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Drug
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For other uses, see Drug (disambiguation).
Caffeine, contained in coffee and other beverages, is the most widely used psychoactive drug in the world. 90% of North American adults consume the substance on a daily basis.[1]
Uncoated aspirin tablets, consisting of about 90% acetylsalicylic acid, along with a minor amount of inert fillers and binders. Aspirin is a pharmaceutical drug often used to treat pain, fever, and inflammation.
A drug is any substance (other than food that provides nutritional support) that, when inhaled, injected, smoked, consumed, absorbed via a patch on the skin, or dissolved under the tongue causes a temporary physiological (and often psychological) change in the body.[2][3]
In pharmacology, a drug is a chemical substance of known structure, other than a nutrient of an essential dietary ingredient, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect.[4] A pharmaceutical drug, also called a medication or medicine, is a chemical substance used to treat, cure, prevent, or diagnose a disease or to promote well-being.[2] Traditionally drugs were obtained through extraction from medicinal plants, but more recently also by organic synthesis.[5] Pharmaceutical drugs may be used for a limited duration, or on a regular basis for chronic disorders.[6]
Pharmaceutical drugs are often classified into drug classes—groups of related drugs that have similar chemical structures, the same mechanism of action (binding to the same biological target), a related mode of action, and that are used to treat the same disease.[7][8] The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC), the most widely used drug classification system, assigns drugs a unique ATC code, which is an alphanumeric code that assigns it to specific drug classes within the ATC system. Another major classification system is the Biopharmaceutics Classification System. This classifies drugs according to their solubility and permeability or absorption properties.[9]
Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that affect the function of the central nervous system, altering perception, mood or consciousness.[10] They include alcohol, a depressant (and a stimulant in small quantities), and the stimulants nicotine and caffeine. These three are the most widely consumed psychoactive drugs worldwide[11] and are also considered recreational drugs since they are used for pleasure rather than medicinal purposes.[12] Other recreational drugs include hallucinogens, opiates and amphetamines and some of these are also used in spiritual or religious settings. Some drugs can cause addiction [13] and all drugs can have side effects.[14] Excessive use of stimulants can promote stimulant psychosis. Many recreational drugs are illicit and international treaties such as the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs exist for the purpose of their prohibition.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Medication
3 Spiritual and religious use
4 Smart drugs and designer drugs
5 Recreational drug use
6 Administration of drugs
7 Control of drugs
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Etymology
In English, the noun "drug" is thought to originate from Old French "drogue", possibly deriving later into "droge-vate" from Middle Dutch meaning "dry barrels", referring to medicinal plants preserved in them.[15] The transitive verb "to drug" (meaning intentionally administer a substance to someone, often without their knowledge) arose later and invokes the psychoactive rather than medicinal properties of a substance.[16]
Medication
Nexium is a proton-pump inhibitor. It is used to reduce the production of stomach acid.
Main articles: Pharmaceutical drug and Drug class
A medication or medicine is a drug taken to cure or ameliorate any symptoms of an illness or medical condition. The use may also be as preventive medicine that has future benefits but does not treat any existing or pre-existing diseases or symptoms. Dispensing of medication is often regulated by governments into three categories—over-the-counter medications, which are available in pharmacies and supermarkets without special restrictions; behind-the-counter medicines, which are dispensed by a pharmacist without needing a doctor's prescription, and prescription only medicines, which must be prescribed by a licensed medical professional, usually a physician.[17]
In the United Kingdom, behind-the-counter medicines are called pharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies, by or under the supervision of a pharmacist. These medications are designated by the letter P on the label.[18] The range of medicines available without a prescription varies from country to country. Medications are typically produced by pharmaceutical companies and are often patented to give the developer exclusive rights to produce them. Those that are not patented (or with expired patents) are called generic drugs since they can be produced by other companies without restrictions or licenses from the patent holder.[19]
Pharmaceutical drugs are usually categorised into drug classes. A group of drugs will share a similar chemical structure, or have the same mechanism of action, the same related mode of action or target the same illness or related illnesses.[7][8] The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC), the most widely used drug classification system, assigns drugs a unique ATC code, which is an alphanumeric code that assigns it to specific drug classes within the ATC system. Another major classification system is the Biopharmaceutics Classification System. This groups drugs according to their solubility and permeability or absorption properties.[9]
Spiritual and religious use
Main article: Entheogen
An Amazonian shaman
San Pedro, a psychoactive cactus
Some religions, particularly ethnic religions are based completely on the use of certain drugs, known as entheogens, which are mostly hallucinogens,—psychedelics, dissociatives, or deliriants. Some drugs used as entheogens include kava which can act as a stimulant, a sedative, a euphoriant and an anesthetic. The roots of the kava plant are used to produce a drink which is consumed throughout the cultures of the Pacific Ocean.
