text:
Environmental degradation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Eighty-plus years after the abandonment of Wallaroo Mines (Kadina, South Australia), mosses remain the only vegetation at some spots of the site's grounds
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.[1] As indicated by the I=PAT equation, environmental impact (I) or degradation is caused by the combination of an already very large and increasing human population (P), continually increasing economic growth or per capita affluence (A), and the application of resource-depleting and polluting technology (T).[2][3]
Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned by the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change of the United Nations. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as "the reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs".[4] Environmental degradation is of many types. When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted, the environment is degraded. Efforts to counteract this problem include environmental protection and environmental resources management.
Contents
[hide]
1 Water degradation
1.1 Climate change and temperature
1.2 Climate change and precipitation
1.3 Population growth
1.4 Agriculture
1.5 Water management
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
Water degradation[edit]
One major component of environmental degradation is the depletion of the resource of fresh water on Earth. Approximately only 2.5% of all of the water on Earth is fresh water, with the rest being salt water. 69% of fresh water is frozen in ice caps located on Antarctica and Greenland, so only 30% of the 2.5% of fresh water is available for consumption.[5] Fresh water is an exceptionally important resource, since life on Earth is ultimately dependent on it. Water transports nutrients, minerals and chemicals within the biosphere to all forms of life, sustains both plants and animals, and moulds the surface of the Earth with transportation and deposition of materials.[6]
The current top three uses of fresh water account for 95% of its consumption; approximately 85% is used for irrigation of farmland, golf courses, and parks, 6% is used for domestic purposes such as indoor bathing uses and outdoor garden and lawn use, and 4% is used for industrial purposes such as processing, washing, and cooling in manufacturing centers.[7] It is estimated that one in three people over the entire globe are already facing water shortages, almost one-fifth of the world's population live in areas of physical water scarcity, and almost one quarter of the world's population live in a developing country that lacks the necessary infrastructure to use water from available rivers and aquifers. Water scarcity is an increasing problem due to many foreseen issues in the future, including population growth, increased urbanization, higher standards of living, and climate change.[5]
Climate change and temperature[edit]
Climate change affects the Earth's water supply in a large number of ways. It is predicted that the mean global temperature will rise in the coming years due to a number of forces affecting the climate, the amount of atmospheric CO2 will rise, and both of these will influence water resources; evaporation depends strongly on temperature and moisture availability, which can ultimately affect the amount of water available to replenish groundwater supplies.
Transpiration from plants can be affected by a rise in atmospheric CO2, which can decrease their use of water, but can also raise their use of water from possible increases of leaf area. Temperature increase can decrease the length of the snow season in the winter and increase the intensity of snowmelt in warmer seasons, leading to peak runoff of snowmelt earlier in the season, affecting soil moisture, flood and drought risks, and storage capacities depending on the area.[8]
Warmer winter temperatures cause a decrease in snowpack, which can result in diminished water resources during summer. This is especially important at mid-latitudes and in mountain regions that depend on glacial runoff to replenish their river systems and groundwater supplies, making these areas increasingly vulnerable to water shortages over time; an increase in temperature will initially result in a rapid rise in water melting from glaciers in the summer, followed by a retreat in glaciers and a decrease in the melt and consequently the water supply every year as the size of these glaciers get smaller and smaller.[5]
Thermal expansion of water and increased melting of oceanic glaciers from an increase in temperature gives way to a rise in sea level, which can affect the fresh water supply of coastal areas as well; as river mouths and deltas with higher salinity get pushed further inland, an intrusion of saltwater results in an increase of salinity in reservoirs and aquifers.[7] Sea-level rise may also consequently be caused by a depletion of groundwater,[9] as climate change can affect the hydrologic cycle in a number of ways. Uneven distributions of increased temperatures and increased precipitation around the globe results in water surpluses and deficits,[8] but a global decrease in groundwater suggests a rise in sea level, even after meltwater and thermal expansion were accounted for,[9] which can provide a positive feedback to the problems sea-level rise causes to fresh-water supply.
A rise in air temperature results in a rise in water temperature, which is also very significant in water degradation, as the water would become more susceptible to bacterial growth. An increase in water temperature can also affect ecosystems greatly because of a species' sensitivity to temperature, and also by inducing changes in a body of water's self-purification system from decreased amounts of dissolved oxygen in the water due to rises in temperature.[5]
Climate change and precipitation[edit]
A rise in global temperatures is also predicted to correlate with an increase in global precipitation, but because of increased runoff, floods, increased rates of soil erosion, and mass movement of land, a decline in water quality is probable, while water will carry more nutrients, it will also carry more contaminants.[5] While most of the attention about climate change is directed towards global warming and greenhouse effect, some of the most severe effects of climate change are likely to be from changes in precipitation, evapotranspiration, runoff, and soil moisture. It is generally expected that, on average, global precipitation will increase, with some areas receiving increases and some decreases.
