text:
Congressional Baseball Game
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Party
Wins
Democratic
40
Republican
42
Ties
1
The Congressional Baseball Game for Charity[1] is an annual baseball game played each summer by members of the United States Congress. The game began as a casual event among colleagues in 1909[2] and eventually evolved into one of Washington, D.C.'s most anticipated annual pastimes, according to the House of Representatives Office of the Historian. In the game, Republicans and Democrats form separate teams and play against each other.
The game raises money for three local charities: The Boys and Girls Clubs of Greater Washington, The Washington Nationals Dream Foundation, and The Washington Literacy Center.[3][4] The game is usually attended by crowds of congressional staffers and, occasionally, even dignitaries and presidents.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Locations
3 Rosters
3.1 Hall of Fame
4 Uniforms and fanfare
5 Game results
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Representative John Tener of Pennsylvania, a former professional baseball player, organized the inaugural baseball game in 1909.[4] The Boston Daily Globe observed, "The game was brewing for weeks and the members of the house were keyed up a high pitch of enthusiasm. Deep, dark rumors were in circulation that 'ringers' would be introduced, but when they lined up at 4 o'clock the nine Republicans were stalwart, grand old party men, while the Democrats were of the pure Jeffersonian strain."[6]
John Tener organized the first Congressional baseball game
The Democrats drubbed their Republican opponents, 26–16 in the first game and continued their winning streak for the first six games. Republicans won their first game in 1916. Due to its growing popularity, the Congressional Baseball Game was first covered via radio in 1928. The radio broadcast continued in succeeding years.[6]
The event has at times interrupted the work flow of Congress. In 1914, Speaker James Beauchamp "Champ" Clark of Missouri became frustrated with the Congressional Baseball Game interfering with legislative business. An Appropriations bill on Civil War cotton damage was to be debated on the House floor, but a quorum was not present because of the game. Speaker Clark sent the House Sergeant at Arms to American League Field to return the Members to the House chamber. When the Sergeant at Arms Charles P. Higgins arrived, rain had already canceled the game. The House eventually achieved a quorum, but adjourned without making progress on the bill because Members remained preoccupied with their unfinished work on the baseball diamond.[6]
Despite its appeal, the annual game occurred intermittently because of interruptions due to the Great Depression, the Second World War, and intervention by the House leadership. For a while the game was held biennially, until the Washington Evening Star newspaper sponsored it annually from 1946 to 1958. Despite the sponsorship, Speaker Sam Rayburn of Texas ended the game in 1958, saying it had become too physically straining on the members and was causing injuries.[6] Speaker John McCormack of Massachusetts revived the game in 1962 with the support of the then-new Capitol Hill newspaper Roll Call and the game has been held every year since.[4] With the new sponsor, the Roll Call Trophy was created, for the team that wins each best-of-five series. It was first awarded in 1965—to the Republican team, which was the first team to win three games since Roll Call had begun its sponsorship. Since 1965, a new trophy is awarded to the next team to win three games (over the next three, four, or five years), following the year in which the most recent trophy was awarded. As of the 2017 game, 14 trophies have been awarded—ten to the Republicans' team and four to the Democrats' team.[7]
On June 14, 2017, one day before the annual event, a gunman opened fire on Republican members of Congress who were practicing for the next day's game.[8] Four people were shot including House Majority Whip Steve Scalise. The gunman was himself shot by Capitol Police and died at a nearby hospital later that day.[9] Despite discussions about postponing the game, officials said the game would be held as scheduled.[4][10] The shooting resulted in a dramatic increase in interest for the game; it was reported that revenue from ticket sales and online donations had exceeded $1 million, and organizers stated that 24,959 people were in attendance[11] C-SPAN also announced that it would televise the game.[12]
Locations[edit]
Speaker Longworth throws out the first ball at the starting game at Griffith Stadium, Mrs. Longworth seated below, May 3, 1928.
