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Atmospheric escape
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Graphs of escape velocity against surface temperature of some Solar System objects showing which gases are retained. The objects are drawn to scale, and their data points are at the black dots in the middle.
Atmospheric escape is the loss of planetary atmospheric gases to outer space. A number of different mechanisms can be responsible for atmospheric escape, operating at different time scales; the most prominent is Jeans Escape, named after British astronomer Sir James Jeans, who described the process of atmospheric loss to the molecular kinetic energy.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Thermal escape mechanisms
2 Significance of solar winds
3 Comparison of non-thermal loss processes based on planet and particle mass
4 Phenomena of non-thermal loss processes on moons with atmospheres
5 Impact erosion
6 Sequestration
7 Dominant atmospheric escape and loss processes on Earth
8 References
9 Further reading
Thermal escape mechanisms[edit]
One classical thermal escape mechanism is Jeans escape.[2] In a quantity of gas, the average velocity of any one molecule is measured by the gas's temperature, but the velocities of individual molecules change as they collide with one another, gaining and losing kinetic energy. The variation in kinetic energy among the molecules is described by the Maxwell distribution. The kinetic energy and mass of a molecule determine its velocity by E k i n = 1 2 m v 2 {\displaystyle E_{\mathit {kin}}={\frac {1}{2}}mv^{2}} .
Individual molecules in the high tail of the distribution may reach escape velocity, at a level in the atmosphere where the mean free path is comparable to the scale height, and leave the atmosphere.
The more massive the molecule of a gas is, the lower the average velocity of molecules of that gas at a given temperature, and the less likely it is that any of them reach escape velocity.
This is why hydrogen escapes from an atmosphere more easily than carbon dioxide. Also, if the planet has a higher mass, the escape velocity is greater, and fewer particles will escape. This is why the gas giant planets still retain significant amounts of hydrogen and helium, which have largely escaped from Earth's atmosphere. The distance a planet orbits from a star also plays a part; a close planet has a hotter atmosphere, with a range of velocities shifted into the higher end of the distribution, hence, a greater likelihood of escape. A distant body has a cooler atmosphere, with a range of lower velocities, and less chance of escape. This helps Titan, which is small compared to Earth but further from the Sun, retain its atmosphere.
An atmosphere with a high enough pressure and temperature can undergo a different escape mechanism - "hydrodynamic escape". In this situation the atmosphere simply flows off like a wind into space, due to pressure gradients initiated by thermal energy deposition. Here it is possible to lose heavier molecules that would not normally be lost. Hydrodynamic escape has been observed for exoplanets close-to their host star, including several hot Jupiters (HD 209458b, HD 189733b) and a hot Neptune (GJ 436b).
Significance of solar winds[edit]
The relative importance of each loss process is a function of the planet's mass, its atmosphere composition, and its distance from its sun. One non-thermal escape mechanism is atmospheric stripping by a solar wind in the absence of a planetary magnetosphere. Excess kinetic energy from solar winds can impart sufficient energy to the atmospheric particles to allow them to reach escape velocity, causing atmospheric escape. The solar wind, composed of ions, is deflected by magnetic fields because the charged particles within the wind flow along magnetic field lines. The presence of a magnetic field thus deflects solar winds, preventing the loss of atmosphere. On Earth, for instance, the interaction between the solar wind and earth's magnetic field deflects the solar wind about the planet, with near total deflection at a distance of 10 Earth radii.[3] This region of deflection is called a bow shock.