Climate models show that while some regions should expect an increase in precipitation,[8] such as in the tropics and higher latitudes, other areas are expected to see a decrease, such as in the subtropics; this will ultimately cause a latitudinal variation in water distribution.[5] The areas receiving more precipitation are also expected to receive this increase during their winter and actually become drier during their summer,[8] creating even more of a variation of precipitation distribution. Naturally, the distribution of precipitation across the planet is very uneven, causing constant variations in water availability in respective locations.
Changes in precipitation affect the timing and magnitude of floods and droughts, shift runoff processes, and alter groundwater recharge rates. Vegetation patterns and growth rates will be directly affected by shifts in precipitation amount and distribution, which will in turn affect agriculture as well as natural ecosystems. Decreased precipitation will deprive areas of water, causing water tables to fall and reservoirs and wetlands, rivers, and lakes to empty,[8] and possibly an increase in evaporation and evapotranspiration, depending on the accompanied rise in temperature.[7] Groundwater reserves will be depleted, and the remaining water has a greater chance of being of poor quality from saline or contaminants on the land surface.[5]
Population growth[edit]
World population growth in a lin-log scale.
See also: Human overpopulation
The human population on Earth is expanding rapidly which goes hand in hand with the degradation of the environment at large measures. Humanity's appetite for needs is disarranging the environment's natural equilibrium. Production industries are venting smoke and discharging chemicals that are polluting water resources. The smoke that is emitted into the atmosphere holds detrimental gases such as carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide. The high levels of pollution in the atmosphere form layers that are eventually absorbed into the atmosphere. Organic compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) have generated an unwanted opening in the ozone layer, which emits higher levels of ultraviolet radiation putting the globe at large threat.
The available fresh water being affected by the climate is also being stretched across an ever-increasing global population. It is estimated that almost a quarter of the global population is living in an area that is using more than 20% of their renewable water supply; water use will rise with population while the water supply is also being aggravated by decreases in streamflow and groundwater caused by climate change. Even though some areas may see an increase in freshwater supply from an uneven distribution of precipitation increase, an increased use of water supply is expected.[10]
An increased population means increased withdrawals from the water supply for domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses, the largest of these being agriculture,[11] believed to be the major non-climate driver of environmental change and water deterioration. The next 50 years will likely be the last period of rapid agricultural expansion, but the larger and wealthier population over this time will demand more agriculture.[12]
Population increase over the last two decades, at least in the United States, has also been accompanied by a shift to an increase in urban areas from rural areas,[13] which concentrates the demand for water into certain areas, and puts stress on the fresh water supply from industrial and human contaminants.[5] Urbanization causes overcrowding and increasingly unsanitary living conditions, especially in developing countries, which in turn exposes an increasingly number of people to disease. About 79% of the world's population is in developing countries, which lack access to sanitary water and sewer systems, giving rises to disease and deaths from contaminated water and increased numbers of disease-carrying insects.[14]
Agriculture[edit]
Water pollution due to dairy farming in the Wairarapa in New Zealand
Agriculture is dependent on available soil moisture, which is directly affected by climate dynamics, with precipitation being the input in this system and various processes being the output, such as evapotranspiration, surface runoff, drainage, and percolation into groundwater. Changes in climate, especially the changes in precipitation and evapotranspiration predicted by climate models, will directly affect soil moisture, surface runoff, and groundwater recharge.
In areas with decreasing precipitation as predicted by the climate models, soil moisture may be substantially reduced.[8] With this in mind, agriculture in most areas needs irrigation already, which depletes fresh water supplies both by the physical use of the water and the degradation agriculture causes to the water. Irrigation increases salt and nutrient content in areas that would not normally be affected, and damages streams and rivers from damming and removal of water. Fertilizer enters both human and livestock waste streams that eventually enter groundwater, while nitrogen, phosphorus, and other chemicals from fertilizer can acidify both soils and water. Certain agricultural demands may increase more than others with an increasingly wealthier global population, and meat is one commodity expected to double global food demand by 2050,[12] which directly affects the global supply of fresh water. Cows need water to drink, more if the temperature is high and humidity is low, and more if the production system the cow is in is extensive, since finding food takes more effort. Water is needed in processing of the meat, and also in the production of feed for the livestock. Manure can contaminate bodies of freshwater, and slaughterhouses, depending on how well they are managed, contribute waste such as blood, fat, hair, and other bodily contents to supplies of fresh water.[15]
The transfer of water from agricultural to urban and suburban use raises concerns about agricultural sustainability, rural socioeconomic decline, food security, an increased carbon footprint from imported food, and decreased foreign trade balance.[11] The depletion of fresh water, as applied to more specific and populated areas, increases fresh water scarcity among the population and also makes populations susceptible to economic, social, and political conflict in a number of ways; rising sea levels forces migration from coastal areas to other areas farther inland, pushing populations closer together breaching borders and other geographical patterns, and agricultural surpluses and deficits from the availability of water induce trade problems and economies of certain areas.[10] Climate change is an important cause of involuntary migration and forced displacement[16] According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, global greenhouse gas emissions from animal agriculture exceeds that of transportation.[17]
Water management[edit]
A stream in the town of Amlwch, Anglesey which is contaminated by acid mine drainage from the former copper mine at nearby Parys Mountain.
