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Mayflower II
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For other ships named Mayflower, see Mayflower (ship).
Mayflower II at State Pier in Plymouth, Massachusetts, 2006
History
United States
Name: Mayflower II
Namesake: Mayflower
Owner: Plimoth Plantation
Builder: Upham Shipyard, Brixham, Devon
Laid down: July 27, 1955
Launched: September 22, 1956
Christened: by Stewart Upham & Reis Leming[1]
Status: Museum ship
General characteristics [2]
Displacement: 238 long tons (242 t)
Length:
106 ft 6 in (32.46 m) overall
90 ft (27 m) hull
Beam: 25 ft 6 in (7.77 m)
Draft: 13 ft (4.0 m)
Sail plan: 3-masted ship
Armament: 2 × 3-pounder minion stern chasers
Mayflower II is a replica of the 17th-century ship Mayflower, celebrated for transporting the Pilgrims to the New World.[3] The replica was built in Devon, England during 1955–1956, in a collaboration between Englishman Warwick Charlton and Plimoth Plantation, an American museum. The work drew upon reconstructed ship blueprints held by the American museum, along with hand construction by English shipbuilders' using traditional methods.[3] Mayflower II was sailed from Plymouth, Devon on April 20, 1957, recreating the original voyage across the Atlantic Ocean,[3] under the command of Alan Villiers. According to the ship's log, Mayflower II was towed up the East River into New York City on Monday, July 1, 1957. Afterwards, Villiers and crew received a ticker-tape parade in New York City.
The ship was built at the Upham Shipyard in Brixham and financed by private donations in England and the Plimouth Plantation. It represented the alliance between the United Kingdom and the United States for collaboration during the Second World War.[3] The ship is considered a faithful generic replica within a few details (electric lights added and ladder replaced with a lower-deck staircase), with solid oak timbers, tarred hemp rigging, and hand-coloured maps. It is 106 ft (32 m) long by 25 ft (7.6 m) wide, 236 tons displacement, three masts (mainmast, foremast, mizzen), a bowsprit and 6 sails.
The ship is seaworthy and sailed to Providence, Rhode Island in 2002. In December 2012, Mayflower II was towed to dry dock at Fairhaven Shipyard in Fairhaven, Massachusetts for Coast Guard inspection as well as repairs. The repairs took longer than originally planned because unexpected damage was discovered during the inspection. Repairs were eventually completed and Mayflower II returned to her berth in Plymouth, Massachusetts, on August 7, 2013.[4] In December 2015, the ship arrived at the Henry B. duPont Preservation Shipyard in Mystic, CT for restoration. The ship is due to return to Plymouth in 2019, just ahead of the 400th anniversary of the pilgram's arrival.[5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
History[edit]
In August 1954, Warwick Charlton conceived the idea to construct a reproduction of Mayflower to commemorate the wartime cooperation between the United Kingdom and the United States. He had served alongside many American allies in the North African theatre during World War II. Project Mayflower was created in 1955 to build a replica of Mayflower in England and sail the ship to the United States as a symbol of Anglo-American friendship.[3]
The project's sponsors wanted to ensure proper siting of the ship after it reached the United States.[3] They were aware that earlier reproduction vessels had rotted away after interest in their initial voyages faded. Project Mayflower learned of the Plimoth Plantation museum, and John Lowe of Project Mayflower came to the United States in March 1955. He met with representatives of Plimoth Plantation to gain assistance in future berthing and exhibition of Mayflower II.[3]
Plimoth Plantation had planned years earlier to add a replica of Mayflower to its exhibits.[3] In 1951, the museum had already commissioned plans for a Mayflower II from naval architect William A. Baker of MIT. Baker's detailed plans had been finished by the time that Project Mayflower announced its goals. A waterline model of the vessel's hull had also been built, but nothing more.[3]
By the spring of 1955, the two organizations negotiated an agreement:[3] in exchange for using Baker's design plans and advice, plus the Plimouth Plantations' guarantee to maintain and exhibit the vessel permanently, Project Mayflower agreed to build Mayflower II and sail her across the Atlantic, visiting various East Coast ports to exhibit the ship. The Project would then release it to Plimoth Plantation.[3]
The construction of Mayflower II was conducted at the Upham shipyard in Brixham, Devon, England.[3] The ship's keel was laid on July 27, 1955, and William A. Baker was sent by Plimoth Plantation to advise the builders and view the progress of the ship's construction.[3]
The ship was replicated as accurately as possible, with carefully chosen English oak timbers, hand-forged nails, hand-sewn linen canvas sails, hemp cordage, and the Stockholm tar of the type used on 17th-century ships.[3] Mayflower II has the brown hull and the dark-red strapwork ornamentation of 17th-century merchant ships, based on analysis of the traditional colors and designs of English merchant ships illustrated in Dutch and English paintings. Carved into the stern of Mayflower II is a blossom of a hawthorne or English mayflower.[3] In England, the skills of elderly traditional workmen were employed to build a vessel that reflected Baker's detailed research which could sail the Atlantic as securely as the original ship.[3]
Mayflower II was launched on September 22, 1956, a rainy day.[3] The ceremony was based on knowledge about christenings of 17th-century vessels. The ship was toasted from a gold loving cup that was afterward thrown into the water, and then quickly retrieved by an underwater diver, in the traditional manner.[3] The ship slid gracefully down the ways to enter Brixham harbor with a large splash.
