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Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben
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For ships named after General von Steuben, see Von Steuben (disambiguation).
Baron Von Steuben
Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, by Charles Willson Peale
Birth name
Friedrich Wilhelm August Heinrich Ferdinand von Steuben
Born
(1730-09-17)17 September 1730
Magdeburg, Duchy of Magdeburg
(now Magdeburg, Germany)
Died
28 November 1794(1794-11-28) (aged 64)
Utica, New York, U.S.
Buried
Steuben Memorial State Historic Site, Remsen, New York, U.S.
Allegiance
Prussia (1744–1762)
United States (1778–1783)
Service/branch
Prussian Army
Continental Army
Years of service
1744–1762
1778–1783
Rank
Major general
Battles/wars
War of 1744
Siege of Prague (1744)
Seven Years' War
Siege of Prague (1757)
Battle of Kunersdorf
Siege of Kolberg
Siege of Schweidnitz
American Revolutionary War
Valley Forge
Battle of Monmouth
Battle of Blandford
Siege of Yorktown
Awards
Cross of the Order of De la Fidelite
Signature
Friedrich Wilhelm August Heinrich Ferdinand Steuben (born Friedrich Wilhelm Ludolf Gerhard Augustin von Steuben; September 17, 1730 – November 28, 1794), also referred to as the Baron von Steuben, was a Prussian and later an American military officer. He served as inspector general and major general of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He is credited with being one of the fathers of the Continental Army in teaching them the essentials of military drills, tactics, and disciplines.[1] He wrote Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States, the book that served as standard United States drill manual until the American Civil War.[2] He served as General George Washington's chief of staff in the final years of the war.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life and education
2 First military service
3 Service in Hohenzollern-Hechingen
4 American Revolution
4.1 Inspector General
4.2 Training program
4.3 Southern campaign
5 Final years
6 Personal life
7 Death
8 Legacy
9 See also
10 References
11 Sources
12 Further reading
13 External links
Early life and education[edit]
Baron von Steuben was born in the fortress town of Magdeburg on September 17, 1730, the son of Royal Prussian Engineer, Capt. Baron Wilhelm von Steuben, and his wife, Elizabeth von Jagvodin.[3] When his father entered the service of Empress Anna, young Friedrich came with him to the Crimea and then to Kronstadt, staying until the Russian war against the Turks under the General Burkhard Christoph von Münnich. In 1740 Steuben's father returned to Prussia and Friedrich was educated in the garrison towns Neisse and Breslau by Jesuits. It is said that at age 14 he served as volunteer with his father in one of the campaigns of the War of the Austrian Succession.
First military service[edit]
Baron von Steuben joined the Prussian Army at age 17.[4] He served as a second lieutenant during the Seven Years' War in 1756, and was wounded at the 1757 Battle of Prague.[4] He served as adjutant to the free battalion of General Johann von Mayr and was promoted to first lieutenant in 1759.[4] In August 1759 he was wounded a second time at the Battle of Kunersdorf.[4] In June 1761, he was appointed deputy quartermaster at the general headquarters. Later that year he was taken prisoner by the Russians at Treptow.[4] He subsequently attained the rank of captain, and served as aide-de-camp to Frederick the Great; in 1762 he was one of 13 young officers chosen to participate in a special course of instruction delivered by the king himself.[5]
Upon the reduction of the army at the end of the war, in 1763, Steuben was one of many officers who found themselves unemployed.[5] Towards the end of his life, Steuben indicated in a letter that "an inconsiderate step and an implacable personal enemy" led to his leaving the Prussian army.[6]:61
Service in Hohenzollern-Hechingen[edit]
In 1764 Steuben became Hofmarschall to Fürst Josef Friedrich Wilhelm of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, a post he held until 1777.[7] In 1769 the Duchess of Wurttemberg, niece of Frederick the Great, presented him with the "Cross of the Order of De la Fidelite".[8] In 1771 he began to use the title baron. That same year he accompanied the prince to France in 1771, hoping to borrow money. Failing to find funds, they returned to Germany in 1775, deeply in debt.[5]
In 1763 Steuben had been formally introduced to the future French Minister of War, Claude Louis, Comte de Saint-Germain in Hamburg. They met again in Paris in 1777. The Count, fully realizing the potential of an officer with Prussian general staff training, introduced him to Benjamin Franklin. Franklin, however, was unable to offer Steuben a rank or pay in the American army. The Continental Congress had grown tired of foreign mercenaries coming to America and demanding a high rank and pay. Promoting these men over qualified American officers caused discontent in the ranks. Von Steuben would have to go to America strictly as a volunteer, and present himself to Congress. Steuben left these first meetings in disgust and returned to Prussia.[4] Steuben found waiting for him allegations that he engaged in homosexual relationships with young men while in the service of Prince Josef Friedrich Wilhelm of Hohenzollern-Hechingen. The allegations were never proven, but Steuben knew they would stymie his chances at an officer's position in Europe.[9] Threatened with prosecution for his alleged homosexuality, Steuben returned to Paris.[10] Rumors followed him from Prussia to America that he was homosexual, but there never was an investigation of von Steuben and he received a Congressional pension after the war.[11]
