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Red algae
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Red algae
Temporal range: Mesoproterozoic–present[1]
Had'n
Archean
Proterozoic
Pha.
A-D : Chondrus crispus Stackhouse,
E-F : Mastocarpus stellatus J.Ag.
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
(unranked): Diaphoretickes
(unranked): Archaeplastida
Division: Rhodophyta
Wettstein, 1922
Classification is currently disputed. See Taxonomy.
The red algae, or Rhodophyta (/roʊˈdɒfɪtə/ roh-DOF-it-ə, /ˌroʊdəˈfaɪtə/ ROH-də-FY-tə; from Ancient Greek ῥόδον (rhodon), meaning 'rose', and φυτόν (phyton), meaning 'plant'), are one of the oldest groups of eukaryotic algae.[2] The Rhodophyta also comprises one of the largest phyla of algae, containing over 7,000 currently recognized species with taxonomic revisions ongoing.[3] The majority of species (6,793) are found in the Florideophyceae (class), and mostly consist of multicellular, marine algae, including many notable seaweeds.[3][4] Approximately 5% of the red algae occur in freshwater environments with greater concentrations found in the warmer area.[5] There are no terrestrial species, which is assumed to be traced back to an evolutionary bottleneck where the last common ancestor lost about 25% of its core genes and much of its evolutionary plasticity.[6]
The red algae form a distinct group characterized by having eukaryotic cells without flagella and centrioles, chloroplasts that lack external endoplasmic reticulum and contain unstacked (stoma) thylakoids, and use phycobiliproteins as accessory pigments, which give them their red color.[7] Red algae store sugars as floridean starch, which is a type of starch that consists of highly branched amylopectin without amylose,[8] as food reserves outside their plastids. Most red algae are also multicellular, macroscopic, marine, and reproduce sexually. The red algal life history is typically an alternation of generations that may have three generations rather than two.[9]
Chloroplasts evolved following an endosymbiotic event between an ancestral, photosynthetic cyanobacterium and an early eukarytoic phagotroph.[10] This event (termed primary endosymbiosis) resulted in the origin of the red and green algae, and the glaucophytes, which make up the oldest evolutionary lineages of photosynthetic eukaryotes.[11] A secondary endosymbiosis event involving an ancestral red alga and a heterotrophic eukaryote resulted in the evolution and diversification of several other photosynthetic lineages such as Cryptophyta, Haptophyta, Stramenopiles (or Heterokontophyta), Alveolata, Centrohelids, Katablepharids, and Telonemi.[11][12]
The coralline algae, which secrete calcium carbonate and play a major role in building coral reefs, belong here. Red algae such as dulse (Palmaria palmata) and laver (nori/gim) are a traditional part of European and Asian cuisines and are used to make other products such as agar, carrageenans and other food additives.[13]
Unicellular members of the Cyanidiophyceae are thermoacidophiles and are found in sulphuric hot springs and other acidic environments.[14] The remaining taxa are found in marine and freshwater environments. Most rhodophytes are marine with a worldwide distribution, and are often found at greater depths compared to other seaweeds because of dominance in certain pigments (i.e., phycoerythrin) within their chloroplasts.[15] Some marine species are found on sandy shores, while most others can be found attached to rocky substrata.[15] Freshwater species account for 5% of red algal diversity, but they also have a worldwide distribution in various habitats;[5] they generally prefer clean, high-flow streams with clear waters and rocky bottoms, but with some exceptions.[16] A few freshwater species are found in black waters with sandy bottoms [17] and even fewer are found in more lentic waters.[18] Both marine and freshwater taxa are represented by free-living macroalgal forms and smaller endo/epiphytic/zoic forms, meaning they live in or on other algae, plants, and animals [7] In addition, some marine species have adopted a parasitic lifestyle and may be found on closely or more distantly related red algal hosts [19][20]
Contents
1 Taxonomy
1.1 Classification comparison
1.2 Species of red algae
2 Morphology
2.1 Pit connections and pit plugs
2.1.1 Pit connections
2.1.2 Pit plugs
2.1.3 Function
3 Reproduction
3.1 Fertilization
3.2 Life cycle
4 Chemistry
5 Genomes of red algae
5.1 Fossil record
5.2 Relationship to other algae
6 Human consumption
7 Gallery
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Taxonomy[edit]
Further information: Wikispecies:Rhodophyta
In the system of Adl et al. 2005, the red algae are classified in the Archaeplastida, along with the glaucophytes and green algae plus land plants (Viridiplantae or Chloroplastida). The authors use a hierarchical arrangement where the clade names do not signify rank; the class name Rhodophyceae is used for the red algae. No subdivisions are given; the authors say, "Traditional subgroups are artificial constructs, and no longer valid."[21]
Many studies published since Adl et al. 2005 have provided evidence that is in agreement for monophyly in the Archaeplastida (including red algae).[22][23][24][25] However, other studies have suggested Archaeplastida is paraphyletic.[26][27] As of January 2011[update], the situation appears unresolved.
Below are other published taxonomies of the red algae using molecular and traditional alpha taxonomic data; however, the taxonomy of the red algae is still in a state of flux (with classification above the level of order having received little scientific attention for most of the 20th century).[28]
If one defines the kingdom Plantae to mean the Archaeplastida, the red algae will be part of that kingdom
If Plantae are defined more narrowly, to be the Viridiplantae, then the red algae might be considered their own kingdom, or part of the kingdom Protista.
A major research initiative to reconstruct the Red Algal Tree of Life (RedToL) using phylogenetic and genomic approaches is funded by the National Science Foundation as part of the Assembling the Tree of Life Program.
Classification comparison[edit]
Classification system according to
Saunders and Hommersand 2004[28]
Classification system according to
Hwan Su Yoon et al. 2006[29]
Orders
Multicelluar?
Pit plugs?
Example
Subkingdom Rhodoplantae
Phylum Cyanidiophyta
Class Cyanidiophyceae Merola et al.
