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Kingdom of Judah
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"Kingdom of Judea" redirects here. For the Judean polity of the 1st and 2nd centuries BCE, see Hasmonean dynasty.
Judea is a term used for the mountainous southern part of the historic Land of Israel.
Kingdom of Judah
9th[1][2] or 8th[3] century BCE–586 BCE
Map of the region in the 9th century BCE
Capital Hebron
Jerusalem
Languages Hebrew
Religion Monotheistic Yahwism/Judaism
Canaanite polytheism
Mesopotamian polytheism
Folk religion[4][5][6][7][8]
Government Monarchy
Historical era Levantine Iron Age
• Jeroboam's Revolt 9th[1][2] or 8th[3] century BCE
• Siege of Jerusalem (587 BCE) 586 BCE
Preceded by Succeeded by
Kingdom of Israel
Yehud (Babylonian province)
Today part of Israel
Palestine
The Kingdom of Judah (Hebrew: מַמְלֶכֶת יְהוּדָה, Mamlekhet Yehudāh) was an Iron Age kingdom of the Southern Levant. The Hebrew Bible depicts it as the successor to a United Monarchy, but historians are divided about the veracity of this account. In the 10th and early 9th centuries BCE, the territory of Judah appears to have been sparsely populated, limited to small rural settlements, most of them unfortified.[9] Jerusalem, the kingdom's capital, likely did not emerge as a significant administrative center until the end of the 8th century; before this the archaeological evidence suggests its population was too small to sustain a viable kingdom.[10] In the 7th century its population increased greatly, prospering under Assyrian vassalage (despite Hezekiah's revolt against the Assyrian king Sennacherib[11]), but in 605 the Assyrian Empire was defeated, and the ensuing competition between the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt and the Neo-Babylonian Empire for control of the Eastern Mediterranean led to the destruction of the kingdom in a series of campaigns between 597 and 582, the deportation of the elite of the community, and the incorporation of Judah into a province of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.
Contents
[hide]
1 Archaeological record
2 Biblical narrative
2.1 Relations with the Northern Kingdom
2.2 Clash of empires
2.3 Destruction and dispersion
3 Re-establishment under Persian rule
4 See also
5 References
5.1 Further reading
Archaeological record[edit]
See also: Biblical archaeology, Biblical archaeology school, and The Bible and history
Mesha Stele c. 850 BCE – An inscribed stone set up c. 840 BCE by Mesha of Moab tells how Chemosh, the God of Moab, had been angry with his people and allowed them to be subjugated to Israel, but at length assisted Mesha to throw off the yoke of Israel and restore the lands of Moab.[12]
Significant academic debate exists around the character of the Kingdom of Judah. Little archaeological evidence of an extensive, powerful Kingdom of Judah before the late 8th century BCE has been found; Nimrud Tablet K.3751, dated c. 733 BCE, is the earliest known record of the name Judah (written in Assyrian cuneiform as Yaudaya or KUR.ia-ú-da-a-a).[13]
Archaeologists of the minimalist school doubt the extent of the Kingdom of Judah as depicted in the Bible. Around 1990–2010, an important group of archaeologists and biblical scholars formed the view that the actual Kingdom of Judah bore little resemblance to the biblical portrait of a powerful monarchy. These scholars say the kingdom was no more than a small tribal entity.[14][15]
However, Yosef Garfinkel has written in a preliminary report published by the Israeli Antiquities Authority that finds at the Khirbet Qeiyafa site support the notion that an urban society already existed in Judah in the late 11th century BCE.[16] Other archaeologists say that the identification of Khirbet Qeiyafa as an Israelite settlement is uncertain.[17][18]
The status of Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE is a major subject of debate.[9] The oldest part of Jerusalem and its original urban core is the City of David, which does not show evidence of significant Israelite residential activity until the 9th century.[19] However, unique administrative structures such as the Stepped Stone Structure and the Large Stone Structure, which originally formed one structure, contain material culture dated to Iron I.[9] On account of the apparent lack of settlement activity in the 10th century BCE, Israel Finkelstein argues that Jerusalem in the century was a small country village in the Judean hills, not a national capital, and Ussishkin argues that the city was entirely uninhabited. Amihai Mazar contends that if the Iron I/Iron IIa dating of administrative structures in the City of David are correct, (as he believes) "Jerusalem was a rather small town with a mighty citadel, which could have been a center of a substantial regional polity."[9]
Biblical narrative[edit]
See also: History of ancient Israel and Judah
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According to the Hebrew Bible, the kingdom of Judah resulted from the break-up of the United kingdom of Israel (1020 to about 930 BCE) after the northern tribes refused to accept Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, as their king. At first, only the tribe of Judah remained loyal to the house of David, but soon after the tribe of Benjamin joined Judah. The two kingdoms, Judah in the south and Israel in the north, coexisted uneasily after the split until the destruction of the Kingdom of Israel by Assyria in c. 722/721.
The major theme of the Hebrew Bible's narrative is the loyalty of Judah, and especially its kings, to Yahweh, which it states is the God of Israel. Accordingly, all the kings of Israel and almost all the kings of Judah were "bad", which in terms of Biblical narrative means that they failed to enforce monotheism. Of the "good" kings, Hezekiah (727–698 BCE) is noted for his efforts at stamping out idolatry (in this case, the worship of Baal and Asherah, among other traditional Near Eastern divinities),[20] but his successors, Manasseh of Judah (698–642 BCE) and Amon (642–640 BCE), revived idolatry, drawing down on the kingdom the anger of Yahweh. King Josiah (640–609 BCE) returned to the worship of Yahweh alone, but his efforts were too late and Israel's unfaithfulness caused God to permit the kingdom's destruction by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in the Siege of Jerusalem (587 BCE).