Upon the Count's recommendation, Steuben was introduced to future president George Washington by means of a letter from Franklin as a "Lieutenant General in the King of Prussia's service", an exaggeration of his actual credentials that appears to be based on a mistranslation of his service record. He was advanced travel funds and left Europe from Marseilles on Friday, September 26, 1777 on board the frigate Flamand.[7]
American Revolution[edit]
Portrait of Steuben by Ralph Earl
The Baron, his Italian greyhound, Azor (which he took with him everywhere), his young aide de camp Louis de Pontière, his military secretary, Peter Stephen Du Ponceau (then called Pierre Etienne Du Ponceau), and two other companions, reached Portsmouth, New Hampshire on December 1, 1777, where they were almost arrested for being British because Steuben had mistakenly outfitted them in red uniforms.[4] They were extravagantly entertained in Boston.[citation needed] On February 5, 1778 Steuben and his party arrived in York, Pennsylvania, where the Continental Congress had relocated after being ousted from Philadelphia by the British advance. Arrangements were made for Steuben to be paid following the successful completion of the war according to his contributions. He arrived at Valley Forge on February 23, 1778, and reported for duty as a volunteer. One soldier's first impression of the Baron was "of the ancient fabled God of War ... he seemed to me a perfect personification of Mars. The trappings of his horse, the enormous holsters of his pistols, his large size, and his strikingly martial aspect, all seemed to favor the idea. He turned the volunteers into a great army"[4]
Inspector General[edit]
Washington appointed von Steuben as temporary inspector general. He went out into the camp to talk with the officers and men, inspect their huts, and scrutinize their equipment. Steuben established standards of sanitation and camp layouts that would still be standard a century and a half later. There had previously been no set arrangement of tents and huts. Men relieved themselves where they wished and when an animal died, it was stripped of its meat and the rest was left to rot where it lay. Steuben laid out a plan to have rows for command, officers and enlisted men. Kitchens and latrines were on opposite sides of the camp, with latrines downhill side. There was the familiar arrangement of company and regimental streets.
On May 5, 1778, on General Washington's recommendation, Congress appointed Steuben inspector general of the army, with the rank and pay of major general. Internal administration had been neglected, and no books had been kept either as to supplies, clothing or men. Steuben became aware of the "administrative incompetence, graft, war profiteering" that existed.[12] He enforced the keeping of exact records and strict inspections. His inspections saved the army an estimated loss of five to eight thousand muskets.[8]
Training program[edit]
Baron von Steuben Drilling Troops at Valley Forge, by E. A. Abbey (c.1904), Pennsylvania State Capitol, Harrisburg
Steuben picked 120 men from various regiments, to form an honor guard for General Washington, and used them to demonstrate military training to the rest of the troops.[8] These men in turn trained other personnel at Regimental and Brigade levels. Steuben's eccentric personality greatly enhanced his mystique. In full military dress uniform, he twice a day trained the soldiers who, at this point, were themselves greatly lacking in proper clothing.[13]
As he could only speak and write a small amount of English, Steuben originally wrote the drills in the German dialect of Prussian, the military language of Europe at the time. His secretary, Du Ponceau, then translated the drills from Prussian into French, and a secretary for Washington translated it to English. They did this every single night so Washington could command his soldiers in the morning. Colonel Alexander Hamilton and General Nathanael Greene were of great help in assisting Steuben in drafting a training program for the Army. The Baron's willingness and ability to work with the men, as well as his use of profanity (in several different languages), made him popular among the soldiers.[4] It is here he met his reputed future lover, Captain Benjamin Walker. Upon meeting Walker for the first time he exclaimed "If I had seen an angel from Heaven I should not have more rejoiced." Within weeks, Walker was Steuben's aide-de-camp.[14]
Steuben introduced a system of progressive training, beginning with the school of the soldier, with and without arms, and going through the school of the regiment. This corrected the previous policy of simply assigning personnel to regiments. Each company commander was made responsible for the training of new men, but actual instruction was done by sergeants specifically selected for being the best obtainable.
