text:
List of inventors killed by their own inventions
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Franz Reichelt (d. 1912) attempted to use this contraption as a parachute. Reichelt died after he jumped off the Eiffel Tower wearing his invention, which failed to operate as expected.
This is a list of inventors whose deaths were in some manner caused by or related to a product, process, procedure, or other innovation that they invented or designed.
Contents
[hide]
1 Direct casualties
1.1 Automotive
1.2 Aviation
1.3 Industrial
1.4 Maritime
1.5 Medical
1.6 Physics
1.7 Publicity and entertainment
1.8 Railway
1.9 Rocketry
2 Popular myths and related stories
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
Direct casualties
Automotive
Sylvester H. Roper, inventor of the eponymous steam-powered bicycle, died of a heart attack or subsequent crash during a public speed trial in 1896. It is unknown whether the crash caused the heart attack or vice versa.[1]
William Nelson (c. 1879−1903), a General Electric employee, invented a new way to motorize bicycles. He then fell off his prototype bike during a test run.[2]
Francis Edgar Stanley (1849–1918) was killed while driving a Stanley Steamer automobile. He drove his car into a woodpile while attempting to avoid farm wagons travelling side by side on the road.[3]
Fred Duesenberg (1876–1932) was killed in high-speed road accident in a Duesenberg automobile.[4]
Aviation
Ismail ibn Hammad al-Jawhari (died c. 1003–1010), a Kazakh Turkic scholar from Farab, attempted to fly using two wooden wings and a rope. He leapt from the roof of a mosque in Nishapur and fell to his death.[5]
Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier was the first known fatality in an air crash when his Rozière balloon crashed on 15 June 1785 while he and Pierre Romain attempted to cross the English Channel.
Otto Lilienthal (1848–1896) died the day after crashing one of his hang gliders.[6]
Franz Reichelt (1879–1912), a tailor, fell to his death off the first deck of the Eiffel Tower while testing his invention, the coat parachute. It was his first attempt with the parachute, and he had told the authorities he would first test it with a dummy.[7]
Aurel Vlaicu (1882–1913) died when his self-constructed airplane,[8] Vlaicu II, failed during an attempt to cross the Carpathian Mountains by air.[9]
Henry Smolinski (died 1973) was killed during a test flight of the AVE Mizar, a flying car based on the Ford Pinto and the sole product of the company he founded.[10]
Michael Dacre (died 2009, age 53) died after testing his flying taxi device designed to permit fast, affordable travel between regional cities.[11]
Industrial
William Bullock (1813–1867) invented the web rotary printing press.[12][13] Several years after its invention, his foot was crushed during the installation of a new machine in Philadelphia. The crushed foot developed gangrene and Bullock died during the amputation.[14]
Maritime
Hunley Submarine
Henry Winstanley (1644–1703) built the first lighthouse on the Eddystone Rocks in Devon, England between 1696 and 1698. During the Great Storm of 1703 the lighthouse was completely destroyed with Winstanley and five other men inside. No trace of them was found.[15]
Horace Lawson Hunley (died 1863, age 40), Confederate marine engineer and inventor of the first combat submarine, Hunley, died during a trial of his vessel. During a routine test of the submarine, which had already suffered one accident, Hunley took command. After failing to resurface, Hunley and the seven other crew members drowned.[14] The navy salvaged the submarine and put it back into use.
