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Heian period
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Miniature model of Heian-kyō
The Heian period (平安時代, Heian jidai) is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185.[1] The period is named after the capital city of Heian-kyō, or modern Kyōto. It is the period in Japanese history when Buddhism, Taoism and other Chinese influences were at their height. The Heian period is also considered the peak of the Japanese imperial court and noted for its art, especially poetry and literature. Although the Imperial House of Japan had power on the surface, the real power was in the hands of the Fujiwara clan, a powerful aristocratic family who had intermarried with the imperial family. Many emperors actually had mothers from the Fujiwara family.[2] Heian (平安) means "peace" in Japanese.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Fujiwara regency
1.2 Rise of the military class
2 Heian culture
2.1 Developments in Buddhism
2.2 Literature
2.3 Beauty
3 Economics
4 Events
5 Current depictions
5.1 Literature
5.2 Games
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
The Heian period was preceded by the Nara period and began in A.D. 794 after the movement of the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (present-day Kyōto), by the 50th emperor, Emperor Kanmu.[3] Kanmu first tried to move the capital to Nagaoka-kyō, but a series of disasters befell the city, prompting the emperor to relocate the capital a second time, to Heian. A rebellion occurred in China in the last years of the 9th century, making the political situation unstable. The Japanese missions to Tang China was suspended and the influx of Chinese exports halted, a fact which facilitated the growth of independently Japanese culture called kokufu bunka (ja). Therefore, the Heian Period is considered a high point in Japanese culture that later generations have always admired. The period is also noted for the rise of the samurai class, which would eventually take power and start the feudal period of Japan.
Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in fact power was wielded by the Fujiwara nobility. However, to protect their interests in the provinces, the Fujiwara and other noble families required guards, police and soldiers. The warrior class made steady political gains throughout the Heian period.[2] As early as A.D. 939, Taira no Masakado threatened the authority of the central government, leading an uprising in the eastern province of Hitachi, and almost simultaneously, Fujiwara no Sumitomo rebelled in the west. Still, a true military takeover of the Japanese government was centuries away, when much of the strength of the government would lie within the private armies of the shogunate.
The entry of the warrior class into court influence was a result of the Hōgen Rebellion. At this time Taira no Kiyomori revived the Fujiwara practices by placing his grandson on the throne to rule Japan by regency. Their clan, the Taira, would not be overthrown until after the Genpei War, which marked the start of the Kamakura shogunate. The Kamakura period began in 1185 when Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from the emperors and established the shogunate in Kamakura.
Fujiwara regency[edit]
Byōdō-in Phoenix Hall, built in the 11th century during the Heian period of Japan
When Emperor Kanmu moved the capital to Heian-kyō (Kyōto), which remained the imperial capital for the next 1,000 years, he did so not only to strengthen imperial authority but also to improve his seat of government geopolitically. Nara was abandoned after only 70 years in part due to the ascendancy of Dōkyō and the encroaching secular power of the Buddhist institutions there.[4] Kyōto had good river access to the sea and could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. The early Heian period (784–967) continued Nara culture; the Heian capital was patterned on the Chinese Tang capital at Chang'an,[5] as was Nara, but on a larger scale than Nara. Kanmu endeavoured to improve the Tang-style administrative system which was in use.[6] Known as the ritsuryō, this system attempted to recreate the Tang imperium in Japan, despite the "tremendous differences in the levels of development between the two countries".[7] Despite the decline of the Taika–Taihō reforms, imperial government was vigorous during the early Heian period. Kanmu's avoidance of drastic reform decreased the intensity of political struggles, and he became recognized as one of Japan's most forceful emperors.
Although Kanmu had abandoned universal conscription in 792, he still waged major military offensives to subjugate the Emishi, possible descendants of the displaced Jōmon, living in northern and eastern Japan. After making temporary gains in 794, in 797, Kanmu appointed a new commander, Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, under the title Sei-i Taishōgun ("Barbarian-subduing generalissimo"). By 801, the shōgun had defeated the Emishi and had extended the imperial domains to the eastern end of Honshū. Imperial control over the provinces was tenuous at best, however. In the ninth and tenth centuries, much authority was lost to the great families, who disregarded the Chinese-style land and tax systems imposed by the government in Kyoto. Stability came to Japan, but, even though succession was ensured for the imperial family through heredity, power again concentrated in the hands of one noble family, the Fujiwara which also helped Japan develop more.
A handscroll painting dated circa 1130, illustrating a scene from the "Bamboo River" chapter of the Tale of Genji
Following Kanmu's death in 806 and a succession struggle among his sons, two new offices were established in an effort to adjust the Taika–Taihō administrative structure. Through the new Emperor's Private Office, the emperor could issue administrative edicts more directly and with more self-assurance than before. The new Metropolitan Police Board replaced the largely ceremonial imperial guard units. While these two offices strengthened the emperor's position temporarily, soon they and other Chinese-style structures were bypassed in the developing state. In 838 the end of the imperial-sanctioned missions to Tang China, which had begun in 630, marked the effective end of Chinese influence.[8] Tang China was in a state of decline, and Chinese Buddhists were severely persecuted, undermining Japanese respect for Chinese institutions. Japan began to turn inward.
As the Soga clan had taken control of the throne in the sixth century, the Fujiwara by the ninth century had intermarried with the imperial family, and one of their members was the first head of the Emperor's Private Office. Another Fujiwara became regent, Sesshō for his grandson, then a minor emperor, and yet another was appointed Kampaku. Toward the end of the ninth century, several emperors tried, but failed, to check the Fujiwara. For a time, however, during the reign of Emperor Daigo (897–930), the Fujiwara regency was suspended as he ruled directly.
Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Daigo but actually became stronger during his reign. Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger shōen and greater wealth during the early tenth century. By the early Heian period, the shōen had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the shōen they held. Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation, a de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform.
Drawing of Fujiwara no Michinaga, by Kikuchi Yōsai
HEIKE Lotus Sutra Prologue
Within decades of Daigo's death, the Fujiwara had absolute control over the court. By the year 1000, Fujiwara no Michinaga was able to enthrone and dethrone emperors at will. Little authority was left for traditional institutions, and government affairs were handled through the Fujiwara clan's private administration. The Fujiwara had become what historian George B. Sansom has called "hereditary dictators".
Despite their usurpation of imperial authority, the Fujiwara presided over a period of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy. There was great interest in graceful poetry and vernacular literature. Two types of phonetic Japanese script: katakana, a simplified script that was developed by using parts of Chinese characters, was abbreviated to hiragana, a cursive syllabary with a distinct writing method that was uniquely Japanese. Hiragana gave written expression to the spoken word and, with it, to the rise in Japan's famous vernacular literature, much of it written by court women who had not been trained in Chinese as had their male counterparts. Three late tenth century and early eleventh century women presented their views of life and romance at the Heian court in Kagerō Nikki by "the mother of Fujiwara Michitsuna", The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon and The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu. Indigenous art also flourished under the Fujiwara after centuries of imitating Chinese forms. Vividly colored yamato-e, Japanese style paintings of court life and stories about temples and shrines became common in the mid-to-late Heian period, setting patterns for Japanese art to this day.
As culture flourished, so did decentralization. Whereas the first phase of shōen development in the early Heian period had seen the opening of new lands and the granting of the use of lands to aristocrats and religious institutions, the second phase saw the growth of patrimonial "house governments", as in the old clan system. (In fact, the form of the old clan system had remained largely intact within the great old centralized government.) New institutions were now needed in the face of social, economic, and political changes. The Taihō Code lapsed, its institutions relegated to ceremonial functions. Family administrations now became public institutions. As the most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of state, such as succession to the throne. Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family. Land management became the primary occupation of the aristocracy, not so much because direct control by the imperial family or central government had declined but more from strong family solidarity and a lack of a sense of Japan as a single nation.
Rise of the military class[edit]
Under the early courts, when military conscription had been centrally controlled, military affairs had been taken out of the hands of the provincial aristocracy. But as the system broke down after 792, local power holders again became the primary source of military strength. The re-establishment of an efficient military system was made gradually through a process of trial-and-error. At that time the imperial court did not possess an army but rather relied on an organization of professional warriors composed mainly of oryoshi, which were appointed to an individual province and tsuibushi, which were appointed over imperial circuits or for specific tasks. This gave rise to the Japanese military class. Nonetheless final authority rested with the imperial court.[9]
Shōen holders had access to manpower and, as they obtained improved military technology (such as new training methods, more powerful bows, armor, horses, and superior swords) and faced worsening local conditions in the ninth century, military service became part of shōen life. Not only the shōen but also civil and religious institutions formed private guard units to protect themselves. Gradually, the provincial upper class was transformed into a new military elite based on the ideals of the bushi ("warrior") or samurai ("one who serves").
Bushi interests were diverse, cutting across old power structures to form new associations in the tenth century. Mutual interests, family connections, and kinship were consolidated in military groups that became part of family administration. In time, large regional military families formed around members of the court aristocracy who had become prominent provincial figures. These military families gained prestige from connections to the imperial court and court-granted military titles and access to manpower. The Fujiwara family, Taira clan, and Minamoto clan were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class.
A decline in food production, the growth of the population, and competition for resources among the great families all led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid-tenth and eleventh centuries. Members of the Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto families—all of whom had descended from the imperial family—attacked one another, claimed control over vast tracts of conquered land, set up rival regimes, and generally upset the peace.
The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of Emperor Go-Sanjō (1068–1073), the first emperor not born of a Fujiwara mother since the ninth century. Go-Sanjo, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence. He also established an office to compile and validate estate records with the aim of reasserting central control. Many shōen were not properly certified, and large landholders, like the Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands. Go-Sanjo also established the In-no-chō (ja) (院庁 "Office of the Cloistered Emperor"), which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind-the-scenes governance, or insei.
The In-no-chō filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto clan. While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the insei system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from 1086 to 1156 was the age of supremacy of the In-no-chō and of the rise of the military class throughout the country. Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government.
Painting of the Battle of Dan-no-ura on April 25, 1185, Genpei War
A struggle for succession in the mid-twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power. Fujiwara no Yorinaga sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in 1156 against the heir apparent, who was supported by the Taira and Minamoto (Hōgen Rebellion). In the end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of government supplanted, and the insei system left powerless as bushi took control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history. In 1159, the Taira and Minamoto clashed (Heiji Rebellion), and a twenty-year period of Taira ascendancy began.
Taira no Kiyomori emerged as the real power in Japan following the Minamoto's destruction, and he would remain in command for the next 20 years. He gave his daughter Tokuko in marriage to the young emperor Takakura, who died at only 19, leaving their infant son Antoku to succeed to the throne. Kiyomori filled no less than 50 government posts with his relatives, rebuilt the Inland Sea, and encouraged trade with Sung China. He also took aggressive actions to safeguard his power when necessary, including the removal and exile of 45 court officials and the razing of two troublesome temples, Todai-ji and Kofuku-ji.
