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Euglena
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Euglena
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
(unranked): Excavata
Division: Euglenozoa[1][2]
Class: Euglenoidea
Order: Euglenales
Family: Euglenaceae
Genus: Euglena
Ehrenberg, 1830
Euglena is a genus of single cell flagellate eukaryotics. It is the best known and most widely studied member of the class Euglenoidea, a diverse group containing some 54 genera and at least 800 species.[3][4] Species of Euglena are found in freshwater and salt water. They are often abundant in quiet inland waters where they may bloom in numbers sufficient to color the surface of ponds and ditches green (E. viridis) or red (E. sanguinea).[5]
The species Euglena gracilis has been used extensively in the laboratory as a model organism.[6]
Most species of Euglena have photosynthesizing chloroplasts within the body of the cell, which enable them to feed by autotrophy, like plants. However, they can also take nourishment heterotrophically, like animals. Since Euglena have features of both animals and plants, early taxonomists, working within the Linnaean three-kingdom system of biological classification, found them difficult to classify.[7][8] It was the question of where to put such "unclassifiable" creatures that prompted Ernst Haeckel to add a third living kingdom (a fourth kingdom in toto) to the Animale, Vegetabile (and Lapideum meaning Mineral) of Linnaeus: the Kingdom Protista.[9]
Contents
1 Form and function
2 Reproduction
3 Historical background and early classification
4 Recent phylogeny and classification
5 Human consumption
6 Video gallery
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Form and function[edit]
When feeding as a heterotroph, Euglena takes in nutrients by osmotrophy, and can survive without light on a diet of organic matter, such as beef extract, peptone, acetate, ethanol or carbohydrates.[10][11] When there is sufficient sunlight for it to feed by phototrophy, it uses chloroplasts containing the pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b to produce sugars by photosynthesis.[12] Euglena's chloroplasts are surrounded by three membranes, while those of plants and the green algae (among which earlier taxonomists often placed Euglena) have only two membranes. This fact has been taken as morphological evidence that Euglena's chloroplasts evolved from a eukaryotic green alga.[13] Thus, the intriguing similarities between Euglena and the plants would have arisen not because of kinship but because of a secondary endosymbiosis. Molecular phylogenetic analysis has lent support to this hypothesis, and it is now generally accepted.[14][15]
Diagram of Euglena
Euglena chloroplasts contain pyrenoids, used in the synthesis of paramylon, a form of starch energy storage enabling Euglena to survive periods of light deprivation. The presence of pyrenoids is used as an identifying feature of the genus, separating it from other euglenoids, such as Lepocinclis and Phacus.[16]
All euglenoids have two flagella rooted in basal bodies located in a small reservoir at the front of the cell. In Euglena, one flagellum is very short, and does not protrude from the cell, while the other is relatively long, and often easily visible with light microscopy. In some species, the longer, emergent flagellum is used to help the organism swim.
Like other euglenoids, Euglena possess a red eyespot, an organelle composed of carotenoid pigment granules. The red spot itself is not thought to be photosensitive. Rather, it filters the sunlight that falls on a light-detecting structure at the base of the flagellum (a swelling, known as the paraflagellar body), allowing only certain wavelengths of light to reach it. As the cell rotates with respect to the light source, the eyespot partially blocks the source, permitting the Euglena to find the light and move toward it (a process known as phototaxis).[17]
Spiral pellicle strips
Euglena lacks a cell wall. Instead, it has a pellicle made up of a protein layer supported by a substructure of microtubules, arranged in strips spiraling around the cell. The action of these pellicle strips sliding over one another, known as metaboly, gives Euglena its exceptional flexibility and contractility.[17] The mechanism of this euglenoid movement is not understood, but its molecular basis may be similar to that of amoeboid movement.[18]
In low moisture conditions, or when food is scarce, Euglena forms a protective wall around itself and lies dormant as a resting cyst until environmental conditions improve.
