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Surveying
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The technique, profession, and science of determining the positions of points and the distances and angles between them
This article is about measuring positions on Earth. For other uses, see Survey (disambiguation) and Surveyor (disambiguation).
A surveyor using a total station
Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional positions of points and the distances and angles between them. A land surveying professional is called a land surveyor. These points are usually on the surface of the Earth, and they are often used to establish maps and boundaries for ownership, locations, such as building corners or the surface location of subsurface features, or other purposes required by government or civil law, such as property sales.
Surveyors work with elements of geometry, trigonometry, regression analysis, physics, engineering, metrology, programming languages, and the law. They use equipment, such as total stations, robotic total stations, GPS receivers, retroreflectors, 3D scanners, radios, handheld tablets, digital levels, subsurface locators, drones, GIS, and surveying software.
Surveying has been an element in the development of the human environment since the beginning of recorded history. The planning and execution of most forms of construction require it. It is also used in transport, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership. It is an important tool for research in many other scientific disciplines.
Contents
1 Definition
2 History
2.1 Ancient surveying
2.2 Modern surveying
2.3 20th century
2.4 21st century
3 Surveying equipment
3.1 Hardware
3.2 Software
4 Surveying techniques
4.1 Distance measurement
4.2 Angle measurement
4.3 Levelling
4.4 Determining position
4.5 Reference networks
4.5.1 Datum and coordinate systems
4.6 Errors and accuracy
5 Types of surveys
5.1 Plane and geodetic surveying
6 The surveying profession
6.1 Licensing
6.2 Surveying institutions
6.3 Building surveying
6.4 Cadastral surveying
6.5 Noteworthy surveyors
6.6 Quantity surveying
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Definition[edit]
The International Federation of Surveyors defines the function of surveying as:[1]
A surveyor is a professional person with the academic qualifications and technical expertise to conduct one, or more, of the following activities;
to determine, measure and represent land, three-dimensional objects, point-fields and trajectories;
to assemble and interpret land and geographically related information,
to use that information for the planning and efficient administration of the land, the sea and any structures thereon; and,
to conduct research into the above practices and to develop them.
History[edit]
See also: Cadastre § History, Cartography § History, and Topographic mapping § History
Ancient surveying[edit]
A plumb rule from the book Cassells' Carpentry and Joinery
Surveying has occurred since humans built the first large structures. In ancient Egypt, a rope stretcher would use simple geometry to re-establish boundaries after the annual floods of the Nile River. The almost perfect squareness and north-south orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza, built c. 2700 BC, affirm the Egyptians' command of surveying. The Groma instrument originated in Mesopotamia (early 1st millennium BC).[2] The prehistoric monument at Stonehenge (c. 2500 BC) was set out by prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope geometry.[3]
The mathematician Liu Hui described ways of measuring distant objects in his work Haidao Suanjing or The Sea Island Mathematical Manual, published in 263 AD.
The Romans recognized land surveying as a profession. They established the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire was divided, such as a tax register of conquered lands (300 AD).[4] Roman surveyors were known as Gromatici.
In medieval Europe, beating the bounds maintained the boundaries of a village or parish. This was the practice of gathering a group of residents and walking around the parish or village to establish a communal memory of the boundaries. Young boys were included to ensure the memory lasted as long as possible.
In England, William the Conqueror commissioned the Domesday Book in 1086. It recorded the names of all the land owners, the area of land they owned, the quality of the land, and specific information of the area's content and inhabitants. It did not include maps showing exact locations.
Modern surveying[edit]
Table of Surveying, 1728 Cyclopaedia
Abel Foullon described a plane table in 1551, but it is thought that the instrument was in use earlier as his description is of a developed instrument.
Gunter's chain was introduced in 1620 by English mathematician Edmund Gunter. It enabled plots of land to be accurately surveyed and plotted for legal and commercial purposes.
Leonard Digges described a Theodolite that measured horizontal angles in his book A geometric practice named Pantometria (1571). Joshua Habermel (de:Erasmus Habermehl) created a theodolite with a compass and tripod in 1576. Johnathon Sission was the first to incorporate a telescope on a theodolite in 1725.[5]
In the 18th century, modern techniques and instruments for surveying began to be used. Jesse Ramsden introduced the first precision theodolite in 1787. It was an instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes. He created his great theodolite using an accurate dividing engine of his own design. Ramsden's theodolite represented a great step forward in the instrument's accuracy. William Gascoigne invented an instrument that used a telescope with an installed crosshair as a target device, in 1640. James Watt developed an optical meter for the measuring of distance in 1771; it measured the parallactic angle from which the distance to a point could be deduced.
Dutch mathematician Willebrord Snellius (a.k.a. Snel van Royen) introduced the modern systematic use of triangulation. In 1615 he surveyed the distance from Alkmaar to Breda, approximately 72 miles (116,1 kilometres). He underestimated this distance by 3.5%. The survey was a chain of quadrangles containing 33 triangles in all. Snell showed how planar formulae could be corrected to allow for the curvature of the earth. He also showed how to resection, or calculate, the position of a point inside a triangle using the angles cast between the vertices at the unknown point. These could be measured more accurately than bearings of the vertices, which depended on a compass. His work established the idea of surveying a primary network of control points, and locating subsidiary points inside the primary network later. Between 1733 and 1740, Jacques Cassini and his son César undertook the first triangulation of France. They included a re-surveying of the meridian arc, leading to the publication in 1745 of the first map of France constructed on rigorous principles. By this time, triangulation methods were by then well established for local map-making.
A map of India showing the Great Trigonometrical Survey, produced in 1870
It was only towards the end of the 18th century that detailed triangulation network surveys mapped whole countries. In 1784, a team from General William Roy's Ordnance Survey of Great Britain began the Principal Triangulation of Britain. The first Ramsden theodolite was built for this survey. The survey was finally completed in 1853. The Great Trigonometric Survey of India began in 1801. The Indian survey had an enormous scientific impact. It was responsible for one of the first accurate measurements of a section of an arc of longitude, and for measurements of the geodesic anomaly. It named and mapped Mount Everest and the other Himalayan peaks. Surveying became a professional occupation in high demand at the turn of the 19th century with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. The profession developed more accurate instruments to aid its work. Industrial infrastructure projects used surveyors to lay out canals, roads and rail.
In the US, the Land Ordinance of 1785 created the Public Land Survey System. It formed the basis for dividing the western territories into sections to allow the sale of land. The PLSS divided states into township grids which were further divided into sections and fractions of sections.
Napoleon Bonaparte founded continental Europe's first cadastre in 1808. This gathered data on the number of parcels of land, their value, land usage, and names. This system soon spread around Europe.
A railroad surveying party at Russel's Tank, Arizona in the 1860s
Robert Torrens introduced the Torrens system in South Australia in 1858. Torrens intended to simplify land transactions and provide reliable titles via a centralized register of land. The Torrens system was adopted in several other nations of the English-speaking world. Surveying became increasingly important with the arrival of railroads in the 1800s. Surveying was necessary so that railroads could plan technologically and financially viable routes.
20th century[edit]
A German engineer surveying during the First World War, 1918
At the beginning of the century surveyors had improved the older chains and ropes, but still faced the problem of accurate measurement of long distances. Dr Trevor Lloyd Wadley developed the Tellurometer during the 1950s. It measures long distances using two microwave transmitter/receivers.[6] During the late 1950s Geodimeter introduced electronic distance measurement (EDM) equipment.[7] EDM units use a multi frequency phase shift of light waves to find a distance.[8] These instruments saved the need for days or weeks of chain measurement by measuring between points kilometers apart in one go.
Advances in electronics allowed miniaturization of EDM. In the 1970s the first instruments combining angle and distance measurement appeared, becoming known as total stations. Manufacturers added more equipment by degrees, bringing improvements in accuracy and speed of measurement. Major advances include tilt compensators, data recorders, and on-board calculation programs.
The first satellite positioning system was the US Navy TRANSIT system. The first successful launch took place in 1960. The system's main purpose was to provide position information to Polaris missile submarines. Surveyors found they could use field receivers to determine the location of a point. Sparse satellite cover and large equipment made observations laborious, and inaccurate. The main use was establishing benchmarks in remote locations.
