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Land reclamation
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This article is about land reclaimed from the sea. For land reclaimed from the desert, see Dedesertification. For the disposal of waste material, see landfill.
"Reclaimed" redirects here. For other uses, see Reclaim.
Reclaiming in Perth, Australia 1964
Land reclamation, usually known as reclamation, and also known as land fill (not to be confused with a landfill), is the process of creating new land from ocean, riverbeds, or lake beds. The land reclaimed is known as reclamation ground or land fill.
In a number of other jurisdictions, including parts of the United States,[1] the term "reclamation" can refer to returning disturbed lands to an improved state. In Alberta, Canada, for example, reclamation is defined by the provincial government as "The process of reconverting disturbed land to its former or other productive uses."[2] In Oceania it is frequently referred to as land rehabilitation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Methods
2 Habitation
2.1 Asia
2.2 Europe
2.3 Africa
2.4 Americas
3 Agriculture
4 Beach restoration
5 Landfill
6 Environmental impact
6.1 Environmental legislation
7 Dangers
8 Land amounts added
9 See also
10 Notes
11 External links
12 References
Methods[edit]
Land reclamation can be achieved with a number of different methods. The most simple method involves simply filling the area with large amounts of heavy rock and/or cement, then filling with clay and dirt until the desired height is reached. The process is called "infilling"[3] and the material used to fill the space is generally called "infill".[4][5] Draining of submerged wetlands is often used to reclaim land for agricultural use. Deep cement mixing is used typically in situations in which the material displaced by either dredging or draining may be contaminated and hence needs to be contained. Land dredging is also another method of land reclamation. It is the removal of sediments and debris from the bottom of a body of water. It is commonly used for maintaining reclaimed land masses as sedimentation, a natural process, fills channels and harbors naturally.[6]
Habitation[edit]
The entire East Coast Park in Singapore was built on reclaimed land with a man-made beach.
The Flevopolder in the Netherlands, reclaimed from the IJsselmeer, is the largest reclaimed artificial island in the world.
Land Reclamation in the Beirut Central District
The whole district of Fontvieille, Monaco was reclaimed from the sea
Instances where the creation of new land was for the need of human activities.
Notable examples include:
Asia[edit]
Some of the coastlines of Saadiyat Island, in the UAE. Used for commercial purposes.[7]
Much of the coastlines of Mumbai, India. It took over 150 years to join the original Seven Islands of Bombay. These seven islands were lush, green, thickly wooded, and dotted with 22 hills, with the Arabian Sea washing through them at high tide. The original Isle of Bombay was only 24 km long and 4 km wide from Dongri to Malabar Hill (at its broadest point) and the other six were Colaba, Old Woman's Island, Mahim, Parel, Worli and Mazgaon. (See also Hornby Vellard).[8]
Much of the coastlines of Mainland China, Hong Kong, North Korea and South Korea. It is estimated that nearly 65% of tidal flats around the Yellow Sea have been reclaimed.[9]
Inland lowlands in the Yangtze valley, China, including the areas of important cities like Shanghai and Wuhan.[10]
Much of the coastline of Karachi, Pakistan.
The shore of Jakarta Bay. Land is usually reclaimed to create new housing areas and real estate properties, for the rapidly expanding city of Jakarta. So far, the largest reclamation project in the city is the creation of "Golf Island", which is still ongoing.[11]
A part of the Hamad International Airport in Qatar, around 36 square kilometres (14 sq mi).
The entire island of The Pearl-Qatar situated in West Bay (Doha), Qatar.
Haikou Bay, Hainan Province, China, where the west side of Haidian Island is being extended, and off the coast of Haikou City, where new land for a marina is being created.
The Cotai Strip in Macau, where most of the major casinos are located
Nagoya Centrair Airport, Japan
Incheon International Airport, Korea
Beirut Central District, Lebanon
The southern Chinese city of Shenzhen
The shore of Manila Bay in the Philippines, especially along Metro Manila, has attracted major developments such as the Mall of Asia Complex, Entertainment City and the Cultural Center of the Philippines Complex.
The city-state of Singapore, where land is in short supply, is also famous for its efforts on land reclamation.[12]
The Palm Islands, The World and hotel Burj al-Arab off Dubai in the United Arab Emirates
The Yas Island in Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Hulhumalé Island, Maldives. It is one of the six divisions of Malé City.
Giant Sea Wall Jakarta
Europe[edit]
Airport of Nice, France
Large parts of the Netherlands
Almost half of the micronation of Monaco
Parts of Dublin, Ireland
Most of Belfast Harbour and areas of Belfast, Northern Ireland
Parts of Saint Petersburg, Russia, such as the Marine Facade
Helsinki (of which the major part of the city center is built on reclaimed land)
Barceloneta area, Barcelona, in Spain
The port of Zeebrugge in Belgium
The southwestern residential area in Brest, Belarus
Majority of left-bank and some right-bank residential areas of Kiev were built on a reclaimed fens and floodplains of the Dnieper river.
Most of Fontvieille, Monaco
Parts surrounding Port Hercules in La Condamine, Monaco
The airport peninsula, the industrial area of Cornigliano, the PSA container terminal and other parts of the port in Genoa, Italy
The Fens in East Anglia
Venice, Italy
Rione Orsini, part of Borgo Santa Lucia, Naples
A big part of Kavala, city in Greece
Africa[edit]
The Foreshore in Cape Town
The Hassan II Mosque in Morocco is built on reclaimed land.
The Eko Atlantic in Lagos, Nigeria.
Americas[edit]
Large parts of Rio de Janeiro, most notably several blocks in the new docks area, the entire Flamengo Park and the neighborhood of Urca
Parts of New Orleans (which is partially built on land that was once swamp)
Parts of Montevideo, Uruguay, Rambla Sur and several projects still going on in Montevideo's Bay.
Much of the urbanized area adjacent to San Francisco Bay, including most of San Francisco's waterfront and Financial District, San Francisco International Airport, the Port of Oakland, and large portions of the city of Alameda has been reclaimed from the bay.
Mexico City (which is situated at the former site of Lake Texcoco); the chinampas are a famous example.
Parts of Panama City urban and street development are based on reclaimed land, using material extracted from Panama Canal excavations.
The Chicago shoreline
The Northwestern University Lakefill, part of the campus of Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois
Back Bay, Boston, Massachusetts
Battery Park City, Manhattan
Brooklyn Bridge Park, Brooklyn
Liberty State Park, Jersey City
The Toronto Islands, Leslie Street Spit, and the waterfront in Toronto
Part of Nuns' Island and all of Île Notre-Dame in Montreal
The Cinta Costera, in Panama City, Panama
The Potter's Cay in Nassau, The Bahamas was connected to the island of New Providence
The shore of Nassau, The Bahamas especially along East Bay street.