Depending on planet size and atmospheric composition, however, a lack of magnetic field does not determine the fate of a planet's atmosphere. Venus, for instance, has no powerful magnetic field. Its close proximity to the Sun also increases the speed and number of particles, and would presumably cause the atmosphere to be stripped almost entirely, much like that of Mars. Despite this, the atmosphere of Venus is two orders of magnitude denser than Earth's.[4] Recent models indicate that stripping by solar wind accounts for less than 1/3 of total non-thermal loss processes.[4]
While Venus and Mars have no magnetosphere to protect the atmosphere from solar winds, photoionizing radiation (sunlight) and the interaction of the solar wind with the atmosphere of the planets causes ionization of the uppermost part of the atmosphere. This ionized region in turn induces magnetic moments that deflect solar winds much like a magnetic field. This limits solar-wind effects to the uppermost part of the atmosphere, roughly 1.2–1.5 planetary radii away from the planet, or an order of magnitude closer to the surface than Earth's magnetic field creates. Beyond this region, called a bow shock, the solar wind is slowed to subsonic velocities.[3] Nearer to the surface, solar-wind dynamic pressure reaches a balance with the pressure from the ionosphere, in a region called the ionopause. This interaction typically prevents solar-wind stripping from being the dominant loss process of the atmosphere.
Comparison of non-thermal loss processes based on planet and particle mass[edit]
Argon Isotope Ratios are a signature of atmospheric escape on Mars (Curiosity rover) (April, 2013)[5][6]
The dominant non-thermal loss processes depends on the planetary body. The relative significance of each process depends on planetary mass, atmospheric composition, and distance from the sun. The dominant non-thermal loss processes for Venus and Mars, two terrestrial planets neither with magnetic fields, are dissimilar. The dominant non-thermal loss process on Mars is from solar winds, as the atmosphere is not dense enough to shield itself from the winds during peak solar activity.[4] Venus is somewhat shielded from solar winds because of its denser atmosphere and as a result, solar pick-up is not its dominant non-thermal loss process. Smaller bodies without magnetic fields are more likely to suffer from solar winds, as the planet is too small to have sufficient gravity to produce a dense enough atmosphere and stop solar wind pick-up.
The dominant loss process for Venus' atmosphere is through electric force field acceleration. Stellar EUV and XUV photoionize molecular and atomic species in the upper atmosphere, producing free electrons. The electrons are less massive than their parent ions, and as a result are more easily accelerated up to and beyond the escape velocity of the planet, leaving the ionosphere of Venus and flowing out into the stellar wind.[4] This charge separation between the escaping, low-mass electrons and significantly heavier, positively-charged ions sets up a polarization electric field. That electric field, in turn, acts to pull the positively charged ions along behind the escaping electrons, out of the atmosphere. As a result, H+ ions are accelerated beyond escape velocity. Other important loss processes on Venus are photochemical reactions driven by Venus's proximity to the Sun. Photochemical reactions rely on the splitting of molecules into constituent atoms, often with a significant portion of the kinetic energy carried off in the less massive particle with sufficiently high kinetic energy to escape. Oxygen, relative to hydrogen, was assumed to not be of sufficiently low mass to escape through this mechanism. However, a Japanese research team in 2017 found ions from earth have been discovered on the moon which matched earth's oxygen profile perfectly.[7]
Phenomena of non-thermal loss processes on moons with atmospheres[edit]
Several natural satellites in the Solar System have atmospheres and are subject to atmospheric loss processes. They typically have no magnetic fields of their own, but orbit planets with powerful magnetic fields. Many of these moons lie within the magnetic fields generated by the planets and are less likely to undergo sputtering and pick-up[clarification needed]. The shape of the bow shock, however, allows for some moons, such as Titan, to pass through the bow shock when their orbits take them between the Sun and their primary. Titan spends roughly half of its transit time outside of the bow-shock and being subjected to unimpeded solar winds. The kinetic energy gained from pick-up and sputtering associated with the solar winds increases thermal escape throughout the transit of Titan, causing neutral hydrogen to escape.[8] The escaped hydrogen maintains an orbit following in the wake of Titan, creating a neutral hydrogen torus around Saturn. Io, in its transit around Jupiter, encounters a plasma cloud.[9] Interaction with the plasma cloud induces sputtering, kicking off sodium particles. The interaction produces a stationary banana-shaped charged sodium cloud along a part of the orbit of Io.
