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It's My Life (Talk Talk song)
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"It's My Life"
Single by Talk Talk
from the album It's My Life
B-side
"Does Caroline Know?"
Released
13 January 1984
Format
7" vinyl
12" vinyl
cassette (reissue)
CD (reissue)
Recorded
1983
Genre
Synthpop[1]
new wave[2]
Length
3:53
Label
EMI
Parlophone
Songwriter(s)
Mark Hollis
Tim Friese-Greene
Producer(s)
Tim Friese-Greene
Talk Talk singles chronology
"My Foolish Friend"
(1983) "It's My Life"
(1984) "Such a Shame"
(1984)
"It's My Life" is a song by the English new wave band Talk Talk. Written by Mark Hollis and Tim Friese-Greene, it was the title track on the band's second album and released as its first single in January 1984. It reached #46 in the UK charts, but did better in several other countries, reaching #33 in Germany, #32 in New Zealand, #25 in France and #7 in Italy. It was also a success in North America, entering the Top 40 in both the United States (#31) and Canada (#30). (Notably, it peaked at #1 on the U.S. Hot Dance Club Play chart.)
The single was re-released in the UK in 1985, but this time only reached #93. However, in 1990, "It's My Life" was reissued again to promote the compilation album Natural History: The Very Best of Talk Talk. This time, the song was a hit in the UK, reaching #13, the band's highest chart-placing single in its native country.
The song is also featured on the Rockstar Games video game for PlayStation Portable and PlayStation 2 Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories on the 'Flash FM' radio station. It also is one of the songs played during gameplay for Activision Anthology for the PlayStation 2. The song is featured on Saints Row: The Third on 'The Mix 107.77' radio station.
Contents
1 Music video
2 Track listings
3 Chart positions
4 No Doubt version
4.1 Commercial performance
4.2 Music video
4.3 Track listing and formats
4.4 Official versions
4.5 Charts
4.5.1 Weekly charts
4.6 Certifications
5 References
Music video[edit]
There are two versions of the video for "It's My Life". The first, envisioned by director Tim Pope as a statement against the banality of lip-synching, consists almost entirely of footage from wildlife documentaries, interspersed with shots of Talk Talk lead singer Mark Hollis standing in various places throughout the London Zoo. He keeps his hands in his coat pockets and his mouth pointedly shut tight, the latter often obscured by hand-drawn animated lines that occasionally appear in the documentary footage sequences as well.
The second version, recorded at the behest of EMI, consisted of the entirety of the original video projected on a green screen behind Hollis on guitar and vocals as well as his two bandmates as they lip-synched and mimed the song, deliberately poorly and with comic exaggerated gestures.[3]
Track listings[edit]
1984 release
7" single
"It's My Life" — 3:50
"Does Caroline Know?" — 4:36
12" single - North America
"It's My Life" (extended version) — 6:14
"It's My Life" — 3:50
"Again, a Game…Again" — 4:09
12" single - Europe
"It's My Life" (12" remix) — 6:16
"Does Caroline Know?" — 4:33
"It's My Life" — 3:50
1990 reissue
7" single
"It's My Life" – 3:50
"Renée" (live) – 7:28
CD maxi
"It's My Life" – 3:50
"Renée" (live) – 7:28
"It's My Life" (live) – 7:58
Chart positions[edit]
Chart (1984)
Peak
position
Australia (Kent Music Report)[4] 73
Canada (RPM 50 Singles)[5] 30
France (SNEP)[6] 25
Germany (Official German Charts)[7] 33
Italy (FIMI)[8] 7
Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)[9] 31
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[10] 30
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[11] 32
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[12] 46
US Billboard Hot 100[13] 31
US Radio & Records CHR/Pop Airplay Chart[14] 31
US Billboard Top Tracks[15] 23
US Hot Dance Club Play (Billboard) 1
Chart (1990)
Peak
position
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[16] 44
Belgium (VRT Top 30 Flanders)[17] 29
Germany (Media Control Charts)[18] 49
Ireland (IRMA)[19] 23
Poland (Polish Singles Chart)[20] 6
UK (Official Charts Company)[12] 13
No Doubt version[edit]
"It's My Life"
Single by No Doubt
from the album The Singles 1992–2003
Released
October 30, 2003
Format
CD
digital download
Recorded
2003
Genre
Pop rock
new wave
synthpop
Length
3:46
Label
Interscope
Songwriter(s)
Mark Hollis
Tim Friese-Greene
Producer(s)
Nellee Hooper
No Doubt
No Doubt singles chronology
"Running"
(2003) "It's My Life"
(2003) "Bathwater (Invincible Overlord Remix)"
(2004)
Music video
"It's My Life on YouTube
The American ska band No Doubt recorded a cover version of the song to promote their first greatest hits album The Singles 1992–2003 (2003). Because the band was on hiatus, while lead singer Gwen Stefani recorded her solo debut album, they decided to record a cover to avoid having to write a new song.[21] Eventually, after the band listened to hundreds of songs from the 1980s, they narrowed it down to two contenders — "It's My Life" and "Don't Change" by Australian rock band INXS ("A Question of Lust" by English electronic band Depeche Mode was another close contender).[22] No Doubt were dubious about recording a cover and contemplated writing new material.[21] However, they decided on "It's My Life" after rehearsing the song with producer Nellee Hooper,[22] referring to it as a "feel-good" song.[21] No Doubt's version of "It's My Life" was nominated for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal at the 47th Grammy Awards.[23] Jacques Lu Cont, the song's programmer, created the Thin White Duke mix of "It's My Life", which won the award for Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical.[24]
This version was featured on the video game Karaoke Revolution Volume 2. On 9 December 2008 it was also made available as downloadable content for the Rock Band series.