On April 20, 1957, Mayflower II began the solitary voyage across the Atlantic.[3] For time and to avoid the risk of winter ice, the new ship took a more southerly route than the original Mayflower in September 1620, but otherwise the voyage was an accurate replication of a period ocean crossing. The weather cooperated; Mayflower II first sailed calm seas and then met a violent storm off Bermuda, common weather for a transatlantic crossing.[3] She was commanded on her maiden voyage by Alan Villiers, and among the crew was Peter Padfield, who went on to become a naval historian.[7]
In December 2012, Mayflower II was towed to dry dock in Fairhaven Ship Yard in Fairhaven, MA, where shipbuilders and U.S. Coast Guard inspectors called for extensive repairs. This is the first in a number of scheduled repairs over the next 7 years to restore Mayflower II to pristine condition for the 400th anniversary of Plymouth in 2020. Expected costs for these repairs are expected to exceed 2 million dollars.
Starting in Dec 2014 and continuing till 2020, Mayflower II will spend summers in Plymouth on display and winters at the Mystic Seaport being restored.[5] It left Plymouth on November 1st, 2016 and again sailed through the Cape Cod Canal.
The ship has been a popular attraction near Boston; it has become the site of national and state celebrations. On Thanksgiving 1970 (the 350th anniversary of Mayflower landing), members of the American Indian Movement (AIM) led by Russell Means seized Mayflower II in protest of the United States government's failure to abide by treaties with American Indians and its historically poor treatment of them.
See also[edit]
Ship replica (including a list of replicas)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Mayflower II is launched". British Pathé. 1956. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Mayflower II". Society of Mayflower Descendants in the State of North Carolina. 2009. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t "Press Kit - Mayflower X" (with history of the Mayflower), Plimoth Plantation Museum, 2004, Plimoth.org webpage: PlimothOrg-MayflowerBG.
Jump up ^ http://www.wickedlocal.com/plymouth/features/x1383330327/HOMECOMING-A-bay-by-bay-account-of-Mayflower-II-s-return
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.mysticseaport.org/category/mayflower-ii-restoration/
Jump up ^ http://www.plimoth.org/what-see-do/mayflower-ii
Jump up ^ Peter Padfield biography at andrewlownie.co.uk, accessed 18 October 2015
External links[edit]
Official Site
All about the Mayflower and Plymouth, UK
Mayflower II Tour - My Big Adventure (72 Images)
Cooke, Alistair (12 June 1957). "The Mayflower lands again". The Guardian. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
"The Mayflower" Popular Mechanics, April 1957, pp. 90–91 cutaway drawing.
Mayflower II repairs underway
The Harwich Mayflower Project - A separate project building its own Mayflower replica
[hide]
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Mayflower
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Captain Christopher Jones
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Ecological footprint
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. The talk page may contain suggestions. (August 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The natural resources of the Earth are finite.
The ecological footprint measures human demand on nature, i.e., the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy. It tracks this demand through an ecological accounting system. The accounts contrast the biologically productive area people use for their consumption to the biologically productive area available within a region or the world (biocapacity). In short, it is a measure of human impact on Earth's ecosystem and reveals the dependence of the human economy on natural capital.
The ecological footprint is defined as the biologically productive area needed to provide for everything people use: fruits and vegetables, fish, wood, fibers, absorption of carbon dioxide from fossil fuel use, and space for buildings and roads. Biocapacity is the productive area that can regenerate what people demand from nature.