Phylum Rhodophyta Wettstein
Subphylum Cyanidiophytina subphylum novus
Class Cyanidiophyceae Merola et al.
Cyanidiales No No Cyanidioschyzon merolae
Phylum Rhodophyta Wettstein
Subphylum Rhodellophytina
Class Rhodellophyceae Cavalier-Smith
Subphylum Rhodophytina subphylum novus
Class Rhodellophyceae Cavalier-Smith
Rhodellales No No Rhodella
Subphylum Metarhodophytina
Class Compsopogonophyceae Saunders et Hommersand
Class Compsopogonophyceae Saunders et Hommersand
Compsopogonales, Rhodochaetales, Erythropeltidales Yes No Compsopogon
Class Stylonematophyceae classis nova
Rufusiales, Stylonematales Yes No Stylonema
Subphylum Eurhodophytina
Class Bangiophyceae Wettstein
Class Bangiophyceae Wettstein
Bangiales
Yes Yes Bangia, "Porphyra"
Class Porphyridiophyceae classis nova
Porphyridiales
No No Porphyridium cruentum
Class Florideophyceae Cronquist
Subclass Hildenbrandiophycidae
Class Florideophyceae Cronquist
Hildenbrandiales Yes Yes Hildenbrandia
Subclass Nemaliophycidae
Batrachospermales, Balliales, Balbianiales, Nemaliales, Colaconematales, Acrochaetiales, Palmariales, Thoreales Yes Yes Nemalion
Rhodogorgonales, Corallinales Yes Yes Corallina officinalis
Subclass Ahnfeltiophycidae
Ahnfeltiales, Pihiellales Yes Yes Ahnfeltia
Subclass Rhodymeniophycidae
Bonnemaisoniales, Gigartinales, Gelidiales, Gracilariales, Halymeniales, Rhodymeniales, Nemastomatales, Plocamiales, Ceramiales Yes Yes Gelidium
Some sources (such as Lee) place all red algae into the class "Rhodophyceae". (Lee's organization is not a comprehensive classification, but a selection of orders considered common or important.[30])
A subphylum - Proteorhodophytina - has been proposed to encompass the existing classes Compsopogonophyceae, Porphyridiophyceae, Rhodellophyceae and Stylonematophyceae.[31] This proposal was made on the basis of the analysis of the plastid genomes.
See also: Eukaryote § Phylogeny
Species of red algae[edit]
Over 7,000 species are currently described for the red algae,[3] but the taxonomy is in constant flux with new species described each year.[28][29] The vast majority of these are marine with about 200 that live only in fresh water.
Some examples of species and genera of red algae are:
Cyanidioschyzon merolae, a primitive red alga
Atractophora hypnoides
Gelidiella calcicola
Lemanea, a freshwater genus
Palmaria palmata, dulse
Schmitzia hiscockiana
Chondrus crispus, Irish moss
Mastocarpus stellatus
Vanvoorstia bennettiana, became extinct in the early 20th century
Acrochaetium efflorescens
Audouinella, with freshwater as well as marine species
Polysiphonia ceramiaeformis, banded siphon weed
Morphology[edit]
Red algae have double cell walls.[32] The outer layers contain the polysaccharides agarose and agaropectin that can be extracted from the cell walls by boiling as agar.[32] The internal walls are mostly cellulose.[32]
Pit connections and pit plugs[edit]
Main article: Pit connection
Pit connections[edit]
Pit connections and pit plugs are unique and distinctive features of red algae that form during the process of cytokinesis following mitosis.[33][34] In red algae, cytokinesis is incomplete. Typically, a small pore is left in the middle of the newly formed partition. The pit connection is formed where the daughter cells remain in contact.
Shortly after the pit connection is formed, cytoplasmic continuity is blocked by the generation of a pit plug, which is deposited in the wall gap that connects the cells.
Connections between cells having a common parent cell are called primary pit connections. Because apical growth is the norm in red algae, most cells have two primary pit connections, one to each adjacent cell.
Connections that exist between cells not sharing a common parent cell are labeled secondary pit connections. These connections are formed when an unequal cell division produced a nucleated daughter cell that then fuses to an adjacent cell. Patterns of secondary pit connections can be seen in the order Ceramiales.[34]
Pit plugs[edit]
After a pit connection is formed, tubular membranes appear. A granular protein, called the plug core, then forms around the membranes. The tubular membranes eventually disappear. While some orders of red algae simply have a plug core, others have an associated membrane at each side of the protein mass, called cap membranes. The pit plug continues to exist between the cells until one of the cells dies. When this happens, the living cell produces a layer of wall material that seals off the plug.
Function[edit]
The pit connections have been suggested to function as structural reinforcement, or as avenues for cell-to-cell communication and transport in red algae, however little data supports this hypothesis.[35]
Reproduction[edit]
The reproductive cycle of red algae may be triggered by factors such as day length.[2]
Fertilization[edit]
Red algae lack motile sperm. Hence, they rely on water currents to transport their gametes to the female organs – although their sperm are capable of "gliding" to a carpogonium's trichogyne.[2]
The trichogyne will continue to grow until it encounters a spermatium; once it has been fertilized, the cell wall at its base progressively thickens, separating it from the rest of the carpogonium at its base.[2]
Upon their collision, the walls of the spermatium and carpogonium dissolve. The male nucleus divides and moves into the carpogonium; one half of the nucleus merges with the carpogonium's nucleus.[2]
The polyamine spermine is produced, which triggers carpospore production.[2]
Spermatangia may have long, delicate appendages, which increase their chances of "hooking up".[2]
Life cycle[edit]
They display alternation of generations; in addition to gametophyte generation, many have two sporophyte generations, the carposporophyte-producing carpospores, which germinate into a tetrasporophyte – this produces spore tetrads, which dissociate and germinate into gametophytes.[2] The gametophyte is typically (but not always) identical to the tetrasporophyte.[36]
Carpospores may also germinate directly into thalloid gametophytes, or the carposporophytes may produce a tetraspore without going through a (free-living) tetrasporophyte phase.[36] Tetrasporangia may be arranged in a row (zonate), in a cross (cruciate), or in a tetrad.[2]
The carposporophyte may be enclosed within the gametophyte, which may cover it with branches to form a cystocarp.[36]
These case studies may be helpful to understand some of the life histories algae may display:
In a simple case, such as Rhodochorton investiens:
In the Carposporophyte: a spermatium merges with a trichogyne (a long hair on the female sexual organ), which then divides to form carposporangia – which produce carpospores.
