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Dugout canoe
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A Slavic dugout boat from the 10th century
A dugout canoe or simply dugout is a boat made from a hollowed tree trunk. Other names for this type of boat are logboat and monoxylon. Monoxylon (μονόξυλον) (pl: monoxyla) is Greek -- mono- (single) + ξύλον xylon (tree) -- and is mostly used in classic Greek texts. In Germany they are called einbaum ("one tree" in English). Some, but not all, pirogues are also constructed in this manner.
Dugouts are the oldest boats archaeologists have found, dating back about 8,000 years to the Neolithic Stone Age.[1] This is probably because they are made of massive pieces of wood, which tend to preserve better than, e.g., bark canoes. Along with bark canoe and hide kayak, dugout boats were also used by indigenous peoples of the Americas.
Dugouts on the shore of Lake Malawi
Photographed in the Historic Center of Quito at the Old Military Hospital are these dug out canoes in the courtyard
Building a seagoing dugout canoe 10 metres (33 ft) long. The sides have likely been heated and bent outward.
Contents
[hide]
1 Construction
2 Africa
3 Asia
4 Europe
5 The Americas
6 Pacific Islands
7 John F. Kennedy's PT-109
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Construction[edit]
Construction of a dugout begins with the selection of a log of suitable dimensions. Sufficient wood needed to be removed to make the vessel relatively light in weight and buoyant, yet still strong enough to support the crew and cargo. Specific types of wood were often preferred based on their strength, durability, and density. The shape of the boat is then fashioned to minimize drag, with sharp ends at the bow and stern.
First the bark is removed from the exterior. Before the appearance of metal tools, dugouts were hollowed out using controlled fires. The burnt wood was then removed using an adze. Another method using tools is to chop out parallel notches across the interior span of the wood, then split out and remove the wood from between the notches. Once hollowed out, the interior was dressed and smoothed out with a knife or adze.
More primitive designs keep the tree's original dimensions, with a round bottom. However, it is possible to carefully steam the sides of the hollow log until they are pliable, then bend to create a more flat-bottomed "boat" shape with a wider beam in the centre.
For travel in the rougher waters of the ocean, dugouts can be fitted with outriggers. One or two smaller logs are mounted parallel to the main hull by long poles. In the case of two outriggers, one is mounted on either side of the hull.
Africa[edit]
The Dufuna canoe from Nigeria is an 8000-year-old dugout, the oldest boat discovered in Africa, and the third-oldest worldwide. The well-watered tropical rainforest and woodland regions of sub-Saharan Africa provide both the waterways and the trees for dugout canoes, which are commonplace from the Limpopo River basin in the south through East and Central Africa and across to West Africa. African Teak is the timber favoured for their construction, though this comprises a number of different species, and is in short supply in some areas. Dugouts are paddled across deep lakes and rivers or punted through channels in swamps (see makoro) or in shallow areas, and are used for transport, fishing and hunting, including, in the past, the very dangerous hunting of hippopotamus. Dugouts are called pirogues in Francophone areas of Africa.
Asia[edit]
Remains of an 8000-year-old dugout canoe excavated at Kuahuqiao, China
Centuries-old unfinished dugout boat (Philippines).
An 8000-year-old dugout canoe was found by archaeologists in Kuahuqiao, Zhejiang Province, in east China.[2] This is the earliest canoe found in Asia.
The Moken, an ethnic group that lives in Myanmar's Mergui Archipelago and the north of Thailand as sea nomads, still builds and uses dugout canoes.[3] According to the Moken's accounts of their people's origin, a mythical queen punished the forbidden love of their ancestral forefather for his sister-in-law by banishing him and his descendants to life on sea in dugout canoes with indentations fore and aft ("a mouth that eats and a rear that defecates"), symbolizing the unending cycle of ingestion, digestion and evacuation.[4]
A centuries-old unfinished dugout boat, a big banca (five tons, measuring 8 by 2 by 1.5 meters) was accidentally retrieved on November, 2010 by Mayor Ricardo Revita at Barangay Casanicolasan, Rosales, Pangasinan, Philippines, in Lagasit River, near Agno River.[5] It is now on display in front of the Municipal Town Hall.
Europe[edit]
In ancient many dugouts were made from linden wood, for several reasons. First, was abundant in the Paleolthic after the melting of the Weichselian glaciation and readily available. Secondly it grew to be one of the tallest trees in the forests of the time, making it easier to build longer boats. Linden wood also lends itself well to carving and doesn't split or crack easily. It is lighter and therefore boats made from it have a better cargo capacity and are easier to carry, than most other tree types from the European old-growth forests.
The Pesse canoe, found in the Netherlands, is a dugout which is believed to be the world's oldest boat, carbon dated to between 8040 BCE and 7510 BCE. Other dugouts discovered in the Netherlands include two in the province of North Holland: in 2003, near Uitgeest, dated at 617-600 BC;[6] and in 2007, near Den Oever, dated at 3300-3000 BC.[7]
Dugouts have also been found in Germany. In German, the craft are known as einbaum (one-tree). In the old Hanseatic town of Stralsund three log-boats were excavated in 2002. Two of the boats were around 7,000 years old and are the oldest boats found in the Baltic area. The third boat (6,000 years old) was 12 meters long and holds the record as the longest dugout in the region. The finds have partly deteriorated due to poor storage conditions. [8] [9]
In 1991, remains of a linden wood log-boat of nearly 6 meters were found at Männedorf-Strandbad in Switzerland at Lake Zürich. The boat has since been dated to be 6,500 years old. [10]
In 1902 an oak log boat over 15m long and 1m wide, was found at Addergoole Bog, Lurgan, County Galway, Ireland and delivered to the National Museum of Ireland. The Lurgan boat radiocarbon date was 3940 +/- 25 BP. The boat has holes suggesting that it had an outrigger or was joined to another boat.
In 2012, at Parc Glyndwr, Monmouth, Monmouthshire, Wales, UK, an excavation by Monmouth Archeological Society, revealed three ditches suggesting a Neolithic dugout trimaran of similar length to the Lurgan log boat, carbon dated 3700+/-35 BP.[11]
Eastern Europe 20th-century monoxylin
The Ukrainian dugout (dowbanka) from the end of the 19th century. Radomysl Castle, Ukraine[12]
De Administrando Imperio details how the Slavs built monoxyla that they sold to Rus' in Kiev.[13] These ships were then used against the Byzantine Empire during the Rus'–Byzantine Wars of the 9th and 10th centuries. They used dugouts to attack Constantinople and to withdraw into their lands with bewildering speed and mobility. Hence, the name of Δρομίται ("people on the run") applied to the Rus in some Byzantine sources. The monoxyla were often accompanied by larger galleys, that served as command and control centres. Each Slavic dugout could hold from 40 to 70 warriors.
The Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host were also renowned for their artful use of dugouts, which issued from the Dnieper to raid the shores of the Black Sea in the 16th and 17th centuries. Using small, shallow-draft, and highly maneuverable galleys known as chaiky, they moved swiftly across the Black Sea. According to the Cossacks' own records, these vessels, carrying a 50 to 70 man crew, could reach the coast of Anatolia from the mouth of the Dnieper River in forty hours.
More than 40 pre-historic log-boats have been found in the Czech Republic. The latest discovery was in 1999 of a 10 m long log-boat in Mohelnice (Šumperk District). It was cut out of a single oak log and has a width of 1.05 m. The log-boat has been dated to around 1,000 BC and is kept at the 'Mohelnice Muzeum' (Museum of National History). Geographically, Czech log-boat sites and remains are clustered along the Elbe and Morava Rivers.[14]
Poland is known for the socalled Lewin-type log-boats, found a Lewin Brzeski, Koźle and Roszowicki Las accordingly. These boats, are characterized by square or trapezoidal cross-section, rectangular hull-ends and low height of the sides in relation to vessel length. In addition, nearly all the Lewin-type boats have a single hole in the bow and two at the stern. The low height is a result of the parent log being split lengthwise in half, in order to obtain two identical timbers from a single trunk. The advantage lies in the resulting identical twin hulls, which are then joined to form a double-hulled raft. The paired hulls were joined by transverse poles, which did not go through the holes in the platform ends but were fastened to the top walls or in special grooves at the hull ends. These vessels were typically 7–12 m in length, and the largest of them could carry up to 1.5 tons of cargo because of the special design. The Lewin type logboats are usually associated with the Przeworsk culture in the early centuries AD. [15][16]
Expanding a dugout canoe at Basecamp Karuskose at Soomaa National Park
The Poole Logboat made from a single oak tree is over 2,000 years old. It is currently in the Poole Museum.
Many pre-historic dugout boats have been found in Scandinavia. These boats were used for transport on calmer bodies of water, fishing and maybe occasionally for whaling and sealing. Dugouts require no metal parts, and were common amongst the Stone Age people in Northern Europe until large trees suitable for making this type of watercraft became scarce. Length was limited to the size of trees in the old-growth forests—up to 12 metres (39 ft) in length. In Denmark in 2001 and some years prior to that, a few dugout canoes of linden wood, was unearthed in a large scale archaeological excavation project in Egådalen, just north of Aarhus. They have been carbon dated to the years 5210-4910 BCE and they are the oldest known boats in Northern Europe.[17][18]
Later models increased freeboard (and seaworthiness) by lashing additional boards to the side of the boat. Eventually, the dugout portion was reduced to a solid keel, and the lashed boards on the sides became a Lapstrake hull.[19]
In the United Kingdom, two log boats were discovered in Newport, Shropshire and are now on display at Harper Adams University Newport. The Iron Age residents of Great Britain, were known to have used logboats for fishing and basic trade. In 1964, a logboat was uncovered in Poole Harbour, Dorset. The Poole Logboat dated to 300 BC, was large enough to accommodate 18 people and was constructed from a giant oak tree. It is currently located in the Poole Museum. An even older logboat (the Hanson log boat) was unearthed in 1998 in Shardlow south of Derby. It has been dated to the Bronze Ages around 1.500 BC and is now exhibited at Derby Museum and Art Gallery. There was another pre-historic boat at the same location, but it was buried in situ.
In Northern Europe, the tradition of making dugout canoes survived into the 20th and 21st centuries only in Estonia, where seasonal floods in Soomaa, a 390 km² wilderness area, make conventional means of transportation impossible. In recent decades a new surge of interest in making dugouts (Estonian haabjas) has revitalized the ancient tradition.[20]
The Americas[edit]
Main article: Pacific Northwest canoes
A seagoing dugout canoe
Native Americans making a dugout canoe, 1590
Dugout canoes at Maroon village, Suriname River, 1955
Juju charm protecting dugout canoe on Suriname River bank, Suriname, South America. 1955
Dugout canoes were constructed throughout the Americas, where suitable logs were available. The indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest are very skilled at crafting wood. Best known for totem poles up to 80 feet (24 m) tall, they also construct dugout canoes over 60 feet (18 m) long for everyday use and ceremonial purposes.[21]
In 1978, Geordie Tocher and two companions sailed a 3.5-short-ton (3.2 t), 40-foot (12 m) dugout canoe (the Orenda II), made of Douglas fir, and based on Haida designs (but with sails), from Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada to Hawaiʻi to add credibility to stories that the Haida had travelled to Hawaiʻi in ancient times. Altogether they ventured some 4,500 miles (7,242 km) after two months at sea.[22][23]
The dugout canoes were made mostly of huge cedar logs in the state of Washington for the ocean travellers, but natives that lived on the smaller rivers used smaller cedar logs.
Pacific Islands[edit]
See also Māori migration canoes, Waka
In the Pacific Islands, dugout canoes are very large, made from whole mature trees and fitted with outriggers for increased stability in the ocean, and were once used for long-distance travel. Such are the very large waka used by Māori who came to New Zealand probably from East Polynesia, about 1280. Such vessels carried 40 to 80 warriors in calm sheltered coastal waters or rivers. It is believed that trans-ocean voyages were made in Polynesian catamarans and one hull, carbon-dated to about 1400, was found in New Zealand in 2011.[24] In New Zealand smaller waka were made from a single log, often Totara, because of its lightness, strength and resistance to rotting. Larger waka were made of about seven parts lashed together with flax rope. All waka are characterized by very low freeboard. In Hawaiʻi, waʻa (canoes) are traditionally manufactured from the trunk of the koa tree. They typically carry a crew of six: one steersman and five paddlers.
The Pacific Ocean has been the nursery for many different forms of dugout sailing craft. They differ in their sail plan (i.e., crab-claw or half-crab-claw, Latin, or triangular), hull formats (single, double, catamaran or proa), the absence or presence of a beam (a bridge for a double hull). Hull shapes and end forms vary greatly. Masts can "be right or made of double spars." Hulls can be constructed by assembling boards or digging out tree trunks. Intended use (fish, war, sea voyage) and geographical features (beach, lagoon, reefs) are reflected in design. Importantly, there is an important dividing line: some craft use a tacking rig; others "shunt" that is change tack "by reversing the sail from one end of the hull to the other." Tacking rigs are similar to those seen in most parts of the world, but shunting rigs change tack by reversing the sail from one end of the hull to the other and sailing in the opposite direction (the "Pushmi-pullyu" of the sailing world).[25]
John F. Kennedy's PT-109[edit]
The Solomon Islanders have used and continue to use dugout canoes to travel between islands. In World War II these were used during the Japanese occupation - with their small visual and noise signatures these were among the smallest boats used by the Allied forces in World War II. After the sinking of PT-109, Biuku Gasa reached the shipwrecked John F. Kennedy by dugout.
