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Big Brother 1 (U.S.)
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Big Brother
►
Season 1 (2000)
[show]HouseGuests
Name Entered Exited
Eddie Day 1 Day 88
Josh Day 1 Day 88
Curtis Day 1 Day 88
Jamie Day 1 Day 85
George Day 1 Day 78
Cassandra Day 1 Day 71
Brittany Day 1 Day 57
Karen Day 1 Day 43
Jordan Day 1 Day 29
William Day 1 Day 16
Winner $500,000
Runner-Up $100,000
2nd Runner-Up $50,000
Banished
Big Brother 1 was the debut season of the American reality television series Big Brother. It was based upon the Netherlands series of the same name, which gained notoriety in 1999 and 2000. The series premiered on July 5, 2000 and lasted for a total of 88 days. The season concluded after 88 days with Eddie McGee being crowned the winner, and Josh Souza the runner-up.
The premise of the series drastically differed from future installments of the series. The series revolved around ten strangers living in a house together with no communication with the outside world. They were constantly filmed during their time in the house, and were not permitted to communicate with those filming them. Every other week, each contestant, referred to as "HouseGuests", chose two people to be up for nomination. The two or more people with the most votes were nominated to leave the house. The viewers then decide which of the nominees should leave, with the selected person leaving during a live show. This process continued until only three HouseGuests remained, at which time the viewers would decide which of them would win the $500,000 grand prize.
Contents
[hide]
1 Development
2 House
3 Format
4 HouseGuests
4.1 Future appearances
5 Summary
6 Nominations table
6.1 Notes
7 Reception
7.1 Ratings
7.2 Public reaction
7.3 Renewal
8 References
9 External links
Development[edit]
Drew Pinsky appeared once a week on the series to discuss the events in the house.
The series first launched in Netherlands, with editions in countries such as Germany proving to be hits with the public.[1][2] Following the international success of the series, a bidding war for the rights to series engaged between CBS, ABC, and a cable network,[3] with the series initially set to last 100 days.[4] Mark Itkin, the senior vice president of William Morris, was quoted as saying, "I had no idea the bidding would be so hot. But the show has so many elements, from being on 100 days in a row to an Internet component that is especially attractive to networks."[5] Ultimately, it was confirmed that the show had been picked up by CBS for an estimated $20 million.[6][7] It was later reported that production costs added to an estimated $200,000 per episode.[8] Paul Romer, co-creator of the original series, served as the Executive Producer for the series.[9] On the concept, Romer stated "The show is all about human interactions. It's people who are, loving each other, hating each other. They fight, they cry, they laugh -- all emotions, we'll see in the house."[10] In a later interview, Romer added "The first thing people think of when they hear the Big Brother idea are the sexual things, the nudity, the sexual activity in the house [...] That's not what the show is about."[11] The series was one of the first reality shows to air, and required a crew of over 150 people.[12]
The first season of Big Brother featured two hosts, Julie Chen as the main host and Ian O'Malley as a co-host.[13] On earning the job, O'Malley stated "I didn’t really know what it was. This is the ground floor of reality television. [But] SAG went on strike [and it was] a very lengthy and very painful strike for many folks."[14] O'Malley was later released from his contract after only one month on the series;[15] he was bought out of his contract, which he later cited as a "relief".[16] Chen, who hoped to be a part of 60 Minutes in the future, initially turned down the offer to host the series as she did not want to be in the entertainment division of the network.[17] Upon declining the offer, CBS News president Andrew Heyward told Chen that refusal to do the series could be seen as "insubordination".[18] Chen clarified "They said they needed someone who knows how to ask questions on live TV and I asked ‘Am I forever sealing the door on 60 Minutes?’ and [Heyward] said ‘yes,’”.[19][20] Dr. Drew Pinsky and AOL Online Advisor Regina Lewis appeared once per week on the series to discuss the events in the house.[21] The cast for the series was revealed during the premiere. HouseGuest William was revealed to be a member of the Black Panther Party,[22] while Jamie was crowned Miss Washington USA the year prior to her participation on the show.[23] HouseGuests Curtis and Josh had done modeling prior to entering the house.[24] Jean Jordan had been an exotic dancer before entering the house,[25] while Karen and George were married and had children.[26] Cassandra and William were both African-American.[27] Series creator John de Mol later stated "The 10 people in our house, you can relate to them. It's the girl next door, it's the guy in the grocery store [...] It's ordinary people, and I think that Big Brother proves ordinary people can be interesting."[28]
The first season of Big Brother premiered on July 5, 2000.[29] The premiere was filmed on July 4, 2000.[30] The series initially aired five nights per week,[31] though a sixth episode was later added into the schedule.[32][33] The addition of a sixth episode per week caused the live banishment episode to move to Wednesday instead of Thursday.[34] Four of these episodes were half-hour daily recap episodes, while one episode was an hourly-long weekly recap; the sixth episode was the live banishment.[35] During the live banishment, the HouseGuest who exits the house was subject to an interview with host Julie Chen.[36] The first season had a total of 67 episodes, the most for any season to date.[37] This season lasted for a total of 88 days.[38] The theme song for the series, known as "Live", was performed by Jonathan Clarke. It was played during the closing credits of each episode, and segments of the theme were played throughout the show. Viewers of the series could also watch the live feeds in the house, which were available for free on the official website.[35] The feed was edited for music copyrights and to protect the privacy of some contestants.[39][40] The feeds also featured a disclaimer for users under the age of 21, due to unedited aspect to the feeds.[41]
House[edit]
The house used for the first season was a one story house with two bedrooms, a kitchen and dining room, and one bathroom.[42] The house was an estimated 1,800 square feet, and was located at the CBS Studio Center in Hollywood, California.[43] Throughout the house, there are a total of 28 cameras and 60 microphones, making all areas of the house visible to the cameras.[44][45] During their stay in the house, the HouseGuests were required to wear microphones at all times, ensuring everything they said in the house was heard.[44] Throughout the house there are two way mirrors lined against the walls, with a production team filming behind them.[46] The bedrooms featured infrared imaging cameras, allowing the cameras to continue filming while the lights were off. The house was designed to have bad feng shui, with clashing colors and positioning.[47] The house featured bright colors as part of its theme, with the kitchen being a bright blue and the living room yellow.[30] The two bedrooms in the house were identical, with both featuring a bunk bed and three single beds. The bathroom featured one toilet, one shower, a washboard and a washtub.[47] The Red Room was where HouseGuests were required to share their thoughts on the events in the house, and were often given tasks.[48][49] The backyard of the house featured a patio area where the HouseGuests could sit outside. The backyard also featured a chicken coop, and the HouseGuests were able to use the eggs from the chickens as food.[50]
Format[edit]
Big Brother is a game show in which a group of contestants, referred to as HouseGuests, lived in a custom built "house", constantly under video surveillance.[51] While in the house, the contestants were completely isolated from the outside world, meaning no phone, television, internet, magazines, newspaper, or contact with those not in the house.[52] This rule could be broken, however, in the event of a family emergency or passing.[53] During their time in the house, the HouseGuests were required to nominate two of their fellow contestants for potential banishment, and the two with the most votes would be nominated.[54] Should multiple HouseGuests receive the most nominations, then all of the HouseGuests were marked for banishment.[21] This process was mandatory for all HouseGuests, and failure to comply could result in expulsion from the house.[55] The public, through a vote conducted by phone, would vote to banish one of the nominated HouseGuests from the house, and the HouseGuest with the most votes from the viewers would be banished from the house.[56] When only three HouseGuests remained, the viewers would vote for which of them should win the series, and the HouseGuest with the most votes would become the winner. The HouseGuests were competing for a $500,000 cash prize,[30][57] though the Runner-Up of the series would receive $100,000 and the second Runner-Up would receive $50,000.[21]
During their time in the house, HouseGuests were given weekly tasks to perform.[3] The HouseGuests would wager a portion of their weekly shopping budget on the task, and would either win double their wagered fund or lose the wagered fund depending on their performance in the task.[21] The HouseGuests were required to work as a group to complete the task, with the format of the tasks varying based on the amount of remaining HouseGuests. Should the HouseGuests run out of the food provided for them, an emergency ration was available to them. HouseGuests were also required to make visits to the Red Room during their stay in the house, where they were able to share their thoughts and feelings on their fellow HouseGuests and the game.[58] The format of the series was mainly seen as a social experiment, and required HouseGuests to interact with others who may have differing ideals, beliefs, and prejudices.[59][60] While a competition, the series allows viewers to witness the relationships formed in the house and the behavior of the HouseGuests.[61] Nina Tassler, president of entertainment at CBS, stated "You're talking about people from very disparate walks of life and confining them in a house for a finite period of time [...] you have to recognize yes, this is that show. It is a social experiment."[62] Though locked in the house, the HouseGuests were free to quit the game, though would not be allowed entry back into the house.[63] Should a HouseGuest break the rules of the game, they could be expelled from the house, and unable to return.[64][65]
HouseGuests[edit]
Main article: List of Big Brother 1 houseguests (U.S.)