The issue of the depletion of fresh water can be met by increased efforts in water management.[6] While water management systems are often flexible, adaptation to new hydrologic conditions may be very costly.[8] Preventative approaches are necessary to avoid high costs of inefficiency and the need for rehabilitation of water supplies,[6] and innovations to decrease overall demand may be important in planning water sustainability.[11]
Water supply systems, as they exist now, were based on the assumptions of the current climate, and built to accommodate existing river flows and flood frequencies. Reservoirs are operated based on past hydrologic records, and irrigation systems on historical temperature, water availability, and crop water requirements; these may not be a reliable guide to the future. Re-examining engineering designs, operations, optimizations, and planning, as well as re-evaluating legal, technical, and economic approaches to manage water resources are very important for the future of water management in response to water degradation. Another approach is water privatization; despite its economic and cultural effects, service quality and overall quality of the water can be more easily controlled and distributed. Rationality and sustainability is appropriate, and requires limits to overexploitation and pollution, and efforts in conservation.[6]
See also[edit]
Wetlands portal
Environmental issues
Ecological collapse
Ecologically sustainable development
Exploitation of natural resources
United Nations Decade on Biodiversity
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
World Resources Institute (WRI)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Johnson, D.L., S.H. Ambrose, T.J. Bassett, M.L. Bowen, D.E. Crummey, J.S. Isaacson, D.N. Johnson, P. Lamb, M. Saul, and A.E. Winter-Nelson. 1997. Meanings of environmental terms. Journal of Environmental Quality 26: 581–589.
Jump up ^ Chertow, M.R., "The IPAT equation and its variants", Journal of Industrial Ecology, 4 (4):13–29, 2001.
Jump up ^ Huesemann, Michael H., and Joyce A. Huesemann (2011). Technofix: Why Technology Won’t Save Us or the Environment, Chapter 6, "Sustainability or Collapse?", New Society Publishers, ISBN 0865717044.
Jump up ^ "ISDR : Terminology". The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. 2004-03-31. Retrieved 2010-06-09.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h ”Water.” Climate Institute. Web. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Young, Gordon J., James Dooge, and John C. Rodda. Global Water Resource Issues. Cambridge UP, 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b c Frederick, Kenneth D., and David C. Major. “Climate Change and Water Resources.” Climatic Change 37.1 (1997): p 7-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Ragab, Ragab, and Christel Prudhomme. "Soil and Water: Climate Change and Water Resources Management in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions: Prospective Challenges for the 21st Century". Biosystems Engineering 81.1 (2002): p 3-34.
^ Jump up to: a b Konikow, Leonard F. "Contribution of Global Groundwater Depletion since 1990 to Sea-level Rise". Geophysical Research Letters 38.17 (2011).
^ Jump up to: a b Raleigh, Clionadh, and Henrik Urdal. “Climate Change, Environmental Degradation, and Armed Conflict.” Political Geography 26.6 (2007): 674–94.
^ Jump up to: a b c MacDonald, Glen M. "Water, Climate Change, and Sustainability in the Southwest". PNAS 107.50 (2010): p 56-62.
^ Jump up to: a b Tilman, David, Joseph Fargione, Brian Wolff, Carla D'Antonio, Andrew Dobson, Robert Howarth, David Scindler, William Schlesinger, Danielle Simberloff, and Deborah Swackhamer. "Forecasting Agriculturally Driven Global Environmental Change". Science 292.5515 (2011): p 281-84.
Jump up ^ Wallach, Bret. Understanding the Cultural Landscape. New York; Guilford, 2005.
Jump up ^ [1]. Powell, Fannetta. "Environmental Degradation and Human Disease". Lecture. SlideBoom. 2009. Web. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
Jump up ^ "Environmental Implications of the Global Demand for Red Meat". Web. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
Jump up ^ Bogumil Terminski, Environmentally-Induced Displacement. Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges http://www.cedem.ulg.ac.be/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Environmentally-Induced-Displacement-Terminski-1.pdf
Jump up ^ Wang, George C. (April 9, 2017). "Go vegan, save the planet". CNN. Retrieved April 16, 2017.
External links[edit]
Ecology of Increasing Disease Population growth and environmental degradation
Annals of the Association of American Geographers Environmental Change in the Kalahari: Integrated Land Degradation Studies for Nonequilibrium Dryland Environments
Public Daily Brief Threat: Environmental Degradation
Focus: Environmental degradation is contributing to health threats worldwide
Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Systems-Water Reactors
Herndon and Gibbon Lieutenants United States Navy The First North American Explorers of the Amazon Valley, by Historian Normand E. Klare. Actual Reports from the explorers are compared with present Amazon Basin conditions.
Environmental Degradation Index by Jha & Murthy (for 174 countries)
[hide]
v
t
e
Human impact on the environment
General
Anthropocene
Environmental issues
Human impact
Impact assessment
List of issues
Planetary boundaries
Causes
Agriculture
fishing
irrigation
meat production
palm oil
Energy industry
biofuels
biodiesel
coal
electricity generation
nuclear power
oil shale
petroleum
reservoirs
wind power
Manufacturing
cleaning agents
concrete
plastics
nanotechnology
paint
paper
pesticides
pharmaceuticals and personal care
Tourism
Transport
aviation
roads
shipping
reservoirs
Other
land use
mining
genetic pollution
human overpopulation
overexploitation
particulates
pollution
war
Effects
Biodiversity threats
Biodiversity loss
Climate change
Deforestation
Desertification
Ecocide
Erosion
Coral reefs
Freshwater cycle
Global warming
Habitat destruction
Holocene extinction
Nitrogen cycle
Land degradation
Land surface effects on climate
Phosphorus cycle
Ocean acidification
Ozone depletion
Runaway climate change
Mitigation
Birth control
Cleaner production
Climate change mitigation
Climate engineering
Ecological engineering
Environmental engineering
Environmental mitigation
Industrial ecology
Mitigation banking
Organic farming
Reforestation
urban
Restoration ecology
Sustainable consumption
Waste minimization
Commons
Category
by country
assessment
mitigation
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_degradation&oldid=810207876"
Categories:
Environmental issues
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Беларуская
भोजपुरी
Čeština
Deutsch
Italiano
日本語
Polski
Română
Русский
Tiếng Việt
Edit links
This page was last edited on 13 November 2017, at 23:09.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Wallaroo_Mines
mw-redirect
Wallaroo Mines

