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Curare
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This article is about the plant toxins. For the DC Comics character, see Curaré (Batman Beyond).
Not to be confused with Curara.
This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (March 2014) Click [show] for important translation instructions. [show]
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Strychnos toxifera by Koehler 1887
Curare /kʊˈrɑːri/[1] or /kjʊˈrɑːri/[2] is a common name for various plant extract alkaloid arrow poisons originating from Central and South America. These poisons function by competitively and reversibly inhibiting the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), which is a subtype of acetylcholine receptor found at the neuromuscular junction. This causes weakness of the skeletal muscles and, when administered in a sufficient dose, eventual death by asphyxiation due to paralysis of the diaphragm.
According to pharmacologist Rudolf Boehm's 1895 classification scheme, the three main types of curare are:[3]
tube or bamboo curare (so named because of its packing into hollow bamboo tubes; main toxin is D-tubocurarine).
pot curare (originally packed in terra cotta pots; main alkaloid components are protocurarine, protocurine, and protocuridine). Protocurarine is the active ingredient; protocurine is only weakly toxic, and protocuridine is not toxic.
calabash or gourd curare (originally packed into hollow gourds; main toxin is C-curarine I).
Of these three types, some formulas belonging to the tube curare are the most toxic, relative to their LD50 values.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Classification and chemical structure
3 Pharmacological properties
3.1 Anesthesia
4 Plant sources
5 Toxicity
6 Preparation
6.1 Adjuvants
7 Diagnosis and management of curare poisoning
7.1 Antidote
8 Citations
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
History[edit]
This article is missing information about use of curare by Central American people. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (March 2014)
Curare was used as a paralyzing poison by South American indigenous people. The prey was shot by arrows or blowgun darts dipped in curare, leading to asphyxiation owing to the inability of the victim's respiratory muscles to contract. The word 'curare' is derived from wurari, from the Carib language of the Macusi Indians of Guyana.[4] Curare is also known among indigenous peoples as Ampi, Woorari, Woorara, Woorali, Wourali, Wouralia, Ourare, Ourari, Urare, Urari, and Uirary.
In 1596, Sir Walter Raleigh mentioned the arrow poison in his book Discovery of the Large, Rich, and Beautiful Empire of Guiana (which relates to his travels in Trinidad and Guayana), though the poison he described possibly was not curare.[5] In 1780, Abbe Felix Fontana discovered that it acted on the voluntary muscles rather than the nerves and the heart.[6] In 1832, Alexander von Humboldt gave the first western account of how the toxin was prepared from plants by Orinoco River natives.[7]
During 1811–1812 Sir Benjamin Collins Brody (1783–1862) experimented with curare.[8] He was the first to show that curare does not kill the animal and the recovery is complete if the animal's respiration is maintained artificially. In 1825, Charles Waterton described a classical experiment in which he kept a curarized female donkey alive by artificial respiration with a bellows through a tracheostomy.[9] Waterton is also credited with bringing curare to Europe.[10] Robert Hermann Schomburgk, who was a trained botanist, identified the vine as one of the Strychnos genus and gave it the now accepted name Strychnos toxifera.[11]
George Harley (1829–1896) showed in 1850 that curare (wourali) was effective for the treatment of tetanus and strychnine poisoning.[12][13] In 1857, Claude Bernard (1813–1878) published the results of his experiments in which he demonstrated that the mechanism of action of curare was a result of interference in the conduction of nerve impulses from the motor nerve to the skeletal muscle, and that this interference occurred at the neuromuscular junction.[3][14] From 1887, the Burroughs Wellcome catalogue listed under its 'Tabloids' brand name, tablets of curare at 1⁄12 grain (price 8 shillings) for use in preparing a solution for hypodermic injection. In 1914, Henry Hallett Dale (1875–1968) described the physiological actions of acetylcholine.[15] After 25 years, he showed that acetylcholine is responsible for neuromuscular transmission, which can be blocked by curare.[16]
The best known and historically most important (because of its medical applications) toxin is d-tubocurarine. It was isolated from the crude drug — from a museum sample of curare — in 1935 by Harold King (1887–1956) of London, working in Sir Henry Dale's laboratory. He also established its chemical structure.[17] It was introduced into anesthesia in the early 1940s as a muscle relaxant for surgery. Curare is active — toxic or muscle-relaxing, depending on the intended use — only by an injection or a direct wound contamination by poisoned dart or arrow. It is harmless if taken orally[9][18] because curare compounds are too large and highly charged to pass through the lining of the digestive tract to be absorbed into the blood. For this reason, people can eat curare-poisoned prey safely. In medicine, curare has been superseded by a number of curare-like agents, such as pancuronium, which have a similar pharmacodynamic profile, but fewer side effects.
