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Margaret Hamilton (actress)
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Margaret Hamilton
Hamilton c. 1958
Born
Margaret Brainard Hamilton
(1902-12-09)December 9, 1902
Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.
Died
May 16, 1985(1985-05-16) (aged 82)
Salisbury, Connecticut, U.S.
Cause of death
Heart attack
Resting place
Ashes scattered at Amenia, New York
Nationality
American
Education
Hathaway Brown School
Alma mater
Wheelock College
Occupation
Actress, schoolteacher
Years active
1933–1982
Notable work
The Wicked Witch of the West in MGM's The Wizard of Oz (1939)
Spouse(s)
Paul Meserve (m. 1931; div. 1938)
Children
1
Parent(s)
Walter J. Hamilton (father)
Jennie Adams (mother)
Relatives
Neil Hamilton (distant cousin),
Dorothy Hamilton Brush (sister)
Margaret Brainard Hamilton (December 9, 1902 – May 16, 1985) was an American film character actress best known for her portrayal of the Wicked Witch of the West in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's classic film The Wizard of Oz (1939).[1]
A former schoolteacher, she worked as a character actress in films for seven years before she was offered the role that defined her public image. In later years, Hamilton made frequent cameo appearances on television sitcoms and commercials. She also gained recognition for her work as an advocate of causes designed to benefit children and animals, and retained a lifelong commitment to public education. The Wicked Witch of the West was eventually ranked number four in the American Film Institute's 2003 list of the 50 Best Movie Villains of All Time, making her the top-ranking female villain.
Contents
1 Early life
2 Film career
2.1 The Wizard of Oz
3 Radio, television, and stage career
4 Personal life
5 Final years and death
6 Complete filmography
7 Partial television appearances
8 References
9 External links
Early life[edit]
Hamilton was born to Walter J. Hamilton, and his wife, Mary Jane (née Adams; known by her nickname, Jennie), in Cleveland, Ohio, and was the youngest of four children. She later attended Hathaway Brown School, while the school was located at 1945 East 93rd Street in Cleveland. Drawn to the theater at an early age, Hamilton made her stage debut in 1923. Hamilton also practiced her craft doing children's theater while she was a Junior League of Cleveland member. She later moved to Painesville, Ohio.[citation needed] Before she turned to acting exclusively, her parents insisted that she attend Wheelock College in Boston, which she did, later becoming a kindergarten teacher.[citation needed]
Film career[edit]
Hamilton's career as a film actress was driven by the very qualities that placed her in stark contrast to the stereotypical Hollywood glamour girl. Her image was that of a New England spinster, extremely pragmatic and impatient with all manner of "tomfoolery". Hamilton's looks helped to bring steady work as a character actor. She made her screen debut in 1933 in Another Language. She went on to appear in These Three (1936), Saratoga, You Only Live Once, When's Your Birthday?, Nothing Sacred (all 1937), The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1938), My Little Chickadee (with W. C. Fields) (1940), and The Sin of Harold Diddlebock (1947 film) with Harold Lloyd. She strove to work as much as possible to support herself and her son; she never put herself under contract to any one studio and priced her services at $1,000 ($17,000 with inflation[2]) a week.[3]
Hamilton costarred opposite Buster Keaton and Richard Cromwell in a 1940s spoof of the long-running local melodrama The Drunkard, titled The Villain Still Pursued Her. Later in the decade, she was in a little-known film noir, titled Bungalow 13 (1948), in which she again costarred opposite Cromwell. Her crisp voice with rapid but clear enunciation was another trademark. She appeared regularly in supporting roles in films until the early 1950s, and sporadically thereafter. Opposite Bud Abbott and Lou Costello, she played a heavily made-up witch in Comin' Round the Mountain, where her character and Costello go toe-to-toe with voodoo dolls made of each other. She appeared, uncredited, in Joseph L. Mankiewicz's People Will Talk (1951) as Sarah Pickett. In 1960, producer/director William Castle cast Hamilton as a housekeeper in his 13 Ghosts horror film, in which 12-year-old lead Charles Herbert taunts her about being a witch, including one scene in which she is holding a broom in her hand.[citation needed]
The Wizard of Oz[edit]
Hamilton as the Wicked Witch of the West with Judy Garland as Dorothy Gale in The Wizard of Oz (1939)
In 1939, Hamilton played the role of the Wicked Witch, opposite Judy Garland's Dorothy Gale in The Wizard of Oz, creating not only her most famous role, but also one of the screen's most memorable villains. Hamilton was cast after Gale Sondergaard, who was first considered for the role, albeit as a more glamorous witch with a musical scene, declined the role when the decision was made that the witch should appear ugly.[4]
She suffered a second-degree burn on her face and a third-degree burn on her hand during a second take of her fiery exit from Munchkinland, in which the trap door's drop was delayed to eliminate the brief glimpse of it seen in the final edit. Hamilton had to recuperate in a hospital and at home for six weeks after the accident before returning to the set to complete her work on the film, and refused to have anything further to do with fire for the rest of the filming. After she recuperated, she said, "I won't sue, because I know how this business works, and I would never work again. I will return to work on one condition — no more fireworks!" Garland visited Hamilton while the latter recuperated at home looking after her son.[5] Studio executives cut some of Hamilton's more frightening scenes, worrying that they would frighten children too much. Later on in life, she would comment on the role of the witch in a light-hearted fashion. For an interview, she joked:
I was in need of money at the time, I had done about six pictures for MGM at the time and my agent called. I said, 'Yes?' and he said 'Maggie, they want you to play a part on the Wizard.' I said to myself, 'Oh, boy, The Wizard of Oz! That has been my favorite book since I was four.' And I asked him what part, and he said, 'The Witch,' and I said, 'The Witch?!' and he said, 'What else?'[6]
Hamilton's stand-in and stunt double for the Witch, Betty Danko, also suffered an on-set accident on February 11, 1939. Danko made the fiery entrance to Munchkinland, not Hamilton. She was severely burned during the "Surrender Dorothy!" skywriting sequence at the Emerald City. Danko sat on a smoking pipe configured to look like the Witch's broomstick. The pipe exploded on the third take of the scene. She spent 11 days in the hospital and her legs were permanently scarred. A new stunt double, Aline Goodwin, was hired to finish the broomstick-riding scene for Danko.[citation needed]
When asked about her experiences on the set of The Wizard of Oz, Hamilton said that her biggest fear was that her monstrous film role would give children the wrong idea of who she really was. In reality, she cared deeply about children, frequently giving to charitable organizations. She often remarked about children coming up to her and asking her why she had been so mean to Dorothy. She appeared on an episode of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood in 1975, where she explained to children that she was only playing a role and showed how putting on a costume "transformed" her into the witch.[7] She also made personal appearances, and Hamilton described the children's usual reaction to her portrayal of the Witch:
Almost always they want me to laugh like the Witch. And sometimes when I go to schools, if we're in an auditorium, I'll do it. And there's always a funny reaction, like 'Ye gods, they wish they hadn't asked.' They're scared. They're really scared for a second. Even adolescents. I guess for a minute they get the feeling they got when they watched the picture. They like to hear it but they 'don't' like to hear it. And then they go, 'Ohhhhhhhhhh ...!' The picture made a terrible impression of some kind on them, sometimes a ghastly impression, but most of them got over it, I guess ... because when I talk like the Witch, and when I laugh, there is a hesitation and then they clap. They're clapping at hearing the sound again.[8]
Hamilton played two credited roles in the famous film: Almira Gulch and the Wicked Witch of the West. Hamilton also appears as an unidentified flying witch during the tornado scene. Some[who?] argue this is actually intended to be the Wicked Witch of the East rather than her sister, and Hamilton's credited role, the Wicked Witch of the West; if so, this would be a third, uncredited role. Only co-star Frank Morgan played more roles in the film (five roles). Hamilton and Morgan never share any scenes in Oz. However, in By Your Leave (1934), she plays his housekeeper, and in Saratoga (1937), she has a colloquy with Morgan regarding a cosmetic product he invented (with side glances and eye rolls by Morgan as to its effect on her "beauty"). Hamilton's line from The Wizard of Oz — "I'll get you, my pretty, and your little dog, too!" — was ranked 99th in the 2005 American Film Institute survey of the most memorable movie quotes. Her son, interviewed for the 2005 DVD edition of the film, commented that Hamilton enjoyed the line so much, she sometimes used it in her real life. A few months after filming Oz, she appeared in Babes in Arms as Jeff Steele's mother, Martha, a society do-gooder who made it her goal to send the gang of child actors, led by Mickey Rooney and Judy Garland, to a work farm. In 1945, she played the domineering sister of Oz co-star Jack Haley in George White's Scandals, comically trying to prevent him from marrying actress Joan Davis, even going so far as to throw a hatchet at her. Hamilton and Ray Bolger were cast members in the 1966 fantasy film The Daydreamer, a collection of stories by Hans Christian Andersen. A few years later, they were reunited on Broadway for the short-lived musical Come Summer.
Radio, television, and stage career[edit]
Margaret Hamilton, Ray Bolger, and Jack Haley reunited in 1970, a year after the death of co-star Judy Garland
Hamilton with Oscar the Grouch on episode #0847 of Sesame Street, 1976
In the 1940s and 1950s, Hamilton had a long-running role on the radio series Ethel and Albert (or The Couple Next Door) in which she played the lovable, scattered Aunt Eva (name later changed to Aunt Effie). During the 1960s and 1970s, Hamilton appeared regularly on television. She did a stint as a What's My Line? mystery guest on the popular Sunday night CBS-TV program. She played Morticia Addams' mother, Hester Frump, in three episodes of The Addams Family. (1965–66; Hamilton had been offered the role of Grandmama, but turned it down.)
In 1962, Hamilton played Leora Scofield, a suffragette who arrives in Laramie, Wyoming, to bolster feminist causes in a territory where women had already obtained the right to vote, in the episode "Beyond Justice" of NBC's Laramie. In the story line, she is depicted as a long-lost friend of series character Daisy Cooper, played by Spring Byington. Series lead character Slim Sherman (John Smith) is skeptical of the suffragettes, and Sheriff Mort Corey and he concoct a tale that the women should head to Cheyenne, where their services are more needed than in Laramie.[9]
Having started on the stage in the early 1930s, she began to work extensively in the theater after leaving Los Angeles, and appeared on Broadway in the musical Goldilocks opposite Don Ameche and Elaine Stritch, gave a lighter touch to the domineering Parthy Anne Hawks in the 1966 revival of Show Boat (dancing with David Wayne), and was the tender Aunt Eller in the 1968 Lincoln Center revival of Oklahoma!. Hamilton also toured in many plays and musicals, even repeating her role of the Wicked Witch in specially written stage productions of The Wizard of Oz. For her last stage role, she was cast as Madame Armfeldt in the Stephen Sondheim musical A Little Night Music, singing the song "Liaisons" for the national tour costarring with Jean Simmons as her daughter Desiree.
