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Provincial governments of South Africa
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The nine provinces of South Africa are governed by provincial governments which form the second layer of government, between the national government and the municipalities. The provincial governments are established, and their structure defined, by Chapter Six of the Constitution of South Africa.
The provincial governments are structured according to a parliamentary system in which the executive is dependent on and accountable to the legislature. In each province the provincial legislature is directly elected by proportional representation, and the legislature in turn elects one of its members as Premier to head the executive. The Premier appoints an Executive Council (a cabinet), consisting of members of the legislature, to administer the various departments of the provincial administration.
The powers of the provincial governments are circumscribed by the national constitution, which limits them to certain listed "functional areas". In some areas the provincial governments' powers are concurrent with those of the national government, while in other areas the provincial governments have exclusive powers. The constitution prescribes a principle of "co-operative government" whereby the various layers of government must co-ordinate their actions and legislation; it also lays down a series of rules for resolving conflicts between national and provincial legislation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Legislature
2 Executive
3 Judiciary
4 Provincial constitutions
5 External links
Legislature[edit]
Johannesburg City Hall, now the seat of the Gauteng Provincial Legislature
Main article: Provincial legislature (South Africa)
Each province has a unicameral provincial legislature, varying in size from 30 to 80 members depending on the population of the province. The members of the provincial legislature are elected by party-list proportional representation for a usual term of five years, although under certain circumstances the legislature may be dissolved before its term expires. By convention elections to the provincial legislatures are held on the same day as elections to the National Assembly; the most recent such election was held on 7 May 2014. At that election the African National Congress (ANC) won a majority in eight of the provinces, while the Democratic Alliance (DA) won a majority in the Western Cape.
Legislature
Seats
ANC
DA
EFF
IFP
Others
Total
Eastern Cape Provincial Legislature 45 10 2 0 6 63
Free State Legislature 22 5 2 0 1 30
Gauteng Provincial Legislature 40 23 8 1 1 73
KwaZulu-Natal Legislature 52 10 2 9 7 80
Limpopo Legislature 39 3 6 0 1 49
Mpumalanga Provincial Legislature 24 3 2 0 1 30
North West Provincial Legislature 23 4 5 0 1 33
Northern Cape Provincial Legislature 20 7 2 0 1 30
Western Cape Provincial Parliament 14 26 1 0 1 42
Executive[edit]
7 Wale Street, the seat of the Western Cape provincial government
Main articles: Premier (South Africa) and Executive Council (South Africa)
The head of the provincial executive is the Premier, who is elected by the provincial legislature from amongst its members; frequently the Premier will be the provincial leader of the majority party. The term of office of the Premier is the same as that of the legislature (normally five years) with a term limit of two terms. The legislature can force the resignation of the Premier by a motion of no confidence. If the Premiership is vacant and the legislature fails to elect a new Premier within 30 days, the legislature is dissolved and an election is called.
As of May 2014[update] the nine Premiers are:
Premier of the Eastern Cape: Phumulo Masualle (ANC)
Premier of the Free State: Ace Magashule (ANC)
Premier of Gauteng: David Makhura (ANC)
Premier of KwaZulu-Natal: Senzo Mchunu (ANC)
Premier of Limpopo: Stanley Mathabatha (ANC)
Premier of Mpumalanga: David Mabuza (ANC)
Premier of North West: Supra Mahumapelo (ANC)
Premier of the Northern Cape: Sylvia Lucas (ANC)
Premier of the Western Cape: Helen Zille (DA)
The Premier appoints an Executive Council (a cabinet) of five to ten members of the provincial legislature. The Members of the Executive Council (or MECs) are responsible for the various departments of the provincial administration. Because the responsibilities of the provincial governments are limited to those listed in the constitution, the portfolios are quite similar across the provinces. Common MEC portfolios and departmental responsibilities include:
agriculture
arts and culture
economic development
education
environmental affairs
finance
health
human settlements
local government
police or public safety
public works
roads and transport
social development
sport and recreation
tourism
Several of these areas may be combined in one department and the portfolio of one MEC.
