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Design methods
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Design methods is a broad area that focuses on:
Divergence – Exploring possibilities and constraints of inherited situations by applying critical thinking through qualitative and quantitative research methods to create new understanding (problem space) toward better design solutions
Transformation – Redefining specifications of design solutions which can lead to better guidelines for traditional and contemporary design activities (architecture, graphic, industrial, information, interaction, et al.) and/or multidisciplinary response
Convergence – Prototyping possible scenarios for better design solutions that incrementally or significantly improve the originally inherited situation
Sustainability – Managing the process of exploring, redefining and prototyping of design solutions continually over time
Articulation - the visual relationship between the parts and the whole.
The role of design methods is to support design work, the aims of which can be varied, though they may include gaining key insights or unique essential truths resulting in more holistic solutions in order to achieve better experiences for users with products, services, environments and systems they rely upon. Insight, in this case, is clear and deep investigation of a situation through design methods, thereby grasping the inner nature of things intuitively.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 Where process meets method
1.2 Expansion of design methods
1.3 Emergence of design research and design studies
1.3.1 Significance of emergence of design research and design studies
1.4 Professional design practice
1.4.1 Significance of role of professional design practice
1.5 Design management
1.5.1 Alternative view
1.5.1.1 Significance of design management
1.6 Proliferation of information technologies
1.6.1 Significance of proliferation of information technologies
2 Current state of design methods
3 See also
4 References
5 Books
6 External links
Background[edit]
Design traditionally has been associated with expression and production.
Social, political and economic developments of the late 19th and first half of the 20th century put into motion modern benefits and constraints for living and working. Industrial and technological breakthroughs associated with this period created social and economic complexities for people and their environment. Disciplines such as architecture, urban planning, engineering and product development began to tackle new types of problem-solving past traditional artifact making. More informed and methodical approaches to designing were required.
From 1958 to 1963 Horst Rittel was a pioneer in articulating the relationship between science and design, specifically the limitations of design processes based on the 19th century rational view of science, in his courses at Ulm School of Design in Germany (Hochschule für Gestaltung - HfG Ulm: 1953–1968).[1][2] Rittel proposed principles for dealing with these limitations through his seminal HfG design methods courses: cybernetics, operational analysis and communication theory.[1][2][3] In 1963 he was recruited to Berkeley to teach design methods courses and helped found the Design Methods Group (DMG) and the DMG Journal.[3]
Design methods in England originally drew from a 1962 conference[4] called "The Conference on Systematic and Intuitive Methods in Engineering, Industrial Design, Architecture and Communications." This event was organized by John Chris Jones, and Peter Slann who, with conference invitees, were driven by concerns about how their modern industrialized world was being manifested.[5]
Conference participants countered the craftsman model of design which was rooted in turning raw materials through tried and true craft-based knowledge into finished products. They believed that a single craft-based designer producing design solutions was not compatible with addressing the evolving complexity of post-industrial societies. They stressed that designers needed to work in cross-disciplinary teams where each participant brings his/her specific body of skills, language and experiences to defining and solving problems in whatever context.
The [6] key benefit was to find a method that suits a particular design situation. Christopher Alexander went on to write his seminal books A Pattern Language and A Timeless Way of Building.
Where process meets method[edit]
When process and method are discussed, they tend to be used interchangeably. However, while they are two sides to the same coin, they are different. Process (lat. processes–movement) is a naturally occurring or designed sequence of operations or events over time which produce desired outcomes. Process contains a series of actions, events, mechanisms, or steps, which contain methods. Method is a way of doing something, especially a systematic way through an orderly arrangement of specific techniques. Each method has a process.
From a pragmatic standpoint, design methods is concerned with the “how” and defining “when” things happen, and in what desired order. Design Methods is challenging to implement since there are not enough agreed-upon tools, techniques and language for consistent knowledge transfer. While there are many conceptual models and frameworks, there needs to be more granularity of tools and techniques. There are also many variables that affect outcomes since logic and intuition interplay with one another. Two people can therefore use the same method and arrive at different outcomes.
Expansion of design methods[edit]
Different groups took John Chris Jones's book Design Methods, with its alternative message of using design as a framework for exploration and improvement, in different directions.
Emergence of design research and design studies[edit]
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, graduates of the Ulm School of Design in Germany (Hochschule für Gestaltung - HfG Ulm: 1953–1968).[1][2] began to spread Horst Rittel's approach of design methodology across Europe and the United States in context of their professional work and teaching what became known as the 'Ulm Model'.[2]
Likewise, after the 1962 conference in England, many of the participants began to publish and to define an area of research that focused on design. Three "camps" seemed to emerge to integrate the initial work in Design Methods:
Behaviorism interpreted Design Methods as a way to describe human behavior in relation to the built environment. Its clinical approach tended to rely on human behavior processes (taxonomic activities).
Reductivism broke Design Methods down into small constituent parts. This scientific approach tended to rely on rationalism and objectified processes such as epistemological activities.
Phenomenology approached design methods from an experiential approach (human experience and perception.)
The Design Research Society was founded in 1967 with many participants from the Conference on Design Methods in 1962. The purpose of the Society is to promote "the study of and research into the process of designing in all its many fields" and is an interdisciplinary group with many professions represented, but all bound by the conviction of the benefits of design research.[7]
The Environmental Design and Research Association is one of the best-known entities that strive to integrate designers and social science professionals for better built environments. EDRA was founded by Henry Sanoff in 1969. Both John Chris Jones and Christopher Alexander interacted with EDRA and other camps; both seemed at a certain point to reject their interpretations. Jones and Christopher also questioned their original thesis about design methods.
An interesting shift that affected design methods and design studies was the 1968 lecture from Herbert A. Simon, the Nobel laureate, who presented "The Sciences of the Artificial." He proposed using scientific methods to explore the world of man-made things (hence artificial). He discussed the role of analysis (observation) and synthesis (making) as a process of creating man-made responses to the world he/she interacted with. Important to Simon's contribution were his notions of "bounded rationality" and "satisficing." Simon's concept had a profound impact on the discourse in both design methods, and the newly emerging design studies communities in two ways. It provided an entry of using scientific ideas to overlay on design, and it also created an internal debate whether design could/should be expressed and practiced as a type of science with the reduction of emphasis on intuition.
