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Monetary hegemony
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Distribution of global reserve currencies
Monetary hegemony is an economic and political concept in which a single state has decisive influence over the functions of the international monetary system. A monetary hegemon would need:
accessibility to international credits,
foreign exchange markets
the management of balance of payments problems in which the hegemon operates under no balance of payments constraint.
the direct (and absolute) power to enforce a unit of account in which economic calculations are made in the world economy.
The term monetary hegemony appeared in Michael Hudson's Super Imperialism, describing not only an asymmetrical relationship that the US dollar has to the global economy, but the structures of this hegemonic edifice that Hudson felt supported it, namely the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. The US dollar continues to underpin the world economy and is the key currency for medium of international exchange, unit of account (e.g. pricing of oil), and unit of storage (e.g. treasury bills and bonds) and, despite arguments to the contrary, is not in a state of hegemonic decline (cf. Fields & Vernengo, 2011, 2012).
The international monetary system has borne witness to two monetary hegemons: Britain and the United States.
Contents
1 British monetary hegemony
2 American monetary hegemony
3 See also
4 Further reading
British monetary hegemony[edit]
Great Britain rose to the status of monetary hegemon in 1871 with widespread adoption of the gold standard. During the gold standard of the late nineteenth century, Britain became the greatest exporter of financial capital. Its capital city, London, also became center of the world gold, money, and financial markets. This was a major reason for states adopting the gold standard. In order for Paris, Berlin, and other financial centers to attract the lucrative financial business from London, it was necessary to emulate Britain’s gold standard, for it reduced transaction costs, represented creditworthiness, and sound financial policy from government (Schwartz, 1996). The city of London was the leading supplier of both short term and long term credit, which was channeled abroad. Its extensive financial facilities provided cheap credit, which enhanced the strength of the pound through deepening its use for international payments. According to Walter (1991), during the decades of 1870-1913, “sterling bills and short-term credits financed perhaps 60 percent of world trade” (p. 88).
Britain’s foreign investment cultivated foreign economies for the use of sterling. In 1850, Britain’s net overseas assets grew from 7 percent of the stock of net national wealth to 14 percent in 1870, and to around 32 percent in 1913 (Edelstein, 1994). The world had never before seen one nation committing so much of its national income and savings to foreign investment. Britain’s foreign lending practices possessed two technical aspects that gave greater credence to the prominence of sterling as a unit of storage and medium of exchange: first, British loans to foreigners were made in sterling, which allowed the borrowing country to service the debt more conveniently with its sterling reserves, and second, Britain’s use of written instructions to pay or bill exchanges were drawn in London to finance international trade.
More importantly, its unrivalled ability to run current account deficits through the issuance of its unquestioned currency and its discount rate endowed Britain with a special privilege. The effects of the discount rate had a “controlling influence on Britain’s balance of payments regardless of what other central banks were doing” (Cleveland, 1976, p. 17). When other central banks engaged in a tug of war over international capital flows, “the Bank of England could tug the hardest” (Eichengreen, 1985, p. 6). In this regard, British monetary hegemony was seldom threatened by crises of convertibility for its gold reserves were insulated by the discount rate and all foreign rates followed the British rate. The prominence of London’s credit drains led Keynes (1930) to write that the sway of London “on credit conditions throughout the world was so predominant that the Bank of England could almost have claimed to be the conductor of the international orchestra” (p. 306-307). Karl Polanyi in his renowned work the Great Transformation states “Pax Britannica held its sway sometimes by the ominous poise of heavy ship’s cannon, but more frequently it prevailed by the timely pull of a thread in the international monetary network” (Polanyi, 1944, p. 24).
Britain’s position waned due to inter-state competition, insufficient domestic investment, and World War I. Despite its economic weaknesses, British political sway continued after World War I, which led to the gold-exchange standard created under the Genoa Conference of 1922. This system failed, however, not only due to Britain’s incapability, but to the growing decentralization of the international monetary system with the rise of New York and Paris as financial centers that resulted in the collapse of the gold exchange standard in 1931. The Gold Exchange standard of the interwar period, as Kindleberger cogently stated, collapsed because "Britain couldn't and America wouldn't." In fact, Kindleberger provides a slightly different variation of monetary hegemony that possesses five functions rather than three defined here.
American monetary hegemony[edit]
Main article: Dollar hegemony
The end of World War II witnessed the recentralization of monetary power in the hands of a United States that had been left largely unscathed by the war. The United States had emerged from World War II with the ideals of economic interdependence, accountability, and altruism, expressed in the vision of universal multilateralism. Above all, multilateralism simply meant nondiscrimination via the elimination or reduction of barriers and obstacles to trade, but more importantly was the maintenance of barriers “that were difficult to apply in a nondiscriminatory manner” (Ruggie, 1982, p. 213). In essence, the term multilateralism differs today, compared to what it meant after World War II. US interests in a multilateral, liberal world economy would not be grounded entirely in idealistic internationalism. There was the cold, calculating necessity of generating a US export surplus. This would obviate government spending, stimulate the domestic economy, substitute for domestic investment, and avert reorganization for certain industries in the economy that were overbuilt during the war effort. For these reasons the “idea of an export surplus took on a special importance” (Block, 1977, p.35) for the US. The production of an export surplus was therefore intimately connected with establishing a world economy that was free of imperial systems, as well as bilateral payments and trading systems. The US would therefore aim to open its predecessor’s empire to American trade and to garner British compliance to create its postwar monetary system through financial leverage, namely the Anglo-American Financial Agreement of 1945.
This new vision of universal multilateralism was, however, forestalled by the new economic realities of a war-torn Europe, symbolized by Britain’s financial inability to maintain sterling convertibility. Combined with this new economic reality was the political-military threat of the Soviet Union. On December 29, 1945, only two days before the expiration of Bretton Woods, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslave Molotov notified George Kennan, “that for the amount [offered] the U.S.S.R. would not subscribe to the articles” (James et al., 1994, p. 617). Two months later, in February 1946, Kennan sent his famous telegram to Washington, which inquired into why the Soviet Union had not ratified the Bretton Woods Agreement. The telegram would later be regarded as the beginning of US Cold War policy (James et al., 1994).
The US thus altered its vision from universal multilateralism to regional multilateralism, which it would promote in Europe through the Marshall Plan, the European Recovery Program (ERP), and the European Payments Union (EPU). With the dissolution of the EPU came the prospect of a real multilateral world as the Bretton Woods monetary system came into effect in 1958. The same year marked the beginning of a permanent US balance of payments deficits.
Throughout the 1960s, the Bretton Woods system had permitted the US to finance approximately 70 percent of its cumulative balance of payments deficits via dual processes of gold demonetization and liability financing. The liability financing enabled the US to undertake heavy overseas military expenditures and “foreign commitments, and to retain substantial flexibility in domestic economic policy” (Gowa, 1983, p. 63).
In 1970, the US was at the center of international instability that was a consequence of its rapid monetary growth (James, 1996). The US, however, had learned from the fate of its predecessor’s key currency (i.e. Sterling). Britain’s experience as monetary hegemon demonstrated to the US the problems faced by a reserve currency when foreign monetary authorities, individuals, and investors chose to convert their reserves. In terms of monetary power defined by reserves, the US share of reserves had fallen from 50 percent in 1950 to 11 percent in August 1971 (Odell, 1982, p. 218). Although, the US had become considerably weak in defending convertibility, its rule-making power was second to none. Rather than being constrained by the system it created, the US moved to the conclusion that it “was better to attack the system than to work within it” (James, 1996, p. 203). This decision was based on the recognition of the inseparability between foreign policy and monetary policy. The termination of the Bretton Woods system signified the subordination of monetary policy to foreign policy. The closing of the gold window was a fix that was assigned to “free…foreign policy from constraints imposed by weaknesses in the financial system” (Gowa, 1983,p. 69).