Reproduction[edit]
Euglena reproduce asexually through binary fission, a form of cell division. Reproduction begins with the mitosis of the cell nucleus, followed by the division of the cell itself. Euglena divide longitudinally, beginning at the front end of the cell, with the duplication of flagellar processes, gullet and stigma. Presently, a cleavage forms in the anterior, and a V-shaped bifurcation gradually moves toward the posterior, until the two halves are entirely separated.[19]
Reports of sexual conjugation are rare, and have not been substantiated.[20]
Historical background and early classification[edit]
Cercaria viridis (= E. viridis) from O.F. Müller's Animalcula Infusoria. 1786
Species of Euglena were among the first protists to be seen under the microscope.
In 1674, in a letter to the Royal Society, the Dutch pioneer of microscopy Antoni van Leeuwenhoek wrote that he had collected water samples from an inland lake, in which he found "animalcules" that were "green in the middle, and before and behind white." Clifford Dobell regards it as "almost certain" that these were Euglena viridis, whose "peculiar arrangement of chromatophores...gives the flagellate this appearance at low magnification."[21]
Twenty-two years later, John Harris published a brief series of "Microscopical Observations" reporting that he had examined "a small Drop of the Green Surface of some Puddle-Water" and found it to be "altogether composed of Animals of several Shapes and Magnitudes." Among them, were "oval creatures whose middle part was of a Grass Green, but each end Clear and Transparent," which "would contract and dilate themselves, tumble over and over many times together, and then shoot away like Fish."[22]
In 1786, O.F. Müller gave a more complete description of the organism, which he named Cercaria viridis, noting its distinctive color and changeable body shape. Müller also provided a series of illustrations, accurately depicting the undulating, contractile movements (metaboly) of Euglena's body.[23]
Euglena from Félix Dujardin's Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes, 1841
In 1830, C. G. Ehrenberg renamed Müller's Cercaria Euglena viridis, and placed it, in keeping with the short-lived system of classification he invented, among the Polygastrica in the family Astasiaea: multi-stomached creatures with no alimentary canal, variable body shape but no pseudopods or lorica.[24][25] By making use of the newly invented achromatic microscope,[26] Ehrenberg was able to see Euglena's eyespot, which he correctly identified as a "rudimentary eye" (although he reasoned, wrongly, that this meant the creature also had a nervous system). This feature was incorporated into Ehrenberg's name for the new genus, constructed from the Greek roots "eu-" (well, good) and glēnē (eyeball, socket of joint).[27]
Ehrenberg did not notice Euglena's flagella, however. The first to publish a record of this feature was Félix Dujardin, who added "filament flagelliforme" to the descriptive criteria of the genus in 1841.[28] Subsequently, the class Flagellata (Cohn, 1853) was created for creatures, like Euglena, possessing one or more flagella. While "Flagellata" has fallen from use as a taxon, the notion of using flagella as a phylogenetic criterion remains vigorous.[29]
Recent phylogeny and classification[edit]
Euglena movement, known as metaboly
In 1881, Georg Klebs made a primary taxonomic distinction between green and colorless flagellate organisms, separating photosynthetic from heterotrophic euglenoids. The latter (largely colorless, shape-changing uniflagellates) were divided among the Astasiaceae and the Peranemaceae, while flexible green euglenoids were generally assigned to the genus Euglena.[30]
As early as 1935, it was recognized that this was an artificial grouping, however convenient.[31] In 1948, Pringsheim affirmed that the distinction between green and colorless flagellates had no taxonomic justification, although he acknowledged its practical appeal. He proposed something of a compromise, placing colorless, saprotrophic euglenoids in the genus Astasia, while allowing some colorless euglenoids to share a genus with their photosynthesizing cousins, provided they had structural features that proved common ancestry. Among the green euglenoids themselves, Pringsheim recognized the close kinship of some species of Phacus and Lepocinclis with some species of Euglena.[30]
The idea of classifiying the euglenoids by their manner of nourishment was finally abandoned in the 1950s, when A. Hollande published a major revision of the phylum, grouping organisms by shared structural features, such as the number and type of flagella.[32] If any doubt remained, it was dispelled in 1994, when genetic analysis of the non-photosynthesizing euglenoid Astasia longa confirmed that this organism retains sequences of DNA inherited from an ancestor that must have had functioning chloroplasts.[33]
In 1997, a morphological and molecular study of the Euglenozoa put Euglena gracilis in close kinship with the species Khawkinea quartana, with Peranema trichophorum basal to both.[34] Two years later, a molecular analysis showed that E. gracilis was, in fact, more closely related to Astasia longa than to certain other species recognized as Euglena. In 2015, Dr Ellis O'Neill and Professor Rob Field have sequenced the transcriptome of Euglena gracilis, which provides information about all of the genes that the organism is actively using. They found that Euglena gracilis has a whole host of new, unclassified genes which can make new forms of carbohydrates and natural products.[35][36]
The venerable Euglena viridis was found to be genetically closer to Khawkinea quartana than to the other species of Euglena studied.[32] Recognizing the polyphyletic nature of the genus Euglena, Marin et al. (2003) have revised it to include certain members traditionally placed in Astasia and Khawkinea.[16]
Human consumption[edit]
Starting in 2005, Tokyo-based Euglena Company has started marketing Euglena-based food and beverage products, based on their provision of both plant- and animal-based nutrients.[37] While the fitness of euglena for human consumption had long been surmised, Euglena Co. was the first to develop a technique to cultivate and farm the microorganism in large enough quantities to be commercially viable.[38] The company's main production facility is located on Ishigaki Island, Okinawa, due to favorable climate conditions.