Nigel Cross has been prolific in articulating the issues of design methods and design research. The discussion of the ongoing debate of what is design research and design science was, and continues to be articulated by Cross. His thesis is that design is not a science, but is an area that is searching for "intellectual independence." He views the original design methods discussions of the 1960s as a way to integrate objective and rational methods in practicing design. Scientific method was borrowed as one framework, and the term "design science" was coined in 1966 at the Second Conference on the Design Method focusing on a systematic approach to practicing design. Cross defined the "science of design" as a way to create a body of work to improve the understanding of design methods—and more importantly that design methods does not need to be a binary choice between science and art.
Nigan Bayazit, professor at the Istanbul Technical University, published an overview of the history of design methods. She stated that "Design methods people were looking at rational methods of incorporating scientific techniques and knowledge into the design process to make rational decisions to adapt to the prevailing values, something that was not always easy to achieve." [8] The following is what design research is concerned with:
The physical embodiment of man-made things, how these things perform their jobs, and how their users perceive and employ them
Construction as a human activity, how designers work, how they think, and how they carry out design activity, and how non-designers participate in the process
What is achieved at the end of a purposeful design activity, how an artificial thing appears, and what it means
Embodiment of configurations
Systematic search and acquisition of knowledge related to design and design activity
Significance of emergence of design research and design studies[edit]
Both research and design studies made design more visible and accountable. Research was recognized at the outset by design methods as a type of leg-work to
The eventual debate about design methods and whether design is an art or science is not a new. Partisans on both sides of the issue have framed it as a binary choice of something to lose or gain. However, this false argument was viewed by John Chris Jones, who recognized the "logical, systematic, behavioristic, operational aspects of new methods" (which could be viewed as science) might be seen as "anti-life" which treat people as "instruments." On the other side, another group may define design with "animism, vitalism and naturalism" as a language (which could be viewed as art). Jones sought to bring both together and act as checks-and-balances for design methods.
Jones viewed methodology as "mere symbolic contrivances" and "would lose its value" if it did not reflect "the personal issues which matter most to the people who will take decisions."
Professional design practice[edit]
Conversations about design methods and a more systematic approach to design was not isolated to Europe. America was also a magnet for practicing design professionals to codify their successes in design practice and backing into larger theories about the dynamics of design methods.
American designers were much more pragmatic at articulating design methods and creating an underlying language about the practice of industrial and graphic design. They were tied to economic systems that supported design practice and therefore focused on the way design could be managed as an extension of business, rather than the European approach to design methods based on transforming engineering by design.
Industrial design was the first area that made inroads into systematizing knowledge through practice. Raymond Loewy was instrumental at elevating the visibility of industrial design through cult of personality (appearing three times on front cover of Time Magazine). Henry Dreyfuss had a profound impact on the practice of industrial design by developing a systematic process used to shape environments, transportation, products and packaging. His focus on the needs of the average consumer was most celebrated in his book Designing for People, an extensive exploration of ergonomics.
Jay Doblin one of America's foremost industrial designers, worked for Raymond Loewy and was later an employee of Unimark International, the world’s largest global design firm during the 1960s with offices in seven countries. In 1972, Doblin formed Chicago-based Jay Doblin & Associates, a firm which managed innovative programs for Xerox Corporation and General Electric.[9] Doblin was prolific at developing a language to describe design. One of his best articles was "A Short, Grandiose Theory of Design", published in the 1987 Society of Typographic Arts Design Journal. In seven pages, Doblin presents a straightforward and persuasive argument for design as a systematic process. He described the emerging landscape of systematic design:
For large complex projects, it "would be irresponsible to attempt them without analytical methods" and rallied against an "adolescent reliance on overly intuitive practices."
He separated "direct design" in which a craftsperson works on the artifact to "indirect design" in which a design first creates a representation of the artifact, separating design from production in more complex situations.
Doblin and others were responding to the increased specialization of design and the complexity of managing large design programs for corporations. It was a natural process to begin to discuss how design should move upstream to be involved with the specifications of problems, not only in the traditional mode of production which design had been practiced. Particularly since 2000, design methods and its intersection with business development have been visibly championed by numerous consultancies within design industry.
The continuity of approaches to design projects by such representative firms is the generation of inputs incited by the human condition in varied contexts. These approaches utilize a sustainable methods-based mode of making that takes into account critical analytic and synthetic skills toward more informed and inspired specifications grounded in:
Direct investigation of human circumstances to draw out impressions
Engagement by client-side and end-user participants in design process
Open articulation by practitioners of multiple disciplines facilitated by design
Significance of role of professional design practice[edit]
Practitioners approached design methods from a different angle than John Christopher Jones and the group of engineers and designers who convened in 1962. Many practitioners, through actual design opportunities, began to confront the complexities of the market and clients. They began to address issues of specifications, users, distribution and innovation. Since there were no established methods, each practitioner began to develop frameworks and languages to describe a new way to design. Like any market-based model, there were many competing ideas about these new methods and their basis. Many of these designers may have been aware of the design methods movement, but many were not. Yet all their ideas were aligned to many of the basic tenets of the 1962 conference which advocated a more rigorous way of doing design. However, the social perspectives and criticisms of mediocre products of 1962 participants may not have been shared or agreed with.
Design management[edit]
An area of study and application that either raises the awareness of business professionals how to integrate and manage design, and/or the integration of business issues, systems and methods and managing their interdependency with design activities and outcomes that support the economic systems which benefit from a designers vision, skills and deliverables.
While this relationship has been identified, it has not been universally recognized or accepted by diverse design communities. Designers have strong connection not only to clients but also to end users who consume products and services. One of the strongest early advocates was Peter Gorb, former Director of London Business School's Centre for Design Management.
Design as a function within corporations, or as independent consultancies, have not always collaborated well with business. Clients and the market have traditionally viewed design as an expressive and production function, rather than as a strategic asset. Designers have focused their skills and knowledge in creating designed artifacts, and indirectly addressed larger issues within this creative process. They have been uneasy about articulating their value to business in terms that business executives could understand.
