later alphabets were derived. With this ability, writing and record keeping, the Egyptians developed one of the —if not the— first decimal system.[1][2][3]
The city of Alexandria retained preeminence for its records and scrolls with its library. That ancient library was damaged by fire when it fell under Roman rule,[4] and was destroyed completely by 642 CE.[5][6] With it, a huge amount of antique literature, history, and knowledge was lost.
Structures and construction[edit]
Tools[edit]
Some of the older tools used in the construction of Egyptian housing included reeds and clay. According to Lucas and Harris, “reeds were plastered with clay in order to keep out of heat and cold more effectually”. [7] Other tools that were used were "limestone, chiseled stones, wooden mallets, and stone hammers". [8] With these tools, ancient Egyptians were able to create more than just housing, but also sculptures of their gods, goddesses, pyramids, etc.
Buildings[edit]
Many temples from Ancient Egypt are not standing today. Some are in ruin from wear and tear, while others have been lost entirely. The Egyptian structures are among the largest constructions ever conceived and built by humans. They constitute one of the most potent and enduring symbols of Ancient Egyptian civilization. Temples and tombs built by a pharaoh famous for her projects, Hatshepsut, were massive and included many colossal statues of her. Pharaoh Tutankamun's rock-cut tomb in the Valley of the Kings was full of jewellery and antiques. In some late myths, Ptah was identified as the primordial mound and had called creation into being, he was considered the deity of craftsmen, and in particular, of stone-based crafts. Imhotep, who was included in the Egyptian pantheon, was the first documented engineer.[9]
The Lighthouse of Alexandria on the island of Pharos.
In Hellenistic Egypt, lighthouse technology was developed, the most famous example being the Lighthouse of Alexandria. Alexandria was a port for the ships that traded the goods manufactured in Egypt or imported into Egypt. A giant cantilevered hoist lifted cargo to and from ships. The lighthouse itself was designed by Sostratus of Cnidus and built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt, which has since become a peninsula. This lighthouse was renowned in its time and knowledge of it was never lost. A 2006 drawing of it created from the study of many references, is shown at the right.
Monuments[edit]
Main articles: Egyptian pyramids and Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
The Nile valley has been the site of one of the most influential civilizations in the world with its architectural monuments, which include the pyramids of Giza and the Great Sphinx—among the largest and most famous buildings in the world.
Giza Plateau, Cairo. Khafre's pyramid in the background
The most famous pyramids are the Egyptian pyramids—huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among the largest constructions by humans. Pyramids functioned as tombs for pharaohs. In Ancient Egypt, a pyramid was referred to as mer, literally "place of ascendance." The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. The base is over 13 acres (53,000 m2) in area. It is one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and the only one of the seven to survive into modern times. The Ancient Egyptians capped the peaks of their pyramids with gold and covered their faces with polished white limestone, although many of the stones used for the finishing purpose have fallen or been removed for use on other structures over the millennia.
The Red Pyramid of Egypt (c.26th century BC), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed granite surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids. Menkaure's Pyramid, likely dating to the same era, was constructed of limestone and granite blocks. The Great Pyramid of Giza (c. 2580 BC) contains a huge granite sarcophagus fashioned of "Red Aswan Granite." The mostly ruined Black Pyramid dating from the reign of Amenemhat III once had a polished granite pyramidion or capstone, now on display in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (see Dahshur). Other uses in Ancient Egypt,[10] include columns, door lintels, sills, jambs, and wall and floor veneer.
The ancient Egyptians had some of the first monumental stone buildings (such as in Sakkara). How the Egyptians worked the solid granite is still a matter of debate. Archaeologist Patrick Hunt[11] has postulated that the Egyptians used emery shown to have higher hardness on the Mohs scale. Regarding construction, of the various methods possibly used by builders, the lever moved and uplifted obelisks weighing more than 100 tons.
Obelisks and pillars[edit]
Obelisks were a prominent part of the architecture of the ancient Egyptians, who placed them in pairs at the entrances of various monuments and important buildings, such as temples. In 1902, Encyclopædia Britannica wrote, "The earliest temple obelisk still in position is that of Senusret I of the XIIth Dynasty at Heliopolis (68 feet high)". The word "obelisk" is of Greek rather than Egyptian origin because Herodotus, the great traveler, was the first writer to describe the objects. Twenty-nine ancient Egyptian obelisks are known to have survived, plus the unfinished obelisk being built by Hatshepsut to celebrate her sixteenth year as pharaoh. It broke while being carved out of the quarry and was abandoned when another one was begun to replace it. The broken one was found at Aswan and provides the only insight into the methods of how they were hewn. The obelisk symbolized the sky deity Ra and during the brief religious reformation of Akhenaten, was said to be a petrified ray of the Aten, the sun disk. It is hypothesized by New York University Egyptologist Patricia Blackwell Gary and Astronomy senior editor Richard Talcott that the shapes of the ancient Egyptian pyramid and Obelisk were derived from natural phenomena associated with the sun (the sun-god Ra being the Egyptians' greatest deity).[12] It was also thought that the deity existed within the structure. The Egyptians also used pillars extensively.