Memorial Stadium, Baltimore
Games were initially held at American League Park, and later Griffith Stadium in Northwest Washington, D.C. In 1962, the game was moved to the new District Stadium (later known as Robert F. Kennedy Stadium), where it remained until 1972, with the departure of the second iteration of the Washington Senators to Texas and RFK therefore no longer needing a long-term baseball seating layout or field. For the next two decades, the teams played at the Memorial Stadium in Baltimore, Maryland; one year (1977) at Langley High School in McLean, Virginia; and Four Mile Run Park in Alexandria, Virginia. From 1995 to 2004, the game was played in Prince George's Stadium in Bowie, Maryland. From 2005 to 2007, the event temporarily returned to RFK Stadium—following the move of the Montreal Expos to Washington as the Nationals—while they awaited construction of Nationals Park, which opened in 2008.[13]
In the late 1960s, Sears, Roebuck and Company established and sponsored a post-game reception for members of Congress and their staffs. Member attendance was very low until 1972 when the management of the event was taken over by Sears' Washington office Public Information officer, Larry Horist. He established the Most Valuable Player awards to be voted by each team and presented by the Speaker of the House and the Majority Leader of the Senate. In addition, Horist obtained photos of the players in their hometown uniforms and produced thousands of baseball cards packaged in gum wrappers. A limited number of autographed master sheets of the cards occasionally appear for sale on Internet auction sites. The cards included such personalities as Senator Eugene McCarthy (D-MN), Barry Goldwater, Jr. (R-AZ), and professional player "Vinegar Bend" Mizell (R-NC). The cards received notable publicity in the Washington Post and were accepted as part of the permanent collection of the Baseball Hall of Fame.[14]
Rosters[edit]
Nicholas Longworth at bat during the game, 1911
Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium
For the 2017 team rosters, see footnote.[15]
While the modern Congressional Baseball Game comprises both House and Senate Members, this was not always the case. From 1909 to 1949, House Members exclusively filled the rosters—although there appears to have been no prohibition against Senators. Bicameral baseball was inaugurated in 1950, when Senator Harry P. Cain of Washington joined the Republican team and Senator-elect George Smathers of Florida, a former Representative, joined the Democratic team.[16]
In a few cases, former professional baseball players were elected to Congress and had a large impact on the game. In the case of Wilmer "Vinegar Bend" Mizell of North Carolina, a former professional pitcher, the Republican team was victorious for each year that he played. Fielding a once-a-year team presented some problems for members, who often grew rusty when it came to batting. Strong pitching proved decisive in most games but, in 1963, neither team could field a pitcher. As a result, relief pitcher George Susce of the Washington Senators pitched for both teams.
In 1917, Representative Jeannette Rankin of Montana tossed out the first pitch and kept score, becoming the first woman to participate in the annual event. More than 70 years later, in 1993, Representatives Ileana Ros-Lehtinen of Florida, Maria Cantwell of Washington, and Blanche Lincoln of Arkansas became the first women to break into the starting lineup.[16]
In 1971, the first African Americans joined the game. Delegate Walter E. Fauntroy of the District of Columbia and Rep. Ronald Dellums of California joined the Democratic roster. Despite Fauntroy's hitting prowess, the Democrats lost their eighth straight annual game, 7–3.[16]