There were moves to bridge this gap. In England, the British Design Council (now called the Design Council) was founded in 1944 by the British wartime government as the Council of Industrial Design with the objective "to promote by all practicable means the improvement of design in the products of British industry". The Design Management Institute is an international nonprofit organization that seeks to heighten awareness of design as an essential part of business strategy. Founded in 1975, DMI has become the leading resource and international authority on design management.
Alternative view[edit]
Some designers and design historians have challenged, even rejected, the idea that design supports the goals and objectives of the economic systems they find themselves in. Victor Papanek (1925–1998) was a trail blazer in the definition of sustainable design and addressing social issues through design. His book Design for the Real World in the late 1960s articulated a world for design to use less resources and address local social issues for ecologically sound design to serve the poor, the disabled and the elderly. The disciplines of sustainable design and universal design are echoed here.
Professor of design history at the University of Illinois at Chicago Victor Margolin addressed the inherent role of design communities supporting an economic system, which he called the "expansion model", where "the world consists of markets in which products function first and foremost as tokens of economic exchange. They attract capital which is either recycled back into more production or becomes part of the accumulation of private or corporate wealth." Margolin describes a "sustainable model" as having "ecological checks and balances that consists of finite resources. If the elements of this system are damaged or thrown out of balance or if essential resources are depleted, the system will suffer severe damage and will possibly collapse." [10]
Significance of design management[edit]
Design methods initially was focused on how design could be integrated into engineering and grew to recognize the multidisciplinary nature of solving contemporary complexity in all its forms. John Chris Jones recognized the role of business, as one stakeholder among many, but did not view design methods as a business management tool. Design management focuses on how to define design as a business function and provides a language and method of how to effectively manage it.
Proliferation of information technologies[edit]
Internet businesses realized early that technologists alone were not going to create "killer apps" that would win customers. Companies such as Scient, Viant, Sapient, RazorFish and USWeb/CKS began to hire a wide variety of professionals to collaborate in three broad groups:
Business consulting to address business models and front-end research of markets;
Software designers that knit together legacy systems with internet-based technologies; and
Brand/creative professionals that would create a seamless customer experience.
Customer relationship management (CRM), Supply Chain, and Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) professionals belonged to any of these groups. Together they had to rapidly accelerate time-to-value and learn how to do things that had little precedent. This context was an amplification of Donald Schon's theories of unstable knowledge bases developing new ideas by a phenomenological approach of direct application and experience.
Strategy began to be redefined from an MBA-focused domain into an area both technology and brand/creative professionals moved upstream and engaged as up-front strategy. Other professionals were incorporated from cognitive science, ethnography, and library science (to name a few). Inherent in these groups were rigorous research-based methods which were overlaid onto business, technology and brand/creative. User-centric approaches were developed resulting in the creation of whole workflow systems to accommodate diversity in skills and tools. These diverse groups brought markedly different languages and models native to their disciplines which posed significant integration-challenges, including hours, in determining how to work together.
Clement Mok, founder of Studio Archetype (acquired by Sapient), recognized this trend and began to articulate the new professional design situation being agitated by new information technologies marked by the Internet and advancements in computing media. He described a multi-media landscape that was converging into an integrated digital space. Adjacent to this was the redefinition of skills and roles that would create, build, sustain, and innovate this dynamic environment. He called for graphic/visual designers to broaden their perspective, beyond traditional artifacts and methods, and immerse themselves in a collaborative workspace. In his book, Designing Business,[11] Mok emphasized redefinition of design practice dramatically affected by technological change: "Designers are in a position to promulgate new values and to define and quantify the effects of those values, and over the next ten years, their optimum role will be to design 'understanding.' The age we're living now is an incredible time because of the extent to which designers, business people, engineers, and technologists can redefine their roles."
Significance of proliferation of information technologies[edit]
John Chris Jones and many original participants knew that computer technology would transform and automate human actions. They were 30 years ahead of the expansion of the Internet and explained the basic premise of its value by stating:
"The ideal picture of a man-machine symbiosis is ... one in which machine and human intelligences are linked into a quickly responding network that permits rapid access to all published information ... The nett (sic) effect is expected to be one of mutual stimulation in which open minded people and programmes nudge each other into unpredictable, novel but realistic explorations ...".[12]
Current state of design methods[edit]
There is no one way to practice design methods. John Chris Jones recognized this by stating:
"Methodology should not be a fixed track to a fixed destination, but a conversation about everything that could be made to happen. The language of the conversation must bridge the logical gap between past and future, but in doing so it should not limit the variety of possible futures that are discussed nor should it force the choice of a future that is unfree." [12]
The focus of most post-1962 enhancements to design methods has been on developing a series of relevant, sound, humanistic problem-solving procedures and techniques to reduce avoidable errors and oversights that can adversely affect design solutions. The key benefit is to find a method that suits a particular design situation.
The benefits of their original work has been abstracted many times over; but in today's design environment, several of their main ideas have been integrated into contemporary design methods:
Emphasis on the user
Use of basic research methods to validate convictions with fact
Use of brainstorming and other related means to break mental patterns and precedent
Increased collaborative nature of design with other disciplines
A large challenge for design as a discipline, its use of methods and an endeavor to create shared values, is its inherent synthetic nature as an area of study and action. This allows design to be extremely malleable in nature, borrowing ideas and concepts from a wide variety of professions to suit the ends of individual practitioners. It also makes design vulnerable since these very activities make design a discipline unextensible as a shared body of knowledge.[13]
In 1983, Donald Schon at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, published The Reflective Practitioner.[14] He saw traditional professions with stable knowledge bases, such as law and medicine, becoming unstable due to outdated notions of 'technical-rationality' as the grounding of professional knowledge. Practitioners were able to describe how they 'think on their feet', and how they make use of a standard set of frameworks and techniques. Schon foresaw the increasing instability of traditional knowledge and how to achieve it. This is in line with the original founders of design methods who wanted to break with an unimaginative and static technical society and unify exploration, collaboration and intuition.