The US Air Force launched the first prototype satellites of the Global Positioning System (GPS) in 1978. GPS used a larger constellation of satellites and improved signal transmission to provide more accuracy. Early GPS observations required several hours of observations by a static receiver to reach survey accuracy requirements. Recent improvements to both satellites and receivers allow Real Time Kinematic (RTK) surveying. RTK surveys get high-accuracy measurements by using a fixed base station and a second roving antenna. The position of the roving antenna can be tracked.
21st century[edit]
The theodolite, total station, and RTK GPS survey remain the primary methods in use.
Remote sensing and satellite imagery continue to improve and become cheaper, allowing more commonplace use. Prominent new technologies include three-dimensional (3D) scanning and use of lidar for topographical surveys. UAV technology along with photogrammetric image processing is also appearing.
Surveying equipment[edit]
Further information: List of surveying instruments
Hardware[edit]
Surveying equipment. Clockwise from upper left: optical theodolite, robotic total station, RTK GPS base station, optical level.
The main surveying instruments in use around the world are the theodolite, measuring tape, total station, 3D scanners, GPS/GNSS, level and rod. Most instruments screw onto a tripod when in use. Tape measures are often used for measurement of smaller distances. 3D scanners and various forms of aerial imagery are also used.
The theodolite is an instrument for the measurement of angles. It uses two separate circles, protractors or alidades to measure angles in the horizontal and the vertical plane. A telescope mounted on trunnions is aligned vertically with the target object. The whole upper section rotates for horizontal alignment. The vertical circle measures the angle that the telescope makes against the vertical, known as the zenith angle. The horizontal circle uses an upper and lower plate. When beginning the survey, the surveyor points the instrument in a known direction (bearing), and clamps the lower plate in place. The instrument can then rotate to measure the bearing to other objects. If no bearing is known or direct angle measurement is wanted, the instrument can be set to zero during the initial sight. It will then read the angle between the initial object, the theodolite itself, and the item that the telescope aligns with.
The gyrotheodolite is a form of theodolite that uses a gyroscope to orient itself in the absence of reference marks. It is used in underground applications.
The total station is a development of the theodolite with an electronic distance measurement device (EDM). A total station can be used for leveling when set to the horizontal plane. Since their introduction, total stations have shifted from optical-mechanical to fully electronic devices.[citation needed]
Modern top-of-the-line total stations no longer need a reflector or prism to return the light pulses used for distance measurements. They are fully robotic, and can even e-mail point data to a remote computer and connect to satellite positioning systems, such as Global Positioning System. Real time kinematic GPS systems have increased the speed of surveying, but they are still only horizontally accurate to about 20 mm and vertically to 30–40 mm.[9]
GPS surveying differs from other GPS uses in the equipment and methods used. Static GPS uses two receivers placed in position for a considerable length of time. The long span of time lets the receiver compare measurements as the satellites orbit. The changes as the satellites orbit also provide the measurement network with well conditioned geometry. This produces an accurate baseline that can be over 20 km long. RTK surveying uses one static antenna and one roving antenna. The static antenna tracks changes in the satellite positions and atmospheric conditions. The surveyor uses the roving antenna to measure the points needed for the survey. The two antennas use a radio link that allows the static antenna to send corrections to the roving antenna. The roving antenna then applies those corrections to the GPS signals it is receiving to calculate its own position. RTK surveying covers smaller distances than static methods. This is because divergent conditions further away from the base reduce accuracy.
Surveying instruments have characteristics that make them suitable for certain uses. Theodolites and levels are often used by constructors rather than surveyors in first world countries. The constructor can perform simple survey tasks using a relatively cheap instrument. Total stations are workhorses for many professional surveyors because they are versatile and reliable in all conditions. The productivity improvements from a GPS on large scale surveys makes them popular for major infrastructure or data gathering projects. One-person robotic-guided total stations allow surveyors to measure without extra workers to aim the telescope or record data. A fast but expensive way to measure large areas is with a helicopter, using a GPS to record the location of the helicopter and a laser scanner to measure the ground. To increase precision, surveyors place beacons on the ground (about 20 km (12 mi) apart). This method reaches precisions between 5–40 cm (depending on flight height).[10]
Surveyors use ancillary equipment such as tripods and instrument stands; staves and beacons used for sighting purposes; PPE; vegetation clearing equipment; digging implements for finding survey markers buried over time; hammers for placements of markers in various surfaces and structures; and portable radios for communication over long lines of sight.
Software[edit]
Land surveyors, construction professionals and civil engineers using total station, GPS, 3D scanners and other collector data use Land Surveying Software to increase efficiency, accuracy and productivity. Land Surveying Software is a staple of contemporary land surveying.[11]
Surveying techniques[edit]
A standard Brunton Geo compass, still used commonly today by geographers, geologists and surveyors for field-based measurements
Surveyors determine the position of objects by measuring angles and distances. The factors that can affect the accuracy of their observations are also measured. They then use this data to create vectors, bearings, coordinates, elevations, areas, volumes, plans and maps. Measurements are often split into horizontal and vertical components to simplify calculation. GPS and astronomic measurements also need measurement of a time component.
Distance measurement[edit]
Example of modern equipment for surveying (Field-Map technology): GPS, laser rangefinder and field computer allows surveying as well as cartography (creation of map in real-time) and field data collection.
Before EDM devices, distances were measured using a variety of means. These included chains with links of a known length such as a Gunter's chain, or measuring tapes made of steel or invar. To measure horizontal distances, these chains or tapes were pulled taut to reduce sagging and slack. The distance had to be adjusted for heat expansion. Attempts to hold the measuring instrument level would also be made. When measuring up a slope, the surveyor might have to "break" (break chain) the measurement- use an increment less than the total length of the chain. Perambulators, or measuring wheels, were used to measure longer distances but not to a high level of accuracy. Tacheometry is the science of measuring distances by measuring the angle between two ends of an object with a known size. It was sometimes used before to the invention of EDM where rough ground made chain measurement impractical.
Angle measurement[edit]
Historically, horizontal angles were measured by using a compass to provide a magnetic bearing or azimuth. Later, more precise scribed discs improved angular resolution. Mounting telescopes with reticles atop the disc allowed more precise sighting (see theodolite). Levels and calibrated circles allowed measurement of vertical angles. Verniers allowed measurement to a fraction of a degree, such as with a turn-of-the-century transit.
The plane table provided a graphical method of recording and measuring angles, which reduced the amount of mathematics required. In 1829 Francis Ronalds invented a reflecting instrument for recording angles graphically by modifying the octant.[12]
By observing the bearing from every vertex in a figure, a surveyor can measure around the figure. The final observation will be between the two points first observed, except with a 180° difference. This is called a close. If the first and last bearings are different, this shows the error in the survey, called the angular misclose. The surveyor can use this information to prove that the work meets the expected standards.
Levelling[edit]
Main article: Levelling
Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services staff member conducts tide station leveling in support of the US Army Corp of Engineers in Richmond, Maine.
The simplest method for measuring height is with an altimeter using air pressure to find height. When more precise measurements are needed, means like precise levels (also known as differential leveling) are used. When precise leveling, a series of measurements between two points are taken using an instrument and a measuring rod. Differences in height between the measurements are added and subtracted in a series to get the net difference in elevation between the two endpoints. With the Global Positioning System (GPS), elevation can be measured with satellite receivers. Usually GPS is somewhat less accurate than traditional precise leveling, but may be similar over long distances.
When using an optical level, the endpoint may be out of the effective range of the instrument. There may be obstructions or large changes of elevation between the endpoints. In these situations, extra setups are needed. Turning is a term used when referring to moving the level to take an elevation shot from a different location. To "turn" the level, one must first take a reading and record the elevation of the point the rod is located on. While the rod is being kept in exactly the same location, the level is moved to a new location where the rod is still visible. A reading is taken from the new location of the level and the height difference is used to find the new elevation of the level gun. This is repeated until the series of measurements is completed. The level must be horizontal to get a valid measurement. Because of this, if the horizontal crosshair of the instrument is lower than the base of the rod, the surveyor will not be able to sight the rod and get a reading. The rod can usually be raised up to 25 feet high, allowing the level to be set much higher than the base of the rod.