attrs: href title

values: /wiki/Mosses mw-redirect Mosses

attrs: class style

values:
/wiki/Depletion_of_resources
mw-redirect
Depletion of resources

values: /wiki/Air mw-redirect Air

values: Edit section: Climate change and temperature

values:
/wiki/Atmospheric_CO2
mw-redirect
Atmospheric CO2

values:
/wiki/Hydrologic_cycle
mw-redirect
Hydrologic cycle

values: Edit section: Climate change and precipitation

values:
/wiki/Human_population_growth
mw-redirect
Human population growth

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
/wiki/Environmental_issues
mw-redirect
Environmental issues

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.newtechnologyandsociety.org

values:
nofollow
external text
http://dieoff.org/page165.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.pacificwestcom.com/amazon

values: Template:Human impact on the environment

values: Template talk:Human impact on the environment

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/File:Planetary_boundaries.svg
image
Planetary boundaries

values:
navbox-image
4
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: Social and environmental impact of palm oil

values: Environmental impact of the energy industry

values: Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels

values: Environmental impact of the coal industry

values: Environmental impact of electricity generation

values: Environmental impact of the oil shale industry

values: Environmental impact of the petroleum industry

values:
/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_plastics
mw-redirect
Environmental impact of plastics

values: Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products

values:
/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_tourism
mw-redirect
Environmental impact of tourism

values:
/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_roads
mw-redirect
Environmental impact of roads

values:
/wiki/Biodiversity_threats
mw-redirect
Biodiversity threats

values:
/wiki/Freshwater_cycle
mw-redirect
Freshwater cycle

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Category:Environmental impact by country