Design methods has influenced design practice and design education. It has benefited the design community by helping to create introductions that would never have happened if traditional professions remained stable, which did not necessarily allow collaboration due to gate keeping of areas of knowledge and expertise. Design has been by nature an interloper activity, with individuals that have crossed disciplines to question and innovate.
The challenge is to transform individual experiences, frameworks and perspectives into a shared, understandable, and, most importantly, a transmittable area of knowledge. Victor Margolin[citation needed] states three reasons why this will prove difficult:
Domain knowledge is a mixture of vocation (discipline) and avocation (interest) creating hybrid definitions that degrade shared knowledge
Intellectual capital of design and wider scholarly pluralism has diluted focus and shared language which has led to ungovernable laissez-faire values
Individual explorations of design discourse focuses too much on individual narratives leading to personal point of view rather than a critical mass of shared values
In the end, design methods is a term that is widely used. Though conducive to interpretations, it is a shared belief in an exploratory and rigorous method to solve problems through design, an act which is part and parcel of what designers aim to accomplish in today's complex world.
See also[edit]
Heuristic
Method engineering
Phenomenology
Principles of intelligent urbanism
Programming paradigm
Simulation
The Semantic Turn
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Ulm School of Design | HfG Ulm Archive
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lindinger, H., (1991), Ulm Design: The Morality of Objects, Cambridge: The MIT Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Rith, C and Dubberly, H, 'Why Horst W J Rittel Matters', Design Issues, Vol 23, No 1, pp. 72-91
Jump up ^ John Christopher Jones and Denis Thornley (eds). The Conference on Design Methods: papers presented at the conference on systematic and intuitive methods in engineering, industrial design, architecture and communications, London, September 1962, Pergamon Press.
Jump up ^ 1962 conference participants
Jump up ^ John Chris Jones lists key design questions
Jump up ^ John Chris Jones thoughts on design research
Jump up ^ Bayazit, Nigan. "Investigating Design: A Review of Forty Years of Design Research." Design Issues: Vol 20, No 1. Winter 2004.
Jump up ^ AIGA Overview of Jay Doblin Archived 2005-11-03 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ p. 82, The Politics of the Artificial
Jump up ^ Mok, Clement. Designing Business: Multiple Media, Multiple Disciplines. 1996. Adobe Press. ISBN 1-56830-282-7
^ Jump up to: a b (p. 73, Design Methods)
Jump up ^ John Chris Jones perspective about "Design Methods for Everyone"
Jump up ^ Schon, Donald A. The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. 1983. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-06878-2.
Books[edit]
Alexander, Christopher, A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction (Oxford University Press), 1977, ISBN 0-19-501919-9
Cross, Nigel, "Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design" (John Wiley & Sons), ISBN 0-471-87250-4
Jones, John Christopher, Designing Designing (London: Architecture Design and Technology Press), 1991
Jones, John Christopher. Design Methods. 1992. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-28496-3.
Margolin, Victor, "The Politics of the Artificial: Essays on Design and Design Studies" (University of Chicago Press), 2002, ISBN 0-226-50504-9
Protzen, Jean-Pierre; Harris, David J., The Universe of Design: Horst Rittel's Theories of Design and Planning (Routledge), 2010, ISBN 0415779898
Schon, Donald, "The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action" (Basic Books), 1983, ISBN 0-465-06878-2
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Design
Introductory Lecture on Design Methods by Rhodes Hileman
101 Design Methods by Vijay Kumar, IIT Institute of Design
Abstract: Design Methods
Rethinking Wicked Problems: Unpacking Paradigms, Bridging Universes, Part 1 of 2. J. Conklin, M. Basadur, GK VanPatter; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2007
Rethinking Wicked Problems: Unpacking Paradigms, Bridging Universes, Part 2 of 2. J. Conklin, M. Basadur, GK VanPatter; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2007
Double Consciousness: Back to the Future with John Chris Jones. GK VanPatter, John Chris Jones; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2006
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Josh Gad
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Josh Gad
Gad at the 41st Annie Awards in 2014
Born
Joshua Ilan Gad
(1981-02-23) February 23, 1981 (age 36)
Hollywood, Florida, U.S.
Alma mater
Carnegie Mellon College of Fine Arts
Occupation
Actor
voice actor
comedian
singer
Years active
2002–present
Known for
Frozen
The Book of Mormon
Beauty and the Beast
Spouse(s)
Ida Darvish (m. 2008)
Children
2
Joshua Ilan Gad[1] (born February 23, 1981[2]) is an American actor, voice actor, comedian and singer. He is known for voicing Olaf in Frozen and playing Elder Arnold Cunningham in the Broadway musical The Book of Mormon.
