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Norfolk and Western Railway
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This article is about the former US class I railroad. For the indie folk rock band, see Norfolk & Western (band).
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Norfolk and Western Railway
Reporting mark
NW
Locale
Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Ohio; after the 1960s mergers, also Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, New York, and Pennsylvania
Dates of operation
1870–1997
Successor
Norfolk Southern
Track gauge
4 ft 8 1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) standard gauge
Length
1956: 2,132 miles (3,431 kilometres);1970: 7,595 miles (12,223 kilometres)
Headquarters
Roanoke, Virginia
Norfolk and Western magazine ad with system map, 1948
The Norfolk and Western Railway (reporting mark NW) was a US class I railroad, formed by more than 200 railroad mergers between 1838 and 1982. It was headquartered in Roanoke, Virginia, for most of its existence. Its motto was "Precision Transportation"; it had a variety of nicknames, including "King Coal" and "British Railway of America" even though the N&W had mostly articulated steam on its roster. During the Civil War, the N&W was the biggest railroad in the south and moved most of the products with their steam locomotives to help the South the best way they could.
The N&W was famous for manufacturing its own steam locomotives, which were built at the Roanoke Shops, as well as its own hopper cars. In 1960, N&W became the last major class 1 railroad to end steam but didn't retire its last remaining Y class 2-8-8-2s until 1964 and 1965. By 1965, steam on class I railroads was gone but steam wasn't gone on class II railroads until 1974 and class III and mining railroads did not retire their steam locomotives from their active roster until 1983. By 1983, steam in America on class I, II, III, and mining railroads had finally closed the chapter on America's 150 years of steam from 1830 - 1983.
In December 1959, NW merged with the Virginian Railway (reporting mark VGN), a longtime rival in the Pocahontas coal region. By 1970, other mergers with the Nickel Plate Road and Wabash formed a system that operated 7,595 miles (12,223 km) of road on 14,881 miles (23,949 km) of track from North Carolina to New York and from Virginia to Iowa.
In 1980, NW teamed up with the Southern Railway, another profitable carrier and created the Norfolk Southern Corporation holding company by merging its business operations with the business operations of the Southern Railway. The NW and the Southern Railway continued as separate railroads now under one holding company.
On December 31, 1990, the Southern Railway was renamed "Norfolk Southern Railway" to reflect the Norfolk Southern Corporation and on the same day, the renamed Norfolk Southern Railway gained full control of the Norfolk and Western Railway with the Norfolk and Western being transferred from the holding company to the renamed Norfolk Southern Railway, this began the final years of Norfolk and Western which was absorbed into the renamed Norfolk Southern Railway seven years later in 1997 (1990 to 1997 the Norfolk and Western continued operating by using paper operations).
In 1997 during the Conrail battle with CSX, Norfolk Southern Corporation's principal railroad, the renamed Norfolk Southern Railway, absorbed the Norfolk and Western Railway into their rail system, ending the existence of the Norfolk and Western Railway and having the renamed Norfolk Southern Railway becoming the only railroad in the entire Norfolk Southern system after that.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Predecessors
1.1.1 City Point, Southside and Virginia and Tennessee railroads
1.1.2 Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad
1.1.3 Civil War
1.2 Early Years
1.2.1 Beginning as the Atlantic, Mississippi & Ohio Railroad
1.2.2 Name change to Norfolk and Western
1.2.3 Coal
1.2.4 Roanoke Shops
1.3 Later Years
1.3.1 World Wars, Great Depression, and efficiencies
1.3.2 Acquiring the Virginian Railway
1.3.3 Merger era: 1960–82
1.3.3.1 Autoracks
1.4 Becoming part of the Norfolk Southern Corporation
2 Passenger operations
3 Steam locomotive types on the Norfolk and Western
4 Surviving steam locomotives
5 Leaders of the Norfolk and Western
6 Heritage Unit
7 See also
8 References
9 Notes
10 Further reading
11 External links
History[edit]
Predecessors[edit]
City Point, Southside and Virginia and Tennessee railroads[edit]
NW's earliest predecessor was the City Point Railroad (CPRR), a 9-mile (14 km) short-line railroad formed in 1838 to extend from City Point (now part of the independent city of Hopewell, Virginia), a port on the tidal James River, to Petersburg, Virginia, on the fall line of the shallower Appomattox River. In 1854, CPRR became part of the South Side Railroad, which connected Petersburg with Lynchburg, where it interchanged through traffic with the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad (V&T) and the James River and Kanawha Canal.
Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad[edit]
William Mahone (1826–95), an 1847 engineering graduate of the Virginia Military Institute (VMI), was employed by Francis Mallory to build the Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad (N&P) and eventually became its president in the pre-Civil War era. Construction of N&P began in 1853. Mahone's innovative corduroy roadbed through the Great Dismal Swamp near Norfolk, Virginia, employed a log foundation laid at right angles beneath the surface of the swamp. It is still in use 150 years later and it withstands immense tonnages of coal traffic.