Classification and chemical structure[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2014)
The various components of curare are organic compounds classified as either isoquinoline or indole alkaloids. Tubocurarine is the major active component in the South American dart poison.[19] As an alkaloid, tubocurarine is a naturally occurring compound that consists of nitrogenous bases—though the chemical structure of alkaloids is highly variable.
Like most alkaloids, tubocurarine consists of a cyclic system with a nitrogen atom in an amine group.[20] Because of this structure, tubocurarine can bind readily to the receptors for acetylcholine (ACh) at the neuromuscular junction, which blocks nerve impulses from being sent to the skeletal muscles, effectively paralyzing the muscles of the body. Since tubocurarine binds reversibly to the ACh receptors, treatment for curare poisoning involves adding an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor, which will stop the destruction of acetylcholine so that it can compete with curare.[21]
Pharmacological properties[edit]
Curare is an example of a non-depolarizing muscle relaxant that blocks the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), one of the two types of acetylcholine (ACh) receptors, at the neuromuscular junction. The main toxin of curare, d-tubocurarine, occupies the same position on the receptor as ACh with an equal or greater affinity, and elicits no response, making it a competitive antagonist. The antidote for curare poisoning is an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor (anti-cholinesterase), such as physostigmine or neostigmine. By blocking ACh degradation, AChE inhibitors raise the amount of ACh in the neuromuscular junction; the accumulated ACh will then correct for the effect of the curare by activating the receptors not blocked by toxin at a higher rate.
The time of onset varies from within one minute (for tubocurarine in intravenous administration, penetrating a larger vein), to between 15 and 25 minutes (for intramuscular administration, where the substance is applied in muscle tissue).[22]
Curare has no effect if ingested so the meat of an animal killed by curare does not become poisonous, and it has no effect on its flavor.[23]
Anesthesia[edit]
Isolated attempts to use curare during anesthesia date back to 1912 by Arthur Lawen of Leipzig,[24] but curare came to anesthesia via psychiatry (electroplexy). In 1939 Abram Elting Bennett used it to modify metrazol induced convulsive therapy.[25] Muscle relaxants are used in modern anesthesia for many reasons, such as providing optimal operating conditions and facilitating intubation of the trachea. Before muscle relaxants, anesthesiologists needed to use larger doses of the anesthetic agent, such as ether, chloroform or cyclopropane to achieve these aims. Such deep anesthesia risked killing patients that were elderly or had heart conditions.
The source of curare in the Amazon was first researched by Richard Evans Schultes in 1941. Since the 1930s, it was being used in hospitals as a muscle relaxant. He discovered that different types of curare called for as many as 15 ingredients, and in time helped to identify more than 70 species that produced the drug.
In the 1940s, it was used on a few occasions during surgery as it was mistakenly thought to be an analgesic or anesthetic. The patients reported feeling the full intensity of the pain though they were not able to do anything about it since they were essentially paralyzed.[26]
On January 23, 1942, Harold Griffith and Enid Johnson gave a synthetic preparation of curare (Intercostrin/Intocostrin) to a patient undergoing an appendectomy (to supplement conventional anesthesia). Safer curare derivatives, such as rocuronium and pancuronium, have superseded d-tubocurarine for anesthesia during surgery. When used with halothane d-tubocurarine can cause a profound fall in blood pressure in some patients as both the drugs are ganglion blockers.[27] However, it is safer to use d-tubocurarine with ether.
In 1954, an article was published by Beecher and Todd suggesting that the use of muscle relaxants (drugs similar to curare) increased death due to anesthesia nearly sixfold.[28] This was refuted in 1956.[29]
Modern anesthetists have at their disposal a variety of muscle relaxants for use in anesthesia. The ability to produce muscle relaxation irrespective of sedation has permitted anesthetists to adjust the two effects independently and on the fly to ensure that their patients are safely unconscious and sufficiently relaxed to permit surgery. The use of neuromuscular blocking drugs carries with it a very small risk of anesthesia awareness.
Plant sources[edit]
There are dozens of plants from which isoquinoline and indole alkaloids with curarizing effects can be isolated, and which were utilized by indigenous tribes of Central and South America for the production of arrow poisons. Among them are:
In family Menispermaceae:
Chondrodendron tomentosum
Curarea genus, species toxicofera and tecunarum
Sciadotenia toxifera
Telitoxicum genus
Abuta genus
Caryomene genus
Anomospermum genus
Orthomene genus
Cissampelos L.(Cocculeae) section of genus
Other families:
several species of the Strychnos genus of family Loganiaceae including toxifera, guianensis, castelnaei, usambarensis
a plant in the Aroideae subfamily of Araceae called "Taja"
at least three members of the Artanthe genus of family Piperaceae
Some plants in the Aristolochiaceae family have also been reported as sources.