The cast of Big Brother 1.
Top: Curtis, Brittany, Cassandra, and Josh.
Middle: Karen, Jordan, and George.
Bottom: William, Eddie, and Jamie.
The first season of Big Brother featured ten HouseGuests, each of which were complete strangers. All of the HouseGuests were from different states except for Eddie and Curtis, both of whom were from New York. Eddie was the youngest HouseGuests, at 21, while Karen was the oldest, at 43. The viewers were introduced to Beth, a potential eleventh HouseGuest, though she ultimately did not enter. Big Brother 1 is the only season to feature ten HouseGuests, with subsequent seasons featuring twelve or more.
Name
Age on entry
Occupation
Hometown
Brittany Petros 25 Actress Robbinsdale, Minnesota
Cassandra Waldon 37 UN Communications Director Havre de Grace, Maryland
Curtis Kin 28 Lawyer New York City, New York
Eddie McGee 21 Entertainer Commack, New York
George Boswell 41 Roofer Rockford, Illinois
Jamie Kern 22 Model Seattle, Washington
Jean Jordan 26 Exotic Dancer Roanoke, Virginia
Josh Souza 23 Civil engineering Student San Jose, California
Karen Fowler 43 Mother Columbus, Indiana
William Collins 27 Politician Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Future appearances[edit]
George Boswell returned for Big Brother: All-Stars, he finished in 5th. He also returned for Big Brother 10 to host a food competition along with other Big Brother alumnus. George is the only HouseGuest from Big Brother 1 to appear on a future season of the show.
Summary[edit]
On Day 1, Brittany, Cassandra, Curtis, Eddie, Karen, George, Jamie, Jordan, Josh, and William entered the house.[66][67] On Day 2, they were given their first task to complete. They were required to solve a word puzzle, which would inform them of the location to find money for groceries. They were successful and earned $100 as a group.[66] On Day 3, HouseGuests were given the task of building a clock out of potatoes in the house.[68] Should they fail this task, they would not know the time in the house; they passed the task.[69] On Day 4, HouseGuests were given the task of making plaster masks of themselves.[66] On Day 5, one of the chickens in the backyard was injured. It was removed from the house and brought back later to be nursed back to health.[70] On Day 7, HouseGuests were given their first weekly task. They were given the names of dozens of celebrities and had to state whether they were dead or alive.[66] They were given days to attempt to recall the correct answers and would be quizzed about it at a later date. They wagered 20% of their weekly budget on this task, which they ultimately failed.[21] William intentionally failed his portion of the challenge, upsetting many HouseGuests.[71] On Day 9, the HouseGuests participated in their first round of nominations. William and Jordan were announced as the nominees this week, with William receiving six nominations and Jordan receiving five.[72] Josh, Jamie, George, and Cassandra all received no nominations this week.[21] HouseGuests were later given their new task, which required them to ride a stationary exercise bike to achieve a total distance of 1,000 miles.[66] They wagered 50% of their weekly budget on this task, which they passed.[21] HouseGuests were later given another task, in which they were required to imitate another HouseGuest in the Red Room.[21] On Day 16, William became the first HouseGuest to be banished from the house when he received 73% of the public vote.[73][74]
Jamie Kern was the last female HouseGuest.
On Day 20, HouseGuests are given their new weekly challenge, in which they had days to practice making a set of dominoes fall down in a single session. They had to set up 12,100 dominoes to form the series logo and then make them all fall by knocking only one domino over.[66] The group passed this task, which they wagered 20% on.[21] The HouseGuests later held a fake trial dealing with the issue of flag burning, with Karen as the judge, Jordan being on trial, Brittany being a witness, Curtis and Cassandra as lawyers, and the other HouseGuests as members of the jury.[66] On Day 22, HouseGuests participated in the second round of nominations. Curtis and Jordan became the second set of nominated HouseGuests this season, with Curtis receiving six nominations and Jordan receiving five nominations.[75] Josh, Jamie, Cassandra, and Brittany received no nominations this week, making it the second time in a row that Josh, Jamie, and Cassandra had received no nominations from their fellow HouseGuests. HouseGuests were later given their new weekly task, which required them to ride a stationary bike for a total of one thousand miles. They wagered 50% of their shopping budget on the task, which they passed.[21] The HouseGuests were later given another task, which required them to split into three teams and attempt to toss water balloons to their teammates from across the pool.[21] The team of Eddie, Cassandra, and George won, though there was no reward. On Day 28, the HouseGuests held a roast for Curtis and Jordan as they were marked for banishment. On Day 29, Jordan became the second HouseGuest to be banished from the house when she received 78% of the public vote.[76][77]
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required them to write a poem pertaining to the game. They would then have to jump rope together while the rope holders recited the poem. They had one chance to correctly complete the poem, and failure to do so would result in the group failing the task. They wagered 30% of their shopping budget on the task, which they failed.[66] HouseGuests were later given the task of hosting their own daytime talk show.[21] On Day 36, HouseGuests participated in a live challenge in which they had to vote for one HouseGuest to receive a phone call from home; they voted for George.[21] That night, it was revealed that Cassandra, Josh, and Karen had been marked for banishment due to a tie in the voting process.[78] George was the only HouseGuest to receive no nominations this week. That same night, the HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required them to take care of a pug named Chiquita.[79] In the days following her nomination, Karen began to ask the viewers to banish her from the house as she missed her children.[80] HouseGuests were later given their new weekly task, in which they were required to make eight raspberry and eight blueberry pies, and split into teams named after the various pies. The first team to eat all eight of their pies would choose how the weekly allowance was spent.[21] On Day 43, HouseGuests participated in a live challenge in which they were tempted with a reward in exchange for watching the nominations process. They ultimately chose not to watch the nominations, thus were not given a prize.[21] That night, Karen became the third HouseGuest to be banished from the house as she had received 76% of the public vote.[26]
