text:
If I Stay (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
If I Stay
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
R. J. Cutler
Produced by
Denise Di Novi
Alison Greenspan
Screenplay by
Shauna Cross
Based on
If I Stay
by Gayle Forman
Starring
Chloë Grace Moretz
Mireille Enos
Jamie Blackley
Joshua Leonard
Stacy Keach
Aisha Hinds
Music by
Heitor Pereira
Cinematography
John de Borman
Edited by
Keith Henderson
Production
company
New Line Cinema[1]
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
Di Novi Pictures
Distributed by
Warner Bros. Pictures (theatrical)
20th Century Fox (home video)
Release date
August 18, 2014 (2014-08-18) (New York premiere)
August 22, 2014 (2014-08-22) (United States)
Running time
106 minutes[2]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$11 million[3]
Box office
$78.9 million[3]
If I Stay is a 2014 American teen romantic drama film directed by R. J. Cutler and based on the novel of the same name by Gayle Forman.
The film starred Chloë Grace Moretz, Mireille Enos, Jamie Blackley, Joshua Leonard, Stacy Keach and Aisha Hinds. It was released on August 22, 2014, grossing $78.9 million worldwide.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Music
4 Reception
4.1 Box office
4.2 Critical response
4.3 Accolades
5 Home media
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Mia Hall and her family are getting ready to go on with their normal day activities when it is announced on the radio that school has been canceled. Mia's dad Denny is a teacher and as a result of the snow day does not have to go to work. Mia's mom Kat, a travel agent, decides to call in sick and along with her family get on the road to visit Mia's grandparents who live on a farm. It is also revealed that Mia is dating an older, popular up-and-coming rockstar named Adam Wilde.
The story flashes back to Mia's early life with a rocker dad and an inexperienced mom, when one day they take Mia to a music class where Mia decides that she wants to start playing the cello. After her parents see that Mia is passionate about the cello, they hire a teacher to help her play. Kat is shown pregnant with Teddy, whom Mia thinks is the reason for her father's departure from his band.
Years later, an adolescent Mia is still passionate about the cello and is playing at school in the band room where Adam peeks in on her playing, seeing her for the first time, leading him to ask Kim, Mia's best friend, about her. Adam then asks Mia out on a date to a cello recital, where they show mutual affection towards one another.
The story flashes back to current time with the family driving to the grandparents' farm when their car collides with an oncoming truck. Mia appears to have an out-of-body experience where she finds herself barefoot and sees her body lying on the road while paramedics are trying to help her and her family. Mia tries to ask a paramedic what is happening, but realizes that no one can see or hear her. Mia, now in the hospital, panics as she does not know the current status of any of her family members when they take her in for surgery. A sympathetic nurse tells Mia—her physical body, not Mia's spirit, which apparently she cannot see either—that it is up to her whether or not she wants to stay.
The story flashes back once again to Mia attending one of Adam's concerts with his band Willamette Stone, where she does not seem to fit in. Adam's band is steadily gaining more recognition and gets signed to a label, which starts to put a strain on their relationship due to the travel schedule. While at dinner, Mia's grandpa suggests that she should apply to Juilliard, an idea which she initially rebuffs, but later further researches. She eventually lands an audition in San Francisco. It takes a while for Mia to tell Adam about her audition and when she does he becomes upset and leaves for a week-long gig.
In the present day, Mia undergoes surgery. She sees a doctor speaking with her grandparents who are standing outside of a pediatric room where Teddy lies in a coma-like state. Adam comes to the hospital to see Mia, but is not allowed in as he is not an immediate family member. It is then revealed that Mia's mom Kat was pronounced dead on arrival and her dad Denny died on the operating table. She later finds out that Teddy has died from an epidural hematoma. Grandpa talks to Mia, revealing that her father gave up being in a band because he wanted to give her a better life and be a better father. He also, tearfully, gives Mia permission to move on from this life if she wants, which influences Mia to decide that she wants to die so that she can join her family on the other side.
The story flashes back to Mia at her audition for Juilliard, where she plays the best she has ever played, leading her to think that if accepted, she would go. After a reconciliation with Adam, they talk about the huge possibility of her going to Juilliard, which ultimately leads to them breaking up and going their separate ways.
After some time, Mia seems stable enough to receive more visitors. Mia is shown symbolically about to let go when she hears the music performed at the cello recital that she attended with Adam. It is revealed that Adam has come to see Mia and that he is playing his iPod for her. He brings with him a letter Mia has received from Juilliard saying that she has been accepted and lets her know that he would do whatever she wants if she stays. He begins to play the song he has finally written about her. Mia, after flashing back through all the happy moments in her life, squeezes Adam's hand and opens her eyes and sees Adam as he hovers over her and says, "Mia?".
Cast[edit]
Chloë Grace Moretz as Mia Hall
Jamie Blackley as Adam Wilde
Mireille Enos as Kathleen "Kat" Hall
Joshua Leonard as Dennis "Denny" Hall
Stacy Keach as Grandpa
Aisha Hinds as Nurse Ramirez
Lauren Lee Smith as Willow
Liana Liberato as Kim Schein
Aliyah O'Brien as EMT
Jakob Davies as Theodore "Teddy" Hall
Production[edit]
In December 2010, it was announced that a film based on the novel If I Stay was in the works at Summit Entertainment and that Dakota Fanning, Chloë Grace Moretz and Emily Browning were in talks to play Mia.[4] Catherine Hardwicke was attached to direct, but was replaced by Brazilian filmmaker Heitor Dhalia,[5] who also left the film later. On January 24, 2013, Moretz was officially cast to play the lead and R. J. Cutler was announced as the new director of the film.[6] The shooting of the film began on October 30 in Vancouver.[7]
In January 2014, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Warner Bros. were announced to be distributing the film and the release was set for August 22.[8]
Music[edit]
The music was composed by Heitor Pereira. The soundtrack was released on August 19, 2014 by WaterTower Music.[9] It peaked at number 54 on the Billboard 200 in the United States,[10] and number 77 in Australia.[11]
Vancouver-based alternative rock band Hawking appeared in the film numerous times as Willamette Stone.[12]
All the songs for Adam Wilde's band Willamette Stone, including the cover of The Smashing Pumpkins' song "Today", were produced by indie rock producer Adam Lasus.
If I Stay: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack[13]
No.
Title
Artist
Length
1. "Who Needs You" The Orwells 3:19
2. "Until We Get There" Lucius 3:28
3. "I Want What You Have" Willamette Stone 3:30
4. "All of Me" Tanlines 3:50
5. "Promise" Ben Howard 6:21
6. "Never Coming Down" Willamette Stone 3:23
7. "Halo" Ane Brun and Linnea Olsson 3:52
8. "I Will Be There" Odessa 4:35
9. "Mind" Willamette Stone 3:13
10. "Morning" Beck 5:22
11. "I Never Wanted to Go" Willamette Stone 3:33
12. "Karen Revisited" Sonic Youth 11:12
13. "Today" Willamette Stone 2:42
14. "Heart Like Yours" Willamette Stone 3:20
15. "Heal" (If I Stay version) Tom Odell 3:13
16. "Suite No. 1 in G Major for Solo Cello, BWV 1007: Prelude" (deluxe edition bonus track) Composed by Johann Sebastian Bach 2:58
17. "Cello Concerto in A Minor, op. 33" (deluxe edition bonus track) Composed by Camille Saint-Saëns 1:20
18. "Sonata in B Minor for Solo Cello, op. 8" (deluxe edition bonus track) Alisa Weilerstein (composed by Zoltán Kodály) 3:46
Total length: 72:57
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
As of November 20, 2014, If I Stay has grossed a worldwide total of $78,396,071 against a budget of $11 million.[3]
If I Stay opened at #3 to 2,907 locations in North America behind Guardians of the Galaxy and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, which were in their fourth and third weeks respectively. On its opening day the film earned $6,827,007 earning it the top spot for the day.[14]
Critical response[edit]
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 35%, based on 122 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads, "Although Chloë Grace Moretz gives it her all and the story adds an intriguing supernatural twist to its melodramatic young adult fiction framework, If I Stay is ultimately more manipulative than moving".[15] On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 46 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[16]
In his review for The New York Times, A.O. Scott praised Moretz's acting.[17] He added that the "music is both the best and the corniest part of If I Stay, which makes excellent use of the classical cello repertoire."[17]
Writing for Variety, Justin Chang criticized Moretz's acting, explaining that "she comes off as a bit too self-assured to play the nerdy misfit."[18]
Anthony Lane of The New Yorker wrote a critical review of the movie, saying, "The saddest thing about 'If I Stay' is that it affords Moretz so little opportunity to be non-sad." In the Los Angeles Times, Olivier Gettell summed up that critics saw the film was "clunky and uninspired."[19]
Accolades[edit]
Award
Category
Recipient(s)
Result
Ref(s)
People's Choice Awards Favorite Dramatic Movie Nominated [20][21]
Favorite Dramatic Movie Actress Chloë Grace Moretz Won
Teen Choice Awards Choice Movie: Drama Won [22]
Choice Movie Actress: Drama Chloë Grace Moretz Won
Home media[edit]
If I Stay was released on DVD and Blu-ray on November 18, 2014 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment and it was also available on Netflix to stream until September 30, 2015.[23]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Hot Trailer: 'If I Stay'".
Jump up ^ "IF I STAY (12A)". Warner Bros. Pictures. British Board of Film Classification. July 30, 2014. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "If I Stay (2014) - Box Office Mojo". Retrieved November 20, 2014.
Jump up ^ Wilkinson, Amy (9 December 2010). "Dakota Fanning Will Not Star In 'If I Stay'". Hollywood Crush. Retrieved 21 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin (October 20, 2010). "Summit asks Dakota Fanning to 'Stay'". Variety. Retrieved November 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Chloe Moretz to Lead Young Adult Adaptation 'If I Stay' from R.J. Cutler". Firstshowing.net. January 24, 2013. Retrieved November 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Production Begins On IF I STAY Starring Chloë Grace Moretz". Wearemoviegeeks.com. October 30, 2013. Retrieved November 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Warner Bros., MGM Partner on YA Pic 'If I Stay,' Set 2014 Release". hollywoodreporter.com. January 9, 2014. Retrieved January 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ "'If I Stay' Soundtrack Details". filmmusicreporter.com. July 25, 2014. Retrieved August 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ Caulfield, Keith (August 29, 2014). "Smokey Robinson Scores Highest-Charting Album in 33 Years". Billboard. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "The ARIA Report: Week Commencing 8 September 2014" (PDF) (1280). Pandora Archive. September 15, 2014. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ [1], The Other Press September 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ "iTunes - Music - If I Stay (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) [Deluxe Version]". Apple Inc. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "If I Stay (2014) - Daily Box Office Results". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved September 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Rotten Tomatoes: If I Stay". August 22, 2014. Retrieved November 9, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Metacritic: If I Stay". Retrieved October 5, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b A.O. Scott, In Limbo, and in Love, The New York Times, August 21, 2014.
Jump up ^ Justin Chang, Film Review: ‘If I Stay’, Variety, August 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ Oliver Gettell, [2], The Los Angeles Times, August 21, 2014.
Jump up ^ Nominees Full List
Jump up ^ People's Choice Awards 2015: The winner's list, Entertainment Weekly, Retrieved January 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "WINNERS OF TEEN CHOICE 2015 ANNOUNCED". Teen Choice Awards. FOX. August 16, 2015. Retrieved August 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "If I Stay (2014)". DVDsReleaseDates. Retrieved January 18, 2015.
External links[edit]
Official website
If I Stay on IMDb
[hide]
v
t
e
Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie – Drama
Cruel Intentions (1999)
The Sixth Sense (2000)
Pearl Harbor (2001)
Spider-Man (2002)
None (2003)
None (2004)
The Notebook (2005)
Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2006)
The Pursuit of Happyness (2007)
Step Up 2: The Streets (2008)
Twilight (2009)
The Blind Side (2010)
Black Swan (2011)
The Lucky One (2012)
The Perks of Being a Wallflower (2013)
The Fault in Our Stars (2014)
If I Stay (2015)
Miracles from Heaven (2016)
Everything, Everything (2017)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=If_I_Stay_(film)&oldid=801681791"
Categories:
2014 films
English-language films
2010s romantic drama films
2010s teen films
American romantic drama films
American films
American teen romance films
Films based on American novels
Films set in Oregon
Films shot in Vancouver
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
New Line Cinema films
Warner Bros. films
American teen drama films
American teen films
Films produced by Denise Di Novi
Films set in California
Films about death
Films about music and musicians
Film scores by Heitor Pereira
Hidden categories:
Use mdy dates from July 2014
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Azərbaycanca
Deutsch
Español
فارسی
Français
한국어
Հայերեն
Italiano
עברית
Қазақша
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Português
Русский
Suomi
Svenska
Türkçe
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 September 2017, at 04:44.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: colspan class style