Impact erosion[edit]
The impact of a large meteoroid can lead to the loss of atmosphere. If a collision is energetic enough, it is possible for ejecta, including atmospheric molecules, to reach escape velocity. Just one impact such as the Chicxulub event does not lead to a significant loss, but the terrestrial planets went through enough impacts when they were forming for this to matter.[10]
Sequestration[edit]
Sequestration is not a form of escape from the planet, but a loss of molecules from the atmosphere and into the planet. It occurs on Earth when water vapor condenses to form rain or glacial ice. It also occurs on Earth when carbon dioxide is sequestered in sediments, or cycled through the oceans. The dry ice caps on Mars are also an example of sequestration.
One mechanism for sequestration is chemical; for example, most of the carbon dioxide of the Earth's original atmosphere has been chemically sequestered into carbonate rock. Very likely a similar process has occurred on Mars. Oxygen can be sequestered by oxidation of rocks; for example, by increasing the oxidation states of ferric rocks from Fe2+ to Fe3+. Gases can also be sequestered by adsorption, where fine particles in the regolith capture gas which adheres to the surface particles.
Dominant atmospheric escape and loss processes on Earth[edit]
Hot H atoms had been theorized to exist at very high altitudes, above several thousand kilometers, but our discovery that they exist as low as 250 kilometers was truly surprising...This result suggests that current (Dec 2016) atmospheric models are missing some key physics that impacts many different studies, ranging from atmospheric escape to the thermal structure of the upper atmosphere. — Lara Waldrop, assistant professor of electrical and computer engineering University of Illinois[11]
Earth is too large to lose a significant proportion of its atmosphere through Jeans escape. The current rate of loss is about three kilograms (3 kg) of hydrogen and 50 grams (50 g) of helium per second.[2][clarification needed] The exosphere is the high-altitude region where atmospheric density is sparse and Jeans escape occurs. Jeans escape calculations assuming an exosphere temperature of 1,800 K [12] show that to deplete O+ ions by a factor of e (2.718...) would take nearly a billion years. 1,800 K is higher than the actual observed exosphere temperature; at the actual average exosphere temperature, depletion of O+ ions would not occur even over a trillion years. Furthermore, most oxygen on Earth is bound as O2, which is too massive to escape Earth by Jeans escape.[2]
Earth's magnetic field protects it from solar winds and prevents escape of ions, except near the magnetic poles where charged particles stream towards the earth along magnetic field lines. The gravitational attraction of Earth's mass prevents other non-thermal loss processes from appreciably depleting the atmosphere.[specify] Yet Earth's atmosphere is two orders of magnitude less dense than that of Venus at the surface. Because of the temperature regime of Earth, CO2 and H2O are sequestered in the hydrosphere and lithosphere. H2O vapor is sequestered as liquid H2O in oceans, greatly decreasing the atmospheric density. With liquid water running over the surface of Earth, CO2 can be drawn down from the atmosphere and sequestered in sedimentary rocks. Some estimates indicate that nearly all carbon on Earth is contained in sedimentary rocks, with the atmospheric portion being approximately 1/250,000 of Earth's CO2 reservoir.[citation needed] If both of the reservoirs were released to the atmosphere, Earth's atmosphere would be even denser than Venus's atmosphere. Therefore, the dominant “loss” mechanism of Earth's atmosphere is not escape to space, but sequestration.[citation needed] However, in 1 billion years' time, the Sun will be 10% brighter than it is now, making it hot enough for Earth to lose enough hydrogen to space to cause it to lose all of its water (See Future of Earth#Loss of oceans).
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Muriel Gargaud, Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Volume 3, Springer Science & Business Media, May 26, 2011, p. 879.