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
interface

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Environmental_degradation
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: تدهور بيئي – Arabic

values: Дэградацыя навакольнага асяроддзя – Belarusian

values: पर्यावरणी गिरावट – Bhojpuri

values: Деградация окружающей среды – Russian

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Environmental_degradation rootpage-Environmental_degradation vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view


text:
The Andrew Oldham Orchestra
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Andrew Oldham Orchestra was a musical side project in the mid-1960s created by Andrew Loog Oldham, the original manager and record producer of The Rolling Stones. There was no actual orchestra per se. The name was applied to recordings made by Oldham using a multitude of session musicians, including members of the Rolling Stones.
The Rolling Stones Songbook included an orchestral version of the Mick Jagger and Keith Richards song "The Last Time",[1] which was sampled by The Verve for their track "Bitter Sweet Symphony". The threat of litigation over the license for the sample led to the entire copyright to the composition, belonging to Richard Ashcroft, The Verve's frontman, being taken by ABKCO Records, and the assignation of the songwriting credit to Jagger and Richards. [2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Discography
1.1 Albums
2 References
3 External links
Discography[edit]
Albums[edit]
Year
Album
Record Label
1964 Lionel Bart's Maggie May Decca Records
16 Hip Hits Ace of Clubs Records
1965 East Meets West Parrott Records
1966 The Rolling Stones Songbook London Records
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The Andrew Oldham Orchestra version of The Last Time
Jump up ^ Goodman, Fred (2015). Allen Klein: The Man Who Bailed Out the Beatles, Made the Stones, and Transformed Rock & Roll. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 265–267. ISBN 978-0-547-89686-1.
External links[edit]
rateyourmusic.com - features the discography of the Andrew Oldham Orchestra
Authority control
MusicBrainz: d3e6c0f3-4061-4b79-8463-431eab6277d4
This article on a United Kingdom band or other musical ensemble is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v
t
e
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Andrew_Oldham_Orchestra&oldid=830100833"
Categories:
English pop music groups
United Kingdom musical group stubs
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers
All stub articles
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 12 March 2018, at 19:19.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: b

value: p

attrs: rel class href

value: i

value: sup

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values: position: absolute; right: 15px; display: none;

values:
metadata plainlinks stub
presentation
background:transparent

values: Category:United Kingdom musical group stubs

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/The_Andrew_Oldham_Orchestra
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-The_Andrew_Oldham_Orchestra rootpage-The_Andrew_Oldham_Orchestra skin-vector action-view


