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J. B. S. Haldane
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J. B. S. Haldane
FRS
Haldane in 1914
Born
(1892 -11-05)5 November 1892
Oxford, England
Died
1 December 1964 (1964 -12-01) (aged 72)
Bhubaneswar, India
Residence
United Kingdom
United States
India
Citizenship
British (until 1961)
Indian
Education
Eton College
Alma mater
New College, Oxford
Known for
Oparin–Haldane hypothesis
Malaria resistance
Population genetics
Enzymology
Neo-Darwinism
Haldane's rule
Haldane's principle
Haldane's dilemma
Primordial soup
Spouse(s)
Charlotte Franken (m. 1926; div. 1945)
Helen Spurway (m. 1945–1964)
Awards
Darwin–Wallace Medal (1958)
Darwin Medal (1952)
Scientific career
Fields
Biology
Biostatistics
Institutions
University of Cambridge
University of California, Berkeley
University College London
Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta
Academic advisors
Frederick Gowland Hopkins
Doctoral students
Helen Spurway
Krishna Dronamraju
John Maynard Smith
Military career
Service/branch
British Army
Years of service
1914–1920
Rank
Captain
Battles/wars
First World War
John Burdon Sanderson Haldane FRS (/ˈhɔːldeɪn/; 5 November 1892 – 1 December 1964)[1] was a British, later Indian, scientist known for his work in the study of physiology, genetics, evolutionary biology, and in mathematics, where he made innovative contributions to the fields of statistics and biostatistics. He was the son of the equally famous John Scott Haldane and was a professed socialist, Marxist, atheist, and humanist whose political dissent led him to leave England in 1956 and live in India, becoming a naturalised Indian citizen in 1961.
His first paper in 1915 demonstrated genetic linkage in mammals while subsequent works helped to create population genetics, thus establishing a unification of Mendelian genetics and Darwinian evolution by natural selection whilst laying the groundwork for modern evolutionary synthesis. His article on abiogenesis in 1929 introduced the "primordial soup theory", and it became the foundation to build physical models for the chemical origin of life. Haldane established human gene maps for haemophilia and colour blindness on the X chromosome, and codified Haldane's rule on sterility in the heterogametic sex of hybrids in species.[2][3] He correctly proposed that sickle-cell disease confers some immunity to malaria. He was the first to suggest the central idea of in vitro fertilisation, as well as concepts such as: the hydrogen economy, cis and trans-acting regulation, coupling reaction, molecular repulsion, the darwin (as a unit of evolution) and organismal cloning. In 1957 he articulated Haldane's dilemma, a limit on the speed of beneficial evolution which subsequently proved incorrect. He willed his body for medical studies, as he wanted to remain useful even in death.[4]
Arthur C. Clarke credited him as "perhaps the most brilliant science populariser of his generation".[5][6] Nobel laureate Peter Medawar called Haldane "the cleverest man I ever knew".[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Biography
1.1 Early life and education
1.2 Career
1.3 In India
1.4 Death
2 Academic achievements
2.1 Genetic linkage
2.2 Enzyme kinetics
2.3 Population genetics
2.4 Haldane's principle
2.5 Origin of life
3 Political views
4 Author and visionary
5 Awards and honours
6 Quotations
7 Publications
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Biography[edit]
His father John Scott Haldane c. 1910
Early life and education[edit]
Haldane was born in Oxford to John Scott Haldane, a physiologist, scientist, a philosopher and a Liberal, and Louisa Kathleen Trotter, a Conservative. His younger sister, Naomi Mitchison, became a writer, and his uncle was Viscount Haldane and his aunt the author Elizabeth Haldane. Descended from an aristocratic and secular family[8] of the Clan Haldane, he would later claim that his Y chromosome could be traced back to Robert the Bruce.[9]
He grew up at 11 Crick Road, North Oxford.[10] He learnt to read at the age of three, and at four, after injuring his forehead he asked the doctor, "Is this oxyhaemoglobin or carboxyhaemoglobin?". From age eight he worked with his father in their home laboratory where he experienced his first self-experimentation, the method he would later be famous for. He and his father became their own "human guinea pigs", such as in their investigation on the effects of poison gases. In 1899 his family moved to "Cherwell", a late Victorian house at the outskirts of Oxford with its own private laboratory.
His formal education began in 1897 at Oxford Preparatory School (now Dragon School), where he gained a First Scholarship in 1904 to Eton. In 1905 he joined Eton, where he experienced severe abuse from senior students for allegedly being arrogant. The indifference of authority left him with a lasting hatred for the English education system. However, the ordeal did not stop him from becoming Captain of the school. He studied mathematics and classics at New College at the University of Oxford and obtained first-class honours in mathematical moderations in 1912 and first-class honours in Greats in 1914. He became engrossed in genetics and presented a paper on gene linkage in vertebrates in the summer of 1912. His first technical paper, a 30-page long article on haemoglobin function, was published that same year, as a co-author alongside his father.[11]
Career[edit]
His education was interrupted by the First World War during which he fought in the British Army, being commissioned a temporary second lieutenant in the 3rd Battalion of the Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) on 15 August 1914.[12] He was promoted to temporary lieutenant on 18 February 1915 and to temporary captain on 18 October.[13][14] He served in France and Iraq, where he was wounded. He relinquished his commission on 1 April 1920, retaining his rank of captain.[15] For his ferocity and aggressiveness in battles, his commander called him the "bravest and dirtiest officer in my Army."[16]
Between 1919 and 1922 he was a Fellow of New College, Oxford,[17] where he researched physiology and genetics. He then moved to the University of Cambridge, where he accepted a readership in Biochemistry and taught until 1932.[8] From 1927 until 1937 he was also Head of Genetical Research at the John Innes Horticultural Institution.[18] During his nine years at Cambridge, Haldane worked on enzymes and genetics, particularly the mathematical side of genetics.[8] He was the Fullerian Professor of Physiology at the Royal Institution from 1930 to 1932 and in 1933 he became full Professor of Genetics at University College London, where he spent most of his academic career.[19] Four years later he became the first Weldon Professor of Biometry at University College London.[8]
In 1924, Haldane met Charlotte Franken. So that they could marry, Charlotte divorced her husband, Jack Burghes, causing some controversy. Haldane was almost dismissed from Cambridge for the way he handled his meeting with her. They married in 1926. Following their separation in 1942, the Haldanes divorced in 1945. He later married Helen Spurway.