Footprint and biocapacity can be compared at the individual, regional, national or global scale. Both footprint and biocapacity change every year with number of people, per person consumption, efficiency of production, and productivity of ecosystems.At a global scale, footprint assessments show how big humanity's demand is compared to what planet Earth can renew. Global Footprint Network calculates the ecological footprint from UN and other data for the world as a whole and for over 200 nations. They estimate that as of 2013, humanity has been using natural capital 1.6 times as fast as nature can renew it.,[1][2]
Ecological footprint analysis is widely used around the Earth in support of sustainability assessments.[3] It can be used to measure and manage the use of resources throughout the economy and explore the sustainability of individual lifestyles, goods and services, organizations, industry sectors, neighborhoods, cities, regions and nations.[4] Since 2006, a first set of ecological footprint standards exist that detail both communication and calculation procedures. The latest version are the updated standards from 2009[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Footprint measurements
2 Overview
3 Methodology
4 Studies in the United Kingdom
5 Critiques
6 Footprint by country
7 Implications
8 See also
9 Further reading
10 References
11 External links
Footprint measurements[edit]
In 2013, the Global Footprint Network estimated the global ecological footprint as 1.6 planet Earths. This means that, according to their calculations, the planet's ecological services were being used 1.6 times faster than they were being renewed.[1]
Ecological footprint for different nations compared to their Human Development Index.
Ecological footprints can be calculated at any scale: for an activity, a person, a community, a city, a region, a nation or humanity as a whole. Cities, due to population concentration, have large ecological footprints and have become ground zero for footprint reduction.[6]
Global Footprints: Currently there is no fixed way to measure global footprints, and any attempts to describe the capacity of an ecosystem in a single number is a massive simplification of thousands of key renewable resources, which are not used or replenished at the same rate. However, there has been some convergence of metrics and standards since 2006.[5]
City Ecological Footprints: are being measured. There are two types of measurements in use. The first measures ecosystem displacement which is defined as City Area minus remaining green spaces. This is an area measurement that does not include human or other biological activity. The Second attempts to quantify surviving ecosystem health. Specifically, it attempts to quantify both area and biological health of ecosystems surviving inside city areas such as nature reserves, parks, other green spaces. City footprints are being calculated and ranked with city ecological indexes.[7]
Overview[edit]
The first academic publication about ecological footprints was by William Rees in 1992.[8] The ecological footprint concept and calculation method was developed as the PhD dissertation of Mathis Wackernagel, under Rees' supervision at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, from 1990–1994.[9] Originally, Wackernagel and Rees called the concept "appropriated carrying capacity".[10] To make the idea more accessible, Rees came up with the term "ecological footprint", inspired by a computer technician who praised his new computer's "small footprint on the desk".[11] In early 1996, Wackernagel and Rees published the book Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth with illustrations by Phil Testemale.[12]
Footprint values at the end of a survey are categorized for Carbon, Food, Housing, and Goods and Services as well as the total footprint number of Earths needed to sustain the world's population at that level of consumption. This approach can also be applied to an activity such as the manufacturing of a product or driving of a car. This resource accounting is similar to life-cycle analysis wherein the consumption of energy, biomass (food, fiber), building material, water and other resources are converted into a normalized measure of land area called global hectares (gha).
Per capita ecological footprint (EF), or ecological footprint analysis (EFA), is a means of comparing consumption and lifestyles, and checking this against nature's ability to provide for this consumption. The tool can inform policy by examining to what extent a nation uses more (or less) than is available within its territory, or to what extent the nation's lifestyle would be replicable worldwide. The footprint can also be a useful tool to educate people about carrying capacity and overconsumption, with the aim of altering personal behavior. Ecological footprints may be used to argue that many current lifestyles are not sustainable. Such a global comparison also clearly shows the inequalities of resource use on this planet at the beginning of the twenty-first century.
In 2007, the average biologically productive area per person worldwide was approximately 1.8 global hectares (gha) per capita. The U.S. footprint per capita was 9.0 gha, and that of Switzerland was 5.6 gha, while China's was 1.8 gha.[13][14] The WWF claims that the human footprint has exceeded the biocapacity (the available supply of natural resources) of the planet by 20%.[15] Wackernagel and Rees originally estimated that the available biological capacity for the 6 billion people on Earth at that time was about 1.3 hectares per person, which is smaller than the 1.8 global hectares published for 2006, because the initial studies neither used global hectares nor included bioproductive marine areas.[12]
A number of NGOs offer ecological footprint calculators (see Footprint Calculator, below).
