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Hydrosphere
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The hydrosphere (from Greek ὕδωρ hydōr, "water"[1] and σφαῖρα sphaira, "sphere"[2]) is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet or natural satellite.
It has been estimated that there are 1386 million cubic kilometers of water on Earth.[3] This includes water in liquid and frozen forms in groundwater, oceans, lakes and streams. Saltwater accounts for 97.5% of this amount. Fresh water accounts for only 2.5%. Of this fresh water, 68.9% is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the Arctic, the Antarctic, and mountain glaciers. 30.8% is in the form of fresh groundwater. Only 0.3% of the fresh water on Earth is in easily accessible lakes, reservoirs and river systems.[3] The total mass of the Earth's hydrosphere is about 1.4 × 1018 tonnes, which is about 0.023% of Earth's total mass. About 20 × 1012 tonnes of this is in Earth's atmosphere (for practical purposes, 1 cubic meter of water weighs one tonne). Approximately 75% of Earth's surface, an area of some 361 million square kilometers (139.5 million square miles), is covered by ocean. The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5%).[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Water cycle
2 Recharging reservoirs
3 Specific fresh water availability
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Water cycle[edit]
Main article: Water cycle
The water cycle refers to the transfer of water from one state or reservoir to another. Reservoirs include atmospheric moisture (snow, rain and clouds), streams, oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater, subterranean aquifers, polar ice caps and saturated soil. Solar energy, in the form of heat and light (insolation), and gravity cause the transfer from one state to another over periods from hours to thousands of years. Most evaporation comes from the oceans and is returned to the earth as snow or rain.[5]:27 Sublimation refers to evaporation from snow and ice. Transpiration refers to the expiration of water through the minute pores or stomata of trees. Evapotranspiration is the term used by hydrologists in reference to the three processes together, transpiration, sublimation and evaporation.[5]
Marq de Villiers has described the hydrosphere as a closed system in which water exists. The hydrosphere is intricate, complex, interdependent, all-pervading and stable and "seems purpose-built for regulating life."[5]:26 De Villiers claimed that, "On earth, the total amount of water has almost certainly not changed since geological times: what we had then we still have. Water can be polluted, abused, and misused but it is neither created nor destroyed, it only migrates. There is no evidence that water vapor escapes into space."[5]:26
"Every year the turnover of water on Earth involves 577,000 km3 of water. This is water that evaporates from the oceanic surface (502,800 km3) and from land (74,200 km3). The same amount of water falls as atmospheric precipitation, 458,000 km3 on the ocean and 119,000 km3 on land. The difference between precipitation and evaporation from the land surface (119,000 - 74,200 = 44,800 km3/year) represents the total runoff of the Earth's rivers (42,700 km3/year) and direct groundwater runoff to the ocean (2100 km3/year). These are the principal sources of fresh water to support life necessities and man's economic activities."[3]
Water is a basic necessity of life. Since 2/3 of the Earth is covered by water, the Earth is also called the blue planet and the watery planet.[notes 1] Hydrosphere plays an important role in the existence of the atmosphere in its present form. Oceans are important in this regard. When the Earth was formed it had only a very thin atmosphere rich in hydrogen and helium similar to the present atmosphere of Mercury. Later the gases hydrogen and helium were expelled from the atmosphere. The gases and water vapor released as the Earth cooled became its present atmosphere. Other gases and water vapor released by volcanoes also entered the atmosphere. As the Earth cooled the water vapor in the atmosphere condensed and fell as rain. The atmosphere cooled further as atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolved in to rain water. In turn this further caused the water vapor to condense and fall as rain. This rain water filled the depressions on the Earth's surface and formed the oceans. It is estimated that this occurred about 4000 million years ago. The first life forms began in the oceans. These organisms did not breathe oxygen. Later, when cyanobacteria evolved, the process of conversion of carbon dioxide into food and oxygen began. As a result, Earth's atmosphere has a distinctly different composition from that of other planets and allowed for life to evolve on Earth.
Recharging reservoirs[edit]
According to Igor A. Shiklomanov, it takes 2500 years for the complete recharge and replenishment of oceanic waters, 10,000 years for permafrost and ice, 1500 years for deep groundwater and mountainous glaciers, 17 years in lakes and 16 days in rivers.[3]
Specific fresh water availability[edit]
"Specific water availability is the residual (after use) per capita quantity of fresh water."[3] Fresh water resources are unevenly distributed in terms of space and time and can go from floods to water shortages within months in the same area. In 1998 76% of the total population had a specific water availability of less than 5.0 thousand m3 per year per capita. Already by 1998, 35% of the global population suffered "very low or catastrophically low water supplies" and Shiklomanov predicted that the situation would deteriorate in the twenty-first century with "most of the Earth's population will be living under the conditions of low or catastrophically low water supply" by 2025. There is only 2.5% of fresh water in the hydrosphere and only 0.25% of water is accessible for our use.