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required them to memorize all of the major highways in the country. They would then be required to state what highways would get them from one city to another. The group wagered 20% of their shopping budget on this task, which they passed.[21] The group was later given a new task in which they were required to paint each other like animals.[21] In another task for the week, HouseGuests competed in a sumo wrestling competition in an attempt to win a luxury massage. Eddie was the winner, with former HouseGuest William secretly giving him a bad massage.[81] For their next weekly task, the HouseGuests were required to have two HouseGuests dancing at all times. When cued, all HouseGuests would be required to dance at the same time. They passed this task, which they wagered 20% of their weekly budget on.[21] On Day 50, the HouseGuests participated in their fourth round of nominations. Due to a tie in the voting, Brittany, Cassandra, Curtis, Eddie, George, and Josh were all marked for banishment.[82] For the first time, all of the HouseGuests received at least one nomination from their fellow HouseGuests. That same night, Jamie won a two-minute conversation with a casting director due to winning a task earlier in the week.[21] HouseGuests were later given a task in which they had to name a "Mr. and Miss Big Brother 2000", with Eddie, Brittany, and Cassandra being given the title; they won a dinner with the meal of their choice.[21] On Day 57, Jamie was given a live task in which she was able to co-host the episode with Julie Chen, including announce who had been banished from the house.[21] That night, it was revealed that Brittany had become the fourth HouseGuest to be banished from the house when she received 34% of the public vote.[83][84]
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required them to build a puzzle that featured 4,928 pieces by the end of the week. The group wagered 50% of their weekly shopping budget on this task, which they failed.[21] The HouseGuests were later given the task of discussing whether or not they would be willing to split the total prize money.[21] On Day 64, it was revealed that Cassandra, Curtis, and Eddie had been marked for banishment.[85] Much like the previous round of nominations, all of the HouseGuests received at least one nomination from their fellow HouseGuests. Following this, the six remaining HouseGuests were offered $20,000 to walk from the game, with this offer later rising to $50,000.[86] Should one of the HouseGuests accept the offer, a new HouseGuest named Beth was set to enter the house and the nominations would be voided.[87][88] Ultimately, none of the HouseGuests took the offer, thus Beth did not enter the game.[89] That same night, Brittany was able to talk to Josh as part of a task.[90] HouseGuests were later given a new task in which they had to estimate the price of a luxury item requested by another HouseGuest. If they came within one dollar of the correct price, they would earn that luxury.[21] For their new weekly task, the HouseGuests had to train Chiquita to go through an obstacle course. The group passed this task, which they wagered 20% of their weekly budget on.[21] During a luxury competition, Curtis won the reward of going to the 52nd Primetime Emmy Awards.[91] On Day 71, HouseGuests were given the live task of writing a message to be flown on a banner plane above the house.[21] That same night, Cassandra became the fifth HouseGuest to be banished from the house as she had received 46% of the public vote.[92][93]
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required at least one HouseGuest to be juggling at all times. They were not permitted to drop more than two balls, or they would fail the task. The group wagered 50% on the task, which they ultimately failed.[21] On Day 74, the HouseGuests were given another live task in which they had five minutes to make a phone call to a loved one. The timer did not stop while the HouseGuests were dialing.[21] That same night, the group made their nominations live for the first time. It was revealed that Curtis, Eddie, George, and Jamie were marked for banishment.[94] Josh received no nominations this week, and was the only HouseGuest not to be marked for banishment.[21] HouseGuests were later given a new task in which they had to write lyrics for the show's theme song, and were later required to record their song in the Red Room.[21] In another task for the week, the HouseGuests attempted to find Chiquita in the house, with the winner being able to present the weather from inside the house; Josh was the winner.[21] On Day 78, the five remaining HouseGuests were asked to select one of the previously banished HouseGuests to return to the house in a matter of days; they chose Cassandra.[21] That night, George became the sixth HouseGuest to be banished from the house as he had received 51% of the public vote.[95]
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, in which they were required to determine whether or not specific news articles had actually appeared in the news or not. The group wagered 50% of their weekly shopping budget on the task, which they passed.[21] The group was later given another task in which they played the Big Brother board game.[21] On Day 81, the HouseGuests participated in their second round of live nominations. Due to a tie in the voting, all four of the remaining HouseGuests were marked for banishment.[96] This was the final round of nominations for the season. Former HouseGuest Cassandra entered the house as a guest that same night, as the HouseGuests had selected her to return days prior.[21] Due to a new task, Josh was selected to become a saboteur in the house, and performed tasks such as setting time back on the potato clock. If one of the other three HouseGuests correctly guessed that Josh was the saboteur, they would win a new flat screen television; Curtis won this prize.[21] On Day 85, Jamie became the seventh HouseGuest to be banished from the house as she had received 31% of the public vote.[97] Chiquita also exited the house that night, and was adopted by a couple upon her exit.[98] On Day 88, it was revealed that Curtis had come in third place, receiving 14% of the public vote to win.[99] Minutes later, it was revealed that Josh had come in second place with 27% of the public vote, meaning Eddie had been crowned the winner with a total of 59% of the public vote.[100][101][102]
Nominations table[edit]
Week 2
Week 4
Week 6
Week 8
Week 10
Week 11
Week 12
Nominations received
Day 81
Finale
Eddie
Jordan,
William Curtis,
Jordan Curtis,
Jamie Curtis,
Jamie Cassandra,
Curtis George,
Jamie Curtis,
Jamie Winner
(Day 88) 17
Josh
Brittany,
Curtis Curtis,
George Curtis,
Karen Cassandra,
Curtis Cassandra,
Curtis Curtis,
George Curtis,
Jamie Runner-up
(Day 88) 10
Curtis
Karen,
William Eddie,
Karen Eddie,
Josh Eddie,
Josh Eddie,
George Eddie,
George Eddie,
Josh Third Place
(Day 88) 18
Jamie
Jordan,
William Curtis,
Eddie Josh,
Karen Eddie,
George Cassandra,
Eddie Eddie,
George Eddie,
Josh Banished
(Day 85) 7
George
Jordan,
William Curtis,
Jordan Cassandra,
Josh Brittany,
Josh Curtis,
Josh Curtis,
Jamie Banished
(Day 78) 9
Cassandra
Brittany,
Eddie Eddie,
Jordan Brittany,
Karen Brittany,
George Eddie,
Jamie Banished
(Day 71) 8
Brittany
Jordan,
William Curtis,
Jordan Cassandra,
Josh Cassandra,
George Banished
(Day 57) 6
Karen
Jordan,
William Curtis,
Jordan Cassandra,
Josh Banished
(Day 43) 7
Jordan
Eddie,
Karen Eddie,
Karen Banished
(Day 29) 10
William
Brittany,
Eddie Banished
(Day 16) 6
Notes
none 1 2, 3 4 5 3, 6 7
Marked for
Banishment
Jordan,
William Curtis,
Jordan Cassandra,
Josh,
Karen Brittany,
Cassandra,
Curtis,
Eddie,
George,
Josh Cassandra,
Curtis,
Eddie Curtis,
Eddie,
George,
Jamie Curtis,
Eddie,
Jamie,
Josh Curtis,
Eddie,
Josh
Banished
William
73%
to banish Jordan
78%
to banish Karen
76%
to banish Brittany
34%
to banish Cassandra
46%
to banish George
51%
to banish Jamie
31%
to banish Curtis
14%
to win Josh
27%
to win
Eddie
59%
to win
Notes[edit]
^Note 1 : Cassandra and Karen had three nominations each, Josh had five. Due to the tie, three HouseGuests were "Marked for Banishment".