It is unknown whether the Ancient Egyptians had kites, but a team led by Maureen Clemmons and Mory Gharib raised a 5,900-pound, 15-foot (4.6 m) obelisk into vertical position with a kite, a system of pulleys, and a support frame.[13] Maureen Clemmons developed the idea that the ancient Egyptians used kites for work.[13] Ramps have been reported as being widely used in Ancient Egypt. A ramp is an inclined plane, or a plane surface set at an angle (other than a right angle) against a horizontal surface. The inclined plane permits one to overcome a large resistance by applying a relatively small force through a longer distance than the load is to be raised. In civil engineering the slope (ratio of rise/run) is often referred to as a grade or gradient. An inclined plane is one of the commonly-recognized simple machines. Maureen Clemmons subsequently lead a team of researchers demonstrating a kite made of natural material and reinforced with shellac (which according to their research pulled with 97% the efficiency of nylon), in a 9 mph wind, would easily pull an average 2-ton pyramid stone up the 1st two courses of a pyramid (in collaboration with Cal Poly, Pomona, on a 53-stone pyramid built in Rosamond, CA).
Egyptian ship, 1250 B.C. Egyptian ship on the Red Sea, showing a board truss being used to stiffen the beam of this ship
Navigation and ship building[edit]
The Ancient Egyptians had knowledge to some extent of sail construction. This is governed by the science of aerodynamics.[14] The earliest Egyptian sails were simply placed to catch the wind and push a vessel.[15] Later Egyptian sails dating to 2400 BCE were built with the recognition that ships could sail against the wind using the lift of the sails.[15][16] Queen Hatshepsut oversaw the preparations and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and with several sails.[dubious – discuss][citation needed]Various others exist, also.
Egyptian ship with a loose-footed sail, similar to a longship. From the 5th dynasty (around 2700 BC)
Model ship from the Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC)
Stern-mounted steering oar of an Egyptian riverboat depicted in the Tomb of Menna (c. 1422–1411 B.C.) Note that the sail is stretched between yards.
Loading Egyptian vessels with the produce of Punt. Shows folded sails, lowered upper yard, yard construction, and heavy deck cargo.
Ancient Egyptians had experience with building a variety of ships.[17][18][19] Some of them survive to this day as Khufu Solar ship.[20] The ships were found in many areas of Egypt as the Abydos boats[21][22][23] and remnants of other ships were found near the pyramids.[22][24][25]
Sneferu's ancient cedar wood ship Praise of the Two Lands is the first reference recorded to a ship being referred to by name.[26]
Although quarter rudders were the norm in Nile navigation, the Egyptians were the first to use also stern-mounted rudders (not of the modern type but center mounted steering oars).
Irrigation and agriculture[edit]
Irrigation as the artificial application of water to the soil was used to some extent in Ancient Egypt, a hydraulic civilization (which entails hydraulic engineering).[27] In crop production it is mainly used to replace missing rainfall in periods of drought, as opposed to reliance on direct rainfall (referred to as dryland farming or as rainfed farming). Before technology advanced, the people of Egypt relied on the natural flow of the Nile River to tend to the crops. Although the Nile provided sufficient watering survival domesticated animals, crops, and the people of Egypt, there were times where the Nile would flood the area wreaking havoc amongst the land. [28] There is evidence of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhet III in the twelfth dynasty (about 1800 BCE) using the natural lake of the Fayûm as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons, as the lake swelled annually with the flooding of the Nile.[29] Construction of drainage canals reduced the problems of major flooding from entering homes and areas of crops; but because it was a hydraulic civilization, much of the water management was controlled in a systematic way. [30]
Glassworking[edit]
Egyptian knowledge of glassmaking was advanced.[31] The earliest known glass beads from Egypt were made during the New Kingdom around 1500 BC and were produced in a variety of colors. They were made by winding molten glass around a metal bar and were highly prized as a trading commodity, especially blue beads, which were believed to have magical powers. The Egyptians made small jars and bottles using the core-formed method. Glass threads were wound around a bag of sand tied to a rod. The glass was continually reheated to fuse the threads together. The glass-covered sand bag was kept in motion until the required shape and thickness was achieved. The rod was allowed to cool, then finally the bag was punctured and the sand poured out and reused . The Egyptians also created the first colored glass rods which they used to create colorful beads and decorations. They also worked with cast glass, which was produced by pouring molten glass into a mold, much like iron and the more modern crucible steel.[32]
Astronomy[edit]
Main articles: Egyptian calendar and Archaeoastronomy