Euglena Company is also experimenting with the use of Euglena as a potential fuel source.[39]
Video gallery[edit]
Play media
Red Euglena sp.
Play media
Euglena mutabilis, showing metaboly, paramylon bodies and chloroplasts
Play media
Euglena sanguinea
Play media
Euglena, moving by metaboly and swimming
See also[edit]
Elysia chlorotica
Kleptoplasty
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Guiry, MD; Guiry, GM. "Algaebase Taxonomy Browser". Algaebase. National University of Ireland. Retrieved 2015-05-11.
Jump up ^ "The Euglenoid Project: Alphabetic Listing of Taxa". The Euglenoid Project. Partnership for Enhancing Expertise in Taxonomy. Retrieved Sep 20, 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Euglenoid Project for Teachers". The Euglenoid Project for Teachers. Partnerships for Enhancing Expertise in Taxonomy. Retrieved Sep 20, 2014.
Jump up ^ Wolosski, Konrad. "Phylum Euglenophyta". In John, David M.; Whitton, Brian A.; Brook, Alan J. The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles: an Identification Guide to Freshwater and Terrestrial Algae. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-521-77051-4.
Jump up ^ Russell, A. G.; Watanabe, Y; Charette, JM; Gray, MW (2005). "Unusual features of fibrillarin cDNA and gene structure in Euglena gracilis: Evolutionary conservation of core proteins and structural predictions for methylation-guide box C/D snoRNPs throughout the domain Eucarya". Nucleic Acids Research. 33 (9): 2781–91. doi:10.1093/nar/gki574. PMC 1126904. PMID 15894796.
Jump up ^ Margulis, Lynn (2007). "Power to the Protoctists". In Margulis, Lynn; Sagan, Dorion. Dazzle Gradually: Reflections on the Nature of Nature. White River Junction: Chelsea Green. pp. 29–35. ISBN 978-1-60358-136-3.
Jump up ^ Keeble, Frederick (1912). Plant-animals: a study in symbiosis. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 103–4. OCLC 297937639.
Jump up ^ Solomon, Eldra Pearl; Berg, Linda R.; Martin, Diana W., eds. (2005). "Kingdoms or Domains?". Biology (7th ed.). Belmont: Brooks/Cole Thompson Learning. pp. 421–7. ISBN 978-0-534-49276-2.
Jump up ^ Leadbeater, Barry S. C.; Green, John C. (2002-09-11). Flagellates: Unity, Diversity and Evolution. CRC Press. ISBN 9780203484814.
Jump up ^ Pringsheim, E. G.; Hovasse, R. (1948-06-01). "The Loss of Chromatophores in Euglena Gracilis". New Phytologist. 47 (1): 52–87. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1948.tb05092.x.
Jump up ^ Nisbet, Brenda (1984). Nutrition and Feeding Strategies in Protozoa. p. 73. ISBN 0-7099-1800-3.