In 1909, Rep. Joseph F. O'Connell of Massachusetts hit the first home run, gaining three runs for the Democrats. In the same year, Republican Rep. Edward B. Vreeland of New York was the first player to be withdrawn due to an injury. In 1957, Rep. Gerald Ford of Michigan hit the first known grand slam, while playing for the Republicans.[17] In 1979, Republican Rep. Ron Paul of Texas hit what was believed to be (at that time) the first home run hit over the fence.[18] Rep. John Shimkus of Illinois is the only other player to hit an out-of-the-park home run, doing so in 1997.[18] Paul was inducted into the Congressional Baseball Hall of Fame prior to the 2012 game.[19]
Hall of Fame[edit]
For a brief description of each of the 1993–2011 inductees, see footnote.[18]
The Roll Call Congressional Baseball Hall of Fame was founded in 1993.[18]
Year
Inductee
Notes
1993 John Tener Organized the first Congressional Baseball Game
Wilmer Mizell
William M. Wheeler
Ron Mottl
Silvio Conte
Robert H. Michel
Marty Russo
1995 Dave McCurdy
1996 Mike Synar
1997 Bill Richardson
1998 Sid Yudain Founder of Roll Call
1999 Dan Schaefer
2000 Carl Pursell
2002 Steve Largent
2003 David Bonior
2004 Charlie Brotman Helped Sid Yudain revive Congressional baseball in the 1960s
2006 Martin Sabo
2007 Mike Oxley
2008 Lou Frey
2009 Kenny Hulshof
2011 Mel Watt
2012 Ron Paul Hit first over-the-wall home run in 1979
2013 Zach Wamp
2014 Bart Stupak
2015 Skip Maraney Pioneered Roll Call's sports coverage
Uniforms and fanfare[edit]
In the early years of the game, each team wore a uniform that was either plain or had the words "Republicans" or "Democrats" embroidered on it. In modern games, members typically have worn uniforms of the professional baseball teams or college baseball teams in their congressional district or home state. In the 1920s, pomp and fanfare preceded each game. The United States Navy Band and United States Marine Corps Band traditionally kicked off the festivities with patriotic tunes. In 1926, the Republicans paraded into American League Field on a live elephant, while in 1932 both teams had costumed mascots entertain the crowds. During the 1960s, the teams had cheerleaders dressed in uniforms.[20]
Game results[edit]
As of the 2017 game, Republicans lead the all-time series, 42–40–1.[21][22] Scores, locations, and other details of past games are available here to the extent they are known.[21]
Year
Date
Location
Winner
Score
Notes
1909 American League Park II Democrats 26–16
1910 No game – –
1911 Georgetown Field Democrats 12–9
1912 National Park Democrats 21–20
1913 National Park Democrats 29–4 Game was called due to rain in the 4th inning. Members disputed whether it counted as a full game.
1914 National Park Democrats –
1915 National Park Democrats –
1916 National Park Republicans 18–13
1917 National Park Democrats 22–21
1918 National Park Republicans 19–5
1919 National Park Republicans –
1920–1925 No information – – Newspaper accounts refer to the 1926 game as the first game in years.
1926 Griffith Stadium Democrats 12–9
1927 No game – –
1928 Griffith Stadium Democrats 36–4
1929 No game – –
1930 No information – – Newspaper accounts refer to the game during this period as "biennial."
1931 No game – –
1932 Griffith Stadium Republicans 19–5 The official score of this game is disputed. Umpire Tunney ruled a high fly ball hit in the last inning by Republicans an out instead of a home run.
1933 Griffith Stadium Republicans 18–16
1934–1944 No information – – In lieu of a traditional Congressional Baseball Game, ballgames between members and the press were played in 1935, 1938, 1939, and 1941.