The Egyptians were a practical people and this is reflected in their astronomy[33] in contrast to Babylonia where the first astronomical texts were written in astrological terms.[34] Even before Upper and Lower Egypt were unified in 3000 BCE, observations of the night sky had influenced the development of a religion in which many of its principal deities were heavenly bodies. In Lower Egypt, priests built circular mud-brick walls with which to make a false horizon where they could mark the position of the sun as it rose at dawn, and then with a plumb-bob note the northern or southern turning points (solstices). This allowed them to discover that the sun disc, personified as Ra, took 365 days to travel from his birthplace at the winter solstice and back to it. Meanwhile, in Upper Egypt a lunar calendar was being developed based on the behavior of the moon and the reappearance of Sirius in its heliacal rising after its annual absence of about 70 days.[35]
After unification, problems with trying to work with two calendars (both depending upon constant observation) led to a merged, simplified civil calendar with twelve 30-day months, three seasons of four months each, plus an extra five days, giving a 365-year day but with no way of accounting for the extra quarter day each year. Day and night were split into 24 units, each personified by a deity. A sundial found on Seti I's cenotaph with instructions for its use shows us that the daylight hours were at one time split into 10 units, with 12 hours for the night and an hour for the morning and evening twilights.[36] However, by Seti I's time day and night were normally divided into 12 hours each, the length of which would vary according to the time of year.
Key to much of this was the motion of the sun god Ra and his annual movement along the horizon at sunrise. Out of Egyptian myths such as those around Ra and the sky goddess Nut came the development of the Egyptian calendar, time keeping, and even concepts of royalty. An astronomical ceiling in the burial chamber of Ramesses VI shows the sun being born from Nut in the morning, traveling along her body during the day and being swallowed at night.
During the Fifth Dynasty six kings built sun temples in honour of Ra. The temple complexes built by Niuserre at Abu Gurab and Userkaf at Abusir have been excavated and have astronomical alignments, and the roofs of some of the buildings could have been used by observers to view the stars, calculate the hours at night and predict the sunrise for religious festivals.[citation needed]
The Dendera Zodiac was on the ceiling of the Greco-Roman temple of Hathor at Dendera
Claims have been made that precession of the equinoxes was known in Ancient Egypt prior to the time of Hipparchus.[37] This has been disputed however on the grounds that pre-Hipparchus texts do not mention precession and that "it is only by cunning interpretation of ancient myths and images, which are ostensibly about something else, that precession can be discerned in them, aided by some pretty esoteric numerological speculation involving the 72 years that mark one degree of shift in the zodiacal system and any number of permutations by multiplication, division, and addition." [38]
Note however that the Egyptian observation of a slowly changing stellar alignment over a multi-year period does not necessarily mean that they understood or even cared what was going on. For instance, from the Middle Kingdom onwards they used a table with entries for each month to tell the time of night from the passing of constellations. These went in error after a few centuries because of their calendar and precession, but were copied (with scribal errors) long after they lost their practical usefulness or the possibility of understanding and use of them in the current years, rather than the years in which they were originally used.
Medicine[edit]
The Edwin Smith Papyrus is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the earliest document which attempts to describe and analyze the brain: given this, it might be seen as the very beginnings of neuroscience. However, medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology was largely ineffective.[39] According to a paper published by Michael D. Parkins, 72% of 260 medical prescriptions in the Hearst Papyrus had no curative elements.[40] According to Michael D. Parkins, sewage pharmacology first began in ancient Egypt and was continued through the Middle Ages,[39] and while the use of animal dung can have curative properties,[41] it is not without its risk. Practices such as applying cow dung to wounds, ear piercing, tattooing, and chronic ear infections were important factors in developing tetanus.[42] Frank J. Snoek wrote that Egyptian medicine used fly specks, lizard blood, swine teeth, and other such remedies which he believes could have been harmful.[43]
Mummification of the dead was not always practiced in Egypt. Once the practice began, an individual was placed at a final resting place through a set of rituals and protocol. The Egyptian funeral was a complex ceremony including various monuments, prayers, and rituals undertaken in honor of the deceased. The poor, who could not afford expensive tombs, were buried in shallow graves in the sand, and because of the arid environment they were often naturally mummified.