Jump up ^ Gibbs, Sarah P. (1978). "The chloroplasts of Euglena may have evolved from symbiotic green algae". Canadian Journal of Botany. 56 (22): 2883–9. doi:10.1139/b78-345.
Jump up ^ Henze, Katrin; Badr, Abdelfattah; Wettern, Michael; Cerff, Rudiger; Martin, William (1995). "A Nuclear Gene of Eubacterial Origin in Euglena gracilis Reflects Cryptic Endosymbioses During Protist Evolution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 92 (20): 9122–6. Bibcode:1995PNAS...92.9122H. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.20.9122. JSTOR 2368422. PMC 40936. PMID 7568085.
Jump up ^ Nudelman, Mara Alejandra; Rossi, Mara Susana; Conforti, Visitacin; Triemer, Richard E. (2003). "Phylogeny of euglenophyceae based on small subunit rDNA sequences: Taxonomic implications". Journal of Phycology. 39 (1): 226–35. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2003.02075.x.
^ Jump up to: a b Marin, B; Palm, A; Klingberg, M; Melkonian, M (2003). "Phylogeny and taxonomic revision of plastid-containing euglenophytes based on SSU rDNA sequence comparisons and synapomorphic signatures in the SSU rRNA secondary structure". Protist. 154 (1): 99–145. doi:10.1078/143446103764928521. PMID 12812373.
^ Jump up to: a b Schaechter, Moselio (2011). Eukaryotic Microbes. San Diego: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-12-383876-6.
Jump up ^ O'Neill, Ellis (2013). An exploration of phosphorylases for the synthesis of carbohydrate polymers (PhD thesis). University of East Anglia. pp. 170–171.
Jump up ^ Gojdics, Mary (1934). "The Cell Morphology and Division of Euglena deses Ehrbg". Transactions of the American Microscopical Society. 53 (4): 299–310. doi:10.2307/3222381. JSTOR 3222381.
Jump up ^ Lee, John J. (2000). An Illustrated Guide to the Protozoa: organisms traditionally referred to as protozoa, or newly discovered groups. 2 (2nd ed.). Lawrence, Kansas: Society of Protozoologists. p. 1137.
Jump up ^ Dobell, Clifford (1960) [1932]. Antony van Leeuwenhoek and his 'Little Animals'. New York: Dover. p. 111. ISBN 0-486-60594-9.
Jump up ^ Harris, J. (1695). "Some Microscopical Observations of Vast Numbers of Animalcula Seen in Water by John Harris, M. A. Kector of Winchelsea in Sussex, and F. R. S". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 19 (215–235): 254–9. Bibcode:1695RSPT...19..254H. doi:10.1098/rstl.1695.0036. JSTOR 102304.
Jump up ^ Müller, Otto Frederik; Fabricius, Otto (1786). Animalcula Infusoria, Fluvia Tilia et Marina. Hauniae, Typis N. Mölleri. pp. 126, 473.
Jump up ^ Ehrenberg, C. Organisation, Systematik und geographisches Verhältnifs der Infusionsthierchen. Vol. II. Berlin, 1830. pp 58-9
Jump up ^ Pritchard, Andrew (1845). A history of Infusoria, living and fossil: arranged according to 'Die Infusionsthierchen' of C.G. Ehrenberg. London: Whittaker. p. 86. hdl:2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t5fb4z64c.
Jump up ^ "Notes and Queries". Notes and Queries. 12 (13): 459. July–December 1855.
Jump up ^ "Merriam-Webster online dictionary". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 July 2005.
Jump up ^ Dujardin, Félix (1841). Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes. Infusoires, comprenant la Physiologie et la Classification de ces Animaux, et la Manière de les Étudier a l'aide du Microscope. Paris. p. 358.
Jump up ^ Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Chao, Ema E.-Y. (2003). "Phylogeny and Classification of Phylum Cercozoa (Protozoa)". Protist. 154 (3–4): 341–58. doi:10.1078/143446103322454112. PMID 14658494.
^ Jump up to: a b Pringsheim, E. G. (1948). "Taxonomic Problems in the Euglenineae". Biological Reviews. 23 (1): 46–61. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1948.tb00456.x. PMID 18901101.