Determining position[edit]
The primary way of determining one's position on the earth's surface when no known positions are nearby is by astronomic observations. Observations to the sun, moon and stars could all be made using navigational techniques. Once the instrument's position and bearing to a star is determined, the bearing can be transferred to a reference point on the earth. The point can then be used as a base for further observations. Survey-accurate astronomic positions were difficult to observe and calculate and so tended to be a base off which many other measurements were made. Since the advent of the GPS system, astronomic observations are rare as GPS allows adequate positions to be determined over most of the surface of the earth.
Reference networks[edit]
Main article: Geodetic network
A survey using traverse and offset measurements to record the location of the shoreline shown in blue. Black dashed lines are traverse measurements between reference points (black circles). The red lines are offsets measured at right angles to the traverse lines.
Few survey positions are derived from first principles. Instead, most surveys points are measured relative to previous measured points. This forms a reference or control network where each point can be used by a surveyor to determine their own position when beginning a new survey.
Survey points are usually marked on the earth's surface by objects ranging from small nails driven into the ground to large beacons that can be seen from long distances. The surveyors can set up their instruments on this position and measure to nearby objects. Sometimes a tall, distinctive feature such as a steeple or radio aerial has its position calculated as a reference point that angles can be measured against.
Triangulation is a method of horizontal location favoured in the days before EDM and GPS measurement. It can determine distances, elevations and directions between distant objects. Since the early days of surveying, this was the primary method of determining accurate positions of objects for topographic maps of large areas. A surveyor first needs to know the horizontal distance between two of the objects, known as the baseline. Then the heights, distances and angular position of other objects can be derived, as long as they are visible from one of the original objects. High-accuracy transits or theodolites were used, and angle measurements repeated for increased accuracy. See also Triangulation in three dimensions.
Offsetting is an alternate method of determining position of objects, and was often used to measure imprecise features such as riverbanks. The surveyor would mark and measure two known positions on the ground roughly parallel to the feature, and mark out a baseline between them. At regular intervals, a distance was measured at right angles from the first line to the feature. The measurements could then be plotted on a plan or map, and the points at the ends of the offset lines could be joined to show the feature.
Traversing is a common method of surveying smaller areas. The surveyor starts from an old reference mark or known position and places a network of reference marks covering the survey area. They then measure bearings and distances between the reference marks, and to the target features. Most traverses form a loop pattern or link between two prior reference marks so the surveyor can check their measurements.
Datum and coordinate systems[edit]
Many surveys do not calculate positions on the surface of the earth, but instead measure the relative positions of objects. However, often the surveyed items need to be compared to outside data, such as boundary lines or previous surveys objects. The oldest way of describing a position is via latitude and longitude, and often a height above sea level. As the surveying profession grew it created Cartesian coordinate systems to simplify the mathematics for surveys over small parts of the earth. The simplest coordinate systems assume that the earth is flat and measure from an arbitrary point, known as a 'datum' (singular form of data). The coordinate system allows easy calculation of the distances and direction between objects over small areas. Large areas distort due to the earth's curvature. North is often defined as true north at the datum.
For larger regions, it is necessary to model the shape of the earth using an ellipsoid or a geoid. Many countries have created coordinate-grids customized to lessen error in their area of the earth.
Errors and accuracy[edit]
A basic tenet of surveying is that no measurement is perfect, and that there will always be a small amount of error.[13] There are three classes of survey errors:
Gross errors or blunders: Errors made by the surveyor during the survey. Upsetting the instrument, misaiming a target, or writing down a wrong measurement are all gross errors. A large gross error may reduce the accuracy to an unacceptable level. Therefore, surveyors use redundant measurements and independent checks to detect these errors early in the survey.
Systematic: Errors that follow a consistent pattern. Examples include effects of temperature on a chain or EDM measurement, or a poorly adjusted spirit-level causing a tilted instrument or target pole. Systematic errors that have known effects can be compensated or corrected.
Random: Random errors are small unavoidable fluctuations. They are caused by imperfections in measuring equipment, eyesight, and conditions. They can be minimized by redundancy of measurement and avoiding unstable conditions. Random errors tend to cancel each other out, but checks must be made to ensure they are not propagating from one measurement to the next.
Surveyors avoid these errors by calibrating their equipment, using consistent methods, and by good design of their reference network. Repeated measurements can be averaged and any outlier measurements discarded. Independent checks like measuring a point from two or more locations or using two different methods are used. Errors can be detected by comparing the results of the two measurements.
Once the surveyor has calculated the level of the errors in his or her work, it is adjusted. This is the process of distributing the error between all measurements. Each observation is weighted according to how much of the total error it is likely to have caused and part of that error is allocated to it in a proportional way. The most common methods of adjustment are the Bowditch method, also known as the compass rule, and the Principle of least squares method.
The surveyor must be able to distinguish between accuracy and precision. In the United States, surveyors and civil engineers use units of feet wherein a survey foot breaks down into 10ths and 100ths. Many deed descriptions containing distances are often expressed using these units (125.25 ft). On the subject of accuracy, surveyors are often held to a standard of one one-hundredth of a foot; about 1/8 inch. Calculation and mapping tolerances are much smaller wherein achieving near-perfect closures are desired. Though tolerances will vary from project to project, in the field and day to day usage beyond a 100th of a foot is often impractical.
Types of surveys[edit]
See also: Survey (disambiguation) and Survey (disambiguation) § Earth sciences
Local organisations or regulatory bodies class specializations of surveying in different ways. Broad groups are:
As-built survey: a survey that documents the location of recently constructed elements of a construction project. As-built surveys are done for record, completion evaluation and payment purposes. An as-built survey is also known as a 'works as executed survey'. As built surveys are often presented in red or redline and laid over existing plans for comparison with design information.
Cadastral or boundary surveying: a survey that establishes or re-establishes boundaries of a parcel using a legal description. It involves the setting or restoration of monuments or markers at the corners or along the lines of the parcel. These take the form of iron rods, pipes, or concrete monuments in the ground, or nails set in concrete or asphalt. The ALTA/ACSM Land Title Survey is a standard proposed by the American Land Title Association and the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. It incorporates elements of the boundary survey, mortgage survey, and topographic survey.
Control surveying: Control surveys establish reference points to use as starting positions for future surveys. Most other forms of surveying will contain elements of control surveying.
Construction surveying
Deformation survey: a survey to determine if a structure or object is changing shape or moving. First the positions of points on an object are found. A period of time is allowed to pass and the positions are then re-measured and calculated. Then a comparison between the two sets of positions is made.
Dimensional control survey: This is a type of survey conducted in or on a non-level surface. Common in the oil and gas industry to replace old or damaged pipes on a like-for-like basis, the advantage of dimensional control survey is that the instrument used to conduct the survey does not need to be level. This is useful in the off-shore industry, as not all platforms are fixed and are thus subject to movement.
Engineering surveying: topographic, layout, and as-built surveys associated with engineering design. They often need geodetic computations beyond normal civil engineering practice.
Foundation survey: a survey done to collect the positional data on a foundation that has been poured and is cured. This is done to ensure that the foundation was constructed in the location, and at the elevation, authorized in the plot plan, site plan, or subdivision plan.
Hydrographic survey: a survey conducted with the purpose of mapping the shoreline and bed of a body of water. Used for navigation, engineering, or resource management purposes.
Leveling: either finds the elevation of a given point or establish a point at a given elevation.
LOMA survey: Survey to change base flood line, removing property from a SFHA special flood hazard area.
Measured survey : a building survey to produce plans of the building. such a survey may be conducted before renovation works, for commercial purpose, or at end of the construction process.
Mining surveying: Mining surveying includes directing the digging of mine shafts and galleries and the calculation of volume of rock. It uses specialised techniques due to the restraints to survey geometry such as vertical shafts and narrow passages.