However it is now fairly well established among academic scholars that the Biblical narrative is not an accurate reflection of religious views in either Judah or particularly Israel during this period.[21]
Relations with the Northern Kingdom[edit]
Rulers of Judah
Saul
David
Solomon
Rehoboam
Abijah
Asa
Jehoshaphat
Jehoram
Ahaziah
Athaliah
J(eh)oash
Amaziah
Uzziah/Azariah
Jotham
Ahaz
Hezekiah
Manasseh
Amon
Josiah
Jehoahaz
Jehoiakim
Jeconiah/Jehoiachin
Zedekiah
v
t
e
For the first sixty years, the kings of Judah tried to re-establish their authority over the northern kingdom, and there was perpetual war between them. Israel and Judah were in a state of war throughout Rehoboam's seventeen-year reign. Rehoboam built elaborate defenses and strongholds, along with fortified cities. In the fifth year of Rehoboam's reign, Shishak, pharaoh of Egypt, brought a huge army and took many cities. In the sack of Jerusalem (10th century BCE), Rehoboam gave them all of the treasures out of the temple as a tribute and Judah became a vassal state of Egypt.
Rehoboam's son and successor, Abijah of Judah continued his father's efforts to bring Israel under his control. He fought the Battle of Mount Zemaraim against Jeroboam of Israel and was victorious with a heavy loss of life on the Israel side. According to the books of Chronicles, Abijah and his people defeated them with a great slaughter, so that 500,000 chosen men of Israel fell slain[22] after which Jeroboam posed little threat to Judah for the rest of his reign and the border of the tribe of Benjamin was restored to the original tribal border.[23]
Abijah's son and successor, Asa of Judah, maintained peace for the first 35 years of his reign,[24] during which time he revamped and reinforced the fortresses originally built by his grandfather, Rehoboam. 2 Chronicles states that at the Battle of Zephath, the Egyptian-backed chieftain Zerah the Ethiopian and his million men and 300 chariots was defeated by Asa's 580,000 men in the Valley of Zephath near Maresha.[25] The Bible does not state whether Zerah was a pharaoh or a general of the army. The Ethiopians were pursued all the way to Gerar, in the coastal plain, where they stopped out of sheer exhaustion. The resulting peace kept Judah free from Egyptian incursions until the time of Josiah some centuries later.
In his 36th year, Asa was confronted by Baasha of Israel,[24] who built a fortress at Ramah on the border, less than ten miles from Jerusalem. The result was that the capital was under pressure and the military situation was precarious. Asa took gold and silver from the Temple and sent them to Ben-Hadad I, king of Aram-Damascus, in exchange for the Damascene king canceling his peace treaty with Baasha. Ben-Hadad attacked Ijon, Dan, and many important cities of the tribe of Naphtali, and Baasha was forced to withdraw from Ramah.[26] Asa tore down the unfinished fortress and used its raw materials to fortify Geba and Mizpah in Benjamin on his side of the border.[27]
Asa's successor, Jehoshaphat, changed the policy towards Israel and instead pursued alliances and co-operation with the northern kingdom. The alliance with Ahab was based on marriage. This alliance led to disaster for the kingdom with the battle of Ramoth-Gilead.[28] He then entered into an alliance with Ahaziah of Israel for the purpose of carrying on maritime commerce with Ophir. But the fleet that was then equipped at Ezion-Geber was immediately wrecked. A new fleet was fitted out without the cooperation of the king of Israel, and although it was successful, the trade was not prosecuted.[29] He subsequently joined Jehoram of Israel in a war against the Moabites, who were under tribute to Israel. This war was successful, with the Moabites being subdued. However, on seeing Mesha's act of offering his own son in a human sacrifice on the walls of Kir-haresheth filled Jehoshaphat with horror and he withdrew and returned to his own land.[30]
Jehoshaphat's successor, Jehoram of Judah formed an alliance with Israel by marrying Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab. Despite this alliance with the stronger northern kingdom, Jehoram's rule of Judah was shaky. Edom revolted, and he was forced to acknowledge their independence. A raid by Philistines, Arabs and Ethiopians looted the king's house and carried off all of his family except for his youngest son, Ahaziah of Judah.
Clash of empires[edit]
Stamped bulla of a servant of King Hezekiah used to seal a papyrus document
After Hezekiah became sole ruler in c. 715 BCE, he formed alliances with Ashkelon and Egypt, and made a stand against Assyria by refusing to pay tribute.[31] (Isaiah 30–31; 36:6–9) In response, Sennacherib of Assyria attacked the fortified cities of Judah. (2 Kings 18:13) Hezekiah paid three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents of gold to Assyria – requiring him to empty the temple and royal treasury of silver and strip the gold from the doorposts of Solomon's Temple. (2 Kings 18:14–16)[31] However, Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem[32] (2 Kings 18:17) in 701 BCE, though the city was never taken.