Aeroparque Jorge Newbery, in Buenos Aires, Argentina
One of the earliest large scale projects was the Beemster Polder in the Netherlands, realized in 1612 adding 70 square kilometres (27 sq mi) of land. In Hong Kong the Praya Reclamation Scheme added 20 to 24 hectares (50 to 60 acres) of land in 1890 during the second phase of construction. It was one of the most ambitious projects ever taken during the Colonial Hong Kong era.[13] Some 20% of land in the Tokyo Bay area has been reclaimed,[14] most notably Odaiba artificial island. Le Portier, Monaco and Gibraltar are also expanding due to land reclamation. The city of Rio de Janeiro was largely built on reclaimed land, as was Wellington, New Zealand.
Artificial islands are an example of land reclamation. Creating an artificial island is an expensive and risky undertaking. It is often considered in places with high population density and a scarcity of flat land. Kansai International Airport (in Osaka) and Hong Kong International Airport are examples where this process was deemed necessary. The Palm Islands, The World and hotel Burj al-Arab off Dubai in the United Arab Emirates are other examples of artificial islands (although there is yet no real "scarcity of land" in Dubai), as well as the Flevopolder in the Netherlands which is the largest artificial island in the world.
Agriculture[edit]
Land reclamation in progress in Bingzhou (丙州) Peninsula (formerly, island) of the Dongzui Bay (东咀港). Tong'an District, Xiamen, China
Agriculture was a drive for land reclamation before industrialisation.[15] In South China, farmers reclaimed paddy fields by enclosing an area with a stone wall on the sea shore near a river mouth or river delta. The species of rice that grow on these grounds are more salt tolerant. Another use of such enclosed land is the creation of fish ponds. It is commonly seen on the Pearl River Delta and Hong Kong. These reclaimed areas also attract species of migrating birds.
A related practice is the draining of swampy or seasonally submerged wetlands to convert them to farmland. While this does not create new land exactly, it allows commercially productive use of land that would otherwise be restricted to wildlife habitat. It is also an important method of mosquito control.
Even in the post-industrial age, there have been land reclamation projects intended for increasing available agricultural land. For example, the village of Ogata in Akita, Japan, was established on land reclaimed from Lake Hachirogata (Japan's second largest lake at the time) starting in 1957. By 1977, the amount of land reclaimed totalled 172.03 square kilometres (66.42 sq mi).[16]
Beach restoration[edit]
Main article: Beach nourishment
Beach rebuilding is the process of repairing beaches using materials such as sand or mud from inland. This can be used to build up beaches suffering from beach starvation or erosion from longshore drift. It stops the movement of the original beach material through longshore drift and retains a natural look to the beach. Although it is not a long-lasting solution, it is cheap compared to other types of coastal defences. An example of this is the city of Mumbai.[8]
Landfill[edit]
As human overcrowding of developed areas intensified during the 20th century, it has become important to develop land re-use strategies for completed landfills. Some of the most common usages are for parks, golf courses and other sports fields. Increasingly, however, office buildings and industrial uses are made on a completed landfill. In these latter uses, methane capture is customarily carried out to minimize explosive hazard within the building.
An example of a Class A office building constructed over a landfill is the Dakin Building at Sierra Point, Brisbane, California. The underlying fill was deposited from 1965 to 1985, mostly consisting of construction debris from San Francisco and some municipal wastes. Aerial photographs prior to 1965 show this area to be tidelands of the San Francisco Bay. A clay cap was constructed over the debris prior to building approval.[17]
A notable example is Sydney Olympic Park, the primary venue for the 2000 Summer Olympic Games, which was built atop an industrial wasteland that included landfills.
Another strategy for landfill is the incineration of landfill trash at high temperature via the plasma-arc gasification process, which is currently used at two facilities in Japan, and will be used at a planned facility in St. Lucie County, Florida.[18]
Environmental impact[edit]
Parts (highlighted in brown) of the San Francisco Bay were reclaimed from wetlands for urban use.
Draining wetlands for ploughing, for example, is a form of habitat destruction. In some parts of the world, new reclamation projects are restricted or no longer allowed, due to environmental protection laws. Reclamation projects have strong negative impacts on coastal populations, although some species can take advantage of the newly created area.[19]
Environmental legislation[edit]
A map of reclaimed land in Hong Kong: Grey (built), red (proposed or under development). Many of the urban areas of Hong Kong are on reclaimed land.
The State of California created a state commission, the San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission, in 1965 to protect San Francisco Bay and regulate development near its shores. The commission was created in response to growing concern over the shrinking size of the bay.
Hong Kong legislators passed the Protection of the Harbour Ordinance, proposed by the Society for Protection of the Harbour, in 1997 in an effort to safeguard the increasingly threatened Victoria Harbour against encroaching land development.[20] Several large reclamation schemes at Green Island, West Kowloon, and Kowloon Bay were subsequently shelved, and others reduced in size.
Dangers[edit]
Reclaimed land is highly susceptible to soil liquefaction during earthquakes,[21] which can amplify the amount of damage that occurs to buildings and infrastructure. Subsidence is another issue, both from soil compaction on filled land, and also when wetlands are enclosed by levees and drained to create Polders. Drained marshes will eventually sink below the surrounding water level, increasing the danger from flooding.
Land amounts added[edit]
Bangladesh – about 110 square kilometres (42 sq mi) in total and has 12,000 square kilometres (4,600 sq mi) potential (8% of total area) up to 12 metres (39 ft) depth in the territorial sea area.[22]
Netherlands – about 1/6 (almost 17%) of the entire country, or about 7,000 square kilometres (2,700 sq mi) in total, has been reclaimed from the sea, lakes, marshes and swamps. The province of Flevoland has almost completely been reclaimed from the Zuiderzee.
South Korea – As of 2006, 38 percent or 1,550 square kilometres (600 sq mi) of coastal wetlands reclaimed, including 400 square kilometres (150 sq mi) at Saemangeum. Songdo International Business district, the largest private development in history, is a large-scale reclamation project built entirely on tidal mudflats.
Singapore – 20% of the original size or 135 square kilometres (52 sq mi). As of 2003[update], plans for 99 square kilometres (38 sq mi) more are to go ahead,[23] despite the fact that disputes persist with Malaysia over Singapore's extensive land reclamation works.[24]
Hong Kong – (Main article: Land reclamation in Hong Kong)
Praya Reclamation Scheme began in the late 1860s and consisted of two stages totaling 20 to 24 hectares (50 to 60 acres).[13] Hong Kong Disneyland, Hong Kong International Airport, and its predecessor, Kai Tak Airport, were all built on reclaimed land. In addition, much reclamation has taken place in prime locations on the waterfront on both sides of Victoria Harbour. This has raised environmental issues of the protection of the harbour which was once the source of prosperity of Hong Kong, traffic congestion in the Central district,[25] as well as the collusion of the Hong Kong Government with the real estate developers in the territory.[26][27]
In addition, as the city expands, new towns in different decades were mostly built on reclaimed land, such as Tuen Mun, Tai Po, Shatin-Ma On Shan, West Kowloon, Kwun Tong and Tseung Kwan O.