Commercial performance[edit]
No Doubt's cover version was successful in the United States, reaching number ten on the Billboard Hot 100, and remaining on the chart for 28 weeks.[25] On the Radio & Records CHR/Pop Airplay chart the song debuted at number 41 on the October 10, 2003 issue and after six weeks reached and peaked at number five staying there for two non-consecutive weeks, it remained on the top-ten of the chart for nine weeks and remained on it for 20 weeks.[26] It was moderately successful on adult contemporary stations, reaching number 20 on the US Adult Contemporary chart, but had high longevity and appeared atop the Adult Top 40's recurrent chart. The single was more successful at nightclubs, peaking at number 16 on the US Dance Club Songs chart, and had some play on modern rock stations, reaching number 32 on the US Alternative Songs chart.[27] The Recording Industry Association of America certified the digital download gGold for selling 500,000 copies.[28]
On the UK Singles chart, "It's My Life" debuted at number 20 but was unable to reach a higher position until it was released with a remix of the No Doubt song "Bathwater" which boosted the single up to number seventeen. The single dropped off the chart after seven weeks. It was more of a success across Europe, reaching the top-ten in Italy, Finland, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden, and the top 20 in Austria, Belgium, France and Switzerland.[25] The single reached number seven on the ARIA Charts in Australia, lasting 17 weeks on the chart,[25] and was listed at number 81 on the 2004 year-end chart.[29] The Australian Recording Industry Association certified the single Platinum in 2004 for shipping 70,000 copies.[30]
Music video[edit]
No Doubt's lead singer Gwen Stefani on trial in the music video.
The 1930s-style music video for the song was directed by David LaChapelle.[31] In the video, Stefani portrays a black widow whose look closely resembles that of actress Jean Harlow (whom Stefani portrayed in the Martin Scorsese film The Aviator),[32] who is put on trial and sentenced to death for the murders of three men she knew, who are portrayed by the other members of the band. She kills the first man (guitarist Tom Dumont) with rat poison mixed into his dinner, the second (bassist Tony Kanal) by running him over with his car, and the third (drummer Adrian Young) by throwing her hair dryer into the bathtub to electrocute him. These scenes are intercut with moments of Stefani in court and being dragged to the gas chamber wearing a prison uniform where she is executed. The video ends with the three murder victims together presumably in the afterlife, laughing at her televised execution.
The music video was moderately successful on video chart programs. On MTV's Total Request Live, it reached number 7 in November 2003[33] and was on the countdown as late as January 2004.[34] The video peaked at number 8 on MuchMusic's Countdown and remained on the program through March 2004.[35] At the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards, "It's My Life" won the awards for Best Group Video and Best Pop Video. It also received nominations for Best Direction, Best Cinematography, and Best Art Direction.[36]
Track listing and formats[edit]
2-track
"It's My Life" — 3:46
"Rock Steady" (live) — 5:53
CD single
"It's My Life" — 3:46
"Sunday Morning" (2002 live) — 4:49
"Rock Steady" (2002 live) — 5:53
"Bathwater" (2002 live) — 4:01
UK CD single[37]
"It's My Life" — 3:46
"Rock Steady" (2002 live) — 5:53
"Bathwater" (2002 live) — 4:01
UK re-issue "It's My Life" / "Bathwater" double A-side CD single[38][39]
"It's My Life" — 3:46
"Bathwater" (Invincible Overlord Remix) — 3:07
"It's My Life" (Jacques Lu Cont's Thin White Duke Mix) — 6:59
"It's My Life" (Chocolate O'Brian Remix) — 5:43
"Bathwater" (Invincible Overlord Remix Video)
"It's My Life" (Video)
Official versions[edit]
"It's My Life" — 3:46
"It's My Life" (Jacques Lu Cont's Thin White Duke Mix) — 6:59
"It's My Life" (Chocolate O'Brien Remix) — 6:30
"It's My Life" (Dave Aude Remix) — 3:51 (unreleased)
"It's My Life" (Dave Aude Club Edit Mix) - 3:47
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (2003–04)
Peak
position
Australia (ARIA)[40] 7
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[41] 12
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[42] 11
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)[43] 9
Canada (Nielsen SoundScan)[44] 23
Finland (Suomen virallinen lista)[45] 14
France (SNEP)[46] 19
Germany (Official German Charts)[47] 9
Ireland (IRMA)[48]
As a double A-side with "Bathwater" 6
Italy (FIMI)[49] 7
Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)[50] 4
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[51] 6
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[52] 8
Norway (VG-lista)[53] 3
Poland (Polish Singles Chart)[54] 1
Scotland (Official Charts Company)[55] 12
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[56] 4
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[57] 12
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[58] 20
US Billboard Hot 100[27] 10
US Adult Contemporary (Billboard)[59] 20
US Adult Top 40 (Billboard)[60] 3
US Alternative Songs (Billboard)[61] 32
US Dance Club Songs (Billboard)[62] 16
US Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard)[63] 5
US Top 40 Tracks (Billboard)[27] 4
Certifications[edit]
Country
Certification
Sales
Australia Gold[64] 35,000+
United States Gold[65] 500,000
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jonathan Barnes (18 October 2010). "When the man from Talk Talk fell silent". EADT 24. Eadt.co.uk. Retrieved 23 July 2013. "the EMI-signed group achieved reasonable commercial success; even a couple of top 20 singles in the synth-pop classic It’s My Life"
Jump up ^ Amy Phillips (31 August 2012). "Talk Talk's Mark Hollis Resurfaces With New Music for the Kelsey Grammer TV Show "Boss"". Pitchfork. Pitchfork Media Inc. Retrieved 23 July 2013. "After hitting it big as new wave stars in the early and mid-80s, with massive singles like "It's My Life" and "Life's What You Make It", Talk Talk abandoned synth-pop and went experimental."
Jump up ^ Alan McGee (9 April 2008). "Wherefore art thou Mark Hollis?". The Guardian music blog. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
Jump up ^ bulion. "Forum - ARIA Charts: Special Occasion Charts - CHART POSITIONS PRE 1989". ARIA. Australian-charts.com. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Top Singles - Volume 40, No. 11, May 19, 1984". Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
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Jump up ^ "I singoli più venduti del 1984". HitParadeItalia (in Italian). Creative Commons. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
45. It's my life - Talk Talk [#7]
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Jump up ^ "Charts.nz – Talk Talk – It's My Life". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
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Jump up ^ "The Irish Charts - All there is to know". IRMA. Archived from the original on 12 October 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2013. 2nd and 4th results when searching "It's my life"
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^ Jump up to: a b c Jennifer Vineyard and SuChin Pak (15 September 2003). "No Doubt To Tell Fans 'It's My Life'". MTV News. MTV.com. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Paris Montoya and Tom Lanham "It's My Life". The Singles 1992-2003. Interscope Records. 25 November 2003.