Haldane, inspired by his father, would expose himself to danger to obtain data. To test the effects of acidification of the blood he drank dilute hydrochloric acid, enclosed himself in an airtight room containing 7% carbon dioxide, and found that it 'gives one a rather violent headache'. One experiment to study elevated levels of oxygen saturation triggered a fit which resulted in him suffering crushed vertebrae.[20] In his decompression chamber experiments, he and his volunteers suffered perforated eardrums. But, as Haldane stated in What is Life,[21] "the drum generally heals up; and if a hole remains in it, although one is somewhat deaf, one can blow tobacco smoke out of the ear in question, which is a social accomplishment."[22]
In India[edit]
Marcello Siniscalco (standing) and Haldane in Andhra Pradesh, India, 1964
J. B. S. Haldane Avenue in Kolkata, the busy connecting road from Eastern Metropolitan Bypass to Park Circus area containing Science City
In 1956, Haldane left University College London, and joined the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) in Kolkata, India,[23] where he headed the biometry unit. Officially he stated that he left the UK because of the Suez Crisis, writing: "Finally, I am going to India because I consider that recent acts of the British Government have been violations of international law." He believed that the warm climate would do him good, and that India shared his socialist dreams.[24] The university had sacked his wife Helen for excessive drinking and refusing to pay a fine, triggering Haldane's resignation. He declared he would no longer wear socks, "Sixty years in socks is enough."[25] and always dressed in Indian attire.[6]
He was keenly interested in inexpensive research. He wrote to Julian Huxley about his observations on Vanellus malabaricus, the yellow-wattled Lapwing. He advocated the use of Vigna sinensis (cowpea) as a model for studying plant genetics. He took an interest in the pollination of Lantana camara. He lamented that Indian universities forced those who took up biology to drop mathematics.[26] Haldane took an interest in the study of floral symmetry. In January 1961 he befriended Gary Botting, 1960 U.S. Science Fair winner in zoology (who had first visited the Haldanes along with Susan Brown, 1960 U.S. National Science Fair winner in botany), inviting him to share the results of his experiments hybridising Antheraea silk moths. J.B.S., his wife Helen Spurway, and Krishna Dronamraju were present at the Oberoi Grand Hotel in Kolkata when Brown reminded the Haldanes that she and Botting had a previously scheduled event that would prevent them from accepting an invitation to a banquet proposed by J.B.S. and Helen in their honour and had regretfully declined the honour. After the two students had left the hotel, Haldane went on his much-publicized hunger strike to protest what he regarded as a "U.S. insult."[27][28] When the director of the ISI, P. C. Mahalanobis, confronted Haldane about both the hunger strike and the unbudgeted banquet, Haldane resigned from his post (in February 1961), and moved to a newly established biometry unit in Odisha.[24]
Haldane took Indian citizenship;[23] he was interested in Hinduism and became a vegetarian.[24] In 1961, Haldane described India as "the closest approximation to the Free World." Jerzy Neyman objected that "India has its fair share of scoundrels and a tremendous amount of poor unthinking and disgustingly subservient individuals who are not attractive."[23] Haldane retorted:
Perhaps one is freer to be a scoundrel in India than elsewhere. So one was in the U.S.A in the days of people like Jay Gould, when (in my opinion) there was more internal freedom in the U.S.A than there is today. The "disgusting subservience" of the others has its limits. The people of Calcutta riot, upset trams, and refuse to obey police regulations, in a manner which would have delighted Jefferson. I don't think their activities are very efficient, but that is not the question at issue.
When on 25 June 1962 he was described in print as a "Citizen of the World" by Groff Conklin, Haldane's response was as follows:[23]
No doubt I am in some sense a citizen of the world. But I believe with Thomas Jefferson that one of the chief duties of a citizen is to be a nuisance to the government of his state. As there is no world state, I cannot do this. On the other hand, I can be, and am, a nuisance to the government of India, which has the merit of permitting a good deal of criticism, though it reacts to it rather slowly. I also happen to be proud of being a citizen of India, which is a lot more diverse than Europe, let alone the U.S.A, the U.S.S.R or China, and thus a better model for a possible world organisation. It may of course break up, but it is a wonderful experiment. So, I want to be labeled as a citizen of India.
Death[edit]
Shortly before his death from cancer, Haldane wrote a comic poem while in the hospital, mocking his own incurable disease. It was read by his friends, who appreciated the consistent irreverence with which Haldane had lived his life. The poem first appeared in print in 21 February 1964 issue of the New Statesman, and runs:[29][30]
Cancer's a Funny Thing:
I wish I had the voice of Homer
To sing of rectal carcinoma,
This kills a lot more chaps, in fact,
Than were bumped off when Troy was sacked ...
The poem ends:
... I know that cancer often kills,
But so do cars and sleeping pills;
And it can hurt one till one sweats,
So can bad teeth and unpaid debts.
A spot of laughter, I am sure,
Often accelerates one's cure;
So let us patients do our bit
To help the surgeons make us fit.