^Note 2 : There was a five way tie between Brittany, Cassandra, Curtis, Eddie, and Josh each receiving two nomination vote each. George received three nomination votes. Due to the five way tie, six HouseGuests were "Marked for Banishment."
^Note 3 : The percentage results were not revealed during the live show.
^Note 4 : There was a three way tie between Cassandra, Eddie, and Curtis. As a result, they were "Marked for Banishment."
^Note 5 : Curtis, Eddie, and Jamie received two nomination votes each. As a result, they were "Marked for Banishment" along with George.
^Note 6 : On Day 81, Cassandra visited the remaining HouseGuests for a discussion. There was a tie between all four HouseGuests so all were "Marked for Banishment."
^Note 7 : The viewers voted for who to win, not to banish.
Reception[edit]
Ratings[edit]
Big Brother 1 premiered on July 5, 2000 in the US, with the season premiere having over 22 million viewers.[103] Despite the high premiere, ratings for the series quickly began to decline, and the series quickly dropped out of the Top 10 slot in terms of viewers.[103][104] Ratings began to decline even more following the banishments of Will "Mega" and Jordan, who were both seen as colorful characters in the game.[66] Big Brother 1 was noted as having its highest ratings on Wednesdays, when it aired after the hugely successful Survivor: Borneo.[105] The Saturday, July 8 episode was beaten out by an episode of the reality series Cops.[103] This episode saw ratings lower from the previous episode.[106] Ratings continued to drop, with at one point the series had fallen behind re-runs of shows such as Friends.[107] The Monday, September 4 episode only achieved 5.5.[108] Cassandra's banishment episode did see an increase in ratings, however, receiving 12.5 million viewers.[109] The finale garnered 11.13 million viewers, beating out the Olympics.[110] Despite the decline in ratings, the series' official website did receive a large amount of traffic, due to the live feed being available there.[111] It was also noted that as the ratings decreased, traffic onto the main site increased.[111] The online aspect of the series "changed both the dynamic in the house and the TV show’s content" according to the LA Daily News.[112] It was also reported that the official website for the series was one of the most popular new websites for the month of July.[113]
Public reaction[edit]
Andy Rooney was one of many to criticize Chen's role as host.
Big Brother 1 has typically been cited as "boring" by critics and fans of the series. John Carman of The San Francisco Chronicle stated "Wondering 'Will Karen run out of Kleenex?' is about the most interesting thing about Big Brother."[114] Comedian Kathy Griffin (who has since become a fan of the series, making guest appearances in Big Brother 16 and Big Brother 17) mocked the series, stating "Do you guys [watch] those ‘tards on Big Brother?"[115] Joyce Millman of Salon.com felt that ratings for the series dropped due to the "boring" cast.[116] The New York Times later reported that CBS was disappointed with the series.[117] Les Moonves, CBS chief, stated that the "casting sucked" for the series, leading to its disappointing run.[118] He later stated "there were more provocative storylines that could have been followed that were dropped."[118] John de Mol, the creator of the series and owner of Endemol, blamed not only the casting but the changes made to the show and format to suit American audiences.[119] Executive producer Paul Romer felt that the group of HouseGuests were "too aware of the cameras" and were concerned with "how they'd look on TV."[120] Former co-host Ian O'Malley claimed he predicted the series would be panned, stating "I knew the critics were probably going to go bananas because of the voyeuristic aspect."[16]
Upon its announcement, the series has come under fire for both controversy and criticism. After the premiere of the first season, Chicago attorney Marvin Rosenblum filed a lawsuit against CBS, then corporate parent Viacom, and the production company Orwell Productions for alleged copyright infringement. Rosenblum, a producer of the film 1984, owns the film and TV rights to the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four and claimed the show "illegally borrows from it."[121] Rosenblum accused the network of illegally using the Big Brother moniker from the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four and "deceiving the public into thinking the author's classic novel was the origin of the show." CBS, Viacom, and Orwell Productions filed a motion to dismiss the $20 million lawsuit.[122] The dismissal was denied on January 4, 2001. In 2001 Rosenblum, CBS and Viacom settled the lawsuit under undisclosed terms.[123] The decision to select Chen as the host of the series caused much debate, mainly due to her role on the talk show The Early Show.[124] Andy Rooney of 60 Minutes said Chen's participation in the series was "a further deterioration of news standards", and further controversy arose when it was revealed some of Chen's lines had been scripted.[125]
Numerous events occurred during the game that sparked controversy as well. The show's security was breached early in the series when two publicity-seeking screenwriters threw a tennis ball stuffed with fake news stories - including one in which then President of the United States, Bill Clinton, purportedly called Big Brother a "national disgrace" - into the house's garden after finding it was unguarded. The HouseGuests were also communicated with by a plane towing a banner reading: "Big Brother is worse than you think. Get out now."[21] The show also came under criticism after HouseGuest George Boswell's wife and family began campaigning for viewers to vote out some of the more popular HouseGuests to keep George in the game. Recently evicted HouseGuest Brittany, who was permitted to talk to Josh for a certain amount of time, informed Josh of this news. Various "anti-George" banners were flown over the house, leading Josh to inform them of the news.[126] Various other points in the game led to the HouseGuests feeling they were being portrayed poorly, and they would often be required to do acts they didn't necessarily feel like doing.[127] George then decided he would walk from the game, and attempted to convince the other HouseGuests to walk with him as well during a live episode.[51] Ultimately, none of the HouseGuests chose to leave the game. There was speculation that CBS had hired for the banners to be flown over the house, though this was never confirmed.[128]
Renewal[edit]
Despite the lack of strong ratings and numerous controversies surrounding the series, Big Brother did help earn CBS a 17% increase for its time slot, and was ultimately renewed in September 2000 for a second season.[129] It was then confirmed, however, that there would be numerous changes to the format of the series.[130]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Andrews, Edmund L. (April 11, 2000). "Hilversum Journal; Europe's 'Reality' TV: Chains and Big Brother". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Germany, SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg. "News Digest: Do Germans Like to Watch? - SPIEGEL ONLINE - Politik". SPIEGEL ONLINE. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Carter, Bill (June 2, 2000). "CBS's 'Survivor' Is Winner for Network; Real-Life Show Pulls in Younger Viewers". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Kaplan, Don (January 28, 2000). "CBS PLAYS PEEPING TOM". New York Post.
Jump up ^ Carter, Bill (January 30, 2000). "Television's New Voyeurism Pictures Real-Life Intimacy". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "Breaking News, Analysis, Politics, Blogs, News Photos, Video, Tech Reviews - TIME.com". Time. February 21, 2000.
Jump up ^ "Survivor: Highly rated : Broadcasting & Cable". Broadcastingcable.com. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Weinraub, Bernard (February 9, 2000). "Sudden Explosion of Game Shows Threatens the Old TV Staples; Costly Sitcoms and Dramas Scramble for Space and Survival". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "404: Page not found - HostGator". studyguides.rivassl.com. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "CNN Transcript". CNN.