US Monetary Hegemony persists as does the Bretton Woods System, as Dooley, Folkerts-Landau, Garber (2003) contend in their work An Essay on The Revised Bretton Woods System. The rules of the Bretton Woods system have stayed the same but the players have changed. The Post Bretton Woods system or Bretton Woods II has given rise to a new periphery for which the development strategy is export-led growth supported by undervalued exchange rates,capital controls and official capital outflows in the form of accumulation of reserve asset claims on the center country (i.e. US). In other words, Asia has replaced Europe in financing US balance of payments deficits.
See also[edit]
Federal Reserve System
Numismatics
Petrodollar recycling
Petrodollar warfare
Petroeuro
Seignorage
World currency
Further reading[edit]
Bergsten, C. F. (1975). The dilemmas of the dollar: The economics and politics of United States international monetary policy. London, UK: Macmillan Press Ltd.
Cleveland, H. (1976). "The international monetary system in the interwar period". In Ed. Rowland, B. (1976). Balance of power or hegemony: The interwar monetary system. New York, NY: New York University Press. 1-59.
Cohen, B. (1977). Organizing the world’s money: the political economy of international monetary relations.
De Cecco, M. (1974). Money and empire: The international gold standard, 1890-1914. London, UK: Basil Blackwell.
Edelstein, M. (1994). Foreign investment and accumulation, 1860-1914. In Eds. Floud, R. & McCloskey, D. (1994). The economic history of Britain since 1700 2nd ED, Vol. 2: 1860-1939. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Fields, D.; M. Vernengo (2011). Hegemonic Currencies during the Crisis: The Dollar versus the Euro in a Cartalist Perspective. Levy Economics Institute Working Paper No. 666.
Eichengreen, B. (1985). "Conducting the international orchestra: Bank of England leadership under the classical gold standard". Journal of International Money and Finance. 6 (1): 5–29. doi:10.1016/0261-5606(87)90010-6.
Gilpin, R. (1975). U.S. power and the multinational corporation. London, UK: The Macmillan Press Ltd.
Gilpin, R. (1973). "The politics of transnational economic relations". In Keohane, R. O.; Nye, J. S. Transnational relations and world politics. Cambridge, Mass., USA: Harvard University Press. pp. 48–69.
Gowa, J. (1983). Closing the gold window: Domestic politics and the end of Bretton Woods. Ithaca, New York, USA: Cornell University Press.
Hellenier, E. (1994). States and the reemergence of global finance: From Bretton Woods to the 1990s. Ithaca, New York, USA: Cornell University Press.
Hudson, M. (2003). Super imperialism: The origin and fundamentals of US world dominance (2nd ed.). London, UK: Pluto Press.
James, H.; James, M. (1994). "The origins of the Cold War: Some new documents". The Historical Journal. 37 (3): 615–622. doi:10.1017/s0018246x00014904. JSTOR 2639920.
James, H. (1996). International monetary cooperation since Bretton Woods. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund.
Kindleberger, C. P. (1973). The world in depression. London, UK: Allen Lane The Penguin Press.
Mundell, R. (2003). "Currency areas, exchange rate systems, and international monetary reform". In Salvatore, D.; Dean, J. W.; Willett, T. D. The dollarization debate. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 17–45.
Mundell, R. (1996). "European Monetary Union and the international monetary system". In Baldassarri, A.; Imbriani, C.; Salvatore, D. The international system between new integration and neo-protectionism (Central issues in Contemporary economic theory and policy series). London, UK: Macmillan. pp. 81–128.
Odell, J. S. (1982). U.S. International Monetary Policy. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Ruggie, J. G. (1982). International regimes, transactions, and change: embedded liberalism in the postwar economic order. In Ed. Krasner, S. (1983). International regimes. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 195-231.
Schwartz, A. (1996). The operation of the specie standard: Evidence for core and peripheral countries, 1880-1990. In Ed, Bordo, M. (1999). The gold standard and related regimes: Collected essay. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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Solar eclipse of February 26, 1979
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Solar eclipse of February 26, 1979
Totality as seen from Bozeman, Montana
Map
Type of eclipse
Nature
Total
Gamma
0.8981
Magnitude
1.0391
Maximum eclipse
Duration
169 sec (2 m 49 s)
Coordinates
52°06′N 94°30′W / 52.1°N 94.5°W / 52.1; -94.5
Max. width of band
298 km (185 mi)
Times (UTC)
Greatest eclipse
16:55:06
References
Saros
120 (59 of 71)
Catalog # (SE5000)
9462
A total solar eclipse occurred in North America on Monday, February 26, 1979.
A solar eclipse is an astronomical phenomenon that occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.
The central shadow of the moon passed through the American states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana (where totality covered almost the entire state), and North Dakota, the Canadian provinces Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec, the Northwest Territories of Canada (the portion that is now Nunavut), and Greenland.
Contents
[hide]
1 Visibility
2 In literature
3 Related eclipses
3.1 Solar eclipses of 1979–1982
3.2 Saros 120
3.3 Metonic cycle
4 Notes
5 References
Visibility[edit]
Animation of eclipse path
Many visitors traveled to the Pacific Northwest to view the Monday morning eclipse,[1] as it was the last chance to view a total solar eclipse in the contiguous United States for almost four decades. The next opportunity was 38½ years later on August 21, 2017, also a Monday.
Although the path of totality passed through Portland shortly after sunrise (maximum at 8:14 am PST),[2] it was not directly observable due to overcast skies in northwestern Oregon.[3][4]
About a half hour later, the path of totality was in Manitoba and passed through cloudless Winnipeg in the late morning, maximum was at 10:48 am CST.[5] The greatest eclipse occurred seven minutes later at 10:55 am CST.
In literature[edit]
Writer Annie Dillard viewed the eclipse from the Yakima Valley, in central Washington State. She described her impressions of the eclipse in an essay, "Total Eclipse," first published in the magazine Antaeus and then in her collection, Teaching a Stone to Talk (1982). It was later selected for inclusion in The Best American Essays of the [20th] Century (2000).[6] Dillard describes a nearly overwhelming emotional experience, as suggested in this quotation: "I pray you will never see anything more awful in the sky." Describing the reactions of other onlookers, she relates "I heard screams."
The 1979 eclipse was also referenced in the opening pages of Douglas Coupland's novel, Generation X.
Rural yardlights automatically turned on during totality in Bozeman, Montana
Related eclipses[edit]
A partial lunar eclipse occurred on March 13, 1979, 15 days later, visible over Africa, Europe and Asia. A total lunar eclipse followed on September 6, 1979.
Solar eclipses of 1979–1982[edit]
Each member in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.
[show]Solar eclipse series sets from 1979 to 1982
Descending node
Ascending node
Saros
Map
Saros
Map
120
February 26, 1979
Total 125
August 22, 1979
Annular
130
February 16, 1980
Total 135
August 10, 1980
Annular
140
February 4, 1981
Annular 145
July 31, 1981
Total
150
January 25, 1982
Partial 155
July 20, 1982
Partial
Partial solar eclipses on June 21, 1982 and December 15, 1982 occur in the next lunar year eclipse set.