He has also appeared in ER, The Daily Show, Modern Family, New Girl, Bored to Death, and Numb3rs. Gad played Skip Gilchrist in the political sitcom 1600 Penn on NBC, and a fictionalized version of himself on FX's The Comedians, alongside Billy Crystal. His film roles include The Rocker, The Internship, 21, Love & Other Drugs, Frozen, Jobs, Pixels, The Wedding Ringer, The Angry Birds Movie, A Dog's Purpose, and the live-action adaptation of Disney's Beauty and the Beast.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
4.1 Film
4.2 Television
4.3 Video games
4.4 Theater
5 References
6 External links
Early life[edit]
Josh Gad was born in Hollywood, Florida on February 23, 1981.[2] His mother is a realtor and his stepfather is an investment advisor, he has 2 brothers and a stepsister.[1] He was raised Jewish;[3][4] his father is a Jewish emigrant from Afghanistan and his mother is of Ashkenazi Jewish descent.[5][6][7]
Gad attended NSU University School (then "University School of NSU"), graduating in 1999. While there, he won the National Forensics League (NFL) National Tournament Championships for Original Oratory in 1998, and for Humorous Interpretation and Original Oratory in 1999. [8] He then attended the Carnegie Mellon College of Fine Arts, where he graduated in 2003 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in drama. During this time, he undertook a semester-long exchange at the National Institute of Dramatic Art.[9]
Career[edit]
Gad portrayed news director Ryan Church on the Fox sitcom Back to You, which lasted one season from 2007 to 2008. Gad appeared as a correspondent on The Daily Show on May 5, 2009, and became a regular correspondent on June 2, 2009.[10] His signature segments include "The War on Christmas", in which he played an oversexed Benjamin Franklin, and "Chubby Chasers", in which he reported on Michelle Obama's efforts to curb childhood obesity.[11]
Gad at the 2010 Streamy Awards
In 2008, he played a supporting role in the film 21, and a leading role in The Rocker. In 2010, he had a role in Love & Other Drugs, and a guest role on the Bored to Death episode "Make it Quick, Fitzgerald!".[12] He was cast in the American version of the British sitcom No Heroics.[13] In the pilot, Gad played 'Horse Force', a former classmate from Superhero College, who can summon horses and works at a bar where the group hangs out. The show was not picked up.[14]
Gad originated the role of Elder Cunningham in the Broadway musical The Book of Mormon. His last performance was June 6, 2012. The show opened at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre on March 24, 2011.[15] Gad was nominated for the 2011 Tony Award for Best Leading Actor in a Musical, along with his co-star Andrew Rannells.[16] Both lost to Norbert Leo Butz in Catch Me If You Can.[17]
In 2011, Gad had a cameo appearance in ABC's hit show, Modern Family, in Season 3's Thanksgiving episode. In 2011, Gad voiced "Mondo" in the MTV animated series Good Vibes. He also made an appearance as Bump in the 2011 comedy road trip film Mardi Gras: Spring Break.[18]
In 2012, he voiced the molehog Louis in Ice Age: Continental Drift. He also played 'Bear Claw' on an episode of New Girl. In 2012, he starred in the independent romantic comedy She Wants Me. In 2013, he appeared as Skip Gilchrist in NBC's 1600 Penn, of which he is also a co-creator and executive producer.[19] Also in 2013, he played Andrew (Headphones) in the film The Internship and starred as Steve Wozniak in the film Jobs. The same year, he voiced 'Olaf' in Frozen, re-collaborating with co-songwriter Robert Lopez from The Book of Mormon. In 2014, Gad co-starred in Zach Braff's film Wish I Was Here, playing the main character's brother.[20]
On August 5, 2013, it was announced that Gad will play Sam Kinison in a biopic.[21] He wrote an article entitled "Technology pundit (for a day)", which appeared in USA Today on August 12, 2013.[22]
In December 2013, it was announced Gad will star and co-write the film version of Gilligan's Island.[23] In April 2014, it was announced that Gad and Ryan Dixon will be developing a live-action family adventure-comedy for Disney.[24] In 2014, he had a guest voice role on Phineas and Ferb.
In 2015, Gad starred alongside Kevin Hart and Kaley Cuoco in The Wedding Ringer, co-starred with Billy Crystal on the FX comedy series The Comedians, which premiered on April 9,[25] and starred alongside Adam Sandler and Peter Dinklage in Pixels, about video game players who are recruited by the military to fight 1980s-era video game characters who have attacked the earth.[26]
In September 2016, it was announced the Gad will co-write and star in the Amazon limited-series adaptation of the non-fiction book Toy Wars, by G. Wayne Miller, which follows the real-life battle between American toy giants Hasbro, the company behind GI Joe, Transformer and My Little Pony toys, and Barbie-maker Mattel in the 1980s and 1990s.[27]
In A Dog's Purpose, released in 2017, he provided the voice for Bailey.[28] The movie was billed as "a celebration of the special connection between humans and their dogs".[29] Gad also played LeFou in the 2017 live-action film remake of Disney's Beauty and the Beast, co-starring with Emma Watson.[30]
As of July 2017, Gad has two film projects in different states of production. He has completed filming for Reginald Hudlin's biographical drama Marshall alongside Chadwick Boseman and Beauty and the Beast co-star Dan Stevens and is set to play Hector MacQueen in a 2017 film adaptation of Agatha Christie's detective novel Murder on the Orient Express, directed by and starring Kenneth Branagh alongside Johnny Depp, Michelle Pfeiffer, Judi Dench, and Daisy Ridley.
Personal life[edit]
Gad married actress Ida Darvish in 2008. They have two daughters.[31][32] Gad has stated that he loves the traditional aspects of Judaism and celebrates some traditions of his wife's religion, Catholicism, but considers himself spiritual but not religious.[3]
Filmography[edit]
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2002 Mary and Joe Angel
2007 Watching the Detectives Mark
2008 21 Miles
The Rocker Matt
2009 Crossing Over Howie
The Lost Nomads: Get Lost! Gigi
Miss Piggy
Jose Sanchez
The Clown
Spatula Lover
Big Guy Rodney Short role
2010 Marmaduke Bandana Dog (voice)
Love & Other Drugs Josh Randall
2011 Mardi Gras: Spring Break Bartholomew T. "Bump" Brown
2012 She Wants Me Sam Baum
Ice Age: Continental Drift Louis (voice)
Thanks for Sharing Neil
2013 Jobs Steve Wozniak
The Internship That Headphones Guy
Frozen Olaf (voice) Annie Award for Voice Acting in a Feature Production
2014 Wish I Was Here Noah Bloom
2015 The Wedding Ringer Doug Harris
Frozen Fever Olaf (voice) Short film
Pixels Ludlow Lamonsoff
2016 The Angry Birds Movie Chuck (voice) [33]