In the earlier part of the war, the U.S. used the bayonet mostly as a cooking skewer or tool rather than as a fighting instrument.[8] Steuben's introduction of effective bayonet charges became crucial. In the Battle of Stony Point, U.S. soldiers attacked with unloaded muskets and won the battle solely on Steuben's bayonet training.
The first results of Steuben's training were in evidence at the Battle of Barren Hill, May 20, 1778 and then again at the Battle of Monmouth in June 1778. Steuben, by then serving in Washington's headquarters, was the first to determine that the enemy was heading for Monmouth.
During the winter of 1778–1779, Steuben prepared Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States, commonly known as the "Blue Book".[15][16] Its basis was the training plan he had devised at Valley Forge.[17] It was used by the United States Army until 1814,[4] and affected U.S. drills and tactics until the Mexican War of 1846.[12]
Southern campaign[edit]
Mount Gulian, Fishkill, N.Y.
In 1780 Steuben sat on the court-martial of the British Army officer Major John André, captured and charged with espionage in conjunction with the defection of General Benedict Arnold.[6] He later traveled with Nathanael Greene, the new commander of the Southern campaign.[6] He quartered in Virginia since U.S. supplies and soldiers would be provided to the army from there. Steuben would help in the defense of Virginia with approximately 1000 militia fighting a delaying action in the Battle of Blandford. During the spring of 1781, he aided Greene in the campaign in the south, culminating in the delivery of 450 Virginia Continentals to Lafayette in June.
He was forced to take sick leave, rejoining the army for the final campaign at Yorktown, where his role was as commander of one of the three divisions of Washington's troops. In 1783, General Von Steuben joined General Knox at Vail's Gate, near West Point, in the fall of 1782 and in early 1783 moved to the Verplanck homestead, at Mount Gulian, across the Hudson River from Washington's headquarters in Newburgh.[12] Steuben gave assistance to Washington in demobilizing the army in 1783[18] as well as aiding in the defense plan of the new nation. In May 1783 Steuben presided over the founding of the Society of the Cincinnati.[12] He was discharged from the military with honor on March 24, 1784.[5]
Final years[edit]
Steuben's log cabin summer residence, Steuben, New York[19]
Steuben became a U.S. citizen by act of the Pennsylvania legislature in March 1784 (and later by the New York authorities in July 1786). With the war over, Steuben resigned from service and first settled with his longtime companion, William North, for whom he created a special room at his retreat he called The Louvre[20] on Manhattan Island, where he became a prominent figure and elder in the German Reformed Church. From 1785 until his death, in 1794, he served as president of the German Society of the City of New York, a charitable society founded in 1784 to assist German immigrants.[21]
Even with the new U.S. Congress giving him large sums of money, he became largely indebted. In 1790, Congress awarded him a pension of $2,500 a year, which he kept until his death.
On December 23, 1783, the State of New Jersey presented him with the use of an estate in Bergen County now known as Steuben House,[22] which had been confiscated from Loyalist Jan Zabriskie in 1781. Located in the formerly strategic New Bridge Landing, the estate included a gristmill and about 40 acres of land. Legislators initially conditioned the grant, requiring Steuben to "hold, occupy and enjoy the said estate in person, and not by tenant." Gen. Philemon Dickinson of the New Jersey Militia informed the baron of this gift and responded to his inquiries that "there are on the premises an exceeding good House, an excellent barn, together with many useful outbuildings, all of which I am told, want some repairs...there is...a Grist-mill; a good Orchard, some meadow Ground, & plenty of Wood. The distance from N York by land 15 miles, but you may keep a boat & go from your own door to N York by water—Oysters, Fish & wild fowl in abundance—Possession will be given to you in the Spring, when you will take a view of the premises."[23] Von Steuben spent considerable sums to repair wartime damages to the house and restore its commercial operations under former aide Walker.