attrs: scope style

values:
/wiki/Romantic_drama_film
mw-redirect
Romantic drama film

values:
tlheader mbox-text
4
text-align:left;background-color:#fff

values: padding:0 10px 0 0;text-align:right;background-color:#eee

values: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2014 film)

values:
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

values: background: #FDD; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values: background: #99FF99; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
http://ifistaymovie.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1355630/
external text

values: Template:Teen Choice Award Choice Movie Drama

values: Template talk:Teen Choice Award Choice Movie Drama

values:
/wiki/Teen_Choice_Award
mw-redirect
Teen Choice Award

values: Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie - Drama

values: Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (film)

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:Films produced by Denise Di Novi

values: Category:Films about music and musicians

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values:
/wiki/If_I_Stay_(film)
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: إذا بقيت (فيلم) – Arabic

values: اگر بمانم (فیلم) – Persian

values: 네가 있어준다면 – Korean

values: Եթե ես մնամ – Armenian

values: אם אשאר (סרט) – Hebrew

values: Егерде мен қалсам (фильм) – Kazakh

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_I_Stay
If I Stay – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values: イフ・アイ・ステイ 愛が還る場所 – Japanese

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_I_Stay
If I Stay – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values: Если я останусь (фильм) – Russian

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_I_Stay
If I Stay – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-If_I_Stay_film rootpage-If_I_Stay_film skin-vector action-view