Medical
Alexander Bogdanov (22 August 1873 – 7 April 1928) was a Russian physician, philosopher, science fiction writer and revolutionary of Belarusian ethnicity who experimented with blood transfusion, attempting to achieve eternal youth or at least partial rejuvenation. He died after he took the blood of a student suffering from malaria and tuberculosis, who may have also been the wrong blood type.[16][17]
Thomas Midgley, Jr. (1889–1944) was an American engineer and chemist who contracted polio at age 51, leaving him severely disabled. He devised an elaborate system of ropes and pulleys to help others lift him from bed. He became accidentally entangled in the ropes and died of strangulation at the age of 55. However, he is more famous—or infamous—for two of his other inventions: the tetraethyl lead (TEL) additive to gasoline, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).[18][19][20]
Physics
Sabin Arnold von Sochocky invented the first radium-based luminescent paint, but eventually died, in 1928, of aplastic anemia resulting from his exposure to the radioactive material.[21]
Marie Curie (1867–1934) invented the process to isolate radium after co-discovering the radioactive elements radium and polonium.[22] She died of aplastic anemia as a result of prolonged exposure to ionizing radiation emanating from her research materials. The dangers of radiation were not well understood at the time.[14][23]
Publicity and entertainment
Karel Soucek (1947–1985) was a Canadian professional stuntman who developed a shock-absorbent barrel. He died following a demonstration involving the barrel being dropped from the roof of the Houston Astrodome. He was fatally wounded when his barrel hit the rim of the water tank meant to cushion his fall.[24]
Railway
Valerian Abakovsky (1895–1921) constructed the Aerowagon, an experimental high-speed railcar fitted with an aircraft engine and propeller traction; it was intended to carry Soviet officials. On 24 July 1921, a group led by Fyodor Sergeyev took the Aerowagon from Moscow to the Tula collieries to test it, with Abakovsky also on board. They successfully arrived in Tula, but on the return route to Moscow the Aerowagon derailed at high speed, killing everyone on board, including Abakovsky (at the age of 25).[25]
Rocketry
Max Valier (1895–1930) invented liquid-fuelled rocket engines as a member of the 1920s German rocketeering society Verein für Raumschiffahrt. On 17 May 1930, an alcohol-fuelled engine exploded on his test bench in Berlin, killing him instantly.[26]
Popular myths and related stories
Perillos being pushed into his brazen bull
Perillos of Athens (circa 550 BCE), according to legend, was the first to be roasted in the brazen bull he made for Phalaris of Sicily for executing criminals.[27][28]
Li Si (208 BCE), Prime Minister during the Qin dynasty, was executed by the Five Pains method which some sources claim he had devised.[29][30][31][not in citation given] However the history of the Five Pains is traced further back in time than Li Si.
Wan Hu, a possibly-apocryphal[32] 16th-century Chinese official, is said to have attempted to launch himself into outer space in a chair to which 47 rockets were attached. The rockets exploded, and it is said that neither he nor the chair were ever seen again.
James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton (1581) was executed in Edinburgh on the Scottish Maiden which he had introduced to Scotland as regent,[33] though he was not the inventor of the device.
Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (1738–1814) While he did not invent the guillotine, his name became an eponym for it.[34] Rumors circulated that he died by the machine, but historical references show that he died of natural causes.[35]
Jim Fixx (1932–1984) authored the best-selling book The Complete Book of Running (1977) and is credited with helping start America's fitness revolution, popularizing the sport of running and demonstrating the health benefits of regular jogging. On 20 July 1984, Fixx died at the age of 52 of a fulminant heart attack, after his daily run, on Vermont Route 15 in Hardwick, Vermont.[36][37]
James "Jimi" Heselden (1948–2010), having recently purchased the Segway production company, died in a single-vehicle Segway accident. (Dean Kamen invented the Segway.)[38]
See also
Death portal
Darwin Awards
List of entertainers who died during a performance
List of unusual deaths
Petard (as in "hoisted by one's own petard")
References
Jump up ^ "Died in the Saddle", Boston Daily Globe, p. 1, 2 June 1896
Jump up ^ "KILLED BY OWN INVENTION; While Trying Motor Bicycle He Had Made, Schenectady Man Meets Death — Article Preview". New York Times. 4 October 1903. Retrieved 22 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Doris A. Isaacson, ed. (1970). Maine: A Guide "Down East" (second ed.). Rockland, Maine: Courier-Gazette, Inc. Maine League of Historical Societies and Museums. p. 386. (First edition).
Jump up ^ "F. S. Duesenberg Dies of Auto Injury". New York Times. 27 July 1932. p. 17.
Jump up ^ google.com Piero Boitani, Winged words: flight in poetry and history. University of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 38. Retrieved 22 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Biography of Otto Lilienthal Lilienthal Museum
Jump up ^ 2003 Personal Accounts Darwin Awards
Jump up ^ Great Britain Patent GB191026658
Jump up ^ Ralph S. Cooper, D.V.M. "Aurel Vlaicu at www.earlyaviators.com". Retrieved 22 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Neil (2010). From Fail to Win, Learning from Bad Ideas: Transportation. ISBN 1-4109-3911-1.
Jump up ^ "British inventor dies in crash on test flight of his flying taxi". The Evening Standard. Retrieved 22 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "United States Patent 61996". Retrieved 22 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "United States Patent 100,367". Retrieved 22 November 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Inventors killed by their own inventions". Discovery News. Retrieved 2010-10-30.
Jump up ^ "Eddystone Lighthouse History". Eddystone Tatler Ltd. Archived from the original on 2 May 2006. Retrieved 7 September 2006.
Jump up ^ "Transfusion Medical Reviews". 2007: 337–340.