Methodology[edit]
The ecological footprint accounting method at the national level is described in the l Footprint Atlas 2010[16] or in greater detail in the Calculation Methodology for the National Footprint Accounts.[17] The National Accounts Review Committee has also published a research agenda on how the method will be improved.[18]
In 2003, Jason Venetoulis, Carl Mas, Christopher Gaudet, Dahlia Chazan, and John Talberth developed Footprint 2., which offers a series of theoretical and methodological improvements to the standard footprint approach. The four primary improvements were that they included the entire surface of the Earth in biocapacity estimates, allocated space for other (i.e., non-human) species, updated the basis of equivalence factors from agricultural land to net primary productivity (NPP), and refined the carbon component of the footprint based on the latest global carbon models.[19][20]
Studies in the United Kingdom[edit]
The UK's average ecological footprint is 5.45 global hectares per capita (gha) with variations between regions ranging from 4.80 gha (Wales) to 5.56 gha (East England).[14]
Two recent studies[citation needed] have examined relatively low-impact small communities. BedZED, a 96-home mixed-income housing development in South London, was designed by Bill Dunster Architects and sustainability consultants BioRegional for the Peabody Trust. Despite being populated by relatively "mainstream" home-buyers, BedZED was found to have a footprint of 3.20 gha due to on-site renewable energy production, energy-efficient architecture, and an extensive green lifestyles program that included on-site London's first carsharing club. The report did not measure the added footprint of the 15,000 visitors who have toured BedZED since its completion in 2002. Findhorn Ecovillage, a rural intentional community in Moray, Scotland, had a total footprint of 2.56 gha, including both the many guests and visitors who travel to the community to undertake residential courses there and the nearby campus of Cluny Hill College. However, the residents alone have a footprint of 2.71 gha, a little over half the UK national average and one of the lowest ecological footprints of any community measured so far in the industrialized world.[21][22] Keveral Farm, an organic farming community in Cornwall, was found to have a footprint of 2.4 gha, though with substantial differences in footprints among community members.[23]
Critiques[edit]
Early criticism was published by van den Bergh and Verbruggen in 1999,[24] which was updated in 2014.[25] Another criticism was published in 2008.[26] A more complete review commissioned by the Directorate-General for the Environment (European Commission) was published in June 2008.[27]
A recent critique of the concept is due to Blomqvist et al., 2013a,[28] with a reply from Rees and Wackernagel, 2013,[29] and a rejoinder by Blomqvist et al., 2013b.[30]
An additional strand of critique is due to Giampietro and Saltelli (2014a),[31] with a reply from Goldfinger et al., 2014,[32] a rejoinder by Giampietro and Saltelli (2014a),[33] and additional comments from van den Bergh and Grazi (2015).[34]
A number of countries have engaged in research collaborations to test the validity of the method. This includes Switzerland, Germany, United Arab Emirates, and Belgium.[35]
Grazi et al. (2007) have performed a systematic comparison of the ecological footprint method with spatial welfare analysis that includes environmental externalities, agglomeration effects and trade advantages.[36] They find that the two methods can lead to very distinct, and even opposite, rankings of different spatial patterns of economic activity. However this should not be surprising, since the two methods address different research questions.