Carpospores germinate into gametophytes, which produce sporophytes. Both of these are very similar; they produce monospores from monosporangia "just below a cross wall in a filament"[2] and their spores are "liberated through apex of sporangial cell."[2]
The spores of a sporophyte produce either tetrasporophytes. Monospores produced by this phase germinate immediately, with no resting phase, to form an identical copy of parent. Tetrasporophytes may also produce a carpospore, which germinates to form another tetrasporophyte.[verification needed][2]
The gametophyte may replicate using monospores, but produces sperm in spermatangia, and "eggs"(?) in carpogonium.[2]
A rather different example is Porphyra gardneri:
In its diploid phase, a carpospore can germinate to form a filamentous "conchocelis stage", which can also self-replicate using monospores. The conchocelis stage eventually produces conchosporangia. The resulting conchospore germinates to form a tiny prothallus with rhizoids, which develops to a cm-scale leafy thallus. This too can reproduce via monospores, which are produced inside the thallus itself.[2] They can also reproduce via spermatia, produced internally, which are released to meet a prospective carpogonium in its conceptacle.[2]
Chemistry[edit]
Algal group
δ13C range[37]
HCO3-using red algae −22.5‰ to −9.6‰
CO2-using red algae −34.5‰ to −29.9‰
Brown algae −20.8‰ to −10.5‰
Green algae −20.3‰ to −8.8‰
The δ13C values of red algae reflect their lifestyles. The largest difference results from their photosynthetic metabolic pathway: algae that use HCO3 as a carbon source have less negative δ13C values than those that only use CO2.[37] An additional difference of about 1.71‰ separates groups intertidal from those below the lowest tide line, which are never exposed to atmospheric carbon. The latter group uses the more 13C-negative CO2 dissolved in sea water, whereas those with access to atmospheric carbon reflect the more positive signature of this reserve.
Photosynthetic pigments of Rhodophyta are chlorophylls a and d. Red algae are red due to phycoerythrin. They contain the sulfated polysaccharide carrageenan in the amorphous sections of their cell walls, although red algae from the genus Porphyra contain porphyran. They also produce a specific type of tannin called phlorotannins, but in lower amount than brown algae do.
Genomes of red algae[edit]
Complete genome sequences are only available for 6 species of red algae, including 4 published in 2013.
Cyanidioschyzon merolae, Cyanidiophyceae[38][39]
Galdieria sulphuraria, Cyanidiophyceae[40]
Pyropia yezoensis, Bangiophyceae[41]
Chondrus crispus, Florideophyceae[42]
Porphyridium purpureum, Porphyridiophyceae[43]
Porphyra umbilicalis, Bangiophyceae[44]
Fossil record[edit]
One of the oldest fossils identified as a red alga is also the oldest fossil eukaryote that belongs to a specific modern taxon. Bangiomorpha pubescens, a multicellular fossil from arctic Canada, strongly resembles the modern red alga Bangia despite occurring in rocks dating to 1.2 billion years ago.[1]
Two kinds of fossils resembling red algae were found sometime between 2006 and 2011 in well-preserved sedimentary rocks in Chitrakoot, central India. The presumed red algae lie embedded in fossil mats of cyanobacteria, called stromatolites, in 1.6 billion-year-old Indian phosphorite — making them the oldest plant-like fossils ever found by about 400 million years.[45]
Red algae are important builders of limestone reefs. The earliest such coralline algae, the solenopores, are known from the Cambrian period. Other algae of different origins filled a similar role in the late Paleozoic, and in more recent reefs.
Calcite crusts that have been interpreted as the remains of coralline red algae, date to the terminal Proterozoic.[46] Thallophytes resembling coralline red algae are known from the late Proterozoic Doushantuo formation.[47]
Relationship to other algae[edit]
Chromista and Alveolata algae (e.g., chrysophytes, diatoms, phaeophytes, dinophytes) seem to have evolved from bikonts that have acquired red algae as endosymbionts. According to this theory, over time these endosymbiont red algae have evolved to become chloroplasts. This part of endosymbiotic theory is supported by various structural and genetic similarities.[48]
Human consumption[edit]
Several species are important food crops, in particular members of the genus Porphyra, variously known as nori (Japan), gim (Korea), or laver (Britain). Dulse (Palmaria palmata)[49] is another important British species.[50] These rhodophyte foods are high in vitamins and protein and are easily grown; for example, nori cultivation in Japan goes back more than three centuries.
In East and Southeast Asia, agar is most commonly produced from Gelidium amansii.
Gallery[edit]
Cyanidium sp. (Cyanidiophyceae)
Porphyra sp., haploid and diploid (Bangiophyceae)
Chondrus crispus (Florideophyceae: Gigartinales)
Gracilaria sp. (Florideophyceae: Gracilariales)
Corallina officinalis sp. (Florideophyceae: Corallinales)
Laurencia sp. (Florideophyceae: Ceramiales)
Some red algae are iridescent when not covered with water
See also[edit]
Brown algae
Green algae
History of phycology
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Bhattacharya; et al. (2013). "Genome of the red alga Porphyridium purpureum". Nature Communications. 4: 1941. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4E1941B. doi:10.1038/ncomms2931.