Jump up ^ Schwartz, Adelheid (2007). "F. E. Fritsch, the Structure and Reproduction of the Algae Vol. I/II. XIII und 791, XIV und 939 S., 245 und 336 Abb., 2 und 2 Karten. Cambridge 1965 (reprinted): Cambridge University Press 90 S je Band". Zeitschrift für allgemeine Mikrobiologie. 7 (2): 168–9. doi:10.1002/jobm.19670070220.
^ Jump up to: a b Linton, Eric W.; Hittner, Dana; Lewandowski, Carole; Auld, Theresa; Triemer, Richard E. (1999). "A Molecular Study of Euglenoid Phylogeny using Small Subunit rDNA". The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 46 (2): 217–23. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1999.tb04606.x. PMID 10361741.
Jump up ^ Gockel, Gabriele; Hachtel, Wolfgang; Baier, Susanne; Fliss, Christian; Henke, Mark (1994). "Genes for components of the chloroplast translational apparatus are conserved in the reduced 73-kb plastid DNA of the nonphotosynthetic euglenoid flagellate Astasia longa". Current Genetics. 26 (3): 256–62. doi:10.1007/BF00309557. PMID 7859309.
Jump up ^ Montegut-Felkner, Ann E.; Triemer, Richard E. (1997). "Phylogenetic Relationships of Selected Euglenoid Genera Based on Morphological and Molecular Data". Journal of Phycology. 33 (3): 512–9. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3646.1997.00512.x.
Jump up ^ The potential in your pond published on August 14, 2015 by the "John Innes Centre"
Jump up ^ O'Neill, Ellis C.; Trick, Martin; Hill, Lionel; Rejzek, Martin; Dusi, Renata G.; Hamilton, Christopher J.; Zimba, Paul V.; Henrissat, Bernard; Field, Robert A. (2015). "The transcriptome of Euglena gracilis reveals unexpected metabolic capabilities for carbohydrate and natural product biochemistry". Molecular Biosystems. 11 (10): 2808–21. doi:10.1039/C5MB00319A.
Jump up ^ http://www.euglena.jp/en/company/profile.html
Jump up ^ https://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2013/07/25/is-this-the-future-of-food/
Jump up ^ NHK World, Rising, 26 June 2015
External links[edit]
Wikispecies has information related to Euglena
Look up euglena in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The Euglenoid Project
Tree of Life web project: Euglenida
Protist Images: Euglena
Euglena at Droplet - Microscopy of the Protozoa
Images and taxonomy
Constantopoulos, George; Bloch, Konrad (1967). "Effect of Light Intensity on the Lipid Composition of Euglena gracilis". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 242 (15): 3538–42.
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Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q236001
Wikispecies: Euglena
EoL: 11704
EPPO: 1EUGLG
GBIF: 3209628
iNaturalist: 203631
ITIS: 9620
NCBI: 3038
WoRMS: 8012
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;Domain
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values: Spirotrichonymphida (page does not exist)

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List of heads of state of South Africa
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This is a list of the heads of state of South Africa, from the foundation of the Union of South Africa in 1910 to the present day.
From 1910 to 1961 the head of state under the South Africa Act 1909 was the Monarch, who was the same person as the Monarch of the United Kingdom and of the other Dominions/Commonwealth realms. The Monarch was represented in South Africa by a Governor-General. South Africa became a republic under the Constitution of 1961 and the Monarch and Governor-General were replaced by a ceremonial State President. In 1984, under the Tricameral Constitution, the State President gained executive powers, becoming head of both state and government. Since 1994, under the Interim Constitution and the current Constitution, the head of state and government has been called the President.
Contents
[hide]
1 Monarchs (1910–1961)
1.1 Governor-General
2 Ceremonial State President of South Africa (1961–1984)
3 Executive State President of South Africa (1984–1994)
4 President of South Africa (1994–present)
5 Standards
6 Living former heads of state
7 See also
8 References
Monarchs (1910–1961)[edit]
The succession to the throne of South Africa was the same as the succession to the British throne. During the Abdication Crisis the South African parliament passed its own act, "His Majesty King Edward the Eighth's Abdication Act, 1937", to ratify the abdication of Edward VIII.