Calculating the ecological footprint for densely populated areas, such as a city or small country with a comparatively large population — e.g. New York and Singapore respectively — may lead to the perception of these populations as "parasitic". This is because these communities have little intrinsic biocapacity, and instead must rely upon large hinterlands. Critics argue that this is a dubious characterization since mechanized rural farmers in developed nations may easily consume more resources than urban inhabitants, due to transportation requirements and the unavailability of economies of scale. Furthermore, such moral conclusions seem to be an argument for autarky. Some even take this train of thought a step further, claiming that the Footprint denies the benefits of trade. Therefore, the critics argue that the Footprint can only be applied globally.[37]
The method seems to reward the replacement of original ecosystems with high-productivity agricultural monocultures by assigning a higher biocapacity to such regions. For example, replacing ancient woodlands or tropical forests with monoculture forests or plantations may improve the ecological footprint. Similarly, if organic farming yields were lower than those of conventional methods, this could result in the former being "penalized" with a larger ecological footprint.[38] Of course, this insight, while valid, stems from the idea of using the footprint as one's only metric. If the use of ecological footprints are complemented with other indicators, such as one for biodiversity, the problem could maybe be solved. Indeed, WWF's Living Planet Report complements the biennial Footprint calculations with the Living Planet Index of biodiversity.[39] Manfred Lenzen and Shauna Murray have created a modified Ecological Footprint that takes biodiversity into account for use in Australia.[40]
Although the ecological footprint model prior to 2008 treated nuclear power in the same manner as coal power,[41] the actual real world effects of the two are radically different. A life cycle analysis centered on the Swedish Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant estimated carbon dioxide emissions at 3.10 g/kWh[42] and 5.05 g/kWh in 2002 for the Torness Nuclear Power Station.[43] This compares to 11 g/kWh for hydroelectric power, 950 g/kWh for installed coal, 900 g/kWh for oil and 600 g/kWh for natural gas generation in the United States in 1999.[44] Figures released by Mark Hertsgaard, however, show that because of the delays in building nuclear plants and the costs involved, investments in energy efficiency and renewable energies have seven times the return on investment of investments in nuclear energy.[45]
The Swedish utility Vattenfall did a study of full life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources the utility uses to produce electricity, namely: Nuclear, Hydro, Coal, Gas, Solar Cell, Peat and Wind. The net result of the study was that nuclear power produced 3.3 grams of carbon dioxide per KW-Hr of produced power. This compares to 400 for natural gas and 700 for coal (according to this study). The study also concluded that nuclear power produced the smallest amount of CO2 of any of their electricity sources.[46]
Claims exist that the problems of nuclear waste do not come anywhere close to approaching the problems of fossil fuel waste.[47][48] A 2004 article from the BBC states: "The World Health Organization (WHO) says 3 million people are killed worldwide by outdoor air pollution annually from vehicles and industrial emissions, and 1.6 million indoors through using solid fuel."[49] In the U.S. alone, fossil fuel waste kills 20,000 people each year.[50] A coal power plant releases 100 times as much radiation as a nuclear power plant of the same wattage.[51] It is estimated that during 1982, US coal burning released 155 times as much radioactivity into the atmosphere as the Three Mile Island incident.[52] In addition, fossil fuel waste causes global warming, which leads to increased deaths from hurricanes, flooding, and other weather events. The World Nuclear Association provides a comparison of deaths due to accidents among different forms of energy production. In their comparison, deaths per TW-yr of electricity produced (in UK and USA) from 1970 to 1992 are quoted as 885 for hydropower, 342 for coal, 85 for natural gas, and 8 for nuclear.[53]
The Western Australian government State of the Environment Report included an Ecological Footprint measure for the average Western Australian seven times the average footprint per person on the planet in 2007, a total of about 15 hectares.[54]
Footprint by country[edit]
World map of countries by ecological footprint (data of 2007).
Main article: List of countries by ecological footprint
The world-average ecological footprint in 2013 was 2.8 global hectares per person.[2] The average per country ranges from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person. There is also a high variation within countries, based on individual lifestyle and economic possibilities.[55]
The GHG footprint or the more narrow carbon footprint are a component of the ecological footprint. Often, when only the carbon footprint is reported, it is expressed in weight of CO2 (or CO2e representing GHG warming potential (GGWP)), but it can also be expressed in land areas like ecological footprints. Both can be applied to products, people or whole societies.[56]
Implications[edit]
. . . the average world citizen has an eco-footprint of about 2.7 global average hectares while there are only 2.1 global hectare of bioproductive land and water per capita on earth. This means that humanity has already overshot global biocapacity by 30% and now lives unsustainabily by depleting stocks of "natural capital"[57]
See also[edit]
Environment portal
Ecology portal
List of countries by ecological footprint
Related concepts
Carbon footprint
Dependency theory
Earth Overshoot Day formerly also called Ecological Debt Day
Ecological economics
Ecosystem valuation
Environmental impact assessment
Greenhouse debt
Greenhouse gas emissions accounting
Happy Planet Index
Human overpopulation
Individual action on climate change
Life cycle assessment
List of environmental issues
Netherlands fallacy
Our Common Future
Physical balance of trade
Simon–Ehrlich wager
Social metabolism
The Limits to Growth
The Population Bomb
Water footprint
Since the 1950s, a new geological epoch called the Anthropocene has been proposed to distinguish the period of major human impact.[58]
Further reading[edit]
Rees, W. E. (October 1992). "Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: what urban economics leaves out". Environment and Urbanisation. 4 (2): 121–130. doi:10.1177/095624789200400212.