text:
Spontaneous generation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about historical theories on the ongoing emergence of life. For the origin of life, see Abiogenesis.
Spontaneous generation refers to an obsolete body of thought on the ordinary formation of living organisms without descent from similar organisms. The theory of spontaneous generation held that living creatures could arise from nonliving matter and that such processes were commonplace and regular. For instance, it was hypothesized that certain forms such as fleas could arise from inanimate matter such as dust, or that maggots could arise from dead flesh.[1] A variant idea was that of equivocal generation, in which species such as tapeworms arose from unrelated living organisms, now understood to be their hosts. The idea of univocal generation, by contrast, refers to effectively exclusive reproduction from genetically related parent(s), generally of the same species.
The doctrine of spontaneous generation was coherently synthesized by Aristotle,[2] who compiled and expanded the work of earlier natural philosophers and the various ancient explanations for the appearance of organisms, and was taken as scientific fact for two millennia. Though challenged in the 17th and 18th centuries by the experiments of Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Spallanzani, spontaneous generation was not disproved until the work of Louis Pasteur and John Tyndall in the mid-19th century.[3]
Pasteur invented the swan-necked flask to create an environment known not to grow microorganisms. After sterilizing a nutrient broth in these flasks, he removed the swan necks of the controls. Microorganisms grew only in the controls, refuting spontaneous generation.[1]
Rejection of spontaneous generation is no longer controversial among biologists. By the middle of the 19th century, experiments of Louis Pasteur and others refuted the traditional theory of spontaneous generation and supported biogenesis.[4][5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description and terms
2 Antiquity
2.1 Presocratic philosophers
2.2 Aristotle
2.3 Latin and early Christian sources
3 Middle Ages
4 Modern tests
4.1 Pasteur and Tyndall
5 See also
6 References
Description and terms[edit]
Spontaneous generation refers both to the supposed processes by which different types of life might repeatedly emerge from specific sources other than seeds, eggs, or parents, and also to theoretical principles presented in support of any such phenomena. Crucial to this doctrine are the ideas that life comes from non-life and that no causal agent, such as a parent, is needed. The hypothetical processes by which life routinely emerges from nonliving matter on a time scale of minutes, weeks, or years (e.g. in the supposed seasonal generation of mice and other animals from the mud of the Nile) are sometimes referred to as abiogenesis.[7] Such ideas have no operative principles in common with the modern hypothesis of abiogenesis, which asserts that life emerged in the early ages of the planet, over a time span of at least millions of years, and subsequently diversified, and that there is no evidence of any subsequent repetition of the event.[8]
The term equivocal generation, sometimes known as heterogenesis or xenogenesis, describes the supposed process by which one form of life arises from a different, unrelated form, such as tapeworms from the bodies of their hosts.[9]
In the years following Louis Pasteur's 1859 experiment, the term "spontaneous generation" fell increasingly out of favor. Experimentalists used a variety of terms for the study of the origin of life from nonliving materials. Heterogenesis was applied to the generation of living things from once-living organic matter (such as boiled broths), and Henry Charlton Bastian proposed the term archebiosis for life originating from inorganic materials. Disliking the randomness and unpredictability implied by the term "'spontaneous' generation," in 1870 Bastian coined the term biogenesis to refer to the formation of life from nonliving matter. Soon thereafter, however, English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley proposed the term abiogenesis to refer to this same process and adopted biogenesis for the process by which life arises from existing life; it is this latter set of definitions that became dominant.[10]
Antiquity[edit]
Presocratic philosophers[edit]
Active in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE., early Greek philosophers, called physiologoi in antiquity (Greek: φυσιολόγοι; in English, physical or natural philosophers), attempted to give natural explanations of phenomena that had previously been ascribed to the agency of the gods.[11] The physiologoi sought the material principle or arche (Greek: ἀρχή) of things, emphasizing the rational unity of the external world and rejecting theological or mythological explanations.[12]
Anaximander, who believed that all things arose from the elemental nature of the universe, the apeiron (ἄπειρον) or the "unbounded" or "infinite," was likely the first western thinker to propose that life developed spontaneously from nonliving matter. The primal chaos of the apeiron, eternally in motion, served as a substratum in which elemental opposites (e.g., wet and dry, hot and cold) generated and shaped the many and varied things in the world.[13] According to Hippolytus of Rome in the third century CE, Anaximander claimed that fish or fish-like creatures were first formed in the "wet" when acted on by the heat of the sun and that these aquatic creatures gave rise to human beings.[14] Censorinus, writing in the 3rd century, reports:
Anaximander of Miletus considered that from warmed up water and earth emerged either fish or entirely fishlike animals. Inside these animals, men took form and embryos were held prisoners until puberty; only then, after these animals burst open, could men and women come out, now able to feed themselves.[15]
Anaximenes, a pupil of Anaximander, thought that air was the element that imparted life and endowed creatures with motion and thought. He proposed that plants and animals, including human beings, arose from a primordial terrestrial slime, a mixture of earth and water, combined with the sun's heat. Anaxagoras, too, believed that life emerged from a terrestrial slime. However, he held that the seeds of plants existed in the air from the beginning, and those of animals in the aether. Xenophanes traced the origin of man back to the transitional period between the fluid stage of the earth and the formation of land, under the influence of the sun.[16]
In what has occasionally been seen as a prefiguration of a concept of natural selection,[17] Empedocles accepted the spontaneous generation of life but held that different forms, made up of differing combinations of parts, spontaneously arose as though by trial and error: successful combinations formed the species we now see, whereas unsuccessful forms failed to reproduce.
Aristotle[edit]
Main article: Aristotle's biology
Aristotle proposed that in sexual reproduction, the child inherits form (eidos) from the father and matter from the mother, as well as heat (pneuma) either from the father or from the environment.[18] In spontaneous generation, the environment could effectively replace the parents' contributions of form, matter, and heat.[19]
In his biological works, the natural philosopher Aristotle theorized extensively the reproduction of various animals, whether by sexual, parthenogenetic, or spontaneous generation. In accordance with his fundamental theory of hylomorphism, which held that every physical entity was a compound of matter and form, Aristotle's basic theory of sexual reproduction contended that the male's seed imposed form, the set of characteristics passed down to offspring on the "matter" (menstrual blood) supplied by the female. Thus female matter is the material cause of generation—it supplies the matter that will constitute the offspring—while the male semen is the efficient cause, the factor that instigates and delineates the thing's existence.[18] Yet, as proposed in the History of Animals, many creatures form not through sexual processes but by spontaneous generation:
Now there is one property that animals are found to have in common with plants. For some plants are generated from the seed of plants, whilst other plants are self-generated through the formation of some elemental principle similar to a seed; and of these latter plants some derive their nutriment from the ground, whilst others grow inside other plants ... So with animals, some spring from parent animals according to their kind, whilst others grow spontaneously and not from kindred stock; and of these instances of spontaneous generation some come from putrefying earth or vegetable matter, as is the case with a number of insects, while others are spontaneously generated in the inside of animals out of the secretions of their several organs.[20]
—  Aristotle, History of Animals, Book V, Part 1
According to this theory, living things may come forth from nonliving things in a manner roughly analogous to the "enformation of the female matter by the agency of the male seed" seen in sexual reproduction.[19] Nonliving materials, like the seminal fluid present in sexual generation, contain pneuma (πνεῦμα, "breath"), or "vital heat". According to Aristotle, pneuma had more "heat" than regular air did, and this heat endowed the substance with certain vital properties:
The power of every soul seems to have shared in a different and more divine body than the so called [four] elements ... For every [animal], what makes the seed generative inheres in the seed and is called its "heat." But this is not fire or some such power, but instead the pneuma that is enclosed in the seed and in foamy matter, this being analogous to the element of the stars. This is why fire does not generate any animal ... but the heat of the sun and the heat of animals does, not only the heat that fills the seed, but also any other residue of [the animal's] nature that may exist similarly possesses this vital principle.
—  Aristotle, Generation of Animals, 736b29ff.[21]
Aristotle drew an analogy between the "foamy matter" (τὸ ἀφρῶδες) found in nature and the "seed" of an animal, which he viewed as being a kind of foam itself (composed, as it was, from a mixture of water and pneuma). For Aristotle, the generative materials of male and female animals (semen and menstrual blood) were essentially refinements, made by male and female bodies according to their respective proportions of heat, of ingested food, which was, in turn, a byproduct of the elements earth and water. Thus any creature, whether generated sexually from parents or spontaneously through the interaction of vital heat and elemental matter, was dependent on the proportions of pneuma and the various elements which Aristotle believed comprised all things.[22] While Aristotle recognized that many living things emerged from putrefying matter, he pointed out that the putrefaction was not the source of life, but the byproduct of the action of the "sweet" element of water.[23]
Animals and plants come into being in earth and in liquid because there is water in earth, and air in water, and in all air is vital heat so that in a sense all things are full of soul. Therefore living things form quickly whenever this air and vital heat are enclosed in anything. When they are so enclosed, the corporeal liquids being heated, there arises as it were a frothy bubble.
—  Aristotle, Generation of Animals, Book III, Part 11
Aristotle stated that scallops form spontaneously in sand.[20]
