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It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)
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"It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)"
Song by Bob Dylan
from the album Bringing It All Back Home
Released
March 22, 1965
Recorded
January 15, 1965
Studio
Columbia Recording Studios, New York City
Genre
Folk rock, folk
Length
7:29
Label
Columbia
Songwriter(s)
Bob Dylan
Producer(s)
Tom Wilson
Bringing It All Back Home track listing
11 tracks
Side one
"Subterranean Homesick Blues"
"She Belongs to Me"
"Maggie's Farm"
"Love Minus Zero/No Limit"
"Outlaw Blues"
"On the Road Again"
"Bob Dylan's 115th Dream"
Side two
"Mr. Tambourine Man"
"Gates of Eden"
"It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)"
"It's All Over Now, Baby Blue"
Audio sample
file
help
"It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" is a song written and performed by Bob Dylan and first released on his 1965 album Bringing It All Back Home. It was written in the summer of 1964, first performed live on October 10, 1964, and recorded on January 15, 1965. Described by Dylan biographer Howard Sounes as a "grim masterpiece," the song features some of Dylan's most memorable lyrical images. Among the well-known lines sung in the song are "He not busy being born is busy dying," "Money doesn't talk, it swears," "Although the masters make the rules, for the wisemen and the fools" and "But even the president of the United States sometimes must have to stand naked." The lyrics express Dylan's anger at what he sees as the hypocrisy, commercialism, consumerism, and war mentality inherent in contemporary American culture. Dylan's preoccupations in the lyrics, nevertheless, extend beyond the socio-political, expressing existential concerns, touching on urgent matters of personal experience.
Dylan has stated that "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" is one of his songs that means the most to him, and he has played the song often in live concerts. Since its original release on Bringing It All Back Home, live versions of the song have been issued on The Bootleg Series Vol. 6: Bob Dylan Live 1964, Concert at Philharmonic Hall, Before the Flood and Bob Dylan at Budokan. Dylan can also be seen performing the song in the film Dont Look Back and the video of the HBO special Hard to Handle. The song has been covered by a number of other artists, including Roger McGuinn, The Byrds, Billy Preston, Hugo Race, Terence Trent D'Arby, Mick Farren, Caetano Veloso, Marilyn Scott, and The Duhks.
Contents
1 Bob Dylan's version
2 Cover versions
3 Influence
4 References
5 External links
Bob Dylan's version[edit]
Dylan wrote "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" in the summer of 1964.[1] Although he was prepared to take his time developing the song, as he did with "Mr. Tambourine Man", he finished it in time for inclusion on the Bringing It All Back Home album, which was recorded in January 1965.[2] Dylan first performed "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" live on October 10, 1964 at Philadelphia Town Hall.[2] The version included on Bringing It All Back Home was recorded on January 15, 1965, the same day that the other three songs on side 2 of the album ("Mr. Tambourine Man", "Gates of Eden" and "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue") were recorded, with Tom Wilson producing.[1][2][3]
It was long thought that the four songs that make up side 2 of Bringing It All Back Home were recorded in one long take.[4] This is not true, but "Gates of Eden" was recorded in a single take and "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" was recorded in one take after a single false start[5][2] (the false start can be heard on both the 6-disc and 18-disc versions of The Bootleg Series Vol. 12: The Cutting Edge 1965–1966, released in 2015).
Dylan biographer Howard Sounes described "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" as a "grim masterpiece."[6] The only accompaniment is Dylan's guitar, playing folk-blues riffs and up and down chord progressions.[5] Author Sean Wilentz has noted that the song's chord structure is similar to that used by the Everly Brothers' in their hit recording of "Wake Up Little Susie".[7] The lyrics of "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" express Dylan's anger at what he sees as the hypocrisy, commercialism, consumerism, and war mentality inherent in contemporary American culture, but unlike those in his earlier protest songs, do not express optimism in the possibility of political solutions.[5][8][9] In his book Bob Dylan, Performing Artist, author Paul Williams has suggested that the song addresses "the possibility that the most important (and least articulated) political issue of our times is that we are all being fed a false picture of reality, and it's coming at us from every direction."[10] Williams goes on to say that the song successfully paints a portrait of an "alienated individual identifying the characteristics of the world around him and thus declaring his freedom from its 'rules'."[10] As such, a major target in the song is the old, established concepts which give a false picture of reality and hinder new worldviews from being accepted.[10]
While it shares a sense of prevailing entropy with the previous song on the album, "Gates of Eden", the critique in "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" is more direct and less allusive.[9] Author Michael Gray has commented that although the vitriol Dylan unleashes towards his targets is similar to his earlier political protest songs, "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" is a transitional song in that it does not express optimism in the possibility of political solutions.[11] Instead, Dylan sings in a new prophetic voice that would become his trademark.[12] However, with the political pessimism comes a more poetic vision than in his earlier protest songs, along with a more complex figurative language.[11] Howard Sounes notes that the song features some of Dylan's most memorable images.[6] The opening lines begin the song's torrent of apocalyptic images:[5]
Darkness at the break of noon
Shadows even the silver spoon
The handmade blade, the child's balloon
Eclipses both the sun and moon
To understand you know too soon
There is no sense in trying
Critic Andy Gill links the opening line of the song to the title of Arthur Koestler's bleak novel Darkness at Noon, set in the Great Stalinist purge of 1938 in Soviet Russia. For Gill, Dylan is suggesting that the human spirit can be cast into darkness by the dead hand of communism as well as by American capitalism.[9]
According to Seth Rogovoy, this opening echoes the Book of Ecclesiastes, where the author states (1:17) "I observed all deeds beneath the sun, and behold all is futile.[13] There are echoes of Ecclesiastes throughout the song. Another example is:[13]
The masters make the rules
For the wise man and the fools.
The author of Ecclesiastes laments (2:15–16) "The fate of the fool will befall me also; to what advantage, then, have I become wise? But I come to the conclusion that this, too, was futility, because the wise man and the fool are both forgotten. The wise man dies, just like the fool."