Jump up ^ "Grammy Awards 2005: Key winners". BBC News. News.bbc.co.uk. 14 February 2005. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "ASCAP Members Winning Multiple Awards include Beyoncé, OutKast, Justin". ASCAP. Ascap.com. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "No Doubt - It's My Life - Music Charts". aCharts.us. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
Jump up ^ http://wweb.uta.edu/faculty/gghunt/charts/Songruns/N/NoDoubt/it.htm
^ Jump up to: a b c "No Doubt awards at Allmusic". Allmusic. Rovi Corporation. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "RIAA - Gold & Platinum Searchable Database". RIAA. RIAA.com. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
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Jump up ^ Jennifer Vineyard, Corey Moss (27 October 2003). "Gwen Stefani Bumps Off Bandmates In 'It's My Life'". MTV. Viacom International Inc. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Jennifer Vineyard (27 October 2003). "Gwen Stefani Feeling Hella Good About Role In Scorsese Flick". MTV. Viacom International Inc. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
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Jump up ^ "The Irish Charts – Search Results – It's My Life / Bathwater". Irish Singles Chart. Retrieved 26 April 2018.
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show
v
t
e
Talk Talk
Mark Hollis
Lee Harris
Paul Webb
Simon Brenner
Albums
The Party's Over
It's My Life
The Colour of Spring
Spirit of Eden
Laughing Stock
Live albums
London 1986
Singles
"Mirror Man"
"Talk Talk"
"Today"
"Another Word"
"My Foolish Friend"
"It's My Life"
"Such a Shame"
"Dum Dum Girl"
"Tomorrow Started (live)"
"Life's What You Make It"
"Living in Another World"
"Give It Up"
"I Don't Believe in You"
"I Believe in You"
"Living in Another World '91 (remix)"
"After the Flood"
"New Grass"
"Ascension Day"
"It's My Life (Liquid People vs. Talk Talk)"
Compilations
Natural History: The Very Best of Talk Talk
History Revisited: The Remixes
Asides Besides
12x12 Original Remixes
The Collection
Missing Pieces
Introducing ... Talk Talk
Video
Live at Montreux 1986
Related articles
Discography
Tim Friese-Greene
Mark Hollis (album)
.O.rang
Out of Season
Streets
show
v
t
e
No Doubt singles
Discography
Songs
No Doubt
"Trapped in a Box"
The Beacon Street Collection
"Squeal"
Tragic Kingdom
"Just a Girl"
"Spiderwebs"
"Don't Speak"
"Excuse Me Mr."
"Sunday Morning"
"Happy Now?"
"Hey You!"
Return of Saturn
"New"
"Ex-Girlfriend"
"Simple Kind of Life"
"Bathwater"
Rock Steady
"Hey Baby"
"Hella Good"
"Underneath It All"
"Running"
Push and Shove
"Settle Down"
"Looking Hot"
Other singles
"It's My Life"
"Bathwater (Invincible Overlord Remix)"
Promotional singles
"Making Out"
"Stand and Deliver"
"Push and Shove"
Other songs
"Love to Love You Baby"
"Monkey Man"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=It%27s_My_Life_(Talk_Talk_song)&oldid=864893916"
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Acid
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about acids in chemistry. For the drug, see Lysergic acid diethylamide. For other uses, see Acid (disambiguation).
"Acidity" redirects here. For the novelette, see Acidity (novelette).
"Acidic" redirects here. For the band, see Acidic (band).
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Zinc, a typical metal, reacting with hydrochloric acid, a typical acid
Acids and bases
pH
Reaction
Titration
Extraction
Dissociation constant (acid)
Acid strength
Acidity function
Buffer solutions
Proton affinity
Self-ionization of water
Amphoterism
Acid types
Brønsted
Lewis
Mineral
Organic
Strong
Superacids
Weak
Monobasic acid
Dibasic acid
Tribasic acid
Solid
Base types
Brønsted
Lewis
Organic
Strong
Superbases
Non-nucleophilic
Weak
v
t
e
An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron (proton or hydrogen ion H+), or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair (a Lewis acid).[1]
The first category of acids is the proton donors or Brønsted acids. In the special case of aqueous solutions, proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O+ and are known as Arrhenius acids. Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents. A Brønsted or Arrhenius acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H+.
Aqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties which provide a practical description of an acid.[2] Acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals (like calcium) to form salts. The word acid is derived from the Latin acidus/acēre meaning sour.[3] An aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as 'acid' (as in 'dissolved in acid'), while the strict definition refers only to the solute.[1] A lower pH means a higher acidity, and thus a higher concentration of positive hydrogen ions in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic.
Common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid (a solution of hydrogen chloride which is found in gastric acid in the stomach and activates digestive enzymes), acetic acid (vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of this liquid), sulfuric acid (used in car batteries), and citric acid (found in citrus fruits). As these examples show, acids (in the colloquial sense) can be solutions or pure substances, and can be derived from acids (in the strict[1] sense) that are solids, liquids, or gases. Strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid.
The second category of acids are Lewis acids, which form a covalent bond with an electron pair. An example is boron trifluoride (BF3), whose boron atom has a vacant orbital which can form a covalent bond by sharing a lone pair of electrons on an atom in a base, for example the nitrogen atom in ammonia (NH3). Lewis considered this as a generalization of the Brønsted definition, so that an acid is a chemical species that accepts electron pairs either directly or by releasing protons (H+) into the solution, which then accept electron pairs. However, hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted-Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids.[4] Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted-Lowry acids. In modern terminology, an acid is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as a Lewis acid.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Definitions and concepts
1.1 Arrhenius acids
1.2 Brønsted–Lowry acids
1.3 Lewis acids
2 Dissociation and equilibrium
3 Nomenclature
4 Acid strength
5 Chemical characteristics
5.1 Monoprotic acids
5.2 Polyprotic acids
5.3 Neutralization
5.4 Weak acid–weak base equilibrium
6 Applications of acids
6.1 Acid catalysis
7 Biological occurrence
8 Common acids
8.1 Mineral acids (inorganic acids)
8.2 Sulfonic acids
8.3 Carboxylic acids
8.4 Halogenated carboxylic acids
8.5 Vinylogous carboxylic acids
8.6 Nucleic acids
9 References
10 External links
Definitions and concepts
Main article: Acid–base reaction
Modern definitions are concerned with the fundamental chemical reactions common to all acids.