2017 A Dog's Purpose Bailey, Buddy, Tino, Ellie, and Waffles (voices)
Beauty and the Beast LeFou Nominated - MTV Movie & TV Award for Best Duo (with Luke Evans)[34]
Marshall Sam Friedman
Murder on the Orient Express Hector MacQueen Post-production
Olaf's Frozen Adventure Olaf (voice) featurette short film
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2005 ER Sgt. Bruce Larabee Episode: "Here and There"
2007–2008 Back to You Ryan Church Main role; 17 episodes
2008 American Dad! Art (voice) Episode: "Pulling Double Booty"
2008–2009 Numb3rs Roy McGill 2 episodes
2009 Waiting to Die Simon Movie
2009 No Heroics Horseforce Movie
2009 Party Down Jeffrey Ells Episode: "California College Conservative Union Caucus"
2009 Woke Up Dead Matt 21 episodes
2009–2011 The Daily Show with Jon Stewart Correspondent
2011 The Cleveland Show Droopy / Pimp (voice) Episode: "Our Gang"
2011 Californication Doctor 2 episodes
2011 Gigi: Almost American Gigi 10 episodes
2011 Modern Family Kenneth Ploufe Episode: "Punkin Chunkin"
2011 Good Vibes Mondo (voice) Main role; 12 episodes
2012–2013 1600 Penn Skip Gilchrist Main role; 13 episodes; also co-creator and executive producer
2012–2015 New Girl Bear Claw 3 episodes
2013 Hollywood Game Night Himself Episode: "America's Got Game Night"
2014 Monsters vs. Aliens Internet (voice) Episode: "Bride of the Internet"
2015 The Comedians Josh Main role
2015 Sesame Street Vincent Van Stop Episode: "Bert's Sign Painting Challenge[35]
2015 The Daily Show with Jon Stewart Himself Episode #2,677; cameo
2015 Phineas and Ferb Wendell (voice) 2 episodes
2015 TripTank Louis (voice) 1 episode
2016 Sofia the First Olaf (voice) Episode: "The Secret Library: Olaf and the Tale of Miss Nettle"
2016 Lip Sync Battle Himself / Donald Trump Episode: "Josh Gad vs. Kaley Cuoco"
2016 Talking Dead Himself Guest
2016 LEGO Frozen Northern Lights Olaf (voice) Special
2017 Star Wars Rebels Controller (voice) Episode: "Double Agent Droid"
Video games[edit]
Year
Title
Voice role
2012 MIB: Alien Crisis Emilio Chauncey, Handsome Guest, Khnemu
2013 Frozen: Olaf's Quest Olaf
2015 Disney Infinity 3.0[36]
Theater[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2005 The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee William Barfee Circle in the Square Theatre
2011 The Book of Mormon Elder Cunningham Eugene O'Neill Theatre
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "PLAYBILL.COM'S CUE & A: Book of Mormon Star Josh Gad". Playbill.
^ Jump up to: a b "Josh Gad biography". Biography.com. Retrieved September 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Eric Spitznagel (June 9, 2011). "Josh Gad Has No Formal Musical Training and Five-to-Two Odds That He'll Win the Tony Award for Best Lead Actor in a Musical". Vanity Fair. Retrieved January 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Ellen Gamerman. "A Missionary From the Borscht Belt". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved April 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Josh Gad Talks "Gigi: Almost American", "The Book Of Mormon", And Physical Comedy". Complex. March 25, 2011. Retrieved February 26, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Josh Gad combats sadness with laughter". inquirer.net. Retrieved April 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "To Have and Have Knot: Exploring Family Ties in 'Wish I Was Here'". Jewish Exponent. July 2014. Retrieved April 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ https://www.speechanddebate.org/nationals-history/
Jump up ^ "Beauty and the Beast's Josh Gad: controversy over the gay LeFou 'very blown out of proportion'". The Sydney Morning Herald. March 9, 2017. Retrieved March 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ Matt Tobey (May 6, 2009). "Josh Gad on the Daily Show". Comedy Central. Retrieved August 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ Rudolph, Ileane (July 27, 2015). "Alumni Association: A roundup of The Daily Show's coolest Graduates". TV Guide, pp. 21-22.
Jump up ^ jotix100 (November 15, 2010). ""Bored to Death" Make it Quick, Fitzgerald! (TV Episode 2010)". IMDb.
Jump up ^ "Freddie Prinze Jr. cast in 'No Heroics". The Hollywood Reporter. March 18, 2009. Archived from the original on March 21, 2009. Retrieved August 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Scrubs Renewed for Season 9". IGN. May 14, 2009. Retrieved August 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ "About the Show". The Book of Mormon Musical. 2011. Retrieved August 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ BWW Staff writers (May 3, 2011). "2011 Tony Nominations Announced! 'The Book of Mormon' Leads With 14!". Broadway World. Retrieved August 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ Jones, Kenneth "War Horse, Book of Mormon, Anything Goes, Normal Heart Win 2011 Tony Awards" Archived 2011-06-14 at the Wayback Machine. playbill.com, June 12, 2011
Jump up ^ "Mardi Gras: Spring Break (2010/2011)". Covering Media. April 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ Haithman, Diane. "‘1600 Penn’ To Have Media Figures As Guests, But Not Politicians: TCA". deadline.com. Retrieved 4 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Josh Gad Joins Zach Braff’s ‘Wish I Was Here’". variety.com. May 15, 2013. Retrieved August 11, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Josh Gad to Headline Kinison". ComingSoon.net. CraveOnline. August 5, 2013. Retrieved August 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Josh Gad's latest role: Technology pundit (for a day), usatoday.com, August 11, 2013; retrieved August 24, 2013.
Jump up ^ Mike Fleming Jr. "'Gilligan’s Island' Movie Relaunch To Star Josh Gad - Deadline". Deadline.
Jump up ^ "Josh Gad Developing Family Comedy-Adventure Film At Disney". Deadline. Retrieved April 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Maane Khatchatourian. "Watch: Billy Crystal and Josh Gad in ‘The Comedians’ First Trailer". Variety.
Jump up ^ Sneider, Jeff (February 26, 2014). "Adam Sandler to Star in Sony's Big-Budget Video Game Movie ‘Pixels’". thewrap.com. Retrieved March 5, 2014.
Jump up ^ "‘Toy Wars’ Drama From Josh Gad, Josh Schwartz & Seth Gordon Set at Amazon". Retrieved September 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Josh Gad is Reincarnated Over and Over in the A Dog's Purpose Trailer". 2016-08-26. Retrieved 2016-08-26.
Jump up ^ "A Dog's Purpose filmmakers face animal cruelty accusations - BBC News", Bbc.com, 19 January 2017, retrieved 21 January 2017
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (March 13, 2015). "Josh Gad Joining Disney's Live-Action 'Beauty and the Beast' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved March 15, 2015.
Jump up ^ Ann Oldenburg (February 18, 2014). "Josh Gad welcomes baby girl". USA Today.