^ Jump up to: a b c David C. Catling and Kevin J. Zahnle, The Planetary Air Leak, Scientific American, May 2009, p. 26 (accessed 25 July 2012)
^ Jump up to: a b Shizgal, B. D.; Arkos, G. G. (1996). "Nonthermal escape of the atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars". Reviews of Geophysics. 34 (4): 483–505. Bibcode:1996RvGeo..34..483S. doi:10.1029/96RG02213.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lammer, H.; Lichtenegger, H. I. M.; Biernat, H. K.; Erkaev, N. V.; Arshukova, I. L.; Kolb, C.; Gunell, H.; Lukyanov, A.; Holmstrom, M.; Barabash, S.; Zhang, T. L.; Baumjohann, W. (2006). "Loss of hydrogen and oxygen from the upper atmosphere of Venus". Planetary and Space Science. 54 (13–14): 1445–1456. Bibcode:2006P&SS...54.1445L. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2006.04.022.
Jump up ^ Webster, Guy (April 8, 2013). "Remaining Martian Atmosphere Still Dynamic". NASA. Retrieved April 9, 2013.
Jump up ^ Wall, Mike (April 8, 2013). "Most of Mars' Atmosphere Is Lost in Space". Space.com. Retrieved April 9, 2013.
Jump up ^ http://www.space.com/35502-moon-has-oxygen-from-earth-plants.html
Jump up ^ Lammer, H.; Stumptner, W.; Bauer, S. J. (1998). "Dynamic escape of H from Titan as consequence of sputtering induced heating". Planetary and Space Science. 46 (9–10): 1207–1213. Bibcode:1998P&SS...46.1207L. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(98)00050-6.
Jump up ^ Wilson, J. K.; Mendillo, M.; Baumgardner, J.; Schneider, N. M.; Trauger, J. T.; Flynn, B. (2002). "The dual sources of Io's sodium clouds". Icarus. 157 (2): 476–489. Bibcode:2002Icar..157..476W. doi:10.1006/icar.2002.6821.
Jump up ^ Melosh, H.J.; Vickery, A.M. (April 1989). "Impact erosion of the primordial atmosphere of Mars". Nature. 338: 487–489. Bibcode:1989Natur.338..487M. doi:10.1038/338487a0. PMID 11536608.
Jump up ^ https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/12/161207093031.htm
Jump up ^ Space Studies Board, Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences (Jan 15, 1961). "The Atmospheres of Mars and Venus". National Academies Press.
Further reading[edit]
Hunten, D. M. (1993). "Atmospheric evolution of the terrestrial planets". Science. 259 (5097): 915–920. Bibcode:1993Sci...259..915H. doi:10.1126/science.259.5097.915.
Lammer, H.; Bauer, S. J. (1993). "Atmospheric mass-loss from Titan by sputtering". Planetary and Space Science. 41 (9): 657–663. Bibcode:1993P&SS...41..657L. doi:10.1016/0032-0633(93)90049-8.
Zahnle, Kevin J.; Catling, David C. (May 2009). "Our Planet's Leaky Atmosphere". Scientific American.
Learning materials related to Atmospheric retention at Wikiversity
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Vascular tissue
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Cross section of celery stalk, showing vascular bundles, which include both phloem and xylem.
Detail of the vasculature of a bramble leaf.
This article is about vascular tissue in plants. For transport in animals, see Circulatory system.
Vascular tissue is a complex conducting tissue, formed of more than one cell type, found in vascular plants. The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem. These two tissues transport fluid and nutrients internally. There are also two meristems associated with vascular tissue: the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. All the vascular tissues within a particular plant together constitute the vascular tissue system of that plant.
The cells in vascular tissue are typically long and slender. Since the xylem and phloem function in the conduction of water, minerals, and nutrients throughout the plant, it is not surprising that their form should be similar to pipes. The individual cells of phloem are connected end-to-end, just as the sections of a pipe might be. As the plant grows, new vascular tissue differentiates in the growing tips of the plant. The new tissue is aligned with existing vascular tissue, maintaining its connection throughout the plant. The vascular tissue in plants is arranged in long, discrete strands called vascular bundles. These bundles include both xylem and phloem, as well as supporting and protective cells. In stems and roots, the xylem typically lies closer to the interior of the stem with phloem towards the exterior of the stem. In the stems of some Asterales dicots, there may be phloem located inwardly from the xylem as well.