1945 Griffith Stadium Democrats –
1946 Griffith Stadium Democrats –
1947 Griffith Stadium Republicans 16–13
1948 Griffith Stadium Democrats 23–14
1949 Griffith Stadium Democrats 16–10
1950 Griffith Stadium Democrats 8–4
1951 Griffith Stadium Democrats 7–3
1952 Griffith Stadium Democrats 6–3
1953 June 5[7] Griffith Stadium Democrats 3–2
1954 Griffith Stadium Democrats 2–1
1955 Griffith Stadium Republicans 12–4
1956 Griffith Stadium Republicans 8–7
1957 Griffith Stadium Democrats 10–9
1958–1961 No game – –
1962 D.C. Stadium Republicans 4–0
1963 D.C. Stadium Democrats 11–0
1964 D.C. Stadium Republicans 6–5
1965 D.C. Stadium Republicans 3–1 Roll Call Trophy[23]
1966 D.C. Stadium Republicans 14–7
1967 D.C. Stadium Republicans 9–7
1968 D.C. Stadium Republicans 16–1 Roll Call Trophy
1969 RFK Stadium Republicans 6–2
1970 RFK Stadium Republicans 6–4
1971 RFK Stadium Republicans 7–3 Roll Call Trophy
1972 RFK Stadium Republicans 7–2
1973 Memorial Stadium Republicans 12–4
1974 Memorial Stadium Republicans 7–3 Roll Call Trophy
1975 Memorial Stadium Democrats 3–2
1976 Memorial Stadium Democrats 5–4
1977 Langley High School, McLean, Virginia Republicans 7–6 A rainout forced the game to an alternative field.
1978 Four Mile Run Park Republicans 4–3
1979 Four Mile Run Park Democrats 7–3 Roll Call Trophy
1980 Four Mile Run Park Democrats 21–9
1981 Four Mile Run Park Republicans 6–4
1982 Four Mile Run Park Democrats 7–5 Video of the entire 1982 game, C-SPAN
1983 Four Mile Run Park Tied 17–17 Called after 9 innings.
Video of the entire 1983 game, C-SPAN
1984 Four Mile Run Park Republicans 13–4
1985 Four Mile Run Park Republicans 9–3 Roll Call Trophy
1986 Four Mile Run Park Democrats 8–6
1987 Four Mile Run Park Democrats 15–14
1988 Four Mile Run Park Republicans 14–13
1989 Four Mile Run Park Republicans 8–2
1990 Four Mile Run Park Republicans 9–6 Roll Call Trophy
1991 Four Mile Run Park Democrats 13–9
1992 Four Mile Run Park Republicans 11–7
1993 Four Mile Run Park Democrats 13–1
1994 Four Mile Run Park Democrats 9–2 Roll Call Trophy
Rep. Mike Oxley (R-OH) broke his arm when colliding with Rep. Sherrod Brown (D-OH) at first base.[24]
Highlights of the 1994 game, C-SPAN
1995 August 1 Prince George's Stadium Republicans 6–0 Highlights of the 1995 game, C-SPAN
1996 Prince George's Stadium Democrats 16–14
1997 Prince George's Stadium Republicans 10–9
1998 Prince George's Stadium Republicans 4–1 Roll Call Trophy
1999 Prince George's Stadium Republicans 17–1
2000 Prince George's Stadium Democrats 13–8
2001 Prince George's Stadium Republicans 9–1
2002 Prince George's Stadium Republicans 9–2 Roll Call Trophy
2003 Prince George's Stadium Republicans 5–3
2004 Prince George's Stadium Republicans 14–7
2005 RFK Stadium Republicans 19–10 Roll Call Trophy
2006 RFK Stadium Republicans 12–1
2007 RFK Stadium Republicans 5–2
2008 Nationals Park Republicans 11–10 Roll Call Trophy
2009 Nationals Park Democrats 15–10
2010 June 29[25] Nationals Park Democrats 13–5
2011 Nationals Park Democrats 8–2 Roll Call Trophy
2012 Nationals Park Democrats 18–5
2013 Nationals Park Democrats 22–0
2014 Nationals Park Democrats 15–6 Roll Call Trophy
2015 June 11[26] Nationals Park Democrats 5–2 Interview with team managers Joe Barton (R-TX) and Mike Doyle (D-PA) about the tradition of the Congressional Baseball Game, Washington Journal, C-SPAN
2016 June 23[27] Nationals Park Republicans 8–7
2017 June 15[28] Nationals Park Democrats 11–2 Shooting occurred at Republican practice on June 14
Video of the entire game, C-SPAN
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Congressional Baseball Game for Charity homepage". congressionalbaseball.org. The Congressional Baseball Game for Charity. Retrieved 2017-06-15.
Jump up ^ "History of the Congressional Baseball Game". congressionalbaseball.org. The Congressional Baseball Game for Charity. Retrieved 2017-06-15.
Jump up ^ "What's the history behind the annual congressional baseball game?". NBC News. Retrieved 2017-06-14.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "What's the history behind the annual congressional baseball game?". NBC News. Retrieved 2017-06-14.