text:
Metamorphic rock
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Metamorphic" redirects here. For other uses, see Metamorphic (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Quartzite, a type of metamorphic rock
Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process called metamorphism, which means "change in form".[1] The original rock (protolith) is subjected to heat (temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C) and pressure (150 megapascals (1,500 bar))[clarify],[2] causing profound physical or chemical change. The protolith may be a sedimentary, igneous, or existing metamorphic rock.
Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth's crust and form 12% of the Earth's land surface.[3] They are classified by texture and by chemical and mineral assemblage (metamorphic facies). They may be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earth's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above it. They can form from tectonic processes such as continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure, friction and distortion. They are also formed when rock is heated by the intrusion of hot molten rock called magma from the Earth's interior. The study of metamorphic rocks (now exposed at the Earth's surface following erosion and uplift) provides information about the temperatures and pressures that occur at great depths within the Earth's crust. Some examples of metamorphic rocks are gneiss, slate, marble, schist, and quartzite.
Contents
[hide]
1 Metamorphic minerals
2 Foliation
3 Types of metamorphism
3.1 Contact metamorphism
3.2 Regional metamorphism
4 Metamorphic rock textures
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Metamorphic minerals
Metamorphic minerals are those that form only at the high temperatures and pressures associated with the process of metamorphism. These minerals, known as index minerals, include sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and some garnet.
Other minerals, such as olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, feldspars, and quartz, may be found in metamorphic rocks, but are not necessarily the result of the process of metamorphism. These minerals formed during the crystallization of igneous rocks. They are stable at high temperatures and pressures and may remain chemically unchanged during the metamorphic process. However, all minerals are stable only within certain limits, and the presence of some minerals in metamorphic rocks indicates the approximate temperatures and pressures at which they formed.
The change in the particle size of the rock during the process of metamorphism is called recrystallization. For instance, the small calcite crystals in the sedimentary rock limestone and chalk change into larger crystals in the metamorphic rock marble; in metamorphosed sandstone, recrystallization of the original quartz sand grains results in very compact quartzite, also known as metaquartzite, in which the often larger quartz crystals are interlocked. Both high temperatures and pressures contribute to recrystallization. High temperatures allow the atoms and ions in solid crystals to migrate, thus reorganizing the crystals, while high pressures cause solution of the crystals within the rock at their point of contact.
Foliation
Folded foliation in a metamorphic rock from near Geirangerfjord, Norway
Main article: foliation (geology)
The layering within metamorphic rocks is called foliation (derived from the Latin word folia, meaning "leaves"), and it occurs when a rock is being shortened along one axis during recrystallization. This causes the platy or elongated crystals of minerals, such as mica and chlorite, to become rotated such that their long axes are perpendicular to the orientation of shortening. This results in a banded, or foliated rock, with the bands showing the colors of the minerals that formed them.
Textures are separated into foliated and non-foliated categories. Foliated rock is a product of differential stress that deforms the rock in one plane, sometimes creating a plane of cleavage. For example, slate is a foliated metamorphic rock, originating from shale. Non-foliated rock does not have planar patterns of strain.
Rocks that were subjected to uniform pressure from all sides, or those that lack minerals with distinctive growth habits, will not be foliated. Where a rock has been subject to differential stress, the type of foliation that develops depends on the metamorphic grade. For instance, starting with a mudstone, the following sequence develops with increasing temperature: slate is a very fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock, characteristic of very low grade metamorphism, while phyllite is fine-grained and found in areas of low grade metamorphism, schist is medium to coarse-grained and found in areas of medium grade metamorphism, and gneiss coarse to very coarse-grained, found in areas of high-grade metamorphism.[4] Marble is generally not foliated, which allows its use as a material for sculpture and architecture.
Another important mechanism of metamorphism is that of chemical reactions that occur between minerals without them melting. In the process atoms are exchanged between the minerals, and thus new minerals are formed. Many complex high-temperature reactions may take place, and each mineral assemblage produced provides us with a clue as to the temperatures and pressures at the time of metamorphism.
Metasomatism is the drastic change in the bulk chemical composition of a rock that often occurs during the processes of metamorphism. It is due to the introduction of chemicals from other surrounding rocks. Water may transport these chemicals rapidly over great distances. Because of the role played by water, metamorphic rocks generally contain many elements absent from the original rock, and lack some that originally were present. Still, the introduction of new chemicals is not necessary for recrystallization to occur.
Types of metamorphism
Contact metamorphism
A contact metamorphic rock made of interlayered calcite and serpentine from the Precambrian of Canada. Once thought to be a pseudofossil called Eozoön canadense. Scale in mm.
Contact metamorphism is the name given to the changes that take place when magma is injected into the surrounding solid rock (country rock). The changes that occur are greatest wherever the magma comes into contact with the rock because the temperatures are highest at this boundary and decrease with distance from it. Around the igneous rock that forms from the cooling magma is a metamorphosed zone called a contact metamorphism aureole. Aureoles may show all degrees of metamorphism from the contact area to unmetamorphosed (unchanged) country rock some distance away. The formation of important ore minerals may occur by the process of metasomatism at or near the contact zone.
When a rock is contact altered by an igneous intrusion it very frequently becomes more indurated, and more coarsely crystalline. Many altered rocks of this type were formerly called hornstones, and the term hornfels is often used by geologists to signify those fine grained, compact, non-foliated products of contact metamorphism. A shale may become a dark argillaceous hornfels, full of tiny plates of brownish biotite; a marl or impure limestone may change to a grey, yellow or greenish lime-silicate-hornfels or siliceous marble, tough and splintery, with abundant augite, garnet, wollastonite and other minerals in which calcite is an important component. A diabase or andesite may become a diabase hornfels or andesite hornfels with development of new hornblende and biotite and a partial recrystallization of the original feldspar. Chert or flint may become a finely crystalline quartz rock; sandstones lose their clastic structure and are converted into a mosaic of small close-fitting grains of quartz in a metamorphic rock called quartzite.
If the rock was originally banded or foliated (as, for example, a laminated sandstone or a foliated calc-schist) this character may not be obliterated, and a banded hornfels is the product; fossils even may have their shapes preserved, though entirely recrystallized, and in many contact-altered lavas the vesicles are still visible, though their contents have usually entered into new combinations to form minerals that were not originally present. The minute structures, however, disappear, often completely, if the thermal alteration is very profound. Thus small grains of quartz in a shale are lost or blend with the surrounding particles of clay, and the fine ground-mass of lavas is entirely reconstructed.