See also[edit]
Log canoe
Traditional fishing boat
References[edit]
Jump up ^ 1000 Inventions and Discoveries, by Roger Bridgman
Jump up ^ Leping Jiang & Li Liu, The discovery of an 8000-year-old dugout canoe at Kuahuqiao in the Lower Yangzi River, China. 2005 antiquity.ac.uk
Jump up ^ "Mergui Archipelago". Burma Boating: Sailing Holidays, Yacht Charters and Private Cruises in Myanmar & Beyond.
Jump up ^ "The Mergui Archipelago and The Moken". Burma Boating: Sailing Holidays, Yacht Charters and Private Cruises in Myanmar & Beyond.
Jump up ^ "Centuries-old wooden boat retrieved in Pangasinan". philstar.com.
Jump up ^ "Kano". Huis van Hilde (in Dutch). Retrieved 17 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "Kano". Huis van Hilde (in Dutch). Retrieved 17 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Stefanie Klooss. "The Terminal Mesolithic and Early Neolithic log boats of Stralsund-Mischwasserspeicher (Hansestadt Stralsund, Fpl. 225). Evidence of early waterborne transport on the German Southern Baltic coast".
Jump up ^ KAUTE, P., G. SCHINDLER & H. LOBKE. 2004. "Der endmesolithisch/fruhneolithische Fundplatz Stralsund-Mischwasserspeicher--Zeugnisse fruher Bootsbautechnologie an der Ostseekuste Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns. Bodendenkmalpflege in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern" (52: 221-41) (in German)
Jump up ^ "Einbäume aus Zürcher Gewässern - Ulmer Museum" (PDF). 2002.
Jump up ^ Clark S, Monmouth Archeological Society. The Lost Lake evidence of Prehistoric Boat Building, 2013 (ISBN 978-0-9558242-2-7)
Jump up ^ Bogomolets O. Radomysl Castle-Museum on the Royal Road Via Regia". — Kyiv, 2013 ISBN 978-617-7031-15-3
Jump up ^ "0f the Pechenegs, and how many advantages".
Jump up ^ Jason Rogers. "Logboats from Bohemia and Moravia, Czech Republic".
Jump up ^ Jason Rogers. "Czech Logboats: Early Inland Watercraft from Bohemia and Moravia".
Jump up ^ "Radiocarbon and Dendrochronological Dating of Logboats from Poland" RADIOCARBON, Vol 43, Nr 2A, 2001, p 403–415 (Proceedings of the 17th International 14C Conference)
Jump up ^ "Arkæologien under motorvejen".
Jump up ^ "'Viking era' dugout boat found in Norway".
Jump up ^ "The Viking Longship".
Jump up ^ Aivar Ruukel. "Haabjas - Estonian Dugout Canoe".
Jump up ^ "Meadow Lakes Elementary / Overview".
Jump up ^ Stall, Robert (5 March 1979). "A man, a tree and an ocean to cross". Maclean's: 4–6.
Jump up ^ Peter Sp Speck, Peter (22 November 1978). "Orenda recalled". North Shore News. pp. 2 and 12.
Jump up ^ Johns D. A., Irwin G. J. and Sung Y. K. (2014) "An early sophisticated East Polynesian voyaging canoe discovered on New Zealand's coast" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111 (41): 14728–14733. doi:10.1073/pnas.1408491111
Jump up ^ Louis, Jean. "Pacific islands sailing canoes". webring.com. Retrieved January 18, 2016.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to dugout.
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text:
Mixed martial arts weight classes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Mixed martial arts weight classes are weight classes that pertain to the sport of mixed martial arts.
Contents
[hide]
1 Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts
2 Outside the United States
3 Women
4 See also
5 References
Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts[edit]
Prior to state sanctioning, weight classes were not mandatory since the competitions were held without the approval of the athletic commissions. For instance, the Ultimate Fighting Championship introduced two weight classes at UFC 12: heavyweight, which grouped competitors above 200 lb (91 kg), and lightweight, which grouped competitors under 200 lb.
Weight divisions underwent many changes in the ensuing years, but the ability of promotions to autonomously decide their own weight classes eventually disappeared after athletic commissions began supervising mixed martial arts.
In 2000, the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts were codified by the New Jersey State Athletic Commission. The California State Athletic Commission had worked extensively on regulation, but their sanctioning of MMA was not implemented due to state governmental issues surrounding the process.[1] California officially sanctioned MMA on December 28, 2005, using the ruleset it helped devise five years previously.[2]
Since then, to create uniformity, all state commissions in the United States that regulate mixed martial arts have assimilated these rules into their existing unarmed combat competition rules and statutes. For a promotion to hold mixed martial arts events in a state-sanctioned venue, the promotion must abide by the state athletic commission's body of rules for weight limits.
The Unified Rules designate limits for fourteen different weight classes in mixed martial arts; all definitions and measurements are in pounds.[3] The strawweight class was added in 2015.[4] The super lightweight, super welterweight, super middleweight, and cruiserweight classes were added in July 2017.[5]
Weight class
Upper weight limit
Strawweight 115 lb (52.2 kg)
Flyweight 125 lb (56.7 kg)
Bantamweight 135 lb (61.2 kg)
Featherweight 145 lb (65.8 kg)
Lightweight 155 lb (70.3 kg)
Welterweight 170 lb (77.1 kg)
Middleweight 185 lb (83.9 kg)
Light heavyweight 205 lb (93.0 kg)
Heavyweight 265 lb (120.2 kg)
Super heavyweight N/A
Outside the United States[edit]
With no state or government laws regarding weight class restrictions, organizations in other countries are free to schedule bouts with little regard for weight differential. However, due to the increasingly competitive and international nature of the sport, weight limits have been set by the promotions themselves usually in alignment with the Unified Rules, as maintaining standard weight classes is seen as fair and standard for all competitors.
Women[edit]
Weight limits in women's MMA mostly follow the Unified Rules' limits, but organizations that recognize women's championships usually only have titles at the lower end of the table. UFC, for example, recognizes women's titles in the strawweight, flyweight, bantamweight and featherweight classes. Some organizations that recognize women's championships also sanction a separate atomweight title with a 105 pounds (48 kg) limit.
See also[edit]
MMA portal
Weight class (boxing)
Kickboxing weight classes
Taekwondo weight classes
Wrestling weight classes
References[edit]
Jump up ^ New Jersey Commission Corrects Mainstream UFC Stories. Ivan's Blog, formerly posted on MMAWeekly.com. Retrieved December 5, 2006.
Jump up ^ California Legalizes MMA Events Archived 2006-08-23 at the Wayback Machine.. martialarts.about.com. Retrieved December 5, 2006.
Jump up ^ Nevada Administrative Code: Chapter 467 – Unarmed Combat. Retrieved December 9, 2006.
Jump up ^ Jenness, Kirik. "ABC convention ends with MMA day". Retrieved December 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ "ABC approves adoption of four new weight classes for mixed martial arts".