Mahone married Otelia Butler, from Smithfield in Isle of Wight County, Virginia, a daughter of Robert Butler (1784–1853), a Virginia state treasurer. Popular legend has it[citation needed] that Otelia and William Mahone traveled along the newly completed N&P naming stations along the 52-mile (84 km) tangent between Suffolk and Petersburg from Ivanhoe, a book she was reading by Walter Scott. From Scott's historical Scottish novels, Otelia chose the place names of Windsor, Waverly and Wakefield. She tapped the Scottish Clan "McIvor" for the name of Ivor, a small Southampton County town. When they could not agree, it is said that the young couple invented a new word in honor of their "dispute", which is how the tiny community of Disputanta was named. The N&P was completed in 1858.
Civil War[edit]
Of small stature, dynamic "Little Billy" Mahone became a major general in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War. He was widely regarded as the hero of the Battle of the Crater during the Siege of Petersburg in 1864–65. Otelia Mahone served as a nurse in the Confederate capital of Richmond.
The N&P was severed by the war. The portion east of the Blackwater River at Zuni, Virginia, was held by the Union for most of the war. The eastern portion of the City Point Railroad played a crucial role for Union General Ulysses S. Grant during the Siege of Petersburg, and was operated by the United States Military Railroad. The South Side Railroad was also heavily damaged.
Early Years[edit]
Beginning as the Atlantic, Mississippi & Ohio Railroad[edit]
William and Otelia Mahone were illustrious characters in post-bellum Virginia. Mahone got quickly to work restoring "his" N&P, and resumed his dream of linking the three trunk lines across the southern tier of Virginia to reach points to the west. He became president of all three, and drove the 1870 merger of N&P, South Side Railroad and the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad to form the Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad (AM&O). The AM&O extended 408 miles (657 km) from Norfolk to Bristol, Virginia. The Mahones moved to the headquarters city of Lynchburg, the midpoint of the AM&O. The acronym AM&O was said to stand for "All Mine and Otelia's."
The AM&O operated profitably in the early 1870s but like many railroads encountered financial problems during the Panic of 1873. A fourth road of the AM&O family was planned to extend west through the Cumberland Gap to Kentucky, but was never built. Mahone retained control of AM&O for several more years before his relationship with English and Scottish bondholders deteriorated in 1876 and receivers were appointed to oversee his work. After several years of operating under receiverships, Mahone's role as a railroad builder ended in 1881 when northern financial interests took control.
At the foreclosure auction, the AM&O was purchased by E.W. Clark & Co., a private banking firm in Philadelphia with ties to the large Pennsylvania Railroad. The PRR was seeking a southern connection for its Shenandoah Valley Railroad (SVRR), which was then under construction up the valley from the Potomac River.
Name change to Norfolk and Western[edit]
Share of the Norfolk and Western Railroad Company, issued October 22, 1885
In 1881, the AM&O was reorganized and renamed Norfolk and Western, a name perhaps taken from an 1850s charter application filed by citizens of Norfolk, Virginia. George Frederick Tyler became president. Frederick J. Kimball, a civil engineer and partner in E.W. Clark & Co., became First Vice President. Henry Fink, whom Mahone had hired in 1855, became Second Vice President and General Superintendent.
Kimball and his board of directors selected Big Lick, a small Virginia village on the Roanoke River, to be the junction of SVRR and NW. Big Lick was later renamed Roanoke, Virginia. Over time, Roanoke began to grow and in the 1950s, reached a population of over 20,000.
At its founding, NW primarily transported agricultural products. Kimball, who had a strong interest in geology, led the railroad's efforts to open the Pocahontas coalfields in western Virginia and southern West Virginia. In mid-1881, NW acquired the franchises to four other lines: the New River Railroad, the New River Railroad, Mining and Manufacturing Company, the Bluestone Railroad, and the East River Railroad. Consolidated into the New River Railroad Company, with Kimball as president, these railroads became the basis for NW's New River Division, which was soon built from New Kanawha (near East Radford) up the west bank of the New River through Pulaski County and into Giles County to the mouth of the East River near Glen Lyn, Virginia. From there, the new line ran up the East River, crossing the Virginia-West Virginia border several times to reach the coalfields to the west near the Great Flat Top Mountain. Coal transported to Norfolk soon became NW's primary commodity, and led to great wealth and profitability.
Kimball served as NW president from 1883 to 1895.[1] Under his leadership, NW continued expansion westward with its lines through the wilderness of West Virginia with the Ohio Extension, eventually extending north across the Ohio River to Columbus, Ohio by the Scioto Valley Railroad. Acquisition of other lines, including the Cincinnati, Portsmouth and Virginia Railroad (CP&V) (which it had long supported and leased) extended the NW system west along the Ohio River to Cincinnati, Ohio, south from Lynchburg to Durham, North Carolina, and south from Roanoke to Winston-Salem, North Carolina. By the time Kimball died in 1903, the railroad had attained the basic structure it would use for more than 60 years.
Coal[edit]
Bituminous coal
In 1885, several small mining companies representing about 400,000 acres (1,600 km2) of bituminous coal reserves grouped together to form the coalfields' largest landowner, the Philadelphia-based Flat-Top Coal Land Association. NW bought the association and reorganized it as the Pocahontas Coal and Coke Company (PCCC). The PCCC was later renamed the Pocahontas Land Corporation (PLC) and is now a subsidiary of NS.