Macau – 170% of the original size or 17 square kilometres (6.6 sq mi)[28]
Jakarta, Indonesia – Giant Sea Wall Jakarta is part of a massive coastal development project at Jakarta Bay, Indonesia.
Manila Bay, Philippines – additional 626 hectares along the eastern coast of Manila Bay created in the 1990s[29] to the 88-hectare Cultural Center of the Philippines Complex. The shore road of Manila (Roxas Boulevard) is actually reclaimed land, as well as its extension road to Cavite (Manila-Cavite Expressway / Aguinaldo Boulevard).
Mumbai, India – An archipelago of originally seven separate islands were joined together by land reclamation over a span of five centuries. This was done to develop Mumbai as a harbour city.
Monaco – 0.41 square kilometres (0.16 sq mi) out of 2.05 square kilometres (0.79 sq mi), or one fifth of Monaco comes from land taken from the sea, mainly in the neighborhoods of Fontvieille, La Condamine, and Larvotto/Bas Moulins.
Tokyo Bay, Japan – 249 square kilometres (96 sq mi)[30] including the entirety of Odaiba artificial island.
Kobe, Japan – 23 square kilometres (8.9 sq mi) (1995).
Bahrain – 76.3% of original size of 410 square kilometres (160 sq mi) (1931–2007).[citation needed][31]
New Zealand – significant areas of land totalling several hundred hectares have been reclaimed along the harbourfront of Auckland, Wellington and Dunedin. In Dunedin – which in its early days was nicknamed "Mudedin" – around 2.5 square kilometres (0.97 sq mi), including much of the inner city and suburbs of Dunedin North, South Dunedin and Andersons Bay is reclaimed from the Otago Harbour, and a similar area in the suburbs of St Clair and St Kilda is reclaimed swampland.
United Arab Emirates – Dubai has a total of four reclaimed islands (the Palm Jumeirah, Jebal Ali, The Burj al Arab Island, and The World Islands), with a fifth under construction (the Palm Deira). There are several man made islands in Abu Dhabi, such as Yas Island and Al Lulu Island.
Country
Reclaimed land (km2)
Note
China 13,500+ Land reclamations of China
Netherlands 7,000
South Korea 1,550
United States 1,000+ Artificial islands of the United States
Japan 500+
UAE 470 Land reclamation in the UAE
Bahrain 410
Singapore 135
Bangladesh 110
Qatar 35
Macau 17
New Zealand 3.3 Reclamation of Wellington Harbour[32]
Maldives 0.62 [33]
Monaco 0.41 Land reclamation in Monaco
See also[edit]
Artificial island
Great wall of sand
Marine regression – the formation of new land by reductions in sea level
Drainage system (agriculture) – drainage for land reclamation
Land improvement
Land reclamation in Hong Kong
Hong Kong Society for Protection of the Harbour
Land reclamation in Monaco
Mine reclamation
Polder – low-lying land reclaimed from a lake or sea
Reclamation of Wellington Harbour, New Zealand
River reclamation
Water reclamation
Land reclamation in Singapore
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "American Society for Mining and Reclamation". Retrieved 2012-04-01.
Jump up ^ Powter, Chris (2002). "Glossary of Reclamation and Remediation Terms used in Alberta" (PDF). Government of Alberta. ISBN 0-7785-2156-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-09. Retrieved 2012-04-01.
Jump up ^ Lambi, Cornelius Mbifung (2001). Environmental issues: problems and prospects. Bamenda, Cameroon: Unique Printers. p. 152. ISBN 978-9956-11-005-6.
Jump up ^ "Wisconsin Supplement Engineering Field Handbook Chapter 16: Streambank and Shoreline Protection" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. p. 16–WI–36.
Jump up ^ "Regional Road Maintenance ESA Program, Part 2: Best Management Practices" (PDF). Washington State Department of Transportation. p. 2.42.
Jump up ^ Administration, US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric. "What is dredging?". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2018-03-19.
Jump up ^ (http://www.hydrant.co.uk), Site designed and built by Hydrant (2013-03-07). "Depth charges: Land reclamation and dredging are big business". Oxford Business Group. Retrieved 2018-02-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Mumbai, Srinath Perur in (2016-03-30). "Story of cities #11: the reclamation of Mumbai – from the sea, and its people?". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-02-25.
Jump up ^ Murray N. J., Clemens R. S., Phinn S. R., Possingham H. P. & Fuller R. A. (2014) Tracking the rapid loss of tidal wetlands in the Yellow Sea. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 12, 267–72. doi: 10.1890/130260
Jump up ^ Brian Lander. State Management of River Dikes in Early China: New Sources on the Environmental History of the Central Yangzi Region . T'oung Pao 100.4-5 (2014): 325–362; Mira Mihelich, “Polders and Politics of Land Reclamation in Southeast China during the Northern Sung” (Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell Univ., 1979); Peter Perdue, Exhausting the Earth: State and Peasant in Hunan 1500–1850 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Council on East Asian Studies, 1987); Mei Li 梅莉, Zhang Guoxiong 張國雄, and Yan Changgui 晏昌貴, Lianghu pingyuan kaifa tanyuan 兩湖平原開發探源 (Nanchang: Jiangxi jiaoyu chubanshe, 1995); Shiba Yoshinobu, “Environment versus Water Control: The Case of the Southern Hangzhou Bay Area from the Mid-Tang Through the Qing,” in Sediments of Time: Environment and Society in Chinese History, ed. Mark Elvin and Ts’ui-jung Liu (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 135–64
Jump up ^ "Jakarta clears hurdle in reclamation project".
Jump up ^ Collin Anderson (2016). DP Architects on Marina Bay: Designing for Reclaimed Lands. Oro Editions. ISBN 9781941806975.
^ Jump up to: a b Bard, Solomon. [2002] (2002). Voices from the Past: Hong Kong 1842–1918. HK University press. ISBN 962-209-574-7
Jump up ^ Petry, Anne K. (July 2003). "Geography of Japan" (PDF). Japan Digest, Indiana University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-28. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
Jump up ^ Curtis, Daniel R. "Into the frontier: medieval land reclamation and the creation of new societies. Comparing Holland and the Po Valley, 800–1500". Academia.edu.
Jump up ^ "The History of Ogata-Mura | Ogata-mura". Ogata.or.jp. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2014-04-17.
Jump up ^ Paul B. Awosika and Marc Papineau, Phase One Environmental Site Assessment, 7000 Marina Boulevard, Brisbane, California, prepared for Argentum International by Certified. Engineering & Testing Company, Boston, Massachusetts, July 15, 1993
Jump up ^ "Florida county plans to vaporize landfill trash". USA Today. 2006-09-09. Retrieved 2010-05-07.
