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Windows NT
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Windows NT
Developer
Microsoft
Written in
C, C++, and Assembly language[1]
Working state
Current
Source model
Closed source / Shared source
Initial release
July 27, 1993; 24 years ago (1993-07-27)
(as Windows NT 3.1)
Latest release
1703 (10.0.15063.608) (September 12, 2017; 6 days ago (2017-09-12)) [±]
Latest preview
RS3 (10.0.16281) (September 1, 2017; 17 days ago (2017-09-01)) [±]
Update method
Windows Update, Windows Server Update Services
Platforms
IA-32, x86-64, DEC Alpha, MIPS, PowerPC, ARM, Itanium
Kernel type
Hybrid
Default user interface
Graphical (Windows shell)
License
Depending on version, edition or customer choice: Trialware, commercial software, volume licensing, OEM-only, SaaS, S+S[a]
Official website
www.microsoft.com/windows/
Windows NT is a family of operating systems produced by Microsoft, the first version of which was released in July 1993. It is a processor-independent, multiprocessing, multi-user operating system.
The first version of Windows NT was Windows NT 3.1 and was produced for workstations and server computers. It was intended to complement consumer versions of Windows (including Windows 1.0 through Windows 3.1x) that were based on MS-DOS. Gradually, the Windows NT family was expanded into Microsoft's general-purpose operating system product line for all personal computers, deprecating the Windows 9x family.
"NT" formerly expanded to "New Technology" but no longer carries any specific meaning. Starting with Windows 2000,[2] "NT" was removed from the product name and is only included in the product version string.[3]
NT was the first purely 32-bit version of Windows, whereas its consumer-oriented counterparts, Windows 3.1x and Windows 9x, were 16-bit/32-bit hybrids. It is a multi-architecture operating system. Initially, it supported several instruction set architectures, including IA-32, MIPS, DEC Alpha, PowerPC and later Itanium. The latest versions support x86 (more specifically IA-32 and x64) and ARM. Major features of the Windows NT family include Windows Shell, Windows API, Native API, Active Directory, Group Policy, Hardware Abstraction Layer, NTFS, BitLocker, Windows Store, Windows Update, and Hyper-V.
Contents
[hide]
1 Naming
2 Major features
3 Development
4 Releases
5 Programming language
6 Supported platforms
6.1 32-bit platforms
6.2 64-bit platforms
7 Hardware requirements
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Naming[edit]
It has been suggested that Dave Cutler intended the initialism "WNT" as a play on VMS, incrementing each letter by one.[4] However, the project was originally intended as a follow-on to OS/2 and was referred to as "NT OS/2" before receiving the Windows brand.[5] One of the original NT developers, Mark Lucovsky, states that the name was taken from the original target processor—the Intel i860, code-named N10 ("N-Ten").[6] A 1998 question-and-answer session with Bill Gates, reveal that the letters were previously expanded to "New Technology" but no longer carry any specific meaning.[7] The letters were dropped from the names of releases from Windows 2000 and later, though Microsoft described that product as being "Built on NT Technology".[2][8]
Major features[edit]
A main design goal of NT was hardware and software portability. Various versions of NT family operating systems have been released for a variety of processor architectures, initially IA-32, MIPS, and DEC Alpha, with PowerPC, Itanium, x86-64 and ARM supported in later releases. The idea was to have a common code base with a custom Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL) for each platform. However, support for MIPS, Alpha, and PowerPC was later dropped in Windows 2000. Broad software compatibility was achieved with support for several API "personalities", including Windows API, POSIX,[9] and OS/2 APIs[10] – the latter two were phased out starting with Windows XP.[11] Partial MS-DOS compatibility was achieved via an integrated DOS Virtual Machine – although this feature is being phased out in the x86-64 architecture.[12] NT supported per-object (file, function, and role) access control lists allowing a rich set of security permissions to be applied to systems and services. NT supported Windows network protocols, inheriting the previous OS/2 LAN Manager networking, as well as TCP/IP networking (for which Microsoft would implement a TCP/IP stack derived at first from a STREAMS-based stack from Spider Systems, then later rewritten in-house).[13]
Windows NT 3.1 was the first version of Windows to use 32-bit flat virtual memory addressing on 32-bit processors. Its companion product, Windows 3.1, used segmented addressing and switches from 16-bit to 32-bit addressing in pages.
Windows NT 3.1 featured a core kernel providing a system API, running in supervisor mode (ring 0 in x86; referred to in Windows NT as "kernel mode" on all platforms), and a set of user-space environments with their own APIs which included the new Win32 environment, an OS/2 1.3 text-mode environment and a POSIX environment. The full preemptive multitasking kernel could interrupt running tasks to schedule other tasks, without relying on user programs to voluntarily give up control of the CPU, as in Windows 3.1 Windows applications (although MS-DOS applications were preemptively multitasked in Windows starting with Windows 1.0).