Jump up ^ Huestis DW. "Alexander Bogdanov: the forgotten pioneer of blood transfusion.". Transfus Med Rev. 21: 337–40. PMID 17900494. doi:10.1016/j.tmrv.2007.05.008.
Jump up ^ Bryson, Bill. A Short History of Nearly Everything. (2003) Broadway Books, USA. ISBN 0-385-66004-9
Jump up ^ Alan Bellows (2007-12-08). "The Ethyl-Poisoned Earth". Damn Interesting.
Jump up ^ "Milestones, Nov. 13, 1944" Time, November 13, 1944
Jump up ^ "RADIUM PAINT TAKES ITS INVENTOR'S LIFE; Dr. Sabin A. von Sochocky Ill a Long Time, Poisoned by Watch Dial Luminant. 13 BLOOD TRANSFUSIONS Death Due to Aplastic Anemia-- Women Workers Who Were Stricken Sued Company.", The New York Times, November 15, 1928.
Jump up ^ "American Institute of Physics Biography of Marie Curie". Retrieved 22 November 2014.
Jump up ^ American Institute of Physics Biography of Marie Curie
Jump up ^ Associated Press (21 January 1985). "35,000 Watch as Barrel Misses Water Tank : 180-Ft. Drop Ends in Stunt Man's Death". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Alexey Abramov / Алексей Абрамов By the Kremlin Wall / У кремлёвской стены Moscow / М., Politizdat / Политиздат 1978 pp./стр. 399 (in Russian)
Jump up ^ "American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics". Retrieved 22 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "Perillos of the Brazen Bull". Retrieved 25 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Brazen Bull". Retrieved 1 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Guisso, R. W. L., The first emperor of China, New York : Birch Lane Press, 1989. ISBN 1-55972-016-6. Cf. p.37
Jump up ^ Fu, Zhengyuan, Autocratic tradition and Chinese politics, Cambridge University Press, 1993. Cf. p.126
Jump up ^ "The Civilization of China, Chapter II: Law and Government". Retrieved 11 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Williamson, Mark (2006). Spacecraft Technology: The Early Years. IET.
Jump up ^ "The Maiden". National Museums Scotland. Retrieved 6 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Chambers, William; Chambers, Robert (January–June 1844). "Dr Guillotin". Chambers's Edinburgh Journal. I: 218–221. Retrieved 2009-12-30.
Jump up ^ "Joseph Ignace Guillotin". Who Named It?.
Jump up ^ "Why sports people get heart attack". Bystander.homesteader.com.
Jump up ^ McDougall, Christopher (20 July 2009). "To live is to jog". BBC News Magazine. BBC. Retrieved 20 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Segway company owner dies in apparent Segway accident". CNN. 27 September 2010. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
Further reading
E. Cobham Brewer (1898). "Inventors Punished by their own inventions". Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. Bartleby. pp. 657–658.
External links
John Redford's "Doomed Engineers" page
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text:
Get Rich or Die Tryin' (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Get Rich or Die Tryin'
Directed by
Jim Sheridan
Produced by
Jimmy Iovine
Chris Lighty
Paul Rosenberg
Jim Sheridan
Written by
Terence Winter
Starring
Curtis "50 Cent" Jackson
Terrence Howard
Joy Bryant
Bill Duke
Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje
Omar Benson Miller
Viola Davis
Music by
Quincy Jones
Gavin Friday
Maurice Seezer
Cinematography
Declan Quinn
Edited by
Roger Barton
Conrad Buff
Production
company
MTV Films
G-Unit Films
Interscope/Shady/Aftermath Films
Distributed by
Paramount Pictures
Release date
November 9, 2005 (2005-11-09)
Running time
117 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$40 million[1]
Box office
$46.4 million[1]
Get Rich or Die Tryin' is a 2005 American Hip-Hop Rap biopic crime film starring 50 Cent, in his feature film acting debut. It was released on November 9, 2005, and was known as Locked and Loaded during production. Similar to the 2002 Eminem film 8 Mile, which it used as a template,[2] the film is loosely based on 50 Cent's own life and was directed by Jim Sheridan. The name of the film is shared with 50 Cent's 2003 debut album of the same name.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Soundtrack
4 Controversy
5 Reception
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
After Marcus and his friends rob a Colombian safe house, Marcus is shot nine times. As the unidentified shooter points the gun to Marcus' head and pulls the trigger, the film flashes back to his childhood.
Marcus is a quiet young boy who adores his loving mother, and the two live a relatively comfortable life on her drug-dealing income. She often has to leave him with his grandparents while she conducts business. She is murdered in an apparent drug deal gone wrong.