Jump up ^ Borzée, Amaël; Kim, Kyungmin; Heo, Kyongman; Jablonski, Piotr G.; Jang, Yikweon (4 October 2017). "Impact of land reclamation and agricultural water regime on the distribution and conservation status of the endangered Dryophytes suweonensis". PeerJ. 5: e3872. doi:10.7717/peerj.3872.
Jump up ^ Wallis, Keith (February 12, 1996). "Bill seeks to protect harbour". Hong Kong Standard. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-23. Retrieved 2012-04-06.
Jump up ^ ""Bangladesh fights for survival against climate change," by William Wheeler and Anna-Katarina Gravgaard, The Washington Times". Pulitzercenter.org. Retrieved 3 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Singapore Finds it Hard to Expand Without Sand". Planet Ark. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
Jump up ^ "Singapore". The World Factbook. CIA. 1 September 2010. section Transnational issues. Retrieved 1 October 2010. disputes persist with Malaysia over […] extensive land reclamation works
Jump up ^ "Courts protect our imperiled waterway – at least for the time being". Hong Kong Standard. August 14, 2006. Archived from the original on October 19, 2012. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
Jump up ^ DeGolyer, Michael (March 15, 2007). "Commentary: Just Looking for Answers". Hong Kong Standard. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
Jump up ^ Ng, Michael (October 5, 2006). "Lawmaker warns of West Kowloon arts venue glut". Hong Kong Standard. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
Jump up ^ gov.mo
Jump up ^ "Philippine Reclamation Authority". http://pea.gov.ph. Archived from the original on 2016-05-06. External link in |website= (help)
Jump up ^ "Japan Fact Sheet". Japan Reference. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
Jump up ^ Chief, Habib Toumi, Bahrain Bureau (2010-01-12). "Bahrain parliament wants solution to land reclamation issue". GulfNews. Retrieved 2018-02-04.
Jump up ^ "150 years of news: How reclamations shaped Wellington". Stuff. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
Jump up ^ "UAE Dredging Company Gulf Cobla Delivers Maldives Airport Land Reclamation for Expansion Project - International Dredging Review - May-June 2017". www.dredgemag.com. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
External links[edit]
The Cape Town Foreshore Plan 1947
The Canadian Land Reclamation Association
The case for offshore Mumbai airport
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Land reclamation.
Wordie, Jason (18 April 1999). "Land-grabbing titans who changed HK's profit for good". The Standard. Hong Kong. Archived from the original on May 22, 2011. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
MacKinnon, J.; Verkuil, Y.I.; Murray, N.J. (2012), IUCN situation analysis on East and Southeast Asian intertidal habitats, with particular reference to the Yellow Sea (including the Bohai Sea), Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 47, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN, p. 70, ISBN 9782831712550 [permanent dead link]
Murray, N.J.; Clemens, R.S.; Phinn, S.R.; Possingham, H.P.; Fuller, R.A. (2014), "Tracking the rapid loss of tidal wetlands in the Yellow Sea", Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 12 (5): 267–272, doi:10.1890/130260
|url =http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/bahrain/bahrain-parliament-wants-solution-to-land-reclamation-issue-1.567052
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For Want of a Nail
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the alternate history novel, see For Want of a Nail (novel).
For Want of a Nail
For want of a nail the shoe was lost.
For want of a shoe the horse was lost.
For want of a horse the rider was lost.
For want of a rider the message was lost.
For want of a message the battle was lost.
For want of a battle the kingdom was lost.
And all for the want of a horseshoe nail.
"For Want of a Nail" is a proverb, having numerous variations over several centuries, reminding that seemingly unimportant acts or omissions can have grave and unforeseen consequences.
Contents
1 Analysis
2 Historical references
3 Modern day references
3.1 Legal
3.2 Literary
3.3 Musical
3.4 Cinema and television
3.5 Video games
4 See also
5 Bibliography
6 References
7 External links
Analysis[edit]
"Knight" Variation

For want of a nail the shoe was lost,
for want of a shoe the horse was lost,
for want of a horse the knight was lost,
for want of a knight the battle was lost,
for want of a battle the kingdom was lost.
So a kingdom was lost—all for want of a nail.

JLA: The Nail DC Comics, 1998
The proverb has come down in many variations over the centuries. It describes a situation in which a failure to anticipate or correct some initially small dysfunction leads by successively more critical stages to an egregious outcome. The rhyme's implied small difference in initial conditions is the lack of a spare horseshoe nail, relative to a condition of its availability.[1] At a more literal level, it expresses the importance of military logistics in warfare.
Such chains of causality are perceived only in hindsight. No one ever lamented, upon seeing his unshod horse, that the kingdom would eventually fall because of it.[1]
Related sayings are is "A stitch, in time, saves nine" and "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure". A somewhat similar idea is referred to in the metaphor known as The Camel's nose.
Historical references[edit]
Horseshoes from World War I
Variation

For want of a nail the shoe was lost,
for want of a shoe the horse was lost;
and for want of a horse the rider was lost;
being overtaken and slain by the enemy,
all for want of care about a horse-shoe nail.
—Benjamin Franklin
The Way to Wealth (1758)[2]
Variation

A little neglect may breed mischief ...
for want of a nail, the shoe was lost;
for want of a shoe the horse was lost;
and for want of a horse the rider was lost.
—Benjamin Franklin
Poor Richard's Almanac, preface (1758)
Short Variation

For want of a nail the shoe was lost;
For want of a shoe the horse was lost;
For want of a horse the battle was lost;
For the failure of battle the kingdom was lost—
All for the want of a horse-shoe nail.