Aerial view of Lambert Point Coal Pier showing part of storage yard, Norfolk, VA
As the availability and fame of high-quality Pocahontas bituminous coal increased, economic forces took over. Coal operators and their employees settled dozens of towns in southern West Virginia, and in the next few years, as coal demand swelled, some of them amassed fortunes. The countryside was soon sprinkled with tipples, coke ovens, houses for workers, company stores and churches. In the four decades before the Crash of 1929 and subsequent Depression, these coal towns flourished. One example was the small community of Bramwell, West Virginia, which in its heyday boasted the highest per capita concentration of millionaires in the country.[2]
In 1886, the NW tracks were extended directly to coal piers at Lambert's Point, which was located in Norfolk County just north of the City of Norfolk on the Elizabeth River, where one of the busiest coal export facilities in the world was built to reach Hampton Roads shipping. A residential section was also developed to house the families of the workers. Many early residents of Lambert's Point were involved in the coal industry.
The opening of the coalfields made NW prosperous and Pocahontas coal world-famous. By 1900, Norfolk was the leading coal exporting port on the East Coast. Transported by NW, and later the neighboring VGN, it fueled half the world's navies and today stokes steel mills and power plants all over the globe.[citation needed]
Roanoke Shops[edit]
The company was famous for building its own steam locomotives, a practice rare outside Britain (where most railways either built their own locomotives or had outside contractors build locomotives to their designs). The locomotives were built at the Roanoke Shops at Roanoke. The Shops employed thousands of craftsmen, who refined their products over the years. The A, J, and Y6 locomotives, designed, built and maintained by NW personnel, brought the company industry-wide fame for its excellence in steam power. NW's commitment to steam power was due in part to its investment in the manufacturing capacity and human resources to build and operate steam locomotives, and partially due to the major commodity it hauled, coal. During the 1950s, N&W rebuilt its W Class 2-8-0 Consolidations into Shop Co W6 0-8-0Ts. In 1960, NW became the last major railroad in the United States to abandon steam locomotives for diesel-electric motive power.
Today, the Roanoke Shops continue to build and repair rolling stock.
Later Years[edit]
World Wars, Great Depression, and efficiencies[edit]
An electric Norfolk and Western train hauling coal during World War I
Revenue freight traffic, in millions of net ton-miles
Year
Traffic
1925 13684
1933 9804
1944 19907
1956 22364
Source: ICC annual reports
NW operated profitably through World War I and World War II and paid regular dividends throughout the Depression. During World War I, NW was jointly operated with VGN under the USRA's wartime takeover of the Pocahontas Roads. The operating efficiencies were significant, and after the war, when the railroads were returned to their respective owners and competitive status, NW never lost sight of the VGN and its low-gradient routing through Virginia. N&W meanwhile during World War 2 used their J's, K1's, A Class, and S1 Switchers to handle the troop trains from Ohio to Norfolk, a point of embarcation. Other three were New York, San Francisco, and San Diego. However, the US Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) turned down attempts at combining the roads until the late 1950s, when a proposed NW-VGN merger was finally approved.
N&W timetable for a division in Virginia, 1918
NW also operated safely in this time, being the recipient of the Gold E. H. Harriman Award for 1938. In a promotional booklet published in 1939, NW wrote "For the second time in 12 years, the American Museum of Safety has awarded the Harriman Memorial Gold Medal to the Norfolk & Western Railway for the outstanding safety record during 1938 among class I railroads of the United States." It is further noted that the railway carried one million passengers more than 86,000,000 miles (138,000,000 km) without incident in the period from 1924 to 1938.[3]
At the end of 1925, NW operated 2,241 miles (3,607 km) of route on 4,429 miles (7,128 km) track; at the end of 1956 NW operated 2,132 miles (3,431 km) of route on 4,759 miles (7,659 km) of track.
Acquiring the Virginian Railway[edit]
Main article: Virginian Railway
VGN was conceived and built by William Nelson Page and Henry Huttleston Rogers. Page had helped engineer and build the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway (C&O) through the mountains of West Virginia and Rogers had already become a millionaire and a principal of Standard Oil before their partnership was formed early in the 20th century.
See also: Building the Virginian Railway
Initially, their project was an 80-mile (130 km)-long short line railroad. After failing to establish favorable rates to interchange coal traffic with the big railroads (who shut them out through collusion), the project expanded. Rogers was apparently a silent partner in the early stages, and the bigger railroads did not take Page seriously. However, the partners planned and then built a "Mountains to Sea" railroad from the coal fields of southern West Virginia to port near Norfolk at Sewell's Point in the harbor of Hampton Roads. They accomplished this right under the noses of the pre-existing and much bigger C&O and NW railroads and their leaders by forming two small intrastate railroads, Deepwater Railway, in West Virginia, and Tidewater Railway in Virginia. Once right-of-way and land acquisitions had been secured, the two small railroads were merged in 1907 to form the Virginian Railway.
Engineered by Page and financed almost entirely from Rogers' personal resources, VGN lines were laid on the principle that picking the best route and buying the best equipment would save operating expenses.
Mark Twain spoke at VGN's dedication in Norfolk, Virginia, only 6 weeks before Rogers died in May 1909 after his only inspection trip on the newly completed railroad. That June, Booker T. Washington made a whistle-stop speaking tour on VGN, traveling in Rogers' private car, Dixie, and later revealing that Rogers had been instrumental in funding many small country schools and institutions of higher education in the South for the betterment of Negroes.