Forced to live with his grandparents full-time, they themselves also having children to look after, Marcus finds his life less appealing as his grandfather works long hours to support the family. As he grows older, he rejects the idea of legal work and decides to deal drugs, buying new clothing and a gun. Eventually he abandons high school to sell drugs for local kingpin Levar and his underling, Majestic, full-time. Majestic, however, plans to become a major drug lord himself, often conspiring with a Rap artist he manages named Dangerous.
Years later, after Marcus reunites with his childhood sweetheart Charlene, 1 of his friends is shot and paralyzed at a club by a Colombian named Raul; the gunman initially aimed for Marcus. In retaliation, Marcus attacks Raul but is unable to bring himself to kill Raul when he calls out to his father.
When Raul refuses to identify Marcus as the shooter in a police line up, he is free to go. After an anonymous tip off, cops raid his house and find a gun and drugs, which didn't belong to Marcus. Marcus is jailed, and during his time in prison, he befriends an inmate named Bama.
After encouragement from Bama, Marcus leaves the drug trade behind to pursue and fulfill his lifelong dream of being a rapper, calling himself Young Caesar. Bama joins as his manager and producer. Bama gets out of prison before Marcus but promises he will see him again.
When Marcus leaves prison, Bama, Justice, Majestic, and June Bug are waiting for him. Majestic invites Marcus to become his right-hand man (taking June Bug's place), but Marcus tells him of his aspirations to being a rapper, which Majestic laughs off. Marcus leaves with Bama, taking Justice with him.
Justice and Bama initially have a clash of personalities, but Marcus calms them after a roadside stop. Unconvinced of Marcus' dream, Justice informs Majestic of his activities. As Marcus more seriously pursues music, Majestic tries everything in his power to sabotage his success, threatening record label employees, DJs, and more. Marcus refuses to stop and taunts Majestic and Dangerous in songs.
Despite Marcus' insistence at avoiding crime, Bama convinces him to carry out one last robbery on a Columbian safe house. While this happens, Majestic targets Marcus for death. After Marcus and his crew complete the robbery, the film returns to the 1st scene. It is then revealed that Marcus is shot outside of his family's home by Justice. Marcus rethinks his life, prioritizing his young child. After a long and painful recovery, he records music again.
Angered with Justice's failure, Majestic kills him. Shortly after, Marcus meets with Levar, who remorsefully reveals that he is Marcus' biological father and regrets not being there for him and his mother.
Marcus prepares to go on stage. In the moments before the show, he angers Majestic, who reveals he killed Marcus' mother years earlier. A fight ensues, and Marcus wins. Majestic begs for Marcus to kill him, but Marcus doesn't. As Marcus is about to walk out on stage, Majestic tries to stab him. However, Bama shoots and wounds him. Marcus leaves Majestic in the hands of his cronies, and as he walks out towards the crowd, he stops as he hears a gunshot in the room behind him. There, Bama fires more shots into Majestic's corpse.
Marcus steps onto the stage and performs "Hustler's Ambition".
Cast[edit]
Curtis "50 Cent" Jackson as Marcus "Young Caesar" Greer
Marc John Jefferies as Young Marcus Greer
Terrence Howard as Bama
Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje as Majestic
Joy Bryant as Charlene
Omar Benson Miller as Kyrl
Tory Kittles as Justice
Ashley Walters as Antoine
Viola Davis as Grandma
Sullivan Walker as Grandpa
Serena Reeder as Katrina
Bill Duke as Levar
Mpho Koaho as Junebug
Russell Hornsby as Odell
Joseph Pierre as Uncle Deuce
Ryan Allen as Uncle Roy
Ben Walsh as 15 Euro
Mykelti Williamson as Charlene's step-father (uncredited)
Soundtrack[edit]
Main article: Get Rich or Die Tryin' (soundtrack)
The soundtrack was released on November 8, 2005. In December 2005, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album platinum.[3] The album has so far sold over 3 million copies worldwide.
Controversy[edit]
Samuel L. Jackson publicly turned down an offer to co-star in the film, citing that he did not want to lend credence to what he believed was an inexperienced and unproven actor.[4] Film critic Roger Ebert wrote of Jackson's decision: "...Jackson is arguing against the anti-intellectual message that success for young black males is better sought in the worlds of rap and sports than in the classroom".[5] Jackson and 50 Cent later co-starred in the 2006 film Home of the Brave.