With varying degrees of observational confidence, Aristotle theorized the spontaneous generation of a range of creatures from different sorts of inanimate matter. The testaceans (a genus which for Aristotle included bivalves and snails), for instance, were characterized by spontaneous generation from mud, but differed based upon the precise material they grew in—for example, clams and scallops in sand, oysters in slime, and the barnacle and the limpet in the hollows of rocks.[20]
Latin and early Christian sources[edit]
Vitruvius, a Roman architect and writer of the 1st century BCE, advised that libraries be placed facing eastwards to benefit from morning light, but not towards the south or the west as those winds generate bookworms.[24]
Aristotle claimed that eels were lacking in sex and lacking milt, spawn and the passages for either.[25] Rather, he asserted eels emerged from earthworms.[26] Later authors dissented. Pliny the Elder did not argue against the anatomic limits of eels, but stated that eels reproduce by budding, scraping themselves against rocks, liberating particles that become eels.[27] Athenaeus described eels as entwining and discharging a fluid which would settle on mud and generate life. On the other hand, Athenaeus also dissented towards spontaneous generation, claiming that a variety of anchovy did not generate from roe, as Aristotle stated, but rather, from sea foam.[28]
As the dominant view of philosophers and thinkers continued to be in favour of spontaneous generation, some Christian theologians accepted the view. Augustine of Hippo discussed spontaneous generation in The City of God and The Literal Meaning of Genesis, citing Biblical passages such as "Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life" (Genesis 1:20) as decrees that would enable ongoing creation.[29]
Middle Ages[edit]
The goose barnacle:
Pollicipes cornucopia
The barnacle goose:
Branta leucopsis
From the fall of the Roman Empire in 5th century to the East-West Schism in 1054, the influence of Greek science declined, although spontaneous generation generally went unchallenged. New descriptions were made. Of the numerous beliefs, some had doctrinal implications outside of the Book of Genesis. For example, the idea that a variety of bird known as the barnacle goose emerged from a crustacean known as the goose barnacle, had implications on the practice of fasting during Lent. In 1188, Gerald of Wales, after having traveled in Ireland, argued that the "unnatural" generation of barnacle geese was evidence for the virgin birth.[30] Where the practice of fasting during Lent allowed fish, but prohibited fowl, the idea that the goose was in fact a fish suggested that its consumption be permitted during Lent. The practice was eventually prohibited by decree of Pope Innocent III in 1215.[31]
Aristotle, in Arabic translation, was reintroduced to Western Europe. During the 13th century, Aristotle reached his greatest acceptance. With the availability of Latin translations Saint Albertus Magnus and his student, Saint Thomas Aquinas, raised Aristotelianism to its greatest prominence. Albert wrote a paraphrase of Aristotle, De causis et processu universitatis, in which he removed some and incorporated other commentaries by Arabic scholars.[32] The influential writings of Aquinas, on both the physical and metaphysical, are predominantly Aristotelian, but show numerous other influences.[33]
Spontaneous generation is discussed as a fact in literature well into the Renaissance. Where, in passing, Shakespeare discusses snakes and crocodiles forming from the mud of the Nile (Ant 2.7 F1), Izaak Walton again raises the question of the origin of eels "as rats and mice, and many other living creatures, are bred in Egypt, by the sun's heat when it shines upon the overflowing of the river...". While the ancient question of the origin of eels remained unanswered and the additional idea that eels reproduced from corruption of age was mentioned, the spontaneous generation of rats and mice engendered no debate.[34]
The Dutch biologist and microscopist Jan Swammerdam (1637 - 1680) rejected the concept that one animal could arise from another or from putrification by chance because it was impious and like others found the concept of spontaneous generation irreligious, and he associated it with atheism and Godless opinion.[35]
Modern tests[edit]
Jan Baptist van Helmont (1580–1644) used experimental techniques, such as growing a willow for five years and showing it increased mass while the soil showed a trivial decrease in comparison. As the process of photosynthesis was not understood, he attributed the increase of mass to the absorption of water.[36] His notes also describe a recipe for mice (a piece of soiled cloth plus wheat for 21 days) and scorpions (basil, placed between two bricks and left in sunlight). His notes suggest he may even have done these things.[37]
Where Aristotle held that the embryo was formed by a coagulation in the uterus, William Harvey (1578 – 1657) by way of dissection of deer, showed that there was no visible embryo during the first month.[38] Although his work predated the microscope, this led him to suggest that life came from invisible eggs. In the frontispiece of his book Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium (Essays on the Generation of Animals), he made an expression of biogenesis: "omnia ex ovo" (everything from eggs).[29]
A modern rendering of Francesco Redi's 1668 experiment on abiogenesis. Flies form on the meat in the open jar (left) but not in the closed jar (right).
The ancient beliefs were subjected to testing. In 1668, Francesco Redi challenged the idea that maggots arose spontaneously from rotting meat. In the first major experiment to challenge spontaneous generation, he placed meat in a variety of sealed, open, and partially covered containers.[39] Realizing that the sealed containers were deprived of air, he used "fine Naples veil", and observed no worm on the meat, but they appeared on the cloth.[40] Redi used his experiments to support the preexistence theory put forth by the Church at that time, which maintained that living things originated from parents.[41] In scientific circles Redi's work very soon had great influence, as evidenced in a letter from John Ray in 1671 to members of the Royal Society of London:
Whether there be any spontaneous or anomalous generation of animals, as has been the constant opinion of naturalists heretofore, I think there is good reason to question. It seems to me at present most probable, that there is no such thing; but that even all insects are the natural issue of parents of the same species with themselves. F. Redi has gone a good way in proving this, having cleared the point concerning generation ex materia putrida. But still there remain two great difficulties. The first is, to give an account of the production of insects bred in the by-fruits and excrescencies of vegetables, which the said Redi doubts not to ascribe to the vegetative soul of the plant that yields those excrescencies. But for this I refer you to Mr. Lister. The second, to render an account of insects bred in the bodies of other animals. I hope shortly to be able to give you an account of the generation of some of those insects which have been thought to be spontaneous, and which seem as unlikely as any to be after the ordinary and usual way.[42]
Pier Antonio Micheli, around 1729, observed that when fungal spores were placed on slices of melon the same type of fungi were produced that the spores came from, and from this observation he noted that fungi did not arise from spontaneous generation.[43]
In 1745, John Needham performed a series of experiments on boiled broths. Believing that boiling would kill all living things, he showed that when sealed right after boiling, the broths would cloud, allowing the belief in spontaneous generation to persist. His studies were rigorously scrutinized by his peers and many of them agreed.[39]
Lazzaro Spallanzani modified the Needham experiment in 1768, attempting to exclude the possibility of introducing a contaminating factor between boiling and sealing. His technique involved boiling the broth in a sealed container with the air partially evacuated to prevent explosions. Although he did not see growth, the exclusion of air left the question of whether air was an essential factor in spontaneous generation.[39] However, by that time there was already widespread scepticism among major scientists, to the principle of spontaneous generation. Observation was increasingly demonstrating that whenever there was sufficiently careful investigation of mechanisms of biological reproduction, it was plain that processes involved basing of new structures on existing complex structures, rather from chaotic muds or dead materials. Joseph Priestley, after he had fled to America and not long before his death, wrote a letter that was read to the American Philosophical Society in 1803. It said in part:
There is nothing in modern philosophy that appears to me so extraordinary, as the revival of what has long been considered as the exploded doctrine of equivocal, or, as Dr. Darwin calls it, spontaneous generation; by which is meant the production of organized bodies from substances that have no organization, as plants and animals from no pre-existing germs of the same kinds, plants without seeds, and animals without sexual intercourse.
The germ of an organized body, the seed of a plant, or the embrio of an animal, in its first discoverable state, is now found to be the future plant or animal in miniature, containing every thing essential to it when full grown, only requiring to have the several organs enlarged, and the interstices filled with extraneous nutritious matter. When the external form undergoes the greatest change, as from an aquatic insect to a flying gnat, a caterpillar to a crysalis, a crysalis to a butterfly, or a tadpole to a frog, there is nothing new in the organization; all the parts of the gnat, the butterfly, and the frog, having really existed, though not appearing to the common observer in the forms in which they are first seen. In like manner, every thing essential to the oak is found in the acorn.[44]
In 1837, Charles Cagniard de la Tour, a physicist, and Theodor Schwann, one of the founders of cell theory, published their independent discovery of yeast in alcoholic fermentation. They used the microscope to examine foam left over from the process of brewing beer. Where Leeuwenhoek described "small spheroid globules", they observed yeast cells undergo cell division. Fermentation would not occur when sterile air or pure oxygen was introduced if yeast were not present. This suggested that airborne microorganisms, not spontaneous generation, was responsible.[45]
However, although the idea of spontaneous generation had been in decline for nearly a century, its supporters did not abandon it all at once. As James Rennie wrote:
...inability to trace the origin of minute plants and insects led to the doctrine of what is called spontaneous or equivocal generation, of which the fancies above-mentioned are some 'of the prominent branches. The experiments of Redi on the hatching of insects from eggs, which were published at Florence in 1668, first brought discredit upon this doctrine, though it had always a few eminent disciples. At present it is maintained by a considerable number -of distinguished naturalists, such as Blumenbach, Cuvier, Bory de St. Vincent, R. Brown, &c. "The notion or spontaneous generation," says Bory, " is at first revolting to a rational mind, but it is, notwithstanding, demonstrable by the microscope. The fact is averred : Willer has seen it, I have seen it, and twenty other observers have seen it: the pandorinia exhibit it every instant. "These pandorinia he elsewhere describes as probably nothing more than " animated scions of Zoocarpae". It would be unprofitable to go into any lengthened discussion upon this mysterious subject; and we have great doubts whether the ocular demonstration by the microscope would succeed except in the hands of a disciple of the school. Even with naturalists, whose business it is to deal with facts, the reason is often wonderfully influenced by the imagination...[46]