The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces[citation needed], where the Minamoto Clan were rebuilding their strength. In 1183, two years after Kiyomori's death, Yoritomo Minamoto dispatched his brothers Yoshitsune and Noriyori to attack Kyoto. The Taira were routed and forced to flee, and the Empress Dowager tried to drown herself and the 7-year old Emperor (he perished, but his mother survived). Takakura's other son succeeded as Emperor Go-Toba.
With Yoritomo firmly established, the bakufu system that governed Japan for the next seven centuries was in place. He appointed military governors, or daimyōs, to rule over the provinces, and stewards, or jito to supervise public and private estates. Yoritomo then turned his attention to the elimination of the powerful Fujiwara family, which sheltered his rebellious brother Yoshitsune. Three years later, he was appointed shōgun in Kyoto. One year before his death in 1199, Yoritomo expelled the teenaged emperor Go-Toba from the throne. Two of Go-Toba's sons succeeded him, but they would also be removed by Yoritomo's successors to the shogunate.
Heian culture[edit]
Developments in Buddhism[edit]
Danjogaran of Mount Kōya. The place is a center of the sacred ground of Shingon.
Bodhisattva Fugen Enmei, 12th-century painting on silk, late Heian period.
Standing Komoku Ten (Virupakusa)
Buddhism began to spread throughout Japan during the Heian period, primarily through two major esoteric sects, Tendai and Shingon. Tendai originated in China and is based on the Lotus Sutra, one of the most important sutras of Mahayana Buddhism; Saichō was key to its transmission to Japan. Shingon is the Japanese transmission of the Chinese Chen Yen school. Shingon, brought to Japan by the monk Kūkai, emphasizes Esoteric Buddhism. Both Kūkai and Saichō aimed to connect state and religion and establish support from the aristocracy,[10] leading to the notion of 'aristocratic Buddhism'.[11] An important element of Tendai doctrine was the suggestion that enlightenment was accessible to "every creature".[12] Saichō also sought independent ordination for Tendai monks.[13] A close relationship developed between the Tendai monastery complex on Mount Hiei and the imperial court in its new capital at the foot of the mountain. As a result, Tendai emphasized great reverence for the emperor and the nation. Kanmu himself was a notable patron of the otherworldly Tendai sect, which rose to great power over the ensuing centuries. Kūkai greatly impressed the emperors who succeeded Kanmu, and also generations of Japanese, not only with his holiness but also with his poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sculpture. Shingon, through its use of "rich symbols, rituals and mandalas"[14] held a wide-ranging appeal.
Literature[edit]
Although written Chinese (Kanbun) remained the official language of the Heian period imperial court, the introduction and wide use of kana saw a boom in Japanese literature. Despite the establishment of several new literary genres such as the novel and narrative monogatari (物語) and essays, literacy was only common among the court and Buddhist clergy.
Poetry, in particular, was a staple of court life. Nobles and ladies-in-waiting were expected to be well versed in the art of writing poetry as a mark of their status. Every occasion could call for the writing of a verse, from the birth of a child to the coronation of an emperor, or even a pretty scene of nature. A well-written poem or haiku could easily make or break one's reputation, and often was a key part of social interaction.[15] Almost as important was the choice of calligraphy, or handwriting, used. The Japanese of this period believed handwriting could reflect the condition of a person's soul: therefore, poor or hasty writing could be considered a sign of poor breeding. Whether the script was Chinese or Japanese, good writing and artistic skill was paramount to social reputation when it came to poetry. Sei Shōnagon mentions in her Pillow Book that when a certain courtier tried to ask her advice about how to write a poem to the empress Sadako, she had to politely rebuke him because his writing was so poor.[16]
The lyrics of the modern Japanese national anthem, Kimigayo, were written in the Heian period, as was The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, one of the first novels ever written. Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and rival Sei Shōnagon's revealing observations and musings as an attendant in the Empress' court were recorded collectively as The Pillow Book in the 990s, which revealed the quotidian capital lifestyle.[17] The Heian period produced a flowering of poetry including works of Ariwara no Narihira, Ono no Komachi, Izumi Shikibu, Murasaki Shikibu, Saigyō and Fujiwara no Teika. The famous Japanese poem known as the Iroha (いろは), of uncertain authorship, was also written during the Heian period.
Beauty[edit]
During the Heian period, beauty was widely considered an important part of what made one a "good" person. In cosmetic terms, aristocratic men and women powdered their faces and blackened their teeth, the latter termed ohaguro. The male courtly ideal included a faint moustache and thin goatee, while women's mouths were painted small and red, and their eyebrows were plucked or shaved and redrawn higher on the forehead (hikimayu).
Women cultivated shiny, black flowing hair and a courtly woman's formal dress included a complex "twelve-layered robe" called jūnihitoe, though the actual number of layers varied. Costumes were determined by office and season, with a women's robes in particular following a system of color combinations representing flowers, plants, and animals specific to a season or month, (see the Japanese Wikipedia entries irome and kasane-no-irome).
Economics[edit]
While on one hand the Heian period was an unusually long period of peace, it can also be argued that the period weakened Japan economically and led to poverty for all but a tiny few of its inhabitants.[18] The control of rice fields provided a key source of income for families such as the Fujiwara and were a fundamental base for their power.[19] The aristocratic beneficiaries of Heian culture, the Ryōmin (良民 "Good People") numbered about five thousand in a land of perhaps five million. One reason the samurai were able to take power was that the ruling nobility proved incompetent at managing Japan and its provinces. By the year 1000 the government no longer knew how to issue currency and money was gradually disappearing. Instead of a fully realised system of money circulation, rice was the primary unit of exchange.[19] The lack of a solid medium of economic exchange is implicitly illustrated in novels of the time. For instance, messengers were rewarded with useful objects, e.g., an old silk kimono, rather than paid a fee.