Notably, in Windows NT 3.x, several I/O driver subsystems, such as video and printing, were user-mode subsystems. In Windows NT 4, the video, server, and printer spooler subsystems were moved into kernel mode. Windows NT's first GUI was strongly influenced by (and programmatically compatible with) that from Windows 3.1; Windows NT 4's interface was redesigned to match that of the brand new Windows 95, moving from the Program Manager to the Windows shell design.
NTFS, a journaled, secure file system, was created for NT. Windows NT also allows for other installable file systems; starting with versions 3.1, NT could be installed on FAT or HPFS file systems.[14]
Windows NT introduced its own driver model, the Windows NT driver model, and is incompatible with older driver frameworks. With Windows 2000, the Windows NT driver model was enhanced to become the Windows Driver Model, which was first introduced with Windows 98, but was based on the NT driver model.[15] Windows Vista added native support for the Windows Driver Foundation, which is also available for Windows XP, Windows Server 2003 and to an extent, Windows 2000.
Development[edit]
Original Windows NT wordmark
Microsoft decided to create a portable operating system, compatible with OS/2 and POSIX and supporting multiprocessing, in October 1988.[16] When development started in November 1989, Windows NT was to be known as OS/2 3.0,[17] the third version of the operating system developed jointly by Microsoft and IBM. To ensure portability, initial development was targeted at the Intel i860XR RISC processor, switching to the MIPS R3000 in late 1989, and then the Intel i386 in 1990.[18] Microsoft also continued parallel development of the DOS-based and less resource-demanding Windows environment, resulting in the release of Windows 3.0 in May 1990. Windows 3 was eventually so successful that Microsoft decided to change the primary application programming interface for the still unreleased NT OS/2 (as it was then known) from an extended OS/2 API to an extended Windows API. This decision caused tension between Microsoft and IBM and the collaboration ultimately fell apart. IBM continued OS/2 development alone while Microsoft continued work on the newly renamed Windows NT. Though neither operating system would immediately be as popular as Microsoft's MS-DOS or Windows products, Windows NT would eventually be far more successful than OS/2.
Microsoft hired a group of developers from Digital Equipment Corporation led by Dave Cutler to build Windows NT, and many elements of the design reflect earlier DEC experience with Cutler's VMS[19] and RSX-11, but also an unreleased object-based operating system developed by Dave Cutler for DEC Prism.[20] The operating system was designed to run on multiple instruction set architectures and multiple hardware platforms within each architecture. The platform dependencies are largely hidden from the rest of the system by a kernel mode module called the HAL (Hardware Abstraction Layer).
Windows NT's kernel mode code further distinguishes between the "kernel", whose primary purpose is to implement processor- and architecture-dependent functions, and the "executive". This was designed as a modified microkernel, as the Windows NT kernel was influenced by the Mach microkernel developed at Carnegie Mellon University,[21] but does not meet all of the criteria of a pure microkernel. Both the kernel and the executive are linked together into the single loaded module ntoskrnl.exe; from outside this module there is little distinction between the kernel and the executive. Routines from each are directly accessible, as for example from kernel-mode device drivers.
API sets in the Windows NT family are implemented as subsystems atop the publicly undocumented "native" API; this allowed the late adoption of the Windows API (into the Win32 subsystem). Windows NT was one of the earliest operating systems to use Unicode internally.