—Unattributed
from Fifty Famous People by James Baldwin[3]
The proverb is found in a number of forms, beginning as early as the 13th century:
Middle High German (positively formulated): Diz ſagent uns die wîſen, ein nagel behalt ein îſen, ein îſen ein ros, ein ros ein man, ein man ein burc, der ſtrîten kan. ("The wise tell us that a nail keeps a shoe, a shoe a horse, a horse a man, a man a castle, that can fight.") (c. 1230 Freidank Bescheidenheit)[4]
"For sparinge of a litel cost, Fulofte time a man hath lost, The large cote for the hod."; For sparing a little cost often a man has lost the large coat for the hood.[5] (c 1390 John Gower, Confessio Amantis v. 4785–4787)[6][7]
French: Par ung seul clou perd on ung bon cheval. ("By just one nail one loses a good horse.") (c 1507 Jean Molinet, Faictz Dictz D., v768).[6][8]
"The French-men haue a military prouerbe; 'The losse of a nayle, the losse of an army'. The want of a nayle looseth the shooe, the losse of shooe troubles the horse, the horse indangereth the rider, the rider breaking his ranke molests the company, so farre as to hazard the whole Army". (1629 Thomas Adams (clergyman), "The Works of Thomas Adams: The Sum Of His Sermons, Meditations, And Other Divine And Moral Discourses", p. 714")[6][9]
For want of a naile the shoe is lost, for want of a shoe the horse is lost, for want of a horse the rider is lost. (1640 George Herbert Outlandish Proverbs no. 499)[6]
In British Columbia Saw-Mill Co. v. Nettleship (1868), L.R. 3 C.P. 499 (Eng. Q.B.), a variation on the story is given a legal flavour:
"Cases of this kind have always been found to be very difficult to deal with, beginning with a case said to have been decided about two centuries and a half ago, where a man going to be married to an heiress, his horse having cast a shoe on the journey, employed a blacksmith to replace it, who did the work so unskilfully that the horse was lamed, and, the rider not arriving in time, the lady married another; and the blacksmith was held liable for the loss of the marriage. The question is a very serious one; and we should inevitably fall into a similar absurdity unless we applied the rules of common sense to restrict the extent of liability for the breach of contract of this sort."
‘Don't care’ was the man who was to blame for the well-known catastrophe: ‘For want of a nail the shoe was lost, for want of a shoe the horse was lost, and for want of a horse the man was lost.’ (1880 Samuel Smiles, Duty)[6][10]
Benjamin Franklin included a version of the rhyme in his Poor Richard's Almanack. (Benjamin Franklin, Poor Richards Almanack, June 1758, The Complete Poor Richard Almanacks, facsimile ed., vol. 2, pp. 375, 377)[2]
A short variation of the proverb (shown to the right) was published in 1912 in Fifty Famous People by James Baldwin.[3] The story associated with the proverb describes the unhorsing of King Richard III during the Battle of Bosworth Field, which took place on 22 August 1485. However, historically Richard's horse was merely mired in the mud.[11] In Baldwin's story, the proverb and its reference to losing a horse is directly linked to King Richard famously shouting "A Horse! A Horse! My Kingdom for a Horse!", as depicted in Act V, Scene 4[12] from the Shakespeare play Richard III.
You bring your long-tailed shovel, an' I'll bring me navvy [labourer- in this context referring to a navvy shovel (square mouth shovel)]. We mighten' want them, an', then agen, we might: for want of a nail the shoe was lost, for want of a shoe the horse was lost, an' for want of a horse the man was lost—aw, that's a darlin' proverb, a daarlin'.(1925 S. O'casey Juno & Paycock i. 16)[6]
During World War II, this verse was framed and hung on the wall of the Anglo-American Supply Headquarters in London, England.[13]
Modern day references[edit]
This article appears to contain trivial, minor, or unrelated references to popular culture. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture, using references to reliable sources, rather than simply listing appearances. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017)
Along with the long history of the proverb listed above, it has continued to be referenced since the mid 20th century in modern culture. Examples include:
Legal[edit]
In his dissent in Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency (549 US 497, 2007), Chief Justice John G. Roberts of the U.S. Supreme Court cites "all for the want of a horseshoe nail" as an example of a possible chain of causation. He claimed that, by contrast, the threshold jurisdictional issue of standing requires a likely chain of causation, which was not satisfied by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's regulation of new automobile emissions to prevent the loss of Massachusetts coastal land due to climate change.[14]
In his dissent in CSX Transportation, Inc. v. McBride, Roberts again invokes the proverb, explaining that, in tort law, the doctrine of proximate cause is meant to "limit[] liability at some point before the want of a nail leads to loss of the kingdom."[15]
Literary[edit]
"Message" Variation

For want of a nail a horseshoe was lost,
for want of a horseshoe a horse went lame,
for want of a horse a rider never got through,
for want of a rider a message never arrived,
for want of a message an army was never sent,
for want of an army a battle was lost,
for want of a battle a war was lost,
for want of a war a kingdom fell,
and all for want of a nail.
– Unknown[16]
For Want of a Nail: If Burgoyne Had Won at Saratoga is an alternate history novel published in 1973 by the American business historian Robert Sobel. The novel depicts an alternative world where the American Revolution was unsuccessful.
Cannibals And Missionaries by Mary McCarthy quotes on page 199 "No detail... was too small to be passed over....‘For want of a nail,’ as the proverb said."[6][17]
In the novel Rage, by Stephen King (using the pseudonym Richard Bachman), main character Charlie Decker references the proverb: "But you can't go back. For want of a shoe the horse was lost, and all that." Stephen King's 1987 novel, The Tommyknockers also references the proverb in its first line: "For want of a nail the kingdom was lost – that's how the catechism goes when you boil it down."
JLA: The Nail is a three-issue comic book limited series published by DC Comics in 1998 about a world where the baby Kal-El was never found by Ma and Pa Kent because a nail punctured their truck tire on the day when they would have found his ship; thus the child does not grow up to become Superman. This story uses the English ("Knight") variation of the rhyme as a theme.
A Wind in the Door is a fantasy/science fiction novel by Madeleine L'Engle which was a sequel to A Wrinkle in Time. The proverb is used in the novel as an explanation by Meg Murry to help Mr. Jenkins understand how a microscopic creature can affect the fate of the universe, and is the impetus for much of the action.
"For Want of a Nail", a 2011 Hugo award-winning short story by Mary Robinette Kowal, explores the choices that an artificial intelligence and her wrangler must make to solve a seemingly simple technical problem.
The poem "Kiss", found in the collection Full Volume, by Robert Crawford (Scottish poet) is based on this proverb.
The poem "Tale of a Nail" by the Polish poet Zbigniew Herbert starts with the line "For lack of a nail the kingdom fell."
The children's poem "The Nail and the Horse shoe (Гвоздь и Подкова)" by Russian writer Samuil Marshak describes a situation where the enemy captured a city because a blacksmith shop did not have a nail in stock. The flow of the poem is very similar to that of its English equivalent.
William Golding quotes the whole poem at the end of chapter 9 of his novel The Spire. There, the nail referred to is one of the Nails of the Holy Cross. That relic, when embedded at the base of the cross which had to be erected on top of the spire under construction next to Salisbury Cathedral, was thought to ensure stability to the whole, daring building, and to defeat the evil forces raging against it (symbolized by the howling wind).
Told to Katy Carr by her father in the novel What Katy Did by Susan Coolidge, when she is angry about getting into trouble after being late to school because she had not bothered to sew a string onto her bonnet.
In Essentials of Corporate Finance Seventh Edition by Ross, Westerfield, and Jordan, on page 350, in the discussion of systematic and unsystematic risk, the impact of an enterprise, no matter how small, to the economy is compared to the impact of the nail to the kingdom.