Rees, W. E. and M. Wackernagel (1994) Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: Measuring the natural capital requirements of the human economy, in Jansson, A. et al.. Investing in Natural Capital: The Ecological Economics Approach to Sustainability. Washington D.C.:Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-316-6
Wackernagel, M. (1994). Ecological Footprint and Appropriated Carrying Capacity: A Tool for Planning Toward Sustainability (PDF) (PhD thesis). Vancouver, Canada: School of Community and Regional Planning. The University of British Columbia. OCLC 41839429.
Wackernagel, M. and W. Rees. 1996. Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers. ISBN 0-86571-312-X.
Wackernagel, M; Schulz, NB; Deumling, D; Linares, AC; Jenkins, M; Kapos, V; Monfreda, C; Loh, J; et al. (2002). "Tracking the ecological overshoot of the human economy" (PDF). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99 (14): 9266–71. PMC 123129  . PMID 12089326. doi:10.1073/pnas.142033699.
WWF, Global Footprint Network, Zoological Society of London (2006) Living Planet Report 2006. WWF Gland, Switzerland. (downloadable in 11 languages via http://www.footprintnetwork.org/newsletters/gfn_blast_0610.html)
Lenzen, M. and Murray, S. A. 2003. 'The Ecological Footprint – Issues and Trends.' ISA Research Paper 01-03
Chambers, N., Simmons, C. and Wackernagel, M. (2000), Sharing Nature's Interest: Ecological Footprints as an Indicator of Sustainability. Earthscan, London ISBN 1-85383-739-3 (see also http://www.ecologicalfootprint.com)
Raudsepp-Hearne C, Peterson GD, Tengö M, Bennett EM, Holland T, Benessaiah K, MacDonald GM, Pfeifer L (2010). "Untangling the Environmentalist's Paradox: Why is Human Well-Being Increasing as Ecosystem Services Degrade?". BioScience. 60 (8): 576–589. doi:10.1525/bio.2010.60.8.4.
J.C.J.M. van den Bergh; H. Verbruggen (1999). "Spatial sustainability, trade and indicators: an evaluation of the ‘ecological footprint’" (PDF). Ecological Economics. 29 (1): 63–74. doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(99)00032-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-10-09.
F. Grazi; J.C.J.M. van den Bergh; P. Rietveld (2007). "Welfare economics versus ecological footprint: modeling agglomeration, externalities and trade". Environmental and Resource Economics. 38 (1): 135–153. doi:10.1007/s10640-006-9067-2.
Ohl, B.; Wolf, S.; & Anderson, W. (2008). "A modest proposal: global rationalization of ecological footprint to eliminate ecological debt". Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy. 4 (1): 5–16.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Data Sources". Global Footprint Network. 2017-04-17. Retrieved 2017-04-16.
^ Jump up to: a b http://data.footprintnetwork.org
Jump up ^ Lyndhurst, Brook (June 2003). "London’s Ecological Footprint A review" (PDF). Mayor of London. Greater London Authority (commissioned by GLA Economics).
Jump up ^ Global Footprint Network "Ecological Footprint: Overview." Retrieved on April 16, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Application Standards". Global Footprint Network. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Most poignantly... cities in the Anthropocene will remain the ‘ground zero'". academia.edu.
Jump up ^ "GreenScore City Index release notes, formulas and measurement methodology...". greenscore.ca.
Jump up ^ Rees, William E. (October 1992). "Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: what urban economics leaves out". Environment and Urbanisation. 4 (2): 121–130. doi:10.1177/095624789200400212.
Jump up ^ Wackernagel, M. (1994). Ecological Footprint and Appropriated Carrying Capacity: A Tool for Planning Toward Sustainability (PDF) (PhD thesis). Vancouver, Canada: School of Community and Regional Planning. The University of British Columbia. OCLC 41839429.
Jump up ^ Wackernagel, Mathis, 1991. "Land Use: Measuring a Community's Appropriated Carrying Capacity as an Indicator for Sustainability"; and "Using Appropriated Carrying Capacity as an Indicator, Measuring the Sustainability of a Community." Report I & II to the UBC Task Force on Healthy and Sustainable Communities, Vancouver.