One of the most famous lines from the song reminds listeners that even the most powerful people will ultimately be judged:[5][14]
But even the president of the United States
Sometimes must have to stand naked
These lines seemed particularly prescient when Dylan performed the song on his 1974 tour with the Band, a few months before Richard Nixon resigned as President of the United States as a result of the Watergate crisis.[14][15] After the song has confronted sex, religion and politics, it ends with the lines:[1][16]
And if my thought-dreams could be seen
They'd probably put my head in a guillotine
But it's alright, Ma, it's life and life only
Dylan's preoccupations in the lyrics extend beyond socio-political commentary, and touch on urgent matters of personal experience--the challenge to live and grow in the face of uncertainty.[17]
He not busy being born is busy dying
Jimmy Carter would later refer to the line in his presidential nomination speech at the 1976 Democratic National Convention, though it addresses matters of the self which supersede politics, in the process displaying certain themes associated with existentialism.[18][17] Throughout the song, the words pour out quickly, with Dylan barely taking a breath between lines, so that the intricate rhyming structure is often missed: AAAAAB CCCCCB DDDDDB in the verses and AAB in the chorus.[5][2]
Dylan has cited "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" as one of his songs that means the most to him.[2] In 1980 he stated that "I don't think I could sit down now and write 'It's Alright, Ma' again. I wouldn't even know where to begin, but I can still sing it."[2] In 1997, Dylan told The New York Times, "I've written some songs that I look at, and they just give me a sense of awe. Stuff like, 'It's Alright, Ma,' just the alliteration in that blows me away."[19]
"It's Alright Ma" song has featured in Dylan's live concerts throughout his long career. Dylan's website records that, as of March 2015, the song has been performed 772 times by Dylan in live performance.[20] Concert performances of the songs have been released on The Bootleg Series Vol. 6: Bob Dylan Live 1964, Concert at Philharmonic Hall (recorded on October 31, 1964), Before the Flood (recorded on February 14, 1974) and Bob Dylan at Budokan (recorded on February 28, 1978).[5] Dylan also played the song on his Rolling Thunder Revue Tour in 1975 and 1976, as well as on his 1978 tour and his Never Ending Tour from the late 1980s up to the present.[14] Footage of Dylan playing "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" in May 1965 is included in the film Dont Look Back, and a live performance of Dylan playing the song with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers on February 25, 1986 is included in the video of the HBO special Hard to Handle.[5][21] Dylan also sang this song at his October 16, 1992 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration at Madison Square Garden, which was released on The 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration album.[22] The studio recording was re-released on the 2008 compilation album Playlist: The Very Best of Bob Dylan '60s.[5]
Cover versions[edit]
A widely known cover of "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding") is that performed by Roger McGuinn for the soundtrack of the 1969 film, Easy Rider. One of the film's scriptwriters, the star, Peter Fonda, had originally intended to use Dylan's version of the song in the film but after failing to secure the appropriate licensing he asked McGuinn to record a cover of it instead.[14][23] McGuinn's version of the song included on the Easy Rider soundtrack album, features McGuinn on guitar and vocals, accompanied by his bandmate from The Byrds, Gene Parsons, on harmonica.[23]
The Byrds also recorded a version of the song during the 1970 recording sessions for their album (Untitled) but it was not included in the final track listing.[24] The Byrds occasionally performed the song in concert during 1970 and a live recording of it, from a March 1, 1970 appearance at the Felt Forum, was included on the 2000 remaster of the (Untitled) album, which was re-titled as (Untitled)/(Unissued).[25][26] This version also appears as a bonus track on the 2002 remastered version of the compilation album, The Byrds Play Dylan, and on the 2006 4-disc box set There Is a Season.[27]
In 1971, Nannie Parres included "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" on her album I Thought About You and in 1973 Billy Preston included the song on Everybody Likes Some Kind Of Music.[14] Bettina Jonic included a cover of the song on her 1975 album The Bitter Mirror.[14] Artists who have covered the song since then include Hugo Race, Terence Trent D'Arby, Mick Farren, Caetano Veloso, Marilyn Scott, The Duhks, and Ground Components.[14][28][29][30][31][32][33]
In 2014, Lee Abramson covered "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" on his band's album Blood.[34]
Influence[edit]
Clinton Heylin, in his biography Bob Dylan: Behind the Shades Revisited, wrote that the recording "opened up a whole new genre of finger-pointing song, not just for Dylan but for the entire panoply of pop." Heylin adds that "It's Alright, Ma" probably contained more "memorable aphorisms" than any of Dylan's songs.[1] One of these lines is "he not busy being born is busy dying," from the song's second verse, which was used by Jimmy Carter in his 1976 presidential nomination acceptance speech at the Democratic National Convention.[35] During his presidential campaign in 2000, Al Gore told talk show host Oprah Winfrey that this was his favorite quotation.[36] Writer and journalist Christopher Hitchens quoted from the song's lyrics in his last article for Vanity Fair, written shortly before his death from esophageal cancer. Hitchens posted at the top of his essay the verse of "It's Alright Ma" that ends with the words "That he who is not busy being born is busy dying".[37]
Another memorable line is "Money doesn't talk, it swears," which appears in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations.[38] In addition, the Columbia Dictionary of Quotations lists this as well as three other lines from the song: "Although the masters make the rules, for the wisemen and the fools," "But even the president of the United States sometimes must have to stand naked" and "Everything from toy guns that spark to flesh-colored Christs that glow in the dark, it's easy to see without looking too far that not much is really sacred."[39] Other well-known lines include "Propaganda, all is phony" and "Advertising signs they con you into thinking you're the one."[14]
In a 2005 reader's poll reported in Mojo magazine, "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" was listed as the #8 all-time greatest Bob Dylan song, and a similar poll of artists ranked the song at #21.[40] In 2002, Uncut magazine listed it as the #5 all-time Dylan song.[41] The song was featured in the final episode of The Sopranos.[42] It has also been referenced by other songwriters. For instance, the indie-rocker Stephen Malkmus quotes "It's Alright Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" at the end of his song "Jo-Jo's Jacket" from Malkmus' debut solo album.[43]
References[edit]
^ a b c d Heylin, Clinton (2003). Bob Dylan: Behind the Shades Revisited. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. pp. 169–170, 717. ISBN 0-06-052569-X.
^ a b c d e f g Heylin, Clinton (2009). Revolution in the Air. Chicago Review Press. pp. 210–212. ISBN 978-1-55652-843-9.
^ Heylin, Clinton (1995). Bob Dylan: The Recording Sessions (1960–1994). St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 33–36. ISBN 0-312-15067-9.
^ Varesi, Anthony (2002). The Bob Dylan Albums. Guernica. pp. 51–53. ISBN 1-55071-139-3.
^ a b c d e f g h i Ruhlmann, William. "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)". AllMusic. Retrieved 2010-07-17.
^ a b Sounes, Howard (2001). Down the Highway: The Life of Bob Dylan. New York: Grove Press. p. 168. ISBN 0-8021-1686-8.
^ Wilentz, Sean (2010). Bob Dylan in America. Doubleday. p. 324. ISBN 978-0-385-52988-4.
^ Williamson, Nigel (2006). The Rough Guide to Bob Dylan (2nd ed.). Rough Guides. pp. 224–225. ISBN 978-1-84353-718-2.
^ a b c Gill, Andy (1998). Don't Think Twice, It's All Right. Thunder Mountain Press. p. 76. ISBN 1-56025-185-9.
^ a b c Williams, Paul (1990). Bob Dylan Performing Artist: The Early Years 1960–1973. Underwood Miller. pp. 131–132. ISBN 0-88733-131-9.
^ a b Gray, Michael (2000). Song and Dance Man III. Continuum. pp. 133–134. ISBN 0-8264-5150-0.
^ Hinchey, John (2002). Like a Complete Unknown. Stealing Home Press. pp. 88–94. ISBN 0-9723592-0-6.
^ a b Rogovoy, Seth (2009). Bob Dylan: Prophet, Mystic, Poet. Scribner. pp. 84–86. ISBN 978-1-4165-5915-3.
^ a b c d e f g h Trager, Oliver (2004). Keys to the Rain. Billboard Books. pp. 322–324. ISBN 0-8230-7974-0.
^ Nogowski, John (2008). Bob Dylan: A Descriptive, Critical Discography and Filmography, 1961–2007 (Second ed.). McFarland. pp. 29, 64. ISBN 978-0-7864-3518-0.
^ Dylan, Bob. "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding) lyrics". bobdylan.com. Retrieved 2010-12-31.
^ a b Farber, Alan (2007). Rock 'n' Roll Wisdom: What Psychologically Astute Lyrics Teach about Life and Love (1st ed.). Wetport, Connecticut; London: Praeger. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-275-99164-7. Retrieved December 15, 2015.
^ Carter, Jimmy. "Jimmy Carter: "Our Nation's Past and Future": Address Accepting the Presidential Nomination at the Democratic National Convention in New York City – July 15, 1976". The American Presidency Project. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley – The American Presidency Project. Retrieved December 15, 2015.
^ Pareles, Jon (September 28, 1997). "A Wiser Voice Blowin' In the Autumn Wind". The New York Times. Retrieved March 22, 2015.
^ "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)". bobdylan.com. Retrieved March 22, 2015.