Even with her extensive film career, Hamilton took roles in whatever medium she could get if she was free, making her soap-opera debut as the nasty Mrs. Sayre on Valiant Lady, who schemed to prevent her daughter from marrying the heroine's son. In the 1960s, Hamilton was a regular on another CBS soap opera, The Secret Storm, playing the role of Grace Tyrell's housekeeper, Katie. In the early 1970s, she joined the cast of another CBS soap opera, As the World Turns, on which she played Miss Peterson, Simon Gilbey's assistant. She had a small role in the made-for-television film The Night Strangler (1973), and appeared as a befuddled neighbor on Sigmund and the Sea Monsters, who is a friend of the very similar Mary Wickes. In The Paul Lynde Halloween Special (1976), she portrayed Lynde's housekeeper, reprising the Wicked Witch role, as well as introducing Lynde to the rock group Kiss. She reprised her role as the Wicked Witch in an episode of Sesame Street, but as a result of complaints from parents of terrified children, the episode has not been seen since 1976. She appeared as herself in three episodes of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, between 1975 and 1976, because Fred Rogers wanted his viewers to recognize that the Wicked Witch was just a character and not something for them to be afraid of.[10] Hamilton continued acting regularly until 1982, her last roles were two guest appearances as veteran journalist Thea Taft (in 1979 and 1982) on Lou Grant.
Throughout the 1970s, Hamilton lived in New York City's Gramercy Park neighborhood and appeared on local (and some national) public-service announcements for organizations promoting the welfare of pets. Her most visible appearances during this period were as general store owner Cora, in a national series of television commercials for Maxwell House coffee.[11][12][13]
Hamilton as Madame Armfeldt in the national tour of A Little Night Music (1974)
Hamilton produced the stage productions An Evening with the Bourgeoisie, The Three Sisters, and House Party.[where?][when?][14]
Personal life[edit]
Hamilton remained a lifelong friend of The Wizard of Oz castmate Ray Bolger. She married Paul Boynton Meserve on June 13, 1931, and made her debut on the New York City stage the following year. While her acting career developed, her marriage began failing; the couple divorced in 1938. They had one son, Hamilton Wadsworth Meserve (born 1936), whom she raised on her own. She had three grandchildren, Christopher, Scott, and Margaret. Hamilton never remarried.[15]
Final years and death[edit]
Hamilton's early experience as a teacher fueled a lifelong interest in educational issues. Hamilton served on the Beverly Hills Board of Education from 1948 to 1951, and was a Sunday school teacher during the 1950s. She lived in Manhattan for most of her adult life. In 1979, she was a guest speaker at a UCONN Children's Literature class.[citation needed] She later moved to Millbrook, New York. She subsequently developed Alzheimer's disease, and died in her sleep following a heart attack on May 16, 1985, in Salisbury, Connecticut. She was 82 years old.[1] Her body was cremated at Poughkeepsie Rural Cemetery, and her ashes were scattered at Amenia, New York.[citation needed]
Complete filmography[edit]
Zoo in Budapest (1933) as Assistant Matron for orphans (uncredited)
Another Language (1933) as Helen Hallam
Hat, Coat, and Glove (1934) as Madame Du Barry
There's Always Tomorrow (1934) as Ella
By Your Leave (1934) as Whiffen
Broadway Bill (1934) as Edna
The Farmer Takes a Wife (1935) as Lucy Gurget
Way Down East (1935) as Martha Perkins
Chatterbox (1936) as Emily 'Tippie' Tipton
These Three (1936) as Agatha
The Moon's Our Home (1936) as Mitty Simpson
The Witness Chair (1936) as Grace Franklin
Laughing at Trouble (1936) as Lizzie Beadle
You Only Live Once (1937) as Hester
When's Your Birthday? (1937) as Mossy
The Good Old Soak (1937) as Minnie
Mountain Justice (1937) as Phoebe Lamb
Saratoga (1937) as Maizie (uncredited)
I'll Take Romance (1937) as Margot
Nothing Sacred (1937) as Vermont Drugstore Lady
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1938) as Mrs. Harper
A Slight Case of Murder (1938) as Mrs. Cagle
Mother Carey's Chickens (1938) as Mrs. Pauline Fuller
Four's a Crowd (1938) as Amy
Breaking the Ice (1938) as Mrs. Small
Stablemates (1938) as Beulah Flanders
The Wizard of Oz (1939) as Miss Almira Gulch / The Wicked Witch Of The West
The Angels Wash Their Faces (1939) as Miss Hannaberry
Babes in Arms (1939) as Martha Steele
Main Street Lawyer (1939) as Lucy, Boggs' Housekeeper
My Little Chickadee (1940) as Mrs. Gideon
The Villain Still Pursued Her (1940) as Mrs. Wilson
I'm Nobody's Sweetheart Now (1940) as Mrs. Thriffie