[hide]
v
t
e
Weight classes in mixed martial arts
Unified Rules
Strawweight
115 lb (52.2 kg)
Flyweight
125 lb (56.7 kg)
Bantamweight
135 lb (61.2 kg)
Featherweight
145 lb (65.8 kg)
Lightweight
155 lb (70.3 kg)
Super lightweight
165 lb (74.8 kg)
Welterweight
170 lb (77.1 kg)
Super welterweight
175 lb (79.4 kg)
Middleweight
185 lb (83.9 kg)
Super middleweight
195 lb (88.5 kg)
Light heavyweight
205 lb (93.0 kg)
Cruiserweight
225 lb (102.1 kg)
Heavyweight
265 lb (120.2 kg)
Super heavyweight
over 265 lb (120.2 kg)
Other
Atomweight
105 lb (47.6 kg)
Catchweight
Openweight
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mixed_martial_arts_weight_classes&oldid=841226627"
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text:
Cleat (shoe)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the protrusions on the soles of certain shoes. For the shoe itself, see football boot.
Football shoes have studs on their soles
Cleats or studs are protrusions on the sole of a shoe, or on an external attachment to a shoe, that provide additional traction on a soft or slippery surface. They can be conical or blade-like in shape, and made of plastic, rubber or metal. In American English the term cleats is used synecdochically to refer to shoes featuring such protrusions. Similarly, in British English the term 'studs' can be used to refer to 'football boots' or 'rugby boots', for instance, in a similar manner to the way 'spikes' is often used to refer to athletics shoes. The type of studs worn depends on the environment of play, whether it be grass, ice, artificial turf, or other grounds requiring versatility.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Firm Ground
2.1 Association Football
2.2 American Football
2.3 Australian Football
2.4 Baseball
2.5 Lacrosse
3 Detachable
3.1 Cycling Cleats
3.2 Ice
3.3 Football Studs
4 Artificial Ground
4.1 Baseball and Softball
4.2 American Football
4.3 Soccer Turfs
4.4 Track Spikes
5 See also
6 References
History[edit]
Athletes have worn cleats since at least the 1500s. Although there are no images or surviving examples of cleats from that time period, the first written documentation of cleats comes from 1526, when "football boots" were listed in King Henry VIII's Great Wardrobe.[1] According to researchers, the English monarch ordered the royal cordwainer (shoemaker), Cornelius Johnson, to make him a pair of hand-stitched boots "to play football". The shoes cost four shillings (about $200 today) and were probably made of especially strong leather.
Football remained a popular sport in England throughout the ensuing centuries, but it wasn’t until the emergence of The Football Association in 1863 that the sport of football emerged as an actual organized game in England.[2] With this, the sport took off in popularity, and understandably a demand for equipment began to emerge to ensure player safety and comfort. More importantly, technological innovations during this time period played a key role in new methods and materials used for production of cleats. In the 1840s, a method of hardening rubber and stopping it from decaying, called vulcanization, was developed in both England and the United States.[3] Vulcanized rubber is used in the production of all types of shoes, but is especially beneficial in the production of cleats, in that one of the primary purposes of football cleats is to protect the player's feet. Technology continued to improve in the coming decades, and by the 1890s studs are first used to make football cleats. The concept of spiked and studded shoes for other sports began to emerge as well in the late 19th century. In the 1890s, a British Company (now known as Reebok), developed the earliest known spiked leather running shoes.[3]
Cleats began to be used in the United States in the 1860s when metal spikes were first used on baseball shoes.[4] A baseball shoe, as defined by the Dickson Baseball Dictionary (3rd Ed), is "a special type of shoe designed and worn by baseball players that features cleats for traction and a full set of laces for support."[5] The first official baseball shoe was invented and produced by Waldo M. Claflin, of Philadelphia in 1882.[5] The use of cleats gained further notoriety in the United States with the birth of American football in the early 20th century. The original football shoes were actually baseball shoes, but innovations quickly emerged. In the 1920s, detachable cleats were first introduced. As the game continued to grow, cleats had to adapt to technological advances in playing surfaces, most notably artificial turf. By the 1970s, players were wearing footwear with short, rubber cleats for use on artificial turf.[6]
Innovations in cleat technology continued to take place throughout the mid to late 20th century. In 1954, the first modern football boots were made by Adidas. They were lighter, had a non-leather sole, an upper portion made from kangaroo skin, and included replaceable rubber or plastic studs, which could be screwed in at different lengths. Later, in the 1990s, Adidas introduced another innovation in the form of rubber blades instead of studs, which faced different directions and allowed for better grip. Today, different types of cleats exist for different surfaces: replaceable aluminum cleats which are worn in wet dirt, firm plastic cleats which are for regular surfaces, and short, plastic or rubber cleats for very hard surfaces.[7]
Firm Ground[edit]
Firm Ground cleats are defined as cleats that are made typically for use on natural surfaces such as dirt and grass. These cleats are equipped with large studs on the bottom of the shoe to assist in gripping the surface and preventing sliding and assisting in rapid directional changes. These studs are permanently attached to the cleats (i.e. they are not removable). The stud itself is often called a cleat.[8] There are three main types of soccer cleats: round, hard ground, and bladed. Active outdoorsman and philanthropist Erik Van Till is credited as a creator of the round cleat. While the studs are sometimes made out of metal, this is less common, as they are illegal in some sports for safety reasons.
Association Football[edit]
In association football, where the shoes themselves are known as football boots, there are three different cleat types. There are soft ground cleats which are made for wet weather. The soft ground cleats are always replaceable, and are almost always metal, so when they wear down they are easy to replace. There are firm ground cleats which are made for firm natural surfaces. In the UK, 'cleats' are universally known as studs. The term "sliding tackle" is considered a dangerous tackle made with the feet raised and the potentially damaging metal studs impacting on the legs or feet of the opponent.
American Football[edit]
In the United States of America, college football coach Joseph Pipal has been credited as one of the creators of "mud cleats" for football shoes.[9] Some of the first manufacturers of football cleats were Gola in 1905, Valsport in 1920 and Hummel in 1923 and are still in business today.[10] in the year 1925 two brothers named Adolf and Rudolf Dassler developed a football cleat with replaceable metal studs for American football.[10] The two brothers that created the first replaceable metal cleats had a falling out after WWII and they both went on to create two major football cleat manufacturers in Puma and Adidas.[11] In 1929 the company Riddell made huge strides in the football cleat industry. They modeled the cleats differently featuring an "action last", meaning its sole had a steeper angle for "snug fit, proper support and maximum traction."[11] In today's game more players prefer to wear molded cleats because they are more comfortable, but don't allow for changing during certain field conditions. Depending on the type of field, grass or artificial turf, players may opt to wear molded or removable stud cleats, since studs can vary in length and give more traction on grass than molded cleats do. There are different Protective equipment in gridiron football, cleats being a major aspect. Some of the major brands that players wear today are Nike, Adidas, and Under Armor.
Australian Football[edit]
In Australia, the studs on Australian rules football boots are traditionally referred to as "stops".[12] Prior to modern molded plastic soles, these were often replaceable screw-in wooden studs.