^ Ruhlmann, William. "Hard to Handle (Video)". allmusic. Retrieved 2010-12-31.
^ "Bob Dylan: 30th Anniversary Celebration". allmusic. Retrieved 2010-07-17.
^ a b Rogan, Johnny. (1998). The Byrds: Timeless Flight Revisited (2nd ed.). Rogan House. p. 290. ISBN 0-9529540-1-X.
^ "Untitled". ByrdWatcher: A Field Guide to the Byrds of Los Angeles. Retrieved 2009-10-21.
^ Rogan, Johnny. (1998). The Byrds: Timeless Flight Revisited (2nd ed.). Rogan House. pp. 591–615. ISBN 0-9529540-1-X.
^ Unterberger, Richie. "Untitled: The Byrds". AllMusic. Retrieved 2010-11-29.
^ "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding): The Byrds". AllMusic. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
^ "It's Alright Ma (I'm Only Bleeding): Terence Trent D'Arby". AllMusic. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
^ "It's Alright Ma (I'm Only Bleeding): Mick Farren". AllMusic. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
^ "It's Alright Ma (I'm Only Bleeding): Caetano Veloso". AllMusic. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
^ "It's Alright Ma (I'm Only Bleeding): Marilyn Scott". AllMusic. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
^ "It's Alright Ma (I'm Only Bleeding): The Duhks". AllMusic. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
^ "It's Alright Ma (I'm Only Bleeding): Grounded Components". AllMusic. Retrieved 2010-11-08.
^ Abramson, Lee. "It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding) – Lee Abramson". Amazon Music. Retrieved 4 November 2014.
^ Marsh, Dave (May 19, 1991). "Out of the 60's, Into His 50's". NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
^ Kranish, Michael (September 12, 2000). "VP cashes in on golden opportunity: 'Oprah'". Boston Globe. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
^ "Christopher Hitchens Takes on Nietzsche: Am I Really Stronger?".
^ Search Results for "Bob Dylan". Little Oxford Dictionary of Quotations. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
^ Andrews, Robert (1993). The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations. Columbia University Press. pp. 35, 181, 598, 727. ISBN 0-231-07194-9. Retrieved 2009-04-28.
^ "Mojo: 100 Greatest Dylan Songs". Mojo. September 2005: 54–85. Retrieved 2010-07-19.
^ "Uncut – Top 40 Dylan Tracks". Uncut. 2002: 112–117. Retrieved 2010-07-19.
^ "Soundtracks for "The Sopranos" Made in America". imdb. Retrieved 2010-07-18.
^ Levine, Robert. "In Brief: Stephen Malkmus". New York Magazine. Retrieved 2010-07-18.
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Lyrics to the song at bobdylan.com
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VY Canis Majoris
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VY Canis Majoris
Location of VY CMa (circled)
Observation data
Epoch J2000.0 Equinox J2000.0
Constellation
Canis Major
Right ascension
07h 22m 58.32877s[1]
Declination
−25° 46′ 03.2355″[1]
Apparent magnitude (V)
6.5 - 9.6[2]
Characteristics
Evolutionary stage
Red Hypergiant
Spectral type
M3–M4.5[3] (M2.5[4] - M5e la[5])
Apparent magnitude (U)
12.01[6]
Apparent magnitude (B)
10.19[6]
Apparent magnitude (V)
7.95[6]
Apparent magnitude (J)
1.98[6]
Apparent magnitude (H)
0.44[6]
Apparent magnitude (K)
8.1[7]
U−B color index
+2.32[8]
B−V color index
+2.057[1]
V−R color index
+2.20[8]
Variable type
SRc[2] or Lc[9]
Astrometry
Radial velocity (Rv) 41[10] km/s
Proper motion (μ) RA: 9.84[1] mas/yr
Dec.: 0.75[1] mas/yr
Parallax (π) 0.83 ± 0.08[11] mas
Distance ~7003382000000000000♠3,820+260
−230 ly
(7003117000000000000♠1,170+80
−70[3] pc)
Absolute magnitude (MV) −9.4[12]
Details
Mass 7001170000000000000♠17±8[3] M☉
Radius 7003142000000000000♠1,420±120[3] R☉
Luminosity 7005270000000000000♠270,000±40,000[3] L☉
Surface gravity (log g) −6999600000000000000♠0.6±0.4[3] cgs
Temperature 7003349000000000000♠3,490±90[3] K
Metallicity [Fe/H] −0.3[13] dex
Rotational velocity (v sin i) 300[11] km/s
Age 8.2[11] Myr
Other designations
VY CMa, HD 58061, HIP 35793, CD-25 4441, AAVSO 0718-25, IRAS 07209-2540, IRC −30087, RAFGL 1111, SAO 173571, WDS J07230-2546AB, 2MASS J07225830-2546030
Database references
SIMBAD data
VY Canis Majoris (abbreviated to VY CMa) is an extreme oxygen-rich (O-rich) red hypergiant (RHG) or red supergiant (RSG) and pulsating variable star located at 1.2 kiloparsecs (3,900 ly) away from Earth in the constellation of Canis Major. It is one of the largest known stars by radius, and is also one of the most luminous and massive red supergiants, as well as one of the most luminous stars in the Milky Way.
VY CMa is a single star with a large infrared (IR) excess, making it one of the brightest objects in the sky at wavelengths of between 5 and 20 microns (µm) and indicating a dust shell or disk heated by the star.[14][15] It is about 7001170000000000000♠17±8 times the mass of the Sun (M☉). It is also surrounded by a complex asymmetric circumstellar envelope (CSE) caused by mass loss from the star itself. It produces strong molecular maser emission and was one of the first radio masers discovered. VY CMa is embedded within the large molecular cloud Sharpless 310 (Sh2-310), one of largest star-forming H ii region with a diameter of 480 arcminutes (') or 681 ly (209 pc).[16][17]
The radius of VY CMa is about 1,420 times that of the Sun (R☉), which is close to the Hayashi limit and corresponds to a volume about 3 billion times bigger than the Sun. A hypothetical object travelling at the speed of light would take 6 hours to travel around the star's circumference, compared to 14.5 seconds for the Sun.[18] If placed at the center of the Solar System, VY CMa's surface would extend beyond the orbit of Jupiter, although there is still considerable variation in estimates of the radius, with some making it larger than the orbit of Saturn.[4]
Contents
1 Observational history
2 Surroundings
3 Distance
4 Variability
5 Spectrum
6 Properties
6.1 Luminosity
6.2 Mass
6.3 Mass loss
6.4 Temperature
6.5 Size
7 Largest star
8 Evolution
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Observational history
Portrait in bust of Jérôme Lalande in 1802
The first known recorded observation of VY Canis Majoris is in the star catalogue of the French astronomer Jérôme Lalande, on 7 March 1801, which lists it as a 7th magnitude star. Further 19th- and 20th-century studies of its apparent magnitude suggested that the star had been fading since 1850.[19]
Since 1847, VY Canis Majoris has been described as a crimson star.[19] During the 19th century, observers measured at least six discrete components, suggesting that it might be a multiple star. These discrete components are now known to be bright areas in the surrounding nebula. Visual observations in 1957 and high-resolution imaging in 1998 showed that there are no companion stars.[19][20] VY CMa was also discovered to be a strong source of OH (1612 MHz), H
2O (22235.08 MHz), and SiO (43122 MHz) masers emission, which is typical of an OH/IR star.[21][22][23] Many molecules, such as HCN, NaCl, PN, CH, CO, CH
3OH, TiO, and TiO
2, have also been detected.[12][24][3][25][26]
The variation in VY CMa's brightness was first described in 1931 when it was listed (in German) as a long period variable with a photographic magnitude range of 9.5 to 11.5.[27] It was given the variable star designation VY Canis Majoris in 1939, the 43rd variable star of the constellation Canis Major.[28]
Surroundings
WFPC2/HST image showing the asymmetric nebula surrounding VY CMa, which is the central star