The Fujiwara rulers failed to maintain adequate police forces, which left robbers free to prey on travelers. This is implicitly illustrated in novels by the terror that night travel inspired in the main characters. The shōen system enabled the accumulation of wealth by an aristocratic elite; the economic surplus can be linked to the cultural developments of the Heian period and the "pursuit of arts".[20] The major Buddhist temples in Heian-kyō and Nara also made use of the shōen.[21] The establishment of branches rurally and integration of some Shinto shrines within these temple networks reflects a greater "organizational dynamism".[21]
Events[edit]
784: Emperor Kanmu moves the capital to Nagaoka-kyō (Kyōto)
794: Emperor Kanmu moves the capital to Heian-kyō (Kyōto)
804: The Buddhist monk Saichō (Dengyo Daishi) introduces the Tendai school
806: The monk Kūkai (Kōbō-Daishi) introduces the Shingon (Tantric) school
819: Kūkai founds the monastery of Mount Kōya, in the northeast portion of modern-day Wakayama Prefecture
858: Emperor Seiwa begins the rule of the Fujiwara clan[22]
895: Sugawara no Michizane halted the imperial embassies to China
990: Sei Shōnagon writes the Pillow Book essays
1000–1008: Murasaki Shikibu writes The Tale of Genji novel
1050: Rise of the military class (samurai)[citation needed]
1052: The Byōdō-in temple (near Kyōto) is built by Fujiwara no Yorimichi[23]
1068: Emperor Go-Sanjō overthrows the Fujiwara clan
1087: Emperor Shirakawa abdicates and becomes a Buddhist monk, the first of the "cloistered emperors" (insei)
1156: Taira no Kiyomori defeats the Minamoto clan and seizes power, thereby ending the "insei" era[24]
1180 (June): The capital is moved to Fukuhara-kyō (Kobe)
1180 (November): The capital is moved back to Heian-kyō (Kyōto)
1185: Taira is defeated (Genpei War) and Minamoto no Yoritomo with the support (backing) of the Hōjō clan seizes power, becoming the first shōgun of Japan, while the emperor (or "mikado") becomes a figurehead
Current depictions[edit]
The iconography of the Heian period is widely known in Japan, and depicted in various media, from traditional festivals to anime. In the manga and TV series Hikaru no Go, the protagonist Hikaru Shindo is visited by a ghost of a go genius from the Heian period and its leading clan, Fujiwara no Sai.
Various festivals feature Heian dress – most notably Hinamatsuri (doll festival), where the dolls wear Heian dress, but also numerous other festivals, such as Aoi Matsuri in Kyoto (May) and Saiō Matsuri in Meiwa, Mie (June), both of which feature the jūnihitoe 12-layer dress. Traditional horseback archery (yabusame) festivals, which date from the beginning of the Kamakura period (immediately following the Heian period) feature similar dress.
Literature[edit]
The two-volume historical novel saga White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Fox Sorceress (2009),[25] and White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Storm God (2011)[26] depict in detail the pivotal years 1160–1185 in Japan, as seen through the eyes of protagonist Seiko Fujiwara. Both books were written by Cerridwen Fallingstar.
Games[edit]
The game Total War: Shogun 2 has the Rise of the Samurai expansion pack as a downloadable campaign. It allows the player to make their own version of the Genpei War which happened during the Heian period. The player is able to choose one of the most powerful families of Japan at the time, the Taira, Minamoto or Fujiwara; each family fielding two branches for a total of six playable clans. The expansion pack features a different set of land units, ships and buildings and is also playable in the multiplayer modes.
Cosmology of Kyoto is a Japanese video game set in 10th–11th century Japan. It is a point-and-click adventure game depicting Heian-kyō, including the religious beliefs, folklore and ghost tales of the time. It was praised by film critic Roger Ebert.
Notes[edit]
Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Jump up ^ "Heian period". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
^ Jump up to: a b F. W. Seal, Heian Period Court and Clan
Jump up ^ Shively and McCullough 1999.
Jump up ^ Hurst 2007 p. 32
Jump up ^ Takei, Jiro; Keane, Marc P. SAKUTEIKI. Boston: Tuttle Publishing. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-8048-3294-6.
Jump up ^ Hurst 2007 p. 34
Jump up ^ Hurst 2007 p. 35
Jump up ^ Meyer, Milton W., Japan: A Concise History, page 44.
Jump up ^ Karl Friday, "Teeth and Claws, Provincial Warriors and the Heian Court" Monumenta Nipponica (Summer 1988): 155–170.
Jump up ^ Kitagawa 1966 p. 59
Jump up ^ Weinstein 1999
Jump up ^ Kitagawa 1966 p. 60
Jump up ^ Kitagawa p. 61.
Jump up ^ Kitagawa 1966 p. 65.
Jump up ^ The World of the Shining Prince, Ivan Morris, 180, 182
Jump up ^ Ibid, 183–184
Jump up ^ Morris (1964) p. xiv.
Jump up ^ "Heian Period." We-pedia. We-pedia, n.d. Web. 17 Feb. 2016. <http://www.wa-pedia.com/history/heian_period_era.shtml>.
^ Jump up to: a b Morris 1964 p.73.
Jump up ^ Morris 1964 p.79.
^ Jump up to: a b Collins 1997 p.851.
Jump up ^ Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1962). Sovereign and Subject, pp. 203–204; also known as Fujiwara jidai
Jump up ^ Britannica Kokusai Dai-Hyakkajiten article "Fujiwara no Yorimichi".
Jump up ^ Ponsonby-Fane, p. 204.
Jump up ^ Fallingstar, Cerridwen. White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Fox Sorceress. Cauldron Publications, 2009.