Jump up ^ Brawley, SH; Blouin, NA; Ficko-Blean, E; Wheeler, GL; et al. (1 August 2017). "Insights into the red algae and eukaryotic evolution from the genome of Porphyra umbilicalis (Bangiophyceae, Rhodophyta)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 114 (31): E6361–E6370. doi:10.1073/pnas.1703088114. PMC 5547612  . PMID 28716924.
Jump up ^ Bengtson, S; Sallstedt, T; Belivanova, V; Whitehouse, M (2017). "Three-dimensional preservation of cellular and subcellular structures suggests 1.6 billion-year-old crown-group red algae". PLoS Biol. 15 (3): e2000735. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2000735. PMC 5349422  . PMID 28291791.
Jump up ^ Grant, S. W. F.; Knoll, A. H.; Germs, G. J. B. (1991). "Probable Calcified Metaphytes in the Latest Proterozoic Nama Group, Namibia: Origin, Diagenesis, and Implications". Journal of Paleontology. JSTOR. 65 (1): 1–18. JSTOR 1305691. PMID 11538648.
Jump up ^ Yun, Z.; Xun-lal, Y. (1992). "New data on multicellular thallophytes and fragments of cellular tissues from Late Proterozoic phosphate rocks, South China". Lethaia. 25 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1992.tb01788.x.
Jump up ^ Summarised in Cavalier-Smith, Thomas (April 2000). "Membrane heredity and early chloroplast evolution". Trends in Plant Science. 5 (4): 174–182. doi:10.1016/S1360-1385(00)01598-3. PMID 10740299.
Jump up ^ "Dulse: Palmaria palmata". Quality Sea Veg. Retrieved 2007-06-28.
Jump up ^ T. F. Mumford & A. Muira (1988). "Porphyra as food: cultivation and economics". In C. A. Lembi & J. Waaland. Algae and Human Affairs. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-32115-8.
External links[edit]
AlgaeBase: Rhodophyta
Seaweed Site: Rhodophyta
Tree of Life: Rhodophyta
Monterey Bay Flora
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v
t
e
Eukaryota
Domain
Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryota
(Supergroup
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Hacrobia
Heterokont
Alveolata
Rhizaria
Excavata
Amoebozoa
Opisthokonta
Animal
Fungi)
Diaphoretickes
Archaeplastida
Glaucophyta
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†Grypania
†Leptoteichos
Major kingdoms are underlined. See also: protist. Sources and alternative views: Wikispecies.
show
v
t
e
Classification of Archaeplastida / Plantae sensu lato
Domain
Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryota
(Supergroup
Plant
Hacrobia
Heterokont
Alveolata
Rhizaria
Excavata
Amoebozoa
Opisthokonta
Animal
Fungi)
Rhodophyta
(red algae)
Cyanidiophyceae
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Compsopogonophyceae
Stylonematophyceae
Rhodellophyceae
Bangiophyceae
Florideophyceae
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Chlorodendrophyceae
UTC clade
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Trebouxiophyceae
Chlorophyceae
Streptophyta
(charophytes,
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Klebsormidiophyceae
Phragmo-
plastophyta
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Coleochaetophyceae
Zygnematophyceae
Mesotaeniaceae
Embryophyta
(land plants)
Bryophytes
(non-vascular)
Marchantiophyta
Anthocerotophyta
Bryophyta "Moss"
†Horneophytopsida
Tracheophyta
(vascular)
Lycopodiophyta
(microphylls)
†Zosterophyllopsida
†Sawdoniales
Isoetopsida
Lycopodiopsida
Euphyllophyta
(megaphylls)
Moniliformopses
(ferns)
†Cladoxylopsida
†Stauropteridales
†Zygopteridales
Equisetopsida
Psilotopsida
Marattiopsida
Polypodiopsida
Spermatophyta
(seed plants)
†Seed ferns
Gymnosperms
Gnetopsida
Pinopsida
Cycadopsida
Ginkgoopsida
Angiosperms or flowering plants
Amborellales
Nymphaeales
Austrobaileyales
Magnoliids
Monocots
Eudicots
Other
†Trimerophytopsida
†Progymnosperm
Other
†Rhyniopsida
† = extinct. See also the list of plant orders.
Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q103169
Wikispecies: Rhodophyta
EoL: 4524
EPPO: 1RHDP
Fossilworks: 54808
iNaturalist: 57774
ITIS: 660046
NCBI: 2763
NZOR: 38cbf85b-c36c-418c-a0fe-2f3bccbe7561
uBio: 7173230
WoRMS: 852
Authority control
GND: 4178483-2
NDL: 00575606
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red_algae&oldid=850526638"
Categories:
Red algae
Proterozoic first appearances
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Golden Age of Piracy
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Blackbeard battles Lt. Maynard at the height of the Golden Age of Piracy
Pirates fight in Who Shall Be Captain? by Howard Pyle
[show]
v
t
e
Golden Age of Piracy
Turkish Abductions
Lake Nicaragua
Maracaibo
1st Porto Bello
Panama
2nd Porto Bello
Mandab Strait
Chepo
17 November 1717
Charleston
Cape Fear River
23 November 1718
Ocracoke Inlet
Capture of the William
5 February 1722
Cape Lopez
Capture of the Fancy
The Golden Age of Piracy is a common designation given to usually one or more outbursts of piracy in the maritime history of the early modern period. In its broadest accepted definition, the Golden Age of Piracy spans the 1650s to the 1730s and covers three separate outbursts of piracy:
The buccaneering period of approximately 1650 to 1680, characterized by Anglo-French seamen based on Jamaica and Tortuga attacking Spanish colonies and shipping in the Caribbean and eastern Pacific
The Pirate Round of the 1690s, associated with long-distance voyages from the Americas to rob Muslim and East India Company targets in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea
The post-Spanish Succession period extending from 1716 to 1726, when Anglo-American sailors and privateers, left unemployed by the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, turned en masse to piracy in the Caribbean, the North American eastern seaboard, the West African coast, and the Indian Ocean
Narrower definitions of the Golden Age sometimes exclude the first or second periods, but most include at least some portion of the third. The modern conception of pirates as depicted in popular culture is derived largely, although not always accurately, from the Golden Age of Piracy.