VY Canis Majoris is surrounded by an extensive and dense asymmetric red reflection nebula with a total ejected mass of 0.2-0.4 M☉ and a temperature of 800 K based on a DUSTY model atmosphere that has been formed by material expelled from its central star.[14][29] The diameter of the inner shell is found to be 0".12, corresponding to 140 AU (0.0022 ly) at a distance of 1.2 kpc, whereas that of the outer one is 10", corresponding to 12,000 AU (0.19 ly).[29] This nebula is so bright that it was discovered in 1917 with an 18 cm telescope, and also contains condensations that were once regarded as companion stars.[20] It has been extensively studied with the aid of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), showing that the nebula has a complex structure that includes filaments and arcs, which were caused by past eruptions; this structure is similar to that of the nebula surrounding the post-red supergiant (Post-RSG) or yellow hypergiant (YHG) IRC +10420. The similarity has led astronomers to propose that VY CMa will evolve blueward on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (HR diagram) to become a yellow hypergiant, then a Luminous blue variable (LBV), and finally a Wolf–Rayet star (WR star).[20][14]
Map of the giant molecular cloud Sharpless 310 and its surrondings
Observations combining Hubble Space Telescope data with that obtained from the Keck Telescope, located in Hawaii, it was possible to make a three-dimensional reconstruction of the material surrounding VY CMa. This reconstruction showed that VY CMa's mass loss is much more complex than expected for any red supergiant or hypergiant. It became clear that the bows and nodules appeared at different times; the jets are randomly oriented, which leads us to believe that they derive from explosions occurred in active regions of the stellar photosphere. The spectroscopic data showed that the jets move away from the star at different speeds, indicating that they occurred at different times and originate from different areas of the surface of VY CMa.[30] Multiple asymmetric mass loss events and also the ejection of the outermost material are deduced to have occurred within the last 500–1,000 years, while that of a knot near the star would be less than 100 years. The mass loss is due to strong convection in the tenuous outer layers of the star, associated with magnetic fields. This is similar to the sunspots and coronal ejections of the Sun but on a much larger scale.[10][31][30]
Distance
Combined optical and infrared image of VY CMa. The bright star at the upper right is τ Canis Majoris.
(ESO/Digitized Sky Survey 2)
VLBA used to derive VY CMa's 2011 distance estimate
In 1976, Charles J. Lada and Mark J. Reid published observations of the bright-rimmed molecular cloud Sh2-310, which is 15' east of VY Canis Majoris. At the edge of the cloud bordered by the bright rim, an abrupt decrease in the CO emission and an increase in brightness of the 12
CO emission were observed, indicating possible destruction of molecular material and enhanced heating at the cloud-rim interface, respectively. Lada and Reid assumed the distance of Sh2-310 is approximately equal to that of the stars, which are members of the open cluster NGC 2362, that ionize the rim. NGC 2362 has a distance of 7000150000000000000♠1.5±0.5 kiloparsecs (kpc) or roughly 7003489000000000000♠4,890±1,630 light-years (ly) as determined from its color-magnitude diagram.[32] VY CMa is projected onto the tip of the cloud rim, suggesting its association with Sh2-310. In addition to that, the velocity of Sh2-310 is very close to the velocity of the star. This further indicates the association of the star with Sh2-310, and consequently with NGC 2362, which means VY Canis Majoris is at the same distance.[33] A more recent measurement of the distance to NGC 2362 gives 1.2 kpc or about 3,910 ly.[34]
Stellar distances can be calculated by measuring parallaxes as Earth orbits around the Sun. However, VY Canis Majoris has a small parallax due to its great distance, and standard visual observations have a margin of error too large for a hypergiant star with an extended CSE to be useful, for example, the Hipparcos Catalogue (1997) gives a parallax of 7000178000000000000♠1.78±3.54 milliarcseconds (mas), yelding a distance of 7019173353366526826♠561.8 pc (7019173352748741287♠1,832.34 ly).[35] The parallax of VY CMa can be precisely measured with high accuracy from the observation of masers using a long baseline interferometry. In 2008, observations of H
2O masers using VERA interferometry from the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan give a parallax of 6991426636039376392♠0.88±0.08 mas, corresponding to a distance of 7019351767244287259♠1.14+0.11
−0.09 kpc (about 7019351939173580005♠3,720+360
−300 ly).[36] In 2012, observations of SiO masers using Very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) from Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) independently derived a parallax of 6991402395355320915♠0.83±0.08 mas, corresponding to a distance of 7019370281309776063♠1.20+0.13
−0.10 kpc (about 7019369914561477909♠3,910+423
−326 ly).[11] These new distance estimates imply that either Sh2-310 is less remote than usually estimated or that VY CMa is a foreground object.[16]
The Gaia mission should provide visual parallaxes with sufficient accuracy to constrain the distance to VY CMa, but the data release 2 value of 3007712990300783154♠−5.92±0.83 mas is not meaningful.[37]
Variability
VY Canis Majoris is a variable star that varies from an apparent visual magnitude of 9.6 at minimum brightness to a magnitude of 6.5 at maximum brightness with an estimated pulsational period of 956 days.[2][9] In the General Catalogue of Variable Stars (GCVS) it is classed a semiregular variable of sub-type SRc, indicating a cool supergiant,[2] although it is classed as a type LC slow irregular variable star in the American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO) Variable Star Index.[9] Other periods of 1,600[38] and 2,200[20] days have been derived.
VY CMa is sometimes considered as the prototype for a class of heavily mass-losing OH/IR supergiants, distinct from the more common asymptotic giant branch OH/IR stars.[39]
Spectrum
The spectrum of VY Canis Majoris is that of a high luminosity M class star. The hydrogen lines, however, have P Cygni profiles fit for Luminous Blue Variables. The spectrum is dominated by TiO bands whose strengths suggest a classification of M5. The H-alpha (Hα) line is not visible yet and there are unusual emission lines of neutral elements such as sodium and calcium. The luminosity class as determined from different spectral features varies from bright giant (II) to bright supergiant (Ia), with a compromise being given as M5eIbp. Early attempts at classification were confused by the interpretation of surrounding nebulosity as companion stars.[40]
The derived spectral class varies depending on the features examined. The spectral features also vary noticeably over time. It is considered to be unambiguously cooler, and thus redder, than M2, and is usually classified between M3 and M5. Classes as extreme as M2.5 and M5 have been given.[4] The luminosity class is likewise confused and often given only as I, partly because luminosity classes are poorly defined in the red and infrared portions of the spectrum. One study though, gives a luminosity class of Ia+ which means a hypergiant or extremely luminous supergiant.[41]
Properties
VY Canis Majoris compared to the Sun and the Earth’s orbit.
Relative sizes of the planets in the Solar System and several stars, including VY Canis Majoris:
1. Mercury < Mars < Venus < Earth
2. Earth < Neptune < Uranus < Saturn < Jupiter
3. Jupiter < Proxima Centauri < Sun < Sirius
4. Sirius < Pollux < Arcturus < Aldebaran
5. Aldebaran < Rigel < Antares < Betelgeuse
6. Betelgeuse < Mu Cephei < VV Cephei A < VY Canis Majoris.
A very large and luminous star, VY CMa is among the most extreme stars in the Milky Way and has an effective temperature below 4,000 K (3,730 °C; 6,740 °F). It occupies the upper-right hand corner of the HR diagram although its exact luminosity and temperature are uncertain. Most of the properties of the star depend directly on its distance.