Most acids encountered in everyday life are aqueous solutions, or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry definitions are the most relevant.
The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition; unless otherwise specified, acid-base reactions are assumed to involve the transfer of a proton (H+) from an acid to a base.
Hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Interestingly, although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted-Lowry acids, they can also function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms.
Arrhenius acids
Svante Arrhenius
The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions (H+) or protons in 1884. An Arrhenius acid is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H+ ions in the water.[4][5] Note that chemists often write H+(aq) and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acid-base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a proton, does not exist alone in water, it exists as the hydronium ion, H3O+. Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as HCl and acetic acid.
An Arrhenius base, on the other hand, is a substance which increases the concentration of hydroxide (OH−) ions when dissolved in water. This decreases the concentration of hydronium because the ions react to form H2O molecules:
H3O+
(aq) + OH−
(aq) ⇌ H2O(l) + H2O(l)
Due to this equilibrium, any increase in the concentration of hydronium is accompanied by a decrease in the concentration of hydroxide. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, while an Arrhenius base increases it.
In an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10−7 moles per liter. Since pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydronium ions, acidic solutions thus have a pH of less than 7.
Brønsted–Lowry acids
Main article: Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory
Acetic acid, a weak acid, donates a proton (hydrogen ion, highlighted in green) to water in an equilibrium reaction to give the acetate ion and the hydronium ion. Red: oxygen, black: carbon, white: hydrogen.
While the Arrhenius concept is useful for describing many reactions, it is also quite limited in its scope. In 1923 chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently recognized that acid-base reactions involve the transfer of a proton. A Brønsted-Lowry acid (or simply Brønsted acid) is a species that donates a proton to a Brønsted-Lowry base.[5] Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory has several advantages over Arrhenius theory. Consider the following reactions of acetic acid (CH3COOH), the organic acid that gives vinegar its characteristic taste:
CH
3COOH + H
2O ⇌ CH
3COO−
+ H
3O+
CH
3COOH + NH
3 ⇌ CH
3COO−
+ NH+
4
Both theories easily describe the first reaction: CH3COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of H3O+ when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brønsted acid by donating a proton to water. In the second example CH3COOH undergoes the same transformation, in this case donating a proton to ammonia (NH3), but does not relate to the Arrhenius definition of an acid because the reaction does not produce hydronium. Nevertheless, CH3COOH is both an Arrhenius and a Brønsted-Lowry acid.
Brønsted-Lowry theory can be used to describe reactions of molecular compounds in nonaqueous solution or the gas phase. Hydrogen chloride (HCl) and ammonia combine under several different conditions to form ammonium chloride, NH4Cl. In aqueous solution HCl behaves as hydrochloric acid and exists as hydronium and chloride ions. The following reactions illustrate the limitations of Arrhenius's definition:
H3O+
(aq) + Cl−
(aq) + NH3 → Cl−
(aq) + NH+
4(aq) + H2O
HCl(benzene) + NH3(benzene) → NH4Cl(s)
HCl(g) + NH3(g) → NH4Cl(s)
As with the acetic acid reactions, both definitions work for the first example, where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed by the HCl solute. The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but are still proton-transfer reactions. In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia (dissolved in benzene) react to form solid ammonium chloride in a benzene solvent and in the third gaseous HCl and NH3 combine to form the solid.
Lewis acids
Main article: Lewis acids and bases
A third, only marginally related concept was proposed in 1923 by Gilbert N. Lewis, which includes reactions with acid-base characteristics that do not involve a proton transfer. A Lewis acid is a species that accepts a pair of electrons from another species; in other words, it is an electron pair acceptor.[5] Brønsted acid-base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid-base reactions are electron pair transfers. Many Lewis acids are not Brønsted-Lowry acids. Contrast how the following reactions are described in terms of acid-base chemistry:
In the first reaction a fluoride ion, F−, gives up an electron pair to boron trifluoride to form the product tetrafluoroborate. Fluoride "loses" a pair of valence electrons because the electrons shared in the B—F bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic nuclei and are therefore more distant from the fluoride nucleus than they are in the lone fluoride ion. BF3 is a Lewis acid because it accepts the electron pair from fluoride. This reaction cannot be described in terms of Brønsted theory because there is no proton transfer. The second reaction can be described using either theory. A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brønsted acid to ammonia, a Brønsted base; alternatively, ammonia acts as a Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with a hydrogen ion. The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid; for example, the oxygen atom in H3O+ gains a pair of electrons when one of the H—O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen. Depending on the context, a Lewis acid may also be described as an oxidizer or an electrophile. Organic Brønsted acids, such as acetic, citric, or oxalic acid, are not Lewis acids.[4] They dissociate in water to produce a Lewis acid, H+, but at the same time also yield an equal amount of a Lewis base (acetate, citrate, or oxalate, respectively, for the acids mentioned). Few, if any, of the acids discussed in the following are Lewis acids.
Dissociation and equilibrium
Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form HA ⇌ H+ + A−, where HA represents the acid and A− is the conjugate base. This reaction is referred to as protolysis. The protonated form (HA) of an acid is also sometimes referred to as the free acid.[6]
Acid-base conjugate pairs differ by one proton, and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton (protonation and deprotonation, respectively). Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as HA+ ⇌ H+ + A. In solution there exists an equilibrium between the acid and its conjugate base. The equilibrium constant K is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions in solution. Brackets indicate concentration, such that [H2O] means the concentration of H2O. The acid dissociation constant Ka is generally used in the context of acid-base reactions. The numerical value of Ka is equal to the product of the concentrations of the products divided by the concentration of the reactants, where the reactant is the acid (HA) and the products are the conjugate base and H+.