Releases[edit]
See also: List of Microsoft Windows versions
Windows NT releases
Version
Marketing name
Editions
Release date
Build number
3.1 Windows NT 3.1 Workstation (named just Windows NT), Advanced Server July 27, 1993 528
3.5 Windows NT 3.5 Workstation, Server September 21, 1994 807
3.51 Windows NT 3.51 Workstation, Server May 30, 1995 1057
4.0 Windows NT 4.0 Workstation, Server, Server Enterprise Edition, Terminal Server, Embedded July 29, 1996 1381
5.0 Windows 2000 Professional, Server, Advanced Server February 17, 2000 2195
Datacenter Server September 26, 2000
5.1 Windows XP Home, Professional, Media Center (original, 2004 & 2005), Tablet PC (original and 2005), Starter, Embedded, Home N, Professional N October 25, 2001 2600
Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs N/A July 8, 2006
5.2 Windows XP 64-bit Edition Version 2003[22] March 28, 2003 3790
Windows Server 2003 Standard, Enterprise, Datacenter, Web, Storage, Small Business Server, Compute Cluster April 24, 2003
Windows XP Professional x64 Edition April 25, 2005
Windows Server 2003 R2 Standard, Enterprise, Datacenter, Web, Storage, Small Business Server, Compute Cluster December 6, 2005
Windows Home Server N/A July 16, 2007
6.0 Windows Vista Starter, Home Basic, Home Premium, Business, Enterprise, Ultimate, Home Basic N, Business N
Business: November 30, 2006
Consumer: January 30, 2007
6000 (RTM)
6001 (SP1)
6002 (SP2)
Windows Server 2008 Foundation, Standard, Enterprise, Datacenter, Web Server, HPC Server, Itanium-Based Systems[23] February 27, 2008
6001 (RTM)
6002 (SP2)
6.1[24] Windows 7 Starter, Home Basic, Home Premium, Professional, Enterprise, Ultimate[25] October 22, 2009[26]
7600 (RTM)
7601 (SP1)
Windows Server 2008 R2 Foundation, Standard, Enterprise, Datacenter, Web Server, HPC Server, Itanium-Based Systems October 22, 2009[27]
7600 (RTM)
7601 (SP1)
Windows Home Server 2011 N/A April 6, 2011
7600 (RTM)
6.2 Windows 8[28] Windows 8, Windows 8 Pro, Windows 8 Enterprise, Windows RT[29] October 26, 2012[30] 9200
Windows Server 2012[31] Foundation, Essentials, Standard, Datacenter[32] September 4, 2012 9200
6.3[33] Windows 8.1 Windows 8.1, Windows 8.1 Pro, Windows 8.1 Enterprise, Windows RT 8.1 October 18, 2013 9600[34]
Windows Server 2012 R2 Foundation, Essentials, Standard, Datacenter October 18, 2013 9600
10.0[35] Windows 10 Home, Pro, Pro Education, Enterprise, Education, IoT Core, Mobile, Mobile Enterprise[36][37] July 29, 2015
10240 (TH1)
10586 (TH2)
14393 (RS1)
15063 (RS2)
Windows Server 2016 Essentials, Standard, Datacenter, Multipoint Premium Server, Storage Server, Hyper-V Server September 26, 2016 14393 (RS1)
Windows NT 3.1 to 3.51 incorporated the Program Manager and File Manager from the Windows 3.1x series. Windows NT 4.0 onwards replaced those programs with Windows Explorer (including a taskbar and Start menu), which originally appeared in Windows 95.
The first release was given version number 3.1 to match the contemporary 16-bit Windows; magazines of that era claimed the number was also used to make that version seem more reliable than a ".0" release. Also the Novell IPX protocol was apparently licensed only to 3.1 versions of Windows software.[citation needed]
The NT version number is not now generally used for marketing purposes, but is still used internally, and said to reflect the degree of changes to the core of the operating system.[38] However, for application compatibility reasons, Microsoft kept the major version number as 6 in releases following Vista,[39] but changed it later to 10 in Windows 10.[35] The build number is an internal identifier used by Microsoft's developers and beta testers.
Programming language[edit]
Windows NT is written in C and C++, with a very small amount written in assembly language.[40] C is mostly used for the kernel code while C++ is mostly used for user-mode code. Assembly language is avoided where possible because it would impede portability.[41]
Supported platforms[edit]
32-bit platforms[edit]
In order to prevent Intel x86-specific code from slipping into the operating system by developers used to developing on x86 chips, Windows NT 3.1 was initially developed using non-x86 development systems and then ported to the x86 architecture. This work was initially based on the Intel i860-based Dazzle system and, later, the MIPS R4000-based Jazz platform. Both systems were designed internally at Microsoft.[42]
Windows NT 3.1 was released for Intel x86 PC compatible, DEC Alpha, and ARC-compliant MIPS platforms. Windows NT 3.51 added support for the PowerPC processor in 1995, specifically PReP-compliant systems such as the IBM Power Series desktops/laptops and Motorola PowerStack series; but despite meetings between Michael Spindler and Bill Gates, not on the Power Macintosh as the PReP compliant Power Macintosh project failed to ship.
Intergraph Corporation ported Windows NT to its Clipper architecture and later announced intention to port Windows NT 3.51 to Sun Microsystems' SPARC architecture,[43] but neither version was sold to the public as a retail product.
Only two of the Windows NT 4.0 variants (IA-32 and Alpha) have a full set of service packs available. All of the other ports done by third parties (Motorola, Intergraph, etc.) have few, if any, publicly available updates.
Windows NT 4.0 was the last major release to support Alpha, MIPS, or PowerPC, though development of Windows 2000 for Alpha continued until August 1999, when Compaq stopped support for Windows NT on that architecture; and then three days later Microsoft also canceled their AlphaNT program, even though the Alpha NT 5 (Windows 2000) release had reached RC2 (build 2128).[44]
Microsoft announced on 5 January 2011 that the next major version of the Windows NT family will include support for the ARM architecture. Microsoft demonstrated a preliminary version of Windows (version 6.2.7867) running on an ARM-based computer at the 2011 Consumer Electronics Show.[45] This eventually led to the commercial release of the Windows 8-derived Windows RT on October 26, 2012, and the implementation of NT over CE on Windows Phone 8.