Mortgage survey: A mortgage survey or physical survey is a simple survey that delineates land boundaries and building locations. It checks for encroachment, building setback restrictions and shows nearby flood zones. In many places a mortgage survey is a precondition for a mortgage loan.
Photographic control survey: A survey that creates reference marks visible from the air to allow aerial photographs to be rectified.
Stakeout, layout or setout: an element of many other surveys where the calculated or proposed position of an object is marked on the ground. This can be temporary or permanent. This is an important component of engineering and cadastral surveying.
Structural survey: a detailed inspection to report upon the physical condition and structural stability of a building or structure. It highlights any work needed to maintain it in good repair.
Subdivision: A boundary survey that splits a property into two or more smaller properties.
Topographic survey: a survey that measures the elevation of points on a particular piece of land, and presents them as contour lines on a plot.
Plane and geodetic surveying[edit]
Based on the considerations and true shape of the earth, surveying is broadly classified into two types.
Plane surveying assumes the earth is flat. Curvature and spheroidal shape of the earth is neglected. In this type of surveying all triangles formed by joining survey lines are considered as plane triangles. It is employed for small survey works where errors due to the earth's shape are too small to matter.[14]
In geodetic surveying the curvature of the earth is taken into account while calculating reduced levels, angles, bearings and distances. This type of surveying is usually employed for large survey works. Survey works up to 100 square miles (260 square kilometers ) are treated as plane and beyond that are treated as geodetic.[15] In geodetic surveying necessary corrections are applied to reduced levels, bearings and other observations.[16]
The surveying profession[edit]
See also: Geomatics, Surveying In North America, and Surveying In Oceania
The pundit cartographer Nain Singh Rawat (19th century) received a Royal Geographical Society gold medal in 1876, for his efforts in exploring the Himalayas for the British
An all-female surveying crew in Idaho, 1918
The basic principles of surveying have changed little over the ages, but the tools used by surveyors have evolved. Engineering, especially civil engineering, often needs surveyors.
Surveyors help determine the placement of roads, railways, reservoirs, dams, pipelines, retaining walls, bridges, and buildings. They establish the boundaries of legal descriptions and political divisions. They also provide advice and data for geographical information systems (GIS) that record land features and boundaries.
Surveyors must have a thorough knowledge of algebra, basic calculus, geometry, and trigonometry. They must also know the laws that deal with surveys, real property, and contracts.
Most jurisdictions recognize three different levels of qualification:
Survey assistants or chainmen are usually unskilled workers who help the surveyor. They place target reflectors, find old reference marks, and mark points on the ground. The term 'chainman' derives from past use of measuring chains. An assistant would move the far end of the chain under the surveyor's direction.
Survey technicians often operate survey instruments, run surveys in the field, do survey calculations, or draft plans. A technician usually has no legal authority and cannot certify his work. Not all technicians are qualified, but qualifications at the certificate or diploma level are available.
Licensed, registered, or chartered surveyors usually hold a degree or higher qualification. They are often required to pass further exams to join a professional association or to gain certifying status. Surveyors are responsible for planning and management of surveys. They have to ensure that their surveys, or surveys performed under their supervision, meet the legal standards. Many principals of surveying firms hold this status.
Licensing[edit]
Licensing requirements vary with jurisdiction, and are commonly consistent within national borders. Prospective surveyors usually have to receive a degree in surveying, followed by a detailed examination of their knowledge of surveying law and principles specific to the region they wish to practice in, and undergo a period of on-the-job training or portfolio building before they are awarded a license to practise. Licensed surveyors usually receive a post nominal, which varies depending on where they qualified. The system has replaced older apprenticeship systems.
A licensed land surveyor is generally required to sign and seal all plans. The state dictates the format, showing their name and registration number.
In many jurisdictions, surveyors must mark their registration number on survey monuments when setting boundary corners. Monuments take the form of capped iron rods, concrete monuments, or nails with washers.
Surveying institutions[edit]
Surveying students with their professor at the Helsinki University of Technology in the late 19th century
Most countries' governments regulate at least some forms of surveying. Their survey agencies establish regulations and standards. Standards control accuracy, surveying credentials, monumentation of boundaries and maintenance of geodetic networks. Many nations devolve this authority to regional entities or states/provinces. Cadastral surveys tend to be the most regulated because of the permanence of the work. Lot boundaries established by cadastral surveys may stand for hundreds of years without modification.
Most jurisdictions also have a form of professional institution representing local surveyors. These institutes often endorse or license potential surveyors, as well as set and enforce ethical standards. The largest institution is the International Federation of Surveyors (Abbreviated FIG, for French: Fédération Internationale des Géomètres). They represent the survey industry worldwide.
Building surveying[edit]
Main article: Building surveying § Profession
Most English-speaking countries consider building surveying a distinct profession. They have their own professional associations and licensing requirements. Building surveyors focus on investigating the condition of buildings as well as legal compliance work.
Cadastral surveying[edit]
Main article: Cadastral surveying
One of the primary roles of the land surveyor is to determine the boundary of real property on the ground. The surveyor must determine where the adjoining landowners wish to put the boundary. The boundary is established in legal documents and plans prepared by attorneys, engineers, and land surveyors. The surveyor then puts monuments on the corners of the new boundary. They might also find or resurvey the corners of the property monumented by prior surveys.
Cadastral land surveyors are licensed by governments. The cadastral survey branch of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) conducts most cadastral surveys in the United States.[17] They consult with Forest Service, National Park Service, Army Corps of Engineers, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Reclamation, and others. The BLM used to be known as the General Land Office (GLO).
In states organized per the Public Land Survey System (PLSS), surveyors must carry out BLM cadastral surveys under that system.
Cadastral surveyors often have to work around changes to the earth that obliterate or damage boundary monuments. When this happens, they must consider evidence that is not recorded on the title deed. This is known as extrinsic evidence.[18]
Noteworthy surveyors[edit]
Three of the four U.S. Presidents on Mount Rushmore were land surveyors. George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln surveyed colonial or frontier territories prior to serving office.
David T. Abercrombie practiced land surveying before starting an outfitter store of excursion goods. The business would later turn into Abercrombie & Fitch lifestyle clothing store.
Percy Harrison Fawcett is a British surveyor that explored the jungles of South America attempting to find the Lost City of Z. His biography and expeditions were recounted in the book The Lost City of Z and were later adapted on film screen.
Quantity surveying[edit]
Main article: Quantity surveying § Profession
A quantity surveyor (QS) is a construction industry professional with expert knowledge on construction costs and contracts. They are not to be confused with land surveyors or land survey engineers.
See also[edit]
Cartography
Chartered Surveyor
International Federation of Surveyors
Prismatic compass (surveying)
Surveying in early America
Exsecant
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Definition". fig.net. Retrieved 2016-02-17.
Jump up ^ Hong-Sen Yan & Marco Ceccarelli (2009), International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings of HMM 2008, Springer, p. 107, ISBN 1-4020-9484-1
Jump up ^ Johnson, Anthony, Solving Stonehenge: The New Key to an Ancient Enigma. (Thames & Hudson, 2008) ISBN 978-0-500-05155-9
Jump up ^ Lewis, M. J. T. (2001-04-23). Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521792974. Retrieved 30 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Turner, Gerard L'E. Nineteenth Century Scientific Instruments, Sotheby Publications, 1983, ISBN 0-85667-170-3
Jump up ^ Sturman, Brian; Wright, Alan. "The History of the Tellurometer" (PDF). International Federation of Surveyors. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Cheves, Marc. "Geodimeter-The First Name in EDM". Archived from the original on March 10, 2014. Retrieved 2014-07-20.
Jump up ^ Mahun, Jerry. "Electronic Distance Measurement". Jerrymahun.com. Archived from the original on 2014-07-29. Retrieved 2014-07-20.
Jump up ^ National Cooperative Highway Research Program: Collecting, Processing and Integrating GPS data into GIS, p. 40. Published by Transportation Research Board, 2002 ISBN 0-309-06916-5 ISBN 978-0-309-06916-8
Jump up ^ Toni Schenk, Suyoung Seo, Beata Csatho: Accuracy Study of Airborne Laser Scanning Data with Photogrammetry, p. 118 Archived March 25, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "View DigitalGlobe Imagery Solutions @ Geospatial Forum".