Toxicity[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The toxicity of curare alkaloids in humans hasn't been established. Administration must be parenterally, as gastro-intestinal absorption is ineffective.
LD50 (mg/kg)
human: 0.735 est. (form and method of administration not indicated)
mouse: pot:0.8-25; tubo: 5-10; calabash: 2-15.
Preparation[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2014)
Traditionally prepared curare is a dark, heavy, viscid paste with a very bitter taste.[30]
Adjuvants[edit]
This section contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (December 2014)
It is known[citation needed] that the final preparation is often more potent than the concentrated principal active ingredient. Various irritating herbs, stinging insects, poisonous worms, and various parts of amphibians and reptiles are added to the preparation. Some of these accelerate the onset of action or increase the toxicity; others prevent the wound from healing or blood from coagulating.
Diagnosis and management of curare poisoning[edit]
Curare poisoning can be indicated by typical signs of neuromuscular-blocking drugs such as paralysis including respiration but not directly affecting the heart.
Curare poisoning can be managed by artificial respiration such as mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. In a study of 29 army volunteers that were paralyzed with curare, artificial respiration managed to keep an oxygen saturation of always above 85%,[31] a level at which there is no evidence of altered state of consciousness.[32] Yet, curare poisoning mimics the total locked-in syndrome in that there is paralysis of every voluntarily controlled muscle in the body (including the eyes), making it practically impossible for the victim to confirm consciousness while paralyzed.[33]
Spontaneous breathing is resumed after the end of the duration of action of curare, which is generally between 30 minutes[34] to 8 hours,[35] depending on the variant of the toxin and dosage. Cardiac muscle is not directly affected by curare, but if more than four to six minutes has passed since respiratory cessation the cardiac muscle may stop functioning by oxygen-deprivation, making cardiopulmonary resuscitation including chest compressions necessary.[36]
Antidote[edit]
Muscle paralysis can be reversed by administration of a cholinesterase inhibitor such as pyridostigmine.[37] Other drugs have anticurare properties.
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Company, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing. "The American Heritage Dictionary entry: curare". www.ahdictionary.com.
Jump up ^ curare in the Oxford Online Dictionaries
^ Jump up to: a b c Gray, TC (1947). "The Use of D-Tubocurarine Chloride in Anæsthesia" (PDF). Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 1 (4): 191–203. PMC 1940167  . PMID 19309828.
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com.
Jump up ^ Carman J. A. Anaesthesia 1968, 23, 706.
Jump up ^ The Gale Encyclopedia of Science. Third Edition.
Jump up ^ [1]Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of America, During the Year 1799–1804 — Volume 2, Humboldt, Alexander von
Jump up ^ Phil. Trans. 1811, 101, 194; 1812, 102, 205.
^ Jump up to: a b "Loading.." www.yeoldelog.com.
Jump up ^ Reprinted in "Classical File", Survey of Anesthesiology 1978, 22, 98.
Jump up ^ Waterton and Wouralia. British Journal of Pharmacology (1999) 126, 1685–1689
Jump up ^ Paton A. Practitioner 1979, 223, 849
Jump up ^ "Whonamedit – dictionary of medical eponyms". www.whonamedit.com.
Jump up ^ Bernard, C (1857). "Leçons sur les effets des substances toxiques et médicamenteuses" (in French). Paris: J.B. Baillière: 369–80. |chapter= ignored (help)
Jump up ^ Dale H. H. J. Pharmac. Exp. Ther. 1914, 6, 147.
Jump up ^ Dale H. H. Br. Med. J. 1934, 1, 835
Jump up ^ King H. J. Chem. Soc. 1935, 57, 1381; Nature, Lond. 1935, 135, 469.
Jump up ^ "Curare – Chondrodendron tomentosum". www.blueplanetbiomes.org.
Jump up ^ http://www.britannica.com/science/curare Encyclopædia Britannica 01 Dec. 2015
Jump up ^ Ethnopharmacology and systems biology: A perfect holistic match, Verpoorte, R. 2005
Jump up ^ Saladin, Kenneth S. Anatomy and Physiology The Unity of Form and Function. 7th ed. New York: McGraw Hill Education, 2015. Print.
Jump up ^ Curare in Drugs.com. Revised: 11/08/2001
Jump up ^ From the Rainforests of South America to The Operating Room: A History of Curare, By Daniel Milner, BA, CD, Summer 2009. University of Ottawa Faculty of Medicine.
Jump up ^ Lawen A. Beitr. klin. Chir. 1912, 80, 168.