The Wheel[edit]
Evidence indicates that Egyptians made use of potter's wheels in the manufacturing of pottery from as early as the 4th Dynasty.[44] Chariots, however, are only believed to have been introduced by the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate period;[45] during the New Kingdom era, chariotry became central to Egypt's military.
Other developments[edit]
Stained glass window from c. 1914 depicting weaving and spinning in ancient Egypt
The Egyptians developed a variety of furniture. There in the lands of ancient Egypt is the first evidence for stools, beds, and tables (such as from the tombs similar to Tutenkhamen's). Recovered Ancient Egyptian furniture includes a third millennium BC bed discovered in the Tarkhan Tomb, a c.2550 BC. gilded set from the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, and a c. 1550 BC. stool from Thebes.
Some have suggested that the Egyptians had some form of understanding electric phenomena from observing lightning and interacting with electric fish (such as Malapterurus electricus) or other animals (such as electric eels).[46] The comment about lightning appears to come from a misunderstanding of a text referring to "high poles covered with copper plates" to argue this[47] but Dr. Bolko Stern has written in detail explaining why the copper covered tops of poles (which were lower than the associated pylons) do not relate to electricity or lightning, pointing out that no evidence of anything used to manipulate electricity had been found in Egypt and that this was a magical and not a technical installation.[48]
The single representation of the image, called the "Dendera light" by some alternative suggestions, exists on the left wall of the right wing in one of the crypts of the Hathor temple
Those exploring fringe theories of ancient technology have suggested that there were electric lights used in Ancient Egypt. Engineers have constructed a working model based on their interpretation of a relief found in the Hathor temple at the Dendera Temple complex.[49] Authors (such as Peter Krassa and Reinhard Habeck) have produced a basic theory of the device's operation.[49] The standard explanation, however, for the Dendera light, which comprises three stone reliefs (one single and a double representation) is that the depicted image represents a lotus leaf and flower from which a sacred snake is spawned in accordance with Egyptian mythological beliefs. This sacred snake sometimes is identified as the Milky Way (the snake) in the night sky (the leaf, lotus, or "bulb") that became identified with Hathor because of her similar association in creation.
Later technology in Egypt[edit]
Greco-Roman Egypt[edit]
Main articles: Ancient Greek technology and Roman technology
Under Hellenistic rule, Egypt was one of the most prosperous regions of the Hellenistic civilization. The ancient Egyptian city of Rhakotis was renovated as Alexandria, which became the largest city around the Mediterranean Basin. Under Roman rule, Egypt was one of the most prosperous regions of the Roman Empire, with Alexandria being second only to ancient Rome in size.
Recent scholarship suggests that the water wheel originates from Ptolemaic Egypt, where it appeared by the 3rd century BC.[50][51] This is seen as an evolution of the paddle-driven water-lifting wheels that had been known in Egypt a century earlier.[50] According to John Peter Oleson, both the compartmented wheel and the hydraulic Noria may have been invented in Egypt by the 4th century BC, with the Sakia being invented there a century later. This is supported by archeological finds at Faiyum, Egypt, where the oldest archeological evidence of a water-wheel has been found, in the form of a Sakia dating back to the 3rd century BC. A papyrus dating to the 2nd century BC also found in Faiyum mentions a water wheel used for irrigation, a 2nd-century BC fresco found at Alexandria depicts a compartmented Sakia, and the writings of Callixenus of Rhodes mention the use of a Sakia in Ptolemaic Egypt during the reign of Ptolemy IV in the late 3rd century BC.[51]
Ancient Greek technology was often inspired by the need to improve weapons and tactics in war. Ancient Roman technology is a set of artifacts and customs which supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible over nearly a thousand years.
Arabic-Islamic Egypt[edit]
Main articles: Inventions in medieval Islam, Muslim Agricultural Revolution, and Timeline of science and engineering in the Islamic world
Under Arab rule, Egypt once again became one of the most prosperous regions around the Mediterranean. The Egyptian city of Cairo was founded by the Fatimid Caliphate and served as its capital city. At the time, Cairo was second only to Baghdad, capital of the rival Abbasid Caliphate. After the fall of Baghdad, however, Cairo overtook it as the largest city in the Mediterranean region until the early modern period.
Inventions in medieval Islam covers the inventions developed in the medieval Islamic world, a region that extended from Al-Andalus and Africa in the west to the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia in the east. The timeline of Islamic science and engineering covers the general development of science and technology in the Islamic world.