Jump up ^ Ronalds, B.F. (2016). Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph. London: Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-78326-917-4.
Jump up ^ Kahmen, Heribert; Faig, Wolfgang (1988). Surveying. Berlin: de Gruyter. p. 9. ISBN 3-11-008303-5. Retrieved 2014-08-10.
Jump up ^ BC Punmia. Surveying by BC Punmia. p. 2. Retrieved 9 December 2014h.
Jump up ^ N N Basak. Surveying and Levelling. p. 542. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
Jump up ^ BC Punmia. Surveying by BC Punmia. p. 2. Retrieved 9 December 2014.
Jump up ^ A History of the Rectangular Survey System by C. Albert White, 1983, Pub: Washington, D.C. : U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management : For sale by Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O.,
Jump up ^ Richards, D., & Hermansen, K. (1995). Use of extrinsic evidence to aid interpretation of deeds. Journal of Surveying Engineering, (121), 178.
Further reading[edit]
"The Surveying Handbook". 1995. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-2067-2. ISBN 978-1-4613-5858-9.
Keay J (2000), The Great Arc: The Dramatic Tale of How India was Mapped and Everest was Named, Harper Collins, 182pp, ISBN 0-00-653123-7.
Pugh J C (1975), Surveying for Field Scientists, Methuen, 230pp, ISBN 0-416-07530-4
Genovese I (2005), Definitions of Surveying and Associated Terms, ACSM, 314pp, ISBN 0-9765991-0-4.
Public Land Survey System Foundation (2009) Manual of Surveying Instructions For the Survey of the Public Lands of the United States. www.blmsurveymanual.org
External links[edit]
Look up surveying in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Library resources about
Surveying
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Surveying.
Géomètres sans Frontières : Association de géometres pour aide au développement. NGO Surveyors without borders (in French)
SurveyorConnect Community forum for Land Surveyors and Geomatics Professionals offering peer-to-peer support, education, networking and tales from the field.
The National Museum of Surveying The Home of the National Museum of Surveying in Springfield, Illinois
Land Surveyors United Support Network Global social support network featuring surveyor forums, instructional videos, industry news and support groups based on geolocation.
Natural Resources Canada – Surveying Good overview of surveying with references to construction surveys, cadastral surveys, photogrammetry surveys, mining surveys, hydrographic surveys, route surveys, control surveys and topographic surveys
Table of Surveying, 1728 Cyclopaedia
Surveying & Triangulation The History Of Surveying And Survey Equipment
NCEES National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES)
NSPS National Society of Professional Surveyors (NSPS)
Ground Penetrating Radar FAQ Using Ground Penetrating Radar for Land Surveying
Survey Earth Global event and community of land surveyors.
Surveyors - Occupational Employment Statistics
Authority control
NARA: 10643332
NDL: 00571395
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Flagrant foul
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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In basketball, a flagrant foul is a personal foul that involves excessive or violent contact that could injure the fouled player. A flagrant foul may be unintentional or purposeful; the latter type is also called an "intentional foul" in the NBA. However, most intentional fouls are not considered flagrant and fouling intentionally is an accepted tactic to regain possession of the ball with minimal time off the game clock.
Contents
1 NBA
1.1 Fines
1.2 Game tactics
2 FIBA
3 United States scholastic rules
3.1 NCAA
3.2 NFHS
4 Equivalents in other sports
5 References
6 Related reading
NBA[edit]
The NBA enacted its flagrant foul rule in the 1990-91 season,[1] to deter contact which, in addition to being against the rules, puts an opponent's safety or health at risk.
The NBA defines[2] two levels of flagrant fouls, "Flagrant 1" and "Flagrant 2". Flagrant 2 has the additional element of "excessive" violence and results in the immediate ejection of the offender. Flagrant 1 does not result in the offender's ejection unless the same player commits a second Flagrant 1 foul in the same game. Referees have discretion in determining which level to call.
Fines[edit]
Flagrant fouls over the course of the season can result in monetary fines and suspension, at the sole discretion of the Commissioner of the NBA.[2]
Game tactics[edit]
The flagrant foul rule deters undesired play by awarding possession of the ball to the offended team as an extra penalty. A simple personal foul may let the fouling team regain possession of the ball (by rebound or by award after a made free throw). However, a flagrant foul results in free throws and possession afterwards.
Toward the end of a game, when a trailing team is committing intentional fouls to regain the ball, it must be careful not to use unnecessary or excessive contact, because a foul ruled Flagrant gives no advantage to the team committing the foul.
FIBA[edit]
FIBA basketball rules have a similar foul called an unsportsmanlike foul, which is comparable to a Flagrant 1. Two of these in one game lead to automatic ejection of the player. An unsportsmanlike foul can also be called if a player fouls with no intention to play the ball (including excessive holding or shirt grabbing), as well as if a player fouls another player on a fast break from behind. FIBA's disqualifying foul is comparable to a Flagrant 2 and results in immediate ejection of the offender.
The penalty for an unsportsmanlike or disqualifying foul is two free throws and possession at midcourt for the opposing team.
United States scholastic rules[edit]
U.S. college and high school rules define a flagrant foul as a personal or technical foul that is extreme or severe.
NCAA[edit]
The NCAA's Playing Rules Oversight Panel adopted the "flagrant" term before the 2011-12 season for both men's and women's basketball.[3] However, the NCAA's women's rules committee abandoned the "flagrant" terminology effective with the 2017–18 season, choosing to adopt FIBA's "unsportsmanlike" and "disqualifying" categories.[4] Flagrant, unsportsmanlike, and disqualifying fouls are counted as personal fouls and technical fouls.
A flagrant 1 foul (men's) or unsportsmanlike foul (women's) involves excessive or severe contact during a live ball, including especially when a player "swings an elbow and makes illegal, non-excessive contact with an opponent above the shoulders". This offense includes the former "intentional foul" of fouling an opposing player to prevent an easy breakaway score. In women's basketball only, the unsportsmanlike foul also includes contact dead-ball technical fouls. The penalty for a flagrant 1 or unsportsmanlike foul is two free throws and a throw-in for the opposing team at the out-of-bounds spot nearest the foul.
A flagrant 2 foul (men's) or disqualifying foul (women's) involves unsportsmanlike conduct that is extreme in nature, including "when a player swings an elbow excessively and makes contact above the shoulders", or excessive or severe contact during a dead ball (men only). Fighting is also a flagrant 2 or disqualifying foul. The penalty for a flagrant 2 or disqualifying foul is immediate ejection of the offender, plus two free throws and a throw-in for the opposing team at the division line opposite the scorer's table.
Certain conduct constitutes a flagrant foul despite not being malevolent or unsportsmanlike.[5]
NFHS[edit]
In the United States, the NFHS rulebook defines flagrant fouls in Rule 10: Fouls and Penalties. The word "flagrant" itself is defined in Rule 2: Definitions; 2-16c calls it "a foul so severe or extreme that it places an opponent in danger of serious injury, and/or involves violations that are extremely or persistently vulgar or abusive conduct."
Equivalents in other sports[edit]
In American football, such fouls generally result in an unsportsmanlike conduct penalty and possibly ejection.
In football, such fouls generally result in either a yellow card or a red card being issued.
In ice hockey, such fouls sometimes result in a boarding, attempt to injure or other infraction being called and may result in either a major or game misconduct, or match penalty.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "NBA Rules History". NBA. 2008-05-02. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "ArticleList NBA Rule No. 12: Fouls and Penalties". NBA. 2001-01-31. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
Jump up ^ Greg Johnson (2011-05-26). "PROP approves rules changes". NCAA. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
Jump up ^ "NCAA Women's Basketball Playing Rules History" (PDF). Retrieved February 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ Anthony Chiusano (2017-03-17). "The flagrant foul at the end of Arkansas vs. Seton Hall explained". NCAA. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
Related reading[edit]
NCAA Rule 4: Definitions
NCAA Rule 10: Fouls and Penalties in 2008 NCAA Men's and Women's Basketball Rules
NFHS Rule 2: Definitions 2-16c
NFHS Rule 10: Fouls and Penalties
Kermit Washington, subject (along with Rudy Tomjanovich) of a book: John Feinstein (2002). The Punch: One Night, Two Lives, and the Fight That Changed Basketball Forever. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co. ISBN 0316279722.