Jump up ^ Bennett A. E. J. Am. Med. Ass. 1940, 114, 322
Jump up ^ Dennett, Daniel C. Brainstorms: Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology (1978), Cambridge, MA : MIT Press, p209
Jump up ^ Mashraqui S. Hypotension induced with d-tubocurarine and halothane for surgery of patent ductus arteriosus. Indian Journal of Anesthesia. 1994 Oct; 42(5): 346-50
Jump up ^ Beecher H. K.; Todd D. P. (1954). "A Study of the Deaths Associated with Anesthesia and Surgery : Based on a Study of 599,548 Anesthesias in Ten Institutions 1948–1952, Inclusive". Annals of Surgery. 140 (2): 2–35. PMC 1609600  . PMID 13159140. (reprinted in "Classical File", Survey of Anesthesiology 1971, 15, 394, 496)
Jump up ^ Albertson HA, Trout HH, Morfin E (June 1956). "The Safety of Curare in Anesthesia'". Annals of Surgery. 143 (6): 833–837. doi:10.1097/00000658-195606000-00012. PMC 1465152  . PMID 13327828.
Jump up ^ Curare, a South American Arrow Poison Archived 2012-07-28 at the Wayback Machine., from "Plants and Civilization" by Professor Arthur C. Gibson, at UCLA Mildred E. Mathias Botanical Garden.
Jump up ^ Page 520 in: Paradis, Norman A. (2007). Cardiac arrest: the science and practice of resuscitation medicine. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84700-1.
Jump up ^ Oxymoron: Our Love-Hate Relationship with Oxygen, By Mike McEvoy at Albany Medical College, New York. 10/12/2010
Jump up ^ Page 357 in: Damasio, Antonio R. (1999). The feeling of what happens: body and emotion in the making of consciousness. San Diego: Harcourt Brace. ISBN 0-15-601075-5.
Jump up ^ For therapeutic dose of tubocurarine by shorter limit as given at page 151 in: Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-07145-4. OCLC 51622037.
Jump up ^ For 20-fold paralytic dose of toxiferine ("calabash curare"), according to: Page 330 in: The Alkaloids: v. 1: A Review of Chemical Literature (Specialist Periodical Reports). Cambridge, Eng: Royal Society of Chemistry. 1971. ISBN 0-85186-257-8.
Jump up ^ "four to six minutes" given from: Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) in Farlex medical dictionary, in turn citing Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. Copyright 2008.
Jump up ^ Page 153 in: Thomas Morgan III; Bernadette Kalman (2007). Neuroimmunology in Clinical Practice. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-5840-9.
See also[edit]
strychnine, a related alkaloid poison that occurs in some of the same plants as curare
arrow poison, what curare was originally used for
poison dart frog, another source of arrow poison
References[edit]
Foldes, F.F. "Anesthesia before and after curare", Anasthesieabteilung des Albert-Einstein-College of Medicine. Anaesthesiol Reanim, 1993, 18(5):128-31. (retrieved June 20, 2005)
James, Mel. "Harold Griffith",Heirloom Series, Volume 6. (retrieved June 20, 2005)
"Curare", Blue Planet Biomes, 2000. (retrieved September 27, 2005)
Smith, Roger. "Cholernergic Transmission", (retrieved March 13, 2007)
Strecker G J et al. "Curare binding and the curare-induced subconductance state of the acetylcholine receptor channel.", Biophysical Journal 56: 795-806 (1989). (retrieved May 12, 2007)
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1921 Collier's Encyclopedia article Woorali Poison.
Charles Waterton's book Wanderings in South America Free version
Neuromuscular blocking drugs: discovery and development
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See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor modulators • Acetylcholine metabolism/transport modulators
Authority control
LCCN: sh85034841
GND: 4300192-0
SUDOC: 027557308
BNF: cb11957231d (data)
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Tollund Man
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The well-preserved head of Tollund Man
Tollund Man is a naturally mummified corpse of a man who lived during the 4th century BC, during the period characterised in Scandinavia as the Pre-Roman Iron Age.[1] He was found in 1950 on the Jutland peninsula in Denmark, buried in a peat bog which preserved his body known as a bog body.[2] The man's physical features were so well-preserved that he was mistaken at the time of discovery for a recent murder victim.[3] Twelve years before Tollund Man's discovery, another bog body, Elling Woman, had been found in the same bog.[4]
Contents
1 Discovery
2 Scientific examination and conclusions
3 Display
4 Other bodies
5 In popular culture
6 Further reading
7 References
8 Sources
9 External links
Discovery[edit]
The remains of Tollund Man shortly after his discovery
On 6 May 1950, peat cutters in the Bjældskovdal peat bog, 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) west of Silkeborg, Denmark.[3] discovered a corpse in the peat layer which appeared so fresh that they at first believed they had discovered a recent murder victim.