VGN operated over more modern alignments than C&O and NW, and its track was built to the highest standards. It provided major competition for coal traffic to C&O and NW. The 600-mile (970 km) VGN followed Rogers' philosophy throughout its profitable history, earning the nickname "Richest Little Railroad in the World." It operated some of the largest and most powerful steam, electric, and diesel locomotives.
The VGN electrified 134 miles (216 km) of its route between 1922 and 1926 at a cost of $15 million, and had its own power plant at Narrows, Virginia. It shared electrical resources with N&W from 1925 to 1950, when NW discontinued its own, shorter, electrified section through the Elkhorn Tunnel and Great Flat Top Mountain region. The VGN track was de-electrified in 1962, after the NW-VGN merger.
Merger era: 1960–82[edit]
N&W system map, around 1975
In 1955, the N&W operated in North Carolina, Virginia, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, and Ohio.
When the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) approved VGN's 1959 merger into NW, it heralded a merger movement and a modernization of the entire U.S. railroad industry.[citation needed] In 1964, the former Wabash; Nickel Plate; Pittsburgh and West Virginia Railway; and Akron, Canton and Youngstown Railroad were brought into the system in one of the most complex mergers of the era. This consolidation, plus the 1976 addition of a more direct route to Chicago, Illinois, made NW an important Midwestern railroad that provided direct single-line service between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes and Mississippi River.
In the late 1960s, NW acquired Dereco, a holding company that owned the Delaware & Hudson (D&H) and Erie Lackawanna (EL) railroads. Dereco's troubled railroads were not merged into NW; EL eventually joined Conrail and D&H was sold to Guilford Transportation Industries, and is now part of Canadian Pacific.
In 1970, the N&W operated in North Carolina, Virginia, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Missouri, and Iowa.
On September 1, 1981, NW acquired Illinois Terminal Railroad. NW was also a major investor in Piedmont Airlines.
By 1996, N&W ran most of the Midwest and Eastern states. Many N&W lines by 1998 were abandoned and some of them were never used again. However, the Norfolk to Bluefield line still exists but traffic has slowed because of its 12-mile 1.2% grade.
Autoracks[edit]
In the 1950s, Canadian National Railway (CN) introduced a group of innovative bi-level autorack railcars. These autoracks had end doors and were very large by the standards of the time; at 75 feet (23 m) long, each autorack could carry 8 completed automobiles. These autoracks were a big success and helped lead to the development of today's fully enclosed autoracks. Tri-level autoracks were developed in the 1970s.
During the 1960s, autoracks took over rail transportation of newly completed automobiles in North America. They carried more cars in the same space and were easier to load and unload than the boxcars formerly used. Ever-larger auto carriers and specialized terminals were developed by NW and other railroads.
The railroads were able to provide lower costs and greater protection from in-transit damage, such as that which may occur due to vandalism or weather and traffic conditions on unenclosed truck trailers. Using the autoracks, the railroads became the primary long-distance transporter of completed automobiles, one of few commodities where the industry has been able to overcome trucking in competition.
Becoming part of the Norfolk Southern Corporation[edit]
In 1980, the profitable NW teamed up with the Southern Railway, another profitable company, to form the Norfolk Southern Corporation and it paved the way for today's Norfolk Southern Railway (formerly the Southern Railway) and compete more effectively with CSX Transportation, itself a combination of smaller railroads in the eastern half of the United States.
Today, former NW trackage remains a vital portion of the Norfolk Southern Railway, a Fortune 500 company. The headquarters of the Norfolk Southern Railway and the parent Norfolk Southern Corporation are near the coal piers at Lambert's Point.
Passenger operations[edit]
While the Powhatan Arrow (all-coach, Norfolk–Cincinnati/Columbus) was NW's flagship passenger train, sporting a regal maroon livery with gold trim and hauled by a J Class 4-8-4 Northern Type steam locomotive, the railroad also operated a number of other passenger trains. These include:
The Cavalier (coaches and Pullmans, Norfolk–Cincinnati/Columbus).
The Pocahontas (coaches and Pullmans, Norfolk–Cincinnati/Columbus).
Trains 1 and 2 (Roanoke–Hagerstown, Maryland).
The NW also participated in four inter-line passenger trains:
Cannon Ball (New York – Norfolk in conjunction with Pennsylvania Railroad, Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad, and the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad).
Birmingham Special (New York – Birmingham, Alabama in conjunction with the Pennsylvania Railroad and Southern Railway).
The Pelican (New York – New Orleans in conjunction with the Pennsylvania Railroad and Southern Railway).
The Tennessean (New York – Memphis in conjunction with the Pennsylvania Railroad and Southern Railway).
The last three were unusual in that the Southern Railway operated the trains, either side of the NW stretch between Lynchburg and Bristol.
Steam locomotive types on the Norfolk and Western[edit]
For a more comprehensive list, see List of Norfolk and Western Railway locomotives.