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List of solar eclipses visible from the United Kingdom
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Lists of solar eclipses
Geometry of a total solar eclipse
(not to scale)
Centuries
BC[show]
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Eclipses seen from
Australia
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See also Lists of lunar eclipses
This is a list of solar eclipses visible from the United Kingdom (i.e. the islands of Great Britain and Ireland) between AD 1000 – AD 2091.
A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partially obscuring Earth's view of the Sun. Below is a complete list of total and annular eclipses visible anywhere within the modern extent of the United Kingdom between AD 1000 and AD 2090[1] and a description of forthcoming partial solar eclipses visible in Britain in the next fifteen years or so.[2] For a complete list of solar eclipses visible from the United Kingdom between AD 1501 and AD 2500, see the Journal of the British Astronomical Association, February 2001.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 12th century (AD 1101 – 1200)
2 15th to 16th centuries (AD 1401 – 1600)
3 17th to 19th centuries (AD 1601–1900)
4 20th century (AD 1901 – 2000)
5 21st century (AD 2001 – 2100)
6 22nd century (AD 2101 – 2200)
7 References
8 External links
12th century (AD 1101 – 1200)[edit]
2 August 1133[4]
"King Henry's Eclipse": A total eclipse, recorded in the Peterborough Chronicle (under 1135 due to the vagaries of the dating system in use[5]): and the next day, as he lay asleep on ship, the day darkened over all lands, and the Sun was all **
20 March 1140[6]
A total eclipse, recorded by William of Malmesbury in his Historia Novella. In his opinion this was a sign which foretold the capture of King Stephen in the Battle of Lincoln in 1141. This is the Lenten eclipse also reported in the Peterborough Chronicle as being on the thirteenth day before the kalends of April: 'After this, during Lent, the sun and the day darkened about the noon-tide of the day, when men were eating; and they lighted candles to eat by. That was the thirteenth day before the kalends of April. Men were greatly wonderstricken[7] Totality was experienced at about 3.00 pm at the centre line of the eclipse (near Derby).
15th to 16th centuries (AD 1401 – 1600)[edit]
26 June 1424[8]
A total eclipse of almost 2 and a half minutes duration in the extreme north of Scotland, Orkney and Shetland.
17 June 1433[9]
Another Scottish total eclipse from the Hebrides in the north-west to the English borders in the east and then a strip of the Yorkshire coast.
16 March 1485[10]
Partial eclipse visible in London the same day as Richard III's queen, Anne Neville, died. Claimed as an ill omen by Richard's Tudor opponents.
25 February 1598 (March 7, 1598 by Gregorian calendar)
A total eclipse with a diagonal track from Cornwall in the south-west to Aberdeen in the north-east of Scotland.
17th to 19th centuries (AD 1601–1900)[edit]
8 April 1652
Another total solar eclipse with a diagonal track, this time across Pembrokeshire, the Lake District and then Scotland from the south-west to the north-east, including most of the major cities.
3 May 1715 Cambridge, England
12 August 1654
Yet another total eclipse for Scotland, this time a track across the north of Scotland near Aberdeen.
23 September 1699
A narrow path of totality just clipped the north-east corner of Scotland, including Wick.
3 May 1715
A marvellous British Total Solar Eclipse from Cornwall in the south-west to Lincolnshire and Norfolk in the east. Edmund Halley, (later the second man to be appointed Astronomer Royal), observed the eclipse from London. The city of London enjoyed 3 minutes 33 seconds of totality.
22 May 1724
A fine Total Solar Eclipse with a north-west to south-east track, from southern Wales and Devon in the west, eastwards to Hampshire and Sussex, but passing to the south of London.
There was no Total Solar Eclipse visible from the United Kingdom between 1724 and 1925.
20th century (AD 1901 – 2000)[edit]
24 January 1925
Total Solar Eclipse: A short duration total eclipse at sunset in British waters to the north of the Hebrides. Although it nowhere touched land, the path of totality ran very close to several outlying Scottish islands, including St Kilda; the islet of Sula Sgeir experienced 99.9% totality.
29 June 1927
Total Solar Eclipse: A mere 24 seconds of totality in the early morning, along a narrow track from North Wales, through Lancashire to the English north-east coast, but weather was very poor with cloud and high winds. However the Astronomer Royal's expedition to Giggleswick in North Yorkshire was amongst the few to catch sight of totality.
30 June 1954
Total Solar Eclipse at Unst in the Shetland Islands, although the centre line was north of British territorial waters. A large partial eclipse was widely observed over the whole of the UK.
2 October 1959
A partial eclipse visible over the whole of the United Kingdom ranging from approximately 20% in Northern Scotland to approximately 40% in South West Cornwall.
15 February 1961
The United Kingdom was greeted at dawn with a large portion of the Sun covered with maximum eclipse being approximately on the horizon ranging from 85% in Northern Scotland to between 92% and 95% in Southern England.
Partial solar eclipses also occurred on 20 May 1966, 22 September 1968, 25 February 1971, 10 July 1972, 30 June 1973, 11 May 1975, 29 April 1976, 20 July 1982, 15 December 1982, 4 December 1984, 21 May 1993 and 10 May 1994. (Source: HMNAO Eclipses On-line Portal.)
12 October 1996
A partial solar eclipse which covered 60% of the Sun over the British Isles.
11 August 1999
Total Solar Eclipse over Cornwall and part of south Devon, partial over the rest of the United Kingdom. Totality was observable from English Channel and the island of Alderney in the Channel Islands, but was almost universally clouded out on the British mainland. The clouds did clear in the Newquay area, though, allowing observation of full totality. A large partial eclipse was visible in the south-east of England and south Wales. Observers in various places noted birds falling silent, daylight colours turning to grey, and temperatures falling, augmented by a passing wisp of cloud at the moment of peak eclipse.
21st century (AD 2001 – 2100)[edit]
31 May 2003
An annular solar eclipse at sunrise was visible in the far north-west of Scotland.
3 October 2005
Partial eclipse approaching 70% partial in South West England.
29 March 2006
A partial solar eclipse was visible across the UK. South East England saw the greatest magnitude at around 25%, northern Scotland the least at around 15%. The eclipse was total in Libya and Turkey.
1 August 2008
A small partial eclipse over the whole of the UK as a total eclipse crosses central Russia east of the Urals. 40% in the north of Scotland falling to less than 20% in the south-west of England.
4 January 2011
A partial eclipse, which was nowhere total, could be seen at sunrise in South East England, where with a favourable south-eastern horizon a Sun 75% covered by the Moon was seen.
20 March 2015
An eclipse which was total across the north Atlantic including the Faroe Islands resulted in a large partial eclipse across the UK, greater than 80% everywhere. While the line of totality didn't touch land in the United Kingdom, it passed less than ten kilometres to the north-west of the island of Rockall.
21 August 2017
A total solar eclipse in parts of the USA results in a small partial eclipse visible at sunset.
11 August 2018
A very small partial eclipse, about 2%, on the northern coast of Scotland, Orkney and Shetland.
2 July 2019
Although not visible from the British Isles, this eclipse is of note as the next total eclipse visible from British territory; the line of totality passes over Oeno Island in the Pacific Ocean.
10 June 2021
An eclipse which is annular across Canada and the Arctic gives rise to partial eclipse across Britain ranging from 50% in northern Scotland to 30% in south-east England.
25 October 2022
An eclipse which is nowhere total results in a partial eclipse across Britain with north-east Scotland the most favoured, at around 35% falling to less than 20% in Cornwall.
8 April 2024
A partial eclipse may be visible from parts of Britain just before sunset.
29 March 2025
Partial ranging from 40% partial in Kent to about 50% partial in the north-west of Scotland.