See also[edit]
Biosphere
Cryosphere
Earth's atmosphere
Lithosphere
Ocean
Pedosphere
Water cycle
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ According to planetary geologist, Ronald Greeley, "Water is very common in the outer solar system."[citation needed] Europa holds more water than earth's oceans.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ ὕδωρ, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
Jump up ^ σφαῖρα, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
^ Jump up to: a b c d e World Water Resources: A New Appraisal and Assessment for the 21st Century (Report). UNESCO. 1998. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Kennish, Michael J. (2001). Practical handbook of marine science. Marine science series (3rd ed.). CRC Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-8493-2391-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Marq de Villiers (2003). Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource (2 ed.). Toronto, Ontario: McClelland & Stewart. p. 453. ISBN 978-0-7710-2641-6. OCLC 43365804. , revised 2003|Governor General's Award (1999)
External links[edit]
Look up hydrosphere in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Ground Water - USGS
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Rabbit of Caerbannog
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Rabbit of Caerbannog
Monty Python character
The Killer Rabbit attacks Lancelot
First appearance
Monty Python and the Holy Grail
Last appearance
Spamalot
Created by
Monty Python and Eric Idle
Information
Species
Rabbit
The Killer Rabbit of Caerbannog is a fictional character in the Monty Python film Monty Python and the Holy Grail.[1] The scene in Holy Grail was written by Graham Chapman and John Cleese.[2] The rabbit is the antagonist in a major set piece battle, and makes a similar appearance in Spamalot, a musical inspired by the movie.[3] The iconic status of this scene was important in establishing the viability of the musical.[4]
Contents
1 In the film
1.1 Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch
2 Production
3 Antecedents
4 Merchandise
5 Reception
6 Cultural impact
7 See also
8 References
In the film[edit]
The Cave of Caerbannog is the home of the Legendary Black Beast of Arrrghhh (named for the last utterance of anyone who ever saw it).[5] This is guarded by a monster which is initially unknown.[6] King Arthur (Graham Chapman) and his knights are led to the cave by Tim the Enchanter (John Cleese) and find that they must face its guardian beast. Tim verbally paints a picture of a terrible monster with "nasty, big, pointy teeth!", so terrifying that Sir Robin (Eric Idle) soils his armour at the mere description. When the guardian appears to be an innocuous white rabbit,[7] surrounded by the bones of the fallen, Arthur and his knights no longer take it seriously. Ignoring Tim's warnings ("a vicious streak a mile wide!"), King Arthur orders Bors (Terry Gilliam) to chop the rabbit's head off. Bors confidently approaches it, sword drawn, and is immediately decapitated by the rabbit biting clean through his neck, to the sound of a can opener. Despite their initial shock, Sir Robin soiling his armor again, and Tim's loud scoffing, the knights attack in force. But the rabbit injures several of the knights and kills Gawain and Ector with ease. The knights themselves have no hope of killing or injuring the rabbit. Arthur panics and shouts for the knights to retreat ("Run away!"). Knowing they cannot risk attacking again, they try to find another way to defeat the beast. The Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch is ultimately used to kill the rabbit and allow the quest to proceed.[8]
Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch[edit]
The Sovereign's Orb of the United Kingdom, which The Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch satirises
The Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch is a visual satire of the Sovereign's Orb of the United Kingdom, and may refer to the mythical Holy Spear of Antioch. The Holy Hand Grenade is described as one of the "sacred relics" carried by Brother Maynard (Idle). Despite its ornate appearance and long-winded instructions, it functions much the same as any other hand grenade. At King Arthur's prompting, instructions for its use are read aloud (by Michael Palin) from the fictitious Book of Armaments, Chapter 2, verses 9–21, parodying the King James Bible and the Athanasian Creed:
...And Saint Attila raised the hand grenade up on high, saying, "O LORD, bless this Thy hand grenade that with it Thou mayest blow Thine enemies to tiny bits, in Thy mercy." And the LORD did grin and the people did feast upon the lambs and sloths and carp and anchovies and orangutans and breakfast cereals, and fruit bats and large chu... [At this point, the friar is urged by Brother Maynard to "skip a bit, brother"]... And the LORD spake, saying, "First shalt thou take out the Holy Pin, then shalt thou count to three, no more, no less. Three shall be the number thou shalt count, and the number of the counting shall be three. Four shalt thou not count, neither count thou two, excepting that thou then proceed to three. Five is right out. Once the number three, being the third number, be reached, then lobbest thou thy Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch towards thy foe, who, being naught in My sight, shall snuff it."[9]
Arthur then pulls the pin, holds up the Holy Hand Grenade and cries out "One! Two! Five!" Sir Galahad (Palin) corrects him: "Three, sir!" (Arthur's innumeracy is a running gag in the picture).[9] Arthur then yells "Three!" and hurls the grenade towards the rabbit. The grenade soars through the air – accompanied by a short bit of angelic choral music – bounces, and explodes. The killer rabbit is defeated, and the hapless knights errant continue on their quest. The noise also attracts policemen who were investigating the murder of a historian by a mounted knight earlier in the film.