Class A: 2-6-6-4 simple articulated Top Speed: 70 mph
Class Y1 though Y6b: 2-8-8-2 Mallet Top Speed: 60 mph
Class J: 4-8-4 Top Speed: 110 mph
Classes K1 and K2: 4-8-2 Mountain Top Speed: 80 mph
Classes M, M1, and M2: 4-8-0 Mastodon Top Speed: 55 mph
Class S1: 0-8-0 switchers Top Speed: 50 mph
Class Z1: 2-6-6-2 Top Speed: 60 mph
Class E1: 4-6-2 Top Speed: 65 mph
Class E2: 4-6-2 Top Speed: 70 mph
Class W: 2-8-0 Top Speed: 45 mph
Surviving steam locomotives[edit]
N&W steam locomotive 1218 photographed on a fan trip in 1987
The N&W had run excursion trains since its first days of passenger traffic, and deliberately powered them with steam engines after 1960, when most other trains had been switched to diesels. The excursion trains were powered by several of NW's famous steam locomotives, including J class #611 and A class #1218. The practice continued after the 1982 merger, under the first president of the merged Norfolk Southern, Robert B. Claytor, but was finally halted in 1994.
Today, locomotive 1218 is on static display at the Virginia Museum of Transportation in Roanoke, Virginia; locomotive 611 has been restored to working order for the VMT by the North Carolina Transportation Museum; N&W class Y6a #2156 has been brought to Roanoke from the Museum of Transportation in St. Louis, Missouri; and Class M #475 continues to operate at the Strasburg Railroad in Strasburg, Pennsylvania.[4]
N&W Class M #433 survives at the trailhead of the Virginia Creeper in Abingdon VA. The Virginia Creeper runs on the old Right of Way of the Norfolk and Western Abingdon Branch
N&W Class E #578 survives at the Ohio Railway museum in Worthington, Ohio
Four other engines survive known as the Lost Engines of Roanoke; a group of engines that survived in a Roanoke Scrapyard from the late 1950s until all were retrieved in 2009. These four engines included a Class W2 2-8-0 #917, Class M2 #1118 and #1134, and Class M2c #1151. #917 is displayed without a tender in Bellville, Ohio as a display for a restaurant. M2 #1118 is owned by the Roanoke Chapter Historical Society without a tender. M2 #1134 is displayed in Portsmouth VA at the Railroad Museum of Virginia with a tender. M2c #1151 is owned by the Virginia Museum of Transportation, and currently sits unrestored with a tender from an A class engine.
Leaders of the Norfolk and Western[edit]
Thousands of men and women worked for the AM&O and NW after the Civil War. Among the leaders were:
William Mahone
George F. Tyler
Henry Fink
Frederick J. Kimball
Lucius E. Johnson
Nicholas D. Maher
William J. Jenks
Arthur C. Needles
Robert Hall Smith
Stuart T. Saunders
Herman H. Pevler
John P. Fishwick
Robert B. Claytor
Heritage Unit[edit]
As a part of Norfolk Southern's 30th anniversary, the company painted 20 new locomotives into predecessor schemes. NS #8103, a GE ES44AC, was painted into the Norfolk and Western's blue scheme.
See also[edit]
Railways portal
Norfolk and Western Railway Company Historic District
Norfolk and Western Railway Freight Station
List of Norfolk and Western Railway locomotives
Norfolk and Western 611 - Class J 4-8-4
Norfolk & Western 475 – Class M 4-8-0
Norfolk & Western 1218 – Class A 2-6-6-4
Norfolk & Western 2156 – Class Y6a 2-8-8-2
Dinwiddie County Pullman Car
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Frederick Kimball". Retrieved January 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Millionaire Coal Town-Historic Bramwell".
Jump up ^ Norfolk and Western Railway (1939). Along the Right of Way.
Jump up ^ "Norfolk & Western Historical Society".
Notes[edit]
http://www.multimodalways.org/docs/railroads/companies/N&W/N&W%20Maps/N&W%20System%20Map%201965.pdf N&W System Map 1965
Further reading[edit]
Blake, Nelson Morehouse, Phd. (1935) William Mahone of Virginia; Soldier and Political Insurgent, Garrett and Massie Publishers; Richmond, VA
Dixon, Thomas W, Jr., (1994) Appalachian Coal Mines & Railroads. Lynchburg, Virginia: TLC Publishing Inc. ISBN 1-883089-08-5
Dow, Andrew (1999) Norfolk and Western Coal Cars: From 1881 to 1998. Motorbooks Intl. ISBN 978-1-883089-36-8
Ferrell, Mallory Hope, (2007) Norfolk & Western: Steam's Last Stand. Hundman Publishing ISBN 978-0-945434-60-3
Huddleston, Eugene L, Ph.D. (2002) Appalachian Conquest, Lynchburg, Virginia: TLC Publishing Inc. ISBN 1-883089-79-4
Lambie, Joseph T., (1954) From Mine to Market: The History of Coal Transportation on the Norfolk and Western Railway New York: New York University Press
Lewis, Lloyd D., (1992) The Virginian Era. Lynchburg, Virginia: TLC Publishing Inc.