Judiciary[edit]
See also: High Courts of South Africa
South Africa has a single national court system, and the administration of justice is the responsibility of the national government. At present the jurisdictional boundaries of the High Courts do not correspond entirely with the provincial boundaries; the Superior Courts Bill currently before Parliament will rationalise the courts so that there is a single High Court division in each province.
The provincial executive does play a role in the selection of High Court judges, as the Premier of a province is ex officio a member of the Judicial Service Commission when it deals with matters relating to a High Court that sits in that province.
Provincial constitutions[edit]
A provincial legislature can, by a two-thirds majority vote, adopt a constitution for the province; it is not necessary to do so, as the national constitution provides a complete structure for provincial government. A provincial constitution must be consistent with the national constitution except that it can provide for different structures and procedures for the executive and the legislature.
The only province that has adopted a constitution is the Western Cape; in doing so it chose to rename its legislature the Provincial Parliament. It also calls its Executive Council the Provincial Cabinet, and the MECs are called Provincial Ministers.
External links[edit]
South African Government Online: Provincial government and departments
Provincial Government Handbook of South Africa
Eastern Cape provincial government
Free State provincial government
Gauteng provincial government
KwaZulu-Natal provincial government
Limpopo provincial government
Mpumalanga provincial government
Northern Cape provincial government
North West provincial government
Western Cape provincial government
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Provincial_governments_of_South_Africa&oldid=812203076"
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text:
Backbone chain
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
IUPAC definition
Main chain or Backbone
That linear chain to which all other chains, long or short or both,
may be regarded as being pendant. Note: Where two or more chains
could equally be considered to be the main chain, that one is
selected which leads to the simplest representation of the
molecule.[1]
In polymer science, the backbone chain of a polymer is the longest series of covalently bonded atoms that together create the continuous chain of the molecule. This science is subdivided into the study of organic polymers, which consist of a carbon backbone, and inorganic polymers which have backbones containing only main group elements.
An example of a biological backbone (polypeptide)
In biochemistry, organic backbone chains make up the primary structure of macromolecules. The backbones of these biological macromolecules consist of central chains of covalently bonded atoms. The characteristics and order of the monomer residues in the backbone make a map for the complex structure biological polymers. The backbone is, therefore, directly related to biological molecules’ function. The macromolecules within the body can be divided into four main subcategories, each of which are involved in very different and important biological processes: Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Nucleic acids.[2] Each of these molecules has a different backbone and consists of different monomers each with distinctive residues and functionalities. This is the driving factor of their different structures and functions in the body. Although lipids have a "backbone," they are not true biological polymers as their backbone is a three carbon molecule, glycerol, with longer substituent "side chains." For this reason, only proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids should be considered as biological macromolecules with polymeric backbones.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Character of the backbone
2 Overview of common backbones
3 References
4 See also
Character of the backbone[edit]
Polymer Chemistry:
The character of the backbone chain depends on the type of polymerization: in step-growth polymerization, the monomer moiety becomes the backbone, and thus the backbone is typically functional. These include polythiophenes or low band gap polymers in organic semiconductors.[4] In chain-growth polymerization, typically applied for alkenes, the backbone is not functional, but bears the functional side chains or pendant groups.
The character of the backbone, i.e. its flexibility, determines the thermal properties of the polymer (such as the glass transition temperature). For example, in polisiloxanes, the backbone chain is very flexible, which results in a very low glass transition temperature of -123 °C.[5] The polymers with rigid backbones are prone to crystallization (e.g. polythiophenes) in thin films and in solution. Crystallization in its turn affects the optical properties of the polymers, its optical band gap and electronic levels.[6]
Biochemistry:
There are some similarities and many differences inherent in the character of biopolymer backbones. The backbone of each of the three biological polymers; proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, is formed through a net condensation reaction. In a condensation reaction, monomers are covalently connected along with the loss of some small molecule, most commonly water.[7] Because they are polymerized through complex enzymatic mechanisms, none of the biopolymers' backbones are formed through the elimination of water but through the elimination of other small biological molecules. Each of these biopolymers can be characterized as either a heteropolymer, meaning it consists of more than one monomer ordered in the backbone chain, or a homopolymer, which consists of just one repeating monomer. Polypeptides and nucleic acids are very commonly heteropolymers whereas common carbohydrate macromolecules such as glycogen can be homopolymers. This is because the chemical differences of peptide and nucleotide monomers determines the biological function of their polymers whereas common carbohydrate monomers have one general function such as for energy storage and delivery.