Production[edit]
Tomnadashan copper mine
The rabbit scene was shot outside the Tomnadashan mine,[10][dead link] a cave 4 miles (6.5 km) from the Perthshire village of Killin. For the 25th anniversary DVD, Michael Palin and Terry Jones returned to be interviewed in front of the cave but they could not remember the location.[11][12]
The rabbit was portrayed in the movie by both a real rabbit and a prop.[citation needed]
Antecedents[edit]
The façade on Notre Dame that gave inspiration
The tale of the rabbit has a parallel in the early story of the Roman de Renart in which a foe takes hubristic pride in his defeat of a ferocious hare:[13]
Si li crachait en mi le vis
Et escopi par grant vertu[14]
The idea for the rabbit in the movie was taken from the façade of the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris. This illustrates the weakness of cowardice by showing a knight fleeing from a rabbit.[15]
Merchandise[edit]
The rabbit has been reproduced in the form of merchandise associated with the movie or musical. Such items include plush toys,[16] slippers[17] and staplers.[18] The plush killer rabbit was rated the second geekiest plush toy of all time by Matt Blum of the GeekDad blog on Wired.com, coming second to the plush Cthulhu.[19]
Reception[edit]
The rabbit was declared the top movie bunny by David Cheal in The Daily Telegraph.[20] It also ranked high in an Easter 2008 poll to establish Britain's best movie rabbit, coming third to Roger Rabbit and Frank from Donnie Darko.[21]
Cultural impact[edit]
The rabbit is now used as a metaphor for something which seems ostensibly harmless but is, in fact, deadly.[22] Such hidden but real risks may even arise from similarly cuddly animals.[23] The humour of the scene comes from this inversion of the usual framework by which safety and danger are judged.[24] Four years after the release of the movie, Killer Rabbit was the term used widely by the press to describe the swamp rabbit that "attacked" the U.S. President Jimmy Carter while he was fishing on a farm pond.[25]
In Apple Inc.'s iOS system, Siri may say that the "Rabbit of Caerbannog" is its favorite animal when asked.[26][27]
Creatures & Treasures, a sourcebook for Iron Crown Enterprises' Rolemaster tabletop role-playing game, includes a "Killer Rabbit" monster entry. The creature's outlook is given as "Hostile", with a note that it "bounds for the throat, never for another part of the body." Another note in the description instructs the gamemaster to "treat 'exploding' attacks [made against the rabbit] as 'slaying' (H.H.G.O.A.)", a clear reference to the Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch.[28]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Both the Rabbit of Caerbannog and the Holy Hand Grenade appear in a rendition of the scene from the movie in Monty Python & the Quest for the Holy Grail, a PC CD-ROM adventure game created by 7th Level in 1996 for Windows.
The Holy Hand Grenade has made an appearance in many iterations of the Worms video game series, starting with Worms: The Director's Cut. It is a much-stronger (and somewhat different-acting) version of the "regular" hand grenades, and has the general appearance of the grenade from the film. As in the film, it has a three-second trigger and will usually only bounce once.
The Holy Hand grenade appears indirectly referenced in the game Team Fortress 2. It is in the Lumbricus Lid, a cosmetic item referencing the Worms series, replacing the Soldier's grenades with the Holy hand grenades from Worms, as well as adding a different helmet. Equipping the Lumbricus Lid will change the kill icon for the Kamikaze kill taunt to an image of the holy hand grenade.