Jump up ^ Fallingstar, Cerridwen. White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Storm God. Cauldron Publications, 2011.
References[edit]
Collins, R., "An Asian Route to Capitalism: Religious Economy and the Origins of Self-Transforming Growth in Japan", in American Sociological Review, Vol. 62, No. 6 (1997)
Hurst III, G. C, "The Heian Period" in W. M. Tsutsui, (ed.), A Companion to Japanese History (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007)
Kitagawa, J., Religion in Japanese History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966)
Morris, I., The World of the Shining Prince; Court Life in Ancient Japan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964)
Shively, D. H. and McCullough W. H., "Introduction" in D. H. Shively and W. H. McCullough, (eds.),The Cambridge History of Modern Japan; Volume 2, Heian Japan, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
Weinstein, S., "Aristocratic Buddhism" in D. H. Shively and W. H. McCullough, (eds.),The Cambridge History of Modern Japan; Volume 2, Heian Japan, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Heian period.
Heian art at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art
Heian art and calligraphy at the Tokyo National Museum
Heian art at the British Museum
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Peisistratos
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For other people with the same name, see Peisistratus (disambiguation).
Peisistratos (Greek: Πεισίστρατος; died 528/7 BC), Latinized Pisistratus, the son of Hippocrates, was a ruler of ancient Athens during most of the period between 561 and 527 BC.[citation needed] His legacy lies primarily in his instituting the Panathenaic Festival, historically assigned the date of 566 B.C., and the consequent first attempt at producing a definitive version of the Homeric epics. Peisistratos' championing of the lower class of Athens, the Hyperakrioi, (see below) is an early example of populism. While in power, Peisistratos did not hesitate to confront the aristocracy, and he greatly reduced their privileges, confiscated their lands and gave them to the poor, and funded many religious and artistic programs.[1]
Peisistratus was the brother-in-law of Cleisthenes; however, Peisistratus was much older.
Peisistratids is the common term for the three tyrants who ruled in Athens from 546 to 510 BC, namely Peisistratos and his two sons, Hipparchus and Hippias.
Contents
[hide]
1 Rise
2 Periods of power
3 Popular tyrant
3.1 Three attempts at tyranny
3.2 Policies
4 Legacy
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
Rise[edit]
Peisistratos was a distant relative of Solon from northern Attica.[citation needed] He had made a name for himself by capturing the port of Nisaea in nearby Megara by creating a successful coup in 565 BC.[2] Peisistratos was backed by the Men of the Hill, the poorer and majority of the population. This victory opened up the unofficial trade blockage that had been contributing to food shortage in Athens during the past several decades.[3]
In the period after the Megaran defeat, several political factions competed for control in the government of Athens. These groups were both economically and geographically partitioned.[4]
Pedieis: the population that resided on the plains, led by Lycurgus. These landowners produced grain, giving them leverage during the food shortage.
Paralioi: the population living along the coast, led by Megacles, an Alcmaeonid, the Paralioi party was not as strong as the Pedieis, primarily because they could not produce grain, as did the plainsmen. With the Megarans patrolling the sea, much of Athens' import/export power was limited.
Hyperakrioi: not previously represented by formal party, dwelled primarily in the hills and were by far the poorest of the Athenian population. Their only production was barter in items like honey and wool. Peisistratos organised them into the Hyperakrioi, or hill dwellers. This party grossly outnumbered the other two parties combined.
His role in the Megaran conflict gained Peisistratos popularity in Athens, but he did not have the political clout to seize power. Herodotus tells us how he intentionally wounded himself and his mules in order to demand from the Athenian people bodyguards for protection, which he received. By obtaining support from the vast number of the poorer population as well as bodyguards, he was able to seize the Acropolis and the reins of government. The Athenians were open to a tyranny similar to that under Solon – and possible stability and internal peace – and Peisistratos' ruse won him further prominence.[5] With this in his possession, and the collusion of Megacles and his party, he declared himself tyrant.[6]
Periods of power[edit]
Peisistratos was ousted from political office and exiled twice during his reign. The first occurrence was circa 555 BC after the two original parties, normally at odds with each other, joined forces and removed Peisistratos from power. Actual dates after this point become unclear. Peisistratos was exiled for 3 to 6 years during which the agreement between the Pedieis and the Paralioi fell apart. Peisistratos returned to Athens and rode into the city in a golden chariot accompanied by a tall woman appearing to be Athena. Many returned to his side, believing he had the favour of the goddess.[7] Differing sources state that he held the tyranny for one to six years before he was exiled again. During his second exile, he gathered support from local cities and resources from the Laurion silver mines near Athens. After 10 years he returned in force, regained his tyranny, and held power until his death in 527 BC.
Popular tyrant[edit]
Didrachm of Athens, 545-510 BC
Obv: Four-spoked wheel Rev: Incuse square, divided diagonally
Silver didrachm of Athens of heraldic type from the time of Peisistratos, 545–510 BC
Obol of Athens, 545-525 BC
Obv: An archaic Gorgoneion Rev: Square incuse
An archaic silver obol of Athens of heraldic type from the time of Peisistratos, 545–525 BC
As opposed to the modern definition of a tyrant, which is a single ruler, often violent and oppressive, Peisistratos' career was a model example of tyranny, a non-heritable position taken by purely personal ability, often in violation of tradition or constitutional norms. We see this in remarks by both Herodotus and Aristotle. Herodotus, in his Histories, wrote that Peisistratos, "not having disturbed the existing magistrates nor changed the ancient laws… administered the State under that constitution of things which was already established, ordering it fairly and well",[8] while Aristotle wrote that "his administration was temperate…and more like constitutional government than a tyranny".[9] Peisistratos often tried to distribute power and benefits rather than hoard them, with the intent of easing stress between the economic classes. The elites who had held power in the Areopagus Council were allowed to retain their archonships. For the lower classes, he cut taxes and created a band of travelling judges to provide justice for the citizens. Peisistratos enacted a popular program to beautify Athens and promote the arts. He minted coins with Athena's symbol (the owl), although this was only one type on the so-called Wappenmünzen (heraldic coins) and not a regular device as on the later, standard silver currency. Under his rule were introduced two new forms of poetry, the dithyramb and tragic drama, and the era also saw growth in theatre, arts, and sculpture. He commissioned the permanent copying and archiving of Homer's two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, and the canon of Homeric works is said to derive from this particular archiving.