During the long reign of Manasseh (c. 687/686 – 643/642 BCE),[33] Judah was a vassal of Assyrian rulers – Sennacherib and his successors, Esarhaddon[34] and Ashurbanipal after 669 BCE. Manasseh is listed as being required to provide materials for Esarhaddon's building projects, and as one of a number of vassals who assisted Ashurbanipal's campaign against Egypt.[34]
When Josiah became king of Judah in c. 641/640 BCE,[33] the international situation was in flux. To the east, the Neo-Assyrian Empire was beginning to disintegrate, the Neo-Babylonian Empire had not yet risen to replace it, and Egypt to the west was still recovering from Assyrian rule. In this power vacuum, Judah was able to govern itself for the time being without foreign intervention. However, in the spring of 609 BCE, Pharaoh Necho II personally led a sizable army up to the Euphrates to aid the Assyrians.[35] Taking the coast route Via Maris into Syria at the head of a large army, Necho passed the low tracts of Philistia and Sharon. However, the passage over the ridge of hills which shuts in on the south of the great Jezreel Valley was blocked by the Judean army led by Josiah, who may have considered that the Assyrians and Egyptians were weakened by the death of the pharaoh Psamtik I only a year earlier (610 BCE).[35] Presumably in an attempt to help the Babylonians, Josiah attempted to block the advance at Megiddo, where a fierce battle was fought and where Josiah was killed.[36] Necho then joined forces with the Assyrian Ashur-uballit II and together they crossed the Euphrates and lay siege to Harran. The combined forces failed to capture the city, and Necho retreated back to northern Syria. The event also marked the disintegration of the Assyrian Empire.
On his return march to Egypt in 608 BCE, Necho found that Jehoahaz had been selected to succeed his father, Josiah.[37] Necho deposed Jehoahaz, who had been king for only three months, and replaced him with his older brother, Jehoiakim. Necho imposed on Judah a levy of a hundred talents of silver (about 33⁄4 tons or about 3.4 metric tons) and a talent of gold (about 34 kilograms (75 lb)). Necho then took Jehoahaz back to Egypt as his prisoner,[38] never to return.
Jehoiakim ruled originally as a vassal of the Egyptians, paying a heavy tribute. However, when the Egyptians were defeated by the Babylonians at Carchemish in 605 BCE, Jehoiakim changed allegiances, paying tribute to Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. In 601 BCE, in the fourth year of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar unsuccessfully attempted to invade Egypt and was repulsed with heavy losses. This failure led to numerous rebellions among the states of the Levant which owed allegiance to Babylon. Jehoiakim also stopped paying tribute to Nebuchadnezzar[39] and took a pro-Egyptian position. Nebuchadnezzar soon dealt with these rebellions. According to the Babylonian Chronicles, after invading "the land of Hatti (Syria/Palestine)"[40][41] in 599 BCE, he lay siege to Jerusalem. Jehoiakim died in 598 BCE[42] during the siege, and was succeeded by his son Jeconiah at an age of either eight or eighteen.[43] The city fell about three months later,[44][45] on 2 Adar (March 16) 597 BCE. Nebuchadnezzar pillaged both Jerusalem and the Temple, carting all his spoils to Babylon. Jeconiah and his court and other prominent citizens and craftsmen, along with a sizable portion of the Jewish population of Judah, numbering about 10,000[46] were deported from the land and dispersed throughout the Babylonian Empire. (2 Kings 24:14) Among them was Ezekiel. Nebuchadnezzar appointed Zedekiah, Jehoiakim's brother, king of the reduced kingdom, who was made a tributary of Babylon.
Destruction and dispersion[edit]
Further information: Babylonian captivity
Depiction of Jewish king and soldiers in ancient Judah
Despite the strong remonstrances of Jeremiah and others, Zedekiah revolted against Nebuchadnezzar, ceasing to pay tribute to him and entered into an alliance with Pharaoh Hophra. In 589 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II returned to Judah and again besieged Jerusalem. During this period, many Jews fled to surrounding Moab, Ammon, Edom and other countries to seek refuge.[47] The city fell after a siege which lasted either eighteen or thirty months[48] and Nebuchadnezzar again pillaged both Jerusalem and the Temple,[49] after which he destroyed them both.[50] After killing all of Zedekiah's sons, with the possible exception of one,[51] Nebuchadnezzar took Zedekiah to Babylon,[52] putting an end to the independent Kingdom of Judah. According to the Book of Jeremiah, in addition to those killed during the siege, some 4,600 people were deported after the fall of Judah.[53] By 586 BCE much of Judah was devastated, and the former kingdom suffered a steep decline of both economy and population.[54]
Jerusalem apparently remained uninhabited for much of the 6th century,[54] and the centre of gravity shifted to Benjamin, the relatively unscathed northern section of the kingdom, where the town of Mizpah became the capital of the new Babylonian province of Yehud for the remnant of the Jewish population in a part of the former kingdom.[55] This was standard Babylonian practice: when the Philistine city of Ashkelon was conquered in 604 BCE, the political, religious and economic elite (but not the bulk of the population) was banished and the administrative centre shifted to a new location.[56]
Gedaliah was appointed governor of the Yehud Medinata, supported by a Babylonian guard. The administrative centre of the province was Mizpah in Benjamin,[57] not Jerusalem. On hearing of the appointment, many of the Judeans that had taken refuge in surrounding countries were persuaded to return to Judah.[58] However, before long Gedaliah was assassinated by a member of the royal house, and the Chaldean soldiers killed. The population that was left in the land and those that had returned fled to Egypt fearing a Babylonian reprisal, under the leadership of Yohanan ben Kareah, ignoring the urging of the prophet Jeremiah against the move. (2 Kings 25:26, Jeremiah 43:5–7) In Egypt, the refugees settled in Migdol, Tahpanhes, Noph, and Pathros, (Jeremiah 44:1) and Jeremiah went with them as a moral guardian.
The numbers that were deported to Babylon and those who made their way to Egypt and the remnant that remained in the land and in surrounding countries is subject to academic debate. The Book of Jeremiah reports that 4600 were exiled to Babylonia.[53] The Books of Kings suggest that it was ten thousand, and later eight thousand.