Saros 120[edit]
It is a part of Saros cycle 120, repeating every 18 years, 11 days, containing 71 events. The series started with partial solar eclipse on May 27, 933 AD, and reached an annular eclipse on August 11, 1059. It was a hybrid event for 3 dates: May 8, 1510, through May 29, 1546, and total eclipses from June 8, 1564, through March 30, 2033. The series ends at member 71 as a partial eclipse on July 7, 2195. The longest duration of totality was 2 minutes, 50 seconds on March 9, 1997.[7]
[show]Series members 55–65 occur between 1901 and 2100
55
56
57

January 14, 1907
January 24, 1925
February 4, 1943
58
59
60

February 15, 1961
February 26, 1979
March 9, 1997
61
62
63

March 20, 2015
March 30, 2033
April 11, 2051
64
65

April 21, 2069
May 2, 2087
Metonic cycle[edit]
The metonic series repeats eclipses every 19 years (6939.69 days), lasting about 5 cycles. Eclipses occur in nearly the same calendar date. In addition, the octon subseries repeats 1/5 of that or every 3.8 years (1387.94 days).
[show]21 events between July 22, 1971 and July 22, 2047
July 21-22
May 9-11
February 26-27
December 14-15
October 2-3
116
118
120
122
124

July 22, 1971
May 11, 1975
February 26, 1979
December 15, 1982
October 3, 1986
126
128
130
132
134

July 22, 1990
May 10, 1994
February 26, 1998
December 14, 2001
October 3, 2005
136
138
140
142
144

July 22, 2009
May 10, 2013
February 26, 2017
December 14, 2020
October 2, 2024
146
148
150
152
154

July 22, 2028
May 9, 2032
February 27, 2036
December 15, 2039
October 3, 2043
156

July 22, 2047
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Eclipse chased across Northwest". Daytona Beach Morning Journal. (Florida). (New York Times). February 27, 1979. p. 1A.
Jump up ^ "Total Eclipse". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). February 25, 1979. p. 6.
Jump up ^ "Thick clouds hide eclipse from many". Eugene Register-Guard. (Florida). Associated Press. February 26, 1979. p. 1A.
Jump up ^ "Sun gives a wink to Northwest U.S.". Spokane Daily Chronicle. (Washington). Associated Press. February 26, 1979. p. 1.
Jump up ^ Van, Jon (February 27, 1979). "Eclipse turns morning to night at 10:48 am". Chicago Tribune. p. 2, sec. 1.
Jump up ^ Atwan, Robert (2001-10-10). Oates, Joyce Carol, ed. The Best American Essays of the Century (Reprint ed.). Mariner Books. ISBN 9780618155873.
Jump up ^ http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEsaros/SEsaros120.html
References[edit]
Earth visibility chart and eclipse statistics Eclipse Predictions by Fred Espenak, NASA/GSFC
Google interactive map
Besselian elements
eclipse.org.uk Total Eclipse of the Sun: 1979 February 26
Predictions for the 1979 solar eclipse Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Journal, vol. 72, June 1978, pp. 149–161 Fred Espenak
Photos/observations:
Eclipse Chaser's Journal: Part 1, My First Total Solar Eclipse: February 26. 1979, Jeffrey R. Charles
http://nicmosis.as.arizona.edu:8000/ECLIPSE_WEB/ECLIPSE_79/ECLIPSE_79.html
1979 Solar Eclipse – ABC News Coverage Excerpts from an ABC News Special Report that aired at 11:00–11:29 a.m. EST on Monday, Feb. 26, 1979
1979 Total Solar Eclipse Report on CBS News with Walter Cronkite The February 26, 1979 total solar eclipse story as reported on the CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite.
Solar Eclipse Photo Gallery 1, 1970 – 1984 Fred Espenak
Solar eclipse 1979, Manitoba, Canada
Portland, Oregon, February 26, 1979
[show]
v
t
e
Solar eclipses
Lists of eclipses
By century
Antiquity
20th BC
19th BC
18th BC
17th BC
16th BC
15th BC
14th BC
13th BC
12th BC
11th BC
10th BC
9th BC
8th BC
7th BC
6th BC
5th BC
4th BC
3rd BC
2nd BC
1st BC
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
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11th
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14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
21st
22nd
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30th
Saros series
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156
157
158
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160
161
162
Visibility
Australia
China
Philippines
Russia
Ukraine
United Kingdom
United States
Historical
Mursili's eclipse (1312 BC)
Assyrian eclipse (763 BC)
Eclipse of Thales (585 BC)

Total/hybrid eclipses

→ symbol denotes
next total/hybrid eclipse
1560 Aug 21
1598 Mar 7
1652 Apr 8
1654 Aug 12
1673 Aug 12
1699 Sep 23
1715 May 3
1724 May 22
1766 Feb 9
1778 Jun 24
1780 Oct 27
1806 Jun 16
1816 Nov 19
1824 Jun 26
1842 Jul 8
1851 Jul 28
1853 Nov 30
1857 Mar 25
1858 Sep 7
1860 Jul 18
1865 Apr 25
1867 Aug 29
1868 Aug 18
1869 Aug 7
1870 Dec 22
1871 Dec 12
1874 Apr 16
1875 Apr 6
1878 Jul 29
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1883 May 6
1885 Sep 8
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1887 Aug 19
1889 Jan 1
1889 Dec 22
1893 Apr 16
1896 Aug 9
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1900 May 28
1901 May 18
1903 Sep 21
1904 Sep 9
1905 Aug 30
1907 Jan 14
1908 Jan 3
1908 Dec 23
1909 Jun 17
1910 May 9
1911 Apr 28
1912 Apr 17
1912 Oct 10
1914 Aug 21
1916 Feb 3
1918 Jun 8
1919 May 29
1921 Oct 1
1922 Sep 21
1923 Sep 10
1925 Jan 24
1926 Jan 14
1927 Jun 29
1928 May 19
1929 May 9
1930 Apr 28
1930 Oct 21
1932 Aug 31
1934 Feb 14
1936 Jun 19
1937 Jun 8
1938 May 29
1939 Oct 12
1940 Oct 1
1941 Sep 21
1943 Feb 4
1944 Jan 25
1944 Jul 20
1945 Jul 9
1947 May 20
1948 Nov 1
1950 Sep 12
1952 Feb 25
1954 Jun 30
1955 Jun 20
1956 Jun 8
1957 Oct 23
1958 Oct 12
1959 Oct 2
1961 Feb 15
1962 Feb 5
1963 Jul 20
1965 May 30
1966 Nov 12
1967 Nov 2
1968 Sep 22
1970 Mar 7
1972 Jul 10
1973 Jun 30
1974 Jun 20
1976 Oct 23
1977 Oct 12
1979 Feb 26
1980 Feb 16
1981 Jul 31
1983 Jun 11
1984 Nov 22
1985 Nov 12
1986 Oct 3
1987 Mar 29
1988 Mar 18
1990 Jul 22
1991 Jul 11
1992 Jun 30
1994 Nov 3
1995 Oct 24
1997 Mar 9
1998 Feb 26
1999 Aug 11
2001 Jun 21
2002 Dec 4
2003 Nov 23
2005 Apr 8
2006 Mar 29
2008 Aug 1
2009 Jul 22
2010 Jul 11
2012 Nov 13
2013 Nov 3
2015 Mar 20
2016 Mar 9
2017 Aug 21
→ 2019 Jul 2
2020 Dec 14
2021 Dec 4
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2026 Aug 12
2027 Aug 2
2028 Jul 22
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2031 Nov 14
2033 Mar 30
2034 Mar 20
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2038 Dec 26
2039 Dec 15
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Vitas Gerulaitis
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Vitas Gerulaitis
Vitas Gerulaitis at the 1978 ABN World Tennis Tournament
Country (sports)
United States
Born
(1954-07-26)July 26, 1954
Brooklyn, New York, U.S.
Died
September 17, 1994(1994-09-17) (aged 40)
Southampton, New York, U.S.