See also[edit]
List of Egypt-related topics
Egyptian chronology
History of ancient Egypt
History of technology
Egyptian mathematics
History of science in early cultures
Astrology and astronomy
Archaeoastronomy
Hand drill (hieroglyph)
Imhotep
Hero of Alexandria
Notes[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b Caltech researchers successfully raised an obelisk with a kite to test theory about ancient pyramids
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Jump up ^ Anzovin, item # 5393, page 385 Reference to a ship with a name appears in an inscription of 2613 BCE that recounts the shipbuilding achievements of the fourth-dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Sneferu. He was recorded as the builder of a cedarwood vessel called "Praise of the Two Lands."
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Jump up ^ Hyskos introduced chariots to ancient Egypt Archived June 29, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Heinrich Karl Brugsch-Bey and Henry Danby Seymour, "A History of Egypt Under the Pharaohs". J. Murray, 1881. Page 422. (cf., [... the symbol of a] 'serpent' is rather a fish, which still serves, in the Coptic language, to designate the electric fish [...])
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References[edit]
Leslie C. Kaplan, "Technology of Ancient Egypt. 2004, 24 pages. ISBN 0-8239-6785-9
Denys Allen Stocks "Experiments in Egyptian Archaeology: Stoneworking Technology in Ancient Egypt". Routledge, 2003. 336 pages. ISBN 0-415-30664-7
Katheryn A. Bard" Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt By Katheryn A. Bard". Routledge, 1999. 968 pages. ISBN 0-415-18589-0
R. J. Forbes, "Studies in Ancient Technology". 1966.
Örjan Wikander, "Handbook of Ancient Water Technology". 2000.
Patricia Blackwell Gary; Richard Talcott (June 2006). "Stargazing in Ancient Egypt". Astronomy: 62–7.
Evans, James. The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Pannekoek, A. A History of Astronomy. New York: Dover, 1961.
Parker Richard A. "Egyptian Astronomy, Astrology, and Calendrical Reckoning". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 15: 706–727.
Budge, E. A. Wallis. Egyptian Religion. Kessinger Publishing, 1900.
Budge, E. A. Wallis. The Gods of the Egyptians Volume 1 of 2. New York: Dover Publications, 1969 (original in 1904).
Further reading[edit]
Anzovin, Steven et al., Famous First Facts (International Edition), H. W. Wilson Company, 2000, ISBN 0-8242-0958-3
David, Rosalie A.; H.G.M. Edwards & D.W. Farwell (2001). "Raman Spectroscopic Analysis of Ancient Egyptian Pigments". Archaeometry. 43 (4): 461–473. doi:10.1111/1475-4754.00029.
Earl, Bryan (Summer 1995). "Tin Smelting at the Oriental Institute". The Oriental Institute News and Notes. 146.
Gourdin, W.H.; W.D. Kingery (1975). "The Beginnings of Pyrotechnology: Neolithic and Egyptian Lime Plaster". Journal of Field Archaeology. 2: 133–150. doi:10.1179/009346975791491277. JSTOR 529624.
Lucas, Alfred. 1962. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th Edition. London: Edward Arnold Publishers.
Meyer, Carol; Bir Umm Fawakhir (1997). "Insights into Ancient Egyptian Mining". JOM. 49 (3): 64–8. Bibcode:1997JOM....49c..64M. doi:10.1007/BF02914661.
Nicholson, Paul T. and Ian Shaw, eds. 2000. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. University Press, Cambridge.
Pulak, C. A (1998). "The Uluburun Shipwreck: An Overview". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 27 (3): 188–224. doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1998.tb00803.x.
Scheel, Bernd. 1989. Egyptian Metalworking and Tools. Haverfordwest, Great Britain: Shire Publications Ltd.
Shaw, Ian. Editor. 2000. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Shortland, A.J. (2004). "Evaporites of the Wadi Natrun: Seasonal and Annual Variation and its Implication for Ancient Exploitation". Archaeometry. 46 (4): 497–516. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2004.00170.x.
Davis, Virginia. "Mines and Quarries of Ancient Egypt, an Introduction" Online article
Institutt for Arkeologi, Kunsthistorie og Konservering website, in English at [1]
External links[edit]
History of the Egyptian obelisks, egipto.com
Ancient Egyptian Industries
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Dry-powder inhaler
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Flutide (フルタイド ) DPI which contains 200μg fluticasone propionate per actuation
A dry-powder inhaler (DPI) is a device that delivers medication to the lungs in the form of a dry powder. DPIs are commonly used to treat respiratory diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, emphysema and COPD although DPIs (such as inhalable insulin Afrezza) have also been used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus.[1]
DPIs are an alternative to the aerosol-based inhalers commonly called metered-dose inhaler (or MDI). The DPIs may require some procedure to allow a measured dose of powder to be ready for the patient to take. The medication is commonly held either in a capsule for manual loading or a proprietary from inside the inhaler. Once loaded or actuated, the operator puts the mouthpiece of the inhaler into their mouth and takes a sharp, deep inhalation (ensuring that the medication reaches the lower parts of the lungs), holding their breath for 5–10 seconds. There are a variety of such devices. The dose that can be delivered is typically less than a few tens of milligrams in a single breath since larger powder doses may lead to provocation of cough.