Haldane died on 1 December 1964. He willed that his body be used for study at the Rangaraya Medical College, Kakinada.[31]
My body has been used for both purposes during my lifetime and after my death, whether I continue to exist or not, I shall have no further use for it, and desire that it shall be used by others. Its refrigeration, if this is possible, should be a first charge on my estate.[32]
Academic achievements[edit]
Following his father's footsteps, Haldane's first publication was on the mechanism of gaseous exchange by haemoglobin.[11] and subsequently worked on the chemical properties of blood as a pH buffer.[33][34] He investigated several aspects of kidney functions and mechanism of excretion.[35][36]
Genetic linkage[edit]
With his sister Naomi Mitchison, Haldane started investigating Mendelian genetics in 1908, used guinea pigs and mice, publishing Reduplication in mice in 1915[37] the first demonstration of genetic linkage in mammals,[38] (As the paper was written during Haldane's service in the First World War, James F. Crow called it "the most important science article ever written in a front-line trench".[39]) He was the first to demonstrate linkage in chickens in 1921,[40] and (with Julia Bell) in humans in 1937.[41]
Enzyme kinetics[edit]
In 1925, with G. E. Briggs, Haldane derived a new interpretation of the enzyme kinetics law described by Victor Henri in 1903, different from the 1913 Michaelis–Menten equation. Leonor Michaelis and Maud Menten assumed that enzyme (catalyst) and substrate (reactant) are in fast equilibrium with their complex, which then dissociates to yield product and free enzyme. The Briggs–Haldane equation was of the same algebraic form; but their derivation is based on the quasi-steady state approximation, which is the concentration of intermediate complex (or complexes) does not change. As a result, the microscopic meaning of the "Michaelis Constant" (Km) is different. Although commonly referring to it as Michaelis–Menten kinetics, most of the current models typically use the Briggs–Haldane derivation.[42][43]
Population genetics[edit]
Further information: Modern synthesis (20th century)
He was one of the three major figures to develop the mathematical theory of population genetics, along with Ronald Fisher and Sewall Wright. He thus played an important role in the modern evolutionary synthesis of the early 20th century. He re-established natural selection as the central mechanism of evolution by explaining it as a mathematical consequence of Mendelian inheritance.[44][45] He wrote a series of ten papers called A Mathematical Theory of Natural and Artificial Selection, on the numerical formalism underpinning natural selection. It showed that gene frequencies have direction and rates of change; and he pioneered the interaction of natural selection with mutation and animal migration. Haldane's book, The Causes of Evolution (1932), summarised these results, especially in its extensive appendix.
His contributions to statistical human genetics included: the first methods using maximum likelihood for the estimation of human linkage maps; pioneering methods for estimating human mutation rates; the first estimates of mutation rate in humans, at 2 × 10−5 mutations per gene per generation for the X-linked haemophilia gene; and the first notion that there is a "cost of natural selection".[46] At the John Innes Horticultural Institution, he developed the complicated linkage theory for polyploids;[18] and extended the idea of gene/enzyme relationships with the biochemical and genetic study of plant pigments.
Haldane's principle[edit]
In his essay On Being the Right Size he outlines Haldane's principle, which states that the size very often defines what bodily equipment an animal must have: "Insects, being so small, do not have oxygen-carrying bloodstreams. What little oxygen their cells require can be absorbed by simple diffusion of air through their bodies. But being larger means an animal must have complicated oxygen pumping and distributing systems to reach all the cells." The conceptual metaphor to animal allometry has been of use in energy economics and secession ideas.[47][48]
Origin of life[edit]
Further information: Abiogenesis
Haldane introduced the modern concept of abiogenesis in an eight-page article titled The origin of life in the Rationalist Annual in 1929,[49] describing the primitive ocean as a "vast chemical laboratory" containing a mixture of inorganic compounds – like a "hot dilute soup" in which organic compounds could have formed. Under the solar energy the anoxic atmosphere containing carbon dioxide, ammonia and water vapour gave rise to a variety of organic compounds, "living or half-living things". The first molecules reacted with one another to produce more complex compounds, and ultimately the cellular components. At some point a kind of "oily film" was produced that enclosed self-replicating nucleic acids, thereby becoming the first cell. J. D. Bernal named the hypothesis biopoiesis or biopoesis, the process of living matter spontaneously evolving from self-replicating but lifeless molecules. Haldane further hypothesised that viruses were the intermediate entities between the prebiotic soup and the first cells. He asserted that prebiotic life would have been "in the virus stage for many millions of years before a suitable assemblage of elementary units was brought together in the first cell."[49] The idea was generally dismissed as "wild speculation".[50] In 1924 Alexander Oparin had suggested a similar idea in Russian, and in 1936 he introduced it to the English-speaking people. The experimental basis of the theory began in 1953 with the classic Miller–Urey experiment. Since then, the primordial soup theory became a dominant theory in the chemistry of life, and has been called the Oparin–Haldane hypothesis.[51][52][53]
In 1949, Haldane proposed that genetic disorders in humans living in malaria-endemic regions provided a phenotype with immunity to blood-borne haemophiles. He noted that mutations expressed in red blood cells, such as sickle-cell anemia and various thalassemias, were prevalent only in tropical regions where malaria has been endemic. He further observed that these were favourable traits for natural selection which protected individuals from receiving malarial infection.[54] This concept of resistance to malaria was eventually confirmed by Anthony C. Allison in 1954.[55][56]
Political views[edit]
A Low cartoon featuring Haldane – "Prophesies for 1949"
Lysenko speaking at the Kremlin in 1935. Behind him are (left to right) Stanislav Kosior, Anastas Mikoyan, Andrei Andreev and Joseph Stalin.
Haldane became a socialist during the First World War; supported the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War; and then became an open supporter of the Communist Party in 1937; being a pragmatic and dialectical materialist Marxist, writing many articles for the Daily Worker. In On Being the Right Size, he wrote: "while nationalization of certain industries is an obvious possibility in the largest of states, I find it no easier to picture a completely socialized British Empire or United States than an elephant turning somersaults or a hippopotamus jumping a hedge."
Haldane has been stated by authors including Peter Wright and Chapman Pincher to have been a Soviet spy working for GRU, with the codename Intelligentsia.[57][58]
In 1938, he proclaimed enthusiastically that "I think that Marxism is true." He joined the Communist Party of Great Britain in 1942. He was pressed to speak out about the rise of Lysenkoism and the persecution of geneticists in the Soviet Union as anti-Darwinist and the denouncement of genetics as incompatible with dialectical materialism. He shifted the focus to the United Kingdom and a criticism of the dependence of scientific research on financial patronage. In 1941 he wrote about the Soviet trial of his friend and fellow geneticist Nikolai Vavilov:
The controversy among Soviet geneticists has been largely one between the academic scientist, represented by Vavilov and interested primarily in the collection of facts, and the man who wants results, represented by Lysenko. It has been conducted not with venom, but in a friendly spirit. Lysenko said (in the October discussions of 1939): 'The important thing is not to dispute; let us work in a friendly manner on a plan elaborated scientifically. Let us take up definite problems, receive assignments from the People's Commissariat of Agriculture of the USSR and fulfil them scientifically. Soviet genetics, as a whole, is a successful attempt at synthesis of these two contrasted points of view.'