Lewis, Lloyd D., (1994) Norfolk & Western and Virginian Railways in Color by H. Reid. Lynchburg, Virginia: TLC Publishing Inc. ISBN 1-883089-09-3
King, Ed, (1997) Norfolk & Western in the Appalachians: From the Blue Ridge to the Big Sandy. Kalmbach Publishing Company ISBN 978-0-89024-316-9
Middleton, William D., (1974) (1st ed.). When The Steam Railroads Electrified Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Kalmbach Publishing Co. ISBN 0-89024-028-0
Prince, Richard E., (1980) Norfolk & Western Railway, Pocahontas Coal Carrier, R.E. Prince; Millard, NE
Reid, H. (1961)., The Virginian Railway (1st ed.). Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Kalmbach Publishing Co.
Reisweber, Kurt, (1995) Virginian Rails 1953–1993 (1st ed.) Old Line Graphics. ISBN 1-879314-11-8
Striplin, E. F. Pat., (1981) The Norfolk & Western: a history Roanoke, Va. : Norfolk and Western Railway Co. ISBN 0-9633254-6-9
Traser, Donald R., (1998) Virginia Railway Depots. Old Dominion Chapter, National Railway Historical Society. ISBN 0-9669906-0-9
Wiley, Aubrey and Wallace, Conley (1985). The Virginian Railway Handbook. Lynchburg, Virginia: W-W Publications.
Wardeb, William E., (1996) Norfolk & Western Railway's Magnificent Mallets: The Y Class 2-8-8-2s . Motorbooks International
Cuthriell, N.L. (1956) Coal On The Move Via The Virginian Railway, reprinted with permission of Norfolk Southern Corporation in 1995 by Norfolk & Western Historical Society, Inc. ISBN 0-9633254-2-6
Warden, William and Miller, Kenneth L., (2000) Norfolk & Western Passenger Service: 1946-1971. Lynchburg, Virginia: TLC Publishing Inc. ISBN 1-88308-950-6
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Norfolk and Western Railway.
Norfolk & Western Historical Society
Norfolk & Western Steam
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CL&N
CM
CM&PS
CNE
CNNE
CNOR
C&OIN
CP&STL
CPVT
CRI&G
CR&NW
CRP
CS
CTH&SE
CV&M
CVRR
DGH&M
D&IR
D&M
DM&N
DNW&P
D&SL
EI&TH
EP&SW
E&TH
F&CC
FJ&G
FS&W
FW&RG
GC&SF
GH&SA
GM&N
GR&I
G&SI
HE&WT
H&TC
HV
ICRY
IGN
ISRR
KCM&O
KCM&OTX
K&M
LA&SL
LA&T
LE&W
LH&STL
LR&N
LR&NTX
LS&MS
LW
M&A
MC
MD&V
M&I
MKTTX
MLR
ML&T
M&NA
M&O
MO&G
MSC
MSP&SSM
MTR
MV
NAL
NCRY
NJ&NY
NN
NOGN
NOM&C
NOT&M
NYP&N
OCAA
OE
OR&L
OSL
OWRN
PB&W
PCC&STL
PCO
PE
P&E
PERK
PM
P&NT
PRDG
P&S
P&SF
PS&N
QO&KC
SA&AP
SAU&G
SB&NY
SD&A
SFP&P
S&IE
SIND
SJ&GI
SKTX
SLB&M
SLIM&S
SOUMS
SSWTX
SUN
T&BV
T&FS
T&N
T&OC
TSTL&W
U&D
UTAH
VAND
VS&P
V&SW
WF&NW
WF&S
WJ&S
W&LE
WPT
WSN
WV
Y&MV
Timeline
1910–29
1930–76
1977–present
Railroads in italics meet the revenue specifications for Class I status, but are not technically Class I railroads due to being passenger-only railroads with no freight component.
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Belmont Report
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The Belmont Report is a report created by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Its full title is the Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research, Report of the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research.
The report was issued on 30 September 1978[1] and published in the Federal Register on 18 April 1979.[2] The report took its name from the Belmont Conference Center where the document was drafted in part. The Belmont Conference Center, once a part of the Smithsonian Institution, is in Elkridge, Maryland, 10 miles south of Baltimore, and until the end of 2010 was operated by Howard Community College.[3]
The Belmont Report[2] summarizes ethical principles and guidelines for research involving human subjects. Three core principles are identified: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Three primary areas of application are also stated. They are informed consent, assessment of risks and benefits, and selection of subjects. According to Vollmer and Howard, the Belmont Report allows for a positive solution, which at times may be difficult to find, to future subjects who are not capable to make independent decisions.[4]
Contents
1 History
2 Summary
3 Today
4 Critique
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The Belmont Report was first written by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Services of Biomedical and Behavioral Research.[5] Prompted in part by problems arising from the Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932–1972) and based on the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1974–1978), the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW)[6] revised and expanded its regulations for the protection of human subjects 45 CFR part 46 in the late 1970s and early 1980s. In 1978, the Commission’s report Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research was released, and it was published in 1979 in the Federal Register. It was named the Belmont Report, for the Belmont Conference Center, where the National Commission met when first drafting the report.[7] The Belmont Report is one of the leading works concerning ethics and health care research. It allows for the protection of participants in clinical trials and research studies.[5]
The Belmont Report explains the unifying ethical principles that form the basis for the National Commission’s topic-specific reports and the regulations that incorporate its recommendations.