The Tollund Man lay 50 metres (160 ft) away from firm ground, buried under 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) of peat, his body arranged in a fetal position. He wore a pointed skin cap of sheepskin and wool, fastened under his chin by a hide thong, and a smooth hide belt around his waist. Additionally, a noose made of plaited animal hide was drawn tight around his neck and trailed down his back.[2] Other than these, the body was naked. His hair was cropped so short as to be almost entirely hidden by his cap. There was short stubble (1 mm length) on his chin and upper lip, suggesting that he had not shaved on the day of his death.[5]
Scholars believe the man was a human sacrifice rather than executed criminal because of the arranged position of his body, and the fact that his eyes and mouth were closed.[6]
Scientific examination and conclusions[edit]
C14 radiocarbon dating of Tollund Man indicated that he died in approximately 375–210 BC.[7] The preserved tender soft tissues of his body are the consequence of the acid in the peat, along with the lack of oxygen underneath the surface and the cold climate of the Nordic countries. The acid in the peat, needed for the preservation of a human body, is caused by a bryophyte named Sphagnum. Sphagnum fights against degradation due to resistant phenolic compounds contained in their cell walls.[8] Due to the acidity of peat, bones are typically dissolved rather than preserved.
Examinations and X-rays showed that the man's head was undamaged, and his heart, lungs and liver were well preserved. The Silkeborg Museum estimated his age as approximately 40 years and height at 1.61 metres (5 ft 3 in), a relatively short stature even for the time. It is likely that the body had shrunk in the bog.
On the initial autopsy report in 1950, doctors concluded that Tollund Man died by hanging rather than strangulation.[9] The rope left visible furrows in the skin beneath his chin and at the sides of his neck. There was no mark, however, at the back of the neck where the knot of the noose would have been located. After a re-examination in 2002, forensic scientists found further evidence to support these initial findings.[10] Although the cervical vertebrae were undamaged (these vertebrae are often damaged as a result of hanging), radiography showed that the tongue was distended—an indication of death by hanging.[11]
The stomach and intestines were examined and tests carried out on their contents.[12] Scientists identified the man's last meal as porridge or gruel made from grains and seeds, both cultivated and wild. Approximately 40 kinds of seeds were identified, but the porridge was primarily composed of four types: barley, flax, false flax (Camelina sativa) and knotgrass.[12] From the stage of digestion it was concluded that the man had eaten 12 to 24 hours prior to his death. Porridges were common for people of this time.[12] Because neither meat nor fresh fruit was found in the last meal, it is suggested that the meal was eaten in winter or early spring when these items were not available.[12]
Both feet and the right thumb, being well conserved by the peat, were also preserved in formalin for later examination. In 1976, the Danish police made a fingerprint analysis, making Tollund Man's thumbprint one of the oldest prints on record.[13]
Display[edit]
Tollund Man on display at Silkeborg Museum
The body is displayed at the Silkeborg Museum in Denmark, although only the head is original. Because conservation techniques for organic material were insufficiently advanced in the early 1950s for the entire body to be preserved, the forensic examiners suggested the head be severed and the rest of the body remain unpreserved. Subsequently, the body desiccated and the tissue disappeared. In 1987, the Silkeborg Museum reconstructed the body using the skeletal remains as a base. As displayed today, the original head is attached to a replica of the body.[14]
Other bodies[edit]
Further information: List of bog bodies § Denmark
In Denmark, more than 500 bog bodies and skeletal remains dating to the Iron Age have been recovered.[15] Specimens from Jutland include the relatively well-preserved Borremose bodies, Huldremose Woman, Grauballe Man on display at Moesgaard Museum near Aarhus, and the similarly conserved Haraldskær Woman. Approximately 30 of these bog bodies are housed and/or displayed in Danish museums for continued research.[15]
In popular culture[edit]
Nobel Prize-winning Irish poet Seamus Heaney wrote a series of poems inspired by P.V. Glob's study of the mummified Iron Age bodies found in Jutland's peat bogs, finding contemporary political relevance in the relics of the ritualistic killings.[16] Heaney's poem The Tollund Man, published in his Wintering Out collection, compares the ritual sacrifice to those who died in the sectarian violence of "the Troubles."[16] Heaney wrote an excerpt from the poem in the Tollund Man exhibit's guest book in 1973.[17]
British author Margaret Drabble, in her 1989 novel, A Natural Curiosity, uses her characters' obsession with the Tollund Man to provide a satirical criticism of Margaret Thatcher's modern England.[18][19]
Tollund Man is featured in separate songs: "Tollund Man" (1995) by the American folk band The Mountain Goats and "Curse of the Tollund Man" (2004) by the English rock band The Darkness.