Jump up ^ Erin Hill (June 14, 2011). "Bryce Dallas Howard: I've Always Wanted My Dad to Direct Me". Parade.com. Retrieved August 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Angry Birds Movie Voice Cast Announced, Includes Game of Thrones and SNL Vets". Yahoo News. October 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Get Out Leads the Nominations for MTV’s First Ever Movie & TV Awards". PEOPLE.com. 6 April 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sesame Street Season 45 Episode 4520 - Bert's Sign Painting Challenge". Muppet Central Forum.
Jump up ^ Avalanche Software. Disney Infinity 3.0. Scene: Closing credits, 5:39 in, Featuring the Voice Talents of.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Josh Gad.
Josh Gad at the Internet Broadway Database
Josh Gad on IMDb
Josh Gad at the TCM Movie Database
Josh Gad on Facebook
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Light-independent reactions
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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See also: Light-dependent reactions
This article needs attention from an expert in Biology or Molecular and Cell Biology. The specific problem is: The title and scope of this article have issues. See the talk page for details. WikiProject Biology or WikiProject Molecular and Cell Biology may be able to help recruit an expert. (April 2017)
The internal structure of a chloroplast
The light-independent reactions, or dark reactions,[1] of photosynthesis are chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. These reactions occur in the stroma, the fluid-filled area of a chloroplast outside the thylakoid membranes. These reactions take the products (ATP and NADPH) of light-dependent reactions and perform further chemical processes on them. There are three phases to the light-independent reactions, collectively called the Calvin cycle: carbon fixation, reduction reactions, and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration.
This process occurs only when light is available. Plants do not carry out the Calvin cycle during nighttime. They instead release sucrose into the phloem from their starch reserves. This process happens when light is available independent of the kind of photosynthesis (C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation, and Crassulacean acid metabolism); CAM plants store malic acid in their vacuoles every night and release it by day to make this process work. They are also known as dark reactions.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Coupling to other metabolic pathways
1.1 Steps
1.2 Products
2 Light-dependent regulation
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links
Coupling to other metabolic pathways [edit]
These reactions are closely coupled to the thylakoid electron transport chain as reducing power provided by NADPH produced in the photosystem I is actively needed. The process of photorespiration, also known as C2 cycle, is also coupled to the dark reactions, as it results from an alternative reaction of the RuBisCO enzyme, and its final byproduct is also another glyceraldehyde-3-P.
Overview of the Calvin cycle and carbon fixation
The Calvin cycle, Calvin–Benson–Bassham (CBB) cycle, reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms.
The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson at the University of California, Berkeley[3] by using the radioactive isotope carbon-14.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage and transport molecules ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle uses the energy from short-lived electronically excited carriers to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds[4] that can be used by the organism (and by animals that feed on it). This set of reactions is also called carbon fixation. The key enzyme of the cycle is called RuBisCO. In the following biochemical equations, the chemical species (phosphates and carboxylic acids) exist in equilibria among their various ionized states as governed by the pH.
The enzymes in the Calvin cycle are functionally equivalent to most enzymes used in other metabolic pathways such as gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway, but they are found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytosol, separating the reactions. They are activated in the light (which is why the name "dark reaction" is misleading), and also by products of the light-dependent reaction. These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. Energy (in the form of ATP) would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity.
The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following:
3 CO
2 + 6 NADPH + 6 H+ + 9 ATP → glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 3 H
2O + 8 Pi (Pi = inorganic phosphate)
Hexose (six-carbon) sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle. Although many texts list a product of photosynthesis as C
6H
12O
6, this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration, where six-carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three-carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates", namely, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
Steps[edit]
In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a CO2 molecule is incorporated into one of two three-carbon molecules (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or G3P), where it uses up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH, which had been produced in the light-dependent stage. The three steps involved are:
Calvin cycle step 1 (black circles represent carbon atoms)
Calvin cycle steps 2 and 3 combined
The enzyme RuBisCO catalyses the carboxylation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, RuBP, a 5-carbon compound, by carbon dioxide (a total of 6 carbons) in a two-step reaction.[5] The product of the first step is enediol-enzyme complex that can capture CO
2 or O
2. Thus, enediol-enzyme complex is the real carboxylase/oxygenase. The CO
2 that is captured by enediol in second step produces an unstable six-carbon compound called 2-carboxy 3-keto 1,5-biphosphoribotol (or 3-keto-2-carboxyarabinitol 1,5-bisphosphate) that immediately splits into 2 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate, or 3-PGA, a 3-carbon compound[6] (also: 3-phosphoglyceric acid, PGA, 3PGA).
The enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase catalyses the phosphorylation of 3-PGA by ATP (which was produced in the light-dependent stage). 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPGA, glycerate-1,3-bisphosphate) and ADP are the products. (However, note that two 3-PGAs are produced for every CO
2 that enters the cycle, so this step utilizes two ATP per CO
2 fixed.)
The enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase catalyses the reduction of 1,3BPGA by NADPH (which is another product of the light-dependent stage). Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (also called G3P, GP, TP, PGAL, GAP) is produced, and the NADPH itself is oxidized and becomes NADP+. Again, two NADPH are utilized per CO
2 fixed.
Regeneration stage of the Calvin cycle
The next stage in the Calvin cycle is to regenerate RuBP. Five G3P molecules produce three RuBP molecules, using up three molecules of ATP. Since each CO2 molecule produces two G3P molecules, three CO2 molecules produce six G3P molecules, of which five are used to regenerate RuBP, leaving a net gain of one G3P molecule per three CO2 molecules (as would be expected from the number of carbon atoms involved).
Simplified C3 cycle with structural formulas
The regeneration stage can be broken down into steps.
Triose phosphate isomerase converts all of the G3P reversibly into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), also a 3-carbon molecule.
Aldolase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase convert a G3P and a DHAP into fructose 6-phosphate (6C). A phosphate ion is lost into solution.
Then fixation of another CO
2 generates two more G3P.
F6P has two carbons removed by transketolase, giving erythrose-4-phosphate. The two carbons on transketolase are added to a G3P, giving the ketose xylulose-5-phosphate (Xu5P).