By recrystallization in this manner peculiar rocks of very distinct types are often produced. Thus shales may pass into cordierite rocks, or may show large crystals of andalusite (and chiastolite), staurolite, garnet, kyanite and sillimanite, all derived from the aluminous content of the original shale. A considerable amount of mica (both muscovite and biotite) is often simultaneously formed, and the resulting product has a close resemblance to many kinds of schist. Limestones, if pure, are often turned into coarsely crystalline marbles; but if there was an admixture of clay or sand in the original rock such minerals as garnet, epidote, idocrase, wollastonite, will be present. Sandstones when greatly heated may change into coarse quartzites composed of large clear grains of quartz. These more intense stages of alteration are not so commonly seen in igneous rocks, because their minerals, being formed at high temperatures, are not so easily transformed or recrystallized.
In a few cases rocks are fused and in the dark glassy product minute crystals of spinel, sillimanite and cordierite may separate out. Shales are occasionally thus altered by basalt dikes, and feldspathic sandstones may be completely vitrified. Similar changes may be induced in shales by the burning of coal seams or even by an ordinary furnace.
There is also a tendency for metasomatism between the igneous magma and sedimentary country rock, whereby the chemicals in each are exchanged or introduced into the other. Granites may absorb fragments of shale or pieces of basalt. In that case, hybrid rocks called skarn arise, which don't have the characteristics of normal igneous or sedimentary rocks. Sometimes an invading granite magma permeates the rocks around, filling their joints and planes of bedding, etc., with threads of quartz and feldspar. This is very exceptional but instances of it are known and it may take place on a large scale.[5]
Regional metamorphism
Mississippian marble in Big Cottonwood Canyon, Wasatch Mountains, Utah.
Dynamic metamorphism
Regional metamorphism, also known as dynamic metamorphism, is the name given to changes in great masses of rock over a wide area. Rocks can be metamorphosed simply by being at great depths below the Earth's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure caused by the immense weight of the rock layers above. Much of the lower continental crust is metamorphic, except for recent igneous intrusions. Horizontal tectonic movements such as the collision of continents create orogenic belts, and cause high temperatures, pressures and deformation in the rocks along these belts. If the metamorphosed rocks are later uplifted and exposed by erosion, they may occur in long belts or other large areas at the surface. The process of metamorphism may have destroyed the original features that could have revealed the rock's previous history. Recrystallization of the rock will destroy the textures and fossils present in sedimentary rocks. Metasomatism will change the original composition.
Regional metamorphism tends to make the rock more indurated and at the same time to give it a foliated, shistose or gneissic texture, consisting of a planar arrangement of the minerals, so that platy or prismatic minerals like mica and hornblende have their longest axes arranged parallel to one another. For that reason many of these rocks split readily in one direction along mica-bearing zones (schists). In gneisses, minerals also tend to be segregated into bands; thus there are seams of quartz and of mica in a mica schist, very thin, but consisting essentially of one mineral. Along the mineral layers composed of soft or fissile minerals the rocks will split most readily, and the freshly split specimens will appear to be faced or coated with this mineral; for example, a piece of mica schist looked at facewise might be supposed to consist entirely of shining scales of mica. On the edge of the specimens, however, the white folia of granular quartz will be visible. In gneisses these alternating folia are sometimes thicker and less regular than in schists, but most importantly less micaceous; they may be lenticular, dying out rapidly. Gneisses also, as a rule, contain more feldspar than schists do, and are tougher and less fissile. Contortion or crumbling of the foliation is by no means uncommon; splitting faces are undulose or puckered. Schistosity and gneissic banding (the two main types of foliation) are formed by directed pressure at elevated temperature, and to interstitial movement, or internal flow arranging the mineral particles while they are crystallizing in that directed pressure field.
Rocks that were originally sedimentary and rocks that were undoubtedly igneous may be metamorphosed into schists and gneisses. If originally of similar composition they may be very difficult to distinguish from one another if the metamorphism has been great. A quartz-porphyry, for example, and a fine feldspathic sandstone, may both be metamorphosed into a grey or pink mica-schist.[5]
Metamorphic rock textures
The five basic metamorphic textures with typical rock types are slaty (includes slate and phyllite; the foliation is called "slaty cleavage"), schistose (includes schist; the foliation is called "schistosity"), gneissose (gneiss; the foliation is called "gneissosity"), granoblastic (includes granulite, some marbles and quartzite), and hornfelsic (includes hornfels and skarn).
See also
Blueschist
List of rock types
List of rock textures
Metavolcanic rock
Migmatite
Neomorphism
References
Jump up ^ Dictionary.com entry. Retrieved 14 Jan 2014.
Jump up ^ Blatt, Harvey and Robert J. Tracy, Petrology, W.H.Freeman, 2nd ed., 1996, p. 355 ISBN 0-7167-2438-3
Jump up ^ Wilkinson, Bruce H.; McElroy, Brandon J.; Kesler, Stephen E.; Peters, Shanan E.; Rothman, Edward D. (2008). "Global geologic maps are tectonic speedometers – Rates of rock cycling from area-age frequencies". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 121 (5–6): 760–79. doi:10.1130/B26457.1.
Jump up ^ Wicander R. & Munroe J. (2005). Essentials of Geology. Cengage Learning. pp. 174–77. ISBN 9780495013655.
^ Jump up to: a b One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Petrology". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
External links
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Metamorphic rocks
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphic textures – Middle East Technical University
Contact metamorphism example
Metamorphic Rock Database (MetPetDB) - Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Metamorphic Rocks Tour, an introduction to metamorphic rocks
Atlas of Metamorphic Rocks – Detailed field and hand specimen photographs of metamorphic rocks grouped by setting and composition (Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford)
[hide]
v
t
e
Metamorphic petrology
Types of metamorphism
Ultra-high-pressure metamorphism
Ultra-high-temperature metamorphism
Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rock
Amphibolite
Anatexis
Augen
Schist
Metamorphic processes
Dynamic quartz recrystallization
Foliation (geology)
Category
Portal
Authority control
NDL: 00563112
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metamorphic_rock&oldid=821723529"
Categories:
Metamorphic petrology
Metamorphic rocks
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica without Wikisource reference
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
Wikipedia semi-protected pages
Articles needing additional references from January 2012
All articles needing additional references
All Wikipedia articles needing clarification
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2017
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
View source
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
Azərbaycanca
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Gàidhlig
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Қазақша
Latviešu
Magyar
Македонски
Bahasa Melayu
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
नेपाली
日本語
Norsk
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 22 January 2018, at 06:44.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: This article is semi-protected until December 22, 2018.