Reception[edit]
Get Rich or Die Tryin holds a 16% approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes based upon 117 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads, "While it may be based upon 50 Cent's own life experiences, Get Rich Or Die Tryin' is too similar to many other rags-to-riches stories to resonate."[6] Radio Times criticized the film, saying that "as a vehicle for hip-hop superstar Curtis '50 Cent' Jackson, this [film] runs out of gas a fair few kilometres short", giving it a "could be worse" rating of 2/5 stars.[2] CinePassion stated that "[Jim] Sheridan's surface vividness is applied around a vacuum."[7]
FilmFocus said that the film's "real danger is that it sets a precedent for the director; if the price is right he's on board."[8] The BBC was not entirely impressed with the film, saying that "while it boasts a first-class director and is loosely based on the singer's own life-story, the results leave you feeling a little short-changed."[9]
Jonathan Ross gave a positive review, calling Get Rich or Die Tryin' "gripping" and suggesting that it had "excellent performances".[10] Roger Ebert also praised the film, giving the film a 3 out of 4 rating and saying that it was "a film with a rich and convincing texture, a drama with power and anger".[11]
Get Rich or Die Tryin' grossed $12,020,807 in its opening weekend. Altogether, the film grossed $46,442,528 in total worldwide.[1]
See also[edit]
8 Mile
Notorious (2009 film)
Talento de Barrio
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Get Rich or Die Tryin'". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2016-04-11.
^ Jump up to: a b Get Rich or Die Tryin' film review - Radio Times
Jump up ^ RIAA Searchable Database - "Get Rich or Die Tryin". Recording Industry Association of America. Accessed May 21, 1932.
Jump up ^ "FemaleFirst". PROUD JACKSON TURNS DOWN 50 CENT FILM ROLE. Retrieved August 20, 2006.
Jump up ^ "RogerEbert.com". Coach Carter (PG-13). Retrieved August 20, 2006.
Jump up ^ Get Rich or Die Tryin' at Rotten Tomatoes
Jump up ^ CinePassion's review of Get Rich or Die Tryin'
Jump up ^ FilmFocus.co.uk Archived September 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ BBC - Movies - Review - Get Rich Or Die Tryin'
Jump up ^ Film 2006 (Talk show). BBC. 2006.
Jump up ^ Roger Ebert's review of Get Rich or Die Tryin'
External links[edit]
Official website
Get Rich or Die Tryin' on IMDb
Get Rich or Die Tryin' at AllMovie
[show]
v
t
e
50 Cent
Discography
Videography
Awards and nominations
G-Unit
Studio albums
Power of the Dollar
Get Rich or Die Tryin'
The Massacre
Curtis
Before I Self Destruct
Animal Ambition
Street King Immortal
Compilations
Guess Who's Back?
24 Shots
Best Of
Soundtracks
Get Rich or Die Tryin' OST
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Hierarchy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Subordinate" redirects here. For other uses, see Subordination.
Pictogramme of hierarchy - people on a "ladder"
A hierarchy (from the Greek hierarchia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "leader of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another.
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Indirect hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy which are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.
Contents
[hide]
1 Nomenclature
1.1 Degree of branching
2 History of the term
3 Visualization
4 Visual hierarchy
5 Informal representation
6 Mathematical representation
7 Subtypes
7.1 Nested hierarchy
7.1.1 Containment hierarchy
7.1.1.1 Subsumptive containment hierarchy
7.1.1.2 Compositional containment hierarchy
8 Contexts and applications
8.1 Organizations
8.2 Life
8.3 Computer graphic imaging
8.4 Linguistics
8.5 Music
8.6 Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity
8.7 Examples of other applications
8.7.1 Information-based
8.7.2 City planning-based
8.7.3 Linguistics-based
8.7.4 Power- or authority-based
8.7.5 Value-based
8.7.6 Perception-based
8.7.7 History-based
8.7.8 Science-based
8.7.9 Technology-based
8.7.10 Religion-based
8.8 Methods using hierarchy
9 See also
10 Footnotes
11 Further reading
12 External links
Nomenclature[edit]
See also: Glossary of graph theory, Taxonomy (general), and Structure
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:[1][2]
Object: one entity (e.g., a person, department or concept or element of arrangement or member of a set)
System: the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)
Dimension: another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)
Member: an (element or object) in a (system or dimension) at any (level or rank)
Rank: the relative value, worth, complexity, power, importance, authority, level etc. of an object
Level: a set of objects with the same rank OR importance
Ordering: the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)
Hierarchy: the arrangement of a particular set of (ranks or levels) i.e. multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension or system)
Collection: all of the objects at one level
Superior: a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (parent or ancestor)
Subordinate: a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (child or descendent)
Hierarch, the top level of the hierarchy, usually consisting of one object or member of a dimension
Peer: an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)
Neighbour: the adjacent level/ranking (the immediate superior and immediate inferior)
Interaction: the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)
a direct interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a tree, the two objects have a line between them)
Distance: the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a path from one object to another
Span: a qualitative description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has
In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.