Three attempts at tyranny[edit]
With Peisistratos' successful invasion and capture of Nisaea, he attained great political standing in the assembly. He initially met with resistance from nobles like Megacles, the son of Alcmaeon, and Lycurgus, the son of Aristolaïdes, who had shared power between them. Megacles came over to Peisistratos' side and, with his help, Peisistratos was accepted as tyrant by the Athenian assembly in 561, and, according to Herodotus, he "administered the state constitutionally and organized the state's affairs properly and well."[10] However, he was soon thereafter ousted. Herodotus explains his exile “Not much later, however, the supporters of Megacles and those of Lycurgus came to an understanding and expelled him”.
He soon had a second chance. Megacles invited him back in 556 on condition that he marry Megacles' daughter. Peisistratos returned in triumph accompanied by a tall, local woman named Phye, whom he passed off as Athena. The awestruck Athenians thus accepted his second tyranny. Peisistratus, however, refused to impregnate Megacles' daughter, which ended their coalition. Peisistratos was forced to leave Attica entirely. During his nearly ten-year exile, he created an alliance with powerful allies and accumulated great wealth. With his powerful personal army, he marched to Marathon and from there to Athens. His popularity soared and many locals supported him. Thus, in 546 BC, he began his third and final tyranny.[11]
Policies[edit]
Peisistratos' main policies were aimed at strengthening the economy, and similar to Solon, he was concerned about both agriculture and commerce. He offered land and loans to the needy. He encouraged the cultivation of olives and the growth of Athenian trade, finding a way to the Black Sea and even Italy and France. Under Peisistratos, fine Attic pottery travelled to Ionia, Cyprus, and Syria. In Athens, Peisistratos' public building projects provided jobs to people in need while simultaneously making the city a cultural centre. He replaced the private wells of the aristocrats with public fountain houses. Peisistratos also built the first aqueduct in Athens, opening a reliable water supply to sustain the large population.[12]
Legacy[edit]
Peisistratos died in 527 or 528 BC. His eldest son, Hippias, succeeded him as tyrant of Athens. Hippias and his brother, Hipparchus, ruled the city much as their father had. After a successful murder plot against Hipparchus conceived by Harmodius and Aristogeiton, Hippias became paranoid and oppressive. This change caused the people of Athens to hold Hippias in much lower regard. The Alcmaeonid family helped depose the tyranny by bribing the Delphic oracle to tell the Spartans to liberate Athens, which they did in 508 BC. The Peisistratids were not executed, but rather were mostly forced into exile. The surviving Peisistratid ruler, Hippias, went on to aid the Persians in their attack on Marathon (490 BC), acting as a guide.[13]
See also[edit]
Herodotus
Histories
Aristotle
Politics
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Shanaysha M. Furlow Sauls (2008). The Concept of Instability and the Theory of Democracy in the Federalist, p. 77
Jump up ^ Chester G. Starr, ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA Peisistratus TYRANT OF ATHENS Archived 2016-07-01 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Sarah B. Pomeroy, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, Jennifer Tolbert Roberts, David Tandy, Ancient Greece: a political, social, and cultural history(United States of America: 2012) Oxford University Press, New York, p191-2025
Jump up ^ Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution, Part 13
Jump up ^ Goušchin, Valerij (1999). "Pisistratus' Leadership in A. P. 13.4 and the Establishment of the Tyranny of 561/60 B. C.". The Classical Quarterly. New Series. 49 (Cambridge University Press): 14–23. doi:10.1093/cq/49.1.14. JSTOR 639486.
Jump up ^ Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution, Part 13; Herodotus, The Histories, 1.59; Plutarch, “Life of Solon”, in Plutarch’s Lives (London: Printed by W. M'Dowell for J. Davis, 1812), 185.
Jump up ^ Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution, Part 14; Herodotus, The Histories, 1.60.
Jump up ^ Herodotus, The Histories, 1.59.6
Jump up ^ Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution, Part 16.2.
Jump up ^ Herodotus. The Histories. Oxford University Press Inc. ISBN 9780199535668.
Jump up ^ Lavelle, Brian (2010). "Pisistratos". Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome.
Jump up ^ Sarah B. Pomeroy, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, Jennifer Tolbert Roberts, David Tandy, Ancient Greece: a political, social, and cultural history(United States of America: 2012) Oxford University Press, New York, p.191–2025
Jump up ^ Herodotus (1998). The Histories. Translated by Waterfield, Robin. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192824257.
References[edit]
Berti, Monica. Fra tirannide e democrazia: Ipparco figlio di Carmo e il destino dei Pisistratidi ad Atene. Alessandria: Edizioni Dell’Orso, 2004
Borthwick, Edward K. “Music and Dance.” Civilization of the Ancient Mediterranean World: Greece and Rome. Eds. Grant, Michael and Kitzinger, Rachel. 3 vols. New York: Scribner’s, 1988. Vol. 1, 1507-8.