Re-establishment under Persian rule[edit]
Main article: Yehud Medinata
In 539 BCE the Achaemenid Empire conquered Babylonia and allowed the exiles to return to Yehud Medinata and rebuild the Temple, which was completed in the sixth year of Darius (515 BCE) (Ezra 6:15) under Zerubbabel, the grandson of the second to last king of Judah, Jeconiah. Yehud Medinata was a peaceful part of the Achaemenid Empire until the fall of the Empire in c. 333 BCE to Alexander the Great.
See also[edit]
Kings of Judah
List of artifacts in biblical archaeology
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Grabbe, Lester L., ed. (2008). Israel in Transition: From Late Bronze II to Iron IIa (c. 1250–850 B.C.E.). T&T Clark International. pp. 225–6. ISBN 978-0567027269. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Lehman in Vaughn, Andrew G.; Killebrew, Ann E., eds. (1992). Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period. Sheffield. p. 149. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Finkelstein, Israel (2006). "The Last Labayu: King Saul and the Expansion of the First North Israelite Territorial Entity". In Amit, Yairah; Ben Zvi, Ehud; Finkelstein, Israel; et al. Essays on Ancient Israel in Its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Naʼaman. Eisenbrauns. pp. 171 ff. ISBN 9781575061283.
Jump up ^ "Ezekiel 8 - Idolatry in the Temple - In the sixth". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2018-02-28.
Jump up ^ "1 Kings 11:5 He followed Ashtoreth the goddess of the Sidonians, and Molek the detestable god of the Ammonites". Biblehub.com. Retrieved 2018-02-28.
Jump up ^ "2 Kings 23:13 The king also desecrated the high places that were east of Jerusalem on the south of the Hill of Corruption-the ones Solomon king of Israel had built for Ashtoreth the vile goddess of the Sidonians, for Chemosh the vile god of Moab, and for Molek the detestable god of the people of Ammon". Biblehub.com. Retrieved 2018-02-28.
Jump up ^ "Jeremiah 11:13 You, Judah, have as many gods as you have towns; and the altars you have set up to burn incense to that shameful god Baal are as many as the streets of Jerusalem.'". Biblehub.com. Retrieved 2018-02-28.
Jump up ^ Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible Unearthed, Free Press, New York, 2001, pp. 240–43., ISBN 0-684-86912-8
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE" (PDF). Web.archive.org. Retrieved 2018-02-28.
Jump up ^ Moore & Kelle 2011, p. 302.
Jump up ^ A History of the Jewish People, H.H. Ben-Sasson ed., Harvard University Press, 1976, p. 142: "Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702. ..."
Jump up ^ Rollston, Chris A. (2010). Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel: Epigraphic Evidence from the Iron Age. Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 53–54.
Jump up ^ The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995 Quote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734-733, are the earliest published to date."
Jump up ^ Asaf Shtull-Trauring (6 May 2011). "The keys to the kingdom". Haaretz. an important group of archaeologists and biblical scholars formed the view that in reality the kingdom of David and Solomon bore little resemblance to the biblical portrait of an extensive, powerful, united monarchy. This view derives primarily from the fact that no 10th century BCE archaeological finds exist that could corroborate claims of the existence of a magnificent biblical kingdom extending from Be'er Sheva in the south to Dan in the north. Accordingly, these scholars and archaeologists conclude that the so-called kingdom was no more than a small tribal entity, meager in substance and sparse in population, which did not extend beyond the boundaries of Jerusalem and its immediate surroundings
Jump up ^ Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman, Free Press, New York, 2001, 385 pp., ISBN 0-684-86912-8
Jump up ^ Khirbat Qeiyafa Preliminary Report (Israel Antiquities Authority, 19/4/2012)
Jump up ^ Friedman, Matti (October 30, 2008). "Israeli Archaeologists Find Ancient Text". AOL news. Associated Press. Archived from the original on November 3, 2008. The finds have not yet established who the residents were, says Aren Maier, a Bar Ilan University archaeologist
Jump up ^ Archaeological find stirs debate on David's kingdom (Haaretz, May 9th, 2012) Prof. Nadav Na'aman, a historian and archaeologist at Tel Aviv University, discounts Garfinkel and Ganor's conclusions. "These are beautiful finds but they are not special in that similar ones have been found in various places, and they should therefore not be connected in any way to the ark," nor to the Temple in Jerusalem, says Na'aman. (...) He said he found the combination on one of the items of lions and doves very interesting. "The dove is connected to a fertility goddess, and this combination hints that the model belonged to a cultic site of a fertility goddess. I think Qeiyafa was a Canaanite site that had no connection to Jerusalem," he added.
Jump up ^ Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (17 May 2011). "Biblical History and Israel S Past: The Changing Study of the Bible and History". Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Oded Borowski, "Hezekiah's Reforms and the Revolt against Assyria". Archived from the original on July 23, 1997. Retrieved 2013-04-21. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) , Emory University, 1997
Jump up ^ Lowell K. Handy (1994). "The Appearance of Pantheon in Judah". In Diana Vikander Edelman. The Triumph of Elohim. Grand Rapids, Michigan: W. B. Eerdmans. p. 27.
Jump up ^ 2 Chronicles 13:17
Jump up ^ 2 Chronicles 13:20
^ Jump up to: a b 2 Chronicles 16:1
Jump up ^ 2 Chronicles 14:9–15
Jump up ^ 2 Chronicles 16:2–6
Jump up ^ 2 Chronicles 16:1–7
Jump up ^ 1 Kings 22:1–33
Jump up ^ 2 Kings 20:35–37; 1 Kings 22:48–49
Jump up ^ 2 Kings 3:4–27
^ Jump up to: a b Peter J. Leithart, 1 & 2 Kings, Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible, pp 255–256, Baker Publishing Group, Grand Rapids, MI (2006) ISBN 9781441235602
Jump up ^ James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Related to the Old Testament (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965) 287–88.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwin Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings, (1st ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1951; 2d ed.; Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1965; 3rd ed.; Grand Rapids: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983). ISBN 0-8254-3825-X, 9780825438257
^ Jump up to: a b Bright, John, A History of Israel, p. 311, (1980)
^ Jump up to: a b 2Kings 23:29
Coogan, Michael David (2001). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. p. 261. ISBN 9780195139372.