№
Monarch
(Birth–Death)
Portrait
Reign
Royal House
Prime Minister
Reign start
Reign end
1
King George V
(1865–1936) 31 May 1910 20 January 1936 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha until 17 July 1917,
Windsor since 17 July 1917 Botha
Smuts
Hertzog
2
King Edward VIII
(1894–1972) 20 January 1936 11 December 1936
(abdicated.) Windsor Hertzog
3
King George VI
(1895–1952) 11 December 1936 6 February 1952 Windsor Hertzog
Smuts
Malan
4
Queen Elizabeth II
(1926–) 6 February 1952 31 May 1961 Windsor Malan
Strijdom
Verwoerd
Governor-General[edit]
The Governor-General was the representative of the monarch in South Africa and exercised most of the powers of the monarch. The Governor-General was appointed for an indefinite term, serving at the pleasure of the monarch. After the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931 and the Status of the Union Act, 1934, the Governor-General was appointed solely on the advice of the Cabinet of South Africa without the involvement of the British government. In the event of a vacancy the Chief Justice served as Officer Administering the Government.
Status
Denotes Chief Justice acting as Officer Administering the Government
№
Governor-General
(Birth–Death)
Portrait
Tenure
Monarch
Prime Minister
Took office
Left office
1
The Rt. Hon. The Viscount Gladstone
(1854–1930)
31 May 1910 8 September 1914 George V Botha
2
The Rt. Hon. The Earl of Buxton
(1853–1934)
8 September 1914 17 November 1920 George V Botha
Smuts
3
HRH Prince Arthur of Connaught
(1883–1938)
17 November 1920 21 January 1924 George V Smuts
4
The Rt. Hon. The Earl of Athlone
(1874–1957)
21 January 1924 26 January 1931 George V Smuts
Hertzog
5
The Rt. Hon. The Earl of Clarendon
(1877–1955)
26 January 1931 5 April 1937 George V
Edward VIII
George VI Hertzog
6
Sir Patrick Duncan
(1870–1943)
5 April 1937 17 July 1943
(died in office.) George VI Hertzog
Smuts
– Nicolaas Jacobus de Wet
(1873–1960) 17 July 1943 1 January 1946 George VI Smuts
7
Gideon Brand van Zyl
(1873–1956)
1 January 1946 1 January 1951 George VI Smuts
Malan
8
Ernest George Jansen
(1881–1959)
1 January 1951 25 November 1959
(died in office.) George VI
Elizabeth II Malan
Strijdom
Verwoerd
– Lucas Cornelius Steyn
(1903–1976) 25 November 1959 11 December 1959 Elizabeth II Verwoerd
9
Charles Robberts Swart
(1894–1982)
11 December 1959 30 April 1961
(resigned.) Elizabeth II Verwoerd
– Lucas Cornelius Steyn
(1903–1976) 30 April 1961 31 May 1961 Elizabeth II Verwoerd
Ceremonial State President of South Africa (1961–1984)[edit]
Under the 1961 Constitution, the first constitution of the Republic of South Africa, the State President replaced the Monarch as ceremonial head of state. The State President was elected by Parliament for a seven-year term. In the event of a vacancy the President of the Senate served as Acting State President.
Status
Denotes President of the Senate acting as State President
№
State President
(Birth–Death)
Portrait
Tenure
Elected
Political affiliation
(at time of appointment)
Prime Minister
Took office
Left office
1
Charles Robberts Swart
(1894–1982)
31 May 1961 1 June 1967
(resigned.) – National Party Verwoerd
Vorster
– Eben Dönges
(1898–1968) Elected but did not take office because of illness National Party
– Jozua François Naudé
(1889–1969) 1 June 1967 10 April 1968 – National Party Vorster
2
Jacobus Johannes Fouché
(1898–1980)
10 April 1968 9 April 1975 – National Party Vorster
– Johannes de Klerk
(1903–1979) 9 April 1975 19 April 1975 – National Party Vorster
3
Nico Diederichs
(1903–1978)
19 April 1975 21 August 1978
(died in office.) – National Party Vorster
– Marais Viljoen
(1915–2007) 21 August 1978 10 October 1978 – National Party Vorster
Botha
4
B. J. Vorster
(1915–1983)
10 October 1978 4 June 1979
(resigned.) – National Party Botha
5
Marais Viljoen
(1915–2007)
4 June 1979 19 June 1979 – National Party Botha
19 June 1979 3 September 1984
Executive State President of South Africa (1984–1994)[edit]
Under the 1983 Constitution the State President was head of both state and government. The State President was elected by an electoral college chosen by Parliament and served until the next general election, but was eligible for re-election. In the event of a vacancy the Cabinet would nominate a member to serve as Acting State President.