On September 5, 1788, the New Jersey Legislature gave Baron von Steuben full title to the former Zabriskie estate. A month later, recognizing his financial embarrassment, Steuben wrote another former aide-de-camp and companion, William North, recognizing: "The jersey Estate must and is to be sold. Walker is my administrator, all debts are to be paid out of it." On November 6, 1788, Steuben again wrote North (at his new home in Duanesburg), noting "My Jersey Estate is Advertised but not yet Sold, from this Walker Shall immediately pay to you the money, you so generously lend me and all my debts in New-York will be payed. I support my present poverty with more heroism than I Expected. All Clubs and parties are renounced, I seldom leave the House."[24] Steuben eventually sold the New Jersey property to a son of the previous owner, and it remained in the Zabriskie family until 1909. It is the only remaining eighteenth-century building that von Steuben owned.
Von Steuben moved upstate and settled in Oneida County on a small estate in the vicinity of Rome, on land granted to him for his military service and where he had spent summers. He was later appointed a regent for what evolved into the University of the State of New York.
Personal life[edit]
Von Steuben was most likely gay.[25] His exits from the court of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and from Paris were under clouds of accusation of homosexual activity.[26] Von Steuben arrived in the United States with his 17-year-old secretary, Peter Stephen Du Ponceau, who is rumored to have been his lover.[27] At Valley Forge, he began close relationships with Benjamin Walker and William North, then both military officers in their 20s, which are assumed by many to have been romantic.[28] Because homosexuality was criminalized at the time, records of his relationships are limited to references in correspondences.
Death[edit]
Von Steuben died on November 28, 1794, at his estate in Oneida County,[29] and was buried in a grove at what became the Steuben Memorial State Historic Site;[30] the estate became part of the town of Steuben, New York, which was named for him.
Steuben did not marry and had no children. He did not care much for his European relatives.[6] Thus, he left his estate to his companions and aides-de-camp, Captains Benjamin Walker and William North, with whom he had had an "extraordinarily intense emotional relationship ... treating them as surrogate sons".[31]
Legacy[edit]
General Von Steuben, 1930 Issue
Generally, Von Steuben Day takes place in September in many cities throughout the United States. It is often considered the German-American event of the year. Participants march, dance, wear German costumes and play German music, and the event is attended by millions of people. The German-American Steuben Parade is held annually in September in New York City. It is one of the largest parades in the city and is traditionally followed by an Oktoberfest in Central Park as well as celebrations in Yorkville, Manhattan, a German section of New York City. The German-American Steuben Parade has been taking place since 1958.[32] Chicago also hosts a von Steuben Day parade, which is featured in the U.S. film Ferris Bueller's Day Off. Philadelphia hosts a smaller Steuben Parade in the Northeast section of the city. Steubenville, Ohio, has the recreated Fort Steuben, named after the Baron.
The Steuben Society was founded in 1919 as "an educational, fraternal, and patriotic organization of American citizens of German background".[33] In the difficult post-World War I years the Society helped the German-American community to reorganize. It is now one of the largest organizations for Americans of German descent.
A warship, a submarine, and an ocean liner (later pressed into military service) were named in von Steuben's honor. In World War I the captured German ship SS Kronprinz Wilhelm was renamed as USS Von Steuben, and in World War II there was the Dampfschiff General von Steuben, an ill-fated German luxury passenger ship which was turned into an armed transport ship during the war. During the Cold War, the U.S. Navy submarine USS Von Steuben was named for him.
Several locations in the United States are also named Steuben, most of them in his honor. Examples include Steuben County, New York, Steuben County, Indiana, and the city of Steubenville, Ohio. Several buildings are named for Steuben, among them Von Steuben Metropolitan Science Center in Chicago, Illinois, as well as one of the cadet barracks buildings at Valley Forge Military Academy and College.
Von Steuben was one of four European military leaders who assisted the U.S. cause during the Revolution and was honored with a statue in Lafayette Square, just north of the White House, in Washington, D.C. The statue by Albert Jaegers was dedicated in 1910. A copy was dedicated in Potsdam, Germany in 1911, and destroyed during World War II. A new cast was given in honor of German-American friendship in 1987, and to celebrate the 750th anniversary of the founding of Berlin. It was installed in the Dahlem district, in what had been the U.S. sector of the formerly divided city. Additional casts are in Potsdam, and in Steuben's home town of Magdeburg. Statues of Steuben by J. Otto Schweizer can be found in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania and Utica, New York; in addition to an equestrian statue by Schweizer in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. A bust of Steuben is in the garden of the German Embassy in Washington, D.C.