One can also find a Holy Hand Grenade in the games Fallout 2 and Fallout: New Vegas, if the player has the Wild Wasteland Perk, the former having a special monster encounter also referencing the film, in which several Brotherhood of Steel Paladins in Power Armor are fighting an unusually powerful rat.
In Minecraft, there is a special rabbit that is white with red eyes. Minecraft rabbits are normally passive, but this follows and tries to kill the player character and when it does, the death message states: '[Playername] was slain by The Killer Rabbit of Caerbannog'. It can still be summoned using command blocks (an in-game scripting mechanic), but it no longer appears wild as of version 1.8 14w34a. [29]
In Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3, Kitana's Animality involves her transforming into a small rabbit and mauling the opponent, much like the Rabbit of Caerbannog.
In Dragon Age: Inquisition, one of the game locations is Caer Bronach, an alternate spelling of the cave in the film.
In Catacomb Armageddon, the level The Garden of Forgotten Souls features what at first appear to be innocuous rabbits, which then grow into vicious monsters.
In Shadow Warrior, there are rabbits throughout the game. A secret level that has a cave, similar to the film, with pieces of armor lying around and the Holy Grail. The 2013 Shadow Warrior remake also contains rabbits which can sometimes attack the player when provoked.
In Terraria, the Holy Hand Grenade appears as a craftable throwable. While it only appears in the Mobile and 3ds versions, it is credited with the highest base damage of any item in all versions of Terraria. [30]
In Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura, there is a quest in which the player is sent to investigate a rabbit which is in fact a giant monster.
In card game Munchkin, there is a monster which refers to "that rabbit from that movie", most probably the Rabbit of Caerbannog, due to the danger of the foe.
In the World of Warcraft MMORPG, the monthly Darkmoon Faire Island features a cave off the southern coast that is populated by a white rabbit of fearsome combat ability that requires an entire well orchestrated raid group to effectively attack and kill. Attackers have the chance to pick up their own "killer rabbit" pet as part of the loot.
In Dungeons of Dredmor players can find and use Holy Hand Grenades, with the description "O Lord, bless this, thy hand grenade."
In Divinity: Original Sin Enhanced Edition, a Holy Hand Grenade can be found or crafted. Its appearance similar to that of the one from the movie. The grenade heals allies within its radius of effect.[31]
In Dragon's Crown, the Killer Rabbit is the boss of the B Route of the Lost Woods stage, which also features a forest hermit that looks similar to Tim the Enchanter.
In The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, there is a hidden cave near Benek (location of quest "Hidden in the stars"), in whose entrance will be a pile of skulls, bodies, blood spatters, and a single snow hare.
In Divinity 2: Ego Draconis, a powerful level 22 killer rabbit will spawn after the player has killed a certain number of rabbits in the game, which can easily overwhelm low-level players.
In Warlock: Master of the Arcane, there is a lord you can obtain that is immune to physical damage with the appearance of a bunny with red eyes, named a cruel creature.[32]
Monsters known as "vorpal bunnies" are capable of instantly killing player characters with critical hits in the Wizardry series of role-playing games.
In The Madness of Little Emma, there is an item named Beast of Caerbannog, described on collection as having "A vicious streak a mile wide!" and via the in-game item list as "Summons a deadly beast on activation".[33]
In Margonem.pl there is a Titan called Killer Rabbit that has one of the best legendary secondary weapon on Mage "Holy Hand Grenade"
In Steve Moraff's game Moraff's World there is a Holy Hand Grenade weapon that can be found and then used to kill monsters.
In the film Ready Player One there is a Holy Hand Grenade weapon that is bought and later used by Parzival during the battle.
See also[edit]
Wikinews has related news: Monty Python's "Holy Hand Grenade" sparks bomb scare
Jimmy Carter rabbit incident
Killer Bunnies and the Quest for the Magic Carrot
Killer Bunnies (dance project)
Night of the Lepus
The Year of the Angry Rabbit
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Steven Gale (1996). Encyclopedia of British Humorists: Geoffrey Chaucer to John Cleese. Taylor & Francis. p. 155. ISBN 0-8240-5990-5.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Kim Howard (1999). The First 200 Years of Monty Python. St Martin's. p. 200. ISBN 9780312033095.
Jump up ^ Ben Brantley (18 March 2005). "A Quest Beyond the Grail". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-05-03.