According to Microsoft, it is a common misconception that the Xbox and Xbox 360 use a modified Windows 2000 kernel, for the Xbox operating system was built from scratch but implements a subset of Windows APIs.[46]
64-bit platforms[edit]
The 64-bit versions of Windows NT were originally intended to run on Itanium and DEC Alpha; the latter was used internally at Microsoft during early development of 64-bit Windows.[47][48] This continued for some time after Microsoft publicly announced that it was cancelling plans to ship 64-bit Windows for Alpha.[49] Because of this, Alpha versions of Windows NT are 32-bit only.
While Windows 2000 only supports Intel IA-32 (32-bit), Windows XP, Server 2003, Server 2008 and Server 2008 R2 each have one edition dedicated to Itanium-based systems.[50][51][52] In comparison with Itanium, Microsoft adopted x64 on a greater scale: every version of Windows since Windows XP (which has a dedicated x64 edition),[53] has x64 editions.[50][54]
Hardware requirements[edit]
The minimum hardware specification required to run each release of the professional workstation version of Windows NT has been fairly slow-moving until the 6.0 Vista release, which requires a minimum of 15 GB of free disk space, a 10-fold increase in free disk space alone over the previous version.
Windows NT minimum hardware requirements
Windows version
CPU
RAM
Free disk space
NT 3.1
i386, 25 MHz 12 MB 90 MB
NT 3.1 Advanced Server
i386, 25 MHz 16 MB 90 MB
NT 3.5 Workstation[55]
i386, 25 MHz 12 MB 90 MB
NT 3.5 Server[55]
i386, 25 MHz 16 MB 90 MB
NT 3.51 Workstation[55]
i386, 25 MHz 12 MB 90 MB
NT 3.51 Server[55]
i386, 25 MHz 16 MB 90 MB
NT 4.0 Workstation[56]
i486, 25 MHz 12 MB 124 MB
NT 4.0 Server[56]
i486, 25 MHz 16 MB 124 MB
2000 Professional[57]
Pentium, 133 MHz 32 MB 650 MB
2000 Server[57]
Pentium, 133 MHz 128 MB 650 MB
XP[58]
Pentium, 233 MHz 64 MB 1.5 GB
Server 2003[59]
133 MHz 128 MB 1.5 GB
Vista Home Basic[60]
800 MHz 512 MB 20 GB
Vista (other editions)[60]
1 GHz 1 GB 40 GB
7 for IA-32[61]
1 GHz 1 GB 16 GB
7 for x64[61]
1 GHz 2 GB 20 GB
8 for IA-32[62]
1 GHz with NX bit, SSE2, PAE 1 GB 16 GB
8 for x64[62]
1 GHz with NX bit, SSE2, PAE 2 GB 20 GB
8.1 for IA-32[62]
1 GHz with NX bit, SSE2, PAE 1 GB 16 GB
8.1 for x64[62]
1 GHz with NX bit, SSE2, PAE, CMPXCHG16b, PrefetchW and LAHF/SAHF 2 GB 20 GB
10 for IA-32[63]
1 GHz with NX bit, SSE2, PAE 1 GB 16 GB
10 for x64[63]
1 GHz with NX bit, SSE2, PAE, CMPXCHG16b, PrefetchW and LAHF/SAHF 2 GB 20 GB
See also[edit]
Architecture of Windows NT
F6 disk
Windows Server domain
ReactOS (an open source project with the goal of providing binary- and device driver-level compatibility with Windows NT)
Windows NT startup process
Windows Preinstallation Environment
Microsoft Servers
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ For more information on how Microsoft licenses its products, see Microsoft Software Assurance, DreamSpark, DreamSpark Premium, BizSpark, MSDN § Software subscriptions, Microsoft TechNet § Subscriptions and downloads and client access license.
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Windows (official page), Microsoft .
Russinovich, Mark, "Windows NT and VMS: The Rest of the Story", Win 2000 (discussion of ancestry of NT), archived from the original on 2002-05-03 .
A Brief History of the Windows NT Operating System (fact sheet), Microsoft PressPass, 1998, archived from the original on 2004-06-10 .
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Oceanic crust
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Colors indicate the age of oceanic crust, wherein red indicates the youngest age, and blue indicates the oldest age. The lines represent tectonic plate boundaries.
Oceanic crust is the uppermost layer of the oceanic portion of a tectonic plate. The crust overlies the solidified and uppermost layer of the mantle. The crust and the solid mantle layer together constitute oceanic lithosphere.