Factors contributing to piracy during the Golden Age included the rise in quantities of valuable cargoes being shipped to Europe over vast ocean areas, reduced European navies in certain regions, the training and experience that many sailors had gained in European navies (particularly the Royal Navy), and ineffective government in European overseas colonies. The colonial powers at the time constantly fought with pirates and engaged in several notable battles and other related events.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Origin
1.2 Trend toward narrow definitions
1.3 Recent countertrend toward broader meaning
2 Origins
2.1 The buccaneering period, c. 1650–1680
2.2 The Pirate Round, c. 1693–1700
2.3 The post–Spanish Succession period
3 Pirates of the era
3.1 Pirate women
3.2 Barbary pirates
4 Decline
5 Effect on popular culture
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Origin[edit]
Amaro Pargo was one of the most famous corsairs of the Golden Age of Piracy.
The oldest known literary mention of a "Golden Age" of piracy is from 1894, when the Swedish journalist George Powell wrote about "what appears to have been the golden age of piracy up to the last decade of the seventeenth century."[1] Powell uses the phrase while reviewing Charles Leslie's A New and Exact History of Jamaica, then over 150 years old, and refers mostly to such 1660s events as Henry Morgan's attacks on Maracaibo and Portobelo and Bartolomeu Português's famous escape. Powell uses the phrase only once.
In 1897, a more systematic use of the phrase "Golden Age of Piracy" was introduced by historian John Fiske, who wrote: "At no other time in the world's history has the business of piracy thriven so greatly as in the seventeenth century and the first part of the eighteenth. Its golden age may be said to have extended from about 1650 to about 1720."[2] Fiske included the activities of the Barbary corsairs and East Asian pirates in this "Golden Age," noting that "as these Mussulman pirates and those of Eastern Asia were as busily at work in the seventeenth century as at any other time, their case does not impair my statement that the age of the buccaneers was the Golden Age of piracy."[3]
Pirate historians of the first half of the 20th century occasionally adopted Fiske's term "Golden Age," without necessarily following his beginning and ending dates for it.[4] The most expansive definition of an age of piracy was that of Patrick Pringle, who wrote in 1951 that "the most flourishing era in the history of piracy ... began in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and ended in the second decade of the eighteenth century."[5] This idea starkly contradicted Fiske, who had hotly denied that such Elizabethan figures as Drake were pirates.[6]
Trend toward narrow definitions[edit]
Of recent definitions, Pringle appears to have the widest range, an exception to an overall trend among historians from 1909 until the 1990s, toward narrowing the Golden Age. As early as 1924, Philip Gosse described piracy as being at its height "from 1680 until 1730." In his highly popular 1978 book The Pirates for TimeLife's The Seafarers series, Douglas Botting defined the Golden Age as lasting "barely 30 years, starting at the close of the 17th Century and ending in the first quarter of the 18th."[7] Botting's definition was closely followed by Frank Sherry in 1986.[8] In a 1989 academic article, Professor Marcus Rediker defined the Golden Age as lasting only from 1716 to 1726.[9] Angus Konstam in 1998, reckoned the era as lasting from 1700 until 1730.[10]
Perhaps the ultimate step in restricting the Golden Age was in Konstam's 2005 The History of Pirates, in which he retreated from his own earlier definition, called a 1690–1730 definition of the Golden Age "generous," and concluded that "The worst of these pirate excesses was limited to an eight-year period, from 1714 until 1722, so the true Golden Age cannot even be called a 'golden decade.'"[11]
Recent countertrend toward broader meaning[edit]
David Cordingly, in his influential 1994 work Under the Black Flag, defined the "great age of piracy" as lasting from the 1650s to around 1725, very close to Fiske's definition of the Golden Age.[12]
Rediker, in 2004, described the most complex definition of the Golden Age to date. He proposes a "golden age of piracy, which spanned the period from roughly 1650 to 1730", which he subdivides into three distinct "generations": the buccaneers of 1650–1680, the Indian Ocean pirates of the 1690s, and the pirates of the years 1716–1726.[13]
Origins[edit]
Main article: Piracy in the Caribbean
Piracy arose out of, and mirrored on a smaller scale, the conflicts over trade and colonization among the rival European powers of the time, including the empires of Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Portugal and France. Most of these pirates were of Welsh, English, Dutch and French origin.
The buccaneering period, c. 1650–1680[edit]
Main article: Buccaneer
Historians, such as John Fiske, mark the beginning of the Golden Age of Piracy at around 1650, when the end of the Wars of Religion allowed European countries to resume the development of their colonial empires. This involved considerable seaborne trade, and a general economic improvement: there was money to be made—or stolen—and much of it traveled by ship.
French buccaneers had established themselves on northern Hispaniola as early as 1625,[14] but lived at first mostly as hunters rather than robbers; their transition to full-time piracy was gradual and motivated in part by Spanish efforts to wipe out both the buccaneers and the prey animals on which they depended. The buccaneers' migration from Hispaniola's mainland to the more defensible offshore island of Tortuga limited their resources and accelerated their piratical raids. According to Alexandre Exquemelin, a buccaneer and historian who remains a major source on this period, the Tortuga buccaneer Pierre Le Grand pioneered the settlers' attacks on galleons making the return voyage to Spain.
The growth of buccaneering on Tortuga was augmented by the English capture of Jamaica from Spain in 1655. The early English governors of Jamaica freely granted letters of marque to Tortuga buccaneers and to their own countrymen, while the growth of Port Royal provided these raiders with a far more profitable and enjoyable place to sell their booty. In the 1660s, the new French governor of Tortuga, Bertrand d'Ogeron, similarly provided privateering commissions both to his own colonists and to English cutthroats from Port Royal. These conditions brought Caribbean buccaneering to its zenith.