Jump up ^ 2 Kings 23:29, 2 Chronicles 35:20–24
Jump up ^ 2 Kings 23:31
Jump up ^ 2 Chronicles 36:1–4
Jump up ^ The Divided Monarchy c. 931–586 BCE
Jump up ^ No 24 WA21946, The Babylonian Chronicles, The British Museum
Jump up ^ Geoffrey Wigoder, The Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance of the Bible Pub. by Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. (2006)
Jump up ^ Dan Cohn-Sherbok, The Hebrew Bible, Continuum International, 1996, p. x. ISBN 0-304-33703-X
Jump up ^ Vincent, Robert Benn, Daniel and the Captivity of Israel part of a Bible Studies series
Jump up ^ Philip J. King, Jeremiah: An Archaeological Companion (Westminster John Knox Press, 1993), p. 23.
Jump up ^ 2 Chronicles 36:9
Jump up ^ The Oxford History of the Biblical World, ed. by Michael D Coogan. Pub. by Oxford University Press, 1999. p. 350
Jump up ^ Jeremiah 40:11–12
Jump up ^ Malamat, Abraham (1968). "The Last Kings of Judah and the Fall of Jerusalem: An Historical – Chronological Study". Israel Exploration Journal. 18 (3): 137–56. JSTOR 27925138. The discrepancy between the length of the siege according to the regnal years of Zedekiah (years 9–11), on the one hand, and its length according to Jehoiachin's exile (years 9–12), on the other, can be cancelled out only by supposing the former to have been reckoned on a Tishri basis, and the latter on a Nisan basis. The difference of one year between the two is accounted for by the fact that the termination of the siege fell in the summer, between Nisan and Tishri, already in the 12th year according to the reckoning in Ezekiel, but still in Zedekiah's 11th year which was to end only in Tishri.
Jump up ^ Ezra 5:14
Jump up ^ Jeremiah 52:10–13
Jump up ^ "The Book of Helaman, Chapter 8".
Jump up ^ Jeremiah 52:10–11
^ Jump up to: a b Jeremiah 52:29–30
^ Jump up to: a b Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period. T&T Clark International. p. 28. ISBN 0-567-08998-3.
Jump up ^ Davies, Philip R., "The Origin of Biblical Israel Archived 2008-05-28 at the Wayback Machine.", Journal of Hebrew Scriptures (art. 47, vol9, 2009)
Jump up ^ Lipschitz, Oded, "The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem" (Eisenbrauns, 2005) p. 48
Jump up ^ 2 Kings 25:22–24, Jeremiah 40:6–8
Jump up ^ Marvin A. Sweeney (1 October 2010). The Prophetic Literature: Interpreting Biblical Texts Series. Abingdon Press,.
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Further reading[edit]
This article's further reading may not follow Wikipedia's content policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing less relevant or redundant publications with the same point of view; or by incorporating the relevant publications into the body of the article through appropriate citations. (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Albertz, Rainer (1994) [Vanderhoek & Ruprecht 1992]. A History of Israelite Religion, Volume I: From the Beginnings to the End of the Monarchy. Westminster John Knox Press.
Albertz, Rainer (1994) [Vanderhoek & Ruprecht 1992]. A History of Israelite Religion, Volume II: From the Exile to the Maccabees. Westminster John Knox Press.
Albertz, Rainer (2003a). Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E. Society of Biblical Literature.
Becking, Bob (2003b). "Law as Expression of Religion (Ezra 7–10)". Yahwism After the Exile: Perspectives on Israelite Religion in the Persian Era. Koninklijke Van Gorcum. ISBN 978-9023238805.
Amit, Yaira, et al., eds. (2006). Essays on Ancient Israel in its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Na'aman. Eisenbrauns. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Davies, Philip R. "The Origin of Biblical Israel". Retrieved 14 February 2015.
Barstad, Hans M. (2008). History and the Hebrew Bible. Mohr Siebeck.
Bedford, Peter Ross (2001). Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah. Brill.
Ben-Sasson, H.H. (1976). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-39731-2.
Blenkinsopp, Joseph (1988). Ezra-Nehemiah: A Commentary. Eerdmans.
Blenkinsopp, Joseph; Lipschits, Oded, eds. (2003). Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period. Eisenbrauns. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2003). "Bethel in the Neo-Babylonian Period". In Oded Lipschitz; Joseph Blenkinsopp. Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1575060736.
Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2009). Judaism, the First Phase: The Place of Ezra and Nehemiah in the Origins of Judaism. Eerdmans.
Brett, Mark G. (2002). Ethnicity and the Bible. Brill.
Bright, John (2000). A History of Israel. Westminster John Knox Press.
Coogan, Michael D., ed. (1998). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Coote, Robert B.; Whitelam, Keith W. (1986). "The Emergence of Israel: Social Transformation and State Formation Following the Decline in Late Bronze Age Trade". Semeia (37): 107–47.
Davies, Philip R. (1992). In Search of Ancient Israel. Sheffield.
Davies, Philip R. (2009). "The Origin of Biblical Israel". Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 9 (47). Archived from the original on 2008-05-28.
Dever, William (2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?. Eerdmans.
Dever, William (2003). Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?. Eerdmans.
Dunn, James D.G; Rogerson, John William, eds. (2003). Eerdmans commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Edelman, Diana, ed. (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms. Kok Pharos. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible Unearthed.