Overview of common backbones[edit]
In polymer chemistry:
saturated alkane (typical for vinyl polymers)
step-growth polymers (polyaniline, polythiophene, PEDOT) backbone. These often have derivatized heterocycles as monomers, such as thiophenes, diazoles or pyrroles.
fullerene backbone[8]
A simplified condensation reaction between two amino acids forming a polypeptide backbone. This occurs in the ribosome through a complex catalytic mechanism involving the liberation of tRNA.
In Biology:
Proteins (polypeptides)
Proteins are important biological molecules and play an integral role in the structure and function of viruses, bacteria, and eukaryotic cells. Their backbones are characterized by amide linkages formed by the polymerization between amino and carboxylic acid groups attached to the alpha carbon of each of the twenty amino acids. These amino acid sequences are translated from cellular mRNAs by ribosomes in the cytoplasm of the cell.[9] The ribosomes have enzymatic activity which directs the condensation reaction forming the amide linkage between each successive amino acid. This happens during a biological process known as translation. In this enzymatic mechanism a covalently bonded tRNA shuttle acts as the leaving group for the condensation reaction. The newly liberated tRNA can "pick up" another peptide and continuously participate in this reaction.[10] The sequence of the amino acids in the polypeptide backbone is known as the primary structure of the protein. This primary structure leads to folding of the protein into the secondary structure, formed by hydrogen bonding between the carbonyl oxygens and amine hydrogens in the backbone. Further interactions between residues of the individual amino acids form the protein's tertiary structure. For this reason, the primary structure of the amino acids in the polypeptide backbone is the map of the final structure of a protein, and it therefore indicates its biological function.[11][2]
A simplified example condensation showing Alpha and Beta classification. Glucose and fructose form sucrose. The synthesis of glycogen in the body is driven by the enzyme glycogen synthase which uses a UDP leaving group.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates have many roles in the body including functioning as structural units, enzyme cofactors and cell surface recognition sites. Their most prevalent role is in energy storage and delivery in cellular metabolic pathways. The most simple carbohydrates are single sugar residues called monosaccharides like glucose, our body’s energy delivery molecule. Oligosaccharides (up to 10 residues) and polysaccharides (up to about 50,000 residues) consist of saccharide residues bonded in a backbone chain, which is characterized by an ether bond known as a glycosidic linkage. In the body's formation of glycogen, the energy storage polymer, this glycosidic linkage is formed by the enzyme glycogen synthase. The mechanism of this enzymatically driven condensation reaction is not well studied but it is known that the molecule UDP acts as an intermediary linker and is lost in the synthesis.[12] These backbone chains can be unbranched (containing one linear chain) or branched (containing multiple chains). The glycosidic linkages are designated as Alpha or Beta depending on the relative stereochemistry of the anomeric (or most oxidized) carbon. In a Fischer Projection, if the glycosidic linkage is on the same side or face as carbon 6 of a common biological saccharide, the carbohydrate is designated as Beta and if the linkage is on the opposite side it is designated as Alpha. In a traditional "chair structure" projection, if the linkage is on the same plane (equatorial or axial) as Carbon 6 it is designated as Beta and on the opposite plain it is designated as Alpha. This is exemplified in sucrose (table sugar) which contains a linkage that is alpha to glucose and beta to fructose. Generally, carbohydrates which our bodies break down are alpha-linked (example: glycogen) and those which have structural function are beta-linked (example: cellulose).[2][13]
Nucleic Acids
In this Condensation of Adenine and Guanine forming a phosphodiester bond, the triphosphorylated ribose of the incoming nucleotide is attacked by the 3' hydroxyl of the polymer, releasing pyrophosphate.