Musical[edit]
"Rundgren" Variation

For want of a nail, the shoe was lost,
For want of a shoe, the horse was lost,
For want of a horse, the rider was lost,
For want of a rider, the message was lost,
For want of a message, the battle was lost,
For want of a battle, the war was lost,
For want of a war, the kingdom was lost,
For want of a nail, the world was lost
'The Want of a Nail"
– T. Rundgren
Warner Chappell N.A., Ltd., 1989
Todd Rundgren's song "The Want of a Nail" from his album Nearly Human uses the rhyme as a metaphor for a man who has lived his entire life without love, and how, if you "multiply it a billion times" and "spread it all over the world," things fall apart. A cover of Rundgren's version is also used in the 2003 film Camp as the cast is introduced at the end of the film.
Aesop Rock's song "No City" from his album None Shall Pass samples a voice reading the proverb, setting the tone for the idiosyncratic rap.
Tom Waits's song "Misery Is the River of the World" from his album Blood Money includes the line "for want of a nail, a shoe was lost" as well as several other variations on the theme.
Israeli songwriter Naomi Shemer wrote a translated version of the song called "HaKol Biglal Masmer" (All Because of a Nail).
Newsboys song "It's All Who You Know" from the album Take Me to Your Leader is based on variations of the theme
Cinema and television[edit]
The title of the season two episode of M*A*S*H, "For Want of a Boot", is adapted from the proverb. The episode's concept itself is also based on the proverb, with the character of Hawkeye going through a convoluted process involving several camp personnel, in order to get a new boot.
In the movie The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift, the proverb was used by Kamata (Sonny Chiba) to explain to his nephew the result of a small detail being overlooked.
In the movie Father Goose, Frank Houghton (Trevor Howard) in his first scene of the movie, while talking to an Admiral on the telephone, uses part of the proverb by saying "For want of a nail, the war was..." in reference to finding an additional coastal plane spotter.
In the episode of USA's Monk, "Mr. Monk at Your Service",[18] Monk quotes the proverb after being challenged by an employee that suggest a fork being a centimeter off center wasn't a problem. Monk: "For the want of a nail, the kingdom was lost."
In the 1982 movie The Verdict, Ed Concannon (James Mason) uses the proverb, "for want of a shoe the horse was lost" to his disciples to describe what the case has become after Frank Galvin turned down the settlement.
The entire proverbial rhyme is recited by the character Abraham Farlan in the 1946 motion picture A Matter of Life and Death. Here it was used to describe the chain of circumstances which formed the life of the main character, Peter Carter.
In season two, episode three of the television show Sliders, while trying to repair the timer device in a world crippled by 'anti-technology' Professor Arturo exclaims, "For want of a shoe the war was lost."
In the 50th episode of Dead or Alive, Man On Horseback, Josh Randall, Steve McQueen's character, uses the proverb "For the want of a nail, they lost the shoe. For the want of a shoe, they lost the horse. For the want of a horse, they lost the rider" to justify the reason why he is taking with him four extra horseshoes.
In the 1967 Mannix episode 'Turn Every Stone,' Joe Mannix alludes to the saying at the end when he says, "It's the old horseshoe-nail bit again. For want of $10,000, a million was lost."
In the 1954 movie The Caine Mutiny, Captain Queeg (Bogart) refers to the proverb during the following conversation with Ensign Keith after he reprimanded him for failing to enforce the untucked shirt-tails rule. "I know a man's shirt's a petty detail, but big things are made up of details. Don't forget, 'For want of a nail, a horseshoe was lost and then the whole battle.' A captain's job is a lonely one. He's easily misunderstood. Forget that I bawled you out."
In Season One, Episode 21 of the TV series Hart of Dixie, Tom Long introduces Wanda who proceeds to sing "For the Want of the Nail" to encourage people to be prepared for their drill assignments.
Video games[edit]
In the 1996 computer game Star Trek: Borg "Q" quips the line "For want of a horseshoe nail" to the player during a dialog sequence.
The 2016 video game Tom Clancy's The Division contains a reference to the proverb in one of antagonist Aaron Keener's audio logs.
See also[edit]
Butterfly effect
Broken windows theory
Camel's nose
Cascading failure
Causality
Chaos theory
Domino effect
Proverb
Folklore
Rhyme
Alliteration
Parallelism
Remoteness in English law
Bibliography[edit]
Benjamin Franklin, Poor Richards Almanack, June 1758, The Complete Poor Richards Almanacks, facsimile ed., vol. 2, pp. 375, 377
G. Herbert, Outlandish Proverbs, c. 1640, no. 499
Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes, ed. Iona and Peter Opie, Oxford 1951, pg 324
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b For want of a nail @ Everything2.com
^ Jump up to: a b The way to wealth By Benjamin Franklin (Retrieved 20100420)
^ Jump up to: a b James Baldwin (1912). "The Horseshoe Nails". Fifty Famous People: A Book of Short Stories. American Book Company. pp. 51–54.
Jump up ^ Freydank; Grimm, Wilhelm (1834). Vridankes Bescheidenheit. Dieterich. Retrieved 1 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Definition of Hood, etimology from the New Century Dictionary, with milddle english etimology including cote and hod (retrieved 20100402)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Proverbs: For want of a nail the shoe was lost; for want of a shoe the horse was lost; and for want of a horse the man was lost at answers.com
Jump up ^ "Confessio Amantis" or "Tales of the Seven Deadly Sins" Incipit Liber Quintus: Part 3 from the Medieval and Classical Literature Library (retrieved 20100402)
Jump up ^ Dictionnaire du Moyen Français (retrieved 20100402)
Jump up ^ Adamn, Thomas (1629). The Works of Thomas Adams: The Sum Of His Sermons, Meditations, And Other Divine And Moral Discourses. London: Thomas Harper and Augustine Matthews for John Grismand. p. 714. Retrieved 2 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Smiles, Samuel (1880). Duty : with illustrations of courage, patience, & endurance. London: John Murray. Retrieved 2 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Gravett, Christopher (1999). Bosworth 1485: Last Charge of the Plantagenets. Campaign. 66. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. p. 73. ISBN 1-85532-863-1. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
Jump up ^ Richard III, Act V, Scene 4, from the Richard III society (Retrieved 20100319)
Jump up ^ Mother goose Migrates to America, by Kerri McIntire on inheritage.org (Retrieved 20100402).
Jump up ^ Massachusetts v. E.P.A., 549 U.S. 497, 546 (2007).
Jump up ^ CSX Transportation, Inc. v. McBride, No. 10-235 (U.S. 17 June 2011) (slip op., at 3) (Roberts, C.J., dissenting).