Between the xylem and phloem is a meristem called the vascular cambium. This tissue divides off cells that will become additional xylem and phloem. This growth increases the girth of the plant, rather than its length. As long as the vascular cambium continues to produce new cells, the plant will continue to grow more stout. In trees and other plants that develop wood, the vascular cambium allows the expansion of vascular tissue that produces woody growth. Because this growth ruptures the epidermis of the stem, woody plants also have a cork cambium that develops among the phloem. The cork cambium gives rise to thickened cork cells to protect the surface of the plant and reduce water loss. Both the production of wood and the production of cork are forms of secondary growth.
In leaves, the vascular bundles are located among the spongy mesophyll. The xylem is oriented toward the adaxial surface of the leaf (usually the upper side), and phloem is oriented toward the abaxial surface of the leaf. This is why aphids are typically found on the undersides of the leaves rather than on the top, since the phloem transports sugars manufactured by the plant and they are closer to the lower surface.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Xylem
Phloem
Cork cambium
Vascular cambium
Vascular plant
Stele (biology)
Circulatory system
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Intro to Plant Structure Contains diagrams of the plant tissues, listed as an outline.
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Leaning Tower of Pisa
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Leaning Tower of Pisa
Torre pendente di Pisa
Leaning Tower of Pisa
Basic information
Location
Pisa, Italy
Geographic coordinates
43°43′23″N 10°23′47″E / 43.72306°N 10.39639°E / 43.72306; 10.39639Coordinates: 43°43′23″N 10°23′47″E / 43.72306°N 10.39639°E / 43.72306; 10.39639
Affiliation
Roman Catholic
Country
Italy
Website
www.opapisa.it
Architectural description
Architect(s)
Bonanno Pisano
Architectural style
Romanesque
Groundbreaking
1173
Completed
1372
Specifications
Height (max)
55.86 metres (183.3 ft)
Materials
marble
stone
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Criteria
Cultural: (i), (ii), (iv), (vi)
Reference
395
Inscription
1987 (11th Session)
[edit on Wikidata]
The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italian: Torre pendente di Pisa) or simply the Tower of Pisa (Torre di Pisa [ˈtorre di ˈpiːza]) is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower, of the cathedral of the Italian city of Pisa, known worldwide for its unintended tilt. The tower is situated behind the Pisa Cathedral and is the third oldest structure in the city's Cathedral Square (Piazza del Duomo), after the cathedral and the Pisa Baptistry.
The tower's tilt began during construction in the 12th century, caused by an inadequate foundation on ground too soft on one side to properly support the structure's weight. The tilt increased in the decades before the structure was completed in the 14th century. It gradually increased until the structure was stabilized (and the tilt partially corrected) by efforts in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
The height of the tower is 55.86 metres (183.27 feet) from the ground on the low side and 56.67 metres (185.93 feet) on the high side. The width of the walls at the base is 2.44 m (8 ft 0.06 in). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 metric tons (16,000 short tons).[1] The tower has 296 or 294 steps; the seventh floor has two fewer steps on the north-facing staircase. Prior to restoration work performed between 1990 and 2001, the tower leaned at an angle of 5.5 degrees,[2][3][4] but the tower now leans at about 3.99 degrees.[5] This means the top of the tower is displaced horizontally 3.9 metres (12 ft 10 in) from the centre.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Architect
2 Construction
2.1 Timeline
2.2 Builders
3 History following construction
4 Alternative candidates
5 Technical information
6 Gallery
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Architect
There has been controversy about the real identity of the architect of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. For many years, the design was attributed to Guglielmo and Bonanno Pisano,[7] a well-known 12th-century resident artist of Pisa, famous for his bronze casting, particularly in the Pisa Duomo. Pisano left Pisa in 1185 for Monreale, Sicily, only to come back and die in his home town. A piece of cast bearing his name was discovered at the foot of the tower in 1820, but this may be related to the bronze door in the façade of the cathedral that was destroyed in 1595. A 2001 study[8] seems to indicate Diotisalvi was the original architect, due to the time of construction and affinity with other Diotisalvi works, notably the bell tower of San Nicola and the Baptistery, both in Pisa.