Cahill, Thomas. Sailing the Wine Dark Sea: Why the Greeks Matter. New York: Doubleday, 2003.
French, A. “The Party of Peisistratos.” Greece & Rome. Vol. 6, No. 1, March 1959. 45-57
Garland, Robert. “Greek Spectacles and Festivals.” Civilization of the Ancient Mediterranean World: Greece and Rome. Eds. Grant, Michael and Kitzinger, Rachel. 3 vols. New York: Scribner’s, 1988. Vol. 1, 1148.
Hornblower, Simon and Spawforth, Anthony eds. “Peisistratus.” The Oxford Classical Dictionary. 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 2003.
Lavelle, B. M. Fame, Money and Power: The Rise of Peisistratos and “Democratic” Tyranny at Athens. The University of Michigan Press, 2005.
Lavelle B. M. “The Compleat Angler: Observations on the Rise of Peisistratos in Herodotos (1.59-64). The Classical Quarterly. New Series, Vol. 41, No. 2, 1991. 317-324.
Thucydides. “Funeral Oration of Pericles.” The Peloponnesian War. Trans. Benjamin Jowett, 1881. Ed. Paul Brians. December 18, 1998. <http://katie.luther.edu/moodle/mod/resource/view.php?id=68564>
Roisman, Joseph, and translated by J.C Yardley, Ancient Greece from Homer to Alexander (Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2011) ISBN 1-4051-2776-7
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text:
Thunder
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Thunder (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Cumulonimbus clouds often form thunderstorms.
Thunder is the sound caused by lightning. Depending on the distance and nature of the lightning, thunder can range from a sharp, loud crack to a long, low rumble (brontide). The sudden increase in pressure and temperature from lightning produces rapid expansion of the air surrounding and within a bolt of lightning. In turn, this expansion of air creates a sonic shock wave, similar to a sonic boom, which produces the sound of thunder, often referred to as a clap, crack, peal of thunder, or boom.
Thunder
A short sample of a crack of thunder during the sound of falling rain
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Contents
[hide]
1 Cause
2 Etymology
3 Calculating distance
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Cause[edit]
The cause of thunder has been the subject of centuries of speculation and scientific inquiry. The first recorded theory is attributed to the Greek philosopher Aristotle in the fourth century BC, and an early speculation was that it was caused by the collision of clouds. Subsequently, numerous other theories were proposed. By the mid-19th century, the accepted theory was that lightning produced a vacuum.
In the 20th century a consensus evolved that thunder must begin with a shock wave in the air due to the sudden thermal expansion of the plasma in the lightning channel.[1] The temperature inside the lightning channel, measured by spectral analysis, varies during its 50 μs existence, rising sharply from an initial temperature of about 20,000 K to about 30,000 K, then dropping away gradually to about 10,000 K. The average is about 20,400 K (20,100 °C; 36,300 °F).[2] This heating causes a rapid outward expansion, impacting the surrounding cooler air at a speed faster than sound would otherwise travel. The resultant outward-moving pulse is a shock wave,[3] similar in principle to the shock wave formed by an explosion, or at the front of a supersonic aircraft.
Experimental studies of simulated lightning have produced results largely consistent with this model, though there is continued debate about the precise physical mechanisms of the process.[4][1] Other causes have also been proposed, relying on electrodynamic effects of the massive current acting on the plasma in the bolt of lightning.[5] The shockwave in thunder is sufficient to cause injury, such as internal contusion, to individuals nearby.[6]
Inversion thunder results when lightning strikes between cloud and ground occur during a temperature inversion. In such an inversion, the air near the ground is cooler than the higher air. The sound energy is prevented from dispersing vertically as it would in a non-inversion and is thus concentrated in the near-ground layer. Inversions often occur when warm moist air passes above a cold front; the resulting thunder sound is significantly louder than it would be if heard at the same distance in a non-inversion condition.[7]
Thunder is the sound produced by lightning.
Etymology[edit]
The d in Modern English thunder (from earlier Old English þunor) is epenthetic, and is now found as well in Modern Dutch donder (cp Middle Dutch donre, and Old Norse þorr, Old Frisian þuner, Old High German donar descended from Proto-Germanic *þunraz). In Latin the term was tonare "to thunder". The name of the Germanic god Thor comes from the Old Norse word for thunder.[8]
The shared Proto-Indo-European root is *tón-r̥ or *tar-, also found Gaulish Taranis and Hittite Tarhunt.
Calculating distance[edit]
A flash of lightning, followed after some time by a rumble of thunder, illustrates the fact that sound travels significantly slower than light. Using this difference, one can estimate how far away the bolt of lightning is by timing the interval between seeing the flash and hearing thunder. The speed of sound in dry air is approximately 343 m/s or 1,127 ft/s or 768 mph (1,236 km/h) at 20 °C (68 °F).[9] This translates to approximately 5 seconds per mile (or 3 seconds per kilometer).
The speed of light is high enough that it can be taken as infinite in this calculation because of the relatively small distance involved. Therefore, the lightning is approximately one kilometer distant for every 3 seconds that elapse between the visible flash and the first sound of thunder (or one mile for every 5 seconds). In the same five seconds, the light could have traveled the Lunar distance four times. (In this calculation, the initial shock wave, which travels at a rate faster than the speed of sound, but only extends outward for the first 30 feet, is ignored.)[10] Thunder is seldom heard at distances over 20 kilometers (12 mi).[3] A very bright flash of lightning and an almost simultaneous sharp "crack" of thunder, a thundercrack, therefore indicates that the lightning strike was very near.