The Invisible Woman (1940) as Mrs. Jackson
Play Girl (1941) as Josie
The Gay Vagabond (1941) as Agatha Badger
Twin Beds (1942) as Norah
Meet the Stewarts (1942) as Willametta
The Affairs of Martha (1942) as Guinevere
City Without Men (1943) as Dora
The Ox-Bow Incident (1943) as Mrs. Larch (uncredited)
Johnny Come Lately (1943) as Myrtle Ferguson
Guest in the House (1944) as Hilda - the Maid
George White's Scandals (1945) as Clarabelle Evans
Janie Gets Married (1946) as Mrs. Angles
Faithful in My Fashion (1946) as Miss Applegate
The Sin of Harold Diddlebock (1947) as Flora
Dishonored Lady (1947) as Mrs. Geiger
Pet Peeves (1947 short) as Haughty Woman (uncredited)
Driftwood (1947) as Essie Keenan
Reaching from Heaven (1948) as Sophie Manley
State of the Union (1948) as Norah
Texas, Brooklyn and Heaven (1948) as Ruby Cheever
Bungalow 13 (1948) as Mrs. Theresa Appleby
The Sun Comes Up (1949) as Mrs. Golightly
The Red Pony (1949) as Teacher
The Beautiful Blonde from Bashful Bend (1949) as Mrs. Elvira O'Toole (uncredited)
The Great Plane Robbery (1950) as Mrs. Judd
Wabash Avenue (1950) as Tillie Hutch
Riding High (1950) as Edna
Comin' Round the Mountain (1951) as Aunt Huddy
People Will Talk (1951) as Miss Sarah Pickett - Housekeeper (uncredited)
A String of Blue Beads (1953 TV movie) as Mrs. Loomis
The Devil's Disciple (1955 TV movie) as Mrs. Dudgeon
On Borrowed Time (1957 TV movie) as Demetria Riffle
The Christmas Tree (1958 TV movie) as Miss Finch
Once Upon a Christmas Time (1959 TV movie) as Miss Scugg
The Secret World of Eddie Hodges (1960 TV movie) as Mrs. Grundy
13 Ghosts (1960) as Elaine Zacharides
The Good Years (1962) as Narrator
Paradise Alley (1962) as Mrs. Nicholson
The Daydreamer (1966) as Mrs. Klopplebobbler
Ghostbreakers (1967 TV movie) as Ivy Rumson
Rosie! (1967) as Mae
Angel in My Pocket (1969) as Rhoda
Brewster McCloud (1970) as Daphne Heap
Is There a Doctor in the House (1971 TV movie) as Emma Proctor
The Anderson Tapes (1971) as Miss Kaler
Journey Back to Oz (1972) as Aunt Em (voice)
The Night Strangler (1973 TV movie) as Prof. Crabwell
Letters from Frank (1979 TV movie) as Grandma Miller
Pardon Me For Living (1982 TV movie) as Miss Holderness
Partial television appearances[edit]
The Paul Winchell and Jerry Mahoney Show (cast member, 1953–54)
Valiant Lady (cast member, 1955)
Dow Hour of Great Mysteries (1960) as Lizzie Allen in The Bat by Mary Roberts Rinehart
Laramie (Beyond Justice, November 27, 1962)
Car 54, Where Are You? (1963), as Miss Pownthleroy
The Patty Duke Show (1963), as The Lane Family housekeeper
The Addams Family (1965–66), as Hester Frump
The Secret Storm (cast member, 1964–67)
As the World Turns (cast member, 1971)
Sesame Street (1970s)
(1973) A Quiet day in Dodge*
The Night Strangler (1973)
Sigmund and the Sea Monsters (1973)
The Partridge Family (1974)
Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (4 episodes, 1975–76)
The Paul Lynde Halloween Special (1976)
Lou Grant (2 guest appearances in 1979 and 1982), as Thea Taft
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Margaret Hamilton, 82, Dies; Played Wicked Witch In 'Oz'". New York Times. May 17, 1985. Retrieved 2007-07-21. Margaret Hamilton, the actress whose role as the cackling Wicked Witch of the West in The Wizard of Oz unnerved generations of children, died yesterday, apparently of a heart attack, at a nursing home in Salisbury, Connecticut. She was 82 years old. Miss Hamilton was a gentle, lively woman who taught kindergarten for years before she began a career of 50 years in the theater, movies, radio and television. But she seared a fearsome image on the public consciousness in 1939 when, at the age of 36, she played the Wicked Witch, the terror of Judy Garland's long dream in the classic film of L. Frank Baum's story.
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ Harmetz, A. (1998). The Making of the Wizard of Oz: Movie Magic and Studio Power in the Prime of MGM, New York: Hyperion Books. p. 123
Jump up ^ How well do you know Oz? Jacksonville.com; retrieved October 6, 2013
Jump up ^ Harmetz, A. (1998). The Making of The Wizard of Oz: Movie Magic and Studio Power in the Prime of MGM. New York: Hyperion Books.
Jump up ^ Wizard of Oz DVD commentary track
Jump up ^ Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, s8ep63 (aired on May 14, 1975)
Jump up ^ Harmetz, Aljean; The Making of the Wizard of Oz, p. 297
Jump up ^ "Beyond Justice: Laramie (TV series), November 27, 1962". IMDb. Retrieved November 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Potempa, Philip (October 27, 2017). "Wicked Witch of the West not always a fright sight". Post-Tribune. Crown Point, IN: Chicago Tribune Media Group. Retrieved March 28, 2018.