Luminosity
The bolometric luminosity (Lbol) of VY CMa can be calculated from Spectral energy distribution (SED) or bolometric flux, which can be determined from photometry in several visible and infrared bands. Earlier calculations of the luminosity based on an assumed distance of 1.5 kpc gave luminosities between 200,000 and 560,000 times the Sun's luminosity (L☉).[14][42][32] This is considerably very close or beyond the empirical Humphreys-Davidson limit. One study gave nearly one million L☉ at a distance of 2.1 kpc (6,800 ly).[43] In 2006 a luminosity of 430,000 L☉ was calculated by integrating the total fluxes over the entire nebula, since most of the radiation coming from the star is reprocessed by the dust in the surrounding cloud.[31] More recent estimates of the luminosity derive values below 350,000 L☉ based on distances below 1.2 kpc.[3][36][44] Most of the output of VY CMa is emitted as infrared radiation, with a maximum emission at 5–10 μm, which is in part caused by reprocessing of the radiation by the circumstellar nebula.[31][10] Many older luminosity estimates are consistent with current ones if they are re-scaled to the distance of 1.2 kpc.[36] Despite being one of the most luminous stars in the Milky Way, much of the visible light of VY CMa is absorbed by the circumstellar envelope, so it cannot be seen with the naked eye and needs a telescope to be observed. It would be a naked eye star if no light was absorbed.[12]
Mass
Since VY CMa has no companion star, its mass cannot be measured directly through gravitational interactions. Comparison of the effective temperature and bolometric luminosity of VY CMa compared to evolutionary tracks for massive stars suggest an initial mass of 7001250000000000000♠25±10 M☉ for a rotating star with a current mass of 15 M☉, or 32 M☉ for a non-rotating star with a current mass of 19 M☉[3], and an age of 8.2 million years (MYr).[11] Older studies have found much higher initial masses (thus also higher current masses) or a progenitor mass of 40 - 60 M☉ based on old luminosity estimates.[14][45]
Mass loss
Image taken by the ESO's Very Large Telescope showing the asymmetric nebula around VY CMa using SPHERE instrument. The star itself is hidden behind a dark disk. Crosses are artifacts due to the characteristics of the instrument.
VY CMa has a strong stellar wind and is losing a lot of material due to its high luminosity and relatively low surface gravity. It has an average mass loss rate of 6996600000000000000♠6×10−4 M☉ per year, among the highest known and unusually high even for a red supergiant, as evidenced by the extensive circumstellar envelope.[38][29] It is consequently one of most important stars for understanding the high-mass loss episodes near the end of massive star evolution.[46] The mass loss rate probably exceeded 6997100000000000000♠10−3 M☉/yr during the most violent mass loss events.[29]
Temperature
The effective temperature of VY CMa is uncertain but as the spectrum of VY CMa varies, then also the temperature may vary. Early estimates of the temperature of VY CMa assumed values below 3,000 K based on a spectral class of M5.[42][43] In 2006, Dr. Philip Massey used a MARCS model atmosphere to directly determine the temperature of VY CMa and calculated that the effective temperature of VY CMa is as high as 7003365000000000000♠3,650±25 K, corresponding to a spectral class of M2.5,[4] although VY CMa is usually considered as an M4-M5 star. Adopting the spectral class of M4-M5 with the temperature scale proposed by Emily Levesque gives a range of between 3,450 and 3,535 K.[47]
Size
Right to left: VY Canis Majoris compared to Betelgeuse, Rho Cassiopeiae, the Pistol Star, and the Sun (too small to be visible in this thumbnail). The orbits of Jupiter and Neptune are also shown.
The calculation of the radius of VY CMa is complicated by the extensive circumstellar envelope of the star and also VY CMa is a pulsating star, so its size changes with time. Earlier direct measurements of the radius by Monnier et al. at infrared (K-band = 2.2 µm) wavelength gave an angular diameter of 6992906601583674834♠18.7±0.5 mas, corresponding to radii above 3,000 R☉ (2.1×109 km; 14 au; 1.3×109 mi) at an assumed distance of 1.5 kpc, considerably larger than expected for any red supergiant or hypergiant.[42] However, this is probably larger than the actual size of the underlying star and the angular diameter estimate appears exceedingly large due to interference by the circumstellar envelope.[31][10][3] In 2006–2007 radii of 1,800 - 2,100 R☉ have been dervied by Humphreys et al. from the estimated luminosity of 430,000 L☉ and temperatures of 3,200 - 3,535 K.[31][10]
On 6 and 7 March 2011, VY CMa was observed by Wittkowski et al. using VLTI/AMBER interferometry with the Very Large Telescope (VLT) in a range of 2.20–2.25 μm. The size of VY CMa was calculated using the Rosseland Radius, the location at which the optical depth is 2⁄3,[48] with two modern distances of 7000113999999999999♠1.14+0.11
−0.09 and 7019370281309776063♠1.20+0.13
−0.10 kpc.[36][11] The angular diameter of VY CMa was directly and precisely measured at 6992547839459653776♠11.3±0.3 mas based on a PHOENIX atmosphere model, which corresponds to a radius of 7003142000000000000♠1,420±120 R☉ at a distance of 7019361024277031661♠1.17+0.08
−0.07 kpc. The high spectral resolution of these observations allowed the effects of contamination by circumstellar layers to be minimised. An effective temperature of 7003349000000000000♠3,490±90 K, corresponding to a spectral class of M4, was then derived from the radius and a luminosity of 7005270000000000000♠270,000±40,000 L☉ which is based on the distance and a measured flux of 6987630000000000000♠(6.3±0.3)×10−13 W/cm2.[3] In 2013, Alcolea et al. referred to VY Canis Majoris as the largest star discovered so far, referring to the Wittkowski radius, which is considered the highest radius among well-characterised stars. Several other red supergiants or hypergiants are possibly larger, but they have less accurate radius estimates.[49][a]
Most radius estimates of the VY CMa are considered as the size for the optical photosphere while the size of the star for the radio photosphere is calculated to be twice that of the size of the star for the optical photosphere.[5]
Despite the mass and very large size, VY CMa has an average density of 5.33 to 8.38 mg/m3 (0.00000533 to 0.00000838 kg/m3), it is over 100,000 times less dense than Earth's atmosphere at sea level (1.2 kg/m3).