E4P and a DHAP (formed from one of the G3P from the second CO
2 fixation) are converted into sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate (7C) by aldolase enzyme.
Sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase (one of only three enzymes of the Calvin cycle that are unique to plants) cleaves sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate into sedoheptulose-7-phosphate, releasing an inorganic phosphate ion into solution.
Fixation of a third CO
2 generates two more G3P. The ketose S7P has two carbons removed by transketolase, giving ribose-5-phosphate (R5P), and the two carbons remaining on transketolase are transferred to one of the G3P, giving another Xu5P. This leaves one G3P as the product of fixation of 3 CO
2, with generation of three pentoses that can be converted to Ru5P.
R5P is converted into ribulose-5-phosphate (Ru5P, RuP) by phosphopentose isomerase. Xu5P is converted into RuP by phosphopentose epimerase.
Finally, phosphoribulokinase (another plant-unique enzyme of the pathway) phosphorylates RuP into RuBP, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, completing the Calvin cycle. This requires the input of one ATP.
Thus, of six G3P produced, five are used to make three RuBP (5C) molecules (totaling 15 carbons), with only one G3P available for subsequent conversion to hexose. This requires nine ATP molecules and six NADPH molecules per three CO
2 molecules. The equation of the overall Calvin cycle is shown diagrammatically below.
The overall equation of the Calvin cycle (black circles represent carbon atoms)
RuBisCO also reacts competitively with O
2 instead of CO
2 in photorespiration. The rate of photorespiration is higher at high temperatures. Photorespiration turns RuBP into 3-PGA and 2-phosphoglycolate, a 2-carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and glyoxalate to glycine. Via the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate, two glycines are converted into serine +CO
2. Serine can be converted back to 3-phosphoglycerate. Thus, only 3 of 4 carbons from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to 3-PGA. It can be seen that photorespiration has very negative consequences for the plant, because, rather than fixing CO
2, this process leads to loss of CO
2. C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates—corn, for example.
Products[edit]
The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP+. (ADP and NADP+ are not really "products." They are regenerated and later used again in the Light-dependent reactions). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. For the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5 out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs.[7]
Light-dependent regulation[edit]
Main article: Light-dependent reactions
These reactions do not occur in the dark or at night. There is a light-dependent regulation of the cycle enzymes, as the third step requires reduced NADP.
There are two regulation systems at work when the cycle must be turned on or off: the thioredoxin/ferredoxin activation system, which activates some of the cycle enzymes; and the RuBisCo enzyme activation, active in the Calvin cycle, which involves its own activase.
The thioredoxin/ferredoxin system activates the enzymes glyceraldehyde-3-P dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde-3-P phosphatase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase, and ribulose-5-phosphatase kinase, which are key points of the process. This happens when light is available, as the ferredoxin protein is reduced in the photosystem I complex of the thylakoid electron chain when electrons are circulating through it.[8] Ferredoxin then binds to and reduces the thioredoxin protein, which activates the cycle enzymes by severing a cystine bond found in all these enzymes. This is a dynamic process as the same bond is formed again by other proteins that deactivate the enzymes. The implications of this process are that the enzymes remain mostly activated by day and are deactivated in the dark when there is no more reduced ferredoxin available.
The enzyme RuBisCo has its own, more complex activation process. It requires that a specific lysine amino acid be carbamylated to activate the enzyme. This lysine binds to RuBP and leads to a non-functional state if left uncarbamylated. A specific activase enzyme, called RuBisCo activase, helps this carbamylation process by removing one proton from the lysine and making the binding of the carbon dioxide molecule possible. Even then the RuBisCo enzyme is not yet functional, as it needs a magnesium ion bound to the lysine to function. This magnesium ion is released from the thylakoid lumen when the inner pH drops due to the active pumping of protons from the electron flow. RuBisCo activase itself is activated by increased concentrations of ATP in the stroma caused by its phosphorylation.
References[edit]
Citations
Jump up ^ Silverstein, Alvin (2008). Photosynthesis. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 21. ISBN 9780822567981.
Jump up ^ John C. Cushman (2001). "A Plastic Photosynthetic Adaptation to Arid Environments". Plant Physiology. 127 (4): 1439–1448. doi:10.1104/pp.010818. PMC 1540176  . PMID 11743087.
Jump up ^ Bassham J, Benson A, Calvin M (1950). "The path of carbon in photosynthesis" (PDF). J Biol Chem. 185 (2): 781–7. doi:10.2172/910351. PMID 14774424.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006). Biology: Exploring Life. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-250882-6.
Jump up ^ Farazdaghi H (2009). "Modeling the Kinetics of Activation and Reaction of RuBisCO from Gas Exchange". Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration. 29 (IV): 275–294. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9237-4_12.
Jump up ^ Campbell, and Reece Biology: 8th Edition, page 198. Benjamin Cummings, December 7, 2007.
Jump up ^ Russell, Wolfe et al.Biology: Exploring the Diversity of Life'.Toronto:Nelson College Indigenous,1st ed, Vol. 1, 2010, pg 151
Jump up ^ Besse, I; Buchanan, B (1997). "Thioredoxin-linked animal and plant processes: the new generation". Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin. 38: 1–11.
Bibliography
Bassham JA (2003). "Mapping the carbon reduction cycle: a personal retrospective". Photosyn. Res. 76 (1-3): 35–52. doi:10.1023/A:1024929725022. PMID 16228564.
Diwan, Joyce J. (2005). "Photosynthetic Dark Reaction". Biochemistry and Biophysics, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
Portis, Archie; Parry, Martin (2007). "Discoveries in Rubisco (Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase): a historical perspective" (PDF). Photosynthesis Research. 94 (1): 121–143. doi:10.1007/s11120-007-9225-6. PMID 17665149. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-12
Further reading[edit]
Rubisco Activase, from the Plant Physiology Online website
Thioredoxins, from the Plant Physiology Online website
External links[edit]
The Biochemistry of the Calvin Cycle at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
The Calvin Cycle and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway from Biochemistry, Fifth Edition by Jeremy M. Berg, John L. Tymoczko and Lubert Stryer. Published by W. H. Freeman and Company (2002).
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