Most DPIs rely on the force of patient inhalation to entrain powder from the device and subsequently break-up the powder into particles that are small enough to reach the lungs.[2] For this reason, insufficient patient inhalation flow rates may lead to reduced dose delivery and incomplete deaggregation of the powder, leading to unsatisfactory device performance. Thus, most DPIs have a minimum inspiratory effort that is needed for proper use and it is for this reason that such DPIs are normally used only in older children and adults.
Contents
[hide]
1 Lactose
2 Storage
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
Lactose[edit]
Some powder inhalers use lactose to:
Carry the fine particles of the active component (which must be fine to reach its target)
Improve the flow-ability of the powder during manufacturing and help handling
Act as a bulking agent
Aid in powder uptake from the device during inhalation and aerosolization
It has been suggested that such lactose may be harmful to lactose intolerant people,[3] and some doctors advise patients not to use lactose containing DPIs[4] to minimize the risk of hypersensitivity reactions.[5]
Storage[edit]
DPI medication must be stored in a dry place in a temperature of not more than 25 °C (77 °F) and humidity between 40–50% in a sealed packaging, since exposure of the powder to moisture degrades the ability of the device to disperse its medication as a fine powder upon inhalation. Some medication also needs photo protection.
See also[edit]
Inhaler
Metered-dose inhaler
Nebulizer
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Exubera Prescribing Information" (PDF). FDA.gov. Pfizer. April 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 18, 2009. Retrieved 2009-02-27.
Jump up ^ Finlay, Warren H. (2001). The mechanics of inhaled pharmaceutical aerosols: an introduction. Boston: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-256971-7.
Jump up ^ Changes in Inhaler Devices for Asthma And COPD - Health - RedOrbit
Jump up ^ Milk Proteins and Allergy Medications
Jump up ^ Robles, J; Motheral, L. "Hypersensitivity reaction after inhalation of a lactose-containing dry powder inhaler". J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther. 19: 206–11. PMC 4187530  . PMID 25309152. doi:10.5863/1551-6776-19.3.206.
Further reading[edit]
Guidance for Industry: Metered Dose Inhaler (MDI) and Dry Powder Inhaler (DPI) Drug Products – Food and Drug Administration Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER)
The Diskus(tm) Inhaler – Medscape Today clinical drug investigation[dead link]
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Stone (Marvel Comics)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses of Stone in comics, see Stone (comics).
Stone is the name of a number of fictional comic book characters appearing in books published by Marvel Comics.
Contents
[hide]
1 Fictional character biography
1.1 Pupil of Stick
1.2 Stone (Styx and Stone)
1.3 Stone (mutant)
2 Other versions
3 In other media
4 References
Fictional character biography[edit]
Pupil of Stick[edit]
First appearing in Daredevil #187, Stone was the favored pupil of Stick, the blind former mentor of costumed crime-fighter Daredevil and Elektra Natchios.[1] He is a member of the Chaste and is a highly trained martial artist and assists his sensei against the Hand. Like the other members of the Chaste, Stone is deeply advanced in the art of chi-manipulation. An offshoot of this is his ability to render himself invulnerable to physical harm - but only if he sees it coming.[2]
He has appeared in Daredevil (vol 1) on various occasions; once where he is told to take Daredevil and Black Widow to safety while his comrades Shaft and Stick sacrificed themselves.[3] Later he famously assisted Daredevil as the Hand attempted to resurrect Elektra as their agent.[4] He managed to restore Elektra and cleanse her soul using Daredevil's love for her and a portion of his own life force. This weakened him and he was believed dead.[volume & issue needed] Later, Daredevil found him still battling the Hand, in the miniseries Daredevil: Ninja.
Stone (Styx and Stone)[edit]
Stone is an enemy of Spider-Man (See Styx and Stone).
Stone (mutant)[edit]
First appearing in X-Men (first series) #137, Stone is a Canadian mutant, real name unknown, who was involved in Project Wideawake, and the mutant-hunting Hounds. He had the ability to transform his body into high-density stonelike material, in which form he gained superhuman strength and durability.[5]
Other versions[edit]
In the Ultimate Marvel Universe, Stone is the female sensei of Elektra Natchios, having taught Elektra since Natchios was a young girl. In a flashback in Ultimate Avengers 3, Stone is seen with a younger Stick, Shaft, and Matt Murdock under the guide of Anthony, a former vampire hunter turned martial artist.[6]
In other media[edit]
In the 2005 film Elektra, there is a member of the Hand called Stone (played by Bob Sapp). This version is 8 ft. tall, has superhuman strength, is impervious to Elektra's sais, and is bulletproof. Stone is among the Hand members that accompany Kirigi to target Abby Miller. Elektra kills Stone by having him break down a large tree and making sure it falls on him, crushing him.