Largest star
VY Canis Majoris (brightest star in the image) and its surrounding molecular cloud complex
(Rutherfurd Observatory/Columbia University)
VY Canis Majoris has been known to be an extreme object since the middle of the 20th century, although its true nature was uncertain.[40][50] In the late 20th century, it was accepted that it was a post-main sequence red supergiant. Its angular diameter had been measured and found to be significantly different depending on the observed wavelength. The first meaningful estimates of its properties showed a very large star, well in excess of a thousand R☉.[51][52]
In contrast to prevailing opinion, a 2006 study, ignoring the effects of the circumstellar envelope in the observed flux of the star, derived a luminosity of 60,000 L☉, suggesting an initial mass of 15 M☉ and radius of 600 R☉ based on an assumed effective temperature of 3,650 K and distance of 7019462851637220078♠1.5 kpc. On this basis they considered VY CMa and another notable extreme cool hypergiant star, NML Cygni, as normal early-type red supergiants.[4][53] They assert that earlier very high luminosities of 7005500000000000000♠500,000 L☉ and very large radii of 2,800 - 3,230 R☉[14][54] (or even 4,000 R☉[20]) were based on effective temperatures below 3,000 K that were unreasonably low.[4]
Almost immediately another paper published a size estimate of 1,800 - 2,100 R☉ and concluded that VY CMa is a true hypergiant. This was based on the most recent temperature calibrations, giving an effective temperature of 3,450 - 3,535 K, and a luminosity of 430,000 L☉ based on SED integration and a distance of 7019462851637220078♠1.5 kpc.[31]
Since then, the size of VY CMa has been calculated more accurately to be somewhat lower, for example 1,420 R☉,[3] while larger sizes have been published for a number of other galactic red supergiants such as Westerlund 1-26. Despite this, VY Canis Majoris is still often described as the largest known star, sometimes with caveats to account for the highly uncertain sizes of all these stars.[49][a] Another recent estimate based on the Wittkowski radius and the Monnier radius derived an average size of 2,000 R☉.[26]
Evolution
VY Canis Majoris is a highly evolved star with an age less than 10 MYr although some older authors argued that it would rather either be a very young protostar or a massive pre-main sequence star with an age of only 1 MYr and also a circumstellar disk around the star.[15] It has probably evolved from an O9 main sequence star with a radius of 5 - 20 R☉.[32][55][30] The star has evolved rapidly because of its high mass. The time spent to the red hypergiant phase is estimated to be between 100,000 and 500,000 years, and thus VY CMa had left its main sequence more than a million years ago.[11][30]
The future evolution of VY CMa is uncertain, but like the most cool supergiants, the star will certainly explode as a supernova. It has begun to fuse helium into carbon, whereas a main sequence star fuses hydrogen into helium. In 2009, Nathan Smith of the University of California, Ken Hinkle and Nils Ride of the Lund Observatory have used the PHOENIX near-infrared spectrograph on Gemini South to study the geometry and kinematics of the active circumstellar envelopes of two large supergiant stars: Betelgeuse and VY Canis Majoris. These two stars are losing huge amounts of mass in their "last gasps" and could explode as a supernova at any time now although the stars like VY CMa (>15 M☉) are too massive to produce type II-P supernovae at red supergiant stage and will probably evolve to higher temperature, likely producing a different type of supernova explosion.[56][3] It is also expected that VY CMa will explode in the next 100,000 years.[49] VY CMa has been discovered to be very unstable, having a prodigious mass loss rate. In this case, the CO emission is coincident with the bright KI shell in its asymmetric nebula. VY CMa will produce a moderately luminous and long-lasting type IIn supernova (SN IIn), or even a hypernova or superluminous supernova (SLSN) comparable to SN 1988Z (or possibly a type Ib supernova), but it is unlikely that the supernova would be extremely luminous like SN 2006tf or SN 2006gy. The explosion can be associated with gamma-ray bursts (GRB) and it will also produce a shock wave of a speed of a few thousand kilometers-per-second that could slam into the surrounding envelope of material and detectable interaction with the surrounding envelope for about a decade after the explosion. This demonstrates that LBVs, such as Eta Carinae, are not the only progenitors of SNe IIn or HN, but it stressed the requirement that these types of supernovae increased episodic mass loss just prior to the explosion. For a star as massive as VY CMa, the remnant would be likely a black hole rather than a neutron star.[56]
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b Alcolea et al 2013 refer to VY CMa as having the highest radius "among well-characterised stars in our galaxy", referring to the Wittkowski et al. 2012 value of 1,420 R☉ which is based on the distances from Choi et al. 2008 and Zhang et al. 2012 plus an angular diameter, or even as the largest known star by radius. Several red supergiants (or hypergiants) are possibly larger, although they could have less accurate radius estimates.
References
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^ Jump up to: a b c d "GCVS Query=VY CMa". General Catalogue of Variable Stars @ Sternberg Astronomical Institute, Moscow, Russia. Retrieved 2010-11-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Wittkowski, M.; Hauschildt, P.H.; Arroyo-Torres, B.; Marcaide, J.M. (5 April 2012). "Fundamental properties and atmospheric structure of the red supergiant VY CMa based on VLTI/AMBER spectro-interferometry". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 540: L12. arXiv:1203.5194. Bibcode:2012A&A...540L..12W. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219126.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Massey, Philip; Levesque, Emily M.; Plez, Bertrand (1 August 2006). "Bringing VY Canis Majoris down to size: an improved determination of its effective temperature". The Astrophysical Journal. 646 (2): 1203–1208. arXiv:astro-ph/0604253. Bibcode:2006ApJ...646.1203M. doi:10.1086/505025.
^ Jump up to: a b Lipscy, S. J.; Jura, M.; Reid, M. J. (10 June 2005). "Radio photosphere and mass-loss envelope of VY Canis Majoris". The Astrophysical Journal. 626 (1): 439–445. arXiv:astro-ph/0502586. Bibcode:2005ApJ...626..439L. doi:10.1086/429900.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ducati, J. R (2002). "VizieR Online Data Catalog: Catalogue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system". Vizier Online Data Catalog. Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D.
Jump up ^ De Beck, E.; Decin, L.; De Koter, A.; Justtanont, K.; Verhoelst, T.; Kemper, F.; Menten, K. M. (2010). "Probing the mass-loss history of AGB and red supergiant stars from CO rotational line profiles. II. CO line survey of evolved stars: Derivation of mass-loss rate formulae". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 523: A18. arXiv:1008.1083. Bibcode:2010A&A...523A..18D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913771.
^ Jump up to: a b Serkowski, K (1969). "Large Optical Polarization of the OH Emission Source VY Canis Majoris". The Astrophysical Journal. 156: L139. Bibcode:1969ApJ...156L.139S. doi:10.1086/180366.
^ Jump up to: a b c "VSX: Detail for VY CMa". American Association of Variable Star Observers. Retrieved 2018-07-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Humphreys, Roberta M.; Helton, L. Andrew; Jones, Terry J. (2007). "The Three-Dimensional Morphology of VY Canis Majoris. I. The Kinematics of the Ejecta". The Astronomical Journal. 133 (6): 2716–2729. arXiv:astro-ph/0702717. Bibcode:2007AJ....133.2716H. doi:10.1086/517609.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Zhang, B.; Reid, M. J.; Menten, K. M.; Zheng, X. W. (January 2012). "Distance and Kinematics of the Red Hypergiant VY CMa: VLBA and VLA Astrometry". The Astrophysical Journal. 744 (1): 23. arXiv:1109.3036. Bibcode:2012ApJ...744...23Z. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/744/1/23.
^ Jump up to: a b c David Darling. "VY Canis Majoris". Retrieved 9 July 2018.
Jump up ^ Matsuura, Mikako; Sargent, B; Swinyard, Bruce; Yates, Jeremy; Royer, P; Barlow, M. J; Boyer, Martha; Decin, L; Khouri, Theo; Meixner, Margaret; van Loon, Jacco Th; Woods, Paul M (2016). "The mass-loss rates of red supergiants at low metallicity: Detection of rotational CO emission from two red supergiants in the Large Magellanic Cloud". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 462 (3): 2995–3005. arXiv:1608.01729. Bibcode:2016MNRAS.462.2995M. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1853.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Smith, Nathan; Humphreys, Roberta M.; Davidson, Kriz; Gehrz, Robert D.; Schuster, M. T.; Krautter, Joachim (February 2001). "The Asymmetric Nebula Surrounding the Extreme Red Supergiant Vy Canis Majoris". The Astronomical Journal. 121 (2): 1111–1125. Bibcode:2001AJ....121.1111S. doi:10.1086/318748.
^ Jump up to: a b Herbig, G. H (1970). "VY Canis Majoris. II. Interpretation of the Energy Distribution". The Astrophysical Journal. 162: 557. Bibcode:1970ApJ...162..557H.