Jump up ^ oneliners-and-proverbs.com
Jump up ^ Amazon.com: Cannibals And Missionaries: Mary McCarthy: Books (Retrieved on 2008-10-01)
Jump up ^ Mr. Monk at Your Service (Retrieved 20090401)
External links[edit]
Famous Quotes UK (Retrieved 14-Feb-2008)
"For want of a nail" at Everything2.com (Retrieved 14-Feb-2008)
The Lorenz Butterfly (Retrieved 14-Feb-2008)
JSTOR:For Want of a Nail, E. J. Lowe, Analysis, Vol. 40, No. 1 (Jan., 1980), pp. 50–52 (Retrieved 14-Feb-2008)
James S. Robbins on 9/11 Commission published 9 April 2004 by National Review Online "For want of a nail:Lady Condoleezza on the battle of the Saracens." (Retrieved 14-Feb-2008)
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), U.S. statesman, writer. Poor Richard’s Almanac, preface (1758). (Retrieved 14-Feb-2008)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=For_Want_of_a_Nail&oldid=854540673"
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Shut Eye
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Shut Eye
Genre
Drama
Created by
Les Bohem
Starring
Jeffrey Donovan
KaDee Strickland
Susan Misner
Emmanuelle Chriqui
David Zayas
Isabella Rossellini
Composer(s)
Ben Decter
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
1
No. of episodes
10
Production
Executive producer(s)
Les Bohem
Mark Johnson
Melissa Bernstein
Production company(s)
Gran Via Productions
TriStar Television
Distributor
Sony Pictures Television
Release
Original network
Hulu
Original release
December 7, 2016 (2016-12-07) – present
Shut Eye is an American drama television series created by Les Bohem, airing on the streaming service Hulu. It was given a straight-to-series 10-episode order. All ten episodes became available on December 7, 2016.[1] A second season was ordered on March 20, 2017.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Main cast
3 Episodes
4 Music
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
The series centers around the life of failed magician Charlie Haverford (Donovan), who now works as a psychic.[3]
Main cast[edit]
Jeffrey Donovan as Charlie Haverford[4]
KaDee Strickland as Linda Haverford, Charlie's wife[5]
Susan Misner as Dr. Nora White, a neuroscientist[6]
Emmanuelle Chriqui as Gina, a hypnotist[6]
David Zayas as Eduardo Bernal[7]
Isabella Rossellini as Rita[8]
Angus Sampson as Fonso[9]
Zak Santiago as White Tony
Episodes[edit]
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
1
"Death" Johan Renck Les Bohem December 7, 2016 (2016-12-07)
2
"The Hanged Man" Craig Zisk Charlie Keys Bohem
and Les Bohem December 7, 2016 (2016-12-07)
3
"The Fool" Michael Trim Les Bohem December 7, 2016 (2016-12-07)
4
"The Tower - Reversed" Clark Johnson Les Bohem December 7, 2016 (2016-12-07)
5
"The Magician" Minkie Spiro Greg Walker December 7, 2016 (2016-12-07)
6
"Judgment" Daisy Von Scherler Mayer Daria Polatin December 7, 2016 (2016-12-07)
7
"Two of Swords" Michael Morris Tom Pabst December 7, 2016 (2016-12-07)
8
"Five of Cups" Bronwen Hughes Patricia Breen December 7, 2016 (2016-12-07)
9
"Wheel of Fortune" Stephen Gyllenhaal Les Bohem
and Hiram Martinez December 7, 2016 (2016-12-07)
10
"Ace of Swords" Larysa Kondracki Les Bohem December 7, 2016 (2016-12-07)
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
1
"We're Not in Kansas Anymore" Scott Winant John Shiban December 6, 2017 (2017-12-06)
2
"Shortchanged" Meera Menon Will Pascoe December 6, 2017 (2017-12-06)
3
"Guys and Dolls" TBA Amy Berg December 6, 2017 (2017-12-06)
4
"Are You Listening?" Stephen Gyllenhaal Katrina Cabrera December 6, 2017 (2017-12-06)
5
"Charles the Magnificent" TBA Jonathan Igla December 6, 2017 (2017-12-06)
6
"Crimes and Punishments" TBA Will Pascoe December 6, 2017 (2017-12-06)
7
"Purple Hearts" Michael Trim Amy Berg December 6, 2017 (2017-12-06)
8
"Karma Chameleon" TBA TBA December 6, 2017 (2017-12-06)
9
"Verite" TBA TBA December 6, 2017 (2017-12-06)
10
"There's No Place Like Home" TBA TBA December 6, 2017 (2017-12-06)
Music[edit]
The series' musical score is composed by Ben Decter.[10]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Alex McCown-Levy (December 7, 2016). "Hulu gives fake psychics real drama in the addicting Shut Eye". AVClub.com.
Jump up ^ http://deadline.com/2017/03/shut-eye-renewed-season-2-hulu-john-shiban-new-showrunner-1202047397/
Jump up ^ Rebecca Iannucci (January 8, 2016). "Jeffrey Donovan to Lead Hulu Series". TVLine.
Jump up ^ Nellie Andreeva (January 8, 2016). "Jeffrey Donovan Cast As Male Lead In Hulu's Drama Series 'Shut Eye'". Deadline.com.
Jump up ^ Nellie Andreeva (January 29, 2016). "KaDee Strickland Set As Female Lead In Hulu Series 'Shut Eye'". Deadline.com.
^ Jump up to: a b Nellie Andreeva (January 22, 2016). "Susan Misner & Emmanuelle Chriqui Cast In Hulu's Psychic Drama Series 'Shut Eye'". Deadline.com.
Jump up ^ Denise Petski (February 2, 2016). "David Zayas Joins 'Shut Eye'; Megyn Price Heads To 'The Ranch'". Deadline.com.
Jump up ^ Nellie Andreeva (February 2, 2016). "Isabella Rossellini Cast In Hulu Series 'Shut Eye'". Deadline.com.
Jump up ^ Erik Pedersen (February 12, 2016). "Angus Sampson Joins Hulu Drama 'Shut Eye'; Manny Montana Cast in ABC's 'Conviction'". Deadline.com.
Jump up ^ "Hulu's 'Shut Eye' to Feature Music by Ben Decter". FilmMusicReporter.com. April 14, 2016.
External links[edit]
Shut Eye on Hulu.com site
Shut Eye on IMDb
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text:
Town council
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (December 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A town council, village council or rural council is a form of local government for small municipalities.
Usage of the term varies under different jurisdictions.
Contents
1 Republic of Ireland
2 Belize
3 England and Wales
4 Canada
4.1 Ontario
4.2 Manitoba
5 United States
5.1 Indiana
5.2 Massachusetts
5.3 New Hampshire
5.3.1 Official Ballot Town Council
6 Palestinian Authority
7 Singapore
8 Others
9 See also
10 References
Republic of Ireland[edit]
Town Councils in the Republic of Ireland form the second tier of local government under counties, and date from 2002, when the existing Urban District Councils and Town Commissioners were redesignated. There are currently 75 such councils. The Local Government Reform Act 2014 abolished them
Belize[edit]
Main article: Local government in Belize
There are currently seven town councils in Belize. Each town council consists of a mayor and a number of councillors, who are directly elected in municipal elections every three years. Town councils in Belize are responsible for a range of functions, including street maintenance and lighting, drainage, refuse collection, public cemeteries, infrastructure, parks and playgrounds.