Jump up ^ Canoe.com. "CANOE -- JAM! Television - TV Shows - Big Brother: Are you ready for Ed and EdnaTV?". jam.canoe.ca. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Pesce, Mark (8 August 2000). "Meet "Big Brother"". Salon. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Big Brother debuted 10 years ago tonight – reality blurred". Realityblurred.com. 5 July 2010. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Former Big Brother host Ian O'Malley moved on to a career in radio, film, and philanthropy – reality blurred". Realityblurred.com. 16 September 2007. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Ian O'Malley gets banished; Julie Chen trying to be credible. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.com. 7 August 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Former Big Brother host Ian O'Malley moved on to a career in radio, film, and philanthropy – reality blurred". Realityblurred.com. 16 September 2007. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Julie Chen Was Essentially Threatened Into Taking 'Big Brother USA' Hosting Job". Entertainmentwise.com. 2 June 2017. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "How Julie Chen was threatened into hosting Big Brother – reality blurred". Realityblurred.com. 4 September 2014. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
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Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-10-16. Retrieved 2014-09-18.
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Jump up ^ Canoe.com. "CANOE -- JAM! Television - TV Shows - Big Brother: You like to watch, don't you?". jam.canoe.ca. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
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Jump up ^ Canoe.com. "CANOE -- JAM! Television - TV Shows - Big Brother: Big Brother takes off". jam.canoe.ca. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "a teary, loving goodbye for Karen. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.com. 17 August 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
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^ Jump up to: a b "`Big Brother' bores people to jeers". Articles.baltimoresun.com. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
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Jump up ^ "Breaking News - CBS's Summer of "Big Brother" On-Air (CBS), Online (Realnetworks(R), CBS.com and the CBS Audience Network), on the Phone (CBS Mobile) and New This Summer - on Showtime! - TheFutonCritic.com". Thefutoncritic.com. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Alvear, José; Alvear, José (6 July 2001). "CBS and RealNetworks Offer up Big Brother Subscriptions". Streaming Media Magazine. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
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^ Jump up to: a b "The Electronic Fishbowl". The New York Times.
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Jump up ^ "Last man standing - The Guardian - guardian.co.uk". Theguardian.com. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Tips for Designing a More Spiritual House". Architecture.about.com. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Game Show Convention Center". emceesteve.tripod.com. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Big Brother: The est Session From Hell". Slate.com. 30 June 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017 – via Slate.
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^ Jump up to: a b Braxton, Greg (September 11, 2000). "'Big Brother' Guests Threaten Walkout". Los Angeles Times.
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Jump up ^ "'Big Brother': Derrick's Grandpa Dies Days After Frankie Grande's Grandpa". Hollywoodlife.com. 27 July 2014. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
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Jump up ^ "'Big Brother' reveals Neil Garcia departure, leaves details unexplained". Realityblurred.co. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ ""Big Brother" Addresses Chima's Expulsion". CBS News. August 18, 2009.
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Jump up ^ TV.com. "Big Brother: BB1 Ep #1". TV.com. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ TV.com. "Big Brother: BB1 Ep #2". TV.com. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "BUILD Series NYC". BUILD Series NYC. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "it's all fun and games until a chicken gets hurt. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 10 July 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-11-13. Retrieved 2013-08-01.
Jump up ^ ""marked for banishment": Will and Jordan. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 13 July 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Will's banishment was no surprise. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.com. 23 July 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Cottest.com". Eonline.com.tcpopt.cottest.com. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Canoe.com. "CANOE -- JAM! Television - TV Shows - Big Brother: Big Brother eviction". jam.canoe.ca. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jordan gets banished. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 3 August 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Chocano, Carina (29 September 2000). "The Jordan rules". Salon. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Karen, Josh and Cassandra are marked for banishment. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 10 August 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Chiquita Joins Big Brother". Goodnewsforpets.com. 1 January 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Life after `Big Brother' begins for contestants". Journaltimes.com. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Eddie gets rubbed down by a mystery person. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 22 August 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "nominations are in, and this time, it's "a six-way tie." – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 24 August 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Brittany banished. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 31 August 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Lost in Cyberspace - Big Brother: George, Brittany and the Sex Police". hbkoplowitz.com. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "house guests to Big Brother: screw you and your $50K. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 7 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "next Wednesday: an offer of $10K to leave the Big Brother house. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 2 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "if someone takes $10K and leaves Wed., a new person will enter the house. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 4 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Carter, Bill (September 4, 2000). "'Big Brother' Hopes to Engineer an Exit, Then Add a Face". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Canoe.com. "CANOE -- JAM! Television - TV Shows - Big Brother: Contestants stay put on Big Brother". jam.canoe.ca. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "can/should Josh keep Brittany's secrets to himself? – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 9 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Curtis goes to the Emmys. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 10 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "banishment with dignity: Cassandra leaves the house. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 14 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Canoe.com. "CANOE -- JAM! Television - TV Shows - Big Brother: This week's Big Brother results". jam.canoe.ca. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "all four house guests nominate George, and he flips out. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 17 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Chicken Man leaves the coop. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 21 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Curtis, Eddie, Jamie and Josh marked for banishment. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 25 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "bye, bye Jamie (and Chiquita). – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 28 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Archives - Philly.com". articles.philly.com. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Eddie wins Big Brother. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 29 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Eddie wins big in US Big Brother". BBC News. September 30, 2000.
Jump up ^ "'Big Brother' Winners: Where Are They Now?". Mademan.com. 24 December 2010. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Canoe.com. "CANOE -- JAM! Television - TV Shows - Big Brother: Big Brother comes to an end". jam.canoe.ca. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Burr, Ty (July 12, 2000). "True Man Show". Entertainment Weekly.
Jump up ^ Millman, Joyce (11 July 2000). ""Big Brother" flopping in the ratings". Salon. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "After 'Survivor': A reality TV check". CNN. August 25, 2000.
Jump up ^ "Big Brother's ratings drop, but still not bad for CBS. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 10 July 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Pellegrini, Frank (July 7, 2000). "'Big Brother': Are You Just a Snoozy Sibling?". Time.
Jump up ^ "Unavailable News Item". IMDb. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "12.5 million watched Cassandra's banishment. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 14 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Big Brother's finale ratings beat the Olympics. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 2 October 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Robischon, Noah (August 4, 2000). "Now, Voyeur". Entertainment Weekly.
Jump up ^ ""Web watchers may have revolutionized reality TV." – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 27 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "BigBrother2000.com was top new Web site in July. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 19 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "even Big Brother's slipping ratings have helped CBS. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 13 July 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Kathy Griffin: "Do you guys [watch] those 'tards on Big Brother?" – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 13 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Big Brother sucks because of the "useless, humorless roomies." – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 11 July 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "CBS execs disappointed by Big Brother. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 28 August 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "the casting sucked, and more Big Brother bashing--and some praise! – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 11 January 2001. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Endemol chief: bad casting is to blame for Big Brother. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 15 February 2001. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "executive producer: "I think we lost something here." – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 28 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Reese, Lori (September 5, 2000). "Eye Brawl". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 2008-04-19.
Jump up ^ Grossberg, Josh (January 4, 2001). ""Big Brother" Lawsuit Survives First Round". E! Online. Archived from the original on 8 May 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-19.
Jump up ^ Jennings, Jay (April 14, 2001). "Can Sheer Coincidence Be Trademarked?". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-04-19.