attrs: class id

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
/wiki/Metamorphic_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Metamorphic (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: td

attrs: class href

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

value: span

value: small

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values: padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:#595959; border:1px solid #DDD;

values: Some metamorphic rocks are formed at pressures lower than 150 MPa, e.g. zeolite and hornfels facies (~50 MPa to ~100 MPa). Why has 150 MPa been selected as "THE" pressure? (February 2017)

values:
/wiki/Intrusion_(geology)
mw-redirect
Intrusion (geology)

values:
/wiki/Serpentine_group
mw-redirect
Serpentine group

values: Rock contact metamorphism eng big text.jpg

values:
/wiki/Mississippian_age
mw-redirect
Mississippian age

values:
/wiki/Wasatch_Mountains
mw-redirect
Wasatch Mountains

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1130%2FB26457.1

values: Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values: Template talk:Metamorphic petrology (page does not exist)

values:
navbox-image
3
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica without Wikisource reference

values: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from January 2012

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles needing clarification

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2017

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values:
/wiki/Metamorphic_rock
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values:
This page is protected.
You can view its source [ctrl-alt-e]

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: صخر متحول – Arabic

values: Метаморфик тау тоҡомдары – Bashkir

values: Метамарфічныя горныя пароды – Belarusian

values: Мэтамарфічныя горныя пароды – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values: Метаморфни скали – Bulgarian

values: Μεταμορφωσιγενές πέτρωμα – Greek

values: سنگ دگرگونی – Persian

values: Clach chruth-atharrachail – Scottish Gaelic

values: Փոխակերպված ապար – Armenian

values: कायांतरित शैल – Hindi

values: סלע מותמר – Hebrew

values: მეტამორფული ქანები – Georgian

values: Метаморфтық тау жыныстары – Kazakh

values: Метаморфна карпа – Macedonian

values: Хувирмал чулуулаг – Mongolian

values: အသွင်ပြောင်းကျောက် – Burmese

values: परिवर्तित चट्टान – Nepali

values: ਪਰਿਵਰਤਿਤ ਚਟਾਨਾਂ – Punjabi

values: Метаморфические горные породы – Russian

values: Метаморфне стене – Serbian

values: உருமாறிய பாறை – Tamil

values: หินแปร – Thai

values: Метаморфічні гірські породи – Ukrainian

values: تبدیل شدہ چٹان – Urdu

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Metamorphic_rock rootpage-Metamorphic_rock skin-vector action-view