Finkelstein, Israel; Mazar, Amihay; Schmidt, Brian B. (2007). The Quest for the Historical Israel. Society of Biblical Literature.
Golden, Jonathan Michael (2004a). Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction. Oxford University Press.
Golden, Jonathan Michael (2004b). Ancient Canaan and Israel: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO.
Killebrew, Ann E. (2005). Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E. Society of Biblical Literature.
King, Philip J.; Stager, Lawrence E. (2001). Life in Biblical Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-22148-3.
Kuhrt, Amélie (1995). The Ancient Near East c. 3000–330 BC. Routledge.
Lemche, Niels Peter (1998). The Israelites in History and Tradition. Westminster John Knox Press.
Levy, Thomas E. (1998). The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land. Continuum International Publishing.
Lipschits, Oded (2005). The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem. Eisenbrauns.
Lipschits, Oded, et al., eds. (2006). Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E. Eisenbrauns. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
McNutt, Paula (1999). Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel. Westminster John Knox Press.
Merrill, Eugene H. (1995). "The Late Bronze/Early Iron Age Transition and the Emergence of Israel". Bibliotheca Sacra. 152 (606): 145–62.
Middlemas, Jill Anne (2005). The Troubles of Templeless Judah. Oxford University Press.
Miller, James Maxwell; Hayes, John Haralson (1986). A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-21262-X.
Miller, Robert D. (2005). Chieftains of the Highland Clans: A History of Israel in the 12th and 11th Centuries B.C. Eerdmans.
Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011). Biblical History and Israel's Past. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-6260-0.
Pitkänen, Pekka (2004). "Ethnicity, Assimilation and the Israelite Settlement" (PDF). Tyndale Bulletin. 55 (2): 161–82. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-17.
Silberman, Neil Asher; Small, David B., eds. (1997). The Archaeology of Israel: Constructing the Past, Interpreting the Present. Sheffield Academic Press. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Soggin, Michael J. (1998). An Introduction to the History of Israel and Judah. Paideia.
Van der Toorn, Karel (1996). Family Religion in Babylonia, Syria, and Israel. Brill.
Zevit, Ziony (2001). The Religions of Ancient Israel: A Synthesis of Parallactic Approaches. Continuum.
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text:
Contiguous United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"CONUS" redirects here. For the sea snail, see Conus.
This shows the contiguous United States and in insets at the lower left, the two states that are not contiguous
The contiguous United States consists of the 48 adjoining U.S. states plus Washington, D.C. (federal district), on the continent of North America.[1] The term excludes the non-contiguous states of Alaska and Hawaii, and all off-shore insular areas.[2][3]
The greatest distance (on a great circle route) entirely within the 48 contiguous states is 2,802 miles (4,509 km, between Florida and the State of Washington);[4] the greatest north-south line is 1,650 miles (2,660 km).[5]
Together, the 48 contiguous states and Washington, D.C. occupy a combined area of 3,119,884.69 square miles (8,080,464.3 km2), which is 1.58% of the total surface area of Earth. Of this area, 2,959,064.44 square miles (7,663,941.7 km2) is contiguous land, composing 83.65% of total U.S. land area, similar to the area of Australia.[6] Officially, 160,820.25 square miles (416,522.5 km2) of the contiguous United States is water area, composing 62.66% of the nation's total water area.
The contiguous United States would be placed 5th in the list of sovereign states and dependencies by area; the total area of the country, including Alaska and Hawaii, ranks fourth. Brazil is the only country that is larger in total area than the contiguous United States, but smaller than the entire United States, while Russia, Canada and China are the only three countries larger than both. The 2010 census population of this area was 306,675,006, comprising 99.33% of the nation's population, and a density of 103.639 inhabitants/sq mi (40.015/km2), compared to 87.264/sq mi (33.692/km2) for the nation as a whole.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Other terms
1.1 Continental United States
1.2 CONUS and OCONUS
1.3 The lower 48
1.4 Zone of the Interior
2 Terms used in the non-contiguous states
2.1 Alaska
2.2 Hawaii
3 Non-contiguous areas within the contiguous United States
4 List of contiguous U.S. states
5 See also
6 Notes
7 External links
Other terms[edit]
While conterminous U.S. has the precise meaning of contiguous U.S. (both adjectives meaning "sharing a common boundary"), other terms commonly used to describe the 48 contiguous states have a greater degree of ambiguity.
Continental United States[edit]
Because Alaska is also on the North American continent, the term continental United States would also include that state, so the term is sometimes qualified with the explicit inclusion or exclusion of Alaska to resolve any ambiguity.[2][8][9][10] The term was in use prior to the admission of Alaska and Hawaii as states of the United States and at that time usually excluded outlying territories of the United States.[11][12] However, even before Alaska became a state, it was sometimes included within the "Continental U.S."[13]
CONUS and OCONUS[edit]
CONUS, a technical term used by the U.S. Department of Defense, General Services Administration, NOAA/National Weather Service, and others, has been defined both as the continental United States, and as the 48 contiguous states.[14][15] The District of Columbia is not always specifically mentioned as being part of CONUS.[15]
OCONUS is derived from CONUS with O for outside added, thus referring to Outside of Continental United States (OCONUS).[14][16]
The lower 48[edit]
The term lower 48 is also used to refer to the conterminous United States. The National Geographic style guide recommends the use of contiguous or conterminous United States instead of lower 48 when the 48 states are meant, unless used in the context of Alaska.[17][18]
Zone of the Interior[edit]
During World War II, the first four numbered Air Forces of the USAAF were said to be assigned to the Zone of the Interior by the American military organizations of the time—the future states of Alaska and Hawaii, then each only territories of the Union, were respectively covered by the Eleventh Air Force and Seventh Air Force during WW II.[citation needed]
Terms used in the non-contiguous states[edit]
Both Alaskans and Hawaiians have unique labels for the contiguous United States because of their own locations relative to them.