Jump up ^ "Big Sister – Vol. 54 No. 12". People.com. 18 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Rutenberg, Jim (August 7, 2000). "MEDIA TALK; 'Big Brother' Host Seeking Credibility". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Soukup, Martha (9 September 2000). "A "Big Brother" walkout?". Salon. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Soukup, Martha (22 August 2000). ""Big Brother" mutiny brewing!". Salon. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "is CBS secretly manipulating Big Brother? – reality blurred". Realityblurred.co. 18 September 2000. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Big Brother". homes.chass.utoronto.ca. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Big Brother 2: audience won't vote; Julie Chen will return as host. – reality blurred". Realityblurred.com. 29 May 2001. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
External links[edit]
"Brother raises manipulation to a fine art" By Lynn Elber, CANOE JAM! Television. July 24, 2000.
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Zollverein
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the historical German customs union. For the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site in Essen, see Zollverein Coal Mine Industrial Complex.
German Zollverein, 1834–1919
Blue: Prussia in 1834
Grey: Areas included until 1866
Yellow: Austrian possessions outside the Zollverein
Red: Borders of the 1828
German Confederation
The Zollverein ([ˈtsɔlfɛɐ̯ˌʔaɪn]) or German Customs Union was a coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories. Organized by the 1833 Zollverein treaties, the Zollverein formally started on 1 January 1834. However, its foundations had been in development from 1818 with the creation of a variety of custom unions among the German states. By 1866, the Zollverein included most of the German states. The foundation of the Zollverein was the first instance in history in which independent states had consummated a full economic union without the simultaneous creation of a political federation or union.[1]
Prussia was the primary driver behind the creation of the customs union. Austria was excluded from the Zollverein because of its highly protected industry and also because Prince von Metternich was against the idea. By the founding of the North German Confederation in 1867, the Zollverein covered states of approximately 425,000 square kilometres, and had produced economic agreements with several non-German states, including Sweden-Norway. After the founding of the German Empire in 1871, the Empire assumed the control of the customs union. However, not all states within the Empire were part of the Zollverein until 1888. Conversely, Luxembourg was independent and not a state in the German Reich, it remained in the Zollverein until 1919.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Initial efforts at a single-toll system
2.1 Problems with unifying the customs and toll agreements
3 1820s and 1830s
4 Timeline
5 Impact
5.1 Economic impact
5.2 Role in the unification of Germany
6 References
7 Further reading
Background[edit]
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See also: Holy Roman Empire and German mediatization
Map of the south German states and province of Hohenzollern. At the turn of the 19th century, this group of territories was transformed into three larger powers: Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria.
The splintering of territory and states over generations meant that by the 1790s in the German-speaking Holy Roman Empire in Central Europe, there were approximately 1800 customs barriers. Even within the Prussian state itself, there were, at the beginning of the 19th century, more than 67 local customs and tariffs, with as many customs borders. To travel from Königsberg in East Prussia to Cologne, for example, a shipment was inspected and taxed 18 times.[2] Each customs inspection at each border slowed the shipment's progress from source to destination, and each assessment on the shipment reduced profit and increased the price of goods, dramatically stifling trade.
When France defeated the Second Coalition, made up of Russian, Austrian and German forces, and annexed territories up to the Rhine, there was a general consolidation of the myriad of tiny states in Germany in the Mediatization of 1803. This was also called the Principal Conclusion of the Extraordinary Imperial Delegation (or, in German, Hauptschluss der außerordentlichen Reichsdeputation, usually called the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss). This last piece of major legislation enacted by the Holy Roman Empire re-arranged the map of Central Europe, especially in the southwestern territories. The Reichshauptschluss resulted in the secularization of many ecclesiastical territories, and the so-called mediatization, i.e. the annexation to larger neighboring territories, of many of the formerly free imperial territories, including most of the imperial cities. Considerable portions of the Habsburg family territories in southwestern Central Europe were "mediatized", or given as compensation, to the princes and dukes who had lost territories in the French expansion. Most of the imperial cities, imperial abbeys, and ecclesiastical states and cities were mediatized or secularized in 1803. With the final dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, most of the remaining tiny principalities were annexed by larger neighbors.
Historians have analyzed three Prussian goals in the development of the Zollverein: first, as a political tool to eliminate Austrian influence in Germany; second, as a way to improve the economies; and third, to strengthen Germany against potential French aggression while reducing the economic independence of smaller states.[3] The Zollverein created a larger market for German-made farm and handicraft products and promoted commercial unification under fiscally sound economic parameters. While the Union sought to limit trade and commercial barriers between and among member states, it continued to uphold the protectionist barriers against outsiders.
Initial efforts at a single-toll system[edit]
During the Napoleonic Era, efforts in the Rhineland toward economic unity had mixed success. The Confederation of the Rhine, and the other satellite creations of Napoleonic France, sought to establish economic autarky in European trade. By 1806, as Napoleon I sought to secure his hegemony in Europe, the Continental System offered a semblance of unified effort toward a widespread domestic market for European goods. However, the main purpose of the Continental System was military, not economic. Napoleon wanted a trade embargo against Britain, through which he hoped to wreck the British economy. The combination of war and isolation from Britain's trading system destroyed markets for external raw materials and for manufactured goods, resulting in the near ruin of the Central European economy. Especially hard hit were the trading economies of the Lowlands and Rhineland states, which had relied heavily upon imports of raw materials from throughout the world, and on the export of finished products. The domestic markets in Central Europe were not large enough to sustain consumption of their own production. These problems were dramatically exacerbated by the numerous excise taxes and tolls which were the main source of state income. Reduction in trade meant the near bankruptcy of the smaller states.[4]
At the Congress of Vienna in 1814 and 1815, diplomats – principally those from the Great Powers – confirmed the remapping of Europe, and broadly, the rest of the world, into spheres of influence. Central Europe, or German-speaking Europe, remained largely within the influence of the Austrian Habsburgs, balanced at the periphery by the Russian empire in the east, and the French in the west. Prussia was expected to play some role in these spheres of influence, but the ambiguities of the Austrian and Prussian relationship were unresolved. The German states retained autonomy; however, the old imperial institution of the Reichstag was converted to the form of a Confederation Diet, to meet in Frankfurt. The Habsburg archdukes, now Emperors of Austria, were to serve as permanent presidents of this institution. Isolated voices, such as Joseph Görres and Freiherr vom Stein, called for the abolition of domestic tolls and the creation of a German tariff on imports.[5] The mandate from the Vienna Congress, however, established the German Confederation, but did not deal with the economic circumstances, nor did it make any effort to achieve economic and trade standardization. Instead, the articles that established the Confederation suggested that trade and transportation questions be discussed at a later date.[6]
Problems with unifying the customs and toll agreements[edit]
Prussia and the central and southwestern states of Hesse-Nassau and Hesse-Darmstadt, Württemberg, Baden, and Bavaria were leaders in the modernization of the toll system within the German states. In the Prussian case, the experience of the Confederation of the Rhine in removing customs barriers offered an example of how it could be done, and Hans, Count von Bülow, who until 1811 had been the Finance Minister in Westphalia, and who had accepted this position in 1813 in Prussia, modeled the Prussian customs statutes on those of the former states of the Confederation. The addition of territory to the existing Prussian state made elimination of customs barriers a powerful factor in Prussian politics. The significant differences between "old" Prussia and the newly acquired territories complicated the debate. The "newer" Prussian provinces in the Rhineland and Westphalia, with their developing manufacturing sectors, contended with the heavily agricultural territories of "old" Prussia. The dissimilarities in the two sides of Prussia confirmed regional perceptions for the need for their own political and administrative units, which became an important element of the customs debate. Within "old" Prussia itself, the customs statutes from 1818 reduced domestic customs barriers. After 1818, goods coming into Prussia and leaving Prussia were charged a high tariff. Goods moved freely within the state itself. The Prussian toll was therefore very simple and efficient. Manufactured goods were heavily taxed, especially textiles, and the most important taxes were for food, necessities and luxury goods.