By the end of the Second World War Haldane had become an explicit critic of the regime. He left the party in 1950, shortly after considering standing for Parliament as a Communist Party candidate. He continued to admire Joseph Stalin, describing him in 1962 as "a very great man who did a very good job".[16]
Author and visionary[edit]
Haldane was parodied as "the biologist too absorbed in his experiments to notice his friends bedding his wife" by his friend Aldous Huxley in the novel Antic Hay (1923). His essay Daedalus; or, Science and the Future (1924), about ectogenesis and in vitro fertilisation was an influence on Huxley's Brave New World (1932). Haldane's work was also admired by Gerald Heard.[59] Various essays on science were collected and published in a volume titled Possible Worlds in 1927. His book, A.R.P. (Air Raid Precautions) (1938) combined his physiological research into the effects of stress upon the human body with his experience of air raids during the Spanish Civil War to provide a scientific account of the likely effects of the air raids that Britain was to endure during the Second World War.
Along with Olaf Stapledon, Charles Kay Ogden, I. A. Richards, and H. G. Wells, Haldane was accused by C. S. Lewis of scientism. Haldane criticised Lewis and his Ransom Trilogy for the "complete mischaracterisation of science, and his disparagement of the human race".[60] He wrote a book for children titled My Friend Mr Leakey (1937), containing the stories "A Meal With a Magician", "A Day in the Life of a Magician", "Mr Leakey's Party", "Rats", "The Snake with the Golden Teeth", and "My Magic Collar Stud"; later editions featured illustrations by Quentin Blake. Haldane edited Gary Botting's manuscript on the genetics of giant silk moths with margin notes.
In 1923, in a talk given in Cambridge titled "Science and the Future", Haldane, foreseeing the exhaustion of coal for power generation in Britain, proposed a network of hydrogen-generating windmills. This is the first proposal of the hydrogen-based renewable energy economy.[61][62][63]
In his An Autobiography in Brief, written shortly before his death in India, Haldane named four close associates as those showing promise to become illustrious scientists: T. A. Davis, K. R. Dronamraju, S. D. Jayakar and S. K. Roy.[64]
Haldane was the first to have thought of the genetic basis for the cloning of humans, and eventually super-talented individuals. For this he coined the term "clone",[65] though the synonym "clon" (from the Greek word klon meaning "twig") had been used in horticulture since the 19th century. He introduced the term in his speech on "Biological Possibilities for the Human Species of the Next Ten Thousand Years" at the Ciba Foundation Symposium on Man and his Future in 1963.[66][67]
Awards and honours[edit]
Haldane was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1932.[19] The French Government conferred him its National Order of the Legion of Honour in 1937. In 1952, he received the Darwin Medal from the Royal Society. In 1956, he was awarded the Huxley Memorial Medal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain. He received the Feltrinelli Prize from Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei in 1961. He also received an Honorary Doctorate of Science, an Honorary Fellowship at New College, and the Kimber Award of the US National Academy of Sciences. He was awarded the Linnean Society of London's prestigious Darwin–Wallace Medal in 1958.[31]
Quotations[edit]
Oxford University Museum of Natural History display dedicated to Haldane and his reply when asked to comment on the mind of the Creator
He is famous for the (possibly apocryphal) response that he gave when some theologians asked him what could be inferred about the mind of the Creator from the works of His Creation: "An inordinate fondness for beetles."[68] This is in reference to there being over 400,000 known species of beetles in the world, and that this represents 40% of all known insect species (at the time of the statement, it was over half of all known insect species).[69]
He was often quoted for saying, "My own suspicion is that the universe is not only queerer than we suppose, but queerer than we can suppose."[70]
"It seems to me immensely unlikely that mind is a mere by-product of matter. For if my mental processes are determined wholly by the motions of atoms in my brain I have no reason to suppose that my beliefs are true. They may be sound chemically, but that does not make them sound logically. And hence I have no reason for supposing my brain to be composed of atoms."[71]
"Teleology is like a mistress to a biologist: he cannot live without her but he's unwilling to be seen with her in public."[72][73]
"I had gastritis for about fifteen years until I read Lenin and other writers, who showed me what was wrong with our society and how to cure it. Since then I have needed no magnesia."[74]
"I suppose the process of acceptance will pass through the usual four stages: i) This is worthless nonsense, ii) This is an interesting, but perverse, point of view, iii) This is true, but quite unimportant, iv) I always said so."[75]
"Three hundred and ten species in all of India, representing two hundred and thirty-eight genera, sixty-two families, nineteen different orders. All of them on the Ark. And this is only India, and only the birds."[76]
"The stupidity of the mynah shows that in birds, as in men, linguistic and practical abilities are not very highly correlated. A student who can repeat a page of a text book may get first class honours, but may be incapable of doing research."[77]
When asked whether he would lay down his life for his brother, Haldane, preempting Hamilton's rule, supposedly replied "two brothers or eight cousins".[78]
Publications[edit]
Daedalus; or, Science and the Future (1924), E. P. Dutton and Company, Inc., a paper read to the Heretics, Cambridge, on 4 February 1923
second edition (1928), London: Kegan Paul, Trench & Co.
see also Haldane's Daedalus Revisited (1995), ed. with an introd. by Krishna R. Dronamraju, Foreword by Joshua Lederberg; with essays by M. F. Perutz, Freeman Dyson, Yaron Ezrahi, Ernst Mayr, Elof Axel Carlson, D. J. Weatherall, N. A. Mitchison and the editor. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854846-X
A Mathematical Theory of Natural and Artificial Selection, a series of papers beginning in 1924
Briggs, G. E; Haldane, J. B (1925). "A note on the kinetics of enzyme action". Biochemical Journal. 19 (2): 338–339. doi:10.1042/bj0190338. PMC 1259181  . PMID 16743508. (With G.E. Briggs)
Callinicus: A Defence of Chemical Warfare (1925), E. P. Dutton
Possible Worlds and Other Essays (1927), Chatto & Windus; 2001 reprint, Transaction Publishers: ISBN 0-7658-0715-7 (includes "On Being the Right Size" and "On Being One's Own Rabbit")
On Being the Right Size (1929)
"The origin of life" in the Rationalist Annual (1929)
Animal Biology (1929) Oxford: Clarendon
The Sciences and Philosophy (1929) NY: Doubleday, Doran and Company. By John Scott Haldane, JBS Haldane's father.
Enzymes (1930), MIT Press 1965 edition with new preface by the author written just prior to his death: ISBN 0-262-58003-9
Haldane, J. B (1931). "Mathematical Darwinism: A discussion of the genetical theory of natural selection". The Eugenics Review. 23 (2): 115–117. PMC 2985031  . PMID 21259979.