Height
1.83 m (6 ft 0 in)
Turned pro
1971
Retired
1986
Plays
Right-handed (one-handed backhand)
Prize money
$2,778,748
Singles
Career record
520–223 (Grand Prix, WCT and Grand Slam level, and in Davis Cup)
Career titles
26
Highest ranking
No. 3 (February 27, 1978)
Grand Slam Singles results
Australian Open
W (1977Dec)
French Open
F (1980)
Wimbledon
SF (1977, 1978)
US Open
F (1979)
Other tournaments
Tour Finals
F (1979, 1981)
WCT Finals
W (1978)
Doubles
Career record
164–123 (Grand Prix, WCT and Grand Slam level, and in Davis Cup)
Career titles
8
Highest ranking
No. 43 (May 20, 1985)
Grand Slam Doubles results
Australian Open
1R (1983)
French Open
QF (1980)
Wimbledon
W (1975)
US Open
3R (1972)
Vytautas Kevin Gerulaitis (July 26, 1954 – September 17, 1994) was an American professional tennis player. In 1975, Gerulaitis won the men's doubles title at Wimbledon, partnering with Sandy Mayer. He won the men's singles title at one of the two Australian Open tournaments held in 1977 (Gerulaitis won the tournament that was held in December, while Roscoe Tanner won the earlier January tournament). Gerulaitis also won two Italian Open titles, in 1977 and 1979, and the WCT Finals in Dallas, in 1978.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biography
2 Career highlights
3 Death
4 Grand Slam finals
4.1 Singles: 3 (1–2)
5 Singles performance timeline
6 Grand Prix, WCT, and Grand Slam finals
6.1 ATP Singles finals: 56 (26 titles, 30 runners-up)
6.2 Doubles: 20 (8–12)
7 Commemoration
8 Quote
9 References
10 Video
11 External links
Biography[edit]
Gerulaitis, a Lithuanian American,[1] was born on July 26, 1954, in Brooklyn, New York, to Lithuanian immigrant parents, and grew up in Howard Beach, Queens.[2] He attended Archbishop Molloy High School in Queens, graduating in 1971. He attended Columbia College of Columbia University for one year before dropping out to pursue tennis full-time. Gerulaitis was nicknamed "The Lithuanian Lion".[3]
Career highlights[edit]
Gerulaitis led the Pittsburgh Triangles to the World TeamTennis championship title at Pittsburgh's Civic Arena in 1975. Gerulaitis played for the Triangles from 1974 until 1976. He also played for the league's Indiana Loves franchise in 1977.
Gerulaitis was coached by Fred Stolle from 1977 until 1983.
He also won the men's doubles title at Wimbledon in 1975. He was a singles semi-finalist at Wimbledon in both 1977 and 1978. In 1977 he lost a Wimbledon semifinal to his close friend and practice partner, Björn Borg, 6–4, 3–6, 6–3, 3–6, 8–6, a match later considered one of the greatest of the decade.[4]
In 1977 Gerulaitis won the most significant title of his career at the Australian Open, when he defeated John Lloyd in the men's singles final in five sets.
In 1978 Gerulaitis won the year-end championship WCT Finals for the World Championship Tennis tour, beating Eddie Dibbs 6–3, 6–2, 6–1. By 1978 he was the third-ranked men's singles player in the world.
In 1979 Gerulaitis lost in the men's singles finals at the US Open to fellow New Yorker, John McEnroe, in straight sets. He was a member of the United States team which won the Davis Cup in 1979. He won two singles "rubbers" in the final, as the US beat Italy 5–0.
Gerulaitis reached his third Grand Slam singles final in 1980, when he lost in the final of the French Open to Björn Borg in straight sets.
In February 1981 Gerulaitis won a star-laden invitational tournament in Toronto, defeating John McEnroe in the final after having defeated Jimmy Connors in the semifinal.
During his career Gerulaitis won 25 top-level singles titles and 8 doubles titles. His career-high singles ranking was World No. 3 which he reached on February 27, 1978.
Gerulaitis was known for his exceptionally quick hands at the net and his outstanding court coverage.[5] In 1985 Gerulaitis teamed with Bobby Riggs to launch a challenge to female players after the famous Battle of the Sexes. The stunt, however, was short-lived when Gerulaitis and Riggs lost a doubles match against Martina Navratilova and Pam Shriver.
He retired from the professional tour in 1986. He was a regular tennis commentator on the USA network between 1988 and 1994.
Gerulaitis coached Pete Sampras during the 1994 Italian Open in Rome, when Sampras' coach, Tim Gullikson, was on a family vacation. Sampras won the title by defeating Boris Becker in the final in straight sets.
Gerulaitis is the subject of a Half Man Half Biscuit song from the McIntyre, Treadmore and Davitt album, "Outbreak of Vitas Gerulaitis".
Death[edit]
Gerulaitis died on September 17, 1994, at the age of 40. While he was visiting a friend's home in Southampton, Long Island, an improperly installed pool heater caused carbon monoxide gas to seep into the guesthouse where Gerulaitis was sleeping, causing his death by carbon monoxide poisoning. Gerulaitis failed to show up for a dinner at 7 p.m. that evening and his body was found the following day by a maid who went to the guesthouse.[6] Gerulaitis' remains were interred in Saint Charles Cemetery in Farmingdale, Long Island, New York.
Grand Slam finals[edit]
Singles: 3 (1–2)[edit]
Outcome
Year
Championship
Surface
Opponent
Score
Winner 1977 Australian Open Grass John Lloyd 6–3, 7–6(7–1), 5–7, 3–6, 6–2
Runner-up 1979 US Open Hard John McEnroe 5–7, 3–6, 3–6
Runner-up 1980 French Open Clay Björn Borg 4–6, 1–6, 2–6
Singles performance timeline[edit]
Tournament
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
SR
W – L
Grand Slam tournaments
Australian Open (Jan) A A A A A A A Not Held 0 / 0 0–0
French Open A A A A A A A A SF F 1R QF 1R 2R 1R A 0 / 7 16–7
Wimbledon A A A 1R 1R QF SF SF 1R 4R 4R QF 2R 4R 3R A 0 / 12 30–12
US Open 1R 2R 1R 2R 2R 4R 4R SF F 2R SF 1R 3R 4R 3R A 0 / 15 33–15
Australian Open (Dec) Not Held W A A 1R A A 2R 2R A NH 1 / 4 6–3
Win – Loss
0–1
1–1
0–1
1–2
1–2
7–2
14–2
10–2
11–3
10–4
8–3
8–3
3–4
7–4
4–3
0–0
1/38
85–37
Year End Championships
Masters Grand Prix A A A A A A A A F A F R16 A R16 A A
0 / 4
6–6
WCT Finals A A A A A A SF W SF A A A SF QF A A
1 / 5
7–4
Win – Loss
0–0
0–0
0–0
0–0
0–0
0–0
1–1
2–0
4–3
0–0
3–2
0–1
2–1
1–2
0–0
0–0
1 / 9
13–10
Career statistics
Tournaments Played 9 20 15 19 20 18 22 22 19 20 21 22 15 2
244
Titles – Finals
0–0
1–2
2–7
0–3
5–9
3–5
3–6
3–6
1–4
5–7
1–2
1–3
0–0
0–0
25–54
Overall Win – Loss
7–9
33–19
38–13
31–19
60–16
46–15
64–20
52–19
43–19
61–15
32–20
34–20
12–15
0–2
510–221
Win %
44%
63%
75%
62%
79%
75%
76%
73%
69%
80%
62%
63%
44%
0%
70%
Year End Ranking
131 47 15 18 4 5 4 9 9 5 20 17 81 799
Grand Prix, WCT, and Grand Slam finals[edit]
ATP Singles finals: 56 (26 titles, 30 runners-up)[edit]
Outcome
No.