Jump up ^ "The Congressional Baseball Game: Statistics". history.house.gov. Office of the Historian, and Office of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved June 13, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "History of the Game". US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives. Retrieved June 17, 2017. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
^ Jump up to: a b "Congressional Baseball Game: History". history.house.gov. Office of the Historian, and Office of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved June 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ "GOP baseball shooting: Lawmaker Scalise wounded, one person in custody". Washington Post. Retrieved June 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ Tovey, Josephine. "US Congressman Steve Scalise hit in shooting in Washington DC suburb". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved June 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ Stein, Sam; Fuller, Matt (June 14, 2017). "Congressional Baseball Game Will Go On After Shooting". Huffington Post. Retrieved June 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Congressional Baseball-related donations exceed $1 million". ESPN.com. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "C-Span To Air Congressional Baseball Game For Charity On Thursday". Deadline. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Congressional Baseball Game Location". history.house.gov. Office of the Historian, and Office of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved June 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ Stern, Seth (July 12, 2011). "Hall of Fame: Mel Watt Lives His Dream". Roll Call.
Jump up ^ "2017 rosters". congressionalbaseball.org. The Congressional Baseball Game for Charity. Retrieved 2017-06-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Congressional Baseball Game: Rosters". history.house.gov. Office of the Historian, and Office of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved June 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Baseball Firsts & Notables". U.S. House of Representatives: History, Art, and Archives. Retrieved November 3, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Meyers, David (June 27, 2012). "Home Run Lands Ron Paul in Hall of Fame". Roll Call. CQ Roll Call. Retrieved June 16, 2017. The Texas Republican is believed to be the first person to hit one out of the park in a Congressional Baseball Game.
Jump up ^ Rivera, Francis (June 28, 2012). "Ron Paul inducted into Congressional Baseball Hall of Fame – in Astros garb". The Houston Chronicle.
Jump up ^ "Congressional Baseball Game: Fanfare". history.house.gov. Office of the Historian, and Office of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved June 13, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Wins & Losses Through the Years". History, Art & Archives / U.S. House of Representatives. Office of the Historian, Office of Art & Archives, and Office of the Clerk / U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved 2017-06-16.
Jump up ^ The official website of the Congressional Baseball Game for Charity seemingly does not count three of those Republican wins, because its History page listed (in 2017, but prior to the 2017 game) the series record as 39–39–1 (in a blue, red, white, and black bar near the bottom of the page). The same page, however, states—in reference to the Roll Call Trophy—that "[t]o date, 10 of these coveted trophies have been awarded, eight to the Republicans and two to the Democrats." History of the Congressional Baseball Game (The Congressional Baseball Game for Charity. Retrieved 2017-06-16). That statement indicates that the paragraphs of the History page were probably written after the 2002 game and before the 2005 game, because the tenth trophy was awarded in 2002 and the eleventh trophy was awarded in 2005. The Republicans won their 35th game in 2002 and then won seven more games thereafter (in 2003 to 2008, plus 2016). As of 2002, the Democrats had won 32 games; from 2003 to 2016, the Democrats won seven more games, for a total of 39 wins (as of the 2016 game). Although the series record that is set forth in the bar near the bottom of the page includes the Democrats' seven wins between 2003 and 2016, the bar includes only four of the Republicans' seven wins during that same time period. Wins & Losses Through the Years (History, Art & Archives / U.S. House of Representatives. Office of the Historian, Office of Art & Archives, and Office of the Clerk / U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved 2017-06-16.).
Jump up ^ When Roll Call assumed sponsorship of the game in 1962, a best of five game trophy series was created. Roll Call awards a trophy when a team wins 3 games of a series.
Jump up ^ Terris, Ben (11 June 2013). "The Fiercest Battle in D.C. Is on the Baseball Diamond". The Atlantic. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
Jump up ^ SB Nation DC, The 2010 Congressional Baseball Game, Starring Older Gentlemen In Ill-Fitting Jerseys And Pitching Miscues, June 30, 2010.
Jump up ^ WTOP, Democrats snag series lead in Congressional Baseball Game, June 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ Roll Call, Republicans Turn Back Democrats in Thriller, 8–7, June 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ CNN, The Congressional baseball game is a long-running, bipartisan tradition, June 14, 2017.
External links[edit]
Official website
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text:
Decomposer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For The Matches album of the same name, see Decomposer (album).
The fungi on this tree are decomposers.