England and Wales[edit]
See also: Parish councils in England
In England, since the Local Government Act 1972, town councils are the specific name given to a civil parish councils, where the civil parish council has declared itself by resolution to be a town council. Civil parishes are the lowest level in the local government system. The higher levels are district, unitary or county. However town councils are not subordinate in democratic accountability to those higher levels, but to the electorate of their civil parish area.
The chairman of a town council is technically called a town mayor. The term "town mayor" is used as opposed to simply "mayor", which means the mayor of a borough or a city. However, this is often abbreviated simply to mayor, especially where the town was historically a borough or city, such as Lewes or Ely. In Scotland, the term 'provost' is commonly used to designate the leader of the town of council.
Historically the term 'town council' was used for the governing body of a municipal borough until the 1972 Act.
The term 'town council' in England, is today used only for a parish council which has named itself as a town council. If another type of local council such as a district authority covers a single town (such as Corby or Cheltenham) then the council is often a 'borough council': borough status is however conferred at the discretion of the Crown.
In Wales, where the lowest tier of local government is known as a community, the Community Council may unilaterally declare itself to be a Town Council, but this has the same status as a Community Council.
Canada[edit]
Ontario[edit]
Township councils in Ontario play a similar role as city councils in cities for smaller or low tier municipalities.[1] Directly elected every four years, the number of councillors vary depending on the size of their municipalities. The councillors powers and responsibilities are governed by the Municipal Act, 2001.
Manitoba[edit]
Manitoba town council members serve primarily as a policy and direction board for the community. They consist of five to seven members with the head of council being the mayor or reeve.
United States[edit]
Indiana[edit]
Indiana town council members serve as both the executive and legislative branches for small communities incorporated as towns within the state. They consist of three or five members, depending upon the town's population.
Unlike some states, Indiana councilmembers must declare a political party affiliation, if any, when they file to run for office. Upon election in November, they are sworn in before 1 January of the following year, where they serve a four-year term. There are no state term limits affecting how many times a candidate may run for re-election to office.
The first meeting after an election, members of the town council hold an organising meeting, where they elect a president to set future agendas and act as an official spokesman for the town or as liaison between the town and state and county government.
Indiana town councils work in conjunction with an elected town clerk, who manages the day-to-day business of the municipal government. As an elected official, the town clerk is solely executive in function and operates independently of the town council. But the council has final say on budgets which clerks depend upon to operate.
In addition to a clerk, the council can authorise the hiring of other staff to run the operations of government, including law enforcement officers, utility workers, park and recreation employees and town managers. These employees serve at the pleasure of the council.
Massachusetts[edit]
Town councils in Massachusetts are essentially city councils in towns which have adopted a city form of government but prefer to retain the "town of" in their names. In several communities which have adopted such a government, the official name of the community is "The City known as the Town of..." The legislative body of a legal town in Massachusetts is a town meeting; the executive board is a board of selectmen. In addition to having the structure of a city with a mayor and council, cities in Massachusetts can enact ordinances, while towns may adopt by-laws, which are subject to the approval of the Attorney General. City ordinances are presumed to be legal unless challenged and set aside in court. See Massachusetts Government.
New Hampshire[edit]
In New Hampshire, the Town Council is an elected body which serves as the legislative and executive body of the town. The town is governed by a charter, which is allowed under the home rule provision of the New Hampshire Constitution (Pt I, Art. 39) and Title III of the New Hampshire Revised Statutes Annotated. The charter for a Town Council must meet the following requirements of RSA 49-D:3 I. (a) – (e) and all other applicable laws. The basic notion of home rule in New Hampshire is that local communities are not allowed to supersede the authority specifically granted to them by the state.
Official Ballot Town Council[edit]
The Official Ballot Town Council is a variant form of the Town Council. In the Official Ballot form of government, the town council is vested with the limited authority to vote on all matters not voted on by official ballot. The authority and restrictions on the Official Ballot town council is the same as the Town Council, except with respect to those matters specified to be voted on by official ballot. Also, the council decides what is placed on the ballot, not the registered voters.
The charter of the Official Ballot Town Council is required by law to specify specifically:
Which budgetary items to be included on the official ballot; and
A finalisation process for the annual budget; and
Process for public hearings, debate, discussion and amendment of questions to be placed on the official ballot; and
Procedures for the transfer of funds among various departments, funds, accounts and agencies as may be necessary during the year; and
Applicability of the official ballot procedure to special elections
The charter also must specify whether a ⅔ or ⅗ majority vote is required to approve bonds or notes, with the default being ⅔.
Palestinian Authority[edit]
Main article: Village council (Palestinian Authority)
The Palestinian National Authority established village councils to serve as local administrations and service providers for Palestinian villages and small towns. Village councils are also referred to as D-level municipalities.
Singapore[edit]
In Singapore, town councils are in charge of maintaining the common areas of Housing and Development Board (HDB) flats and estates, such as the common corridors, void decks, lifts, water tanks, external lighting and the open spaces surrounding the estates. They are regulated under the Town Councils Act (Cap. 329A, 2000 Rev. Ed.).
The rationale was to delegate the duties of estate management to the members of parliament in addition to their existing responsibilities. They would also gain management experience and be accountable to their district's resident voters.[2]
Town councils boundaries are drawn based on electoral districts boundaries. A town council area can consist of a Group Representation Constituency (GRC), a Single Member Constituency (SMC), or a collection of neighbouring GRCs and SMCs controlled by the same political party. The Members of Parliament head the town councils of their constituencies. Town councils boundaries do not correspond to new town boundaries; different parts of the same HDB town may be managed by different town councils.[3]
Others[edit]
Community council, the lowest tier of local government in England, Scotland and Wales
Rural Council, a former name for Sangguniang Barangay, Philippines
Rural Community Council, Great Britain
Selsoviet, lowest level of administrative division in rural areas in the Soviet Union, preserved as a third tier of administrative-territorial division throughout Ukraine, Belarus and some parts of Russia
Village council (Palestinian Authority)
Rural Council (Ukraine)
Rural Municipality or Gaunpalika (Nepal)
See also[edit]
City council
Municipal election
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 18 September 2012. Retrieved 11 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Khaw Boon Wan, Minister for National Development (3 March 2014). "Measures to Protect Interests of Residents of Town Councils". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). Singapore: Parliament. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
Jump up ^ Town Councils Act (Cap. 329A, 2000 Rev. Ed.)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Town_council&oldid=842053168"
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