The Pirate Round, c. 1693–1700[edit]
Main article: Pirate Round
Henry Every is shown selling his loot in this engraving by Howard Pyle. Every's capture of the Grand Mughal ship Ganj-i-Sawai in 1695 stands as one of the most profitable pirate raids ever perpetrated.
A number of factors caused Anglo-American pirates, some of whom had cut their teeth during the buccaneering period, to look beyond the Caribbean for treasure as the 1690s began. The fall of Britain's Stuart period had restored the traditional enmity between Britain and France, thus ending the profitable collaboration between English Jamaica and French Tortuga. The devastation of Port Royal by an earthquake in 1692 further reduced the Caribbean's attractions by destroying the pirates' chief market for fenced plunder.[15] Caribbean colonial governors began to discard the traditional policy of "no peace beyond the Line", under which it was understood that war would continue (and thus letters of marque would be granted) in the Caribbean regardless of peace treaties signed in Europe; henceforth, commissions would be granted only in wartime, and their limitations would be strictly enforced. Furthermore, much of the Spanish Main had simply been exhausted; Maracaibo alone had been sacked three times between 1667 and 1678,[16] while Río de la Hacha had been raided five times and Tolú eight.[17]
At the same time, England's less-favored colonies, including Bermuda, New York, and Rhode Island, had become cash-starved by the Navigation Acts. Merchants and governors eager for coin were willing to overlook and even underwrite pirate voyages; one colonial official defended a pirate because he thought it "very harsh to hang people that brings in gold to these provinces".[18] Although some of these pirates operating out of New England and the Middle Colonies targeted Spain's more remote Pacific coast colonies well into the 1690s and beyond, the Indian Ocean was a richer and more tempting target. India's economic output dwarfed Europe's during this time, especially in high-value luxury goods such as silk and calico, which made ideal pirate booty;[19] at the same time, no powerful navies plied the Indian Ocean, leaving both local shipping and the various East India companies' vessels vulnerable to attack. This set the stage for the famous piracies of Thomas Tew, Henry Every, Robert Culliford, and (although his guilt remains controversial) William Kidd.
The post–Spanish Succession period[edit]
Between 1713 and 1714, a succession of peace treaties were signed which ended the War of the Spanish Succession (also called "Queen Anne's War"). With the end of this conflict, thousands of seamen, including Britain's paramilitary privateers, were relieved of military duty. The result was a large number of trained, idle sailors at a time when the cross-Atlantic colonial shipping trade was beginning to boom. In addition, Europeans who had been pushed by unemployment to become sailors and soldiers involved in slaving were often enthusiastic to abandon that profession and turn to pirating, giving pirate captains for many years a constant pool of trained European recruits to be found in west African waters and coasts.
In 1715, pirates launched a major raid on Spanish divers trying to recover gold from a sunken treasure galleon near Florida. The nucleus of the pirate force was a group of English ex-privateers, all of whom would soon be enshrined in infamy: Henry Jennings, Charles Vane, Samuel Bellamy of Whydah Gally fame, Benjamin Hornigold, and Edward England. The attack was successful, but contrary to their expectations, the governor of Jamaica refused to allow Jennings and their cohorts to spend their loot on his island. With Kingston and the declining Port Royal closed to them, Hornigold, Jennings and their comrades founded a new pirate base at Nassau, on the island of New Providence in the Bahamas, which had been abandoned during the war. Until the arrival of governor Woodes Rogers three years later, Nassau would be home for these pirates and their many recruits.
Shipping traffic between Africa, the Caribbean, and Europe began to soar in the 18th century, a model that was known as Triangular Transatlantic Slave Trade, and was a rich target for piracy. Trade ships sailed from Europe to the African coast, trading manufactured goods and weapons for slaves. The traders would then sail to the Caribbean to sell the slaves, and return to Europe with goods such as sugar, tobacco and cocoa. Another triangular trade saw ships carry raw materials, preserved cod, and rum to Europe, where a portion of the cargo would be sold for manufactured goods, which (along with the remainder of the original load) were transported to the Caribbean, where they were exchanged for sugar and molasses, which (with some manufactured articles) were borne to New England. Ships in the triangular trade made money at each stop.[20]
As part of the war's settlement, Britain obtained the asiento, a Spanish government contract, to supply slaves to Spain's new world colonies, providing British traders and smugglers more access to the traditionally closed Spanish markets in America. This arrangement also contributed heavily to the spread of piracy across the western Atlantic at this time. Shipping to the colonies boomed simultaneously with the flood of skilled mariners after the war. Merchant shippers used the surplus of sailors' labor to drive wages down, cutting corners to maximize their profits, and creating unsavory conditions aboard their vessels. Merchant sailors suffered from mortality rates as high or higher than the slaves being transported.[21] Living conditions were so poor that many sailors began to prefer a freer existence as a pirate. The increased volume of shipping traffic also could sustain a large body of brigands preying upon it.
Pirates of the era[edit]
Blackbeard's severed head hanging from Maynard's bowsprit
Many of the most well known pirates in historical lore originate from this Golden Age of Piracy.
Henry Morgan, a buccaneer who raided the Spaniards and took the city of Panama. He was to be executed in England but was instead knighted and made governor of Jamaica. He died a natural death in 1688.
Henry Every, who is most famous for being one of the few major pirate captains to retire with his loot without being arrested or killed in battle, and also for capturing the fabulously wealthy Mogul ship Ganj-i-Sawai in 1694.
William "Captain" Kidd, who was executed for piracy at Execution Dock, London in 1701, is famous for the 'buried treasure' he supposedly left behind.
"Black Sam" Bellamy, captain of the Whydah Gally, who was lost in a storm in 1717. Bellamy was popularly known as the "Robin Hood of pirates," and prided himself on his ideological justifications for piracy.
Charles Vane, a particularly violent and unrepentant pirate, who served under Henry Jennings before striking out on his own. Harsh and unpopular with his crew, Vane was marooned before being captured and hanged in 1721.