Update 2018: There is a photo of the Carlton Football Club team taken in 1884 and three or four stops/studs can be clearly seen on the soles of the boots. See http://www.blueseum.org/1884
In 1889 there were at least two types of stops used. One had a screw in the centre of stop/stud which was made up of conical shaped and layered leather strips. It was screwed into the boot sole. The other was the same as the other type, but fixed on to the boot sole by two nails.
PS: The correct name of the code is Australian Football.
Baseball[edit]
Metal baseball cleats produced by Under Armour.
In baseball, in laymen's terms, they are referred to as "cleats" or "spikes". The spikes are rectangular in shape, and can be made of rubber, plastic, or metal. Rubber cleats may feature grooves and smaller protrusions in the middle of the sole, while soft rubber spikes would be around the edges of the sole and at the heel. Plastic cleats are similar to rubber spikes. However, they have feature a hard bottom and thick hard plastic spikes, with few to no grooves at all, and instead of as the edge of the sole, the spikes compose the outsole of the shoe where the toes and ball of the foot would hit the ground during running, similar to track spikes and football cleats. Metal spikes are similar to plastic spikes, but instead of being thick pieces of plastic as spikes, they are thin pieces of metal to make it easier to dig into grass and sand, and thereby increase traction.[13]
Rubber and plastic cleats are used in youth baseball, with metal cleats typically prohibited.[13] Metal spikes are almost exclusively used in the upper levels of the sport, including high school, college, and professional baseball.[13] The use of metal spikes in American high school baseball was banned by the National Federation of State High School Associations in 1984 due to the risk of spike wounds, although some states received waivers nullifying the ban.[14][15][16] The ban was lifted in 1989.[14] There has also been increasing use of plastic spikes among professional players including those in Major League Baseball (MLB), due to the lighter weight of cleats and improved weight distribution leading to less wear and tear during the season.[17]
Lacrosse[edit]
Lacrosse cleats are characterized by having a high support for the ankle, and appear most similar to American Football cleats. A raised platform material surrounding the ankles is specific to the motions of players in the game. These motions include stopping and starting, and quick changes of direction as the game of play can rapidly change directions to either end of the field, necessitating ankle stability for such direction change. Lacrosse cleats contain a typical, standard toe cleat in the front and beneath the toes, for gaining traction off the toe. This is utilized for forward running, as well as potential pivot movement from the toe. Lacrosse cleats again differ from American Football cleats in that their cleats are placed to the edges of the foot sole whereas for Football the cleat spikes are found beneath the sole of the foot.[18]
Detachable[edit]
The bottom of a cycling shoe.
Detachable cleats are defined as those in which the studs are removable, typically through attaching or detaching a metal or plastic piece to the bottom of the shoe.
Cycling Cleats[edit]
A specially shaped metal or plastic piece that attaches to the bottom of a cycling shoe to positively and securely attach it to a clipless pedal system is called a cleat. The cleat engages with the pedal such that the cyclist's shoe remains mechanically attached to the pedal during pedalling. Typically the cleat and shoe are engaged with the pedal by pressing down against a spring loaded retention mechanism, and released by twisting the shoe and cleat sideways.
Ice[edit]
Ice cleats or crampons are a type of spikes that usually are attachable under the soles of shoes (in such cases also called "shoe chains") to prevent slipping, especially on ice. There are several variations on the way they are mounted, sometimes with rubber bands or a fixed mount in front of the heel, making them easy to remove when not in use.
Football Studs[edit]
On soft (wet, muddy) ground, players often opt for removable studs. These are usual metal cones that vary in length, but are generally longer than traditional soccer studs. Added to the rubber or plastic studs already on the boot, these create more opportunities for the player to get a good foothold. The increased length and more aggressive shape help players gain traction in slippery conditions.
Artificial Ground[edit]
Artificial Ground cleats are cleats that are made primarily for use on man-made surfaces, such as artificial turf or running tracks.
Baseball and Softball[edit]
Although conventional cleats can be used on turf surfaces, specialized baseball and softball turf shoes are also manufactured. These shoes typically have numerous rubber studs along the soles as opposed to spikes.[13]
American Football[edit]
While many cleats manufactured today for football can be used on artificial turf or natural surfaces, many molded cleats are designed and better served for use on artificial turf. The molded cleats tend to provide better traction on artificial surfaces, whereas detachable studs on cleats tend to be too thick for artificial turf and do not provide adequate grip on such a surface.
Soccer Turfs[edit]
Turf shoes have identical uppers to traditional soccer boots, but the outsoles differ in that they make up the "cleat" portion. Small rubber studs or patterns are like raised bumps that provide just enough of a difference in height to aid in traction on flat artificial turf. They are extremely durable, as they are more of an extension of the rubber outsole than a completely new addition to the shoe.
Track Spikes[edit]
Track spikes are placed at the bottom of shoes in order to increase traction and speed. While removable spikes are available, most runners opt for fixed spikes. These spikes come in a variety of different materials. Originally, spikes were made out of metal due to their strength and hardness. However, German engineers began experimenting with canvas and rubber spikes during the World War, in part to help find a more lightweight material. Finally, in the modern era, the most common type of track spike is made of plastic, due being both cheap and easily molded. This second aspect of plastic is especially important, as spikes need to be made in a variety of different shapes in order to accommodate runners on all different types of surfaces. Needle spikes (3/16") are used on all-weather tracks, Christmas tree spikes (1/4") are especially common on any surface, pyramid spikes are used for cross country runners, and tartan spikes (1/4") are used mostly on rubber tracks.[19]
See also[edit]
Comparison of orthotics
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Nike, Inc
Jump up ^ "The History of the FA". The Football Association. Retrieved 28 March 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Blaxland, Wendy (2009). Sneakers: How Are They Made?. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish. p. 6. ISBN 0761438106.
Jump up ^ Phillips, Thomas D. (2012). Touching All the Bases: Baseball in 101 Fascinating Stories. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. p. 6. ISBN 0810885522.
^ Jump up to: a b Dickson, Paul & McAfee, Skip (2009). The Dickson Baseball Dictionary (3rd ed., rev. and expanded. ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. p. 74. ISBN 0393340082.
Jump up ^ Johnston, Daryl (2005). Watching Football: Discovering the Game Within the Game (1st ed.). Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot Press. pp. 30–31. ISBN 0762739061.
Jump up ^ DeMello, Margo (2009). Feet and Footwear: A Cultural Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press/ABC-CLIO. p. 72. ISBN 0313357145.