Jump up ^ Eric Idle (2005). The Greedy Bastard Diary: A Comic Tour of America. New York: HarperEntertainment. p. 312. ISBN 0-06-075864-3. "Will there be a Killer Rabbit?" "Yes." "Then I'm coming," he said, and went off gleefully shouting, "Ni!" Mike Nichols looked shocked. And impressed.
Jump up ^ Chapman, Graham; Jones, Terry (1977). Monty Python and the Holy Grail (BOOK) / Monty Python's second film: a first draft. London: Methuen. p. 78. ISBN 0458929700.
Jump up ^ Derek Albert Pearsall; Derek Pearsall (2003). Arthurian Romance: A Short Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. p. 150. ISBN 0-631-23320-2.
Jump up ^ Brian Kaylor (2007). For God's Sake Shut Up!: Lessons for Christians on How to Speak. Macon, Ga.: Smyth & Helwys Pub. p. 22. ISBN 1-57312-485-0.
Jump up ^ Darl Larsen; William Proctor Williams (2003). Monty Python, Shakespeare and English Renaissance Drama. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. p. 69. ISBN 0-7864-1504-5.
^ Jump up to: a b John Cleese, Graham Chapman, Terry Gilliam, Eric Idle, Terry Jones and Michael Palin, Monty Python and the Holy Grail: The Screenplay, page 76, Methuen, 2003 (UK) ISBN 0-413-77394-9
Jump up ^ "Panoramio – Photo of Tomnadashan mine". panoramio.com.
Jump up ^ Charles Lavery (20 August 2000). "Monty Python & The Holey Grail". Sunday Mail. p. 29.
Jump up ^ "Python's Killer Rabbit Search is a Holy Farce", Alastair Dalton, Scotland on Sunday, 20 August 2000, Pg. 3
Jump up ^ J. R. Simpson (1996). Animal Body, Literary Corpus: The Old French "Roman de Renart". Rodopi. pp. 156–157. ISBN 90-5183-976-6.
Jump up ^ Le Roman de Renart, Ernest Martin, ed., vol. 2, Strasbourg: Trubner, 1887, p. 199
Jump up ^ Alan Parker; Mick O'Shea (2006). And Now for Something Completely Digital. New York: Disinformation. p. 66. ISBN 1-932857-31-1.
Jump up ^ "Killer Rabbit with Big Pointy Teeth". Toy Mania. Retrieved 2008-05-04.
Jump up ^ Lisa Traiger (9 June 2006). "Killer Bunnies and Comedy in King Arthur's Court". Washington Post.
Jump up ^ Mark Zaslove (November 2007). "Toy Sleuth: It's a Big, Big World Minis and Scary Staplers Fight for the Spotlight". Toy Directory.
Jump up ^ "The 10 Geekiest Plush Toys Money Can Buy". Wired. 22 September 2008.
Jump up ^ Cheal, David (5 October 2006). "Top five movie bunnies". London: The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Alba (24 March 2008). "The Diary". The Scotsman.
Jump up ^ William W. Betteridge; James F. Niss; Michael T. Pledge (1975). "Competition in Regulated Industries: Essays on Economic Issues". Center for Business and Economic Research, Western Illinois University.
Jump up ^ Holger Breithaupt (2003). "Fierce creatures". EMBO Reports. 4 (10): 921–924. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.embor949. PMC 1326407  . PMID 14528257.
Jump up ^ R Simpson (September 1996). "Neither clear nor present: The social construction of safety and danger". Sociological Forum. Springer. 11 (3).
Jump up ^ Edward D. Berkowitz (2006). Something Happened: A Political and Cultural Overview of the Seventies. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. p. 115. ISBN 0-231-12494-5.
Jump up ^ @montypython (9 July 2015). "Has anyone ever asked Siri what's it's favourite animal is?!#killerrabbit #MontyPython" (Tweet). Retrieved 13 July 2017 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ "These Are The Five Most Disturbing Responses Siri Has To Certain Questions". Sick Chirpse. 2017-01-24. Retrieved 2017-07-13.
Jump up ^ Charlton, S. Coleman; Short, Lee O.; et al. (1985). Creatures & Treasures. Charlottesville VA, USA: Iron Crown Enterprises. p. 30. ISBN 0915795302.
Jump up ^ Rabbit - Official Minecraft Wiki,
Jump up ^ Holy Hand Grenade - Official Terraria Wiki,
Jump up ^ Divinity: Original Sin Enhanced Edition Changelist
Jump up ^ "Cruel Creature". Retrieved 2016-08-11.
Jump up ^ "Beast of Caerbannog". Retrieved 2016-12-12.
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