12 August 2026
An eclipse which is total across Iceland, the Atlantic Ocean and Spain results in a very large partial eclipse across Britain with western Ireland the most favoured, at around 96% in Cornwall falling to 91% in Aberdeen.
2 August 2027
Partial ranging from about 30% partial in the north of Scotland to almost 60% partial in the south-west of England. Total eclipse from Gibraltar.
26 January 2028
About 40% partial at sunset.
1 June 2030
About 50% partial at sunrise.
21 August 2036
60–70% partial, greatest in the north of Scotland.
16 January 2037
50–60% partial at sunrise, most in the north of Scotland.
5 January 2038
Less than 20% partial nationwide at sunset.
2 July 2038
Less than 20% partial nationwide.
21 June 2039
Over 60% partial, touching 80% in the north of Scotland.
11 June 2048
Annular passing just north of Shetland. Over 60% across mainland UK.
14 November 2050
Over 80% partial across all except south and south west of England.
12 September 2053
40–60% partial, best in south.
5 November 2059
70–80% partial at sunrise, best in SW England.
3 September 2062
Partial grazing the north of Scotland, best in Shetland but still less than 20% partial.
5 February 2065
Partial; over 80% for whole UK. No totality.
21 April 2069
Partial eclipse, peaking at around 50% in NW Scotland.
12 September 2072
Limited partial eclipse peaking at around 40% in NE Scotland.
13 July 2075
Over 60% partial at sunrise nationally.
26 November 2076
Partial, between 40 and 60% partial
1 May 2079
Over 40% partial over 60% in NW Scotland.
3 September 2081
Totality in the Channel Islands, over 80% partial across England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Over 60% through Scotland.
27 February 2082
60–80% partial at sunset, best in the south.
21 April 2088
Around 40–50% partial, best in the south east.
23 September 2090
Total Solar Eclipse: the next total eclipse visible in the UK follows a track similar to that of 11 August 1999, but shifted slightly further north and occurring very near sunset. Maximum duration in Cornwall will be 2 minutes and 10 seconds. Same day and month as the eclipse of 23 September 1699.
18 February 2091
Partial Solar Eclipse: viewable from most areas of the UK. It will be visible from 08:25am to 10:55am, and at its peak at around 09:30am. From southern England about 55% of the Sun will be eclipsed. From northern Scotland, over 60% will be eclipsed.
7 February 2092
40–50% partial at sunset.
23 July 2093
Annular eclipse over southern Scotland, Northern England and most of Northern Ireland. Over 80% partial for the rest of the country. Near the centre line, just over 5 minutes of annularity will be observed. The centre line runs roughly from Ayr to Newcastle.
22nd century (AD 2101 – 2200)[edit]
3 June 2133
Total eclipse over the far north-west of Scotland, including the Isles of Lewis, Harris, northern Skye and Shetland, partial eclipse elsewhere. Maximum duration will be 3 minutes and 36 seconds.
7 October 2135
Total eclipse over central and southern Scotland and north-east England. The centre line runs from the islands of Tiree and Mull, north of Glasgow and south of Edinburgh, through Livingston to Seahouses in Northumberland. Maximum duration will be 4 minutes and 50 seconds.
14 June 2151
Total eclipse over south-west Scotland, Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, north, central and eastern England and north-east Wales. The centre line runs from the southern tip of the Kintyre peninsula in Argyll and Bute, through Lancashire, West and South Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and the Wash to the Suffolk coast. Maximum duration will be 3 minutes and 48 seconds.
4 June 2160
Total eclipse over Land's End in Cornwall and the Scilly Isles, as well as the far southwestern tip of Ireland, partial eclipse elsewhere. Maximum duration will be 2 minutes and 58 seconds.
8 November 2189
Total eclipse over Cornwall and south Devon and the Channel Islands, as well as southwest Ireland, partial eclipse elsewhere. The centre line runs from Tralee, through Truro and passing just to the south of Jersey. Maximum duration will be 4 minutes and 10 seconds.
14 April 2200
Total eclipse over Northern Ireland and northern England. The centre line runs from Enniskillen, through Armagh, Downpatrick, the Isle of Man, Morecambe Bay and North Yorkshire to the East coast between Bridlington and Hornsea. Maximum duration will be 1 minute and 23 seconds.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ UK Solar Eclipses from Year 1 by Sheridan Williams, Clock Tower Press, ISBN 1-85142-093-2, Published 1996
Jump up ^ Fifty Year Canon of Solar Eclipses 1986 – 2035 by Fred Espenak, NASA ISBN 0-933346-45-X, Published 1987
Jump up ^ A Millennium of British solar eclipses (1501–2500) AD, Journal of the British Astronomical Association, Vol 111, pp 88–98 [1]
Jump up ^ Solar eclipse of 2 August 1133
Jump up ^ "Chronology and dating". Medievalgenealogy.org.uk. 2009-07-19. Retrieved 2013-10-01.
Jump up ^ [2] Archived July 25, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ NASA Technical Publication TP-2006-214141 – http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/5MCSE/5MCSE-Maps-08.pdf
Jump up ^ Solar eclipse of June 24, 1424
Jump up ^ Solar eclipse of June 17, 1433
Jump up ^ Solar eclipse of March 16, 1485
External links[edit]
The NASA solar eclipse calculator for Europe
List of solar eclipses in United Kingdom
[show]
v
t
e
Solar eclipses
Lists of eclipses
By century
Antiquity
20th BC
19th BC
18th BC
17th BC
16th BC
15th BC
14th BC
13th BC
12th BC
11th BC
10th BC
9th BC
8th BC
7th BC
6th BC
5th BC
4th BC
3rd BC
2nd BC
1st BC
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th
13th
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
21st
22nd
23rd
24th
25th
26th
27th
28th
29th
30th
Saros series
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
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125
126
127
128
129
130
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132
133
134
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138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