K a = [ H + ] [ A − ] [ HA ] {\displaystyle K_{a}={\frac {\ce {[H+][A^{-}]}}{\ce {[HA]}}}}
The stronger of two acids will have a higher Ka than the weaker acid; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to lose its proton. Because the range of possible values for Ka spans many orders of magnitude, a more manageable constant, pKa is more frequently used, where pKa = −log10 Ka. Stronger acids have a smaller pKa than weaker acids. Experimentally determined pKa at 25 °C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material.
Nomenclature
In the classical naming system, acids are named according to their anions. That ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix (and sometimes prefix), according to the table below. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the -ide suffix makes it take the form hydrochloric acid. In the IUPAC naming system, "aqueous" is simply added to the name of the ionic compound. Thus, for hydrogen chloride, the IUPAC name would be aqueous hydrogen chloride. The prefix "hydro-" is added only if the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element.
Classical naming system:
Anion prefix
Anion suffix
Acid prefix
Acid suffix
Example
per ate per ic acid perchloric acid (HClO4)
ate ic acid chloric acid (HClO3)
ite ous acid chlorous acid (HClO2)
hypo ite hypo ous acid hypochlorous acid (HClO)
ide hydro ic acid hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Acid strength
Main article: Acid strength
The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a proton. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water; in other words, one mole of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H+ and one mole of the conjugate base, A−, and none of the protonated acid HA. In contrast, a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution. Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydroiodic acid (HI), hydrobromic acid (HBr), perchloric acid (HClO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In water each of these essentially ionizes 100%. The stronger an acid is, the more easily it loses a proton, H+. Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the polarity of the H—A bond and the size of atom A, which determines the strength of the H—A bond. Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base.
Stronger acids have a larger Ka and a more negative pKa than weaker acids.
Sulfonic acids, which are organic oxyacids, are a class of strong acids. A common example is toluenesulfonic acid (tosylic acid). Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. In fact, polystyrene functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable.
Superacids are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. Examples of superacids are fluoroantimonic acid, magic acid and perchloric acid. Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic, crystalline hydronium "salts". They can also quantitatively stabilize carbocations.
While Ka measures the strength of an acid compound, the strength of an aqueous acid solution is measured by pH, which is an indication of the concentration of hydronium in the solution. The pH of a simple solution of an acid compound in water is determined by the dilution of the compound and the compound's Ka.
Chemical characteristics
Monoprotic acids
Monoprotic acids are those acids that are able to donate one proton per molecule during the process of dissociation (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA):
HA(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+
(aq) + A−
(aq) Ka
Common examples of monoprotic acids in mineral acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3). On the other hand, for organic acids the term mainly indicates the presence of one carboxylic acid group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid. Examples in organic acids include formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH) and benzoic acid (C6H5COOH).
See also: Acid dissociation constant § Monoprotic acids
Polyprotic acids
Polyprotic acids, also known as polybasic acids, are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic acid (two potential protons to donate) and triprotic acid (three potential protons to donate).
A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H2A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, Ka1 and Ka2.
H2A(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+
(aq) + HA−
(aq) Ka1
HA−
(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+
(aq) + A2−
(aq) Ka2
The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second; i.e., Ka1 > Ka2. For example, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion (HSO−
4), for which Ka1 is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion (SO2−
4), wherein the Ka2 is intermediate strength. The large Ka1 for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable carbonic acid (H2CO3) can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion (HCO−
3) and lose a second to form carbonate anion (CO2−
3). Both Ka values are small, but Ka1 > Ka2 .
A triprotic acid (H3A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3.
H3A(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+
(aq) + H2A−
(aq) Ka1
H2A−
(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+
(aq) + HA2−
(aq) Ka2
HA2−
(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+
(aq) + A3−
(aq) Ka3
An inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4), usually just called phosphoric acid. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H2PO−
4, then HPO2−
4, and finally PO3−
4, the orthophosphate ion, usually just called phosphate. Even though the positions of the three protons on the original phosphoric acid molecule are equivalent, the successive Ka values differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. An organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid, which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion.
Although the subsequent loss of each hydrogen ion is less favorable, all of the conjugate bases are present in solution. The fractional concentration, α (alpha), for each species can be calculated. For example, a generic diprotic acid will generate 3 species in solution: H2A, HA−, and A2−. The fractional concentrations can be calculated as below when given either the pH (which can be converted to the [H+]) or the concentrations of the acid with all its conjugate bases:
α H 2 A = [ H + ] 2 [ H + ] 2 + [ H + ] K 1 + K 1 K 2 = [ H 2 A ] [ H 2 A ] + [ HA − ] + [ A 2 − ] α HA − = [ H + ] K 1 [ H + ] 2 + [ H + ] K 1 + K 1 K 2 = [ HA − ] [ H 2 A ] + [ HA − ] + [ A 2 − ] α A 2 − = K 1 K 2 [ H + ] 2 + [ H + ] K 1 + K 1 K 2 = [ A 2 − ] [ H 2 A ] + [ HA − ] + [ A 2 − ] {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\alpha _{\ce {H2A}}&={\frac {\ce {[H+]^{2}}}{{\ce {[H+]^{2}}}+[{\ce {H+}}]K_{1}+K_{1}K_{2}}}={\frac {\ce {[H2A]}}{\ce {{[H2A]}+{[HA^{-}]}+{[A^{2-}]}}}}\\\alpha _{\ce {HA^{-}}}&={\frac {[{\ce {H+}}]K_{1}}{{\ce {[H+]^{2}}}+[{\ce {H+}}]K_{1}+K_{1}K_{2}}}={\frac {\ce {[HA^{-}]}}{\ce {{[H2A]}+{[HA^{-}]}+{[A^{2-}]}}}}\\\alpha _{\ce {A^{2-}}}&={\frac {K_{1}K_{2}}{{\ce {[H+]^{2}}}+[{\ce {H+}}]K_{1}+K_{1}K_{2}}}={\frac {\ce {[A^{2-}]}}{\ce {{[H2A]}+{[HA^{-}]}+{[A^{2-}]}}}}\end{aligned}}}
A plot of these fractional concentrations against pH, for given K1 and K2, is known as a Bjerrum plot. A pattern is observed in the above equations and can be expanded to the general n -protic acid that has been deprotonated i -times:
α H n − i A i − = [ H + ] n − i ∏ j = 0 i K j ∑ i = 0 n [ [ H + ] n − i ∏ j = 0 i K j ] {\displaystyle \alpha _{{\ce {H}}_{n-i}A^{i-}}={{[{\ce {H+}}]^{n-i}\displaystyle \prod _{j=0}^{i}K_{j}} \over {\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{n}{\Big [}[{\ce {H+}}]^{n-i}\displaystyle \prod _{j=0}^{i}K_{j}}{\Big ]}}}
where K0 = 1 and the other K-terms are the dissociation constants for the acid.