Jump up ^ 1978 Maxwell House A.D.C. Coffee TV commercial w/Margaret Hamilton as Cora the Storekeeper on YouTube
Jump up ^ Maxwell House ad w/Margaret Hamilton, 1978 on YouTube
Jump up ^ Maxwell House with Cora #1 on YouTube
Jump up ^ Margaret Hamilton profile, FilmReference.com; retrieved March 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ Juran, Robert A. (1995). Old Familiar Faces: The Great Character Actors and Actresses of Hollywood's Golden Era. Movie Memories Publishing. p. 109.
External links[edit]
Biography portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Margaret Hamilton.
Margaret Hamilton on IMDb
Margaret Hamilton at the Internet Broadway Database
Margaret Hamilton at the Internet Off-Broadway Database
Margaret Hamilton at AllMovie
Margaret Hamilton at the TCM Movie Database
Margaret Hamilton correspondence and ephemera, 1944-1979, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
Obituary, The Millbrook Round Table, May 22, 1985
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Bubonic plague
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the disease. For information about the medieval plague, see Black Death.
Bubonic plague
A bubo on the upper thigh of a person infected with bubonic plague.
Specialty
Infectious disease
Symptoms
Fever, headaches, vomiting, swollen lymph nodes[1][2]
Usual onset
1-7 days after exposure[1]
Causes
Yersinia pestis spread by fleas[1]
Diagnostic method
Finding the bacteria in the blood, sputum, or lymph nodes[1]
Treatment
Antibiotics such as streptomycin, gentamicin, or doxycycline[3][4]
Frequency
650 cases reported a year[1]
Deaths
10% mortality with treatment[3]
[edit on Wikidata]
Bubonic plague is one of three types of plague caused by bacterium Yersinia pestis.[1] One to seven days after exposure to the bacteria, flu like symptoms develop.[1] These include fever, headaches, and vomiting.[1] Swollen and painful lymph nodes occur in the area closest to where the bacteria entered the skin.[2] Occasionally the swollen lymph nodes may break open.[1]
The three types of plague are the result of the route of infection: bubonic plague, septicemic plague, and pneumonic plague.[1] Bubonic plague is mainly spread by infected fleas from small animals.[1] It may also result from exposure to the body fluids from a dead plague-infected animal.[5] In the bubonic form of plague, the bacteria enter through the skin through a flea bite and travel via the lymphatic vessels to a lymph node, causing it to swell.[1] Diagnosis is made by finding the bacteria in the blood, sputum, or fluid from lymph nodes.[1]
Prevention is through public health measures such as not handling dead animals in areas where plague is common.[1] Vaccines have not been found to be very useful for plague prevention.[1] Several antibiotics are effective for treatment, including streptomycin, gentamicin, and doxycycline.[3][4] Without treatment, plague results in the death of 30% to 90% of those infected.[1][3] Death, if it occurs, is typically within ten days.[6] With treatment the risk of death is around 10%.[3] Globally there are about 650 documented cases a year, which result in ~120 deaths.[1] In the 21st century, the disease is most common in Africa.[1]
The plague is believed to be the cause of the Black Death that swept through Asia, Europe, and Africa in the 14th century and killed an estimated 50 million people.[1] This was about 25% to 60% of the European population.[1][7] Because the plague killed so many of the working population, wages rose due to the demand for labor.[7] Some historians see this as a turning point in European economic development.[7] The term bubonic is derived from the Greek word βουβών, meaning "groin".[8] The term "buboes" is also used to refer to the swollen lymph nodes.[9]
Contents
[hide]
1 Signs and symptoms
2 Cause
3 Diagnosis
4 Treatment
5 History
5.1 First pandemic
5.2 Second pandemic
5.3 Third pandemic
6 Society and culture
6.1 Biological warfare
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Signs and symptoms
Acral necrosis of the nose, the lips, and the fingers and residual ecchymoses over both forearms in a person recovering from bubonic plague that disseminated to the blood and the lungs. At one time, the person's entire body was ecchymotic.
The best-known symptom of bubonic plague is one or more infected, enlarged, and painful lymph nodes, known as buboes. After being transmitted via the bite of an infected flea, the Y. pestis bacteria become localized in an inflamed lymph node, where they begin to colonize and reproduce. Buboes associated with the bubonic plague are commonly found in the armpits, upper femoral, groin and neck region. Acral gangrene (i.e., of the fingers, toes, lips and nose) is another common symptom.
Because of its bite-based mode of transmission, the bubonic plague is often the first of a progressive series of illnesses. Bubonic plague symptoms appear suddenly a few days after exposure to the bacterium. Symptoms include:
Chills
General ill feeling (malaise)
High fever >39 °C (102.2 °F)
Muscle cramps[10]
Seizures
Smooth, painful lymph gland swelling called a bubo, commonly found in the groin, but may occur in the armpits or neck, most often near the site of the initial infection (bite or scratch)
Pain may occur in the area before the swelling appears
Gangrene of the extremities such as toes, fingers, lips and tip of the nose.[11]
Other symptoms include heavy breathing, continuous vomiting of blood (hematemesis), aching limbs, coughing, and extreme pain caused by the decay or decomposition of the skin while the person is still alive. Additional symptoms include extreme fatigue, gastrointestinal problems, lenticulae (black dots scattered throughout the body), delirium, and coma.