Similarly, in the southwest German states, it became urgent to integrate the newly acquired territories into the states' existing economic systems.[7] The territorial growth of the southwestern middle-sized states, in particular the two Hessian principalities, but also the growth of Baden and Württemberg, had split the territorial continuity of Prussia; the Prussian state was no longer linked entirely by territory, but rather was separated from many of its newer acquisitions by territories newly acquired by other states. These states often saw their own interests as conflicting generally and specifically with Prussian expansionism, and resented Prussian dominance and authority. Furthermore, these newly expanded states, usually referred as "middle-sized states" (or, in German, Mittelstaaten), faced problems in integrating their newly acquired territories and populations into an existing political, economic and legal structure.
These problems were exacerbated by European wide economic woes following the Napoleonic Wars. Unemployment and high prices, especially for foodstuffs, characterized an economy not yet converted back to peacetime needs. The problem in Britain was particularly severe and the British response created a ripple effect that worsened problems in the German states: In trying to manage the post-war economy, the British government was caught between the Malthusian understanding of the relationship of wages, prices, and population, and the Ricardian model. On the one hand, adherents to the Malthusian model believed it was dangerous for Britain to rely on imported corn, because lower prices would reduce wages, and landlords and farmers would lose purchasing power.[8] On the other hand, adherents to the Ricardian model thought that Britain could use its capital and population to advantage in a system of free trade.[9] The problems in Britain established precedent for problems in the German states; the British limitation on grain imports, through the Corn Laws, blocked economic recovery in the German states, particularly in eastern Prussia, by limiting the amount of grain that could be imported into Britain. Not only did the Corn Laws keep the price of grain in Britain high, they undermined the viability of Junker producers in east Prussia, and limited their access to external markets.
The commercial reform efforts sponsored by Bavaria in 1856 led to the General German Commercial Code in 1861 that was quickly approved by a majority of the confederation. It proved highly successful in reducing barriers and increasing trade.
1820s and 1830s[edit]
Friedrich List, economist.
(1839 oil painting by Caroline Hövemeyer at the Heimatmuseum Reutlingen.)
1803s lithograph of Johann F. Cotta.
Cotta played an important role in the development of the south German customs agreement and also negotiated the Prussian Hessian Customs agreements.
The original agreements that set the foundation for Zollverein cemented economic ties between the various Prussian and Hohenzollern territories, and ensured economic contact between the non-contiguous holdings of the Hohenzollern family, which was also the ruling family of Prussia. It was formed to remove the various obstacles (such as different weights and measures in German states) to economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes, creating a national unity in economic matter at a time when Germany was divided.
Surmounting the domestic customs, and the individual states' dependence on those customs as their primary source of income, proved to be a difficult problem. The myriad of customs barriers restricted trade and hampered the industrial development, but the rulers of the states were reluctant to forgo their income from the customs. The impasse was overcome through external forces. With the repeal of the Continental System, the German tradesmen stood in direct conflict with the English industry. A united German Trade and Tradesmens Union demanded protection from English exports. Their spokesman, the economist Friedrich List, feared that the German people would end up as "drawers of water and hewers of wood for Britain".[10] Similarly, Karl Friedrich Nebenius, later president of the Ducal Ministry in the Grand Duchy of Baden and the author of Baden's 1819 proposed customs initiative with the German Confederation, offered a widely publicized description about the difficulties of surmounting such protections:
The 830 toll barriers in Germany cripple domestic traffic and bring more or less the same results: how if every limb of the human body were bound together, so that blood could not flow from one limb to the other? In order to trade from Hamburg to Austria, from Berlin to the Swiss Cantons, one must cut through the statutes of ten states, study ten tolls and toll barriers, ten times go through the toll barriers, and ten times pay the tolls. Who but the unfortunate has to negotiate such borders? To live with such borders? Where three or four states collide, there one must live his whole life under evil, senseless tolls and toll restrictions. That is no Fatherland![11]
In 1820, Württemberg planned to start a customs union among the so-called Third Germany: the middle-sized German states, including itself, Baden, Bavaria, and the two Hessian states (Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse-Kassel). This customs union excluded both Austria and Prussia, primarily because the two major German powers were considered too overbearing. Plans foundered on the differing interests of the affected states. While the economic development in Baden proceeded relatively well, with its long borders and well entrenched infrastructure for trade, economic development in Bavaria lagged well behind it, and the Bavarian regime enacted a protective tariff on goods produced outside its border. The result was a short lived trade agreement between Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. Nevertheless, a second agreement, reached in Stuttgart in 1825, established rapport between Württemberg and Bavaria, with the foundation of the South German Customs Union. In opposition to the Prussian activities, Hanover, Saxony, Hesse, and other states (Austria, France, Great Britain, and the Netherlands), developed their own economic agreements. While they promised one another not to join the Prussian union, they did develop trade agreements of their own. The Union remained unsuccessful, because it only sought to maintain the status quo, not to fix the problems created by toll barriers.[12] In 1834, Baden and Württemberg joined the Prussian union, which was renamed the German Customs Union. The Tax Union or Steuerverein was formed in 1834 as a customs union first of the Duchy of Brunswick and the Kingdom of Hanover, then with the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg in 1836.
By 1835, the German Customs Union had expanded to include the majority of the states of the German Confederation, even Saxony, the Thuringian states, Württemberg and Baden, Bavaria, and the Hessian states. Functionally, it removed many internal customs barriers, while upholding a protectionist tariff system with foreign trade partners.
The Zollverein and German unification.
Timeline[edit]
Date
Event(s)
1815 Establishment of the German Confederation leaves the question of economic and customs authority to future negotiation.
1818 May 26: Prussia establishes an internal customs union throughout its state and Hohenzollern territories in southwestern Germany.
1819 Baden proposes a customs union organized through the German Confederation. The proposal fails at the Frankfurt Diet.
October 25: Schwarzburg-Sondershausen joins the Prussian customs system.
1821 Duchy of Anhalt joins the Prussian customs system.
1826 Mecklenburg-Schwerin joins the Prussian Customs Union.
1828 January 18: By treaty, Bavaria and Württemberg form the Bavaria–Württemberg Customs Union (BWCU).
February 14: By treaty, Prussia and the Grand Duchy of Hesse (Hesse-Darmstadt) form the Prussia–Hesse-Darmstadt Customs Union (PHCU). The states that previously joined the Prussian customs system are included.
September 24: By the Treaty of Kassel, the Central German Union (CGU) is formed by central and northern German states (Saxony, Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg, Nassau, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Frankfurt, Saxe-Meiningen, Brunswick, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Reuss-Greiz, Reuss-Gera, Bremen, Oldenburg, and Hesse-Homburg).