Nucleic acids DNA and RNA are of great importance because they code for the production of all cellular proteins. They are made up of monomers called nucleotides which consist of an organic base: A, G, C and T or U, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. They have backbones in which the 3’ carbon of the ribose sugar is connected to the phosphate group via a phosphodiester bond. This bond is formed through the with the help of a class of cellular enzymes called polymerases. In this enzymatically driven condensation reaction all incoming nucleotides have a triphosphorylated ribose which loses a pyrophosphate group to form the inherent phosphodiester bond. This reaction is driven by the large negative free energy change associated with the release of pyrophosphate. The sequence of bases in the nucleic acid backbone is also known as the primary structure. Nucleic acids can be millions of nucleotides long thus leading to the genetic diversity of life. The bases stick out from the pentose-phosphate polymer backbone in DNA and are hydrogen bonded in pairs to their complementary partners (A with T and G with C). This creates a double helix with pentose phosphate backbones on either side, thus forming a secondary structure.[14][2][15]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Glossary of basic terms in polymer science (IUPAC Recommendations 1996)" (PDF). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 68 (12): 2287–2311. 1996. doi:10.1351/pac199668122287.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Voet, Donald, Judith G. Voet, and Charlotte W. Pratt. Fundamentals of Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular Level. 5th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2008. Print
Jump up ^ Cox RA, García-Palmieri MR. Cholesterol, Triglycerides, and Associated Lipoproteins. In: Walker HK, Hall WD, Hurst JW, editors. Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations. 3rd edition. Boston: Butterworths; 1990. Chapter 31. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK351/
Jump up ^ Budgaard, Eva; Krebs, Frederik (2006). "Low band gap polymers for organic photovoltaics". Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 91 (11): 954–985.
Jump up ^ Polymers
Jump up ^ Brabec, C.J.; Winder, C.; Scharber, M.C; Sarıçiftçi, S.N.; Hummelen, J.C.; Svensson, M.; Andersson, M.R. (2001). "Influence of disorder on the photoinduced excitations in phenyl substituted polythiophenes". Journal of Chemical Physics. 115: 7235. Bibcode:2001JChPh.115.7235B. doi:10.1063/1.1404984.
Jump up ^ IUPAC Gold Book: http://goldbook.iupac.org/C01238.html
Jump up ^ Hirsch, Andreas (1993). "Fullerene polymers". Advanced Materials. 5 (11): 859–861. doi:10.1002/adma.19930051116.
Jump up ^ Noller, HF (2017). "The parable of the caveman and the Ferrari: protein synthesis and the RNA world". Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 372: 20160187. doi:10.1098/rstb.2016.0187.
Jump up ^ Weinger, Joshua (2006). "Participation of the tRNA A76 hydroxyl groups throughout translation". Biochemistry. 45: 5939–5948. PMC 2522371  . PMID 16681365. doi:10.1021/bi060183n.
Jump up ^ "Biochemistry. 5th edition.Section 3.2 Primary Structure: Amino Acids Are Linked by Peptide Bonds to Form Polypeptide Chains". NCBI Bookshelf. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Buschiazzo, Alejandro (2004). "Crystal structure of glycogen synthase: homologous enzymes catalyze glycogen synthesis and degradation". The EMBO Journal. 23: 3196. PMC 514502  . PMID 15272305. doi:10.1038/sj.emboj.7600324.