Alaska[edit]
Main article: Outside (Alaska)
Alaska became the 49th state of the United States on January 3, 1959. Alaska is on the northwest end of the North American continent, but separated from the rest of the United States Pacific coast by the Canadian province of British Columbia. In Alaska, given the ambiguity surrounding the usage of continental, the term "continental United States" is almost unheard of when referring to the contiguous 48 states.[citation needed] Several other terms have been used over the years. The term Lower 48 has, for many years, been a common Alaskan equivalent for "contiguous United States";[19][20] today, more Alaskans use the term "Outside",[21][22] though a few persons may use "Outside" to refer to any location not within Alaska.
Hawaii[edit]
Hawaii became the 50th state of the United States on August 21, 1959. It is the southernmost and so far, the latest state to join the Union. Not part of any continent, Hawaii is located in the Pacific Ocean, about 2,200 miles (3,500 km) from North America and almost halfway to Asia. In Hawaii and overseas American territories, for instance, the terms the Mainland or U.S. Mainland are often used to refer to the contiguous United States.[23]
Non-contiguous areas within the contiguous United States[edit]
Apart from off-shore US islands, a few continental portions of the contiguous US are accessible by road only by traveling through Canada. Point Roberts, Washington; Elm Point, Minnesota; and the Northwest Angle in Minnesota are three such places. Alburgh, Vermont, is not directly connected by land, but is accessible by road via bridges from within Vermont and from New York.[24]
List of contiguous U.S. states[edit]
The 48 contiguous United States are:
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Washington, D.C. (the U.S. capital, also referred to as the District of Columbia) is distinct from the state of Washington.
See also[edit]
Extreme points of the United States
Mainland
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "United Airlines website". Archived from the original on April 2, 2012. Retrieved April 4, 2012. Contiguous United States: The 48 adjoining states and the District of Columbia.
^ Jump up to: a b Random House (1991). Random House Webster's College Dictionary. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-679-40110-5.
Jump up ^ These maps show the contiguous 48 states and D.C., but not Alaska and Hawaii.
"Military Bases in the Contiguous United States". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
"Soil Moisture Regimes of the Contiguous United States". U.S. Department of Agriculture. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Longest Line in America!". Retrieved October 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ "HowStuffWorks "Geography of the United States - Geography"". Geography.howstuffworks.com. March 30, 2008. Retrieved October 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook". cia.gov.
Jump up ^ "Resident Population Data - 2010 Census". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on October 28, 2011. Retrieved January 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ * "National Geographic Style Manual". Retrieved April 4, 2012. The continental United States comprises the 48 contiguous, or coterminous, states plus Alaska.
"United Cargo website". Archived from the original on April 2, 2012. Retrieved April 4, 2012. Continental United States: The 48 adjoining states, Alaska and District of Columbia.
"Alaska Airlines website". Retrieved April 4, 2012. The Continental U.S. includes the lower 48 states as well as the State of Alaska, unless otherwise specified.
Inland Marine and Transportation Insurance. 1949. Retrieved April 4, 2012. In the absence of any such statement, Alaska probably would be regarded as a part of the continental United States. (before statehood)
Jump up ^ "U.S. Navy Style Guide". Retrieved April 4, 2012. CONUS - "Continental United States" CONUS refers to the 48 contiguous states.
Jump up ^ Internal Revenue Code. 2007. Archived from the original on October 16, 2015. the term "United States mainland" means the continental United States (not including Alaska).
"... outside the continental United States (includes Alaska and Hawaii, as well as Canada and all foreign countries)... "Equimax candidate listing". Archived from the original on July 10, 2011. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Abstract of the 1900 Census (1904), p.xiii" (PDF). The area ... is continental United States, by which is meant that part of the United States lying on the continent of North America south of the Canadian boundary. It thus excludes Alaska and the recent insular accessions of Hawaii, Porto Rico (sic), the Philippine Islands, Guam, Samoa...
Jump up ^ "... merchandise to foreign countries from continental United states, Puerto Rico, and the territories of Alaska and Hawaii." United States Foreign Trade (1950-1953)
Jump up ^ "In the absence of any such statement, Alaska probably would be regarded as a part of the continental United States." Inland Marine and Transportation Insurance (1949)
^ Jump up to: a b "Per Diem Rates (CONUS and OCONUS)". United States General Services Administration.
^ Jump up to: a b "U.S. Navy Style Guide". CONUS - "Continental United States." CONUS refers to the 48 contiguous states. It is not synonymous with United States. CONUS is acceptable on first reference. "CONUS" seems to be used primarily by the American military and the Federal government and those doing business with them.
Jump up ^ "Glossary of Army Terms". Retrieved April 4, 2012. "OCONUS: Outside Continental United States
Jump up ^ "National Geographic Style Manual: conterminous, or contiguous, continental, continental United States". Retrieved April 4, 2012. Use contiguous, or conterminous, for the 48 states. The continental United States comprises the 48 contiguous, or conterminous, states plus Alaska.
Jump up ^ "National Geographic Style Manual: Alaska". Retrieved December 6, 2013. The continental United States includes Alaska.[] In Alaska context, lower forty-eight or lower 48 may be used. Do not hyphenate lower 48 as an adjective. The term outside may be put in quotes on first reference if ambiguous. To distinguish the 48 states from the 49 or 50, use contiguous or conterminous.
Jump up ^ "Learn to Speak Alaskan - Alaskan Language Tips - Princess Lodges". princesslodges.com.