See also: Acid dissociation constant § Polyprotic acids
Neutralization
Hydrochloric acid (in beaker) reacting with ammonia fumes to produce ammonium chloride (white smoke).
Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a salt and neutralized base; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
Neutralization is the basis of titration, where a pH indicator shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. It is often wrongly assumed that neutralization should result in a solution with pH 7.0, which is only the case with similar acid and base strengths during a reaction.
Neutralization with a base weaker than the acid results in a weakly acidic salt. An example is the weakly acidic ammonium chloride, which is produced from the strong acid hydrogen chloride and the weak base ammonia. Conversely, neutralizing a weak acid with a strong base gives a weakly basic salt, e.g. sodium fluoride from hydrogen fluoride and sodium hydroxide.
Weak acid–weak base equilibrium
Main article: Henderson–Hasselbalch equation
In order for a protonated acid to lose a proton, the pH of the system must rise above the pKa of the acid. The decreased concentration of H+ in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form (the deprotonated form of the acid). In lower-pH (more acidic) solutions, there is a high enough H+ concentration in the solution to cause the acid to remain in its protonated form.
Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form buffer solutions.
Applications of acids
There are numerous uses for acids. Acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from metals in a process known as pickling. They may be used as an electrolyte in a wet cell battery, such as sulfuric acid in a car battery.
Strong acids, sulfuric acid in particular, are widely used in mineral processing. For example, phosphate minerals react with sulfuric acid to produce phosphoric acid for the production of phosphate fertilizers, and zinc is produced by dissolving zinc oxide into sulfuric acid, purifying the solution and electrowinning.
In the chemical industry, acids react in neutralization reactions to produce salts. For example, nitric acid reacts with ammonia to produce ammonium nitrate, a fertilizer. Additionally, carboxylic acids can be esterified with alcohols, to produce esters.
Acids are used as additives to drinks and foods, as they alter their taste and serve as preservatives. Phosphoric acid, for example, is a component of cola drinks. Acetic acid is used in day-to-day life as vinegar. Carbonic acid is an important part of some cola drinks and soda. Citric acid is used as a preservative in sauces and pickles.
Tartaric acid is an important component of some commonly used foods like unripened mangoes and tamarind. Natural fruits and vegetables also contain acids. Citric acid is present in oranges, lemon and other citrus fruits. Oxalic acid is present in tomatoes, spinach, and especially in carambola and rhubarb; rhubarb leaves and unripe carambolas are toxic because of high concentrations of oxalic acid.
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is an essential vitamin for the human body and is present in such foods as amla (Indian gooseberry), lemon, citrus fruits, and guava.
Certain acids are used as drugs. Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) is used as a pain killer and for bringing down fevers.
Acids play important roles in the human body. The hydrochloric acid present in the stomach aids in digestion by breaking down large and complex food molecules. Amino acids are required for synthesis of proteins required for growth and repair of body tissues. Fatty acids are also required for growth and repair of body tissues. Nucleic acids are important for the manufacturing of DNA and RNA and transmitting of traits to offspring through genes. Carbonic acid is important for maintenance of pH equilibrium in the body.
Acid catalysis
Main article: Acid catalysis
Acids are used as catalysts in industrial and organic chemistry; for example, sulfuric acid is used in very large quantities in the alkylation process to produce gasoline. Strong acids, such as sulfuric, phosphoric and hydrochloric acids also effect dehydration and condensation reactions. In biochemistry, many enzymes employ acid catalysis.[7]
Biological occurrence
Basic structure of an amino acid.
Many biologically important molecules are acids. Nucleic acids, which contain acidic phosphate groups, include DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids contain the genetic code that determines many of an organism's characteristics, and is passed from parents to offspring. DNA contains the chemical blueprint for the synthesis of proteins which are made up of amino acid subunits. Cell membranes contain fatty acid esters such as phospholipids.
An α-amino acid has a central carbon (the α or alpha carbon) which is covalently bonded to a carboxyl group (thus they are carboxylic acids), an amino group, a hydrogen atom and a variable group. The variable group, also called the R group or side chain, determines the identity and many of the properties of a specific amino acid. In glycine, the simplest amino acid, the R group is a hydrogen atom, but in all other amino acids it is contains one or more carbon atoms bonded to hydrogens, and may contain other elements such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen. With the exception of glycine, naturally occurring amino acids are chiral and almost invariably occur in the L-configuration. Peptidoglycan, found in some bacterial cell walls contains some D-amino acids. At physiological pH, typically around 7, free amino acids exist in a charged form, where the acidic carboxyl group (-COOH) loses a proton (-COO−) and the basic amine group (-NH2) gains a proton (-NH+
3). The entire molecule has a net neutral charge and is a zwitterion, with the exception of amino acids with basic or acidic side chains. Aspartic acid, for example, possesses one protonated amine and two deprotonated carboxyl groups, for a net charge of −1 at physiological pH.
Fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives are another group of carboxylic acids that play a significant role in biology. These contain long hydrocarbon chains and a carboxylic acid group on one end. The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a phospholipid bilayer, a micelle of hydrophobic fatty acid esters with polar, hydrophilic phosphate "head" groups. Membranes contain additional components, some of which can participate in acid-base reactions.