Stone appears in Marvel's Daredevil series on Netflix, portrayed by Jasson Finney and voiced by David Sobolov.[7] He appears at the end of the episode "Stick" where he and Stick talk about Matt Murdock's role in the events to come.[8] While not seen again afterwards, in The Defenders Stick mentions that he is the last of the Chaste, implying that Stone was killed sometime prior.[9]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Daredevil #187. Marvel Comics
Jump up ^ Daredevil #188-190. Marvel Comics
Jump up ^ Daredevil #320. Marvel Comics
Jump up ^ Daredevil #324. Marvel Comics
Jump up ^ "10 Years!". UncannyXmen.Net. 2005-02-25. Retrieved 2011-02-07.
Jump up ^ Ultimate Avengers 3 #1-6. Marvel Comics
Jump up ^ http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0005591/?ref_=nm_flmg_act_12
Jump up ^ Turner, Brad (director); Douglas Petrie (writer) (April 10, 2015). "Stick". Marvel's Daredevil. Season 1. Episode 7. Netflix.
Jump up ^ Abraham, Phil (director); Douglas Petrie & Marco Ramirez (writer) (August 18, 2017). "Royal Dragon". The Defenders. Season 1. Episode 4. Netflix.
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List of cities in New York
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Map of the United States with New York highlighted
Part of a series on
Regions of New York
Downstate New York[hide]
New York City
Long Island
Hudson Valley (Lower)
Upstate New York[hide]
Hudson Valley (Middle and Upper)
Capital District
North Country
Southern Tier
Mohawk Valley
Central New York
Finger Lakes
Western New York
Administrative divisions[show]
Counties
Cities
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Timelines of town creation[show]
Downstate New York
Hudson Valley
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This list of the 62 cities in New York State contains all municipalities incorporated as cities and also gives the primary county in which each city is located.
Except for Sherrill, the cities are distinct from towns. Geneva and New York City are the only cities in more than one county.
This list is complete. Do not add or remove any municipalities from this list unless that place has legally changed its incorporation.
Contents :
Top
0–9
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Map of USA & New York
List of cities[edit]
City
County
Population [1]
(2011 census estimate)
Incorporation
date
Albany Albany 97,660 1686
Amsterdam Montgomery 18,507 1830
Auburn Cayuga 27,590 1848
Batavia Genesee 15,444 1915
Beacon Dutchess 15,565 1913
Binghamton Broome 46,996 1867
Buffalo Erie 261,025 1832
Canandaigua Ontario 10,604 1913
Cohoes Albany 16,133 1869
Corning Steuben 11,187 1890
Cortland Cortland 19,212 1900
Dunkirk Chautauqua 12,511 1888
Elmira Chemung 29,204 1864
Fulton Oswego 11,906 1902
Geneva Ontario[A] 13,324 1898
Glen Cove Nassau 27,063 1918
Glens Falls Warren 14,728 1908
Gloversville Fulton 15,621 1890
Hornell Steuben 8,566 1888
Hudson Columbia 6,657 1785
Ithaca Tompkins 30,054 1888
Jamestown Chautauqua 31,020 1886
Johnstown Fulton 8,718 1895
Kingston Ulster 23,887 1872
Lackawanna Erie 18,121 1909
Little Falls Herkimer 5,188 1895
Lockport Niagara 21,119 1865
Long Beach Nassau 33,395 1922
Mechanicville Saratoga 5,227 1915
Middletown Orange 28,243 1888
Mount Vernon Westchester 67,780 1892
New Rochelle Westchester 77,606 1889
New York Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens, and Richmond 8,550,405 1653[B]
Newburgh Orange 29,026 1865
Niagara Falls Niagara 50,086 1892
North Tonawanda Niagara 31,501 1897
Norwich Chenango 7,139 1914
Ogdensburg St. Lawrence 11,104 1868
Olean Cattaraugus 14,363 1854
Oneida Madison 11,387 1901
Oneonta Otsego 13,843 1908
Oswego Oswego 18,158 1848
Peekskill Westchester 23,755 1940
Plattsburgh Clinton 19,949 1902
Port Jervis Orange 8,878 1907
Poughkeepsie Dutchess 32,790 1854
Rensselaer Rensselaer 9,391 1897
Rochester Monroe 210,855 1834
Rome Oneida 33,660 1870
Rye Westchester 15,834 1942
Salamanca Cattaraugus 5,780 1913
Saratoga Springs Saratoga 26,727 1915
Schenectady Schenectady 66,273 1798
Sherrill Oneida 3,147 1916
Syracuse Onondaga 145,151 1848
Tonawanda Erie 15,112 1904
Troy Rensselaer 50,120 1816
Utica Oneida 62,110 1832
Watertown Jefferson 27,423 1869
Watervliet Albany 10,230 1896
White Plains Westchester 57,258 1916
Yonkers Westchester 197,399 1872
Extremes in size and population[edit]
The most populous and largest city by area in the state is by far New York, home to over 8.2 million people and comprising just over 300 square miles (800 km2) of land (468.87 square miles (1,210 km2) including water). The least populous city is Sherrill, with just 3,147 inhabitants in 2000. The smallest city by area is Mechanicville, which covers 0.91 square miles (2.4 km2) (of which 0.08 square miles (0.2 km2) is water).[1]

Gallery[edit]
New York City, largest city in New York and the United States.