Oceanic crust is primarily composed of mafic rocks, or sima, which is rich in iron and magnesium. It is thinner than continental crust, or sial, generally less than 10 kilometers thick; however it is denser, having a mean density of about 2.9 grams per cubic centimeter[1] as opposed to continental crust which has a density of about 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter.[2]
The crust is the result of erupted mantle material originating from below the plate, cooled and in most instances, modified chemically by seawater.[3] These eruptions occur mostly at mid-ocean ridges, but also at scattered hotspots, and also in rare but powerful occurrences known as flood basalt eruptions.
Contents
[hide]
1 Composition
1.1 Geochemistry
1.2 Life cycle
2 Magnetic anomalies
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
Composition[edit]
Although a complete section of oceanic crust has not yet been drilled, geologists have several pieces of evidence that help them understand the ocean floor. Estimations of composition are based on analyses of ophiolites (sections of oceanic crust that are thrust onto and preserved on the continents), comparisons of the seismic structure of the oceanic crust with laboratory determinations of seismic velocities in known rock types, and samples recovered from the ocean floor by submersibles, dredging (especially from ridge crests and fracture zones) and drilling.[4] Oceanic crust is significantly simpler than continental crust and generally can be divided in three layers. According to mineral physics experiments, at lower mantle pressures, oceanic crust becomes denser than the surrounding mantle.[5]
Layer 1 is on an average 0.4 km thick. It consists of unconsolidated or semiconsolidated sediments, usually thin or even not present near the mid-ocean ridges but thickens farther away from the ridge.[6] Near the continental margins sediment is terrigenous, meaning derived from the land, unlike deep sea sediments which are made of tiny shells of marine organisms, usually calcareous and siliceous, or it can be made of volcanic ash and terrigenous sediments transported by turbidity currents.[7]
Layer 2 could be divided into two parts: layer 2A – 0.5 km thick uppermost volcanic layer of glassy to finely crystalline basalt usually in the form of pillow basalt, and layer 2B – 1.5 km thick layer composed of diabase dikes.[8]
Layer 3 is formed by slow cooling of magma beneath the surface and consists of coarse grained gabbros and cumulate ultramafic rocks. It constitutes over two-thirds of oceanic crust volume with almost 5 km thickness.[9]
Geochemistry[edit]
The most voluminous volcanic rocks of the ocean floor are the mid-oceanic ridge basalts, which are derived from low-potassium tholeiitic magmas. These rocks have low concentrations of large ion lithophile elements (LILE), light rare earth elements (LREE), volatile elements and other highly incompatible elements. There can be found basalts enriched with incompatible elements, but they are rare and associated with mid-ocean ridge hot spots such as surroundings of Galapagos Islands, the Azores and Iceland.[10]
Life cycle[edit]
Oceanic crust is continuously being created at mid-ocean ridges. As plates diverge at these ridges, magma rises into the upper mantle and crust. As it moves away from the ridge, the lithosphere becomes cooler and denser, and sediment gradually builds on top of it. The youngest oceanic lithosphere is at the oceanic ridges, and it gets progressively older away from the ridges.[11]
As the mantle rises it cools and melts, as the pressure decreases and it crosses the solidus. The amount of melt produced depends only on the temperature of the mantle as it rises. Hence most oceanic crust is the same thickness (7±1 km). Very slow spreading ridges (<1 cm·yr−1 half-rate) produce thinner crust (4–5 km thick) as the mantle has a chance to cool on upwelling and so it crosses the solidus and melts at lesser depth, thereby producing less melt and thinner crust. An example of this is the Gakkel Ridge under the Arctic Ocean. Thicker than average crust is found above plumes as the mantle is hotter and hence it crosses the solidus and melts at a greater depth, creating more melt and a thicker crust. An example of this is Iceland which has crust of thickness ~20 km.[12]
The age of the oceanic crust can be used to estimate the (thermal) thickness of the lithosphere, where young oceanic crust has not had enough time to cool the mantle beneath it, while older oceanic crust has thicker mantle lithosphere beneath it.[13] The oceanic lithosphere subducts at what are known as convergent boundaries. These boundaries can exist between oceanic lithosphere on one plate and oceanic lithosphere on another, or between oceanic lithosphere on one plate and continental lithosphere on another. In the second situation, the oceanic lithosphere always subducts because the continental lithosphere is less dense. The subduction process consumes older oceanic lithosphere, so oceanic crust is seldom more than 200 million years old.[14] The process of super-continent formation and destruction via repeated cycles of creation and destruction of oceanic crust is known as the Wilson cycle.