Visibility
Australia
China
Philippines
Russia
Ukraine
United Kingdom
United States
Historical
Mursili's eclipse (1312 BC)
Assyrian eclipse (763 BC)
Eclipse of Thales (585 BC)

Total/hybrid eclipses

→ symbol denotes
next total/hybrid eclipse
1560 Aug 21
1598 Mar 7
1652 Apr 8
1654 Aug 12
1673 Aug 12
1699 Sep 23
1715 May 3
1724 May 22
1766 Feb 9
1778 Jun 24
1780 Oct 27
1806 Jun 16
1816 Nov 19
1824 Jun 26
1842 Jul 8
1851 Jul 28
1853 Nov 30
1857 Mar 25
1858 Sep 7
1860 Jul 18
1865 Apr 25
1867 Aug 29
1868 Aug 18
1869 Aug 7
1870 Dec 22
1871 Dec 12
1874 Apr 16
1875 Apr 6
1878 Jul 29
1882 May 17
1883 May 6
1885 Sep 8
1886 Aug 29
1887 Aug 19
1889 Jan 1
1889 Dec 22
1893 Apr 16
1896 Aug 9
1898 Jan 22
1900 May 28
1901 May 18
1903 Sep 21
1904 Sep 9
1905 Aug 30
1907 Jan 14
1908 Jan 3
1908 Dec 23
1909 Jun 17
1910 May 9
1911 Apr 28
1912 Apr 17
1912 Oct 10
1914 Aug 21
1916 Feb 3
1918 Jun 8
1919 May 29
1921 Oct 1
1922 Sep 21
1923 Sep 10
1925 Jan 24
1926 Jan 14
1927 Jun 29
1928 May 19
1929 May 9
1930 Apr 28
1930 Oct 21
1932 Aug 31
1934 Feb 14
1936 Jun 19
1937 Jun 8
1938 May 29
1939 Oct 12
1940 Oct 1
1941 Sep 21
1943 Feb 4
1944 Jan 25
1944 Jul 20
1945 Jul 9
1947 May 20
1948 Nov 1
1950 Sep 12
1952 Feb 25
1954 Jun 30
1955 Jun 20
1956 Jun 8
1957 Oct 23
1958 Oct 12
1959 Oct 2
1961 Feb 15
1962 Feb 5
1963 Jul 20
1965 May 30
1966 Nov 12
1967 Nov 2
1968 Sep 22
1970 Mar 7
1972 Jul 10
1973 Jun 30
1974 Jun 20
1976 Oct 23
1977 Oct 12
1979 Feb 26
1980 Feb 16
1981 Jul 31
1983 Jun 11
1984 Nov 22
1985 Nov 12
1986 Oct 3
1987 Mar 29
1988 Mar 18
1990 Jul 22
1991 Jul 11
1992 Jun 30
1994 Nov 3
1995 Oct 24
1997 Mar 9
1998 Feb 26
1999 Aug 11
2001 Jun 21
2002 Dec 4
2003 Nov 23
2005 Apr 8
2006 Mar 29
2008 Aug 1
2009 Jul 22
2010 Jul 11
2012 Nov 13
2013 Nov 3
2015 Mar 20
2016 Mar 9
2017 Aug 21
→ 2019 Jul 2
2020 Dec 14
2021 Dec 4
2023 Apr 20
2024 Apr 8
2026 Aug 12
2027 Aug 2
2028 Jul 22
2030 Nov 25
2031 Nov 14
2033 Mar 30
2034 Mar 20
2035 Sep 2
2037 Jul 13
2038 Dec 26
2039 Dec 15
2041 Apr 30
2042 Apr 20
2043 Apr 9
2044 Aug 23
2045 Aug 12
2046 Aug 2
2048 Dec 5
2049 Nov 25
2050 May 20
2052 Mar 30
2053 Sep 12
2055 Jul 24
2057 Jan 5
2057 Dec 26
2059 May 11
2060 Apr 30
2061 Apr 20
2063 Aug 24
2064 Aug 12
2066 Dec 17
2067 Dec 6
2068 May 31
2070 Apr 11
2071 Sep 23
2072 Sep 12
2073 Aug 3
2075 Jan 16
2076 Jan 6
2077 May 22
2078 May 11
2079 May 1
2081 Sep 3
2082 Aug 24
2084 Dec 27
2086 Jun 11
2088 Apr 21
2089 Oct 4
2090 Sep 23
2091 Aug 15
2093 Jan 27
2094 Jan 16
2095 Jun 2
2096 May 22
2097 May 11
2099 Sep 14
2100 Sep 4
2114 Jun 3
2132 Jun 13
2150 Jun 25
2168 Jul 5
2186 Jul 16

Annular eclipses

→ symbol denotes
next annular eclipse
1820 Sep 7
1854 May 26
1879 Jan 22
1889 Jun 28
1901 Nov 11
1903 Mar 29
1904 Mar 17
1905 Mar 6
1907 Jul 10
1908 Jun 28
1911 Oct 22
1914 Feb 25
1915 Feb 14
1915 Aug 10
1916 Jul 30
1917 Dec 14
1918 Dec 3
1919 Nov 22
1921 Apr 8
1922 Mar 28
1923 Mar 17
1925 Jul 20
1926 Jul 9
1927 Jan 3
1929 Nov 1
1932 Mar 7
1933 Feb 24
1933 Aug 21
1934 Aug 10
1935 Dec 25
1936 Dec 13
1937 Dec 2
1939 Apr 19
1940 Apr 7
1941 Mar 27
1943 Aug 1
1945 Jan 14
1947 Nov 12
1948 May 9
1950 Mar 18
1951 Mar 7
1951 Sep 1
1952 Aug 20
1954 Jan 5
1954 Dec 25
1955 Dec 14
1957 Apr 30
1958 Apr 19
1959 Apr 8
1961 Aug 11
1962 Jul 31
1963 Jan 25
1965 Nov 23
1966 May 20
1969 Mar 18
1969 Sep 11
1970 Aug 31
1972 Jan 16
1973 Jan 4
1973 Dec 24
1976 Apr 29
1977 Apr 18
1979 Aug 22
1980 Aug 10
1981 Feb 4
1983 Dec 4
1984 May 30
1987 Sep 23
1988 Sep 11
1990 Jan 26
1991 Jan 15
1992 Jan 4
1994 May 10
1995 Apr 29
1998 Aug 22
1999 Feb 16
2001 Dec 14
2002 Jun 10
2003 May 31
2005 Oct 3
2006 Sep 22
2008 Feb 7
2009 Jan 26
2010 Jan 15
2012 May 20
2013 May 10
2014 Apr 29
2016 Sep 1
2017 Feb 26
→ 2019 Dec 26
2020 Jun 21
2021 Jun 10
2023 Oct 14
2024 Oct 2
2026 Feb 17
2027 Feb 6
2028 Jan 26
2030 Jun 1
2031 May 21
2032 May 9
2034 Sep 12
2035 Mar 9
2038 Jan 5
2038 Jul 2
2039 Jun 21
2041 Oct 25
2042 Oct 14
2043 Oct 3
2044 Feb 28
2045 Feb 16
2046 Feb 5
2048 Jun 11
2049 May 31
2052 Sep 22
2053 Mar 20
2056 Jan 16
2056 Jul 12
2057 Jul 1
2059 Nov 5
2060 Oct 24
2061 Oct 13
2063 Feb 28
2064 Feb 17
2066 Jun 22
2067 Jun 11
2070 Oct 4
2071 Mar 31
2074 Jan 27
2074 Jul 24
2075 Jul 13
2077 Nov 15
2078 Nov 4
2079 Oct 24
2081 Mar 10
2082 Feb 27
2084 Jul 3
2085 Jun 22
2085 Dec 16
2088 Oct 14
2089 Apr 10
2092 Feb 7
2092 Aug 3
2093 Jul 23
2095 Nov 27
2096 Nov 15
2097 Nov 4
2099 Mar 21
2100 Mar 10

Partial eclipses

→ symbol denotes
next partial eclipse
1902 Apr 8
1902 May 7
1902 Oct 31
1906 Feb 23
1906 Jul 21
1906 Aug 20
1909 Dec 12
1910 Nov 2
1913 Apr 6
1913 Aug 31
1913 Sep 30
1916 Dec 24
1917 Jan 23
1917 Jun 19
1917 Jul 19
1920 May 18
1920 Nov 10
1924 Mar 5
1924 Jul 31
1924 Aug 30
1927 Dec 24
1928 Jun 17
1928 Nov 12
1931 Apr 18
1931 Sep 12
1931 Oct 11
1935 Jan 5
1935 Feb 3
1935 Jun 30
1935 Jul 30
1938 Nov 21
1942 Mar 16
1942 Aug 12
1942 Sep 10
1946 Jan 3
1946 May 30
1946 Jun 29
1946 Nov 23
1949 Apr 28
1949 Oct 21
1953 Feb 14
1953 Jul 11
1953 Aug 9
1956 Dec 2
1960 Mar 27
1960 Sep 20
1964 Jan 14
1964 Jun 10
1964 Jul 9
1964 Dec 4
1967 May 9
1968 Mar 28
1971 Feb 25
1971 Jul 22
1971 Aug 20
1974 Dec 13
1975 May 11
1975 Nov 3
1978 Apr 7
1978 Oct 2
1982 Jan 25
1982 Jun 21
1982 Jul 20
1982 Dec 15
1985 May 19
1986 Apr 9
1989 Mar 7
1989 Aug 31
1992 Dec 24
1993 May 21
1993 Nov 13
1996 Apr 17
1996 Oct 12
1997 Sep 2
2000 Feb 5
2000 Jul 1
2000 Jul 31
2000 Dec 25
2004 Apr 19
2004 Oct 14
2007 Mar 19
2011 Jan 4
2011 Jun 1
2011 Jul 1
2011 Nov 25
2014 Oct 23
2015 Sep 13
→ 2018 Feb 15
2018 Jul 13
2018 Aug 11
2019 Jan 6
2022 Apr 30
2022 Oct 25
2025 Mar 29
2025 Sep 21
2029 Jan 14
2029 Jun 12
2029 Jul 11
2032 Nov 3
2033 Sep 23
2036 Feb 27
2036 Jul 23
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_solar_eclipses_visible_from_the_United_Kingdom&oldid=803129158"
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King Stephen of England

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Edmund Halley

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Shetland Islands

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Solar eclipses on Pluto

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