Degree of branching[edit]
Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has). Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.
In a linear hierarchy, the maximum degree is 1.[1] In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a lineup, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.
In a branching hierarchy, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).[1] For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.[1] Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.
A flat hierarchy is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.[2] Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms which can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.
An overlapping hierarchy is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.[1] For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status.
History of the term[edit]
Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1880, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy.[3] The Greek term "ἱεραρχία" means "rule by priests" (from "ἱεράρχης" – ierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"[4] and that from "ἱερεύς" – iereus, "priest"[5] + "ἀρχή" – arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"[6]), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.
Visualization[edit]
Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.
A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.
These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical, for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form below.
More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.
Visual hierarchy[edit]
In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.
An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.
For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.
Informal representation[edit]
In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:[1]
No element is superior to itself, and
One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.
The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive. The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.
Mathematical representation[edit]
Main article: Hierarchy (mathematics)
Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.[7] The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.
"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example: (2 + 5) × (7 - 4). In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps in order to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial in order to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.
Subtypes[edit]
Nested hierarchy[edit]
Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.
A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets.[8] The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:
square ⊂ quadrilateral ⊂ polygon ⊂ shape {\displaystyle {\text{square}}\subset {\text{quadrilateral}}\subset {\text{polygon}}\subset {\text{shape}}\,}
A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.
Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:[9]
H. sapiens ⊂ Homo ⊂ Primates ⊂ Mammalia ⊂ Animalia {\displaystyle {\text{H. sapiens}}\subset {\text{Homo}}\subset {\text{Primates}}\subset {\text{Mammalia}}\subset {\text{Animalia}}}
Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.
In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.[10]
Containment hierarchy[edit]
A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:
square ⊊ quadrilateral ⊊ polygon ⊊ shape {\displaystyle {\text{square}}\subsetneq {\text{quadrilateral}}\subsetneq {\text{polygon}}\subsetneq {\text{shape}}\,}
The notation x ⊊ y {\displaystyle x\subsetneq y\,} means x is a subset of y but is not equal to y.
A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.
Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional[example needed].[11]
Subsumptive containment hierarchy[edit]
A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy".[7][12][13] The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts".[13] For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.
Compositional containment hierarchy[edit]
A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.[14] Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.
The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.
In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation.[8] Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on x's properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.
Contexts and applications[edit]
Almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.[15] By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical.[16][17] Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.[1][15]
While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.[18]
A simple organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.
Organizations[edit]
Main articles: Organizational structure and Hierarchical organization
Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.
In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.
Life[edit]
Main article: Biological organisation § Fundamentals
Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,[19][20] laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from 1980's, hierarchical ecology.[21][22][23][24][25]
The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in an hierarchy.
Computer graphic imaging[edit]
Within most CGI and computer animation programs is the use of hierarchies. On a 3D model of a human, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation of almost everything built as a 3D digital model.
Linguistics[edit]
Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.
Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.
In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.
Music[edit]
The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.
The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."
Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity[edit]
Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.
In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.
In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts.There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.
In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.
Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc. In some[which?] cultures, God can also be an addition to this hierarchy. However, feminists, Marxists, critical theorists, and others analyze hierarchy in terms of the values and power that it arbitrarily assigns to one group over another. Hierarchical ethics offers a way of logical reasoning that is compatible with religious commitments. In some[which?] cultures, there is hierarchy within humanity: The man in a family is above the woman, and children are after, and in social classes there might be a hierarchy as follows: king, civic officials, craftsmen, unskilled workers.