The Steuben House, presented to Steuben as a gift for his services in the Continental Army, is located at New Bridge Landing in River Edge, New Jersey. The house and surrounding farmland were seized in 1781 from a Loyalist family. The house looks much as it did after Steuben renovated it. The State of New Jersey took possession of the historic mansion and one acre of ground for $9,000 on June 27, 1928. It was opened as a public museum in September 1939. The Bergen County Historical Society opens the building for special events. It is under the jurisdiction of the Historic New Bridge Landing Park Commission.[34]
Other tributes include Steuben Field, the stadium of the Hamilton College football team.[35] Von Steuben, acting as Alexander Hamilton's surrogate, laid the cornerstone of the school. Upon graduating, all Hamilton seniors receive as a gift from the college a cane with a tricorn hat at its top in reference to von Steuben.
The various depictions of Steuben in popular U.S. media include portrayals by Nehemiah Persoff in the 1979 U.S. TV miniseries The Rebels, Kurt Knudson in the 1984 TV miniseries George Washington, being voiced by Austrian-American Arnold Schwarzenegger in the animated series Liberty's Kids, and by David Cross on the "Philadelphia" episode of Drunk History.
In 2007, a popular documentary DVD was released by LionHeart FilmWorks and director Kevin Hershberger titled Von Steuben's Continentals: The First American Army. The 60-minute, live-action documentary details the life, uniforms, camp life, food, weapons, equipment and drill of the Continental soldier 1775–1781, as taught and developed by Baron von Steuben.[36]
Steuben House, River Edge, New Jersey. A gift to Steuben from the State of New Jersey, this is the only extant house he owned.
Steuben's grave, Steuben, New York
Painting: Baron von Steuben at Valley Forge, 1777 (1907), Augustus G. Heaton, artist, National War College, Washington, D.C.
Steuben Monument (1910), Albert Jaegers, sculptor, Lafayette Park, Washington, D.C.
General Friedrich Wilhelm August von Steuben (1911, destroyed 1945, cast 1994), Albert Jaegers, sculptor, Potsdam, Germany
Baron von Steuben (1915), J. Otto Schweizer, sculptor, Valley Forge National Historical Park, Pennsylvania. A copy is in Utica, New York.
General von Stueben Drilling Washington's Army at Valley Forge (1915), J. Otto Schweizer, sculptor. Bas-relief panel on the base of the Valley Forge statue.
Steuben Monument (1921), J. Otto Schweizer, sculptor, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben (1947), Warren Wheelock, sculptor, outside Philadelphia Museum of Art, Pennsylvania
Friedrich Wilhelm Baron von Steuben (cast 1987), Albert Jaegers, sculptor, Berlin-Dahlem, Germany
General von Steuben (cast 1996), Albert Jaegers, sculptor, Magdeburg, Germany
General Von Steuben Memorial (2004), Johnson Atelier, sculptors, Monmouth Battlefield State Park, New Jersey
See also[edit]
Revolutionary War Drill Manual
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Fleming, Thomas (February–March 2006). "The Magnificent Fraud". American Heritage.
Jump up ^ Beck, Glenn (2011). Being George Washington. Mercury Radio Arts. p. 74.
Jump up ^ "Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben". Bergen County Historical Society.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j "General von Steuben". Valley Forge (National Historical Park Pennsylvania). National Park Service. Retrieved 2016-10-09.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bielakowski, Alexander M. (2013). Ethnic and Racial Minorities in the U.S. Military: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 667–69.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kapp, Friedrich (1859). Life of Frederick William Von Steuben: Major General in the Revolutionary Army. Mason Brothers.
^ Jump up to: a b Lockhart, Paul (June 27, 2008). "The Rich Legacy of a Forgotten Founder". US News and World Report.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Major General Von Steuben". Steuben Society of America. 2014. Archived from the original on January 16, 2016. Retrieved 2016-10-09.
Jump up ^ Villa, Pablo (September 18, 2015). "Friedrich von Steuben: A Closer Look at the 'Father’ of the NCO Corps". NCO Journal.
Jump up ^ Shilts, Randy (2005). Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the U.S. Military. St. Martin's Press. pp. 7–10.
Jump up ^ Adam, Thomas (2005). Germany and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History; a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 1007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "General Von Steuben". Mount Gulian Historic site.
Jump up ^ Deats, Paula; Fleisher, Carol L. (1995). "A War Without End" episode". The Revolutionary War. The Learning Channel.