The oldest large scale oceanic crust is in the west Pacific and north-west Atlantic - both are about up to 180-200 million years old. However, parts of the eastern Mediterranean Sea are remnants of the much older Tethys ocean, at about 270 and up to 340 million years old.[15][16][17]
Magnetic anomalies[edit]
Main article: Seafloor spreading
The oceanic crust displays a pattern of magnetic lines, parallel to the ocean ridges, frozen in the basalt. A symmetrical pattern of positive and negative magnetic lines emanates from the mid-ocean ridge.[18] New rock is formed by magma at the mid-ocean ridges, and the ocean floor spreads out from this point. When the magma cools to form rock, its magnetic polarity is aligned with the then-current positions of the magnetic poles of the Earth. New magma then forces the older cooled magma away from the ridge. This process results in parallel sections of oceanic crust of alternating magnetic polarity.
See also[edit]
Mohorovičić discontinuity
Plate tectonics
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Rogers, N.; Blake, S.; Burton, K. An introduction to our dynamic planet. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-521-49424-3. Retrieved January 2008. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Cogley 1984
Jump up ^ H. Elderfield (2006). The Oceans and Marine Geochemistry. Elsevier. pp. 182–. ISBN 978-0-08-045101-5.
Jump up ^ Kodaira, S., Noguchi, N., Takahashi, N., Ishizuka, O., & Kaneda, Y. (2010). Evolution from fore‐arc oceanic crust to island arc crust: A seismic study along the Izu‐Bonin fore arc. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 115(B9), N/a.
Jump up ^ Li, M., & McNamara, A. (2013). The difficulty for subducted oceanic crust to accumulate at the Earth's core‐mantle boundary. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 118(4), 1807-1816.
Jump up ^ Peter Laznicka (2 September 2010). Giant Metallic Deposits: Future Sources of Industrial Metals. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 82–. ISBN 978-3-642-12405-1.
Jump up ^ D. R. Bowes (1989) The Encyclopedia of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology, Van Nostrand Reinhold ISBN 0-442-20623-2
Jump up ^ Yildirim Dilek (1 January 2000). Ophiolites and Oceanic Crust: New Insights from Field Studies and the Ocean Drilling Program. Geological Society of America. pp. 506–. ISBN 978-0-8137-2349-5.
Jump up ^ Jon Erickson (14 May 2014). Plate Tectonics: Unraveling the Mysteries of the Earth. Infobase Publishing. pp. 83–. ISBN 978-1-4381-0968-8.
Jump up ^ Clare P. Marshall, Rhodes W. Fairbridge (1999) Encyclopedia of Geochemistry, Kluwer Academic Publishers ISBN 0-412-75500-9
Jump up ^ "Understanding plate motions [This Dynamic Earth, USGS]". pubs.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-16.
Jump up ^ C.M.R. Fowler (2005) The Solid Earth (2nd Ed.), Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-89307-0
Jump up ^ McKenzie, Dan; Jackson, James; Priestley, Keith (May 2005). "Thermal structure of oceanic and continental lithosphere". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Elsevier. 233 (3-4).
Jump up ^ Condie, K.C. 1997. Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution (4th Edition). 288 page, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.
Jump up ^ Müller, R. Dietmar (April 2008). "Age, spreading rates, and spreading asymmetry of the world's ocean crust". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. American Geophysical Union. 9 (4).
Jump up ^ Benson, Emily (15 August 2016). "World's oldest ocean crust dates back to ancient supercontinent". www.newscientist.com. New Scientist. Retrieved 11 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Researcher uncovers 340 million year-old oceanic crust in the Mediterranean Sea using magnetic data". www.sciencedaily.com. Science Daily. 15 August 2016. Retrieved 11 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Pitman, W. C.; Herron, E. M.; Heirtzler, J. R. (1968-03-15). "Magnetic anomalies in the Pacific and sea floor spreading". Journal of Geophysical Research. 73 (6): 2069–2085. doi:10.1029/JB073i006p02069. ISSN 2156-2202.