Examples of other applications[edit]
Information-based[edit]
Library classification
Dewey Decimal Classification
City planning-based[edit]
Roads
Streets
Settlement hierarchy
As of 2010
As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968)
Linguistics-based[edit]
Language family tree
Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars
Direct–inverse languages
Structural linguistics
Parse tree
Formal grammars
Abstract syntax tree
Evolution of basic color terminology in languages
Power- or authority-based[edit]
Aristocratic hierarchies
In Europe
In China
Ecclesiastical hierarchies
Catholic Church hierarchy
LDS Church hierarchy
Kimbanguist Church hierarchy
Raëlism Church hierarchy
see also autocephaly
Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies
Administrative divisions of China
Administrative divisions of India
Administrative divisions of the United States
Administrative divisions of Russia
Political party hierarchies
Nazi Party
SS
Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Communist Party of China
Chain of command
Military ranks
Military units
U.S. Military Combatant Commands
Intraspecial dominance
Pecking order
Social classes
Caste system in India
Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan
White racist hierarchy
Hierarchy of Exclusion (Ender's Game)
Value-based[edit]
Hierarchy of genres in art
Evidence
Human needs
Precious substances
Judicial hierarchy of social values
Perception-based[edit]
Color wheel
Primary colors
Secondary colors
Tertiary colors
History-based[edit]
Three-age system
Cyclic theory of civilization
Oswald Spengler
Arnold J. Toynbee
Spiral dynamics
Science-based[edit]
Hierarchy of organization within the Universe
Star systems
Biological classification
Biological organization
Phylogenetic tree
Evolutionary development
Hierarchy of ecological georegions
Technology-based[edit]
Clusters
Class constructs
Data organization
Hierarchical query
Data storage
Computer files (Macintosh)
Devices
IP addresses
Memory
Virtual memory allocation
Networks
Radio cells
States (configurations)
Web addresses
Structure
Data Structure
Inheritance (object-oriented programming)
Religion-based[edit]
Levels of consciousness
Chakras
Great chain of being
G.I. Gurdjieff
Timothy Leary
Levels of spiritual development
In Theravada Buddhism
In Mahayana Buddhism
In Theosophy
Ages in the evolution of society
In Astrology
In Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion)
Dispensations in Protestantism
Dispensations in Mormonism
Degrees of communion between various Christian churches
UFO religions
Command hierarchy of the Ashtar Galactic Command flying saucer fleet
Deities
In Japanese Buddhism
In Theosophy
Angels
In Christianity
In Islam
In Judaism
Kabbalistic
In Zoroastrianism
Devils and Demons
Devils
Demons
Hells
In Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell)
In Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell)
Religions in society
(organizational hierarchies are listed under "Power- or authority-based")
Methods using hierarchy[edit]
Analytic Hierarchy Process
Hierarchical Decision Process
Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design
Hierarchical Bayes model
Hierarchical clustering
Hierarchical clustering of networks
Hierarchical constraint satisfaction
Hierarchical linear modeling
Hierarchical modulation
Hierarchical proportion
Hierarchical radial basis function
Hierarchical storage management
Hierarchical task network
Hierarchical temporal memory
Hierarchical token bucket
Hierarchical visitor pattern
Presentation-abstraction-control
Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller
See also[edit]
Anarchy
Class browser
Forms of government
Graph theory
Heterarchy
Hierarchical classifier
Hierarchical epistemology
Hierarchical hidden Markov model
Hierarchical INTegration
Hierarchical Music Specification Language
Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition
Hierarchy problem
Holarchy#Different meanings
Instrumental value
Layer (disambiguation)
Multilevel model
Ordinary (officer)
Characters of Halo#High Prophets
List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria
Peter Principle
Ring (computer security)
Social dominance theory
Footnotes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Dawkins, Richard (1976). Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon; Hinde, Robert A., eds. Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology. Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–54. ISBN 0-521-29086-4. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Simon, Herbert A. (12 December 1962). "The Architecture of Complexity". Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: American Philosophical Society. 106 (6): 467–482. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.110.961  . ISSN 0003-049X. JSTOR 985254. (registration required)
Jump up ^ CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy
Jump up ^ ἱεράρχης, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
Jump up ^ ἱερεύς, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
Jump up ^ ἀρχή, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
^ Jump up to: a b Lehmann, Fritz (1996). Eklund, Peter G.; Ellis, Gerard; Mann, Graham, eds. Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles. Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115. Germany: Springer. pp. 50–74. ISBN 3-540-61534-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Lane, David (2006). "Hierarchy, Complexity, Society". In Pumain, Denise. Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences. New York, New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 81–120. ISBN 978-1-4020-4126-6.
Jump up ^ Linnaei, Carl von (1959). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin) (10th ed.). Stockholm: Impensis Direct. ISBN 0-665-53008-0. Retrieved 2011-09-24.
Jump up ^ Corballis, Michael (2011). The Recursive Mind. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691145471.
Jump up ^ Kopisch, Manfred; Günther, Andreas (1992). "Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control". In Belli, Fevzi. Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems. Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings. Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series. 602. Springer. pp. 424–427. doi:10.1007/BFb0024994. ISBN 3-540-55601-X. ISSN 0302-9743.