^ Jump up to: a b "Result for Sh-2 310". Galaxy Map. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
Jump up ^ Sharpless, Stewart (1959). "A Catalogue of H II Regions". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 4: 257. doi:10.1086/190049.
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^ Jump up to: a b c Robinson, L. J. (1971). "Three Somewhat Overlooked Facets of VY Canis Majoris". Information Bulletin on Variable Stars. 599: 1. Bibcode:1971IBVS..599....1R.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Wittkowski, M.; Langer, N.; Weigelt, G. (2004). "Diffraction-limited speckle-masking interferometry of the red supergiant VY CMa". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 340 (2004): 77–87. arXiv:astro-ph/9811280. Bibcode:1998A&A...340L..39W.
Jump up ^ Wilson, William J; Barrett, Alan H (1968). "Discovery of Hydroxyl Radio Emission from Infrared Stars". Science. 161 (3843): 778–9. Bibcode:1968Sci...161..778W. doi:10.1126/science.161.3843.778. PMID 17802620.
Jump up ^ Eliasson, B; Bartlett, J. F (1969). "Discovery of an Intense OH Emission Source". The Astrophysical Journal. 155: L79. Bibcode:1969ApJ...155L..79E. doi:10.1086/180306.
Jump up ^ Snyder, L. E; Buhl, D (1975). "Detection of new stellar sources of vibrationally excited silicon monoxide maser emission at 6.95 millimeters". The Astrophysical Journal. 197: 329. Bibcode:1975ApJ...197..329S. doi:10.1086/153517.
Jump up ^ "VY Canis Majoris". American Association of Variable Star Observers. 13 April 2010.
Jump up ^ De Beck, E; Vlemmings, W; Muller, S; Black, J. H; O'Gorman, E; Richards, A. M. S; Baudry, A; Maercker, M; Decin, L; Humphreys, E. M (2015). "ALMA observations of TiO2 around VY Canis Majoris". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 580: A36. Bibcode:2015A&A...580A..36D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201525990.
^ Jump up to: a b Kamiński, T; Gottlieb, C. A; Menten, K. M; Patel, N. A; Young, K. H; Brünken, S; Müller, H. S. P; McCarthy, M. C; Winters, J. M; Decin, L (2013). "Pure rotational spectra of TiO and TiO2 in VY Canis Majoris". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 551 (2013): A113. arXiv:1301.4344. Bibcode:2013A&A...551A.113K. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220290.
Jump up ^ Hoffmeister, Cuno (1931). "316 neue Veränderlilche". Astronomische Nachrichten. 242 (7): 129–142. Bibcode:1931AN....242..129H. doi:10.1002/asna.19312420702.
Jump up ^ Guthnick, P.; Schneller, H. (1939). "Benennung von veränderlichen Sternen". Astronomische Nachrichten. 268 (11–12): 165. Bibcode:1939AN....268..165G. doi:10.1002/asna.19392681102.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Shenoy, Dinesh; Humphreys, Roberta M; Terry Jay Jones; Marengo, Massimo; Gehrz, Robert D; Andrew Helton, L; Hoffmann, William F; Skemer, Andrew J; Hinz, Philip M (2015). "Searching for Cool Dust in the Mid-to-Far Infrared: The Mass Loss Histories of the Hypergiants μ Cep, VY CMa, IRC+10420, and ρ Cas". The Astronomical Journal. 151 (3): 51. arXiv:1512.01529. Bibcode:2016AJ....151...51S. doi:10.3847/0004-6256/151/3/51.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Astronomers Map a Hypergiant Star's Massive Outbursts". HubbleSite. 8 January 2007. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Humphreys, Roberta M. (2006). "VY Canis Majoris: The Astrophysical Basis of Its Luminosity": astro–ph/0610433. arXiv:astro-ph/0610433. Bibcode:2006astro.ph.10433H.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lada, Charles J.; Reid, Mark J. (1 January 1978). "CO observations of a molecular cloud complex associated with the bright rim near VY Canis Majoris". The Astrophysical Journal. 219: 95–104. Bibcode:1978ApJ...219...95L. doi:10.1086/155758.
Jump up ^ Lada, C. J.; Reid, M. (1976). "The Discovery of a Molecular Cloud Associated with VY CMa". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society. 8: 322. Bibcode:1976BAAS....8R.322L.
Jump up ^ Mel'nik, A.M.; Dambis, A.K. (2009). "Kinematics of OB-associations and the new reduction of the Hipparcos data". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 400 (1): 518–523. arXiv:0909.0618. Bibcode:2009MNRAS.400..518M. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15484.x.
Jump up ^ Perryman, M. A. C.; Lindegren, L.; Kovalevsky, J.; Hoeg, E.; Bastian, U.; Bernacca, P. L.; Crézé, M.; Donati, F.; Grenon, M.; Grewing, M.; Van Leeuwen, F.; Van Der Marel, H.; Mignard, F.; Murray, C. A.; Le Poole, R. S.; Schrijver, H.; Turon, C.; Arenou, F.; Froeschlé, M.; Petersen, C. S. (1997). "The HIPPARCOS Catalogue". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 323: L49. Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Choi, Y. K.; Hirota, Tomoya; Honma, Mareki; Kobayashi, Hideyuki; Bushimata, Takeshi; Imai, Hiroshi; Iwadate, Kenzaburo; Jike, Takaaki; Kameno, Seiji; Kameya, O.; Kamohara, R.; Kan-Ya, Y.; Kawaguchi, N.; Kijima, M.; Kim, M. K.; Kuji, S.; Kurayama, T.; Manabe, S.; Maruyama, K.; Matsui, M.; Matsumoto, N.; Miyaji, T.; Nagayama, T.; Nakagawa, A.; Nakamura, K.; Oh, C. S.; Omodaka, T.; Oyama, T.; Sakai, S.; et al. (2008). "Distance to VY Canis Majoris with VERA". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan. 60 (5): 1007. arXiv:0808.0641. Bibcode:2008PASJ...60.1007C. doi:10.1093/pasj/60.5.1007.
Jump up ^ Brown, A. G. A.; et al. (Gaia collaboration) (August 2018). "Gaia Data Release 2: Summary of the contents and survey properties". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 616. A1. arXiv:1804.09365. Bibcode:2018A&A...616A...1G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833051. Gaia DR2 record for this source at VizieR.
^ Jump up to: a b Humphreys, E. M. L; Immer, K; Gray, M. D; De Beck, E; Vlemmings, W. H. T; Baudry, A; Richards, A. M. S; Wittkowski, M; Torstensson, K; De Breuck, C; Moller, P; Etoka, S; Olberg, M (2017). "Simultaneous 183 GHz H2O Maser and SiO Observations Towards Evolved Stars Using APEX SEPIA Band 5". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 603: A77. arXiv:1704.02133. Bibcode:2017A&A...603A..77H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201730718.
Jump up ^ Kastner, Joel (1996). "FOC Imaging of the Dusty Envelopes of Mass-Losing Supergiants". Hst Proposal: 6416. Bibcode:1996hst..prop.6416K.
^ Jump up to: a b Wallerstein, George (1958). "The Spectrum of the Irregular Variable VY Canis Majoris". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 70 (416): 479. Bibcode:1958PASP...70..479W. doi:10.1086/127278.
Jump up ^ Skiff, B. A. (2014). "VizieR Online Data Catalog: Catalogue of Stellar Spectral Classifications (Skiff, 2009-2016)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog: B/mk. Originally Published In: Lowell Observatory (October 2014). 1: B/mk. Bibcode:2014yCat....1.2023S.