Jump up ^ "ALASKA: State Profile". Archived from the original on January 26, 2010. Retrieved December 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Ski". google.com.
Jump up ^ "What are some things Alaska does differently from the contiguous states? - Quora". quora.com.
Jump up ^ Edles, Laura Desfor (2003). "'Race,' 'Ethnicity,' and 'Culture' in Hawai'i: The Myth of the 'Model Minority' State". In Loretta I. Winters and Herman L. DeBose (ed.) New Faces in a Changing America: Multiracial Identity in the 21st Century. SAGE Publications. p. 241. ISBN 9780761923008.
Jump up ^ Ross, Oakland (June 3, 2011). "Orphans of the atlas". Toronto Star. Retrieved June 5, 2011.
External links[edit]
United States portal
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Contiguous United States.
Definition of continental
Definition of contiguous
Definition of coterminous and conterminous
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Contiguous_United_States&oldid=831470579"
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Hero of War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Hero of War"
Song by Rise Against
from the album Appeal to Reason
Released
May 20, 2009 (2009-05-20)
Format
Digital download
Music video
Recorded
January–June 2008
Studio
Blasting Room, Fort Collins, Colorado
Genre
Acoustic rock
Protest song
Length
4:13
Label
DGC
Interscope
Songwriter(s)
Tim McIlrath
Joe Principe
Brandon Barnes
Zach Blair
Producer(s)
Bill Stevenson
Jason Livermore
Hero of War is a 2008 song by Rise Against from the album Appeal to Reason. The song was mistaken to be the album's third single, after a music video of the song was released on the band's Myspace on May 20, 2009. However, It was later revealed it was just a promotional video and "Savior" is in fact, the third single.
Contents
[hide]
1 Song meaning
2 Music video
3 Personnel
4 Chart positions
5 References
6 External links
Song meaning[edit]
The song starts out with an army recruiter asking the protagonist, a potential recruit, to enlist. With promises of adventure and money, they do indeed sign up. At the end of the song, the enlistee, now a veteran, recalls with bitter irony the army recruiter's promise that signing up would mean he could "see the world."
The enlistee sees how destructive wars are, including the destruction of his own moral scruples, as the protagonist is convinced, after initially protesting, to join in and participate in the torture of a prisoner. The soldier declares, "I'll carry this flag, to the grave if I must, because it's a flag that I love, and a flag that I trust." But after killing a woman who he later learns was carrying a white flag, he changes his mind about his former flag-waving patriotism, explaining, regarding the white flag, "I brought home that flag, now it gathers dust. But it's a flag that I love, it's the only flag I trust."
Tim McIlrath wrote this song due to all the violence in the war, but also for the troops that serve overseas protecting their respective countries.[1]
Near the end, the veteran reacts with revulsion to those who see him as "A hero of war. Is that what they see, just medals and scars, so damn proud of me!" Tim says he was expressing sarcasm because many people treat soldiers like heroes, even though many don't feel like heroes.[1]
Music video[edit]
A music video was made for the song, although it wasn't released as a single from the album, and thus the song was mistaken to be the album's third single. The music video was released on May 20, 2009, on the band's Myspace page.
The video fades between lead singer Tim McIlrath sitting and singing the song while playing the acoustic guitar, and shots of soldiers in war. Along these are clips of a visibly distressed soldier. The video ends with the soldier walking down a street, bare-chested, with paint on his face, while sirens go off in the background, implying he had descended into violence due to PTSD while in "normal" society.
Personnel[edit]
Tim McIlrath – lead vocals, acoustic rhythm guitar
Zach Blair – acoustic & electric lead guitar
Joe Principe – bass guitar
Brandon Barnes – drums, percussion
Chart positions[edit]
Chart (2009-2010)
Peak
position
Swedish Singles Chart[2] 4
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Hero of War, Rise Against". Tim McIlrath. October 2, 2008. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Rise Against – Hero of War". Swedish Recording Industry Association. Hung Medien. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[hide]
v
t
e
Rise Against
Tim McIlrath
Zach Blair
Joe Principe
Brandon Barnes
Dan Wlekinski
Kevin White
Todd Mohney
Chris Chasse
Toni Tintari
Dan Lumley
Studio albums
The Unraveling
Revolutions per Minute
Siren Song of the Counter Culture
The Sufferer & the Witness
Appeal to Reason
Endgame
The Black Market
Wolves
Compilation albums
Long Forgotten Songs: B-Sides & Covers 2000–2013
Extended plays
Transistor Revolt
This Is Noise
Video albums
Generation Lost
Another Station: Another Mile
Singles
"Heaven Knows"
"Like the Angel"
"Give It All"
"Swing Life Away"
"Life Less Frightening"
"Ready to Fall"
"Prayer of the Refugee"
"The Good Left Undone"
"Re-Education (Through Labor)"
"Audience of One"
"Savior"
"Help Is on the Way"
"Make It Stop (September's Children)"
"Satellite"
"Wait For Me"
"I Don't Want to Be Here Anymore"
"Tragedy + Time"
"The Violence"
Tours
The Sufferer & the Witness Tour
Appeal To Reason Tour
Endgame Tour
The Hunting Party Tour (as special guests)
Related articles
Discography
Songs
88 Fingers Louie
Arma Angelus
Baxter
The Honor System
The Killing Tree
Book
Category
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hero_of_War&oldid=779305783"
Categories:
Rise Against songs
2008 songs
Anti-war songs
Songs about the military
Songs written by Tim McIlrath
Songs written by Zach Blair
Songs written by Joe Principe
Songs written by Brandon Barnes
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This page was last edited on 8 May 2017, at 04:24.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
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