Jump up ^ "Compositional hierarchy". WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio. Retrieved 9 October 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Funke, Birger; Sebastian, Hans-Jürgen (1999). "An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach". In Polis, Michael P.; Dontchev, Asen L.; Kall, Peter; Lascieka, Irena; Olbrot, Andrzej W. Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference. Research notes in mathematics series. 396. CRC Press. pp. 366–75. ISBN 978-0-8493-0607-5.
Jump up ^ Parsons, David (2002). Object Oriented Programming in C++. Cengage Learning. pp. 110–185. ISBN 0-8264-5428-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Kulish, V. V. (2002). Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics. 1. Springer. pp. xvii–xx; 49–71. ISBN 1-4020-0757-4.
Jump up ^ "government". Compact Oxford English Dictionary. 1991. ISBN 978-0-19-861022-9.
Jump up ^ "nation". Compact Oxford English Dictionary. 1991. ISBN 978-0-19-861022-9.
Jump up ^ Walker, Randy (May–June 2009). "Tracking Nuclear Sources" (PDF). wellservicingmagazine.com: 28–30. [permanent dead link] See also Wikipedia article.
Jump up ^ Evans 1951
Jump up ^ Evans 1956
Jump up ^ Margalef 1975
Jump up ^ O'Neill 1986
Jump up ^ Wicken & Ulanowicz 1988
Jump up ^ Pumain 2006
Jump up ^ Jordan & Jørgensen 2012
Further reading[edit]
Ahl, Valerie; Allen, Timothy F. H. (1996). Hierarchy Theory. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08481-1.
Akl, Selim G.; Taylor, Peter D. (1983). Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem (PDF). Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of CRYPTO '82. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation. pp. 237–249. ISBN 0-306-41366-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2002-12-29.
Carbone, June; Cahn, Naomi (2013). "Is marriage for rich men?". Nevada Law Journal, special issue: Men, Masculinities, and Law: A Symposium on Multidimensional Masculinities Theory. William S. Boyd School of Law. 13 (2): 6.
Ckurshumova, Wenzislava (2007). "Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development". Dissertation Abstracts International (Ph.D. dissertation)|format= requires |url= (help). University of Toronto. 68 (5): section B. ISBN 978-0-494-27682-2.
Galindo, Cipriano; Fernández-Madrigal, Juan-Antonio (2007). Kacprzyk, Janusz, ed. Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments. Studies in Computational Intelligence. Berlin: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. ISBN 978-3-540-72688-3.
Nelson, Julie (1992). "Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics". Economics and Philosophy. 8 (1): 103–25. doi:10.1017/S026626710000050X.
Pumain, Diane (2006). Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences. New York, New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-1-4020-4126-6.
Rosenbaum, A. (2000). Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie (in French). Paris: Desclee de Brouwer.
Shahbaba, Babak (2007). "Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available". Dissertation Abstracts International (Ph.D. dissertation)|format= requires |url= (help). University of Toronto. 68 (6): section B. ISBN 978-0-494-28076-8.
Also includes full copies of:
Shahbaba, Babak; Neal, Radford M. (2007). "Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior" (PDF). Bayesian Analysis. Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: International Society for Bayesian Analysis. 2 (1): 221–228. arXiv:math/0510449  . Bibcode:2005math.....10449S. doi:10.1214/07-ba209. ISSN 1936-0975. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-03.
Shahbaba, Babak; Neal, Radford M. (2006). "Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors". BMC Bioinformatics. London, England: BioMed Central. 7: 448. doi:10.1186/1471-2105-7-448. ISSN 1471-2105. PMC 1618412  . PMID 17038174.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Hierarchy
Media related to Hierarchy at Wikimedia Commons
Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory
Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory — S.N. Salthe
Authority control
GND: 4024842-2
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et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Ιεραρχία – Greek

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarkio
Hierarkio – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarkia
Hierarkia – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values: سلسله‌مراتب – Persian

values: سلسلمراتب – Gilaki

values: 히에라르키 – Korean

values: Հիերարխիա – Armenian

values: पदानुक्रम – Hindi

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarkio
Hierarkio – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarki
Hierarki – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigveldi
Stigveldi – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerarchia
Gerarchia – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values: היררכיה – Hebrew

values: Иерархия – Kazakh

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarki
Hierarki – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarki
Hierarki – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarki
Hierarki – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ierarhie
Ierarhie – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values: Иерархия – Russian

values: Хијерархија – Serbian

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarki
Hierarki – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: Ієрархія – Ukrainian

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Hierarchy rootpage-Hierarchy skin-vector action-view