Year
Tournament
Surface
Opponent
Score
Runner-up 1. 1974 Salt Lake City, US Hard (i) Jimmy Connors 6–4, 6–7, 3–6
Winner 1. 1974 Vienna, Austria Hard (i) Andrew Pattison 6–4, 3–6, 6–3, 6–2
Runner-up 2. 1975 Philadelphia WCT, US Carpet Marty Riessen 6–7(1–7), 7–5, 2–6, 7–6(7–0), 3–6
Runner-up 3. 1975 Roanoke, US Hard (i) Roger Taylor 6–7, 6–7
Runner-up 4. 1975 Salisbury, US Carpet Jimmy Connors 7–5, 5–7, 1–6, 6–3, 0–6
Winner 2. 1975 New York City, US Carpet Jimmy Connors walkover
Runner-up 5. 1975 Orlando WCT, US Hard Rod Laver 3–6, 4–6
Winner 3. 1975 St. Louis, US Clay Roscoe Tanner 2–6, 6–2, 6–3
Runner-up 6. 1975 Bermuda Clay Jimmy Connors 1–6, 4–6
Runner-up 7. 1976 Indianapolis WCT, US Carpet Arthur Ashe 2–6, 7–6(8–6), 4–6
Runner-up 8. 1976 Toronto Indoor WCT, Canada Carpet Björn Borg 6–2, 3–6, 1–6
Runner-up 9. 1976 Charlotte WCT, US Carpet Tony Roche 3–6, 6–3, 1–6
Runner-up 10. 1977 Richmond WCT, US Carpet Tom Okker 6–3, 3–6, 4–6
Winner 4. 1977 Ocean City, US Hard Robert Lutz 3–6, 6–1, 6–2
Runner-up 11. 1977 Monterrey WCT, Mexico Carpet Wojtek Fibak 4–6, 3–6
Runner-up 12. 1977 London WCT, UK Hard (i) Eddie Dibbs 6–7(2–7), 7–6(7–5), 4–6
Runner-up 13. 1977 Houston WCT, US Hard Adriano Panatta 6–7(4–7), 7–6(7–3), 1–6
Winner 5. 1977 Rome, Italy Clay Antonio Zugarelli 6–2, 7–6(7–2), 3–6, 7–6(7–5)
Winner 6. 1977 Brisbane, Australia Grass Tony Roche 6–7, 6–1, 6–1, 7–5
Winner 7. 1977 Perth, Australia Hard Geoff Masters 6–3, 6–4, 6–2
Winner 8. 1977 Australian Open, Melbourne Grass John Lloyd 6–3, 7–6(7–1), 5–7, 3–6, 6–2
Winner 9. 1978 Richmond WCT, US Carpet John Newcombe 6–3, 6–4
Runner-up 14. 1978 Las Vegas, US Hard Björn Borg 5–6, 6–5, 4–6, 5–6
Runner-up 15. 1978 Milan WCT, Italy Carpet Björn Borg 3–6, 3–6
Winner 10. 1978 WCT Finals, US Carpet Eddie Dibbs 6–3, 6–2, 6–1
Winner 11. 1978 Forest Hills, US - WCT Invitational Clay Ilie Năstase 6–2, 6–0
Runner-up 16. 1979 Monte Carlo, Monaco Clay Björn Borg 2–6, 1–6, 3–6
Winner 12. 1979 Rome, Italy Clay Guillermo Vilas 6–7(4–7), 7–6(7–0), 6–7(5–7), 6–4, 6–2
Winner 13. 1979 Kitzbühel, Austria Clay Pavel Složil 6–2, 6–2, 6–4
Runner-up 17. 1979 US Open, New York Hard John McEnroe 5–7, 3–6, 3–6
Winner 14. 1979 Sydney Indoor, Australia Hard (i) Guillermo Vilas 4–6, 6–3, 6–1, 7–6
Runner-up 18. 1979 Masters, New York Carpet Björn Borg 2–6, 2–6
Winner 15. 1979 Arkansas International Tennis Tournament, Little Rock US Carpet (i) Butch Walts 6–2, 6–2
Runner-up 19. 1979 Dorado Beach, Puerto Rico Hard Jimmy Connors 5–6, 0–6, 4–6
Runner-up 20. 1980 Pepsi Grand Slam, Boca Raton Clay Björn Borg 1–6, 7–5, 1–6
Winner 16. 1980 WCT Tournament of Champions, US Clay John McEnroe 2–6, 6–2, 6–0
Runner-up 21. 1980 French Open, Paris Clay Björn Borg 4–6, 1–6, 2–6
Winner 17. 1980 Stuttgart Outdoor, Germany Clay Wojtek Fibak 6–2, 7–5, 6–2
Runner-up 22. 1980 Sydney Indoor, Australia Hard (i) John McEnroe 3–6, 4–6
Winner 18. 1980 Melbourne Indoor, Australia Carpet Peter McNamara 7–5, 6–3
Runner-up 23. 1981 Monterrey WCT, Mexico Carpet Johan Kriek 6–7, 6–3, 6–7
Runner-up 24. 1981 Melbourne Indoor, Australia Carpet Peter McNamara 6–4, 1–6, 5–5 retired
Winner 19. 1981 Johannesburg, South Africa Hard Jeff Borowiak 6–4, 7–6, 6–1
Runner-up 25. 1981 Masters, New York Carpet Ivan Lendl 7–6(7–5), 6–2, 6–7(6–8), 2–6, 4–6
Runner-up 26. 1982 Genova WCT, Italy Carpet Ivan Lendl 7–6, 4–6, 4–6, 3–6
Winner 20. 1982 Brussels, Belgium Hard (i) Mats Wilander 4–6, 7–6, 6–2
Runner-up 27. 1982 Zürich WCT, Switzerland Carpet Bill Scanlon 5–7, 6–7, 6–1, 6–0, 4–6
Winner 21. 1982 Florence, Italy Clay Stefan Simonsson 4–6, 6–3, 6–1
Winner 22. 1982 Toronto, Canada Hard Ivan Lendl 4–6, 6–1, 6–3
Winner 23. 1982 Melbourne Indoor, Australia Carpet Eliot Teltscher 2–6, 6–2, 6–2
Winner 24. 1982 Johannesburg, South Africa Hard Guillermo Vilas 7–6, 6–2, 4–6, 7–6
Runner-up 28. 1983 Forest Hills WCT, US Clay John McEnroe 3–6, 5–7
Winner 25. 1983 Basel, Switzerland Hard (i) Wojtek Fibak 4–6, 6–1, 7–5, 5–5, retired
Runner-up 29. 1984 Toronto, Canada Hard John McEnroe 0–6, 3–6
Winner 26. 1984 Treviso, Italy Carpet Tarik Benhabiles 6–1, 6–1
Runner-up 30. 1984 Johannesburg, South Africa Hard Eliot Teltscher 3–6, 1–6, 6–7
Doubles: 20 (8–12)[edit]
Outcome
No.