Tollund Man was mentioned in the episode "Mummy in the Maze" of the American television series Bones[20] and was also mentioned in the 2016 movie Sacrifice in which a bog body was found in the Shetland Islands.
Further reading[edit]
Coles, Bryony; John Coles (1989). People of the Wetlands: Bogs, Bodies and Lake-Dwellers. London: Thames and Hudson.
Fischer, Christian (2007). Tollundmanden: gaven til guderne: mosefund fra Danmarks forhistorie. Silkeborg: Silkeborg Museum. ISBN 978-87-7739-966-4. (Danish)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Susan K. Lewis — PBS (2006). "Tollund Man". Public Broadcasting System — NOVA. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Glob, P. (2004). The Bog People: Iron-Age Man Preserved. New York: New York Review of Books. p. 304. ISBN 1-59017-090-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Silkeborg Public Library; Silkeborg Museum (2004). "A Body Appears". The Tollund Man - A Face from Prehistoric Denmark. Silkeborg Public Library. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
Jump up ^ "Violence in the Bogs", Archaeological Institute of America
Jump up ^ Silkeborg Public Library; Silkeborg Museum (2004). "The Tollund Man: Hair and beard". Silkeborg Public Library. Retrieved 10 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Hart, Edward, dir. "Ghosts of Murdered Kings". NOVA. Prod. Edward Hart and Dan McCabe, PBS, 29 January 2014
Jump up ^ J. van der Plicht, W. A. B. van der Sanen, A. T. Aerts, & H. J. Streurman (2004). "Dating bog bodies by means of 14C-AMS" (PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science. 31 (4): 471–491. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.09.012. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Reece, Urry, Cain, Wasserman, Minorsky, Jacckson. "L’importance écologique et économique des Bryophytes". Campbell Biologie 4th Edition (2012): p.705, 17 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Silkeborg Museum, The Tollund Man's Appearance, Silkeborg Museum and Amtscentret for Undervisning, Silkeborg Public Library, 2004
Jump up ^ Silkeborg Museum, Latest Research, Silkeborg Museum and Amtscentret for Undervisning, Silkeborg Public Library, 2004
Jump up ^ Silkeborg Museum, Was the Tollund Man Hanged?, Silkeborg Museum and Amtscentret for Undervisning, Silkeborg Public Library (SPL), 2004
^ Jump up to: a b c d Silkeborg Museum, The Last Meal, Silkeborg Museum and Amtscentret for Undervisning, Silkeborg Public Library, 2004
Jump up ^ Silkeborg Public Library; Silkeborg Museum (2004). "Finger-Prints". The Tollund Man - A Face from Prehistoric Denmark. Silkeborg Public Library. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
Jump up ^ Silkeborg Public Library; Silkeborg Museum (2004). "Preservation of the Tollund Man". The Tollund Man - A Face from Prehistoric Denmark. Silkeborg Public Library. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Dell'Amore, Christine (July 18, 2014). "Who Were the Ancient Bog Mummies? Surprising New Clues". National Geographic.
^ Jump up to: a b O'Donoghue, Bernard (January 1, 2009). The Cambridge Companion to Seamus Heaney. Cambridge University Press. pp. 194–196. ISBN 978-0-521-83882-5.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize Winner's Poem about the Tollund Man". The Tollund Man. Silkeborg Public Library. 2004. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Boxer, Sarah (June 2, 1991). "A New Literary Hero: The Limp, Silent Type". New York Times. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Sanders, Karin (December 1, 2009). Bodies in the Bog and the Archaeological Imagination. University of Chicago Press. pp. 254–55. ISBN 978-0226734040.
Jump up ^ Williams, Scott. "Mummy in the Maze." Bones. Dir. Marita Grabiak. Fox. 30 Oct. 2007. Web. 15 Nov. 2016.
Sources[edit]
P.V. Glob: The Bog People: Iron-Age Man Preserved, New York Review of Books (New York) 2004, ISBN 1-59017-090-3. Translated from the Danish original: Mosefolket, 1965 ISBN 87-00-20201-0.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tollundmanden.