The Inequality of Man, and Other Essays (1932)
The Causes of Evolution (1932)
Science and Human Life (1933), Harper and Brothers, Ayer Co. reprint: ISBN 0-8369-2161-5
Science and the Supernatural: Correspondence with Arnold Lunn (1935), Sheed & Ward, Inc,
Fact and Faith (1934), Watts Thinker's Library[79]
Human Biology and Politics (1934)
"A Contribution to the Theory of Price Fluctuations", The Review of Economic Studies, 1:3, 186–195 (1934).
My Friend Mr Leakey (1937), Jane Nissen Books reprint (2004): ISBN 978-1-903252-19-2
"A Dialectical Account of Evolution" in Science & Society Volume I (1937)
Haldane, J. B (1937). "View on race and eugenics: propaganda or science?". The Eugenics Review. 28 (4): 333–334. PMC 2985639  . PMID 21260239.
Bell, J; Haldane, J. B (1937). "The Linkage between the Genes for Colour-blindness and Haemophilia in Man". Annals of Human Genetics. 50 (1): 3–34. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.1986.tb01935.x. PMID 3322165. (with Julia Bell)
Haldane, J. B; Smith, C. A (1947). "A new estimate of the linkage between the genes for colourblindness and haemophilia in man". Annals of Eugenics. 14 (1): 10–31. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.1947.tb02374.x. PMID 18897933. (with C.A.B. Smith)
Air Raid Precautions (A.R.P.) (1938), Victor Gollancz
Heredity and Politics (1938), Allen and Unwin.
"Reply to A.P. Lerner's Is Professor Haldane's Account of Evolution Dialectical?" in Science & Society volume 2 (1938)
The Marxist Philosophy and the Sciences (1939), Random House, Ayer Co. reprint: ISBN 0-8369-1137-7
Preface to Engels' Dialectics of Nature (1939)
Science and Everyday Life (1940), Macmillan, 1941 Penguin, Ayer Co. 1975 reprint: ISBN 0-405-06595-7
"Lysenko and Genetics" in Science & Society volume 4 (1940)
"Why I am a Materialist" in Rationalist Annual (1940)
"The Laws of Nature" in Rationalist Annual (1940)
Science in Peace and War (1941), Lawrence & Wishart Ltd
New Paths in Genetics (1941), George Allen & Unwin
Heredity & Politics (1943), George Allen & Unwin
Why Professional Workers should be Communists (1945), London: Communist Party (of Great Britain) In this four page pamphlet, Haldane contends that Communism should appeal to professionals because Marxism is based on the scientific method and Communists hold scientists as important; Haldane subsequently disavowed this position.
Adventures of a Biologist (1947)
Science Advances (1947), Macmillan
What is Life? (1947), Boni and Gaer, 1949 edition: Lindsay Drummond
Everything Has a History (1951), Allen & Unwin—Includes "Auld Hornie, F.R.S."; C.S. Lewis's "Reply to Professor Haldane" is available in "On Stories and Other Essays on Literature," ed. Walter Hooper (1982), ISBN 0-15-602768-2.
"The Origins of Life", New Biology, 16, 12–27 (1954). Suggests that an alternative biochemistry could be based on liquid ammonia.
The Biochemistry of Genetics (1954)
Haldane, J. B (1955). "Origin of Man". Nature. 176 (4473): 169–170. Bibcode:1955Natur.176..169H. doi:10.1038/176169a0. PMID 13244650.
Haldane, J. B. S (1957). "The cost of natural selection". Journal of Genetics. 55 (3): 511–524. doi:10.1007/BF02984069.
Haldane, J. B (1956). "Natural selection in man". Acta Genetica et Statistica Medica. 6 (3): 321–332. PMID 13434715.
Little Science, Big Science (1961)
"Cancer's a Funny Thing", in New Statesman, 21 February 1964.
See also[edit]
Experiments in the Revival of Organisms, a 1940 Soviet film featuring Haldane in the introduction.
List of independent discoveries ("primordial soup" theory of the evolution of life from carbon-based molecules, c. 1924)
Precambrian rabbit
Timeline of hydrogen technologies
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References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Botting, Gary (1984). "Preface". In Heather Denise Harden; Gary Botting. The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. xvii. ISBN 978-0-8020-6545-2. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017.
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Jump up ^ Bell, J.; Haldane, J. B. S. (1937). "The Linkage between the Genes for Colour-Blindness and Haemophilia in Man". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 123 (831): 119–150. doi:10.1098/rspb.1937.0046. PMID 3322165.
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Jump up ^ Haldane, JB (1959). "The theory of natural selection today". Nature. 183 (4663): 710–3. Bibcode:1959Natur.183..710H. doi:10.1038/183710a0. PMID 13644170.
Jump up ^ Haldane, J. B. S. (1935). "The rate of spontaneous mutation of a human gene". Journal of Genetics. 31 (3): 317–326. doi:10.1007/BF02982403.
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Jump up ^ Gordon-Smith, Chris. "The Oparin–Haldane Hypothesis". Archived from the original on 26 February 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
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Jump up ^ Adams, Mark B., "The Quest for Immortality: Visions and Presentiments in Science and Literature", in Post, Stephen G., and Binstock, Robert H., The Fountain of Youth: Cultural, Scientific, and Ethical Perspectives on a Biomedical Goal. Oxford University Press, 2004; ISBN 0-19-517008-3 (p. 57–58).
Jump up ^ "An Early Vision of Transhumanism, and the First Proposal of a Hydrogen-Based Renewable Energy Economy". Jeremy Norman & Co., Inc. Retrieved 19 February 2014.
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Jump up ^ Demirbas, Ayhan (2009). Biohydrogen For Future Engine Fuel Demands (Online-Ausg. ed.). London: Springer London. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-84882-511-6. Archived from the original on 7 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Selected Genetic Papers of JBS Haldane", pp. 19–24, New York: Garland, 1990
Jump up ^ Thomas, Isabel (2013). Should scientists pursue cloning?. London: Raintree. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4062-3391-9.
Jump up ^ Haldane, J.B.S. (1963). "Biological Possibilities for the Human Species in the Next Ten Thousand Years". In Wolstenholme, Gordon. Man and his future. London: J. & A. Churchill. doi:10.1002/9780470715291.ch22. ISBN 978-0-470-71479-9.