Some shamans from different cultures use entheogens, defined as "generating the divine within"[20] to achieve religious ecstasy. Amazonian shamans use ayahuasca (yagé) a hallucinogenic brew for this purpose. Mazatec shamans have a long and continuous tradition of religious use of Salvia divinorum a psychoactive plant. Its use is to facilitate visionary states of consciousness during spiritual healing sessions.[21]
Silene undulata is regarded by the Xhosa people as a sacred plant and used as an entheogen. Its root is traditionally used to induce vivid (and according to the Xhosa, prophetic) lucid dreams during the initiation process of shamans, classifying it a naturally occurring oneirogen similar to the more well-known dream herb Calea ternifolia.[22]
Peyote a small spineless cactus has been a major source of psychedelic mescaline and has probably been used by Native Americans for at least five thousand years.[23][24] Most mescaline is now obtained from a few species of columnar cacti in particular from San Pedro and not from the vulnerable peyote.[25]
The entheogenic use of cannabis has also been widely practised [26] for centuries.[27] Rastafari use marijuana (ganja) as a sacrament in their religious ceremonies.
Psychedelic mushrooms (psilocybin mushrooms), commonly called magic mushrooms or shrooms have also long been used as entheogens.
Smart drugs and designer drugs
Main articles: Nootropic and Designer drug
Nootropics, also commonly referred to as "smart drugs", are drugs that are claimed to improve human cognitive abilities. Nootropics are used to improve memory, concentration, thought, mood, learning, and many other things. Some nootropics are now beginning to be used to treat certain diseases such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. They are also commonly used to regain brain function lost during aging.
Other drugs known as designer drugs are produced. An early example of what today would be labelled a 'designer drug' was LSD, which was synthesised from ergot.[28] Other examples include analogs of performance-enhancing drugs such as designer steroids taken to improve physical capabilities and these are sometimes used (legally or not) for this purpose, often by professional athletes.[29] Other designer drugs mimic the effects of psychoactive drugs. Since the late 1990s there has been the identification of many of these synthesised drugs. In Japan and the United Kingdom this has spurred the addition of many designer drugs into a newer class of controlled substances known as a temporary class drug.
Synthetic cannabinoids have been produced for a longer period of time and are used in the designer drug synthetic cannabis.
Recreational drug use
Cannabis is a commonly used recreational drug.[30]
Main article: Recreational drug use
Further information: Prohibition of drugs
Recreational drug use is the use of a drug (legal, controlled, or illegal) with the primary intention of altering the state of consciousness through alteration of the central nervous system in order to create positive emotions and feelings. The hallucinogen LSD is a psychoactive drug commonly used as a recreational drug.[31]
Some national laws prohibit the use of different recreational drugs; and medicinal drugs that have the potential for recreational use are often heavily regulated. However, there are many recreational drugs that are legal in many jurisdictions and widely culturally accepted. Cannabis is the most commonly consumed controlled recreational drug in the world (as of 2012).[32] Its use in many countries is illegal but is legally used in several countries usually with the proviso that it can only be used for personal use. It can be used in the leaf form of marijuana (grass), or in the resin form of hashish. Marijuana is a more mild form of cannabis than hashish.
There may be an age restriction on the consumption and purchase of legal recreational drugs. Some recreational drugs that are legal and accepted in many places include alcohol, tobacco, betel nut, and caffeine products, and in some areas of the world the legal use of drugs such as khat is common.[33]
There are a number of legal intoxicants commonly called legal highs that are used recreationally. The most widely used of these is alcohol.
Administration of drugs
All drugs, can be administered via a number of routes, and many can be administered by more than one.
Bolus is the administration of a medication, drug or other compound that is given to raise its concentration in blood to an effective level. The administration can be given intravenously, by intramuscular, intrathecal or subcutaneous injection.
Inhaled, (breathed into the lungs), as an aerosol or dry powder. (This includes smoking a substance)
Injection as a solution, suspension or emulsion either: intramuscular, intravenous, intraperitoneal, intraosseous.
Insufflation, or snorted into the nose.
Orally, as a liquid or solid, that is absorbed through the intestines.
Rectally as a suppository, that is absorbed by the rectum or colon.