Pasteur and Tyndall[edit]
Louis Pasteur's 1859 experiment is widely seen as having settled the question of spontaneous generation. He boiled a meat broth in a flask that had a long neck that curved downward, like that of a goose or swan. The idea was that the bend in the neck prevented falling particles from reaching the broth, while still allowing the free flow of air. The flask remained free of growth for an extended period. When the flask was turned so that particles could fall down the bends, the broth quickly became clouded.[39] However, minority objections were persistent and not always unreasonable, given that the experimental difficulties were far more challenging than the popular accounts suggest. The investigations of John Tyndall, a correspondent of Pasteur and a great admirer of Pasteur's work, were decisive in disproving spontaneous generation and dealing with lingering issues. Still, even Tyndall encountered difficulties in dealing with the effects of microbial spores, which were not well understood in his day. Like Pasteur, he boiled his cultures to sterilize them, and some types of bacterial spores can survive boiling. The autoclave, which eventually came into universal application in medical practice and microbiology to sterilise equipment, was not an instrument that had come into use at the time of Tyndall's experiments, let alone those of Pasteur.[3]
In 1862, the French Academy of Sciences paid a special attention to the issue and established a prize "to him who by well-conducted experiments throws new light on the question of the so-called spontaneous generation" and appointed a commission to judge the winner.[47]
See also[edit]
Abiogenesis (the origin of life)
Bugonia or bougonia
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Ball, Philip (2016). "Man Made: A History of Synthetic Life". Distillations. 2 (1): 15–23. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Brack, André (1998). "Introduction" (PDF). In Brack, André. The Molecular Origins of Life. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-521-56475-5. Aristotle gathered the different claims into a real theory.
^ Jump up to: a b Tyndall, John; Fragments of Science, Vol 2, chapters IV, XII (1876), XIII(1878); Pub. P. F. Collier, New York 1905; (Available at: https://archive.org/details/fragmenoscien02tyndrich)
Jump up ^ Zubay, Geoffrey. Origins of Life, Second Edition: On Earth and in the Cosmos. Academic Press 2000. ISBN 978-0127819105
Jump up ^ Smith, John Maynard; Szathmary, Eors (1997). The Major Transitions in Evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198502944.
Jump up ^ Levine, Russell and Evers, Chris (1999)."The Slow Death of Spontaneous Generation".The National Health Museum.
Jump up ^ Stillingfleet, Edward. Origines Sacrae. Cambridge University Press 1697. May be downloaded from [1]
Jump up ^ Bernal, J. D. (1967) [Reprinted work by A. I. Oparin originally published 1924; Moscow: The Moscow Worker]. The Origin of Life. The Weidenfeld and Nicolson Natural History. Translation of Oparin by Ann Synge. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. LCCN 67098482.
Jump up ^ Wiener, Philip P., ed. (1973). "Spontaneous Generation". Dictionary of the History of Ideas. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Retrieved 2009-01-22.
Jump up ^ Strick, James (April 15, 2001). "Introduction". Evolution & The Spontaneous Generation. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. xi–xxiv. ISBN 978-1-85506-872-8. Retrieved August 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ Guthrie, William Keith Chambers, The Presocratic Tradition from Parmenides to Democritus, p. 13, ISBN 0-317-66577-4.
Jump up ^ Seyffert, Oskar (1894), Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, page 480
Jump up ^ Curd, Patricia (1998). The Legacy of Parmenides: Eleatic Monism and Later Presocratic Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 77. ISBN 0-691-01182-6.
Jump up ^ Kahn, Charles H. (1994). Anaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology. Hackett Publishing. p. 247. ISBN 0872202550.
Jump up ^ Censorinus, De Die Natali, IV, 7
Jump up ^ Osborn, Henry Fairfield (1894). From the Greeks to Darwin: An outline of the development of the evolution idea. New York: Macmillan.
Jump up ^ Zirkle, Conway (1941). "Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species"". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 84 (1): 71–123.
^ Jump up to: a b Leroi, Armand Marie (2014). The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science. Bloomsbury. pp. 215–221. ISBN 978-1-4088-3622-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Lehoux, Daryn (2017). Creatures Born of Mud and Slime: The Wonder and Complexity of Spontaneous Generation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 22.
^ Jump up to: a b c Aristotle (1910) [c. 343 BCE]. "Book V". History of Animals. translated by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 90-6186-973-0. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
Jump up ^ Lehoux, Daryn (2017). Creatures Born of Mud and Slime: The Wonder and Complexity of Spontaneous Generation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 23.
Jump up ^ Lehoux, Daryn (2017). Creatures Born of Mud and Slime. 26–28: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Jump up ^ Aristotle (1912) [c. 350 BCE]. "Book III". On the Generation of Animals. translated by Arthur Platt. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 90-04-09603-5. Retrieved 2009-01-09.
Jump up ^ Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (1826) [c. 25 BCE]. "Part 4". In Joseph Gwilt (translator). On Architecture (de Architectura). Book VI. electronic format by Bill Thayer. London: Priestley and Weale. Retrieved 2009-02-03.
Jump up ^ Aristotle (1910) [c. 343 BCE]. "Book IV". The History of Animals. translated by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 90-6186-973-0. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
Jump up ^ Aristotle (1910) [c. 343 BCE]. "Book VI". The History of Animals. translated by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 90-6186-973-0. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
Jump up ^ Gaius Plinius Secundus (1855) [c. 77]. "74. (50.) — The generation of fishes". In John Bostock, Henry Thomas Riley. Natural History. BOOK IX. The natural history of fishes. Retrieved 2009-02-03.
Jump up ^ Athenaeus of Naucratis. "Book VII". In Yonge, C.D. The deipnosophists, or, Banquet of the learned of Athenæus. University of Wisconsin Digital Collection. I. London: Henry G. Bohn. pp. 433–521. Retrieved 2009-02-03.
^ Jump up to: a b Fry, Iris (2000). "Chapter 2: Spontaneous Generation — Ups and Downs". The Emergence of Life on Earth. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-2740-6. Retrieved 2009-01-21.
Jump up ^ Giraldus Cambrensis (1188). Topographia Hiberniae. ISBN 0-85105-386-6. Retrieved 2009-02-01.
Jump up ^ Lankester, Sir Edwin Ray (1970) [1915]. "XIV. The History of the Barnacle and the Goose". Diversions of a Naturalist (illustrated ed.). Ayer Publishing. pp. 117–128. ISBN 978-0-8369-1471-9. Retrieved 2009-02-01.
Jump up ^ Zalta, Edward N., ed. (March 20, 2006). "Albert the Great". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: The Metaphysics Research Lab. ISBN 1-158-37777-0. OCLC 179833493. Retrieved 2009-01-23.
Jump up ^ Zalta, Edward N., ed. (July 12, 1999). "Saint Thomas Aquinas". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: The Metaphysics Research Lab (published January 9, 2005). ISBN 1-158-37777-0. OCLC 179833493. Retrieved 2009-01-23.
Jump up ^ Walton, Izaak (1903) [1653]. "XIII. Observations of the eel, and other fish that want for scales, and how to fish for them". The Compleat Angler or the Contemplative Man's Recreation. transcribed by Risa Bear. George Bell & Sons. ISBN 0-929309-00-6. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
Jump up ^ Osler, Margaret J.; Farber, Paul Lawrence (22 August 2002). Religion, Science, and Worldview: Essays in Honor of Richard S. Westfall. Cambridge University Press. pp. 230–. ISBN 978-0-521-52493-3. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Ducheyne, Steffen (2006). "Joan Baptista van Helmont and the Question of Experimental Modernism" (PDF). pp. 305–332. Retrieved 2009-01-07.
Jump up ^ Pasteur, Louis (April 23, 1864). Latour, Bruno, ed. "Des générations spontanées" (PDF). 1. Conférences faite aux "soirées scientifiques de la Sorbonne" (published 1993 (English translation)): 257–265. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 26, 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-07. Check date values in: |publication-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Magner, Lois; Lerner, K. Lee. "Embryology - History Of Embryology As A Science". Retrieved 2009-01-09.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Levine, Russell; Evers, Chris (1999). "The Slow Death of Spontaneous Generation (1668-1859)". Washington, D.C.: National Health Museum. Retrieved 2008-12-19.
Jump up ^ Redi, Francesco (1909) [1669]. Mab Bigelow (translator), ed. Experiments on the Generation of Insects. Chicago: Open Court. Retrieved 2008-12-19.
Jump up ^ Fry, Iris (1 February 2000). Emergence of Life on Earth: A Historical and Scientific Overview. Rutgers University Press. pp. 27–. ISBN 978-0-8135-2740-6. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Royal Society (Great Britain); Hutton, Charles, 1737-1823; Shaw, George, 1751-1813; Pearson, Richard, 1765-1836. The Extract of a Letter written by Mr. JOHN RAY, to the Editor, from Middleton, July 3, 1671, concerning Spontaneous Generation;... Number 73, p. 2219. The Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London, from their commencement in 1665, in the year 1800. Page 617-618. May be downloaded from: [2]
Jump up ^ Agrios, George N. (2005). Plant Pathology. Academic Press. pp. 17–. ISBN 978-0-12-044565-3. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Priestley, Joseph. Observations and Experiments relating to equivocal, or spontaneous, Generation. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Volume VI, page 119-129, 1809. Download from: [3]
Jump up ^ Springer, Alfred (October 13, 1892). "The Micro-organisms of the Soil". Nature. Nature Publishing Group. 46 (1198): 576–579. Bibcode:1892Natur..46R.576.. doi:10.1038/046576b0. ISSN 0028-0836.
Jump up ^ Rennie, James. Insect Transformations. Page 10. Pub: Charles Knight 1838 Download from: [4]
Jump up ^ Engelhardt, Hugo Tristram; Caplan, Arthur L. (1987). Scientific Controversies: Case Studies in the Resolution and Closure of Disputes in Science and Technology. Cambridge University Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-521-27560-6.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spontaneous_generation&oldid=835417500"
Categories:
Obsolete biological theories
Obsolete scientific theories
Origin of life
Biological hypotheses
Hidden categories:
CS1 errors: dates
CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Български
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
한국어
Italiano
עברית
Kreyòl ayisyen
മലയാളം
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Simple English
Slovenčina
Српски / srpski
Suomi
Svenska
Українська
Tiếng Việt
中文
26 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 8 April 2018, at 16:05.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href title