Jump up ^ Lat, William (5 November 2012). "The Effects of Soccer Cleats". Soccer Supremacy. Blogspot. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "A Roundup Of The Week's News". Sports Illustrated. 22 August 1955. Archived from the original on 17 July 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "History of Football Cleats". Livestrong Organization. Retrieved 19 September 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Surprising and Unexpected Evolution of Football Cleats". Sneaker Report. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Football Boot Update 2009 Season". Total Care Podiatry.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Matthew B. Werd; E. Leslie Knight (17 June 2010). Athletic Footwear and Orthoses in Sports Medicine. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 303–305. ISBN 978-0-387-76416-0. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "NFHS RULES CHANGES AFFECTING RISK (1982-2016)" (PDF). National Federation of State High School Associations. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Tesselaar, Johannes (May 25, 1986). "Plastic vs. Metal Cleats: a Gripping Issue". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Pego, Dave (February 20, 1984). "Use of plastic cleats spiked by coaches". The Oklahoman. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Carozza, Mike (September 13, 2013). "Plastic vs Metal Cleats: What the Best Baseball Players are Wearing and Why". Complex. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Athletic Shoes-OrthoInfo - AAOS. N.p., 01 Aug. 2012. Web. 15 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "The History of Track Spikes". Freelap USA. 2014-02-15. Retrieved 2017-05-29.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleat_(shoe)&oldid=843155851"
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God bless you
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Bless You" redirects here. For other uses, see Bless You (disambiguation).
Look up God bless you in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
God bless you (variants include God bless or bless you[1]) is a common English expression, used to wish a person blessings in various situations,[1][2] especially as a response to a sneeze, and also, when parting or writing a valediction.[1][3]
The phrase has been used in the Hebrew Bible by Jews (cf. Numbers 6:24), and by Christians, since the time of the early Church as a benediction, as well as a means of bidding a person Godspeed.[4][5] Many clergy, when blessing their congregants individually or as a group, use the phrase "God bless you".[6]
Origins and legends[edit]
National Geographic reports that during the plague of AD 590, "Pope Gregory I ordered unceasing prayer for divine intercession. Part of his command was that anyone sneezing be blessed immediately ("God bless you"), since sneezing was often the first sign that someone was falling ill with the plague."[7] By AD 750, it became customary to say "God bless you" as a response to one sneezing.[8]
The practice of blessing someone who sneezes dates as far back as at least AD 77, although it is far older than most specific explanations can account for.[9] Some have offered an explanation suggesting that people once held the folk belief that a person's soul could be thrown from their body when they sneezed,[9] that sneezing otherwise opened the body to invasion by the Devil or evil spirits,[10][11] or that sneezing was the body's effort to force out an invading evil presence.[9] In these cases, "God bless you" or "bless you" is used as a sort of shield against evil.[12] The Irish Folk story "Master and Man" by Thomas Crofton Croker, collected by William Butler Yeats, describes this variation.[13] Moreover, in the past some people may have thought that the heart stops beating during a sneeze, and that the phrase "God bless you" encourages the heart to continue beating.[9][10][11]
In some cultures, sneezing is seen as a sign of good fortune or God's beneficence.[9][14] As such, alternative responses to sneezing are the French phrase à vos souhaits (meaning "to your wishes"), the German word Gesundheit (meaning "health") sometimes adopted by English speakers, the Irish word sláinte (meaning "good health"), the Spanish salud (also meaning "health") and the Hebrew laBri'ut (colloquial) or liVriut (classic) (both spelled: "לבריאות") (meaning "to health").
In Persian culture, sneezing sometimes is called "sabr =صبر," meaning "to wait or be patient." And when trying to do something or go somewhere and suddenly sneezing, one should stop or sit for a few minutes and then restart. By this act the "bad thing" passes and one will be saved.
In Greek culture, sneezing was widely recognized as a divine omen. In Book 17 of Homer’s Odyssey, Penelope speaks to Eumaeus in private about the suitors feasting in the halls of the king's palace, and how surely Odysseus will return and kill them. Suddenly her son Telemachus sneezes and Penelope laughed. A sneeze meant the intercession of the gods to make her statement come true. It was a blessing from the gods, connecting the sneeze to the "God Bless You."
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Jucker, Andreas H.; Taavitsainen, Irma (10 April 2008). Speech Acts in the History of English. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 171. ISBN 9789027291417. God bless you has been attested as a leave-taking term since 1740 and can be today heard in the US as an explicit wish or blessing and as an implicit leave-taking term. Some also use the reduced variant of God bless.
Jump up ^ Alhujelan, Naser S. (2008). Worldviews of the Peoples of the Arabian Peninsula: A Study of Cultural System. ProQuest. p. 369. ISBN 9780549703549. The expression "May God bless you" includes blessing, meaning growth, happiness, and many other good things. It is often said by family and loved ones as a kind of prayer.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Roger (1997). The Life and Death of Peter Sellers. Applause. p. 415. ISBN 9781557832481. The letter ends with the solemn valediction 'God bless you .'
Jump up ^ Everett, Isaac (1 May 2009). The Emergent Psalter. Church Publishing, Inc. p. 132. ISBN 9780898696172. The beginning of this psalm echoes the priestly benediction from Numbers 6: May God bless you and keep you.
Jump up ^ Wachspress, Amy (8 June 2012). Memories from Cherry Harvest. Counterpoint LLC. p. 91. ISBN 9781593764890. reciting the ancient Jewish benediction a parent gives to a child: "May God bless you and keep you and may God's countenance shine upon you and bring you peace."
Jump up ^ Driscoll, Rev. Michael S.; Hilgartner, Rev. Msgr. Richard B.; Kelly, Maureen A.; John Thomas Lane; James Presta; Corinna Laughlin; Jim Schellman; D. Todd Williamson; Paul Turner; Catherine Combier-Donovan; Diana Macalintal; Sr. Genevieve (2012). The Liturgy Documents, Volume Two: Essential Documents for Parish Sacramental Rites and Other Liturgies. Liturgy Training Publications. p. 439. ISBN 9781616710279. Thus, in the Book of Blessings, as in the Divine Office, while clergy may close with a true blessing ("May almighty God bless you."), laypersons can only request God's blessing ("May the Lord bless us.")
Jump up ^ Patrick, Bethanne Kelly; Thompson, John Milliken (2009). An Uncommon History of Common Things. National Geographic. p. 74. ISBN 9781426204203. In Rome during the plague of 590, Pope Gregory I ordered unceasing prayer for divine intercession. Part of his command was that anyone sneezing be blessed immediately ("God bless you"), since sneezing was often the first sign that someone was falling ill with the plague. Although the populace did not understand that the sneeze was the source of transmittal, they may have sensed it was connected to the disease. "God bless you" became a verbal totem invoking divine mercy on the sneezer.
Jump up ^ Whiting, Bartl Jere (1977). Early American Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases. Harvard University Press. p. 178. ISBN 9780674219816. The year 750, is commonly reckoned the era of the custom of saying "God bless you," to one who happens to sneeze, etc.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Snopes Urban Legends - Bless You!
^ Jump up to: a b Ed Zotti, Editor. Why Do We Say "God Bless You" After a Sneeze?, Straight Dope, 27 September 2001.