Jump up ^ Haldane, J.B.S. "Biological Possibilities for the Human Species in the Next Ten Thousand Years". World Transhumanist Association. Archived from the original on 8 November 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2014.
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Jump up ^ Haldane, J.B.S., Possible Worlds: And Other Essays [1927], Chatto and Windus: London, 1932, reprint, p.286. Emphasis in the original.
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Jump up ^ Hull, D., Philosophy of Biological Science, Foundations of Philosophy Series, Prentice–Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1973.
Jump up ^ Mayr, Ernst (1974) Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Volume XIV, pages 91–117.
Jump up ^ Smith, J.B.S. Haldane ; edited by John Maynard (1985). On being the right size and other essays (Repr ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-19-286045-3. Archived from the original on 7 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Haldane, J.B.S. (1963). "[Book review] The Truth About Death: The Chester Beatty Research Institute Serially Abridged Life Tables, England and Wales, 1841–1960" (PDF). Journal of Genetics. 58 (3): 464. doi:10.1007/bf02986312. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Botting, Gary (1984). "Preface". The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. p. xvi.
Jump up ^ Majumder, Partha P. (2016-02-01). "A Humanitarian and a Great Indian". Genome Biology and Evolution. 8 (2): 467–469. doi:10.1093/gbe/evw012. ISSN 1759-6653. PMC 4779617  . PMID 26837547.
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Further reading[edit]
Bryson, Bill (2003). A Short History of Nearly Everything. pp. 300–302; ISBN 0-552-99704-8
Clark, Ronald (1968). JBS: The Life and Work of J.B.S. Haldane. Coward-McCann. ISBN 0-340-04444-6
Crow, James F. (2000). "Centennial: J. B. S. Haldane, 1892–1964". In Crow, James F.; Dove, William F. Perspectives on Genetics: Anecdotal, Historical, and Critical Commentaries, 1987–1998. Madison (US): University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 253–258. ISBN 978-0-299-16604-5.
Dronamraju, Krishna R. (1968). Haldane and Modern Biology. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-8018-0177-8.
Dronamraju, Krishna R. (1985). Haldane : the Life and Work of J.B.S. Haldane with Special Reference to India. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press. ISBN 978-0-08-032436-4. Foreword by Naomi Mitchison.
Dronamraju, Krishna (2011). Haldane, Mayr, and Beanbag Genetics. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-19-981334-6.
Dronamraju, Krishna R. (2015). Selected Genetic Papers of J.B.S. Haldane. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-78343-0.
Haldane, Louisa Kathleen (2009) [1961]. Friends and Kindred: Memoirs. Glasgow: Kennedy & Boyd. p. 248. ISBN 978-1-904999-99-7.
Tredoux, Gavan (2017). Comrade Haldane is too busy to go on holiday: JBS Haldane, communism and espionage. renoster.com.
External links[edit]
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An online copy of Daedalus or Science and the Future
A review (from a modern perspective) of The Causes of Evolution
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Haldane's contributions to science in India
Marxist Writers: J.B.S. Haldane
The biography on the Marxist Writers page has a photograph of Haldane when he was younger.
My Friend Mr. Leakey – text – Haldane's most amusing imaginary acquaintance
Codebreakers: Makers of Modern Genetics: the J B S Haldane papers
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text:
Qantas Flights 7 and 8
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A Qantas Airbus A380-800, the aircraft type currently operating these flights.
Qantas Flight 7 (QF7/QFA7)[a] and Qantas Flight 8 (QF8/QFA8)[a] are flights operated by Australian airline Qantas between Sydney Airport and Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, which from 2013-2016 were the longest regularly scheduled non-stop commercial flights in the world. They are currently the third longest regularly scheduled non-stop commercial flights in the world as measured by distance[b]—13,804 kilometres (8,577 mi; 7,454 nmi), which is over one third of the distance around Earth.[c] Both flights are operated with Airbus A380 aircraft.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 History
2.1 747 service
2.1.1 Incidents
2.2 A380 service
3 Flight
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
Background[edit]
Qantas and American Airlines (AA) were two of the co-founding members of the Oneworld airline alliance, which was launched in 1999. Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (DFW) has long been American's headquarters and largest hub and is centrally located in the United States. Dallas is less than four hours from all cities in the continental United States and AA serves more of these airports from DFW than from Los Angeles, Qantas's main gateway to the United States. Los Angeles is also an AA hub, but is significantly smaller in terms of departures and destinations and located 4-5 hours from most east coast cities. In 2012, American operated nearly 500 departing flights daily from DFW, but fewer than 100 from Los Angeles.[2] Dallas would be a logical destination for Qantas to serve, but it only had six aircraft with the 13,804 kilometres (8,577 mi) range needed to reach Dallas and they were needed for the Melbourne-Los Angeles and Sydney-Buenos Aires routes. The Boeing 747-400ER has a range of 14,205 kilometres (8,827 mi),[3] although winds aloft and fuel needed for holding can trim that figure.
Qantas had studied the feasibility of the Dallas route for years.[4] At the time of the Great Recession, Qantas' Sydney-San Francisco service became unprofitable, while an open skies agreement between Australia & the US flooded the market with more capacity.[4][5] In the meantime, the Boeing 747-400ER aircraft were replaced with A380s on the Melbourne-LA route. According to Qantas CEO Alan Joyce: "a lot of things clicked on this and it made absolute sense for us to devote aircraft resources to this destination."[4] By flying to Dallas, Qantas can offer passengers a 70-minute connection to domestic flights, which means onwards connections to cities like New York City, Chicago, Boston, and Miami can be up to two hours faster than transiting through Los Angeles.[4] At launch, Qantas had codeshare agreements on 54 AA flights from DFW to cities in the US, Canada, & Mexico.[6] When announcing the launch of A380 service, Qantas notes that DFW offers more than 30 codeshare destinations beyond the network available from Los Angeles.[7] According to Qantas in 2014, the most popular destinations for connections with QF7 are Orlando, Boston, Houston, and New York's LaGuardia Airport.[8]
History[edit]
747 service[edit]
The Boeing 747-400ER previously operated by Qantas parked at Terminal D of Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport.