Sublingually, diffusing into the blood through tissues under the tongue.
Topically, usually as a cream or ointment. A drug administered in this manner may be given to act locally or systemically.[34]
Vaginally as a pessary, primarily to treat vaginal infections.
Control of drugs
There are numerous governmental offices in many countries that deal with the control and oversee of drug manufacture and use, and the implementation of various drug laws. The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is an international treaty brought about in 1961 to prohibit the use of narcotics save for those used in medical research and treatment. In 1971, a second treaty the Convention on Psychotropic Substances had to be introduced to deal with newer recreational psychoactive and psychedelic drugs.
The legal status of Salvia divinorum varies in many countries and even in states within the United States. Where it is legislated against the degree of prohibition also varies.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States is a federal agency responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the regulation and supervision of food safety, tobacco products, dietary supplements, prescription and over-the-counter medications, vaccines, biopharmaceuticals, blood transfusions, medical devices, electromagnetic radiation emitting devices, cosmetics, animal foods[35] and veterinary drugs.
See also
Pharmacy and Pharmacology portal
Controlled Substances Act
Drug development
Inverse benefit law
Lifestyle drug
List of drugs
List of pharmaceutical companies
List of psychoactive plants
List of Schedule I drugs (US)
Medical cannabis
Pharmacognosy
Placebo
Prodrug
Specialty drugs (United States)
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
References
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^ Jump up to: a b "Drug". Dictionary.com Unabridged. v 1.1. Random House. 20 September 2007. Archived from the original on 14 September 2007 – via Dictionary.com.
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^ Jump up to: a b Bergström, CA; Andersson, SB; Fagerberg, JH; Ragnarsson, G; Lindahl, A (16 June 2014). "Is the full potential of the biopharmaceutics classification system reached?". European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 57: 224–31. doi:10.1016/j.ejps.2013.09.010. PMID 24075971.
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Jump up ^ El-Seedi HR, De Smet PA, Beck O, Possnert G, Bruhn JG (October 2005). "Prehistoric peyote use: alkaloid analysis and radiocarbon dating of archaeological specimens of Lophophora from Texas". J Ethnopharmacol. 101 (1–3): 238–42. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.04.022. PMID 15990261.
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Further reading
Richard J. Miller (2014). Drugged: the science and culture behind psychotropic drugs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-995797-2.
External links
DrugBank, a database of 4800 drugs and 2500 protein drug targets
"Drugs", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Richard Davenport-Hines, Sadie Plant and Mike Jay (In Our Time, May 23, 2002)
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Drugs.
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Pharmacology: major drug groups
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metabolism (A)
stomach acid
Antacids
H2 antagonists
Proton pump inhibitors
Antiemetics
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Anti-obesity drugs
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Receptor/signaling modulators
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Amino acids and related: GABA receptor modulators
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Phosphodiesterase inhibitors
Ion channels: Ion channel modulators
TRP channel modulators
Transporters: Sodium-glucose transporter modulators
Symporter inhibitors
Others: Nitric oxide signaling modulators
See also
Pharmacomodulation
Cell signaling
Neurotransmitters'
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text:
Valinor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Valinor
Tolkien's legendarium location
Created by
J. R. R. Tolkien
Genre
Novel
Type
Land
Notable locations
Tirion
Notable characters
Valar, Elves
First appearance
The Lord of the Rings
Valinor (Land of the Valar) is a fictional location in J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium, the realm of the Valar in Aman. It was also known as the Undying Lands, along with Tol Eressëa and the outliers of Aman. This latter name is somewhat misleading; the land itself, while blessed, did not cause mortals to live forever.[1] However, only immortal beings were generally allowed to reside there. Exceptionally, the surviving bearers of the One Ring were allowed to dwell there for a time--Bilbo and Frodo Baggins and Sam Gamgee--and perhaps[dubious – discuss] Gimli son of Glóin who, it is said, accompanied his friend Legolas to Valinor.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography and residents
2 History
3 Other fantasy uses of the word
4 See also
5 References
6 Works cited
7 External links
Geography and residents[edit]
See also: Aman (Middle-earth)
In Tolkien's works Valinor is the home of the Valar (singular Vala), spirits that often take humanoid form, sometimes called "gods" by the Men of Middle-earth. Other residents of Valinor include the related but less powerful spirits, the Maiar, and most of the Eldar. Valinor lies in Aman, a continent west of Middle-earth. Ekkaia, the encircling sea surrounds both Aman and Middle-earth.