Tollund Man - A Face from Prehistoric Denmark
Tollund Man at PBS
The Tollund Man at the Wayback Machine (archived 1 September 2000)
The Tollund Man and The Tollund Man in Springtime by Seamus Heaney
National Geographic September 2007: "Tales From the Bog"
Image of the facial reconstruction to show what Tollund Man had looked when he was alive
Coordinates: dewiki 56°9′52″N 9°23′34″E / 56.16444°N 9.39278°E / 56.16444; 9.39278
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Haraldskær Woman
Windeby I
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Old Croghan Man
Yde Girl
Osterby Man
Girl of the Uchter Moor
Cashel Man
Damendorf Man
Elling Woman
Amcotts Moor Woman
Kayhausen Boy
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See also
Bog body
List of bog bodies
Bog butter
Wetland deposits in Scandinavia
Gundestrup cauldron
Ralaghan Man
The Bog People
Peter Glob
Mummy
Ritual sacrifice
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tollund_Man&oldid=866137032"
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Kristian Schmid
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This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (February 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Kristian Schmid
Born
Kristian Schmid
(1974-11-28) 28 November 1974 (age 43)
Geelong, Australia
Occupation
Actor
Years active
1987–present
Spouse(s)
Deborah Clay (2003-present)
Children
1
Kristian Schmid (born 28 November 1974) is an Australian actor best known for his roles as Todd Landers in Neighbours, and Leading Seaman Robert Dixon in Sea Patrol.
Life and career[edit]
Schmid was born in Geelong, Australia to Hungarian parents, and is best known for playing Todd Landers in the Australian soap opera Neighbours. He played Leading Seaman Robert Dixon on the prime-time Nine Network drama, Sea Patrol, starring in all five seasons of the show.
He also had a recurring role on Packed to the Rafters as Alex, who has cerebral palsy.
After Neighbours, he appeared as Adam Newman in the 1990s remake of The Tomorrow People. While on a four-year work permit in the UK he made appearances on several UK television shows as well as the plays The Lion in Winter and Laura.
He has performed in two versions of the play Two Weeks with the Queen by Morris Gleitzman. The first time was for the BBC in London and the second was for the Windmill Theatre Company in 2006.
He has performed in three versions of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream and numerous pantomimes in the UK with Richard Cheshire.
In 2002, Schmid played Brad in the film Scooby-Doo and Danny in the Australian film Blurred, about Schoolies week.[1]

He played a newspaper journalist in the Foxtel comedy Stupid Stupid Man and has appeared on several Australian television dramas including Blue Heelers and All Saints.
Schmid appears on the Channel Nine Show 20 to 1, hosted by Bert Newton.
From May 2016, Schmid began playing Mick Jennings on Home and Away.[2]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "NY Times: Kristian Schmid". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Brown, David (2 August 2016). "Who did this Home and Away actor used to play in Neighbours?". Radio Times. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
External links[edit]
Kristian Schmid on IMDb
This article about an Australian film and television actor is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Passing lane
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A car passes a slower moving truck, using a passing lane on the A2 motorway in Slovenia
A passing lane (North American English) or overtaking lane (English) is the lane on a multi-lane highway or motorway closest to the center of the road (the central reservation). In some countries, lanes are described as being on the 'inside' or the 'outside' of a road - which one the passing lane is varies.
In modern traffic planning, passing lanes on freeways are usually designed for through/express traffic, while the lanes furthest from the center of the road have entry/exit ramps. However due to routing constraints, some freeways may have ramps exiting from the passing lane; these are known as "left exits" in North America.
A passing lane is commonly referred to as a "fast lane" because it is often used for extended periods of time for through traffic or fast traffic. In theory, a passing lane should be used only for passing, thus allowing, even on a road with only two lanes in each direction, motorists to travel at their own pace.
Contents
[hide]
1 Misuse and common practice in the United States
1.1 Signage
1.2 Proper use
1.3 Hammer lane
2 Climbing lane
3 Australian use
4 Cultural references
5 References
6 External links
Misuse and common practice in the United States[edit]
An SUV prepares to pass a slower moving car, using a passing lane in rural Utah
Common practice and most law on United States highways is that the left lane is reserved for passing and faster moving traffic, and that traffic using the left lane must yield to traffic wishing to overtake. Evidence exists demonstrating the efficiency of this practice.[citation needed]
The United States Uniform Vehicle Code states:
Upon all roadways any vehicle proceeding at less than the normal speed of traffic at the time and place and under the conditions then existing shall be driven in the right-hand lane then available for traffic ...
It is also illegal in many states in the US to use the "far left" or passing lane on a major highway as a traveling lane (as opposed to passing), or to fail to yield to faster moving traffic that is attempting to overtake in that lane. For example, Colorado's "Left Lane Law" states:
A person shall not drive a motor vehicle in the passing lane of a highway if the speed-limit is sixty-five miles per hour
or more unless such person is passing other motor-vehicles that are in a non-passing lane...[1]
In other states, such as Massachusetts,[2] New Jersey,[3] Maine,[4] Illinois,[5] Pennsylvania,[6] and others,[7] it is illegal to fail to yield to traffic that seeks to overtake in the left lane, or to create any other "obstruction" in the passing lane that hinders the flow of traffic. As a result, heavy trucks are often prohibited from using the passing lane.