Jump up ^ Bertozzi CR, Rabuka D. Structural Basis of Glycan Diversity. In: Varki A, Cummings RD, Esko JD, et al., editors. Essentials of Glycobiology. 2nd edition. Cold Spring Harbor (NY): Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 2009. Chapter 2. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1955/
Jump up ^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. DNA Replication Mechanisms. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26850
Jump up ^ Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th edition. New York: W. H. Freeman; 2000. Section 4.1, Structure of Nucleic Acids. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21514/
See also[edit]
Pendant group
Peptide
Authority control
GND: 4419183-2
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British Council Bangladesh
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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British Council Bangladesh
Formation
1951
Headquarters
Fuller Road, Dhaka, Bangladesh[1]
Region served
Bangladesh
Official language
Bengali
Website
British Council Bangladesh
British Council Bangladesh is the Bangladeshi branch of the British Council that provides English and British Education and takes part in cultural exchanges. The main office is located in Dhaka and branches are located in Chittagong, Sylhet.[2][3] Barbara Wickham is the director of British Council Bangladesh.[4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Functions
3 Facilities
4 References
History[edit]
The British Council was founded in 1934 in London.[6] It opened its first branch in Dhaka in 1951 when Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan.[2] On 25 March 1971, at the start of Bangladesh Liberation war, the council office was attacked by Pakistan army, killing 8 East Pakistan Police officers guarding the office.[7] In 2013, the British Council signed a memorandum of understanding with Microsoft Bangladesh to enhance teaching and learning practices.[8] On 16 January 2016, the British Council launched 'Innovate, Incubate and Grow (IIG): A Social Enterprise Support Programme' in collaboration with non-profit organisation Change Maker to promote entrepreneurship.[9]
Following the July 2016 Dhaka attack, the British Council temporarily closed its offices to assess security measurements.[10][11] In 2017 the council built a monument to the police officers killed on the premises in 1971.[12][13]
Functions[edit]
The British Council holds O-level and A-level examinations in Bangladesh.[14][15][16]
Facilitating Educational links between the United Kingdom and Bangladesh.[17]
The British council holds IELTS examinations in Bangladesh, with 15 to 20 thousand students sitting in the examinations every year.[18] The British Council provides the British Council IELTS Scholarships as of 2016.[19]
Increase and the improve the cultural ties between the United Kingdom and Bangladesh.[20]
Facilities[edit]
British Council Library has 15,000 books[21] and has access to 80,000 eBooks and 14,000 journals.[22]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "British Council to organise UK Education Open Day June 4". The Daily Star. 1 June 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "British Council Bangladesh". britishcouncil.org.bd. British Council. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "British Council expands teaching centres in Dhaka". The Daily Star. 1 March 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "British Council unveils memorial in honour of 8 Bangladeshi policemen". dhakatribune.com. Dhaka Tribune. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Believe-it-or-not 'terror' face". The Telegraph. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "MY BRITISH COUNCIL". The Daily Star. 2014-12-25. Retrieved 2017-08-01.
Jump up ^ "Honouring 8 martyrs". The Daily Star. 28 July 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Microsoft Bangladesh signs MoU with British Council". The Daily Star. 2013-06-28. Retrieved 2017-08-01.
Jump up ^ "British Council launches IIG: A social enterprise support programme". The Daily Star. 2016-01-22. Retrieved 2017-08-01.
Jump up ^ "British Council closes Bangladesh offices temporarily". The Daily Star. 2016-07-27. Retrieved 2017-08-01.
Jump up ^ "British Council in Bangladesh 'temporarily' closed to review security procedure". bdnews24.com. Retrieved 2017-08-01.
Jump up ^ "British Council unveils memorial for martyred cops". The Financial Express Online Version. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "British Council unveils memorial for its martyrs". The Daily Star. 27 July 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "O, A-level exams on time: British Council". The Daily Star. 6 August 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "British Council to reopen soon". dhakatribune.com. Dhaka Tribune. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "O-, A-level exams cancelled". The Daily Star. 22 January 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "British Council, UGC sign MoU". The Daily Star. 4 October 2011. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "IELTS PREPARATION". The Daily Star. 2013-05-03. Retrieved 2017-08-01.
Jump up ^ "British Council launches IELTS scholarships for overseas studies". The Daily Star. 2016-08-12. Retrieved 2017-08-01.
Jump up ^ "In Conversation with Barbara Wickham". The Independent. Retrieved 2017-08-01.
Jump up ^ "The Library Revolution". The Daily Star. 2014-10-17. Retrieved 2017-08-01.
Jump up ^ "Grand opening of the new library". The Daily Star. 26 September 2014. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
This article about a Bangladeshi organisation is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_Council_Bangladesh&oldid=810162794"
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