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: b

value: sup

value: p

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Edit section: Latin and early Christian sources

values:
/wiki/City_of_God_(book)
mw-redirect
City of God (book)

values:
/wiki/Pollicipes_cornucopia
mw-redirect
Pollicipes cornucopia

values:
/wiki/Branta_leucopsis
mw-redirect
Branta leucopsis

values:
/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire
mw-redirect
Decline of the Roman Empire

values:
/wiki/East-West_Schism
mw-redirect
East-West Schism

values:
/wiki/Alcoholic_fermentation
mw-redirect
Alcoholic fermentation

values:
nofollow
external text
//lccn.loc.gov/67098482

values:
nofollow
http://plato.stanford.edu/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/179833493

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F046576b0

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Spontaneous_generation
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: التولد الذاتي – Arabic

values: Произволно самозараждане – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values: Αβιογένεση – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values: Teoría de la generación espontánea – Spanish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: نظریه خلق‌الساعه – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values: Teoría da xeración espontánea – Galician

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: 자연발생설 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: תאוריית הבריאה הספונטנית – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ht
display: none;

values: സ്വതഃജനനം – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Самозарождение – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values: Спонтана генерација – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: Самозародження – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Spontaneous_generation rootpage-Spontaneous_generation skin-vector action-view


text:
The Great Wave off Kanagawa
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Great Wave" redirects here. For other uses, see Great Wave (disambiguation).
The Great Wave off Kanagawa
Print at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (JP1847)
Artist
Katsushika Hokusai
Year
ca. 1829–1833
Type
color woodblock
Dimensions
25.7 cm × 37.8 cm (10.1 in × 14.9 in)
The Great Wave off Kanagawa (神奈川沖浪裏, Kanagawa-oki nami ura, "Under a wave off Kanagawa"), also known as The Great Wave or simply The Wave, is a woodblock print by the Japanese ukiyo-e artist Hokusai. It was published sometime between 1829 and 1833[1] in the late Edo period as the first print in Hokusai's series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji. It is Hokusai's most famous work, and one of the most recognizable works of Japanese art in the world.
The image depicts an enormous wave threatening boats off the coast of the town of Kanagawa (the present-day city of Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture). While sometimes assumed to be a tsunami, the wave is more likely to be a large rogue wave.[2] As in many of the prints in the series, it depicts the area around Mount Fuji under particular conditions, and the mountain itself appears in the background.
Impressions of the print are in many Western collections, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the British Museum, the Art Institute of Chicago, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne,[3] and in Claude Monet's home in Giverny, France, among many other collections.
Contents
[hide]
1 Hokusai
2 Precursors
3 Image
3.1 Description
3.1.1 The mountain
3.1.2 Boats
3.1.3 Sea and waves
3.1.4 Signature
4 Technique
5 Impressions
6 Influence
7 On screen
8 Notes
9 Sources
10 External links
Hokusai[edit]
Main article: Hokusai
Hokusai, self-portrait from 1839
Hokusai began painting when he was six years old. At age twelve, his father sent him to work at a booksellers. At sixteen, he was apprenticed as an engraver and spent three years learning the trade. At the same time he began to produce his own illustrations. At eighteen he was accepted as an apprentice to Katsukawa Shunshō, one of the foremost ukiyo-e artists of the time.
In 1804 he became famous as an artist when, during a festival in Tokyo, he completed a 240m² painting[4] of a Buddhist monk named Daruma. In 1814, he published the first of fifteen volumes of sketches entitled Manga. His Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji, from which The Great Wave comes, was produced from c. 1830.[5]
Precursors[edit]
A View of Seven-League Beach painting by Shiba Kōkan, 1796
Spring at Enoshima print by Hokusai, c. 1797
From the sixteenth century fantastic depictions of waves crashing on rocky shores were painted on folding screens known as "rough seas screens" (ariso byōbu).[6][year missing][a] Hokusai drew many waves throughout his career; the genesis of the Great Wave can be traced back over thirty years. The combination of wave and mountain was inspired by an oil painting by Shiba Kōkan, an artist strongly influenced by the Western art, particularly Dutch paintings, he had seen at Nagasaki, the only port open to foreigners in this period.[7] Kōkan's A View of Seven-League Beach was executed in middle of 1796 and exhibited publicly at the Atago shrine in Shiba. Hokusai's print Springtime at Enoshima, which he contributed to The Willow Branch poetry anthology published in 1797, is clearly derived from Kōkan's work, although the wave in Hokusai's version rises noticeably higher.[8]
Kanagawa-oki honmoku no zu, print by Hokusai, c. 1803
Oshiokuri hato tsūsen no zu, print by Hokusai, c. 1805
Closer compositionally to the Great Wave are two later prints by Hokusai: Kanagawa-oki Honmoku no zu (c. 1803) and Oshiokuri Hato Tsusen no Zu, (c. 1805)[9] Both works have subjects identical to the Great Wave: a sailboat and a rowboat respectively. In both precursor works, the subjects are in the midst of a storm, beneath a great wave that threatens to devour them. An analysis of the differences between the two works and the Great Wave demonstrates the artistic and technical development of Hokusai:[10]
In the earlier two designs the waves appear to be dense and uniform; they almost seem to be minerals. Their rigidity and verticality evoke the shape of a snow-capped mountain, while in the Great Wave the wave stands out because it is more active, dynamic, and aggressive, which makes it threatening.
The earlier images are very marked by the perspective traditionally used in Japanese painting, where the viewer sees the scene from a bird's-eye view. The Great Wave, on the other hand, is depicted in a more western perspective, giving the feeling that the wave will break on top of the viewer.
In the earlier prints the horizon is in the middle, whereas in the Great Wave the horizon is so low that it forces the viewer's eye to the very center of the action.
In the first two, there is a sail boat on the crest of the wave, as if it had managed to escape. Hokusai eliminated this element for the Great Wave, because it interfered with the dynamic of the curve or to make the image more dramatic.
The two first prints have an uneven composition, lacking consistency, whereas the Great Wave only has two important masses: the wave itself, and the vanishing point beneath the wave.
The wave shows the level of control that Hokusai had reached. The image, although simple in its design is, however, the result of a long process, a methodical reflection. The basis of this method were laid out by Hokusai in his 1812 work Quick lessons of simplified drawing, in which he explains that every object can be drawn using the relationship of the circle and square.
Image[edit]
Description[edit]
This print is a yoko-e, that is, a landscape format produced to the ōban size, about 25 cm high by 37 cm wide.[11]
The composition comprises three main elements: the sea whipped up by a storm, three boats and a mountain. It includes the signature in the upper left-hand corner.
The mountain[edit]
Further information: Mount Fuji
The mountain with a snow-capped peak is Mount Fuji, which in Japan is considered sacred and a symbol of national identity,[12] as well as a symbol of beauty.[13] Mount Fuji is an iconic figure in many Japanese representations of famous places (meisho-e), as is the case in Hokusai's series of Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji, which opens with the present scene.
The dark color around Mount Fuji seems to indicate that the scene occurs early in the morning, with the sun rising from behind the observer, illuminating the mountain's snowy peak. While cumulonimbus storm clouds seem to be hanging in the sky between the viewer and Mount Fuji, no rain is to be seen either in the foreground scene or on Mount Fuji, which itself appears completely cloudless.[2]
Boats[edit]
In the scene there are three oshiokuri-bune, fast boats that are used to transport live fish[14] from the Izu and Bōsō peninsulas to the markets of the bay of Edo. As the name of the piece indicates the boats are in Kanagawa prefecture, with Tokyo to the north, Mt Fuji to the northwest, the bay of Sagami to the south and the bay of Tokyo to the east. The boats, oriented to the southeast, are returning to the capital.
There are eight rowers per boat, clinging to their oars. There are two more passengers in the front of each boat, bringing the total number of human figures in the image to thirty. Using the boats as reference, one can approximate the size of the wave: the oshiokuri-bune were generally between 12 and 15 meters long, and noting that Hokusai reduced the vertical scale by 30%, the wave must be between 10 and 12 meters tall.[2]
Sea and waves[edit]
Detail of the crest of the wave, looking like claws
Detail of the small wave, with similarity to the silhouette of Fuji
The sea dominates the composition as an extending wave about to break. In the moment captured in this image, the wave forms a circle around the center of the design, framing Mount Fuji in the background.
Edmond de Goncourt described the wave in this way:
The drawing of the wave is a deification of the sea made by a painter who lived with the religious terror of the overwhelming ocean completely surrounding his country; He is impressed by the sudden fury of the ocean's leap toward the sky, by the deep blue of the inner side of the curve, by the splash of its claw-like crest as it sprays forth droplets.[15]
Andreas Ramos, a writer, notes:
... a seascape with Fuji. The waves form a frame through which we see the mountain. The gigantic wave is a yin yang of empty space beneath the mountain. The inevitable breaking that we await creates a tension in the picture. In the foreground, a small wave forming a miniature Fuji is reflected by the distant mountain, itself shrunk in perspective. The little wave is larger than the mountain. The small fishermen cling to thin fishing boats, slide on a sea-mount looking to dodge the wave. The violent Yang of nature is overcome by the yin of the confidence of these experienced fishermen. Strangely, despite a storm, the sun shines high.[15]
Signature[edit]
Hokusai's signature
The Great Wave off Kanagawa has two inscriptions. The first, within a rectangular cartouche in the top-left corner is the series title: "冨嶽三十六景/神奈川冲/浪裏" Fugaku Sanjūrokkei / Kanagawa oki / nami ura, which translates as "Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji / Offshore from Kanagawa / Beneath the wave". The second inscription, to the left, is the artist's signature: 北斎改爲一筆 Hokusai aratame Iitsu hitsu, ("From the brush of Hokusai, changing his name to Iitsu").[16]
Over his career, Hokusai used more than 30 different names, always beginning a new cycle of works by changing it, and letting his students use the previous name.
In his work Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji he used four distinct signatures, changing it according to the phase of the work: Hokusai aratame Iitsu hitsu, zen Hokusai Iitsu hitsu, Hokusai Iitsu hitsu and zen saki no Hokusai Iitsu hitsu.[17]
Technique[edit]
Block used to produce woodblock prints
In Japanese woodblock printing the artist's final preparatory sketch (shita-e) is taken to a horishi, or block carver, who glues the thin washi paper to a block of wood, usually cherry,[18] and then carefully carves it away to form a relief of the lines of the image.[19] In the process, the drawing is lost. Finally, with all the necessary blocks (usually one for each color),[18] a surishi, or printer, who places the printing paper on each block consecutively and rubs the back with a hand-tool known as a baren.[20] There could be a great number of impressions produced, sometimes thousands, before the blocks wore out.[18]
Because of the nature of the production process, the final work was usually the result of a collaboration in which the painter generally did not participate in the production of the prints.[21]
The design uses only a small number of different color blocks. The water is rendered with three shades of blue;[b] the boats are yellow;[c] a dark grey for the sky behind Fuji and on the boat immediately below; a pale grey in the sky above Fuji and on the foreground boat; pink clouds at the top of the image. "The block for these pink clouds seems to have been slightly abraded along parts of the edge to give a subtle gradated effect (ita-bokashi)".[22]
Even though no law of intellectual property existed in Japan before the Meiji era, there was still a sense of ownership and rights with respect to the blocks from which the prints were produced.[d] Rather than belonging to the artist, the blocks were considered the property of the hanmoto (publisher) or honya (publisher/bookseller) who could do with them as he wished. In some cases the blocks were sold or transferred to other publishers, in which case they became known as kyūhan.[23]
Impressions[edit]
A later impression of the Great Wave with characteristic darker sky.
British Museum (1937,0710,0.147)