1829 May 27: Commercial alliance between the BWCU and PHCU is formed.
1831 Hesse-Kassel and Saxony join the PHCU; Königsberg (an exclave of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha) and Ostheim (an exclave of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach) join the BWCU.
1833 Some of the states of the CGU form the Thuringian Customs and Commerce Union (TCCU).
1833 March–May: Zollverein treaties are negotiated and concluded; the treaties act to merge BWCU, PHCU, and TCCU into a unified customs union.
1834 January 1: Zollverein treaties enter into force; the Zollervein comes formally into existence.
A German census is introduced to facilitate revenue-sharing.
1835 Hesse-Homburg (20 February), Baden (12 May) and Nassau (10 December) join the Zollverein.
1836 January 2: Frankfurt joins the Zollverein.
1838 July 30: Dresden Coinage Convention is agreed to in order to standardise currency conversion within the Zollverein.
1840–47 Potato blight throughout the southwestern states, Saxony and parts of Prussia.
1841 Brunswick joins the Zollverein.
1842 Luxembourg joins the Zollverein.
1848–49 1848 Revolutions. Propositions are made for a political and economic union. The Kleindeutschland ("Lesser Germany") solution for political unification is proposed.
1851 September 7: Hanover joins the Zollverein.
1852 March 1: Oldenburg joins in the Zollverein.
1857 January 24: Vienna Monetary Treaty is concluded between the Zollverein states, Austria and Liechtenstein to standardise currencies.
1864 Prussia and Austria engage in a border war with Denmark over the autonomy of the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig.
1865 Sweden-Norway signs a free trade agreement with the Zollverein, linking the German members to the Scandinavian market.
1866 Austro-Prussian War, in which Austria loses its political and diplomatic influence in the German Confederation.
1867 The Zollverein is reconstituted.
1868 Schleswig-Holstein, Saxe-Lauenburg and Mecklenburg-Strelitz join the Zollverein.
1871 Following the Franco-Prussian War, Alsace-Lorraine joins the Zollverein.
The German Empire is formed.
1888 The city-states of Hamburg and Bremen join the customs union, seventeen years after political unification.
1919 The German Empire is replaced by the Weimar Republic. Luxembourg leaves the Zollverein.
The original customs union was not ended in 1866 with outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War, but a substantial reorganization emerged in 1867. The new Zollverein was stronger, in that no individual state had a veto.[13] When eventually Hamburg acceded to the Customs Union in 1888 it negotiated the exemption of an area of 4 square miles at the centre of its port, which remained outside of the Zollverein. Bremen (which includes Bremerhaven) had a similar agreement.
Impact[edit]
Economic impact[edit]
According to one study, "The Zollverein was the most important institutional development for Germany's economic unification during the middle of the 19th century. It had a strong impact on regional development, changing regional fortunes by the opening and closing of markets."[14]
Role in the unification of Germany[edit]
Main article: Unification of Germany
According to some economic historians, such as Helmut Böhme and H.-U. Wehler, the Zollverein set the groundwork for the unification of Germany under Prussian guidance. This traditional view is disputed by historians such as Hans-Joachim Voth who contend that far from allowing Prussia to increase its political influence over the smaller states, the customs union may have had the contrary effect: many governments used the increased revenue brought by the customs union to try to consolidate their independence. The smaller states entered the customs union for purely fiscal reasons, and as the events of 1866 were to demonstrate, membership in the Zollverein did not in the least lead to any form of political commitment toward Berlin, as many states remained suspicious of Prussia and generally pro-Austrian.[15]
The impact of the Zollverein on German unification may have been more incidental. As it constituted the main feature of Berlin's "German policy" for many years, Prussian ministers and other government officials became accustomed to think in terms of Germany as a whole and to look beyond specifically Prussian benefits when looking for a consensus across Germany.[16]
According to revisionist historians, the Zollverein may not even have been instrumental in bringing about Prussia's economic preeminence in Germany. They argue that nothing seems to indicate that industrial investments increased decisively during the period in Prussia, or that the customs union played a significant role in reducing the dominance of agriculture in the kingdom's economy.[17]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Arnold H. Price, The Evolution of the Zollverein: A Study of the Ideals and Institutions Leading to German Economic Unification between 1815 and 1833 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1949) pp. 9–10.
Jump up ^ Friedrich Seidel: Das Armutsproblem im deutschen Vormärz bei Friedrich List. Found in: Kölner Vorträge zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte – volume 13, Köln 1971, S. 4.
Jump up ^ David T. Murphy, "Prussian aims for the Zollverein, 1828-1833", Historian, Winter 1991, Vol. 53#2 pp 285-302
Jump up ^ Fischer, Fallstudie, p. 111f.; Wehler, Gesellschaftsgeschichte v.2, p. 126.
Jump up ^ Rudolf Renz: Deutscher Zollverein. In: Gerhard Taddey (Hrsg.): Lexikon der deutschen Geschichte, 2. Auflage, Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 1983, p. 257.
Jump up ^ Bundesakte bei documentarchiv.de. See also Hahn, Zollverein, p. 15.
Jump up ^ Berding, p. 535f.
Jump up ^ Woodward, E.L., Sir (1962) "The Age of Reform, 1815–1870," The Oxford history of England 13, 2nd Ed., Oxford : Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-821711-0, p. 61.
Jump up ^ Woodward, p. 61
Jump up ^ Friedrich List, found in Wehler, Gesellschaftsgeschichte, v.2, p. 133.
Jump up ^ Bittschrift des Allgemeinen Deutschen Handels- und Gewerbevereins an die Bundesversammlung vom 20. April 1819 gemäß Friedrich List: Schriften, Reden Briefe, Bd. 1, Berlin 1929., found in Manfred Görtenmaker: Deutschland im 19. Jahrhundert. 4. Auflage. Leske+Budrich, Opladen 1994, S. 166 ISBN 3-8100-1336-6.
Jump up ^ Angelow, Deutscher Bund, S. 63.
Jump up ^ Columbia.
Jump up ^ Ploeckl, Florian (2013-07-01). "The internal impact of a customs union; Baden and the Zollverein". Explorations in Economic History. 50 (3): 387–404. doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2013.05.001.
Jump up ^ Christopher Clark, Histoire de la Prusse, Perrin, Paris, 2009, p. 469, p. 880 (notes 8-9).(French translation of Iron Kingdom (2006)).
Jump up ^ Clark, p. 470.
Jump up ^ Clark, p. 469-470.
Further reading[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1879 American Cyclopædia article Zollverein.
W. O. Henderson, The Zollverein (1959).
David T. Murphy, "Prussian aims for the Zollverein, 1828-1833", Historian, Winter 1991, vol. 53(2) pp. 285–302.
Arnold H. Price, The Evolution of the Zollverein, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1949.
James J. Sheehan, German History, 1770-1866 (1993).
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values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
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p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: الاتحاد الجمركي الألماني – Arabic

values: Германски митнически съюз – Bulgarian

values: Unió Duanera del Nord d'Alemanya – Catalan

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: Γερμανική Τελωνειακή Ένωση – Greek

values: 독일관세동맹 – Korean

values: איחוד המכס הגרמני – Hebrew

values: ドイツ関税同盟 – Japanese

values: Германский таможенный союз – Russian

values: Німецький митний союз – Ukrainian

values: 德意志關稅同盟 – Chinese

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Zollverein rootpage-Zollverein skin-vector action-view