Jump up ^ Benemann, William E. (2006). Male–Male Intimacy in Early America: Beyond Romantic Friendships Routledge (1st ed.). New York: Routledge. [page needed]
Jump up ^ "Drill and Ceremony #43". ArmyStudyGuide.com. Retrieved April 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ The current revision of this book is available for download from the US Army directly The United States Army[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Lockhart, Paul Douglas (2008). The Drillmaster of Valley Forge: The Baron de Steuben and the Making of the American Army. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-145163-0. [page needed]
Jump up ^ "Baron Von Steuben". Museum Collections. National Park Service.
Jump up ^ Headley, Joel Tyler (1900). "Steuben, Frederick William Augustus Henry Ferdinand von". In Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John. Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.
Jump up ^ Von Zemenszky, Edith (1982). The Papers of General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben 1777–1794. Millwood, NY. Account with -------, reel 6, frame.
Jump up ^ Wust, Klaus (1984). Guardian on the Hudson: The German Society of the City of New York, 1784–1984. New York: The Society. ISBN 0-917968-11-5. p. 15-16.
Jump up ^ "Zabriskie-Steuben House". Bergen County Historical Society.
Jump up ^ Karels, Carol (2007). The Revolutionary War in Bergen County. Charleston, SC: The History Press. p. 61. ISBN 9781596293588.
Jump up ^ Quoted in: Wright, Kevin. "Baron von Steuben's Jersey Estate at New Bridge". Bergen County Historical Society. Retrieved 2016-10-09.
Jump up ^ ""Meet The Gay Man Who Won America Her Independence"".
Jump up ^ Lockhart, Paul (2008). "The Drillmaster of Valley Forge". Harper Perennial.
Jump up ^ No Author Given (March 24, 2014). ""Gay Influence: Baron Von Steuben"". Gay Influence. Retrieved July 4, 2017. Behind him were his retinue of African servants, a French chef, his French aide-de-camp Louis de Pontière and the Baron’s 17-year-old lover/secretary Pierre-Étienne du Ponceau.
Jump up ^ Benemann, William Male-Male Intimacy in Early America: Beyond Romantic Friendships Haworth Press, 2006, ISBN 1-56023-345-1
Jump up ^ "Frederick William Augustus von Steuben, Baron." Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998. Retrieved from Biography in Context database, 2016-10-09.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Scott. Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3d ed.: 2 (Kindle Location 44998). McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Kindle Edition.
Jump up ^ Skelton, William B. (February 2000). "North, William". American National Biography Online.
Jump up ^ "German-American Steuben Parade of New York".
Jump up ^ "Our History". The Steuben Society of America. www.steubensociety.org. Retrieved 2016-10-09.
Jump up ^ "Bergen County Historical Society".
Jump up ^ "NESCAC Football Record Book". Archived from the original on November 29, 2006.
Jump up ^ "LionHeart FilmWorks".
Sources[edit]
Palmer, John McAuley (1937). General Von Steuben. Yale University Press.
Steuben Papers, NYHS.
The Historic Society of Pennsylvania, Simon Gratz Collection (#250), Case 4, Box 13 William North /Benjamin Walker Letters
Guide to the Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben Papers at the New-York Historical Society
Further reading[edit]
Baron Von Steuben: An account of a 19th century visit to America by his German relatives.
N.Y. Times: Steuben hosted by the Nation he helped to create
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben.
Wikisource has original works written by or about:
Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben
Works by or about Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben at Internet Archive
Works by Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Bowen, Francis; Hayward, Charles (1838). Lives of Baron Steuben, Sebastian Cabot, and William Eaton.
Friedrich Wilhelm Ludolf Gerhard Augustin Baron von Steuben. Baron Von Steuben's Revolutionary War Drill Manual
Military offices
Preceded by
Thomas Conway IG of the U. S. Army
May 5, 1778 – April 15, 1784 Succeeded by
William North
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ISNI: 0000 0000 2337 1577
GND: 118617990
SUDOC: 095073620
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IATH: w6513xnj
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History of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Since prehistoric times, significant changes in communication technologies (media and appropriate inscription tools) have evolved in tandem with shifts in political and economic systems, and by extension, systems of power. Communication can range from very subtle processes of exchange, to full conversations and mass communication. Human communication was revolutionized with the origin of speech approximately 500,000 years ago. Symbols were developed about 30,000 years ago. The imperfection of speech, which nonetheless allowed easier dissemination of ideas and stimulated inventions, eventually resulted in the creation of new forms of communications, improving both the range at which people could communicate and the longevity of the information. All of those inventions were based on the key concept of the symbol.