In humans and many other animals, hydrochloric acid is a part of the gastric acid secreted within the stomach to help hydrolyze proteins and polysaccharides, as well as converting the inactive pro-enzyme, pepsinogen into the enzyme, pepsin. Some organisms produce acids for defense; for example, ants produce formic acid.
Acid-base equilibrium plays a critical role in regulating mammalian breathing. Oxygen gas (O2) drives cellular respiration, the process by which animals release the chemical potential energy stored in food, producing carbon dioxide (CO2) as a byproduct. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs, and the body responds to changing energy demands by adjusting the rate of ventilation. For example, during periods of exertion the body rapidly breaks down stored carbohydrates and fat, releasing CO2 into the blood stream. In aqueous solutions such as blood CO2 exists in equilibrium with carbonic acid and bicarbonate ion.
CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO−
3
It is the decrease in pH that signals the brain to breathe faster and deeper, expelling the excess CO2 and resupplying the cells with O2.
Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a carboxylic acid.
Cell membranes are generally impermeable to charged or large, polar molecules because of the lipophilic fatty acyl chains comprising their interior. Many biologically important molecules, including a number of pharmaceutical agents, are organic weak acids which can cross the membrane in their protonated, uncharged form but not in their charged form (i.e. as the conjugate base). For this reason the activity of many drugs can be enhanced or inhibited by the use of antacids or acidic foods. The charged form, however, is often more soluble in blood and cytosol, both aqueous environments. When the extracellular environment is more acidic than the neutral pH within the cell, certain acids will exist in their neutral form and will be membrane soluble, allowing them to cross the phospholipid bilayer. Acids that lose a proton at the intracellular pH will exist in their soluble, charged form and are thus able to diffuse through the cytosol to their target. Ibuprofen, aspirin and penicillin are examples of drugs that are weak acids.
Common acids
Mineral acids (inorganic acids)
Hydrogen halides and their solutions: hydrofluoric acid (HF), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydroiodic acid (HI)
Halogen oxoacids: hypochlorous acid (HClO), chlorous acid (HClO2), chloric acid (HClO3), perchloric acid (HClO4), and corresponding analogs for bromine and iodine
Hypofluorous acid (HFO), the only known oxoacid for fluorine.
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
Fluorosulfuric acid (HSO3F)
Nitric acid (HNO3)
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
Fluoroantimonic acid (HSbF6)
Fluoroboric acid (HBF4)
Hexafluorophosphoric acid (HPF6)
Chromic acid (H2CrO4)
Boric acid (H3BO3)
Sulfonic acids
A sulfonic acid has the general formula RS(=O)2–OH, where R is an organic radical.
Methanesulfonic acid (or mesylic acid, CH3SO3H)
Ethanesulfonic acid (or esylic acid, CH3CH2SO3H)
Benzenesulfonic acid (or besylic acid, C6H5SO3H)
p-Toluenesulfonic acid (or tosylic acid, CH3C6H4SO3H)
Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (or triflic acid, CF3SO3H)
Polystyrene sulfonic acid (sulfonated polystyrene, [CH2CH(C6H4)SO3H]n)
Carboxylic acids
A carboxylic acid has the general formula R-C(O)OH, where R is an organic radical. The carboxyl group -C(O)OH contains a carbonyl group, C=O, and a hydroxyl group, O-H.
Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
Citric acid (C6H8O7)
Formic acid (HCOOH)
Gluconic acid HOCH2-(CHOH)4-COOH
Lactic acid (CH3-CHOH-COOH)
Oxalic acid (HOOC-COOH)
Tartaric acid (HOOC-CHOH-CHOH-COOH)
Halogenated carboxylic acids
Halogenation at alpha position increases acid strength, so that the following acids are all stronger than acetic acid.
Fluoroacetic acid
Trifluoroacetic acid
Chloroacetic acid
Dichloroacetic acid
Trichloroacetic acid
Vinylogous carboxylic acids
Normal carboxylic acids are the direct union of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group. In vinylogous carboxylic acids, a carbon-carbon double bond separates the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups.
Ascorbic acid
Nucleic acids
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
References
^ Jump up to: a b c IUPAC Gold Book - acid
Jump up ^ Petrucci R.H., Harwood, R.S. and Herring, F.G. General Chemistry (8th ed., Prentice-Hall 2002) p.146 ISBN 0-13-014329-4
Jump up ^ Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary: acid
^ Jump up to: a b c d Oxtoby, D. W; Gillis, H.P., Butler, L. J. (2015).Principles of Modern Chemistry, Brooks Cole. p. 617. ISBN 978-1305079113
^ Jump up to: a b c Ebbing, D.D., & Gammon, S. D. (2005). General chemistry (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-51177-6
Jump up ^ Stahl PH, Nakamo M (2008). "Pharmaceutical Aspects of the Salt Form". In Stahl PH, Warmth CG. Handbook of Pharmaceutical Salts: Properties, Selection, and Use. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 92–94. ISBN 978-3-906390-58-1.
Jump up ^ Voet, Judith G.; Voet, Donald (2004). Biochemistry. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. pp. 496–500. ISBN 978-0-471-19350-0.
Listing of strengths of common acids and bases
IUPAC Gold Book - acid
Zumdahl, Chemistry, 4th Edition.
Ebbing, D.D., & Gammon, S. D. (2005). General chemistry (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-51177-6
Pavia, D.L., Lampman, G.M., & Kriz, G.S. (2004). Organic chemistry volume 1: Organic chemistry 351. Mason, OH: Cenage Learning. ISBN 0-7593-4727-1
External links
Curtipot: Acid-Base equilibria diagrams, pH calculation and titration curves simulation and analysis – freeware
Authority control
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values: Acetic acid, CH3COOH, is composed of a methyl group, CH3, bound chemically to a carboxylate group, COOH. The carboxylate group can lose a proton and donate it to a water molecule, H20, leaving behind an acetate anion CH3COO- and creating a hydronium cation H3O. This is an equilibrium reaction, so the reverse process can also take place.