Qantas began operating the Sydney-Dallas route—designated Flight 7 outbound and Flight 8 returning—on 16 May 2011.[6][9] The route was initially flown 4 times weekly,[6] but was upgraded to daily service on 1 July 2012.[10] Flight 7, from Sydney to Dallas, flew non-stop in 15 hr 25 min.[6] Due to strong headwinds, Flight 8 could not be flown non-stop and flew from Dallas to Brisbane Airport before returning to Sydney.[11] Flights 7 & 8 were operated with a Boeing 747-400ER aircraft from 2011 until 28 September 2014.
When launched, Flight 7 was the longest regularly scheduled non-stop flight by distance operated with a Boeing 747[6][12] and the third-longest regularly scheduled non-stop commercial flight by distance[b]—behind Singapore Airlines Flights 21/22 (Newark-Singapore; 15,345 km) and Singapore Airlines Flights 37/38 (Los Angeles-Singapore; 14,114 km). However, unlike the Qantas Boeing 747-400ER, the Singapore Airlines flights were flown with Airbus A340-500 aircraft configured with an all-business class cabin that carried only 100 passengers.[13]
Qantas Flight 7 became the second-longest regularly-scheduled non-stop commercial flight by distance when Singapore Airlines stopped flying non-stop between Singapore & Los Angeles on 20 October 2013. The final Singapore Airlines flight from Newark to Singapore departed 23 November 2013, at which point Qantas Flight 7 became the longest regularly scheduled non-stop flight by distance.[b][14][15] It held this distinction until 1 March 2016, when Emirates began a 14,203 km non-stop service, EK 448 and EK 449, between Auckland, New Zealand and Dubai, UAE.[16]
Incidents[edit]
The route suffered some setbacks during the first two weeks of operation, which called into question the feasibility of the route.[17][18][19] On 21 May 2011, less than a week after commencing operations on the route, Qantas offloaded three containers of luggage in Dallas in order to reach Brisbane without the need to make an unplanned stop for fuel. Affected passengers waited 24 hours for their luggage to arrive via Los Angeles. Qantas claimed they were forced to make the decision "due to load restrictions as a result of unseasonably strong winds."[18] On 23 May, Flight 7 was forced to divert to Houston because it lacked enough fuel to circle Dallas until thunderstorms—typical during summertime—cleared, resulting in a two-hour delay.[19] Then on 30 May, Flight 8 made an unplanned stop in Noumea, New Caledonia, when its pilots decided it was safer to stop and refuel there than continue on to Brisbane.[19][20]
A380 service[edit]
Special livery sported on the inaugural A380 service (VH-OQL)
In May 2014, Qantas announced that Flight 7 and Flight 8 would be operated by the Airbus A380 beginning 29 September 2014, at which point Flight 8's intermediate stop in Brisbane would be terminated. Although frequency will be reduced from seven to six flights per week, the larger capacity of the A380 results in an increase in weekly capacity on the route of more than ten percent. The A380s are configured into four classes, and brings the addition of first class to the route.[7]
The first A380 aircraft to operate Flight 7/8 sported a special livery: the kangaroo painted on the aircraft's empennage (tail) wore a white cowboy hat and star-speckled blue kerchief around its neck. The hat and kerchief pay homage to the Dallas region's strong association with cowboy culture and the red background, white kangaroo/hat, and star-speckled blue are suggestive of the US flag.[8] With the change in aircraft, Qantas became the first airline to operate an A380 at Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport, although Emirates began A380 to DFW just 2 days later.[21]
Flight[edit]
Qantas Flight 7 operates from Sydney Airport (IATA: SYD) near Sydney, New South Wales, Australia to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (IATA: DFW) near the cities of Dallas and Fort Worth in Texas, USA. Qantas Flight 8 is the return flight from Dallas/Fort Worth to Sydney. Through a codeshare agreement with American Airlines, these flights are marketed as American Airlines Flight 7308 (AA7308)[22] and American Airlines Flight 7375 (AA 7375),[23] respectively. It is the only non-stop route between Australia and a US city beyond the west coast (Los Angeles or San Francisco).[10] The flights originally operated six times weekly (every day except Tuesday)[7] but moved to daily flights from April 2016[24]. The A380 aircraft initially deployed on this route are configured in a 4-class seating with a 14-seat first class cabin, a 64-seat business class cabin, a 35-seat premium economy cabin, and a 371-seat economy class cabin.[25]
Because of the difference in local times, Flight 7 departs Sydney, Flight 7 arrives in Dallas/Fort Worth, and Flight 8 departs Dallas/Fort Worth on the same day (local time). Since Flight 8 is both an overnight flight and crosses the International Date Line, it arrives in Sydney two days after departing Dallas/Fort Worth. For example, Flights 7/8 departing Sydney on 29 September 2014 is scheduled to fly (local times in bold):
Departs/arrives
Sydney (AEST ; UTC+10)
Dallas (CDT ; UTC−5)
UTC
Duration
QF 7 departs Sydney 13:10
29 September 22:10
28 September 3:10
29 September 15:35 hours
QF 7 arrives in Dallas 4:45
30 September 13:45
29 September 18:45
29 September
QF 8 departs Dallas 13:15
30 September 22:15
29 September 3:15
30 September 16:50 hours
QF 8 arrives in Sydney 6:05
1 October 15:05
30 September 20:05
30 September
For the period beginning 29 September 2014 through 4 April 2015: Flight 7 is scheduled for 15 hr 25 min (26 October to 28 March) or 15 hr 35 min (until 25 October & from 29 March).[26] while Flight 8 is scheduled for 16 hr 50 min (26 October to 28 March) or 16 hr 55 min (until 25 October & from 29 March).[27] The route is flown daily starting from 29 April 2016.[24]
Qantas Flight 8 from Dallas to Sydney—with a scheduled duration of 16 hours, 50 minutes—is one of the longest regularly scheduled non-stop commercial flights by scheduled duration.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Flight distance records
Singapore Airlines Flight 21
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Common abbreviated designation of the flight using the IATA and ICAO airline designators for Qantas: QF & QFA, respectively
^ Jump up to: a b c As measured by the distance between the origin and destination airports. Especially on ultra-long haul flights, the exact ground distance travelled by a flight can vary substantially based on daily and seasonal weather patterns, air traffic, and other issues. Therefore, the distance between origin and destination is the only reliable way to measure the "longest flight by distance".