Year
Tournament
Surface
Partner
Opponents
Score
Winner 1. 1974 Roanoke, US Indoors Sandy Mayer Ian Crookenden
Jeff Simpson 7–6, 6–1
Runner-up 1. 1974 Little Rock, US Carpet Bob Hewitt Jürgen Fassbender
Karl Meiler 0–6, 2–6
Winner 2. 1974 Salt Lake City, US Indoors Jimmy Connors Iván Molina
Jairo Velasco, Sr. 2–6, 7–6, 7–5
Runner-up 2. 1974 Oslo, Norway Indoor Jeff Borowiak Karl Meiler
Haroon Rahim 3–6, 2–6
Winner 3. 1975 Roanoke, US Indoors Sandy Mayer Juan Gisbert
Ion Ţiriac 7–6, 1–6, 6–3
Winner 4. 1975 Wimbledon, London Grass Sandy Mayer Colin Dowdeswell
Allan Stone 7–5, 8–6, 6–4
Runner-up 3. 1976 Indianapolis WCT, US Carpet Tom Gorman Robert Lutz
Stan Smith 2–6, 4–6
Winner 5. 1976 Boca Raton, US Hard Clark Graebner Bruce Manson
Butch Walts 6–2, 6–4
Winner 6. 1976 Fort Worth WCT, US Hard Sandy Mayer Eddie Dibbs
Harold Solomon 6–4, 7–5
Runner-up 4. 1976 Charlotte WCT, US Carpet Gene Mayer John Newcombe
Tony Roche 3–6, 5–7
Runner-up 5. 1976 South Orange, US Clay Ilie Năstase Fred McNair
Marty Riessen 5–7, 6–4, 2–6
Runner-up 6. 1977 Masters Doubles WCT, New York Carpet Adriano Panatta Vijay Amritraj
Dick Stockton 6–7, 6–7, 6–4, 3–6
Winner 7. 1977 Brisbane, Australia Grass Bill Scanlon Mal Anderson
Ken Rosewall 7–6, 6–4
Winner 8. 1978 Birmingham WCT, US Carpet Sandy Mayer Frew McMillan
Dick Stockton 3–6, 6–1, 7–6
Runner-up 7. 1978 Philadelphia WCT, US Carpet Sandy Mayer Bob Hewitt
Frew McMillan 4–6, 4–6
Runner-up 8. 1978 Richmond WCT, US Carpet Sandy Mayer Bob Hewitt
Frew McMillan 3–6, 5–7
Runner-up 9. 1980 Monte Carlo, Monaco Clay John McEnroe Paolo Bertolucci
Adriano Panatta 2–6, 7–5, 3–6
Runner-up 10. 1980 Sydney Outdoor, Australia Grass Brian Gottfried Peter McNamara
Paul McNamee 2–6, 4–6
Runner-up 11. 1981 Frankfurt, Germany Carpet John McEnroe Brian Teacher
Butch Walts 5–7, 7–6, 5–7
Runner-up 12. 1985 Rotterdam, Netherlands Carpet Paul McNamee Pavel Složil
Tomáš Šmíd 4–6, 4–6
Commemoration[edit]
The Vitas Gerulaitis Memorial Tennis Centre was opened in Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania.[7] Also, a street in Vilnius is named after him.
Quote[edit]
Tennis portal
"And let that be a lesson to you all. Nobody beats Vitas Gerulaitis 17 times in a row."[8]
– after defeating Jimmy Connors at the January 1980 Masters. Gerulaitis had lost their previous 16 matches.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Peter R. Eisenstadt, Laura-Eve Moss (2005). The encyclopedia of New York State. Syracuse University Press. p. 910.
Jump up ^ Sports of The Times; 'We've Lost Another of Our Kids', The New York Times, September 20, 1994. Accessed November 3, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Read 'em and Leap". People. November 19, 1979. Retrieved May 14, 2008.
Jump up ^ "BBC SPORT - Tennis - Wimbledon History - Classic Matches: Borg v Gerulaitis".
Jump up ^ Finn, Robin (September 20, 1994). "Tennis Greats Call Gerulaitis A Friend First". The New York Times. New York. Retrieved September 5, 2008.
Jump up ^ Gerulaitis died of Carbon monoxide poisoning, Philly.com, September 20, 1994.
Jump up ^ "GB's trip into the unknown". BBC News. September 23, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Roger Federer Unbuttoned". International Herald Tribune. July 9, 2009 – via The New York Times.
Video[edit]
Wimbledon Classic Match: Gerulaitis vs Borg Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: October 31, 2006, Run Time: 180 minutes, ASIN: B000ICLR8O.
External links[edit]
Vitas Gerulaitis at the Association of Tennis Professionals
Vitas Gerulaitis at the International Tennis Federation
Vitas Gerulaitis at the Davis Cup
Vitas Gerulaitis at Find a Grave
Awards
Preceded by
Guillermo Vilas ATP Most Improved Player
1975 Succeeded by
Wojtek Fibak
[show]
v
t
e
Australian Open men's singles champions
(1969) Rod Laver
(1970) Arthur Ashe
(1971) Ken Rosewall
(1972) Ken Rosewall
(1973) John Newcombe
(1974) Jimmy Connors
(1975) John Newcombe
(1976) Mark Edmondson
(1977 (Jan)) Roscoe Tanner
(1977 (Dec)) Vitas Gerulaitis
(1978) Guillermo Vilas
(1979) Guillermo Vilas
(1980) Brian Teacher
(1981) Johan Kriek
(1982) Johan Kriek
(1983) Mats Wilander
(1984) Mats Wilander
(1985) Stefan Edberg
(1986) Not Held
(1987) Stefan Edberg
(1988) Mats Wilander
(1989) Ivan Lendl
(1990) Ivan Lendl
(1991) Boris Becker
(1992) Jim Courier
(1993) Jim Courier
(1994) Pete Sampras
(1995) Andre Agassi
(1996) Boris Becker
(1997) Pete Sampras
(1998) Petr Korda
(1999) Yevgeny Kafelnikov
(2000) Andre Agassi
(2001) Andre Agassi
(2002) Thomas Johansson
(2003) Andre Agassi
(2004) Roger Federer
(2005) Marat Safin
(2006) Roger Federer
(2007) Roger Federer
(2008) Novak Djokovic
(2009) Rafael Nadal
(2010) Roger Federer
(2011) Novak Djokovic
(2012) Novak Djokovic
(2013) Novak Djokovic
(2014) Stanislas Wawrinka
(2015) Novak Djokovic
(2016) Novak Djokovic
(2017) Roger Federer
(2018) Roger Federer
[show]
v
t
e
Wimbledon (Open Era) gentlemen's doubles champions
(1968) John Newcombe / Tony Roche
(1969) John Newcombe / Tony Roche
(1970) John Newcombe / Tony Roche
(1971) Roy Emerson / Rod Laver
(1972) Bob Hewitt / Frew McMillan
(1973) Jimmy Connors / Ilie Năstase
(1974) John Newcombe / Tony Roche
(1975) Vitas Gerulaitis / Gene Mayer
(1976) Brian Gottfried / Raúl Ramírez
(1977) Ross Case / Geoff Masters
(1978) Bob Hewitt / Frew McMillan
(1979) Peter Fleming / John McEnroe
(1980) Peter McNamara / Paul McNamee
(1981) Peter Fleming / John McEnroe
(1982) Peter McNamara / Paul McNamee
(1983) Peter Fleming / John McEnroe
(1984) Peter Fleming / John McEnroe
(1985) Heinz Günthardt / Balázs Taróczy
(1986) Joakim Nyström / Mats Wilander
(1987) Ken Flach / Robert Seguso
(1988) Ken Flach / Robert Seguso
(1989) John Fitzgerald / Anders Järryd
(1990) Rick Leach / Jim Pugh
(1991) John Fitzgerald / Anders Järryd
(1992) John McEnroe / Michael Stich
(1993) Todd Woodbridge / Mark Woodforde
(1994) Todd Woodbridge / Mark Woodforde
(1995) Todd Woodbridge / Mark Woodforde
(1996) Todd Woodbridge / Mark Woodforde
(1997) Todd Woodbridge / Mark Woodforde
(1998) Jacco Eltingh / Paul Haarhuis
(1999) Mahesh Bhupathi / Leander Paes
(2000) Todd Woodbridge / Mark Woodforde
(2001) Donald Johnson / Jared Palmer
(2002) Jonas Björkman / Todd Woodbridge
(2003) Jonas Björkman / Todd Woodbridge
(2004) Jonas Björkman / Todd Woodbridge
(2005) Stephen Huss / Wesley Moodie
(2006) Bob Bryan / Mike Bryan
(2007) Arnaud Clément / Michaël Llodra
(2008) Daniel Nestor / Nenad Zimonjić
(2009) Daniel Nestor / Nenad Zimonjić
(2010) Jürgen Melzer / Philipp Petzschner
(2011) Bob Bryan / Mike Bryan
(2012) Jonathan Marray / Frederik Nielsen
(2013) Bob Bryan / Mike Bryan
(2014) Vasek Pospisil / Jack Sock
(2015) Jean-Julien Rojer / Horia Tecău
(2016) Pierre-Hugues Herbert / Nicolas Mahut
(2017) Łukasz Kubot / Marcelo Melo
[show]
v
t
e
WCT year end championship winners singles
(1971) Ken Rosewall
(1972) Ken Rosewall
(1973) Stan Smith
(1974) John Newcombe
(1975) Arthur Ashe
(1976) Björn Borg
(1977) Jimmy Connors
(1978) Vitas Gerulaitis
(1979) John McEnroe
(1980) Jimmy Connors
(1981) John McEnroe
(1982) Ivan Lendl
(1983) John McEnroe
(1984) John McEnroe
(1985) Ivan Lendl
(1986) Anders Järryd
(1987) Miloslav Mečíř
(1988) Boris Becker
(1989) John McEnroe
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitas_Gerulaitis&oldid=828709750"
Categories:
1954 births
1994 deaths
Accidental deaths in New York (state)
American male tennis players
American people of Lithuanian descent
Archbishop Molloy High School alumni
Australian Open (tennis) champions
Burials at Saint Charles Cemetery
Columbia Lions men's tennis players
Deaths from carbon monoxide poisoning
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's doubles
Lithuanian male tennis players
Sportspeople from Brooklyn
Sportspeople from Queens, New York
Tennis people from New York (state)
Wimbledon champions
Hidden categories:
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Procedures of the United States Congress
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Procedures of the United States Congress are established ways of doing legislative business. Congress has two-year terms with one session each year. There are rules and procedures, often complex, which guide how it converts ideas for legislation into laws.