The oldest known symbols created for the purpose of communication were cave paintings, a form of rock art, dating to the Upper Paleolithic age. The oldest known cave painting is located within Chauvet Cave, dated to around 30,000 BC.[1] These paintings contained increasing amounts of information: people may have created the first calendar as far back as 15,000 years ago.[2] The connection between drawing and writing is further shown by linguistics: in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece the concepts and words of drawing and writing were one and the same (Egyptian: 's-sh', Greek: 'graphein').[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Petroglyphs
2 Pictograms
3 Ideograms
4 Writing
4.1 Alphabet
5 History of telecommunication
6 Timeline
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
Petroglyphs[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Petroglyphs.
Petroglyphs from Häljesta, Sweden. Nordic Bronze Age.
The next advancement in the history of communications came with the production of petroglyphs, carvings into a rock surface. It took about 20,000 years for homo sapiens to move from the first cave paintings to the first petroglyphs, which are dated to around 10,000BC.[4]
It is possible that humans of that time used some other forms of communication, often for mnemonic purposes - specially arranged stones, symbols carved in wood or earth, quipu-like ropes, tattoos, but little other than the most durable carved stones has survived to modern times and we can only speculate about their existence based on our observation of still existing 'hunter-gatherer' cultures such as those of Africa or Oceania.[5] ÷
Pictograms[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Pictograms.
Pictograph from 1510 telling a story of coming of missionaries to Hispaniola
A pictogram (pictograph) is a symbol representing a concept, object, activity, place or event by illustration. Pictography is a form of proto-writing whereby ideas are transmitted through drawing. Pictographs were the next step in the evolution of communication: the most important difference between petroglyphs and pictograms is that petroglyphs are simply showing an event, but pictograms are telling a story about the event, thus they can for example be ordered chronologically.
Pictograms were used by various ancient cultures all over the world since around 9000 BC, when tokens marked with simple pictures began to be used to label basic farm produce, and become increasingly popular around 6000-5000 BC.
They were the basis of cuneiform [6] and hieroglyphs, and began to develop into logographic writing systems around 5000 BC.
Ideograms[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Ideograms.
The beginning of the Lord's Prayer in Míkmaq hieroglyphic writing. The text reads Nujjinen wásóq – "Our father / in heaven"
Pictograms, in turn, evolved into ideograms, graphical symbols that represent an idea. Their ancestors, the pictograms, could represent only something resembling their form: therefore a pictogram of a circle could represent a sun, but not concepts like 'heat', 'light', 'day' or 'Great God of the Sun'. Ideograms, on the other hand, could convey more abstract concepts, so that for example an ideogram of two sticks can mean not only 'legs' but also a verb 'to walk'.
Because some ideas are universal, many different cultures developed similar ideograms. For example, an eye with a tear means 'sadness' in Native American ideograms in California, as it does for the Aztecs, the early Chinese and the Egyptians.[citation needed]
Ideograms were precursors of logographic writing systems such as Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters.[citation needed]
Examples of ideographical proto-writing systems, thought not to contain language-specific information, include the Vinca script (see also Tărtăria tablets) and the early Indus script.[citation needed] In both cases there are claims of decipherment of linguistic content, without wide acceptance.[citation needed]
Writing[edit]
For more details on this topic, see History of writing.
26th century BC Sumerian cuneiform script in Sumerian language, listing gifts to the high priestess of Adab on the occasion of her election. One of the earliest examples of human writing.
The oldest-known forms of writing were primarily logographic in nature, based on pictographic and ideographic elements. Most writing systems can be broadly divided into three categories: logographic, syllabic and alphabetic (or segmental); however, all three may be found in any given writing system in varying proportions, often making it difficult to categorise a system uniquely.
The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary in with the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late Neolithic of the late 4000 BC. The first writing system is generally believed to have been invented in pre-historic Sumer and developed by the late 3000's BC into cuneiform. Egyptian hieroglyphs, and the undeciphered Proto-Elamite writing system and Indus Valley script also date to this era, though a few scholars have questioned the Indus Valley script's status as a writing system.
The original Sumerian writing system was derived from a system of clay tokens used to represent commodities. By the end of the 4th millennium BC, this had evolved into a method of keeping accounts, using a round-shaped stylus impressed into soft clay at different angles for recording numbers. This was gradually augmented with pictographic writing using a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted. Round-stylus and sharp-stylus writing was gradually replaced about 2700-2000 BC by writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term cuneiform), at first only for logograms, but developed to include phonetic elements by the 2800 BC. About 2600 BC cuneiform began to represent syllables of spoken Sumerian language.