References[edit]
Marshak, Stephen (2005) Earth: Portrait of a Planet (41-87)
McDuff, Russell E.; Heath, G. Ross. "Ocean 540: Oceanic Lithosphere; Plate Tectonics; Seafloor Topography". School of Oceanography, University of Washington. Retrieved August 2009. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
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Juice Wrld
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Juice WRLD
Birth name
Jarad Higgins
Born
(1998-12-02) December 2, 1998 (age 19)
Chicago, Illinois
Genres
Hip hop
emo rap
cloud rap
SoundCloud rap
R&B
Occupation(s)
Rapper
songwriter
singer
Instruments
Vocals
piano
guitar
Years active
2015 (2015)–present
Labels
Interscope
Associated acts
Travis Scott
Lil Uzi Vert
G Herbo
Bezel Rockie
Jarad Higgins (born December 2, 1998), better known by his stage name Juice WRLD (stylized as Juice WRLD and pronounced "Juice World"), is an American Rapper, songwriter and singer from Chicago, Illinois. He is primarily known for his breakout hits "All Girls Are the Same", "Lucid Dreams", and "Legends". His music has been described as "genre-bending".[1]
Contents
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Discography
3.1 Studio albums
3.2 Mixtapes
3.3 Singles
4 References
5 External links
Early life[edit]
Jared Higgins was born on December 2, 1998 in Chicago, Illinois. He later moved to Homewood, Illinois, and attended Homewood-Flossmoor High School. Higgins's parents divorced when he was young and his father left his mother to raise him as a single mother alongside one older brother.[2]
He first learned piano, followed by guitar and drums. Higgins began to take rapping seriously in his sophomore year of high school.[3][4]
Career[edit]
Higgins began to develop himself as an artist in his freshman year of high school. His first track, "Forever", was released on SoundCloud in 2015 under the name JuicetheKidd. His first track produced by his current producer Nick Mira, "Too Much Cash", was released in 2017.[5] While releasing projects and songs on SoundCloud, Higgins worked in a factory, but was fired within two weeks after finding himself dissatisfied with the job.[6] After joining the internet collective Internet Money, Higgins released his debut full-length EP, 9 9 9, on June 15, 2017, with the song "Lucid Dreams" breaking out and growing his following.[7][4]
In December 2017, Higgins released the three-song EP Nothings Different. It was featured on numerous hiphop blogs, such as Lyrical Lemonade,[8] which helped Higgins's track "All Girls Are the Same" gain popularity. In February 2018, a music video directed by Cole Bennett was released.[7] Following the release of All Girls Are the Same's video, Higgins was signed to Interscope Records for $3,000,000[9] and a remix featuring Lil Uzi Vert was previewed.[10] "All Girls Are the Same" was critically praised, receiving a "Best New Music" designation from Pitchfork.[11] This song and "Lucid Dreams" were Higgins's first entries on a Billboard chart, debuting at number 92 and 74 on the Billboard Hot 100 respectively.[12]
In May 2018, "Lucid Dreams" was officially released as a single and given a video.[13] It has since peaked at number three.[14] Higgins released his first studio album, Goodbye & Good Riddance, on May 23, 2018.[15] On June 19, 2018, he released a two-song EP, Too Soon.., in remembrance of and dedicated to deceased rappers Lil Peep and XXXTentacion, the latter of whom was killed in a homicide case relating to robbery a day earlier. The song "Legends" from that EP charted under its debut at number 65.[citation needed]
Discography[edit]
Studio albums[edit]
List of studio albums, with year released
Title
Album details
Peak chart positions
US
[16]
DEN
[17]
IRE
[18]
NOR
[19]
NZ
[20]
SWE
[21]
UK
[22]
Goodbye & Good Riddance
Released: May 23, 2018
Labels: Grade A, Interscope
Format: Digital download, streaming
4 5 59 5 17 10 25
Mixtapes[edit]
List of mixtapes
Title
Details
9 9 9
Released: June 15, 2017
Label: Self-released
Format: Digital download, streaming
Singles[edit]
List of singles as lead artist, with selected chart positions
Title
Year
Peak chart positions
Certifications
Album
US
[23]
AUS
[24]
CAN
[25]
DEN
[26]
GER
[27]
NZ
[28]
SWE
[29]
UK
[22]
"All Girls Are the Same"[30]
2018 41 — 54 — — — —[A] — Goodbye & Good Riddance
"Lucid Dreams"
3
[14] 8 4 12 36 3 10 11
ARIA: Platinum[32]
MC: Platinum[33]
RMNZ: Gold[34]
9 9 9 and Goodbye & Good Riddance
"Lean wit Me"[35]
—[B] — — — — — — — Goodbye & Good Riddance
"Legends"
65 — 97 — — —[C] — — Too Soon..
"Wasted"[38]
(featuring Lil Uzi Vert)
67 — 69 — — — — — Goodbye & Good Riddance
"—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory.