Jump up ^ William Safire, On Language: Footprint, New York Times Magazine, February 17, 2008
^ Jump up to: a b Wackernagel, Mathis & Rees, William (1996)"Our Ecological Footprint" (New Society Press)
Jump up ^ [1] or [2] Living Planet Report 2008 outlines scenarios for humanity's future. Global Footprint Network. Retrieved: 2009-02-15
^ Jump up to: a b Chambers, N. et al. (2004) Scotland’s Footprint. Best Foot Forward. ISBN 0-9546042-0-2.
Jump up ^ Global ecosystems 'face collapse' BBC News. Retrieved: 2007-05-18.
Jump up ^ "Ewing et al. 2010". Global Footprint Network. Archived from the original on 9 July 2011. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Ewing et al. 2010" (PDF). Global Footprint Network. Retrieved 13 June 2011.
Jump up ^ A Research Agenda for Improving National Ecological Footprint Accounts Retrieved: 2007-11-11 Archived November 28, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ World in Motion: The Globalization and the Environment Reader, Venetoulis and Talberth (2009), edited by Gary Kroll and Richard Howard Robbins
Jump up ^ "Redefining the Footprint (footprint 2.0)" in Sustainable Development: Principles, Frameworks, and Case Studies, CRC, Routledge (2010).
Jump up ^ Findhorn eco-footprint is ‘world’s smallest’ Archived 2009-01-23 at the Wayback Machine. Sunday Herald, August 11, 2008. "A new expert study says the multinational community's ecological footprint is half the UK average. This means Findhorn uses 50% fewer resources and creates 50% less waste than normal."
Jump up ^ Tinsley, S. and George, H. (2006) Ecological Footprint of the Findhorn Foundation and Community. Moray. Sustainable Development Research Centre, UHI Millennium Institute.
Jump up ^ Radical Routes (2006) How to work out your Ecological Footprint. Leeds. Radical Routes Ltd. Available to order or download on the Radical Routes web site
Jump up ^ J.C.J.M. van den Bergh; H. Verbruggen (1999). "Spatial sustainability, trade and indicators: an evaluation of the ‘ecological footprint’" (PDF). Ecological Economics. 29 (1): 63–74. doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(99)00032-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-10-09. [3][4]
Jump up ^ van den Bergh, Jeroen C.J.M; Grazi, Fabio (2014). "Ecological Footprint Policy? Land Use as an Environmental Indicator". Journal of Industrial Ecology. 18 (1): 10–19. ISSN 1088-1980. doi:10.1111/jiec.12045. This paper and others were described and responded to by the Global Footprint Network on their website in June 2014: Common Criticisms
Jump up ^ Fiala, N. (2008). "Measuring sustainability: Why the ecological footprint is bad economics and bad environmental science". Ecological Economics. 67 (4): 519–525. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.07.023.
Jump up ^ Analysis of the potential of the Ecological Footprint and related assessment tools for use in the EU’s Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources is available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/natres/studies.htm
Jump up ^ Blomqvist, L.; Brook, B.W.; Ellis, E.C.; Kareiva, P.M.; Nordhaus, T.; Shellenberger, M. (2013). "Does the shoe fit? Real versus imagined ecological footprints". PLoS Biol. 11 (11): e1001700. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001700.
Jump up ^ Rees, W.E.; Wackernagel, M. (2013). "The Shoe Fits, but the Footprint is Largerthan Earth". PLoS Biology. 11 (11): e1001701. PMC 3818166  . PMID 24223518. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001701.
Jump up ^ Blomqvist, L.; Brook, B.W.; Ellis, E.C.; Kareiva, P.M.; Nordhaus, T.; et al. (2013b). "The ecological footprint remains a misleading metric of global sustainability". PLoS Biol. 11 (11): e1001702. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001702. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Giampietro, M. Saltelli A. (2014a): Footprint to nowhere, Ecological Indicators 46: 610–621.
Jump up ^ Goldfinger; Wackernagel, S. M.; Galli, A.; Lazarus, E.; Lin, D. (2014). "Footprint facts and fallacies: A response to Giampietro and Saltelli (2014) "Footprints to Nowhere"". Ecological Indicators. 46: 622–632. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.04.025.