Very close thunder cracks
See also[edit]
Thunderbolt
Thunderstorm
Thursday (day of Thor)
Brontophobia (fear of thunder)
Castle Thunder sound effect
Lightning
List of thunder gods
Mistpouffers
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Rakov, Vladimir A.; Uman, Martin A. (2007). Lightning: Physics and Effects. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 378. ISBN 0-521-03541-4.
Jump up ^ Cooray, Vernon (2003). The lightning flash. London: Institution of Electrical Engineers. pp. 163–164. ISBN 0-85296-780-2.
^ Jump up to: a b "Thunder". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2008-09-12.
Jump up ^ MacGorman, Donald R.; Rust, W. David (1998). The Electrical Nature of Stomrs. Oxford University Press. pp. 102–104. ISBN 978-0195073379. Retrieved 2012-09-06.
Jump up ^ P Graneau (1989). "The cause of thunder". J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 22 (8): 1083–1094. Bibcode:1989JPhD...22.1083G. doi:10.1088/0022-3727/22/8/012.
Jump up ^ Fish, Raymond M (2004). "Thermal and mechanical shock wave injury". In Nabours, Robert E. Electrical injuries: engineering, medical, and legal aspects. Tucson, AZ: Lawyers & Judges Publishing. p. 220. ISBN 1-930056-71-0.
Jump up ^ Dean A. Pollet and Micheal M. Kordich, User's guide for the Sound Intensity Prediction System (SIPS) as installed at the Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division (Naveodtechdiv). Systems Department February 2000. dtic.mil
Jump up ^ "thunder". Oxford English Dictionary (2 ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1989.
Jump up ^ Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 72nd edition, special student edition. Boca Raton: The Chemical Rubber Co. 1991. p. 14.36. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
Jump up ^ "The Science of Thunder - National Lightning Safety Institute".
External links[edit]
Media related to Thunder at Wikimedia Commons
The science of thunder
Thunder: A Child of Lightning
Wikibooks: Engineering Acoustics/Thunder acoustics
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thunder&oldid=800606389"
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De León (surname)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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De León or de León or De Leon is a Spanish origin surname, often toponymic, in which case it may possibly indicate an ultimate family origin in the Kingdom of León or the later Province of León. The name may refer to:
Persons[edit]
Homero Tovar De Leòn (born 2000)
Alonso de León (c. 1639–1691), Spanish explorer and governor
Antonio de León Pinelo (1589–1675), Spanish attorney, judge, and historian
Mateo de la Mata Ponce de León ([?]-1720), Spanish colonial officer, interim viceroy of Peru 1716
Aracelli de León (1951–1999), Latin American voice actress
Aya de Leon (born 1967), American writer and poet
Carlos Enrique Díaz de León (1910–1971), President of Guatemala 1954
Carlos de León (born May 3, 1959), Puerto Rican boxer
Charito de León (born 1939), Filipina actress
Constanza de León (1200 - 1242), Spanish infant of León, daughter of Alfonso IX of León
Daniel De Leon (1852–1914), Venezuelan-born Sephardic Jew, American socialist and trade unionist
Diego de León y Navarrete (1807-1841), Spanish military figure
Edwin de Leon (1818-1891), American/Confederate diplomat and writer
Gerardo de León (born 1924), Filipino film actor and director
Gil de León (born 1925), Filipino film actor and director
Joaquín Velázquez de León, Minister of State of Mexico
Joey de Leon (born 1946), Filipino comedian and television host
José García de León y Pizarro (1770–1835), Minister of State of Spain 1816–1818
Juan Manuel de León Merchante (1626–1680), Spanish dramatist
Juan Ponce de León (1460–1521), Spanish explorer and conquistador
Juan Ponce de León II (1524-1591), first Puerto Rican governor of Puerto Rico
Juan Velázquez de León (died 1520), Spanish conquistador with Hernán Cortés
Juana María de los Dolores de León Smith (1798–1872), wife of General Sir Harry Smith, Governor of the Cape Colony, South Africa
Kathleen de Leon Jones (born 1977), Australian singer and television performer
Luis de León (1527–1591), Spanish lyric poet and Augustinian friar
Luis Ponce de León (governor of New Spain) briefly the governor of New Spain, from July 4, 1526 to July 16, 1526
Michael De León, baseball player
Miguel de León (born 1962), Venezuelan actor
Mike de León (Miguel de Leon) (born 1947), Filipino film director, scriptwriter, and producer
Moses de León or Moshe ben Shem-Tov (1250–1305), Spanish rabbi and Kabbalist
Nick DeLeon (born 1990), American soccer player for D.C. United
Noel de Leon
Oscar de León (born 1943), Venezuelan singer
Pablo de León (born 1964), Argentine aerospace engineer
Pedro Cieza de León (1520–1554), Jewish-origin New Christian Spanish conquistador and historian
Rafael De Leon pr Roaring Lion (1908–1999), Trinidadian calypsonian
Ramiro de León Carpio (1942–2002), President of Guatemala 1993–1996
Rudy de Leon (born August 28, 1952), American Deputy Secretary of Defense
Thomas Cooper de Leon (1839–1914), American journalist, author, and playwright
Tiburcio de Leon, Filipino revolutionary general
Pedro Ponce de León (1520-1584), Spanish Benedictine monk
Van de León (born 1925), Filipino actor
Victor De Leon III aka Lil Poison, (born May 6, 1998) recognized by Guinness Book of World Records as the youngest professional video game player
Fictional characters[edit]
Cervantes de León, character in the Soul Series of fighting games
This page lists people with the surname De León. If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_León_(surname)&oldid=803854559"
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This page was last edited on 5 October 2017, at 01:56.
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