How U. S. federal legislation is made[1]
Contents
1 Sessions
2 Joint sessions
3 Bills and resolutions
4 How bills become laws
5 Quorum and vote
6 References
7 External links
Sessions[edit]
A term of Congress is divided into two "sessions", one for each year; Congress has occasionally also been called into an extra, (or special) session (the Constitution requires Congress to meet at least once each year). A new session commences on January 3 (or another date, if Congress so chooses) each year. Before the Twentieth Amendment, Congress met from the first Monday in December to April or May in the first session of their term (the "long session"); and from December to March 4 in the second "short session". (The new Congress would then meet for some days, for the inauguration, swearing in new members, and organization.)
The southwest corner of the United States Capital in Washington. The Constitution forbids Congress from meeting elsewhere.
The Constitution forbids either house from meeting any place outside the Capital, or from adjourning for more than three days, without the consent of the other house. The provision was intended to prevent one house from thwarting legislative business simply by refusing to meet. To avoid obtaining consent during long recesses, the House or Senate may sometimes hold pro forma meetings, sometimes only minutes long, every three days. The consent of both bodies is required for Congress's final adjournment, or adjournment sine die, at the end of each congressional session. If the two houses cannot agree on a date, the Constitution permits the President to settle the dispute.
Joint sessions[edit]
Main article: Joint session of the United States Congress
Joint Sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from both House and Senate. These sessions include the counting of electoral votes following a Presidential election and the President's State of the Union address. Other meetings of both House and Senate are called Joint Meetings of Congress, held after unanimous consent agreements to recess and meet. Meetings of Congress for Presidential Inaugurations may also be Joint Sessions, if both House and Senate are in session at the time, otherwise they are formal joint gatherings.
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt delivers his annual State of the Union speech to Congress in 1941. The annual speech is a custom re-established by President Woodrow Wilson.
At some time during the first two months of each session, the President customarily delivers the State of the Union Address, a speech in which he assesses the situation of the country and outlines his legislative proposals for the congressional session. The speech is modeled on the Speech from the Throne given by the British monarch, and is mandated by the Constitution of the United States—though it is not necessarily required to be delivered each year or in the customary manner. Thomas Jefferson discontinued the original practice of delivering the speech in person before both houses of Congress, deeming it too monarchical. Instead, Jefferson and his successors sent a written message to Congress each year. In 1913, President Woodrow Wilson reestablished the practice of personally attending to deliver the speech; few Presidents have deviated from this custom since.
Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House except for the joint session to count electoral votes for President, when the Constitution requires the President of the Senate (the Vice President of the United States) to preside.
Bills and resolutions[edit]
House Financial Services committee members sit in the tiers of raised chairs, while those testifying and audience members sit below.
Ideas for legislation can come from many areas, including members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, an executive agency such as the president or cabinet officer or executive agency, and the usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review.[2] A proposal has usually one of four principal forms: the bill, the joint resolution, the concurrent resolution, and the simple resolution.[3]
House representatives at a press conference announcing H.R. 3004 in 2005.
Bills are laws in the making. A House-originated bill begins with the letters "H.R." for "House of Representatives", followed by a number kept as it progresses.[3] It is presented to the president after both Houses agree.[3]
Joint resolutions There is little practical difference between a bill and a joint resolution since both are treated similarly; a joint resolution originating from the House, for example, begins "H.J.Res." followed by its number.[3]
Concurrent Resolutions affect only the House and Senate, and accordingly aren't presented to the president for approval later. In the House, it begins with "H.Con.Res."[3]
Simple resolutions concern only the House or only the Senate and begin with "H.Res."[3]
Any member of Congress may introduce a bill at any time while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk's desk.[3] A sponsor's signature is required, and there can be many co-sponsors. It's assigned a number by the Clerk. Then it's referred to a committee.[3] Committees study each bill intensely at this stage.[3]
Here is the draft of a bill called the Coinage Act of 1873 passed by the House of Representatives ready to be considered by the Senate in 1873. The wording of the final statute is most likely different from this one.
The most important executive communication is usually the president's annual message which contains a lengthy budget proposal.[2] Drafting statutes is an art that requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience."[2] Congressional committees sometimes draft bills after studies and hearings covering periods of a year or more.[2] A proposal may be introduced in Congress as a bill, a joint resolution, a concurrent resolution, or a simple resolution. Most legislative proposals are introduced as bills, but some are introduced as joint resolutions. There is little practical difference between the two, except that joint resolutions may include preambles but bills may not. Joint resolutions are the normal method used to propose a constitutional amendment or to declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law. Instead, they serve to express the opinion of Congress, or to regulate procedure. In many cases, lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Congressional lobbyists are legally required to be registered in a central database.
How bills become laws[edit]
Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. However, the Constitution provides that: "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives." As a result, the Senate does not have the power to initiate bills imposing taxes. Furthermore, the House of Representatives holds that the Senate does not have the power to originate appropriation bills, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds. Historically, the Senate has disputed the interpretation advocated by the House. However, whenever the Senate originates an appropriations bill, the House simply refuses to consider it, thereby settling the dispute in practice. Nevertheless, while the Senate cannot originate revenue and appropriation bills, it does retain the power to amend or reject them. A congressional act in 1974 established procedures to try to establish appropriate annual spending levels.[4]
The Government Accountability Office is an important information-gathering agency for Congress.