^ Jump up to: a b c Monnier, J. D; Millan-Gabet, R; Tuthill, P. G; Traub, W. A; Carleton, N. P; Coudé Du Foresto, V; Danchi, W. C; Lacasse, M. G; Morel, S; Perrin, G; Porro, I. L; Schloerb, F. P; Townes, C. H (2004). "High-Resolution Imaging of Dust Shells by Using Keck Aperture Masking and the IOTA Interferometer". The Astrophysical Journal. 605 (1): 436–461. arXiv:astro-ph/0401363. Bibcode:2004ApJ...605..436M. doi:10.1086/382218.
^ Jump up to: a b Le Sidaner, P; Le Bertre, T (1996). "Optical and infrared observations of 27 oxygen-rich stars. Modelling of the circumstellar dust shells". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 314: 896. Bibcode:1996A&A...314..896L.
Jump up ^ Mauron, N.; Josselin, E. (2011). "The mass-loss rates of red supergiants and the de Jager prescription". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 526: A156. arXiv:1010.5369. Bibcode:2011A&A...526A.156M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201013993.
Jump up ^ Knapp, G. R; Sandell, G; Robson, E. I (1993). "The Dust Content of Evolved Circumstellar Envelopes and the Optical Properties of Dust at Submillimeter to Radio Wavelengths". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 88: 173. Bibcode:1993ApJS...88..173K. doi:10.1086/191820.
Jump up ^ Humphreys, Roberta M; Davidson, Kris; Ruch, Gerald; Wallerstein, George (2005). "High-Resolution, Long-Slit Spectroscopy of VY Canis Majoris: The Evidence for Localized High Mass Loss Events". The Astronomical Journal. 129 (1): 492–510. Bibcode:2005AJ....129..492H. doi:10.1086/426565.
Jump up ^ Levesque, Emily M.; Massey, Philip; Olsen, K. A. G.; Plez, Bertrand; Josselin, Eric; Maeder, Andre; Meynet, Georges (2005). "The Effective Temperature Scale of Galactic Red Supergiants: Cool, but Not as Cool as We Thought". The Astrophysical Journal. 628 (2): 973–985. arXiv:astro-ph/0504337. Bibcode:2005ApJ...628..973L. doi:10.1086/430901.
Jump up ^ Wehrse, R.; Scholz, M.; Baschek, B. (June 1991). "The parameters R and Teff in stellar models and observations". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 246 (2): 374–382. Bibcode:1991A&A...246..374B.
^ Jump up to: a b c Alcolea, J; Bujarrabal, V; Planesas, P; Teyssier, D; Cernicharo, J; De Beck, E; Decin, L; Dominik, C; Justtanont, K; De Koter, A; Marston, A. P; Melnick, G; Menten, K. M; Neufeld, D. A; Olofsson, H; Schmidt, M; Schöier, F. L; Szczerba, R; Waters, L. B. F. M (2013). "HIFISTARSHerschel/HIFI observations of VY Canis Majoris. Molecular-line inventory of the envelope around the largest known star". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 559: A93. arXiv:1310.2400. Bibcode:2013A&A...559A..93A. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321683.
Jump up ^ Hyland, A. R.; Becklin, E. E.; Neugebauer, G.; Wallerstein, George (1969). "Observations of the Infrared Object, VY Canis Majoris". The Astrophysical Journal. 158: 619. Bibcode:1969ApJ...158..619H.
Jump up ^ Jura, M.; Kleinmann, S. G. (1990). "Mass-losing M Supergiants in the Solar Neighborhood". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 73: 769. Bibcode:1990ApJS...73..769J. doi:10.1086/191488.
Jump up ^ Humphreys, Roberta M. (1987). "Massive stars in galaxies". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 99: 5. Bibcode:1987PASP...99....5H. doi:10.1086/131948.
Jump up ^ Massey, Philip; Levesque, Emily M; Plez, Bertrand; Olsen, Knut A. G; Bresolin, F; Crowther, P. A; Puls, J (2008). "The Physical Properties of Red Supergiants: Comparing Theory and Observations". Massive Stars as Cosmic Engines. 250: 97. arXiv:0801.1806. Bibcode:2008IAUS..250...97M. doi:10.1017/S1743921308020383.
Jump up ^ Zubko, Viktor; Li, Di; Lim, Tanya; Feuchtgruber, Helmut; Harwit, Martin (2004). "Observations of Water Vapor Outflow from NML Cygnus". The Astrophysical Journal. 610 (1): 427–435. arXiv:astro-ph/0405044. Bibcode:2004ApJ...610..427Z. doi:10.1086/421700.
Jump up ^ Wallerstein, G (1978). "An interpretation of the apparent orbit of VY CMa AB: The rotating holey dust cloud hypothesis". The Observatory. 98: 224. Bibcode:1978Obs....98..224W.
^ Jump up to: a b Smith, Nathan; Hinkle, Kenneth H.; Ryde, Nils (March 2009). "Red Supergiants as Potential Type IIn Supernova Progenitors: Spatially Resolved 4.6 μm CO Emission Around VY CMa and Betelgeuse". The Astronomical Journal. 137 (3): 3558–3573. arXiv:0811.3037. Bibcode:2009AJ....137.3558S. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/137/3/3558.
Further reading
Kastner, Joel H.; Weintraub, David A. (1998). "Hubble Space Telescope Imaging of the Mass-losing Supergiant VY Canis Majoris". Astronomical Journal. 115 (4): 1592–1598. Bibcode:1998AJ....115.1592K. doi:10.1086/300297.
Meynet, G; Chomienne, V; Ekström, S; Georgy, C; Granada, A; Groh, J; Maeder, A; Eggenberger, P; Levesque, E; Massey, P (2015). "Impact of mass-loss on the evolution and pre-supernova properties of red supergiants". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 575 (60): A60. arXiv:1410.8721. Bibcode:2015A&A...575A..60M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201424671.
Scicluna, P; Siebenmorgen, R; Wesson, R; Blommaert, J. A. D. L; Kasper, M; Voshchinnikov, N. V; Wolf, S (2015). "Large dust grains in the wind of VY Canis Majoris". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 584: L10. Bibcode:2015A&A...584L..10S. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527563.
Wittkowski, M; Arroyo-Torres, B; Marcaide, J. M; Abellan, F. J; Chiavassa, A; Freytag, B; Scholz, M; Wood, P. R; Hauschildt, P. H; Meynet, Georges; Georgy, Cyril; Groh, José; Stee, Philippe (2015). "On the atmospheric structure and fundamental parameters of red supergiants". New Windows on Massive Stars. 307: 280–285. Bibcode:2015IAUS..307..280W. doi:10.1017/S1743921314006930.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to VY Canis Majoris.
VLT image of the surroundings of VY Canis Majoris seen with SPHERE www.eso.org
Astronomers Map a Hypergiant Star's Massive Outbursts, HubbleSite NewsCenter, 2007-01-08
"What is the Biggest Star in the Universe?", Fraser Cain, Universe Today, published 2008-04-06, updated 13 May 2013
Coordinates: 07h 22m 58.33s, −25° 46′ 03.17″
Amos, Jonathan (27 November 2009). "Herschel telescope 'fingerprints' colossal star". BBC News. Retrieved 30 November 2009. The death throes of one of the biggest stars known to science have been spied by Europe's Herschel space telescope.
Structure and Evolution of Stars. "Lecture 16: The IMF, Lithium Burning, P Cygni Profiles and Mass Loss" (PDF). Retrieved 2018-06-29.
Remote Sensing Tutorial Page A-5 archive
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ζ (Furud)
η (Aludra)
θ
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PSR B0628-28
RX J0720.4-3125
WISE 0713-2917
WR 7
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Messier 41
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NGC 2243
NGC 2345
NGC 2354
NGC 2358
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NGC 2367
NGC 2374
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NGC 2384
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IC 2163
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