Jump up ^ Giampietro, M.; Saltelli, A.; et al. (2014b). "Footworking in circles: Reply to Goldfinger et al. (2014) "Footprint Facts and Fallacies: A Response to Giampietro and Saltelli (2014) Footprints to nowhere"". Ecological Indicators. 46: 260–263. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Van; den Bergh, J.; Grazi, Fabio (2015). "Reply to the first systematic response by the Global Footprint Network to criticism: A real debate finally?". Ecological Indicators. 58: 458–463. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.05.007.
Jump up ^ http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/national_reviews. More specifically, reviews by nations include Switzerland – http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index/themen/21/03/blank/blank/01.html (technical and descriptive report). Eurostat – http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-AU-06-001/EN/KS-AU-06-001-EN.PDF Germany – http://www.umweltdaten.de/publikationen/fpdf-l/3489.pdf Ireland – http://erc.epa.ie/safer/iso19115/displayISO19115.jsp?isoID=56#files DG Environment – June 2008: "Potential of the Ecological Footprint for monitoring environmental impact from natural resource use" available at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/natres/studies.htm United Arab Emirates – Al Basama Al Beeiya Initiative http://www.agedi.ae/ecofootprintuae/default.aspx
Jump up ^ F. Grazi; J.C.J.M. van den Bergh; P. Rietveld (2007). "Welfare economics versus ecological footprint: modeling agglomeration, externalities and trade". Environmental and Resource Economics. 38 (1): 135–153. doi:10.1007/s10640-006-9067-2.
Jump up ^ "Planning and Markets: Peter Gordon and Harry W. Richardson". Pam.usc.edu. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
Jump up ^ Lenzen, M., C. Borgstrom Hansson and S. Bond (2006) On the bioproductivity and land-disturbance metrics of the Ecological Footprint. University of Sydney, ISA Research Paper, June, 06, in collaboration with WWF. Retrieved: 2007-06-04.
Jump up ^ Loh, J., R. Green, T. Ricketts, J. Lamoreux, M. Jenkins, V. Kapos and J. Randers (2005). "The Living Planet Index: using species population time series to track trends in biodiversity" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 360 (1454): 289–295. PMC 1569448  . PMID 15814346. doi:10.1098/rstb.2004.1584. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Lenzen, Manfred; Murray Shauna A. (2001). "A modified ecological footprint method and its application to Australia". Ecological Economics. 37 (2): 229–255. doi:10.1016/S0921-8009(00)00275-5.
Jump up ^ Questions and Answers, Global Footprint Network
Jump up ^ Vattenfall 2004, Forsmark EPD for 2002 and SwedPower LCA data 2005.
Jump up ^ Energy Analysis of Power Systems accessed 20 October 2007
Jump up ^ Electric Power Industry CO2 Emissions accessed 20 October 2007
Jump up ^ Hertsgaard, Mark (2011) "Hot: Living Through the Next Fifty Years on Earth" (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt)
Jump up ^ nuclearinfo.net. Greenhouse Emissions of Nuclear Power
Jump up ^ David Bodansky (June 2001). "The Environmental Paradox of Nuclear Power". Environmental Practice. 3 (2): 86–8. doi:10.1017/S1466046600002234. Archived from the original on 2008-01-27. (reprinted by the American Physical Society)
Jump up ^ "Some Amazing Facts about Nuclear Power". August 2002. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
Jump up ^ Alex Kirby (13 December 2004). "Pollution: A life and death issue". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
Jump up ^ Don Hopey (June 29, 2005). "State sues utility for U.S. pollution violations". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
Jump up ^ Alex Gabbard. "Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger". Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Archived from the original on 2007-02-05. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
Jump up ^ Nuclear proliferation through coal burning Archived 2009-03-27 at the Wayback Machine. — Gordon J. Aubrecht, II, Ohio State University
Jump up ^ "Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors".
Jump up ^ Report identifies population and consumption as an environmental priority, accessed 6 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Humanity Now Demanding 1.6 Earths". Global Footprint Network. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Benn, Hilary; Milliband, Ed. "Guidance on how to measure and report your greenhouse gas emissions" (PDF). GOV.UK. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (UK). Retrieved 9 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Human Nature of Unsustainability". Retrieved 29 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Anthropocene: Age of Man - Pictures, More From National Geographic Magazine". Retrieved 29 July 2016.
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Life Cycle Assessment, introduction
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