The left lane is commonly referred to as the "fast lane", but that is not an accurate description of the lane's purpose. The left lane is the designated passing lane, however, vehicles in the left lane must obey the posted speed limits. A common problem arising from misuse of the left lane is speeding and tailgating. These actions create road rage and increase overall danger.
A driver hoping to pass a slow motorist in the "fast lane" can be stuck in an awkward situation. One strategy is to signal a lane change toward the center median. Another is to flash headlights. A third, which is dangerous and illegal, is to drive very close to the "fast lane" driver's bumper (this is known as tailgating).
Most commonly, motorists will attempt to overtake the outer car on the inner lane either to continue at a fast pace or to pass a car that is going too slowly in the passing lane. On high-capacity multilane freeways (three or more lanes per direction), many motorists often pass on the inner lane, largely in response to misuse of the "passing lane" by slower traffic.[citation needed]
In some areas, such as the US states of Colorado and Kentucky, vehicles in the left lane are required to yield to faster traffic only if the speed limit is above 65 miles per hour. In other areas, like Alaska, there is no law requiring slower traffic to move over for faster traffic.[7]
Signage[edit]
The use of passing lanes for faster traffic is sometimes acknowledged with signs using phrases such as "Slower Traffic Keep Right"[8] (in Canada, where the passing lane is to the left). In a study by the AASHTO Subcommittee on Traffic Engineering, all 24 US states involved used some form of passing lane courtesy signage, 9 of which only use those signs for steep graded roads.[9]
Proper use[edit]
Many areas which make it illegal to fail to yield to faster traffic also have exceptions to those rules. Some of these exceptions include preparing to make a left turn, taking an exit located on the left side of the roadway, avoiding traffic merging onto the roadway, or overtaking and passing another vehicle.
In Quebec, it is also illegal to travel in the left lane when not passing when the speed limit is over 80 km/h (50 mph).[10]
Truckers often use the passing lane in moderate traffic where legal to do so to reduce travel times, however in many areas, tractor trailers are banned from using the passing lane for safety reasons; these restrictions are normally found along urban, often congested highways with multiple lanes (e.g. Interstate 40 west of Raleigh, North Carolina), or on rural freeways with 6 or more lanes (3 in each direction).
Hammer lane[edit]
The hammer lane is another term for the passing lane. Its etymology originated with truckers in North America in reference to slamming the accelerator with a foot like hammer.)[citation needed]
HOV lanes are not usually considered hammer lanes, but are also used for express travel by commuters.
Climbing lane[edit]
Main article: Climbing lane
In hilly terrain, some undivided highways are built with three lanes, with the extra added pavement known as the "climbing lane" or "crawler lane". Two lanes are used for traffic heading in the uphill direction, with one lane being a passing or climbing lane, and one lane is used for downhill traffic. On dual carriageways, the climbing lane may be marked with a broken double white line.
Australian use[edit]
In Australia, most intercity highways are constructed with only one lane in each direction. Head-on collisions are a risk, particularly with fatigued drivers. Overtaking lanes are an additional lane in one direction for a short distance (one or two kilometres) to assist faster traffic to safely overtake slower traffic. Road markings are often painted so that the additional lane appears in the centre of the road (guiding traffic to the left), and traffic needs to deliberately change lanes to overtake. At the end, the markings are the other way, so that the left lane must yield and merge into the overtaking lane. Large signs alert drivers that they are approaching an overtaking lane, often at 5km and 1km distances before the lane starts.
Cultural references[edit]
Fast Lane, an arcade game
Life in the Fast Lane, a song by the Eagles
Jones in the Fast Lane, 1990 MS-DOS based game
References[edit]
Jump up ^ [1] Archived September 29, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "General Laws". malegislature.gov.
Jump up ^ New Jersey Permanent Statutes Database
Jump up ^ "Title 29-A, §2070: Passing another vehicle". mainelegislature.org.
Jump up ^ Illinois Compiled Statutes
Jump up ^ "Title 75". The official website for the Pennsylvania General Assembly.
^ Jump up to: a b "State "keep right" laws". mit.edu.
Jump up ^ You can drive on the left lane as long as you go fast Alberta, Canada Government - Road Signs (Slower Traffic Keep Right)
Jump up ^ AASHTO Subcommittee on Traffic Engineering: Passing Lane Study
Jump up ^ https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-drive/culture/commuting/left-lane-etiquette-and-tailgating-consequences/article4249182/?service=mobile
External links[edit]
State "keep right" laws
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