Stede Bonnet, a rich Barbadian land owner, turned pirate solely in search of adventure. Bonnet captained a 10-gun sloop, named the Revenge, raiding ships off the Virginia coast in 1717. He was caught and hanged in 1718.
Edward Teach (Thatch), more commonly known as Blackbeard, was active from 1716 to 1718 as perhaps the most notorious pirate among English-speaking nations. Blackbeard's most famous ship was the Queen Anne's Revenge, named in response to the end of Queen Anne's War. Blackbeard was killed by one of Lieutenant Robert Maynard's crewmen in 1718.
John "Calico Jack" Rackham, famous for his partnership with female pirates Anne Bonny and Mary Read, was captured, then hanged and gibbeted outside Port Royal, Jamaica in 1720.
Bartholomew Roberts, sometimes called "Black Bart", has been considered by many as the most successful Western pirate of all time with over 400 ship captures.
Edward Low, active 1721–1724, who was notorious for torturing his victims before killing them.
William Fly, whose execution in 1726 is used by historian Marcus Rediker to mark the end of the Golden Age of Pirates.
Pirate women[edit]
While most pirates were men, there were at least fifty cases of women entering the career of piracy (usually disguised as men). The best known female pirates were Anne Bonny (also sometimes spelled Bonney) and Mary Read.
Bonny developed a notorious reputation in Nassau and when she was unable to leave an earlier marriage, eloped with her lover, Calico Jack Rackham. Mary Read had been dressed as a boy all her life by her mother, and had spent time in the British military. She came to the West Indies (Caribbean) after leaving her husband, and joined Calico Jack's crew after he attacked a ship Read had been aboard. She divulged her sex only to Bonny at first, but revealed herself openly when accused by Rackham of having an affair with Bonny.[22]
When their ship was assaulted in 1720, the two women and an unknown man were the only ones to defend it, the other crew members being too drunk to fight. In the end they were captured and arrested.
After their capture both women were convicted of piracy and sentenced to death, but stalled their executions by claiming to be pregnant. Read died in jail months later, many believe of a fever or complications of childbirth. Bonny disappeared from historical documents, but no record of her execution or childbirth exist.[23]
Barbary pirates[edit]
Main article: Barbary pirates
Cornelis Hendricksz Vroom, Spanish Men-of-War Engaging Barbary Corsairs, 1615.
The Barbary pirates were pirates and privateers that operated from the North African (the "Barbary coast") ports of Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, Salé and ports in Morocco, preying on shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea from the time of the Crusades as well as on ships on their way to Asia around Africa until the early 19th century. The coastal villages and towns of Italy, Spain and Mediterranean islands were frequently attacked by them and long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants; since the 17th century, Barbary pirates occasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far north as Iceland. According to Robert Davis,[24][25] between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in the Arab world between the 16th and 19th centuries.
The early 17th century may be described as the flowering time of the Barbary pirates. This is because the introduction of new sailing rigs by Simon de Danser enabled the North African raiders, for the first time, to brave the Atlantic as well as Mediterranean waters. More than 20,000 captives were said to be imprisoned in Algiers alone. The rich were allowed to redeem themselves, but the poor were condemned to slavery. Their masters would on occasion allow them to secure freedom by professing Islam. A long list might be given of people of good social position, not only Italians or Spaniards, but also German and English travelers in the south, who were captives for a time.[26]
Iceland was subject to raids known as the Turkish Abductions in 1627. Murat Reis is said to have taken 400 prisoners; 242 of the captives later were sold into slavery on the Barbary Coast. The pirates took only young people and those in good physical condition. All those offering resistance were killed, and the old people were gathered into a church which was set on fire. Among those captured was Ólafur Egilsson, who was ransomed the next year and, upon returning to Iceland, wrote a slave narrative about his experience. Another famous captive from that raid was Guðríður Símonardóttir. The sack of Vestmannaeyjar is known in the history of Iceland as Tyrkjaránið.
One of the stereotypical features of a pirate in popular culture, the eye patch, dates back to the Arab pirate Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalahimah, who wore it after losing an eye in battle in the 18th century.[27]
Whilst the Golden Age of European and American pirates is generally considered to have ended between 1710 and 1730, the prosperity of the Barbary pirates continued until the early 19th century. Unlike the European powers, the young United States refused to pay tribute to the Barbary states, and responded with the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War against North Africa when the Barbary pirates captured and enslaved American sailors. Although the U.S. met with only limited success in these wars, France and Great Britain with their more powerful navies soon followed suit and stamped out the Barbary raiders.
Decline[edit]
By the early 18th century, tolerance for privateers was wearing thin in all nations. After the Treaty of Utrecht was signed, the excess of trained sailors without employment was both a blessing and a curse for all pirates. Initially the surplus of men had caused the number of pirates to multiply significantly. This inevitably led to the pillaging of more ships, which put a greater strain on trade for all European nations. In response European nations bolstered their own navies to offer greater protection for merchants and to hunt down pirates. The excess of skilled sailors meant there was a large pool that could be recruited into national navies as well. Piracy was clearly on a strong decline by 1720. The Golden Age of Piracy did not last the decade.