The three fundamental ethical principles for using any human subjects for research are:[2]
Respect for persons: protecting the autonomy of all people and treating them with courtesy and respect and allowing for informed consent. Researchers must be truthful and conduct no deception;
Beneficence: The philosophy of "Do no harm" while maximizing benefits for the research project and minimizing risks to the research subjects; and
Justice: ensuring reasonable, non-exploitative, and well-considered procedures are administered fairly — the fair distribution of costs and benefits to potential research participants — and equally.
These principles remain the basis for the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) human subject protection regulations.
Today, the Belmont Report continues as an essential reference for institutional review boards (IRBs) that review HHS-conducted or -supported human subjects research proposals involving human subjects, in order to ensure that the research meets the ethical foundations of the regulations.
Applications of these principles to conduct research requires careful consideration of i) informed consent, ii) risks benefit assessment, and iii)selection of subjects of research.
Outlined by Jennifer Sims in her article "A brief review of the Belmont Report", she states 7 things nurses, as primary caregivers for individuals participating in a study, must do to ensure the rights of the participant is met.
Ensure the study is approved by an IRB
Get informed consent from the patient
Ensure that the patient understands the full extent of the experiment, and if not, will contact the study coordinator
Ensure the patient wasn't coerced into doing the experiment by means of threatening or bullying
Be careful of other effects of the clinical trial that were not mentioned, and report it to the proper study coordinator
Support the privacy of the patient's identity, their motivation to join or refuse the experiment.
Ensure that all patients at least get the minimal care needed for their condition[5]
Researchers must share the findings of their procedures regardless of them being good or bad results. Also in the case someone did not want to participate in research but would like treatment they cannot be turned away and must be treated with the same standard care.[5]
Summary[edit]
The summary, from the top of the Report:
On July 12, 1974, the National Research Act (Pub. L. 93-348) was signed into law, there-by creating the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. One of the charges to the Commission was to identify the basic ethical principles that should underlie the conduct of biomedical and behavioral research involving human subjects and to develop guidelines which should be followed to assure that such research is conducted in accordance with those principles. In carrying out the above, the Commission was directed to consider: (i) the boundaries between biomedical and behavioral research and the accepted and routine practice of medicine, (ii) the role of assessment of risk-benefit criteria in the determination of the appropriateness of research involving human subjects, (iii) appropriate guidelines for the selection of human subjects for participation in such research and (iv) the nature and definition of informed consent in various research settings.
The Belmont Report attempts to summarize the basic ethical principles identified by the Commission in the course of its deliberations. It is the outgrowth of an intensive four-day period of discussions that were held in February 1976 at the Smithsonian Institution's Belmont Conference Center supplemented by the monthly deliberations of the Commission that were held over a period of nearly four years. It is a statement of basic ethical principles and guidelines that should assist in resolving the ethical problems that surround the conduct of research with human subjects. By publishing the Report in the Federal Register, and providing reprints upon request, the Secretary intends that it may be made readily available to scientists, members of Institutional Review Boards, and Federal employees. The two-volume Appendix, containing the lengthy reports of experts and specialists who assisted the Commission in fulfilling this part of its charge, is available as DHEW Publication No. (OS) 78-0013 and No. (OS) 78-0014, for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.
Unlike most other reports of the Commission, the Belmont Report does not make specific recommendations for administrative action by the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. Rather, the Commission recommended that the Belmont Report be adopted in its entirety, as a statement of the Department's policy. The Department requests public comment on this recommendation.
Today[edit]
In 1991, 14 other Federal departments and agencies joined HHS in adopting a uniform set of rules for the protection of human subjects, identical to subpart A of 45 CFR part 46 of the HHS regulations. This uniform set of regulations is the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects, informally known as the "Common Rule". The Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) was also established within HHS.[8]
Today, the Belmont Report serves as a historical document and provides the moral framework for understanding regulations in the United States on the use of humans in experimental methods.
Critique[edit]
In a study by Nancy Shore, community-based participatory researchers were interviewed for their interpretation and critique of the Belmont Report. Interviewees expressed concerns regarding the Belmont Report's ethical principles and interpretations as being one size fits all and advocated researchers to resist the tendency to rely on those principles systematically.[9] It argues that the ethical analysis should be extended to take into account more appropriate factors, such as cultural, gender, ethnic and geographical considerations.[9] Debate continues over the ethics and regulations of research involving human subjects because of discrepancies over the meaning and priority of the Belmont Report's basic ethical principles: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Notably, the Belmont Report does not specify how its three ethical principles should be weighted or prioritized. According to Albert R. Jonsen, a member of the National Commission that composed the report, the Institutional Review Board is charged with weighing these principles and deciding how they should be applied. Matters become controversial when deciding if the principles should be interpreted as more or less weighty depending upon the particular circumstances of the research in question, if the principles should be viewed as an obligation that society must undertake on behalf of its members,[4] or if it should be viewed as giving absolute priority to respect for persons’ autonomy over the general good of society.[10]
See also[edit]
Human experimentation in the United States
Clinical trial
Informed consent
Tuskegee Syphilis Study
Menlo Report
References[edit]
Jump up ^ National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, Department of Health, Education and Welfare (DHEW) (30 September 1978). The Belmont Report (PDF). Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Office of the Secretary, United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare (18 April 1979). "Protection of Human Subjects; Notice of Report for Public Comment" (PDF). Federal Register. 44 (76): 23191–7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-17. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Carson, Larry (30 September 2010). "HCC to close Belmont Conference Center". The Baltimore Sun.