Jump up ^ The circumference of Earth is 40,075 km,[1] so 13,804 km is 34.4% of that.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "What is the circumference of the earth?". About.com. Retrieved 3 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "(AA) American Airlines Scorecard". Flightstats. Archived from the original on 30 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "Technical Characteristics -- Boeing 747-400ER". Boeing.com. Boeing. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Qantas to fly world's longest 747 route". Traveller.com.au. 28 January 2011. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "United Airlines' 787 Australia announcement marks the 5th anniversary of US open skies agreement". Centre for aviation. 3 March 2014. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Farris, Brandon. "Qantas Begins Flights Between Sydney and Dallas, Longest 747 Route Ever". NYC Aviation. Retrieved 23 November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Qantas Customers to Experience World-Class A380 Services to Dallas/Fort Worth, retrieved 7 May 2014
^ Jump up to: a b Flynn, David (29 September 2014). "Qantas begins Airbus A380 flights to Dallas". Australian Business Traveller. Archived from the original on 29 September 2014. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "QANTAS to launch Dallas service and cancels San Francisco from May 2011". Airline Route. 14 January 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Flynn, David (8 May 2012). "Qantas does Dallas (daily) with upgraded Boeing 747s". Australian Business Traveller. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ McCartney, Scott (January 19, 2012). "The World's Longest Flight, in Coach". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 27 November 2013.
Jump up ^ O'Sullivan, Kay (19 May 2011). "Qantas jumbo haul: flying the world's longest 747 route". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 23 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "Singapore Airlines to Launch First All-Business Class Flights From USA to Asia" (Press release). Singapore Airlines.
Jump up ^ Flynn, David. "Qantas claims "world's longest flight" for Sydney-Dallas route". Australian Business Traveler. Retrieved 27 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Bachman, Justin (21 October 2013). "The End of the World's Longest Nonstop Flights". Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Mutzabaugh, Ben (2016-03-01). "Emirates overtakes Qantas for world's longest flight". USA Today. Retrieved 2016-04-18.
Jump up ^ Wayne, Dan (25 May 2011). "Dumping luggage at Dallas: what choice did Qantas have but to leave baggage behind?". Australian Business Traveller. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Warne, Dan (24 May 2011). "Qantas leaves baggage behind in Dallas... deliberately". Australian Business Traveller. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Qantas Confident About Dallas Flights". World Civil Aviation Resource Network. 31 May 2011. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Heasley, Andrew (31 May 2011). "Too far: Qantas 747 forced to land for more fuel on Dallas route". traveller.com.au. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Maxon, Terry (7 May 2014). "Qantas will begin flying the Airbus A380 to Dallas/Fort Worth in late September". dallasnews.com. The Dallas Morning News. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "American Airlines flight AA 7308: Sydney - Dallas/Ft. Worth". flightmapper.net. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "American Airlines flight AA 7375: Dallas/Ft. Worth - Sydney". flightmapper.net. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Media Releases - GROWTH TO ASIA AND NETWORK CHANGES". Qantas News Room. Retrieved 2017-09-02.
Jump up ^ "Qantas Airbus A380 Seat Map". SeatGuru. Retrieved 7 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Qantas flight QF 7: Sydney - Dallas/Ft. Worth". flightmapper.net. Archived from the original on 29 September 2014. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Qantas flight QF 8: Dallas/Ft. Worth - Sydney". flightmapper.net. Archived from the original on 29 September 2014. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
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Negative space
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the song by A Day to Remember, see Bad Vibrations.
Rubin's vase is an optical illusion in which the negative space around the vase forms the silhouettes of two faces in profile, a well-known example of figure-ground reversal by emphasizing that negative space
FedEx logo displays an arrow between letters E and X. Not being in full silhouette, the effect is subtle and may not be noticed.
Negative space, in art, is the space around and between the subject(s) of an image. Negative space may be most evident when the space around a subject, not the subject itself, forms an interesting or artistically relevant shape, and such space occasionally is used to artistic effect as the "real" subject of an image.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Use
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Overview[edit]
The use of negative space is a key element of artistic composition. The Japanese word "ma" is sometimes used for this concept, for example in garden design.[1][2][3]
In a two-tone, black-and-white image, a subject is normally depicted in black and the space around it is left blank (white), thereby forming a silhouette of the subject. Reversing the tones so that the space around the subject is printed black and the subject itself is left blank, however, causes the negative space to be apparent as it forms shapes around the subject. This is called figure-ground reversal.
In graphic design of printed or displayed materials, where effective communication is the objective, the use of negative space may be crucial. Not only within the typography, but in its placement in relation to the whole. It is the basis of why upper and lower case typography always is more legible than the use of all capital letters. Negative space varies around lower case letters, allowing the human eye to distinguish each word rapidly as one distinctive item, rather than having to parse out what the words are in a string of letters that all present the same overall profile as in all caps. The same judicious use of negative space drives the effectiveness of the entire design. Because of the long history of the use of black ink on white paper, "white space" is the term often used in graphics to identify the same separation.
Elements of an image that distract from the intended subject, or in the case of photography, objects in the same focal plane, are not considered negative space. Negative space may be used to depict a subject in a chosen medium by showing everything around the subject, but not the subject itself. Use of negative space will produce a silhouette of the subject. Most often, negative space is used as a neutral or contrasting background to draw attention to the main subject, which then is referred to as the positive space.
Use[edit]
Considering and improving the balance between negative space and positive space in a composition is considered by many to enhance the design. This basic, but often overlooked, principle of design gives the eye a "place to rest," increasing the appeal of a composition through subtle means.
The term also is used in other arts. Musicians will describe periods of silence within a musical piece as negative space.
See also[edit]
Composition (visual arts)
Figure–ground (perception)
Ma (negative space)
Space (punctuation)
White space (visual arts)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "FAQ: 'Ma' and 'Mu' - Japanese Gardens Forum - GardenWeb". Forums.gardenweb.com. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
Jump up ^ "ArtLex's Ne-Nz page". Artlex.com. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
Jump up ^ "A Note for MA: Space/Time in the Garden of Ryoan-Ji - Iimura". Mfj-online.org. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Negative space.
Negative Space. The Art of Negative Space: An Attempt to Tell a Story Through Illustration.
The Art of Negative Space: 15 Amazing Examples
Negative Space Style Clothing
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Negative_space&oldid=796209495"
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