The events of the latter half of 1718 represent a turning point in the history of piracy in the New World. Without a safe base and in the growing pressure from naval forces, the rovers lost their momentum. The lure of the Spanish treasures had faded, and the hunters gradually became the hunted. By early 1719, the remaining pirates were on the run. Most of them headed for West Africa, seizing poorly defended slavers.[28]
Effect on popular culture[edit]
Although some of the details are often misremembered, the effect upon popular culture of the Golden Age of Piracy can hardly be overstated. A General History of the Pirates (1724) by Captain Charles Johnson is the prime source for the biographies of many well known pirates of the Golden Age, providing an extensive account of the period.[29] In giving an almost mythical status to the more colourful characters such as the notorious English pirates Blackbeard and Calico Jack, it is likely that the author used considerable licence in his accounts of pirate conversations.[29] In 2002, English naval historian David Cordingly wrote an introduction to Johnson's 1724 book, stating: "it has been said, and there seems no reason to question this, that Captain Johnson created the modern conception of pirates."[29] Johnson's book would influence the pirate literature of Robert Louis Stevenson and J. M. Barrie.[29] Such literary works as Stevenson's Treasure Island and Barrie's Peter Pan, while romanticized, drew heavily on pirates and piracy for their plots.[30]
Various claims and speculation about their overall image, attire, fashion, dress code, etc. have been made and contributed to their fanciful mystery and lore. For example, men wore earrings as the value of the gold or silver earring was meant to pay for their burial if they were lost at sea and their body washed ashore. They were also worn for superstitious reasons, believing the precious metals had magical healing powers.[31]
More recently, even less accurate depictions of historical-era pirates (e.g., Talk Like a Pirate Day) have advanced to the forefront. However, these phenomena have only served to advance the romantic image of piracy and its treasure-burying swashbucklers in popular culture.[32]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ George Powell, "A Pirate's Paradise," in The Gentleman's Magazine, vol. CCLXXVI, N.S. 52, Jan-June 1894, p. 23.
Jump up ^ John Fiske, 1897, Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, p. 338.
Jump up ^ Fiske, p. 339.
Jump up ^ R.D.W. Connor, 1909, Cornelius Harnett: An Essay in North Carolina History, P. 10; Francis Hodges Cooper, 1916, "Some Colonial History of Beaufort County, North Carolina," in James Sprunt Studies in History and Political Science, v. 14, no. 2, p. 32.
Jump up ^ Patrick Pringle, 1951, Jolly Roger: The Story of the Great Age of Piracy, p. 9 of the 2001 edition.
Jump up ^ Fiske, p. 341-42.
Jump up ^ Douglas Botting, 1978, The Pirates, p. 20.
Jump up ^ Frank Sherry, 1986, Raiders and Rebels: The Golden Age of Piracy, P. 7.
Jump up ^ Marcus Rediker, 1989, "'Under the Banner of King Death': The Social World of Anglo-American Pirates 1716–1726", William and Mary Quarterly, ser. 3, 38 (1981), 203-227.
Jump up ^ F; Konstam, supra, p. 5.
Jump up ^ Angus Konstam, 2005, The History of Pirates, p. 96.
Jump up ^ David Cordingly, 1995, Under the Black Flag: The Romance and Reality of Life Among the Pirates, pp. xvi–xvii.
Jump up ^ Marcus Rediker, 2004, Villains of All Nations, p. 8.
Jump up ^ "Tortuga - Pirate History - The Way of the Pirates". www.thewayofthepirates.com.
Jump up ^ Nigel Cawthorne (2005), Pirates: An Illustrated History, Arturus Publishing Ltd., 2005, p. 65.
Jump up ^ Cawthorne, pp. 34, 36, 58
Jump up ^ Peter Earle (2003), The Pirate Wars, ISBN 0-312-33579-2, p. 94.
Jump up ^ Earle, p. 148.
Jump up ^ Geoffrey Parker, ed. (1986), The World: An Illustrated History, Times Books Ltd., p. 317.
Jump up ^ Mark Kurlansky, Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World. Penguin, 1998.
Jump up ^ Rediker, 2004
Jump up ^ Commire, Anne; Klezmer, Deborah (2002). "Read, Mary and Anne Bonney". Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Gale. ISBN 078764062X.
Jump up ^ Cordingly, David. "Bonny, Anne (1698–1782)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004. Accessed 18 Nov 2006.
Jump up ^ "When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed". Ohio State Research News.
Jump up ^ Davis, Robert (2003). Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-4551-9.
Jump up ^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Barbary Pirates". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Charles Belgrave (1966), The Pirate Coast, p. 122, George Bell & Sons
Jump up ^ Ieuan W. Haywood 2009
^ Jump up to: a b c d A general history of the robberies & murders of the most notorious pirates. By Charles Johnson Page viii. Introduction and commentary by David Cordingly. Conway Maritime Press (2002).
Jump up ^ E.g., Cecil Adams, "Did pirates bury their treasure? Did pirates really make maps where "X marks the spot?" The Straight Dope, October 5, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Why Did Pirates Wear Earrings?".
Jump up ^ Cecil Adams, "Why are pirates depicted with a parrot on their shoulder? What's the origin of the skull and crossbones pirate flag?" The Straight Dope, October 12, 2007.
Flemming, Gregory. At the Point of a Cutlass: The Pirate Capture, Bold Escape, and Lonely Exile of Philip Ashton. ForeEdge (2014) ISBN 978-1611685152
Rediker, Marcus. Villains of all Nations: Atlantic Pirates in the Golden Age. Beacon Press: Boston (2004).
Rediker, Marcus. “Pirates and the Imperial State.“ Reviews in American History 16.3 (1988) : 351-357
Swanson, Carl E. “American Privateering and Imperial Warfare, 1739–1748.” The William and Mary Quarterly 42.3 (1985) : 357-382
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Piracy.
"America's Worst Pirates" from gregflemming.com
Cindy Vallar, "The Golden Age of Piracy"
The UnMuseum, "The Golden Age of Piracy"
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Piracy
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Types of pirate
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Noted pirates
Klaus Störtebeker
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Hayreddin Barbarossa
Blackbeard
Stede Bonnet
Anne Bonny
Abshir Boyah
Laurens de Graaf
Michel de Grammont
Calico Jack
Alexandre Exquemelin
William Kidd
Edward Low
Redbeard
William Dampier
Black Caesar
Henri Caesar
Roberto Cofresí
Jean Lafitte
Henry Morgan
Lawrence Prince
François l'Olonnais
Henry Strangways
Charles Gibbs
Benito de Soto
Diabolito
Pedro Gilbert
Mansel Alcantra
Hippolyte Bouchard
Samuel Hall Lord
Nathaniel Gordon
Albert W. Hicks
Eli Boggs
Bully Hayes
Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalahimah
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