Cause
Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) infected with the Yersinia pestis bacterium which appears as a dark mass in the gut. The foregut of this flea is blocked by a Y. pestis biofilm; when the flea attempts to feed on an uninfected host, Y. pestis from the foregut is regurgitated into the wound, causing infection.
Bubonic plague is an infection of the lymphatic system, usually resulting from the bite of an infected flea, Xenopsylla cheopis (the rat flea). In very rare circumstances, as in the septicemic plague, the disease can be transmitted by direct contact with infected tissue or exposure to the cough of another human. The flea is parasitic on house and field rats, and seeks out other prey when its rodent hosts die. The bacteria remain harmless to the flea, allowing the new host to spread the bacteria. The bacteria form aggregates in the gut of infected fleas and this results in the flea regurgitating ingested blood, which is now infected, into the bite site of a rodent or human host. Once established, bacteria rapidly spread to the lymph nodes and multiply.
Y. pestis bacilli can resist phagocytosis and even reproduce inside phagocytes and kill them. As the disease progresses, the lymph nodes can haemorrhage and become swollen and necrotic. Bubonic plague can progress to lethal septicemic plague in some cases. The plague is also known to spread to the lungs and become the disease known as the pneumonic plague.
Diagnosis
Laboratory testing is required in order to diagnose and confirm plague. Ideally, confirmation is through the identification of Y. pestis culture from a patient sample. Confirmation of infection can be done by examining serum taken during the early and late stages of infection. To quickly screen for the Y. pestis antigen in patients, rapid dipstick tests have been developed for field use.[12]
Samples taken for testing include:[13]
Buboes: Swollen lymph nodes (buboes) characteristic of bubonic plague, a fluid sample can be taken from them with a needle.
Blood
Lungs
Treatment
Several classes of antibiotics are effective in treating bubonic plague. These include aminoglycosides such as streptomycin and gentamicin, tetracyclines (especially doxycycline), and the fluoroquinolone ciprofloxacin. Mortality associated with treated cases of bubonic plague is about 1–15%, compared to a mortality of 40–60% in untreated cases.[14]
People potentially infected with the plague need immediate treatment and should be given antibiotics within 24 hours of the first symptoms to prevent death. Other treatments include oxygen, intravenous fluids, and respiratory support. People who have had contact with anyone infected by pneumonic plague are given prophylactic antibiotics.[15] Using the broad-based antibiotic streptomycin has proven to be dramatically successful against the bubonic plague within 12 hours of infection.[16]
History
See also: Epidemiology of plague and Timeline of plague
First pandemic
Main article: Plague of Justinian
The first recorded epidemic affected the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) and was named the Plague of Justinian after emperor Justinian I, who was infected but survived through extensive treatment.[17] [18] The pandemic resulted in the deaths of an estimated 25 million (6th century outbreak) to 50 million people (two centuries of recurrence).[19][20] The historian Procopius wrote, in Volume II of History of the Wars, of his personal encounter with the plague and the effect it had on the rising empire. In the spring of 542, the plague arrived in Constantinople, working its way from port city to port city and spreading around the Mediterranean Sea, later migrating inland eastward into Asia Minor and west into Greece and Italy. Because the infectious disease spread inland by the transferring of merchandise through Justinian’s efforts in acquiring luxurious goods of the time and exporting supplies, his capital became the leading exporter of the bubonic plague. Procopius, in his work Secret History, declared that Justinian was a demon of an emperor who either created the plague himself or was being punished for his sinfulness.[20]
Second pandemic
Main articles: Black Death and Second plague pandemic
Citizens of Tournai bury plague victims. Miniature from The Chronicles of Gilles Li Muisis (1272–1352). Bibliothèque royale de Belgique, MS 13076-77, f. 24v.
People who died of bubonic plague in a mass grave from 1720–1721 in Martigues, France
In the Late Middle Ages (1340–1400) Europe experienced the most deadly disease outbreak in history when the Black Death, the infamous pandemic of bubonic plague, hit in 1347, killing a third of the human population.[where?] Some historians believe that society subsequently became more violent as the mass mortality rate cheapened life and thus increased warfare, crime, popular revolt, waves of flagellants, and persecution.[21] The Black Death originated in Central Asia and spread from Italy and then throughout other European countries. Arab historians Ibn Al-Wardni and Almaqrizi believed the Black Death originated in Mongolia. Chinese records also showed a huge outbreak in Mongolia in the early 1330s.[22] Research published in 2002 suggests that it began in early 1346 in the steppe region, where a plague reservoir stretches from the northwestern shore of the Caspian Sea into southern Russia. The Mongols had cut off the trade route, the Silk Road, between China and Europe which halted the spread of the Black Death from eastern Russia to Western Europe. The epidemic began with an attack that Mongols launched on the Italian merchants' last trading station in the region, Caffa in the Crimea.[16] In late 1346, plague broke out among the besiegers and from them penetrated into the town. When spring arrived, the Italian merchants fled on their ships, unknowingly carrying the Black Death. Carried by the fleas on rats, the plague initially spread to humans near the Black Sea and then outwards to the rest of Europe as a result of people fleeing from one area to another.