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Flexible response
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Flexible response represented a capability to fight across all spectrums of warfare, not just with nuclear arms such as this Titan II missile.
Flexible response was a defense strategy implemented by John F. Kennedy in 1961 to address the Kennedy administration's skepticism of Dwight Eisenhower's New Look and its policy of massive retaliation. Flexible response calls for mutual deterrence at strategic, tactical, and conventional levels, giving the United States the capability to respond to aggression across the spectrum of war, not limited only to nuclear arms.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Stages
3 Development of the strategic triad
4 Two-and-a-half war doctrine
5 Assured destruction
5.1 No-cities doctrine
6 Further reading
7 External links
History[edit]
The New Look policy, though initially useful, quickly became obsolete with the introduction of inter-continental delivery systems that undermined the credibility of a deterrence threat. The cornerstone of U.S. and European defense strategy was then threatened as the U.S. could no longer rely on nuclear threats to provide security for it and its allies.
John F. Kennedy won the presidency by claiming that the Republican Party had allowed the U.S. to fall behind the Soviets into a missile gap. Upon entering office Kennedy cited General Maxwell Taylor's book The Uncertain Trumpet to Congress for its conclusion that massive retaliation left the U.S. with only two choices: defeat on the ground or the resort to the use of nuclear weapons. Technology had improved since massive retaliation was adopted. Improvements in communication and transportation meant U.S. forces could be deployed more effectively, quickly, and flexibly than before. Advisers persuaded Kennedy that having multiple options would allow the president to apply the appropriate amount of force at the right place without risking escalation or losing alternatives. This would improve credibility for deterrence as the U.S. would now have low-intensity options and therefore would be more likely to use them, rather than massive retaliation's all-or-nothing options.
Flexible Response was implemented to develop several options across the spectrum of warfare, other than the nuclear option, for quickly dealing with enemy aggression. In addition, the survivability of the retaliatory capability was stressed, leading to the diversification of the strategic force, development of the strategic triad, and half the Strategic Air Command force being put on permanent alert status.
The Kennedy doctrine did not include the ability to fight nuclear wars because of the idea that it would undermine deterrence, was technologically unworkable, would fuel the arms race, and was not politically feasible.[citation needed]
Importance was also placed on counterinsurgency and the development of unconventional military forces, unconventional tactics, and "civic action" programs.
Stages[edit]
A staged plan was devised to counter any Soviet military action other than a first strike. It consisted of three stages:
Direct defense: In case of a conventional Soviet attack (meaning non-nuclear or this would be considered a first strike) initial efforts would be to try and stop the Soviet advance with conventional weapons. This meant that the foreseen Soviet attack on West-Germany would be tried to be forced to a halt by NATO's European forces, Allied Command Europe.
Deliberate Escalation: This phase would be entered when conventional NATO forces were succumbing under the Soviet attack. This was actually expected as intelligence indicated Soviet divisions outnumbered NATO divisions by far. In this phase NATO forces would switch to a limited use of nuclear weapons, such as recently developed tactical nuclear weapons (like nuclear artillery).
General Nuclear Response: This was the last phase or stage which more or less corresponded to the mutual assured destruction scenario, meaning the total nuclear attack on the Communist world. If the Soviets had not already done so, this would make them switch to all-out attack as well.
Development of the strategic triad[edit]
By 1960, the United States had three means of strategic forces: ICBMs, SLBMs, and strategic bombers. This triad made it possible for the United States to impose unacceptable damage to the Soviet Union with one strategic force independent of the other two forces. These different forces had their advantages and disadvantages. Bombers could deliver large payloads and strike with great accuracy, but were slow, vulnerable while on the ground, and could be shot down. ICBMs are safe in their underground silos while on the ground, but were less accurate than bombers and could not be called back when launched. Submarines were least vulnerable but were also least accurate and communication could be poor at times. Each of these forces provided the United States with different options to tailor their response to the situation.
Two-and-a-half war doctrine[edit]
Part of Flexible response was the strategy of being able to fight over the entire spectrum of violence by developing diverse forces for different types of warfare. This meant being able to fight multiple wars simultaneously; specifically, the US should have the peacetime capability to fight two large regional wars and a small brushfire war at the same time. The consequence of this was to increase recruiting, investment, and research for the US force posture.
Assured destruction[edit]
The strategic doctrine for Kennedy’s Flexible response was Assured destruction. Flexible response made second strike capability its guiding principle of deterrence. In the event of Soviet nuclear aggression, the Soviets would know that enough U.S. nuclear capability would survive their strike to destroy their cities and industry. Robert McNamara argued for the definition of what was "unacceptable" to the enemy as the destruction of 50% of industry and 25% of the population. Deterrence depended on influence to show that violence and aggression did not pay, and being explicit about the level of destruction the US was willing to inflict on the enemy was one way to illustrate this point. Assured Destruction relied on deterrence by punishment, precision, and credibility.
No-cities doctrine[edit]
Defense Secretary McNamara sought to limit damage to the U.S. by developing a separate strategy for offense and defense. The offensive strategy was one of Counterforce, seeking to destroy Soviet military installations and hardware and thus disable this hardware before it could be used. In a 1962 speech to the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, McNamara announced that the U.S. would refrain from striking countervalue targets (cities) early in nuclear war, reserving such force later in war should the Soviets not show similar restraint. This would not only induce the Soviets to spare American cities, but would secure the United States bargaining advantage by holding hostage something that the Soviets might want to keep.
The defensive strategy involved developing a system to intercept incoming Soviet missiles. Bombers could be easily shot down, but missiles still remained a credible threat. As a result, the United States began developing an anti-ballistic missile program, modifying its Nike missiles to intercept incoming missiles. Ultimately, however, this program was abandoned by the adoption of the anti-ballistic missile treaty.
Further reading[edit]
Poole, Walter S (2013), Adapting to Flexible Response, 1960–1968, Washington, DC: Office of the Secretary of Defense , 467 pp.; online.
Wilson, John B. (1998). "XII: Flexible Response". Maneuver and Firepower: The Evolution of Divisions and Separate Brigades. United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 60-14.
External links[edit]
NATO's theory of flexible response
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