Valinor is located in the middle of Aman, in the tropical and subtropical latitudes. The land has a warm climate generally, though snow falls on the peaks of the Pelóri, the mountains that border Valinor. Every animal and plant found elsewhere in Middle-earth exists in Valinor along with species endemic to Valinor.
While Valinor proper is the part of Aman inside the Pelóri, the "shore of Valinor" where the Elves live is considered a part of Valinor as well.
Each Vala has its own region of the land where it resides and alters things as it pleases. The Mansions of Manwë and Varda, two of the most powerful spirits, stood upon Taniquetil, the highest mountain of the Pelóri. Yavanna, the Vala of Earth, Growth, and Harvest, resided in the Pastures of Yavanna in the south of the land, west of the Pelóri. Near-by were the mansions of Yavanna's spouse, Aulë the Smith, who made the Dwarves. Oromë, the Vala of the Hunt, lived in the Woods of Oromë to the north-east of the pastures. Nienna, the lonely Vala of Sorrow and Endurance, lived in the far west of the island where she spent her days crying about all the evil of the world, looking out to sea. Just south of Nienna's home, and to the north of the pastures, were the Halls of Mandos. Mandos was the Vala of the After-life. Also living in the Halls of Mandos was his spouse Vairë the weaver, who weaves the threads of time. To the east of the Halls of Mandos is the Isle of Estë, which is situated in the middle of the lake of Lórellin, which in turn lies to the north of the Gardens of Lórien (not to be confused with Lothlórien in Middle-earth). Estë and Lórien were married.
In east-central Valinor at the Girdle of Arda (the Equator of Tolkien's world) is Valmar, the capital of Valinor (also called Valimar or the City of Bells), the residence of the Valar and the Maiar in the realm of Valinor. The first house of the Elves, the Vanyar, settled there as well. The mound of Ezellohar, on which stood the Two Trees, and Máhanaxar, the Ring of Doom, are outside Valmar. Farther east is the Calacirya, the only easy pass through the Pelóri, a huge mountain range fencing Valinor on three sides, created to keep Morgoth's forces out. In the pass is the city Tirion, built on a hill, the city of the Noldor Elves. By the shore of the sea, north-east of Tirion, is the Telerin Elves' port Alqualondë.
Directly east of the shore of Valinor is the isle of Tol Eressëa, where the Elves later built the city of Avallónë and where the Teleri lived for centuries before moving to Valinor itself.
In the northern inner foothills of the Pelóri, hundreds of miles north of Valmar was Fëanor's city of Formenos, built upon his banishment from Tirion.
In the extreme north-east, beyond the Pelóri, was the Helcaraxë, a vast ice sheet that joined the two continents of Aman and Middle-earth before the War of Wrath. A long chain of islands called the Enchanted Isles were raised along the east coast Aman, to prevent anyone from reaching Aman by sea, without the blessing of the Valar.
After the destruction of Númenor, the Undying Lands were removed from Arda so that Men could not reach them. The Elves could go there only by the Straight Road and in ships capable of passing out of the spheres of the earth.
The size of Valinor is not specified in the text, and Tolkien created no detailed maps of Aman. The maps of Karen Wynn Fonstad, based on Tolkien's rough sketch of Arda's landmasses and seas, show Valinor about 800 miles wide, west to east (from the Great Sea to the Outer Sea), and about 3000 miles long north to south - similar in size to the United States. The entire continent of Aman runs from the Arctic latitudes of the Helcaraxë to the subarctic southern region of Middle-earth - about 7000 miles.
History[edit]
Valinor was established on the western continent Aman when Melkor (a Vala later named Morgoth, "the black foe", by the Elves) destroyed the Valar's original home on the island Almaren. To defend their new home from attack, they raised the Pelóri Mountains. They also established Valimar, the radiant Two Trees, and their abiding places. Valinor was said to have surpassed Almaren in beauty.
Later, the Valar heard of the awakening of the Elves in Middle-earth, where Melkor was unopposed. They proposed to bring the Elves to the safety of Valinor. However, to get Elves to Valinor, they needed to get Melkor out of the way. A war was fought, and Melkor's stronghold Utumno was destroyed. Then, many Elves came to Valinor, and established their cities Tirion and Alqualonde, beginning Valinor's age of glory.