Third pandemic
Main article: Third plague pandemic
The plague resurfaced for a third time in the mid-19th century. Like the two previous outbreaks, this one also originated in Eastern Asia, most likely in Yunnan Province of China, where there are several natural plague foci.[23] The initial outbreaks occurred in the second half of the eighteenth century.[24][25] The disease remained localized in Southwest China for several years before spreading. In the city of Canton, beginning in January 1894, the disease killed 80,000 people by June. Daily water-traffic with the nearby city of Hong Kong rapidly spread the plague there, killing over 2,400 within two months.[26]
Also known as the modern pandemic, the third pandemic spread the disease to port cities throughout the world in the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century via shipping routes.[27] The plague inflicted people in Chinatown in San Francisco from 1900-1904,[28] and the people of Oakland and east bay again from 1907-1909.[29] During the outbreak from 1900-1904 in San Francisco is when authorities made permanent the Chinese Exclusion Act. This law was originally signed into existence by President Chester A. Arthur in 1882. The Chinese Exclusion Act was supposed to last for ten years but was renewed in 1892 with the Geary Act and subsequently made permanent in 1902 during the outbreak of plague in Chinatown, San Francisco. The last major outbreak in the United States occurred in Los Angeles in 1924,[30] though the disease is still present in wild rodents, and can be passed to humans that come in contact with them.[31] According to the World Health Organization, the pandemic was considered active until 1959, when worldwide casualties dropped to 200 per year. In 1994, a plague outbreak in five Indian states caused an estimated 700 infections (including 52 deaths) and triggered a large migration of Indians within India as they tried to avoid the plague.
For over a decade since 2001, Zambia, India, Malawi, Algeria, China, Peru, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo had the most plague cases with over 1,100 cases in the Democratic Republic of the Congo alone. From 1,000 to 2,000 cases are conservatively reported per year to the WHO.[32] From 2012 and to 2017 and reflecting political unrest and poor hygienic conditions, Madagascar began to host regular epidemics.[32]
Between 1900 and 2015, the United States had 1,036 human plague cases with an average of 9 cases per year. In 2015, 16 people in the Western United States developed plague, including 2 cases in Yosemite National Park.[33] These US cases usually occur in rural northern New Mexico, northern Arizona, southern Colorado, California, southern Oregon, and far western Nevada.[34]
In November 2017, the Madagascar Ministry of Health reported an outbreak to WHO (World Health Organization) with more cases and deaths than any recent outbreak in the country. Unusually most of the cases were pneumonic rather than bubonic.[35]
Society and culture
See also: Black Death in medieval culture
The scale of death and social upheaval associated with plague outbreaks has made the topic prominent in a number of historical and fictional accounts since the disease was first recognized. The Black Death in particular is described and referenced in numerous contemporary sources, some of which, including works by Chaucer, Boccaccio, and Petrarch, are considered part of the Western canon. The Decameron, by Boccaccio, is notable for its use of a frame story involving individuals who have fled Florence for a secluded villa to escape the Black Death. First person, sometimes sensationalized or fictionalized, accounts of living through plague years have also been popular across centuries and cultures.
Later works, such as Albert Camus's novel The Plague or Ingmar Bergman's film The Seventh Seal have used bubonic plague in settings, such quarantined cities in either medieval or modern times, as a backdrop to explore a variety of concepts. Common themes include the breakdown of society, institutions, and individuals during the plague, the cultural and psychological existential confrontation with mortality, and the allegorical use of the plague in reference to contemporary moral or spiritual questions.
Biological warfare
Some of the earliest instances of biological warfare were said to have been products of the plague, as armies of the 14th century were recorded catapulting diseased corpses over the walls of towns and villages to spread the pestilence.
Later, plague was used during the Second Sino-Japanese War as a bacteriological weapon by the Imperial Japanese Army. These weapons were provided by Shirō Ishii's units and used in experiments on humans before being used on the field. For example, in 1940, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service bombed Ningbo with fleas carrying the bubonic plague.[36] During the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials, the accused, such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima, testified that, in 1941, 40 members of Unit 731 air-dropped plague-contaminated fleas on Changde. These operations caused epidemic plague outbreaks.[37]
See also
List of cutaneous conditions
List of epidemics
Miasma theory
Plague (disease)
Plague doctor
References
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t World Health Organization (November 2014). "Plague Fact sheet N°267". Archived from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Plague Symptoms". 13 June 2012. Archived from the original on 19 August 2015. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Prentice MB, Rahalison L (2007). "Plague". Lancet. 369 (9568): 1196–207. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60566-2. PMID 17416264.
^ Jump up to: a b "Plague Resources for Clinicians". 13 June 2012. Archived from the original on 21 August 2015. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Plague Ecology and Transmission". 13 June 2012. Archived from the original on 22 August 2015. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Keyes, Daniel C. (2005). Medical response to terrorism : preparedness and clinical practice. Philadelphia [u.a.]: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 74. ISBN 9780781749862.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Plague History". 13 June 2012. Archived from the original on 21 August 2015. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
Jump up ^ LeRoux, Neil (2007). Martin Luther As Comforter: Writings on Death Volume 133 of Studies in the History of Christian Traditions. BRILL. p. 247. ISBN 9789004158801.
Jump up ^ Edman, Bruce F. Eldridge, John D. (2004). Medical Entomology a Textbook on Public Health and Veterinary Problems Caused by Arthropods (Rev.. ed.). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p. 390. ISBN 9789400710092.
Jump up ^ "Symptoms of Plague". Brief Overview of Plague. iTriage. Healthagen, LLC. Archived from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Inglesby TV, Dennis DT, Henderson DA, et al. (May 2000). "Plague as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. Working Group on Civilian Biodefense". JAMA. 283 (17): 2281–90. doi:10.1001/jama.283.17.2281. PMID 10807389.