Finally, cuneiform writing became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers. By the 26th century BC, this script had been adapted to another Mesopotamian language, Akkadian, and from there to others such as Hurrian, and Hittite. Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for Ugaritic and Old Persian.
The Chinese script may have originated independently of the Middle Eastern scripts, around the 16th century BC (early Shang Dynasty), out of a late neolithic Chinese system of proto-writing dating back to c. 6000 BC. The pre-Columbian writing systems of the Americas, including Olmec and Mayan, are also generally believed to have had independent origins.
Alphabet[edit]
For more details on this topic, see history of alphabet.
A Specimen of typeset fonts and languages, by William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728 Cyclopaedia.
The first pure alphabets (properly, "abjads", mapping single symbols to single phonemes, but not necessarily each phoneme to a symbol) emerged around 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt, but by then alphabetic principles had already been incorporated into Egyptian hieroglyphs for a millennium (see Middle Bronze Age alphabets).
By 2700 BC Egyptian writing had a set of some 22 hieroglyphs to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.
However, although seemingly alphabetic in nature, the original Egyptian uniliterals were not a system and were never used by themselves to encode Egyptian speech. In the Middle Bronze Age an apparently "alphabetic" system is thought by some to have been developed in central Egypt around 1700 BC for or by Semitic workers, but we cannot read these early writings and their exact nature remains open to interpretation.
Over the next five centuries this Semitic "alphabet" (really a syllabary like Phoenician writing) seems to have spread north. All subsequent alphabets around the world[citation needed] with the sole exception of Korean Hangul have either descended from it, or been inspired by one of its descendants.
History of telecommunication[edit]
For more details on this topic, see History of telecommunication.
The history of telecommunication - the transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of communication - began thousands of years ago with the use of smoke signals and drums in Africa, America and parts of Asia. In the 1790s the first fixed semaphore systems emerged in Europe however it was not until the 1830s that electrical [telecommunication] systems started to appear.
Timeline[edit]
Main article: Timeline of communication technology
See also[edit]
Linguistics and History of linguistics
Semiotics
Animal communication
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Paul Martin Lester, Visual Communication with Infotrac: Images with Messages, Thomson Wadsworth, 2005, ISBN 0-534-63720-5, Google Print: p.48
Jump up ^ according to a claim by Michael Rappenglueck, of the University of Munich (2000) [1]
Jump up ^ David Diringer, The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental, Courier Dover Publications, 1982, ISBN 0-486-24243-9, Google Print: p.27
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference gaurav_gupta was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ David Diringer, History of the Alphabet, 1977; ISBN 0-905418-12-3.
Jump up ^ "Linguistics 201: The Invention of Writing". Pandora.cii.wwu.edu. Retrieved 2012-10-02.
(in Polish) Piotr Konieczny, Komunikacja: od mowy do Internetu, Histmag #49
Further reading[edit]
Asante, Molefi Kete, Yoshitaka Miike, and Jing Yin, eds. The global intercultural communication reader (Routledge, 2013)
Berger, Arthur Asa. Media and communication research methods: An introduction to qualitative and quantitative approaches (SAGE 2013)
Burke, Peter. A Social History of Knowledge: From Gutenberg to Diderot (2000)
Burke, Peter. A Social History of Knowledge II: From the Encyclopaedia to Wikipedia (2012)
de Mooij, Marieke. "Theories of Mass Communication and Media Effects Across Cultures." in Human and Mediated Communication around the World (Springer 2014) pp 355–393.
Esser, Frank, and Thomas Hanitzsch, eds. The handbook of comparative communication research (Routledge, 2012)
Gliek, James (2011). The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood. ISBN 978-0-375-42372-7.
Jensen, Klaus Bruhn, ed. A handbook of media and communication research: qualitative and quantitative methodologies (Routledge, 2013)
Paxson, Peyton. Mass Communications and Media Studies: An Introduction (Bloomsbury, 2010)
Poe, Marshall T. A History of Communications: Media and Society From the Evolution of Speech to the Internet (Cambridge University Press; 2011) 352 pages; Documents how successive forms of communication are embraced and, in turn, foment change in social institutions.
Schramm, Wilbur. Mass Communications (1963)
Schramm, Wilbur, ed. Mass Communications: A Reader (1960)
Simonson, Peter. Refiguring Mass Communication: A History (2010)
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