Notes
Jump up ^ "All Girls Are the Same" did not enter the Swedish Singellista Chart, but peaked at number 10 on the Swedish Heatseeker Chart.[31]
Jump up ^ "Lean Wit Me" did not enter the Billboard Hot 100, but peaked at number eleven on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart.[36]
Jump up ^ "Legends" did not enter the NZ Top 40 Singles Chart, but peaked at number three on the NZ Heatseeker Singles Chart.[37]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Isom, Eric; Moore, Jacob (February 15, 2018). "Juice WRLD is a Genre-Defying 13 -Year-Old From the Chicago Suburbs, and He's About to Blow Up". Pigeons & Planes. Retrieved May 5, 2018. line feed character in |title= at position 33 (help)
Jump up ^ No Jumper (March 7, 2018), Juice Wrld Exposed!, retrieved May 20, 2018
Jump up ^ "How 19-Year-Old Juice WRLD Scored a $3 Million Record Deal Without a Plan". Complex. Retrieved 2018-06-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Ware, Tajah (September 20, 2017). "An Interview with Juice Wrld". Elevator. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Too Much Cash (Prod. Nick Mira)". SoundCloud. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ Ison, Eric. "It's All Authentic: An Interview With Juice WRLD". Pigeons & Planes. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Galil, Leor (March 19, 2018). "Tracking the astronomical rise of Chicagoland rapper Juice Wrld". Chicago Reader. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ Martinez, Elliot (February 5, 2018). "Nothings Different – [Juice WRLD]". Lyrical Lemonade. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ Stutz, Colin (March 13, 2018). "Juice WRLD Signs With Interscope". Billboard. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ Margaritoff, Marco (May 17, 2018). "Juice WRLD Previews a Remix of "Lucid Dreams" With Lil Uzi Vert". Complex. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ Pearce, Sheldon (March 5, 2018). ""All Girls Are the Same" by Juice WRLD Review". Pitchfork. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ Parizot, Matthew (May 22, 2018). "Juice WRLD Debuts Two Songs On Billboard Hot 100 Chart". HotNewHipHop. Retrieved May 23, 2018.
Jump up ^ P., Milca (May 11, 2018). "Juice WRLD Returns With Clip For "Lucid Dreams"". HotNewHipHop. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/8463605/cardi-b-i-like-it-hot-100-number-one-j-balvin-bad-bunny
Jump up ^ "Juice WRLD's 'Goodbye & Good Riddance' Project Has Arrived". PigeonsandPlanes. Retrieved 2018-05-29.
Jump up ^ "Billboard 200: June 2, 2018". Billboard. Retrieved May 30, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Album Top-40 Uge 29, 2018". Hitlisten. Retrieved July 25, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Irish Albums Chart: 1 June 2018". Irish Recorded Music Association. Retrieved June 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ "VG-lista – Topp 40 Album uke 26, 2018". VG-lista. Retrieved June 30, 2018.
Jump up ^ "NZ Top 40 Albums Chart". Recorded Music NZ. June 4, 2018. Retrieved June 1, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Sverigetopplistan – Sveriges Officiella Topplista". Sverigetopplistan. Retrieved June 29, 2018. Click on "Veckans albumlista".
^ Jump up to: a b "Juice Wrld | full Official Chart history". Official Charts Company. Retrieved June 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Billboard Hot 100: June 23, 2018". Billboard. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
"Legends": "Billboard Hot 100: July 7, 2018". Billboard. Retrieved July 3, 2018.
"Wasted": "Lil Uzi Vert Chart History: Hot 100". Billboard. Retrieved July 31, 2018.
Jump up ^ "ARIA Australian Top 50 Singles". Australian Recording Industry Association. July 16, 2018. Retrieved July 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ Peaks on the Canadian Hot 100:
"Lucid Dreams" and "Legends": "Canadian Hot 100: July 7, 2018". Billboard. Retrieved July 3, 2018.
"All Girls Are the Same": "Canadian Hot 100: August 4, 2018". Billboard. Retrieved July 31, 2018.
"Wasted": "Canadian Hot 100: July 28, 2018". Billboard. Retrieved July 26, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Track Top-40 Uge 27, 2018". Hitlisten. Retrieved July 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Juice WRLD in the German charts". GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved July 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ "NZ Top 40 Singles Chart". Recorded Music NZ. July 9, 2018. Retrieved July 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Sverigetopplistan – Sveriges Officiella Topplista". Sverigetopplistan. Retrieved July 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ "All Girls Are the Same – Single by Juice WRLD". iTunes Store (US). Retrieved May 23, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Veckolista Heatseeker – Vecka 31, 3 augusti 2018". Sverigetopplistan. Retrieved August 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ "ARIA Australian Top 50 Singles Chart". Australian Recording Industry Association. August 13, 2018. Retrieved August 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Gold/Platinum - Music Canada". Music Canada. Retrieved July 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand single certifications – Juice WRLD – Lucid Dreams". Recorded Music NZ. Retrieved July 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Lean Wit Me – Single by Juice WRLD". iTunes Store (US). Retrieved May 23, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Juice WRLD "Lean Wit Me" - Chart History". Billboard. Retrieved July 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ "NZ Heatseeker Singles Chart". Recorded Music NZ. July 2, 2018. Retrieved June 29, 2018.
Jump up ^ Cowen, Trace William. "Lil Uzi Vert and Juice WRLD Get "Wasted" on New Collab". Complex. Retrieved July 10, 2018.
External links[edit]
Juice WRLD on SoundCloud
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juice_Wrld&oldid=854696922"
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