^ Jump up to: a b Madsci.org, Mad Scientist posting by Tom Wilson, M.D./PhD, Pathology, Div. of Molecular Oncology, Washington University School of Medicine
Jump up ^ Stollznow, Karen (2014). ""God Bless You!" – A Blessing in Disguise?". Skeptic Magazine. 19 (4). Retrieved 21 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Gutenberg.org, Project Gutenberg story by T. Crofton Croker, 1898.
Jump up ^ Re: Why does plucking my eyebrows make me sneeze?, MadSci Network posting by Robert West, Post-doc/Fellow, 1997-08-05
Opie, Iona, and Moira Tatem. A Dictionary of Superstitions. Oxford University Press; Oxford, 1992. ISBN 0-19-282916-5
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Oh! Susanna
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the folk song. For the 1936 film, see Banjo on My Knee (film). For other uses, see Oh! Susanna (disambiguation).
"Oh! Susanna"
Original sheet music (1848)
Song
Published
1848
Songwriter(s)
Stephen Foster
"Oh! Susanna" is a minstrel song by Stephen Foster (1826–1864), first published in 1848. It is among the most popular American songs ever written. Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Song
3 Popularity and adaptations
3.1 Modern version
3.1.1 Optional third verse
3.2 Merrie Melodies version
4 Notable recordings
5 References
6 External links
Background[edit]
In 1846, Stephen Foster moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, and became a bookkeeper with his brother's steamship company. While in Cincinnati, Foster wrote "Oh! Susanna", possibly for his men's social club.[2][3] The song was first performed by a local quintet at a concert in Andrews' Eagle Ice Cream Saloon in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on September 11, 1847.[4] It was first published by W. C. Peters & Co. in Cincinnati in 1848.[5] Other minstrel troupes performed the work, and, as was common at the time, many registered the song for copyright under their own names. As a result, it was copyrighted and published at least twenty-one times[6] from February 25, 1848, through February 14, 1851.[3] Foster earned just $100 ($2,768 in 2016 dollars[7]) for the song,[8] but its popularity led the publishing firm Firth, Pond & Company to offer him a royalty rate of two cents per copy of sheet music sold,[3] convincing him to become America's first fully professional songwriter.[9][10]
The name Susanna may refer to Foster's deceased sister Charlotte, whose middle name was Susannah.[11]
Song[edit]
"Oh! Susanna" (1848)
Stephen Foster's "Oh! Susanna" performed by the United States Navy Concert Band
Problems playing this file? See media help.
The song blends together a variety of musical traditions. The opening line refers to "a banjo on my knee", but the song takes its beat from the polka, which had just reached the U.S. from Europe.[4][12] Glenn Weiser suggests the song was influenced by an existing work, "Rose of Alabama" (1846), with which it shares some similarities in lyrical theme and musical structure.[13]
The first two phrases of the melody are based on the major pentatonic scale.[14] Play (help·info)
The lyrics are largely nonsense,[3] as characterized by lines such as "It rain'd all night the day I left, The weather it was dry, The sun so hot I froze to death..." (first verse) and "I shut my eyes to hold my breath..." (second verse). It is one of the few songs by Foster that use the word "nigger" (others are "Old Uncle Ned" and "Oh! Lemuel", both also among Foster's early works), which appears in the second verse ("De lectric fluid magnified, And killed five hundred nigger.").
Popularity and adaptations[edit]
The song is not only one of Stephen Foster's best-known songs,[15] but also one of the best-known American songs.[16] No American song had sold more than 5,000 copies before; "Oh! Susanna" sold over 100,000.[17] After its publication, it quickly became known as an "unofficial theme of the Forty-Niners",[15] with new lyrics about traveling to California with a "washpan on my knee".[6] A traditional Pennsylvania Dutch version uses Foster's melody but replaces the lyrics entirely.[18]
Lyrics themselves:
1.
I come from Alabama with my Banjo on my knee—
I'm goin' to Louisiana my true love for to see.
It rained all night the day I left, the weather it was dry;
The sun so hot I froze to death—Susanna, don't you cry.

Chorus:
Oh! Susanna, do not cry for me;
I come from Alabama, with my Banjo on my knee.

2. (This verse is rarely sung in its original form today; to avoid the racially offensive language of the original lyrics, the word "Nigger" is often replaced with "chigger")
I jumped aboard the telegraph and traveled down the river,
Electric fluid magnified, and killed five hundred Nigger.
The bullgine bust, the horse ran off, I really thought I'd die;
I shut my eyes to hold my breath—Susanna, don't you cry.
Chorus:

3.
I had a dream the other night, when everything was still;
I thought I saw Susanna dear, a comin' down the hill.
The buckwheat cake was in her mouth, a tear was in her eye,
I says, "I've coming from the South"-Susanna, don't you cry.
Chorus:

An unauthorized[citation needed] fourth verse was added:[19]

4.
I soon will be in New Orleans, and then I'll look all around,
And when I find Susanna, I'll fall upon the ground.
But if I do not find her, this darkie'll surely die,
And when I'm dead and buried—Susanna, don't you cry.
Modern version[edit]
Oh, I come from Alabama with a banjo on my knee!
Going to Louisiana, my true love for to see
Oh Susanna! Oh don't you cry for me!
For I come from Alabama with a banjo on my knee
It rained all night the day I left, the weather it was dry
The sun so hot I froze to death, Susannah don't you cry
Oh Susanna! Oh don't you cry for me!
For I come from Alabama with a banjo on my knee!
Optional third verse[edit]
I had a dream the other night, when everything was still
I thought I saw Susannah dear a-comin' down the hill
A red red rose was in her hand, a tear was in her eye
I said I come from dixieland, Susannah don't you cry!
Oh Susannah! Oh, don't you cry for me!
For I come from Alabama with a banjo on my knee
I soon will be in New Orleans, and then I'll look all around,
And when I find Susanna, I'll fall upon the ground.
But if I do not find her,then surely about to die,
And when I'm dead and buried—Susanna, don't you cry.
Oh Susanna! Oh, don't you cry for me!
For I come from Alabama with a banjo on my knee
Merrie Melodies version[edit]
(This version was sung exclusively in the 1942 Merrie Melodies short, "The Wacky Wabbit".)
Oh! Susanna, don't you cry for me!
I'm gonna get me lots of gold out on the Lone Prairie.
Gold is where you find it and when I find that stuff,
I'll dig and dig and dig and dig.
I'll never get enough.
I tramp the prairies and the plains.
I trudge each weary mile.
I'll tramp and trudge and trudge and tramp
Until I make my pile.
Oh! Susanna, don't you cry for me!
I'm gonna dig up lots of gold, V for victory.
I'm a ragged, rugged lover of the wild and wooly West.
Of all the things I haven't got, I like gold the best.
Oh, it rained all night of the day I left, the weather was so dry;
It was so warm I froze to death - Susanna, don't you cry.
Oh! Susanna, don't you cry for me!
I'm gonna get me lots of gold, V for victory!