Decomposers are organisms that break down dead or decaying organisms, and in doing so, they carry out the natural process of decomposition.[1] Like herbivores and predators, decomposers are heterotrophic, meaning that they use organic substrates to get their energy, carbon and nutrients for growth and development. While the terms decomposer and detritivore are often interchangeably used, detritivores must ingest and digest dead matter via internal processes while decomposers can directly absorb nutrients through chemical and biological processes hence breaking down matter without ingesting it.[2] Thus, invertebrates such as earthworms, woodlice, and sea cucumbers are technically detritivores, not decomposers, since they must ingest nutrients and are unable to absorb them externally.
Contents
[hide]
1 Fungi
2 See also
3 References
4 Further reading
Fungi[edit]
The primary decomposers of litter in many ecosystems are fungi.[citation needed] Unlike bacteria, which are unicellular organisms, most saprotrophic fungi grow as a branching network of hyphae. While bacteria are restricted to growing and feeding on the exposed surfaces of organic matter, fungi can use their hyphae to penetrate larger pieces of organic matter. Additionally, only wood-decay fungi have evolved the enzymes necessary to decompose lignin, a chemically complex substance found in wood.[3] These two factors make fungi the primary decomposers in forests, where litter has high concentrations of lignin and often occurs in large pieces. Fungi decompose organic matter by releasing enzymes to break down the decaying material, after which they absorb the nutrients in the decaying material.[4] Hyphae used to break down matter and absorb nutrients are also used in reproduction. When two compatible fungii hyphae grow close to each other, they will then fuse together for reproduction and form another fungus.[4]
See also[edit]
Chemotroph
Micro-animals
Microorganism
References[edit]
Jump up ^ NOAA. ACE Basin National Estuarine Research Reserve: Decomposers.
Jump up ^ Trophic level. Eds. M.McGinley & C.J.cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC
Jump up ^ Blanchette, Robert (September 1991). "Delignification by Wood-Decay Fungi". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 29: 281–403. doi:10.1146/annurev.py.29.090191.002121. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Waggoner, Ben; Speer, Brian. "Fungi: Life History and Ecology". Introduction to the Funge=24 January 2014.
Further reading[edit]
Beare, MH; Hendrix, PF; Cheng, W (1992). "Microbial and faunal interactions and effects on litter nitrogen and decomposition in agroecosystems". Ecological Monographs. 62: 569–591. doi:10.2307/2937317.
Hunt HW, Colema9n DC, Ingham ER, Ingham RE, Elliot ET, Moore JC, Rose SL, Reid CPP, Morley CR (1987) "The detrital food web in a shortgrass prairie". Biology and Fertility of Soils 3: 57-68
Smith TM, Smith RL (2006) Elements of Ecology. Sixth edition. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco, CA.
[show]
v
t
e
Feeding behaviours
Carnivores
adult
Hematophagy
Insectivore
Lepidophagy
Man-eater
Molluscivore
Mucophagy
Myrmecophagy
Ophiophagy
Piscivore
Avivore
Spongivore
Vermivore
reproductive
Oophagy
Paedophagy
Placentophagy
Breastfeeding
Weaning
cannibalistic
Animal cannibalism
Human cannibalism
Self-cannibalism
Sexual cannibalism
Herbivores
Folivore
Florivore
Frugivore
Graminivore
Granivore
Nectarivore
Palynivore
Xylophagy
Osteophagy
Cellular
Phagocytosis
Myzocytosis
Others
Microbivory
Bacterivore
Fungivore
Coprophagia
Detritivore
Geophagia
Omnivore
Planktivore
Saprophagy
Xenophagy
Methods
Ambush predator
Apex predator
Bait balls
Bottom feeding
Browsing
Feeding frenzy
Filter feeding
Grazing
Hypercarnivore
Hypocarnivore
Intraguild predation
Kleptoparasitism
Lunge feeding
Mesocarnivore
Pivot feeding
Ram feeding
Scavenging
Suction feeding
Trophallaxis
Predation
Antipredator adaptation
Carnivorous plant
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Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Trophic components
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Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Other components
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