New York City, largest city in New York and the United States.
Buffalo, the second largest city in New York
Rochester, the third largest.
Yonkers, the fourth largest
Syracuse, the fifth largest.
Albany, the sixth largest and capital of New York.
New Rochelle, the seventh largest.
Schenectady, the ninth largest.
White Plains
Troy
Niagara Falls
Binghamton
Long Beach
Poughkeepsie
Jamestown
Watertown
See also[edit]
New York portal
List of city nicknames in New York
Administrative divisions of New York
List of counties in New York
List of towns in New York
List of villages in New York
List of census-designated places in New York
Footnotes[edit]
^ Geneva is located within both the counties of Ontario and Seneca, although the section in Seneca County has no population and is all water.[2]
^ 1653 is the officially recognized date.[3] Peter Stuyvesant convinced the States General of the Netherlands to charter the city of Nieuw Amsterdam in 1653.[4] The English envoy, Richard Nicolls, renamed the city "New York" two days after capturing it in 1664.[5] Provincial governor Thomas Dongan rechartered the city under the auspices of the Duke of York in 1683,[6] though the charter was not published until 1686.[7] Finally, New York was reincorporated to include all five of its present boroughs in 1898.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "New York". US Census Bureau. Retrieved 2017-05-14.
Jump up ^ Overview of Geneva city near county borders (Map). USGS (ACME mapper). Retrieved 2009-06-25.
Jump up ^ "New York 1653–1953", The New York Times, New York, New York, 1953-02-02, ISSN 0362-4331, retrieved 2009-05-24
Jump up ^ Roosevelt, Theodore (1891), New York: A Sketch of the City’s Social, Political, and Commercial Progress from the First Dutch Settlement to Recent Times, New York, New York: Longmans, Green, p. 30, OCLC 2306039, retrieved 2009-05-24, It was under Stuyvesant, in 1653, that the town was formally incorporated as a city
Jump up ^ Roosevelt, Theodore (1891), New York: A Sketch of the City’s Social, Political, and Commercial Progress from the First Dutch Settlement to Recent Times, New York, New York: Longmans, Green, p. 46, OCLC 2306039, retrieved 2009-05-24, The expedition against New Amsterdam had been organized with the Duke of York, afterward King James II., as its special patron, and the city was rechristened in his honor.
Jump up ^ Roosevelt, Theodore (1891), New York: A Sketch of the City’s Social, Political, and Commercial Progress from the First Dutch Settlement to Recent Times, New York, New York: Longmans, Green, p. 56, OCLC 2306039, retrieved 2009-05-24, Under the influence of Dongan, he did indeed grant to the city itself a charter of special rights and privileges
Jump up ^ Dongan, Thomas (1694), The charter of the city of New-York, New York, New York: William Bradford, OCLC 55899385, retrieved 2009-05-24
[show]
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Albany / Schenectady / Troy
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New York
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Queens
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values: Liste des villes de l'État de New York – French

values: Lista de cidades de Nova Iorque (estado) – Portuguese

values: Listă de orașe din statul New York – Romanian

values: Список городов штата Нью-Йорк по численности населения – Russian

values: List of cities in New York – Simple English

values: Talaan ng mga lungsod sa New York – Tagalog

values: New York eyaletindeki şehirler listesi – Turkish

values: نیو یارک کے شہر – Urdu

values: Danh sách thành phố của tiểu bang New York – Vietnamese

values: 紐約州城市列表 – Chinese

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