Status
Denotes Acting State President
№
State President
(Birth–Death)
Portrait
Tenure
Elected
Political affiliation
(at time of appointment)
Took office
Left office
1[1]
P. W. Botha
(1916–2006)
3 September 1984 14 September 1984 1987 National Party
14 September 1984 15 August 1989
(resigned.)
2
F. W. de Klerk
(1936–)
15 August 1989 20 September 1989 1989 National Party
20 September 1989 10 May 1994
President of South Africa (1994–present)[edit]
Under the Interim Constitution and the current Constitution the President is head of both state and government. The President is elected by the National Assembly and serves a term that expires at the next general election; a President may serve a maximum of two terms. In the event of a vacancy the Deputy President serves as Acting President.
Denotes Acting President
№
President
(Birth–Death)
Portrait
Tenure
Elected
Political affiliation
(at time of appointment)
Took office
Left office
1
Nelson Mandela
(1918–2013)
10 May 1994 16 June 1999 1994 African National Congress
2
Thabo Mbeki
(1942–)
16 June 1999 24 September 2008
(resigned) 1999
2004 African National Congress
– [2] Ivy Matsepe-Casaburri
(1937–2009) 24 September 2008[3] 25 September 2008 – African National Congress
3
Kgalema Motlanthe
(1949–)
25 September 2008 9 May 2009 2008 African National Congress
4
Jacob Zuma
(1942–)
9 May 2009 14 February 2018
(resigned) 2009
2014 African National Congress
5
Cyril Ramaphosa
(1952–)
14 February 2018 15 February 2018 2018 African National Congress
15 February 2018 Incumbent
Standards[edit]
Governor-General's Standard (1910–1931)
Governor-General's Standard (1931–1952)
Governor-General's Standard (1952–1961)
State Presidential Standard (1961–1984)
State Presidential Standard (1984–1994)
Living former heads of state[edit]
There are five living former South African Heads of State:
Elizabeth II (age 92)
1952-1961
Frederik de Klerk (age 82)
1989-1994
Thabo Mbeki (age 75)
1999-2008
Kgalema Motlanthe (age 68)
2008-2009
Jacob Zuma (age 76)
2009-2018

See also[edit]
State President of South Africa
Prime Minister of South Africa
Governor-General of the Union of South Africa
State President of the South African Republic (1857–1902)
State President of the Orange Free State
List of South African Presidents by age
Freedom Day
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Chris Heunis was Acting State President from 19 January 1989 – 15 March 1989
Jump up ^ Matsepe-Casaburri was Minister of Communications not Deputy President
Jump up ^ Chikane, Frank (2012-04-28). "Emotional farewell as Mbeki holds last cabinet meeting". Daily Nation. Retrieved 2016-08-26.
World Statesmen – South Africa
Rulers.org – South Africa
[hide]
v
t
e
Heads of State of South Africa
Monarch (1910–1961)
George V
Edward VIII
George VI
Elizabeth II

State President (1961–1994)
(under Apartheid)
Charles Robberts Swart
Eben Dönges
Jozua François Naudé*
Jacobus Johannes Fouché
Johannes de Klerk*
Nico Diederichs
Marais Viljoen*
B. J. Vorster
Marais Viljoen
P. W. Botha
F. W. de Klerk
President (from 1994)
(post-Apartheid)
Nelson Mandela
Thabo Mbeki
Ivy Matsepe-Casaburri*
Kgalema Motlanthe
Jacob Zuma
Cyril Ramaphosa
*Acting President
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_heads_of_state_of_South_Africa&oldid=842044448"
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