^ Jump up to: a b Vollmer, Sara H.; Howard, George (December 2010). "Statistical power, the Belmont Report, and the ethics of clinical trials". Science and Engineering Ethics. 16: 675–91. doi:10.1007/s11948-010-9244-0. PMID 21063801.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Sims, Jennifer (July–August 2010). "A brief review of the Belmont Report". Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing. 29 (4): 173–4. doi:10.1097/dcc.0b013e3181de9ec5.
Jump up ^ HEW was split into the Department of Education and the Department of Health and Human Services in 1980. See https://www.hhs.gov/about/hhshist.html
Jump up ^ Office of Human Subjects Research, National Institutes of Health, United States Department of Health and Human Services. "Regulations and Ethical Guidelines: The Belmont Report Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research". Archived from the original on 2004-04-05. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "OHRP Home". Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP), United States Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2014-06-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Shore, Nancy (2006). "Re-conceptualizing the Belmont Report: A community-based participatory research perspective". Journal of Community Practice. 14 (4): 5–26. doi:10.1300/J125v14n04_02.
Jump up ^ Vanderpool, Harold Y. (1996). The Ethics of Research Involving Human Subjects: Facing the 21st Century. Frederick, MD: University Pub. Group. ISBN 9781555720360.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Belmont Report
The Belmont Report - U.S. Health & Human Services website
Belmont Report, original version, 30 September 1978
Belmont Report, Federal Register, 18 April 1979
Revisiting the Belmont Report, Mar. - Apr., 2001
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Parker v South Eastern Rly Co
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Parker v South Eastern Railway
Court
Court of Appeal
Citation(s)
[1877] 2 CPD 416
Case history
Subsequent action(s)
(1875-76) LR 1 CPD 618
Court membership
Judge(s) sitting
Mellish LJ, Baggallay LJ, Bramwell LJ
Parker v South Eastern Railway [1877] 2 CPD 416 is a famous English contract law case on exclusion clauses where the court held that an individual cannot escape a contractual term by failing to read the contract but that a party wanting to rely on an exclusion clause must take reasonable steps to bring it to the attention of the customer.
Contents
[hide]
1 Facts
2 Judgment
2.1 Divisional Court
2.2 Court of Appeal
3 See also
4 Notes
Facts[edit]
Mr. Parker left a bag in the cloakroom of Charing Cross railway station, run by the South Eastern Railway Company. On depositing his bag and paying two pence he received a ticket. On the front it said "see back". On its back, it stated that the railway was excluded from liability for items worth £10 or more. Mr. Parker failed to read the clause as he thought the ticket was only a receipt of payment. However, he admitted that he knew the ticket contained writing. Mr. Parker's bag, which was worth more than £10, was lost. He sued the company. The question of law put to the court was whether the clause applied to Mr. Parker. At trial the jury found for Mr. Parker as it was reasonable for him not to read the ticket.
Judgment[edit]
Divisional Court[edit]
Lord Coleridge CJ, Brett J and Lindley J decided in favour of Mr. Parker, upholding the jury award. Lindley J remarked,
“ On the finding of the jury, I think we cannot say that the defendants did not accept the article, to be taken care of by them, without any special terms. Henderson v Stevenson,[1] therefore, is undistinguishable from this case, except for the words “see back,” which did not appear on the face of the ticket in that case. But the findings here make that distinction immaterial. After the conclusions of fact which the jury have drawn, it is, upon the authority of that case, quite immaterial whether the special terms relied on were on the front or on the back of the ticket. ”
Court of Appeal[edit]
The majority of the Court of Appeal held there should be a retrial. They said that if Mr Parker knew of the conditions he would be bound. If he did not know, he would still be bound if he was given the ticket in such a way as amounted to "reasonable notice". Mellish LJ said the following.
“ I am of opinion, therefore, that the proper direction to leave to the jury in these cases is, that if the person receiving the ticket did not see or know that there was any writing on the ticket, he is not bound by the conditions; that if he knew there was writing, and knew or believed that the writing contained conditions, then he is bound by the conditions; that if he knew there was writing on the ticket, but did not know or believe that the writing contained conditions, nevertheless he would be bound, if the delivering of the ticket to him in such a manner that he could see there was writing upon it, was, in the opinion of the jury, reasonable notice that the writing contained conditions. ”
Baggallay LJ concurred, and predicted that the same result would be reached by the jury (in Mr Parker's favour). Bramwell LJ dissented, holding that reasonable notice should be a question of law, and that he would have decided in favour of the railway company.
See also[edit]
Chapelton v Barry UDC [1940]
Olley v Marlborough Court Hotel (1949) another famous exclusion case
Thornton v Shoe Lane Parking Ltd
George Mitchell v Finney Lock Seeds Ltd
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Law Rep 2 HL, Sc. 470
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parker_v_South_Eastern_Rly_Co&oldid=740198150"
Categories:
1877 in case law
English contract case law
Baron Bramwell cases
English incorporation case law
Lord Lindley cases
1877 in British law
Court of Appeal of England and Wales cases
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This page was last edited on 19 September 2016, at 17:21.
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