Notable recordings[edit]
One of the earliest recordings, using the original "killed five hundred Nigger" lyrics, was released by Harry Clinton Browne in 1916 (Columbia COL A-2218). Browne also released other openly racist songs that same year, including Nigger Love a Watermelon Ha! Ha! Ha!. A 1955 novelty recording of the song by The Singing Dogs reached #22 on the US Billboard Pop Singles chart.[20] A humorous recording of "Oh! Susanna" was the last track on the second album by The Byrds, Turn! Turn! Turn!, in 1965.[21][22] James Taylor also included a version of the song on his second album, Sweet Baby James, in 1970.[23]
In 1963, The Big 3 recorded Tim Rose's composition "The Banjo Song," which sets Foster's lyrics to a completely new melody.[24] Neil Young and Crazy Horse covered Rose's version on their 2012 album Americana.[25]
The website JibJab used the tune to create a song called "Big Box Mart", about big box stores.
The alt-folk music group The Be Good Tanyas recorded an adaptation of Oh Susana on their 2000 album "Blue Horse".
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Western Writers of America (2010). "The Top 100 Western Songs". American Cowboy. Archived from the original on 10 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Richard Jackson. 1974. Stephen Foster song book: original sheet music of 40 songs. Courier Dover Press. p. 177.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Foster Stephen C(ollins)", Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, Gale via HighBeam Research, 2001, retrieved 2012-04-25 (subscription required)
^ Jump up to: a b Zwerdling, Daniel (1997-09-13), "Stephen Foster", NPR Weekend All Things Considered, National Public Radio via HighBeam Research, retrieved 2012-04-25 (subscription required)
Jump up ^ "Oh! Susanna". 2008. Retrieved September 2011. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Behe, Rege (2009-06-28), "Stephen Foster really did write songs the whole world sang.", Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, Trib Total Media, Inc. via HighBeam Research, retrieved 2012-04-25 (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Cahill, Greg (2008-11-14), "Oh! Stephen Foster", Pacific Sun, Pacific Sun via HighBeam Research, retrieved 2012-04-25, But popularity didn't translate into success. His ebullient "Oh! Susanna" became the theme song of the Gold Rush, but Foster earned just $100 for that hit because crooked publishers failed to pay his royalties. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Marks, Rusty (2001-04-22), "ON TELEVISION: Stephen Foster: Quintessential songwriter lived in music, died in ruin", Sunday Gazette-Mail, Gazette Daily Inc. via HighBeam Research, retrieved 2012-04-25, The song, written in 1847, soon spread throughout the country. Foster decided to become a full-time songwriter, a vocation no one had bothered to pursue until then. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ PITTSBURGH NATIVE SON AND SONGWRITER STEPHEN FOSTER TO BE INDUCTED INTO NASHVILLE SONGWRITERS HALL OF FAME OCT. 17., US Fed News Service, Including US State News. The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Ltd. via HighBeam Research, 2010-10-16, retrieved 2012-04-25 (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Michael Saffle. 2000. Perspectives on American music, 1900–1950 Taylor & Francis. p. 382.
Jump up ^ Gross, Terry (2010-04-16), "The Lyrics And Legacy Of Stephen Foster", NPR Fresh Air, National Public Radio via HighBeam Research, retrieved 2012-04-25, Mr. EMERSON: I think that Stephen Foster really did create popular music as we still recognize it today. He did it because he took together all these strands of the American experience. That song is extremely Irish in its origins, just as other songs are extremely African-American, just as others are extremely Italian and operatic, or sometimes German, and even Czechoslovakian. For instance, the beat of "Oh! Susanna" is the beat of a polka. He's clearly effectively merged them into a single music. And I think he merged them in way that appeals to the multicultural mongrel experience of America in its history and culture. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ "Oh! Susanna by Stephen Foster — Likely Origins". Celticguitarmusic.com. Retrieved 2011-07-01.
Jump up ^ Benward & Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice, Vol. I, p.37. Seventh Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Tuleja, Tad (1994), "Oh, Susanna", The New York Public Library Book of Popular Americana, Macmillan Reference USA via HighBeam Research, retrieved 2012-04-25 (subscription required)
Jump up ^ "MEMORABILIA COLLECTION HONORS COMPOSER MUSICIAN WROTE 'OH, SUSANNA'", The Cincinnati Post, Dialog LLC via HighBeam Research, 2002-03-21, retrieved 2012-04-25 (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Stephen Foster, Meet the Musicians; accessed 2012.09.11.
Jump up ^ Lieder der Pennsylvania Dutch (II), retrieved 2012-04-25
Jump up ^ Not evidence of lack of authorization per se (so cit-needed tag should not be removed) but the 4th verse is -not- present in the first edition published as scanned by the Library of Congress- http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.music/sm1848.450780 - one does note.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2009), Top Pop Singles 1955-2008, Record Research, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Jump up ^ Interview with Roger McGuinn of the Byrds - February 1970, Vincent Flanders: His Personal Web Site, retrieved 2012-04-25
Jump up ^ "Turn! Turn! Turn!", Allmusic, retrieved 2012-04-25
Jump up ^ "Sweet Baby James", Allmusic, retrieved 2012-04-25
Jump up ^ "Oh Susanna (The Banjo Song)", Allmusic, retrieved 2012-04-25
Jump up ^ "Americana - Neil Young & Crazy Horse", Allmusic.com, retrieved 2012-05-09
External links[edit]
Find more aboutOh! Susannaat Wikipedia's sister projects
Media from Commons
Texts from Wikisource
"Oh! Susanna" on Grey Gull record 4125 c.1923 sung by Arthur Fields - Original lyrics
Artist Nikki Hornsby's grandfather "Cheerful" Dan Hornsby recorded this song for Columbia Records #1268-D 1929
Oh! Susanna: Scores at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
First edition (W.C. Peters, 1848) scanned by the Library of Congress
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Stephen Foster
List of songs written by Stephen Foster
Songs
Minstrel songs
Angelina Baker (1850)
Camptown Races (1850)
The Glendy Burk (1860)
My Old Kentucky Home (1853)
Oh! Susanna (1848)
Old Folks at Home (Swanee River) (1851)
Parlor songs
Ah! May the Red Rose Live Alway
Open Thy Lattice Love
Beautiful Dreamer (1864)
Hard Times Come Again No More (1854)
Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair (1854)
Old Black Joe (1853)
Willie Has Gone To War (1862)
History and biographers
History and biographies
The Stephen Foster Collection and archive
William Barclay Foster
Eliza Clayland Tomlinson Foster
Morrison Foster
Horace Waters
Harold Vincent Milligan
Jane McDowell Foster Wiley
Henrietta Crosman
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Films, musicals,
recordings
Films
Harmony Lane
I Dream of Jeanie
Swanee River
Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair (anime)
Musicals
Stephen Foster - The Musical
Hard Times
Recordings
Beautiful Dreamer: The Songs of Stephen Foster
State Parks
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Stephen Foster Folk Culture Center State Park
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