Given that the series was very popular when it was produced, printing continued until the woodblocks started to show significant wear. It is likely that the original woodblocks printed around 5,000 copies.[24] Given that many impressions have been lost, in wars, earthquakes, fires and other natural disasters, few early impressions survive in which the lines of the woodblocks were still sharp at the time of printing.[24] The remaining prints and subsequent reproductions vary considerably in quality and condition.[25]
Later impressions typically have a darker grey sky, and can be identified by a break in the line of the wave behind the boat on the right.[22]
The highest price paid for a Great Wave print in a public sale is a relatively low $160,000. Hokusai's auction record is nearly $1.5 million as of 2012.[25] The print owned by the British Museum cost £130,000 in 2008 and is only on display for six months every five years to prevent fading.[26]
Influence[edit]
La Vague by Camile Claudel (1897)
Cover of Debussy's La mer (1905)
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2017)
The print is one of the most reproduced and most instantly recognized artworks in the world.[25]
Following the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan ended a long period of national isolation and became open to imports from the West. In turn, much Japanese art came to Europe and America and quickly gained popularity. The influence of Japanese art on Western culture became known as Japonism. Japanese woodblock prints became a source of inspiration for artists in many genres, particularly the Impressionists. Hokusai was seen as the emblematic Japanese artist and images from his prints and books influenced many different works.
Vincent van Gogh, a great admirer of Hokusai, praised the quality of drawing and use of line in the Great Wave, and said it had a terrifying emotional impact.[27]
French sculptor Camille Claudel's La Vague (1897) replaces the boats in Hokusai's Great Wave with sea-nymphs.
The image inspired Claude Debussy's orchestral work, La mer, and appeared on the cover of the score's first edition published by A. Durand & Fils in 1905.[28]
Indigenous Australian artist Lin Onus used the Great Wave as the basis for his 1992 painting Michael and I are just slipping down the pub for a minute.[29]
An artistic work named Uprisings by Japanese/American Artist Kozyndan is based on the print, with the foam of the wave being replaced by bunnies.[30]
Apple macOS and iOS display a small version of the Great Wave as the image for the Water Wave emoji.[31]
The logo used by the Quiksilver clothing company was inspired by the Great Wave.[citation needed]
In the card game Magic: The Gathering, two cards reference The Great Wave off Kanagawa in their artwork: Rampant Growth and Kiora, The Crashing Wave.[citation needed]
The image is featured on a limited mintage 2017 legal tender coin for the Republic of Fiji, as created by Scottsdale Mint.[32]
The image (reversed and recolorized) is featured on Kitchens of Distinction's album Strange Free World.
A popular internet parody of the image, titled "Sea is for Cookie", was created for a Reddit Adobe Photoshop competition. The piece features the wave with googly eyes and cookies in the crest, resembling Cookie Monster eating cookies.[33]
On screen[edit]
The print is the subjects of two art documentary series :
La Menace suspendue, Palettes by Alain Jaubert (France, 1999).
The Great Wave, The Private Life of a Masterpiece (BBC, 2004). It details the fascination surrounding the work in the East and West, its influence, and the artist's insights into a number of different areas, as revealed through the work.[34]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ A "rough sea screen" features in one of Hokusai's earliest works, Segawa Kikunojo III as Masamune's Daughter, Oren, printed over fifty years before the Great Wave
Jump up ^ In early prints of the Great Wave the key-block, usually only used for outlines, is simultaneously used to print the dark-blue areas of the waves.
Jump up ^ The pale red seen on the sides of two of the boats in the frequently reproduced Metropolitan Museum print (JP 1847) has apparently been added by hand.[22]
Jump up ^ The concept of rights concerned with woodblock ownership was known as zōhan.
Jump up ^ "Kanagawa-oki nami-ura 神奈川沖浪裏 (Under the Wave off Kanagawa)". British Museum. Archived from the original on 2014-12-11. Retrieved 2010-07-19.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cartwright, HE; Nakamura, H. "What kind of a wave is Hokusai's Great wave off Kanagawa?". Notes and records. Royal Society. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2007.0039. Retrieved 7 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-04-21. Retrieved 2013-01-31.
Jump up ^ "Katsushika Hokusai". Archived from the original on 2010-11-05. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
Jump up ^ Calza 2003, p. 470
Jump up ^ Guth, p. 47
Jump up ^ Forrer 2003, pp. 23–24
Jump up ^ Forrer 2003, p. 26
Jump up ^ Nagata & Bester 1999, p. 40
Jump up ^ "Hokusai's Great Wave". 2010-07-07. Archived from the original on 2011-08-31.
Jump up ^ "Katsushika Hokusai: The Great Wave at Kanagawa". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on 2010-06-14. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
Jump up ^ "Under the Wave off Kanagawa (The Great Wave) by Hokusai (1760–1849)". Archived from the original on 2011-07-11. Retrieved 2010-07-10.
Jump up ^ Nipponia. "El Monte Fuji como Objeto Artístico" (in Spanish). Retrieved 7 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Kobayashi & Harbison 1997, p. 47.
^ Jump up to: a b Radio UNAM. "La Gran Ola de Kanagawa" (in Spanish). Retrieved 7 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Guimet Museum. "Hokusai "Mad about his art" from Edmond de Goncourt to Norbert Lagane". Archived from the original on 14 October 2010. Retrieved 7 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Bibliothèque nationale de France. "Hokusai, Les Trente-six vues du mont Fuji" (in French). Retrieved 7 July 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Woodblock Prints in the Ukiyo-e Style". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2010-07-05.
Jump up ^ "Ukiyo-e, arte de grabado japonés" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2010-04-19. Retrieved 2010-07-11.
Jump up ^ "Ukiyo-e: Imágenes del mundo flotante" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2010-12-10. Retrieved 2010-07-11.
Jump up ^ "Masterpieces from the Ota Memorial museum of Art Paintings and Japanese prints". Musée Guimet. 2005. Archived from the original on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2010-07-05.
^ Jump up to: a b c Clark (2001)
Jump up ^ "Viewing Japanese Prints: What Is an Original Woodblock Print?". Viewing Japanese Prints. Archived from the original on 2008-03-27. Retrieved 2010-07-06.
^ Jump up to: a b BBC, ed. (2003). Katsushika Hokusai: The Great Wave, inside the series The Private Life of a Masterpiece (Documentary)|format= requires |url= (help).
^ Jump up to: a b c Gamerman, Ellen (March 18, 2015). "How Hokusai's 'The Great Wave' Went Viral". The Wall Street Journal.
Jump up ^ Sooke, Alastair (20 May 2017). "The prince of tides". The Daily Telegraph. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Letter 676: To Theo van Gogh. Arles, Saturday, 8 September 1888". Van Gogh Museum.
Jump up ^ Cirigliano II, Michael (July 22, 2014). "Hokusai and Debussy's Evocations of the Sea". Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Jump up ^ Ashcroft, Bill (2013-07-26). "Hybridity and Transformation: The Art of Lin Onus". Postcolonial Text. 8 (1).
Jump up ^ "Uprisings – Kozyndan". kozyndan.com.
Jump up ^ "Water Wave Emoji". Emojipedia. Retrieved 2014-10-29.
Jump up ^ "2017 Fiji Great Wave Proof Silver Coin (Colorized)". Archived from the original on 2016-10-22.
Jump up ^ Streams, Kimber (2014-01-24). "Sea Is for Cookie, A Mashup of Cookie Monster and 'The Great Wave off Kanagawa'". Laughing Squid. Retrieved 2018-02-27.
Jump up ^ "'The Great Wave' by Hokusai". Fulmartv.co.uk. 2004-04-17. Archived from the original on 2010-07-22. Retrieved 2010-07-04.
Sources[edit]
Bayou, Hélène (2008). Hokusai, 1760–1849: l'affolé de son art: d'Edmond de Goncourt à Norbert Lagane. Connaissance des Arts. ISBN 978-2-7118-5406-6.
Bibliothèque nationale de France (2008). Estampes japonaises: images d'un monde éphémère. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Fundação Caixa Catalunya. ISBN 978-84-89860-92-6.
Timothy, Clark (2001). 100 Views of Mount Fuji. British Museum Press.
Delay, Nelly (2004). L'estampe japonaise. Hazan. ISBN 978-2-85025-807-7.
Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh (2006). Historia mundial del arte. Ediciones Akal. ISBN 978-84-460-2092-9.
Forrer, Matthi (1996). Hokusai. Bibliothèque de l'image.
Forrer, Matthi (2003). "Western Influences in Hokusai's Art". In Calza, Gian Carlo. Hokusai. Phaidon. ISBN 0714844578.
Guth, Christine (2009). Arte en el Japón Edo. Ediciones Akal. ISBN 978-84-460-2473-6.
Guth, Christine M. E. (December 2011). "Hokusai's Great Waves in Nineteenth-Century Japanese Visual Culture". The Art Bulletin. 93 (4): 468–485.
Hartman Ford, Elise (2005). Frommer's Washington. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-7645-9591-2.
Hillier, Jack (1970). Catalogue of the Japanese paintings and prints in the collection of Mr. & Mrs Richard P. Gale, Tomo II. Routledge & K. Paul. ISBN 978-2-7118-5406-6.
Kobayashi, Tadashi; Harbison, Mark (1997). Ukiyo-e: an introduction to Japanese woodblock prints. Kodansha International. ISBN 978-4-7700-2182-3.
Lane, Richard (1962). L'Estampe japonaise. Aimery Somogy.
Nagata, Seiji; Bester, John (1999). Hokusai: Genius of the Japanese Ukiyo-e. Kodansha International. ISBN 978-4-7700-2479-4.
Sueur-hermel, Valérie (2009). Henri Rivière: entre impressionnisme et japonisme. Bibliothèque nationale de France. ISBN 978-2-7177-2431-8.
Weston, Mark (2002). Giants of Japan: The Lives of Japan's Most Influential Men and Women. Kodansha America. ISBN 978-1-56836-324-0.
Calza, Gian Carlo (2003). Hokusai. Phaidon. ISBN 0714844578.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Great Wave off Kanagawa.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art's (New York) entry on The Great Wave at Kanagawa
BBC audio file A History of the World in 100 Objects
Study of original work opposed to various copies from different publishers
This article is about an item held in the British Museum. The object reference is 3097579.
[show]
v
t
e
Hokusai
Woodblock prints
The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife (1816)
Fine Wind, Clear Morning (1830–1832)
The Great Wave off Kanagawa (1830–1833)
Print series
and collections
A Tour of the Waterfalls of the Provinces
Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji
Hokusai Manga
Oceans of Wisdom
[show]
v
t
e
The British Museum
Building
Great Court
King's Library
Round Reading Room
Departments
and objects
Africa, Oceania
and Americas
Akan Drum
Aubin Codex
Benin Bronzes
Briggs Enigma
Codex Kingsborough
Double-headed serpent
Hoa Hakananai'a
Throne of Weapons
Kayung totem pole
Tree of Life
Yaxchilan Lintel 24
Ancient Egypt
and Sudan
Colossal head of Amenhotep III
Gebelein predynastic mummies
Hunters Palette
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus
Rosetta Stone
Sphinx of Taharqo
Younger Memnon
Asia
Admonitions Scroll
Bimaran casket
Kanishka casket
Mathura lion capital
Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art
Seated Buddha from Gandhara
Statue of Tara
The Great Wave off Kanagawa
Greece
and Rome
Bassae Frieze
Elgin Marbles
Esquiline Treasure
Farnese Diadumenos
Harpy Tomb
Jennings Dog
Lion of Knidos
Minoan Bull-leaper
Nereid Monument
Portland Vase
Warren Cup
Middle East
Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III
Burney Relief
Cylinders of Nabonidus
Cyrus Cylinder
Flood tablet (Gilgamesh)
Library of Ashurbanipal
Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal
Oxus Treasure
Taylor Prism
Lachish reliefs
Babylonian Chronicles
Kurkh Monoliths
Prehistory
and Europe
Franks Casket
Holy Thorn Reliquary
Hoxne Hoard
Lewis chessmen
Lindow Man
Mildenhall Treasure
Ringlemere Cup
Royal Gold Cup
Sutton Hoo
Sutton Hoo helmet
Sutton Hoo purse-lid
Swimming Reindeer
Vindolanda Tablets
Prints and
Drawings
Dürer's Rhinoceros
Epifania
I Modi
Isabella Brant
The Ancient of Days
The Disasters of War
The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies
Triumphal Arch
Other
Coins and Medals
Conservation and Scientific Research
Libraries and Archives
Portable Antiquities and Treasure
A History of the World in 100 Objects
Other
British Museum Act 1902
British Museum Act 1963
Directors
Films shot at the British Museum
Friends
Royal Commission on the British Museum
Trustees
Secretum
Category
Commons
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BNF: cb157807657 (data)
GND: 7667256-6
LCCN: n2012035539
SUDOC: 146687000
VIAF: 196921715
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa&oldid=843634613"
Categories:
1832 works
Works by Katsushika Hokusai
Marine art
Asian objects in the British Museum
Water in art
Hidden categories:
CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)
CS1 French-language sources (fr)
Pages using citations with format and no URL
Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL
Pages using infobox artwork with autolinked artist field
Articles containing Japanese-language text
Articles to be expanded from January 2017
All articles to be expanded
Articles using small message boxes
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017
Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Беларуская
Català
Dansk
Deutsch
Español
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Galego
한국어
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
Latviešu
Magyar
مازِرونی
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
日本語
Norsk
پنجابی
Polski
Português
Русский
Shqip
සිංහල
Simple English
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Svenska
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
中文
29 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 30 May 2018, at 12:31.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: i