There was a problem, however. Melkor had come back to Valinor as a prisoner, and after three Ages was brought before the Valar and he sued for pardon, with a vow to assist the Valar and make amends for the hurts he had done. Manwë then granted him pardon, but confined him within Valmar to remain under watch. After his release, Melkor started planting seeds of dissent in the minds of the Elves (particularly, the Noldor - the Vanyar would not hear him and Melkor considered the Teleri weak) in Valinor, saying that the Valar had brought them here so that they would control them and claim their lands in Middle-earth as their own and that they were prisoners of the Valar. He also created dissent between Fëanor and his brothers Fingolfin and Finarfin.
Belatedly, the Valar learned what Melkor had done. Knowing that he was discovered, Melkor went to the home of the Noldorin elves' High King Finwë and stole the Noldorin elves' prized jewels, the Silmarils, killing the king in the process. Melkor destroyed the Two Trees of Valinor with the help of Ungoliant, bringing an endless night to Valinor, then fled back to Middle-earth, to his other stronghold, Angband.
The Two Trees, from which all light both in Valinor and in Middle-earth came, were dead. The last flowers of the Trees were given to two Maiar, each in their own ship, to sail around the world at different times of the day so that neither Valinor nor Middle-earth would be in darkness. One was called the Sun, and it shone a bright yellow. The other was called the Moon and it shone with a pale white light.
As a result of the killing of king Finwë, the majority of the Noldor, led by Fëanor son of Finwë, the maker of the Silmarils, declared their rebellion and decided to pursue Melkor, afterwards known as Morgoth, to Middle-earth to win back their jewels and avenge their king. The Noldor would not listen to Manwë, the lord of the Valar, telling them that they had themselves come to Valinor of their own free will and that the Valar had no desire to rule or control any of them. But Manwë's messenger said also that if they choose to leave and to fight Melkor on their own, the Valar would not help them and that they would suffer great pain and grief on their journey.
Valinor took no part in the struggle between the Noldor and Morgoth, but when the Noldor were in total defeat, the mariner Eärendil convinced the Valar to make a last attack on Morgoth. A mighty host of Maiar, Vanyar and the remaining Noldor in Valinor destroyed Morgoth's gigantic army, destroyed Angband and cast Morgoth into the void.
During the Second Age, Valinor performed a single action: the building of the island Andor as a reward to the Edain (who had fought with the Noldor), where they established Númenor. Soon, the kingdom of Númenor grew powerful, and even invaded Valinor. Then Eru Ilúvatar was called upon by the Valar and the island was destroyed, Aman was lifted out of Arda, and the world was bereft of Valar. Arda then became spherical and was left for Men to govern.
During the Third Age, recognizing that an outright confrontation with dark Maia Sauron would be disastrous, the Valar sent the Istari to Middle-earth with the intent of giving counsel to Men in their resistance to the growing power of the Dark Lord.
Other fantasy uses of the word[edit]
In the Arcanis Dungeons & Dragons campaign setting the word "Valinor" also refers to celestial servants of the Gods. Their names often are in the style of the god, such as the Mercy of Neroth or the Judgement of Nier.
In the 2003 pinball game (by Stern Pinball), Valinor is the game's final "Wizard Mode".
The Townes van Zandt song, "The Silver Ships of Andilar", makes mention of a land called Valinor, although it is unclear if it is meant to be the same location, since van Zandt describes it as a lifeless plain. The song could be telling the story of Númenóreans sailing the Encircling Sea to reach Valinor. Aldarion was not only a mariner, but a Númenórean king as well. Van Zandt also describes a "lifeless plain" as only immortal beings are allowed to live in Valinor.
See also[edit]
Middle-earth portal
Valhalla, a similar location in Norse mythology
Álfheimr, another similar location in Norse mythology
References[edit]
Jump up ^ J. R. R. Tolkien, Letters, ed. by Humphrey Carpenter, #156, p. 205.
Jump up ^ J. R. R. Tolkien, The Return of the King, "The Grey Havens", p.1006, and Appendix B, entry for S.R. 1482 and 1541.
Jump up ^ J. R. R. Tolkien, Letters, ed. by Humphrey Carpenter, #249, p. 328–329.
Works cited[edit]
Tolkien, J. R. R. The Return of the King. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-00224-3.
Tolkien, J. R. R. Humphrey Carpenter, ed. Letters. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-05699-8.
Oberhelman, David D. (2006). "Valinor". In Drout, Michael D. C. J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment. Routledge. pp. 692–693. ISBN 0-415-96942-5.
Fonstad, Karen Wynn (1991), The Atlas of Middle-earth, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Lothlórien, ISBN 0-618-12699-6
External links[edit]
Valinor at the Encyclopedia of Arda
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