Each bill goes through several stages in each house. The first stage involves consideration by a committee which often seeks input from relevant departments as well as requests feedback from the Government Accountability Office.[5] Most legislation is considered by standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a particular subject matter, such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month.[6] Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting.[6] Open committee meetings may be covered by the media.[6] In some cases, bills may be sent to select committees, which tend to have more narrow jurisdictions than standing committees. If a bill is important, the committee may set a date for public hearings announced by the committee's chairman.[7] Each standing and select committee is led by a chair (who belongs to the majority party) and a ranking member (who belongs to the minority party). Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill.[3] Sometimes transcripts of these meetings are made public.[3] Then, a bill may go to what's called a mark-up session where committee members debate the bill's merits and may offer amendments or revisions.[3] Committees are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence when considering bills. They may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After considering and debating a measure, the committee votes on whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. Not reporting a bill or tabling it means it has been rejected. If amendments to a bill are extensive, then sometimes a new bill with all the amendments built in will be written, sometimes known as a clean bill with a new number.[3]
Both houses provide for procedures under which the committee can be bypassed or overruled, but they are rarely used. If reported by the committee, the bill reaches the floor of the full house which considers it. This can be simple or complex.[3] Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution hammering out the particulars of debate–time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such.[3] Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak.[3] Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it.[3] Generally, discussion requires a quorum, usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions.[8]
The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House of Representatives and the Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows.
Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other, which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill.[3] If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee, an ad hoc committee that includes both senators and representatives.[3] One mechanism Congress uses to work within revenue constraints is called the reconciliation process which is a multiple step way to keep new budgets within the bounds of existing ones.[4] In addition, both Houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay-as-you-go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts which increase budget deficits.[4]
In many cases, conference committees have introduced substantial changes to bills and added unrequested spending, significantly departing from both the House and Senate versions. President Ronald Reagan once quipped, "If an orange and an apple went into conference consultations, it might come out a pear."[9] If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes; otherwise, it fails.
There are a variety of means for members to vote on bills, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting.[10] Most votes, including quorum votes, are done electronically, and allow members to vote yea or nay or present.[10] They light up when the vote is in process.[10] Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used on some occasions (yea indicated by the color green, nay by red.)[10] To conduct a voice vote the chairman asks As many as are in favor say Aye, as many as are opposed, say No.[10] Rules permit live media coverage of voting, although prohibit use of these broadcasts for political purposes or political advertisements.[10] House rules require a three-fifths vote to pass a ruling that contains a specified federal income tax rate increase.[10] One member can't cast a vote for another member.[10] It's possible for citizens to learn how congresspersons voted by consulting an online database.[11]
This second floor committee room in Congress Hall in Philadelphia has a portrait of Marie Antoinette which was presented as a gift from the French monarch following the American Revolution.
After passage by both houses, a bill is considered to be enrolled and is sent to the president for approval.[3] The president may sign the bill and make it law. The President may also choose to veto the bill, returning it to Congress with his objections. In such a case, the bill only becomes law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two-thirds majority. Finally, the president may choose to take no action, neither signing nor vetoing the bill. In such a case, the Constitution states that the bill automatically becomes law after ten days, excluding Sundays, unless Congress is adjourned during this period. Therefore, the president may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and cannot be overridden by the adjourned Congress.
Every Act of Congress or joint resolution begins with an enacting formula or resolving formula stipulated by law. These are:
Act of Congress: "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled."
Joint resolution: "Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled."
Quorum and vote[edit]
See also: Voting methods in deliberative assemblies
The Constitution specifies that a majority of members constitutes a quorum to do business in each house. The rules of each house provide that a quorum is assumed to be present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary. Representatives and senators rarely force the presence of a quorum by demanding quorum calls; thus, in most cases, debates continue even if a majority is not present.
Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters; members shout out "aye" or "no," and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution, however, requires a recorded vote on the demand of one-fifth of the members present. If the result of the voice vote is unclear, or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually ensues. The Senate uses roll-call votes; a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye" or "no" when his or her name is announced. The House reserves roll-call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll-call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. In the Senate, the Vice President may (if present) cast the tiebreaking vote.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ “How Our Laws Are Made” infographic by Mike Wirth and Dr. Suzanne Cooper-Guasco for Sunlight Foundation “Design for America Competition” 2010, sources: “How Our Laws Are Made” by John V. Sullivan (Rev. 6.24.07 thomas.loc.gov) and What is a Lobbyist? - wiseGEEK and Reconciliation in the Senate - Brookings Institution Archived 2012-01-18 at the Wayback Machine..
^ Jump up to: a b c d John V. Sullivan (July 24, 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-09-11. Sources of ideas for legislation are unlimited and proposed drafts of bills originate in many diverse quarters.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t 111th Congress, 2nd session (2010). "Tying It All Together: Learn about the Legislative Process". United States House of Representatives. Archived from the original on 2011-04-20. Retrieved 2010-09-11. The chief function of Congress is the making of laws.
^ Jump up to: a b c John V. Sullivan (July 24, 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-09-11. The Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974, as amended, provides Congress with a procedure to establish appropriate spending and revenue levels for each year. The congressional budget process, as set out in that Act, is designed to coordinate decisions on sources and levels of revenues and on objects and levels of expenditures.
Jump up ^ John V. Sullivan (July 24, 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-09-11. One of the first actions taken by a committee is to seek the input of the relevant departments and agencies about a bill. Frequently, the bill is also submitted to the Government Accountability Office with a request for an official report of views on the necessity or desirability of enacting the bill into law. Normally, ample time is given for the submission of the reports and they are accorded serious consideration.
^ Jump up to: a b c John V. Sullivan (July 24, 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-09-11. Standing committees are required to have regular meeting days at least once a month.
Jump up ^ John V. Sullivan (July 24, 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-09-11. If the bill is of sufficient importance, the committee may set a date for public hearings. The chairman of each committee, except for the Committee on Rules, is required to make public announcement of the date, place, and subject matter of any hearing at least one week before the commencement of that hearing, unless the committee chairman with the concurrence of the ranking minority member or the committee by majority vote determines that there is good cause to begin the hearing at an earlier date. If that determination is made, the chairman must make a public announcement to that effect at the earliest possible date.
Jump up ^ "NEWS FROM WASHINGTON". The New York Times. December 3, 1861. Retrieved 2010-09-11. Congress assembled to-day, and contrary to expectations, more than a quorum was present in each House. From the Senate, BRECKINRIDGE, of Kentucky, and JOHNSON, of Missouri, were absent -- both now holding commands in the rebel army. Senators POWELL, BAYARD and POLK, whose sympathy with the rebellion during the extra session and since were too apparent to be consistent with their resuming their seats, were nevertheless present. JOHNSON, of Tennessee, was absent, being now near his home looking after the interests of his constituents.
Jump up ^ "The 7-step towards formalisation of Indo-US nuke Bill". Yahoo! News India. ANI. 2006-11-17. Retrieved 2007-08-04. If an orange and an apple went into conference consultations, it might come out a pear [dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h John V. Sullivan (July 24, 2007). "How Our Laws Are Made". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2010-09-11. System of Lights and Bells -- Due to the diverse nature of daily tasks that they have to perform, it is not practicable for Members to be present in the House or Senate Chamber at every minute that the body is in session. Furthermore, many of the routine matters do not require the personal attendance of all the Members. A system consisting of electric lights and bells or buzzers located in various parts of the Capitol Building and House and Senate Office Buildings alerts Members to certain occurrences in the House and Senate Chambers. In the House, the Speaker has ordered that the bells and lights comprising the system be utilized as follows....
Jump up ^ United States government. "Recent Votes". United States Senate. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to United States Congress.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Procedures of the United States Congress
How Laws Are Made, via U.S. Government Printing Office
How Our Laws Are Made by John V. Sullivan, 2007. Detailed information about rules and procedures of the Congress.
Congressional Glossary, via C-SPAN
Selected Congressional Research Service Reports on Congress and Its Procedures, via Law Librarians' Society of Washington, D.C.
Thomas Legislative Information via Library of Congress
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Procedures_of_the_United_States_Congress&oldid=865420795"
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