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Great_Wave_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Great Wave (disambiguation)

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: th

values: text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic

value: tr

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

value: td

attrs: colspan style

values:
/wiki/Katsushika_Hokusai
mw-redirect
Katsushika Hokusai

values: width:22em;width: 22em; line-height: 1.4em; text-align: left; float:right;

values:
/wiki/Yokohama,_Kanagawa
mw-redirect
Yokohama, Kanagawa

values:
/wiki/Hokusai_manga
mw-redirect
Hokusai manga

values:
/wiki/Western_art
mw-redirect
Western art

values:
/wiki/Landscape_format
mw-redirect
Landscape format

values:
/wiki/Japanese_woodblock_printing
mw-redirect
Japanese woodblock printing

values: plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content

values:
/wiki/Indigenous_Australian
mw-redirect
Indigenous Australian

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Republic_of_Fiji
mw-redirect
Republic of Fiji

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: lower-alpha;

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.2007.0039

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.epdlp.com/pintor.php?id=2884

values:
/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet
mw-redirect
Musée Guimet

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.kozyndan.com/art/uprisings

values:
nofollow
http://emojipedia.org/water-wave/
external text

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/British_Museum_Press
mw-redirect
British Museum Press

values: commons:Special:Search/The Great Wave off Kanagawa

values: A Tour of the Waterfalls of the Provinces

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
row
navbox-group
width:1%;text-align: left;

values:
navbox-image
3
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: British Museum Department of Africa, Oceania and the Americas

values: British Museum Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan

values: Colossal red granite statue of Amenhotep III

values: Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art

values: British Museum Department of Greece and Rome

values: British Museum Department of the Middle East

values: British Museum Department of Prehistory and Europe

values: British Museum Department of Prints and Drawings

values: British Museum Department of Coins and Medals

values: British Museum Department of Conservation and Scientific Research

values: British Museum Department of Libraries and Archives

values: List of films shot at the British Museum

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/7667256-6

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.idref.fr/146687000

values:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/196921715

values: Category:Asian objects in the British Museum

values: Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)

values: Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)

values: Category:Pages using citations with format and no URL

values: Category:Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL

values: Category:Pages using infobox artwork with autolinked artist field

values: Category:Articles containing Japanese-language text

values: Category:Articles to be expanded from January 2017

values: Category:Articles using small message boxes

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/The_Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: الموجة الكبيرة في كاناغاوا – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: কানাগাওয়ার লহরীতলে – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values: Вялікая хваля ў Канагаве – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: Den store bølge ud for Kanagawa – Danish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: موج عظیم کاناگاوا – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: 가나가와 해변의 높은 파도 아래 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values: Arus Besar di lepas Kanagawa – Indonesian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: הגל הגדול בסמוך לקאנאגאווה – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: گت موج کاناگاوا – Mazanderani

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl
display: none;

values: Den store bølgen ved Kanagawa – Norwegian

values: کاناگاوا دیاں اچیاں چھلاں – Western Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values: Большая волна в Канагаве – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values: කනගාවා එපිට මහා රළ – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values: The Great Wave off Kanagawa – Simple English

values: Veliki val kod Kanagawe – Serbo-Croatian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values: คลื่นยักษ์นอกฝั่งคะนะงะวะ – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Велика хвиля в Канаґава – Ukrainian

values: 神奈川沖浪裏 – Chinese

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-The_Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa rootpage-The_Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa skin-vector action-view