Jump up ^ "Plague, Laboratory testing". Health Topics A to Z. Archived from the original on 17 November 2010. Retrieved 23 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "Plague - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic". www.mayoclinic.org. Retrieved 2017-12-01.
Jump up ^ "Plague". Archived from the original on 5 March 2010. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "Plague". Healthagen, LLC. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Echenberg, Myron (2002). Pestis Redux: The Initial Years of the Third Bubonic Plague Pandemic, 1894–1901. Journal of World History, vol 13,2
Jump up ^ Little, Lester K. (2007). "Life and Afterlife of the First Plague Pandemic." In: Little, Lester K. editor. (2007), Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750. Cambridge University Press. (2007). ISBN 978-0-521-84639-4 pp. 8–15
Jump up ^ McCormick, Michael (2007). "Toward a Molecular History of the Justinian Pandemic." In: Little, Lester K. editor. (2007), Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750. Cambridge University Press. (2007). ISBN 978-0-521-84639-4 pp. 290–312.
Jump up ^ Rosen, William (2007), Justinian's Flea: Plague, Empire, and the Birth of Europe Archived 25 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine.. Viking Adult; pg 3; ISBN 978-0-670-03855-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Moorshead Magazines, Limited. "The Plague Of Justinian." History Magazine 11.1 (2009): 9–12. History Reference Center
Jump up ^ Cohn, Samuel K.(2002). The Black Death: End of a Paradigm. American Historical Review, vol 107, 3, pg. 703–737
Jump up ^ Sean Martin (2001). Black Death:Chapter One. Harpenden, GBR:Pocket Essentials. p. 14.
Jump up ^ Nicholas Wade (31 October 2010). "Europe's Plagues Came From China, Study Finds". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 November 2010. Retrieved 1 November 2010. The great waves of plague that twice devastated Europe and changed the course of history had their origins in China, a team of medical geneticists reported Sunday, as did a third plague outbreak that struck less harmfully in the 19th century.
Jump up ^ Benedict, Carol (1996). Bubonic plague in nineteenth-century China. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0804726610.
Jump up ^ Cohn, Samuel K. (2003). The Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe. A Hodder Arnold. p. 336. ISBN 0-340-70646-5.
Jump up ^ Pryor, E. G. (1975). "The Great Plague OF Hong Kong" (PDF). Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch. Hong Kong: Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland-Hong Kong Branch. 15: 69. ISSN 1991-7295. Retrieved June 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ "History | Plague | CDC". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 26 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Porter, Dorothy (2003-09-11). "Book Review". New England Journal of Medicine. 349 (11): 1098–1099. doi:10.1056/NEJM200309113491124. ISSN 0028-4793.
Jump up ^ "On This Day: San Francisco Bubonic Plague Outbreak Begins". www.findingdulcinea.com. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
Jump up ^ Griggs, Mary Beth. "30,000 People In Quarantine After Bubonic Plague Kills One in China". Smithsonian. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
Jump up ^ "Maps and Statistics | Plague | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2017-10-23. Retrieved 2017-12-01.
^ Jump up to: a b Filip, Julia. "Avoiding the Black Plague Today". Retrieved 2014-04-11.
Jump up ^ Regan, Michael. "Human Plague Cases Drop in the US". Retrieved 2017-01-01.
Jump up ^ "Plague in the United States | Plague | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2017-10-23. Retrieved 2017-12-01.
Jump up ^ "Emergencies Preparedness, Response, Plague, Madagascar, Disease Outbreak News | Plague | CDC". www.who.int. 2017-11-15. Retrieved 2017-11-15.
Jump up ^ "The Independent - 404". The Independent. Archived from the original on 12 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Daniel Barenblatt, A Plague upon Humanity., 2004, pages 220–221.
Further reading
Alexander, John T. (2003) [First published 1980]. Bubonic Plague in Early Modern Russia: Public Health and Urban Disaster. Oxford, UK; New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515818-0. OCLC 50253204.
Carol, Benedict (1996). Bubonic Plague in Nineteenth-Century China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2661-2. OCLC 34191853.
Biddle, Wayne (2002). A Field Guide to Germs (2nd Anchor Books ed.). New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 1-4000-3051-X. OCLC 50154403.
Little, Lester K. (2007). Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84639-4. OCLC 65361042.
Rosen, William (2007). Justinian's Flea: Plague, Empire and the Birth of Europe. London, England: Viking Penguin. ISBN 978-0-670-03855-8.
Scott, Susan, and C. J. Duncan (2001). Biology of Plagues: Evidence from Historical Populations. Cambridge, UK; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80150-8. OCLC 44811929.
Batten-Hill, David (2011). This Son of York. Kendal, England: David Batten-Hill. ISBN 978-1-78176-094-9.
Kool, J. L. (2005). "Risk of Person-to-Person Transmission of Pneumonic Plague". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 40 (8): 1166–1172. doi:10.1086/428617. PMID 15791518.
External links
Classification
V · T · D
ICD-10: A20.0
ICD-9-CM: 020.0
DiseasesDB: 14226
External resources
MedlinePlus: 000596

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Black Death.
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Campylobacteriosis, Guillain–Barré syndrome
Helicobacter pylori
Peptic ulcer, MALT lymphoma, Gastric cancer
Helicobacter cinaedi
Helicobacter cellulitis
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