Construction
The Pisa Baptistery (in the foreground), the Pisa Cathedral (in the middleground), and the Leaning Tower of Pisa (in the background)
Leaning Tower of Pisa in 2004
Leaning Tower of Pisa
Construction of the tower occurred in three stages over 199 years. Work on the ground floor of the white marble campanile began on August 14, 1173 during a period of military success and prosperity. This ground floor is a blind arcade articulated by engaged columns with classical Corinthian capitals.[citation needed]
The tower began to sink after construction had progressed to the second floor in 1178. This was due to a mere three-metre foundation, set in weak, unstable subsoil, a design that was flawed from the beginning. Construction was subsequently halted for almost a century, because the Republic of Pisa was almost continually engaged in battles with Genoa, Lucca, and Florence. This allowed time for the underlying soil to settle. Otherwise, the tower would almost certainly have toppled.[citation needed] In 1198, clocks were temporarily installed on the third floor of the unfinished construction.[citation needed]
In 1272, construction resumed under Giovanni di Simone, architect of the Camposanto. In an effort to compensate for the tilt, the engineers built upper floors with one side taller than the other. Because of this, the tower is curved.[9] Construction was halted again in 1284 when the Pisans were defeated by the Genoans in the Battle of Meloria.[citation needed]
The seventh floor was completed in 1319. The bell-chamber was finally added in 1372. It was built by Tommaso di Andrea Pisano, who succeeded in harmonizing the Gothic elements of the bell-chamber with the Romanesque style of the tower.[10] There are seven bells, one for each note of the musical major scale. The largest one was installed in 1655.[citation needed]
After a phase (1990–2001) of structural strengthening,[11] the tower is currently undergoing gradual surface restoration, in order to repair visible damage, mostly corrosion and blackening. These are particularly pronounced due to the tower's age and its exposure to wind and rain.[12]
Timeline
On January 5, 1172, Donna Berta di Bernardo, a widow and resident of the house of dell'Opera di Santa Maria, bequeathed sixty soldi to the Opera Campanilis petrarum Sancte Marie. The sum was then used toward the purchase of a few stones which still form the base of the bell tower.[13]
On August 9, 1173, the foundations of the tower were laid.
Nearly four centuries later Giorgio Vasari wrote: "Guglielmo, according to what is being said, in [this] year 1174 with Bonanno as sculptor, laid the foundations of the bell tower of the cathedral in Pisa."
On December 27, 1233, the worker Benenato, son of Gerardo Bottici, oversaw the continuation of the construction of the bell tower.[14]
On February 23, 1260, Guido Speziale, son of Giovanni, a worker on the cathedral Santa Maria Maggiore, was elected to oversee the building of the tower.[15]
On April 12, 1264, the master builder Giovanni di Simone and 23 workers went to the mountains close to Pisa to cut marble. The cut stones were given to Rainaldo Speziale, worker of St. Francesco.[16]
Giorgio Vasari indicated that Tommaso di Andrea Pisano was the designer of the belfry[17] between 1360 and 1370.
Builders
One possible known builder of Pisa Tower was Gerardo di Gerardo. His name appears as a witness to the above legacy of Berta di Bernardo as "Master Gerardo", and as a worker whose name was Gerardo.[citation needed]
A more probable builder was Diotisalvi, because of the construction period and the structure's affinities with other buildings in Pisa, but he usually signed his works, and there is no signature by him in the bell tower.[citation needed]
Giovanni di Simone was known to be heavily involved in the completion of the tower, under the direction of Giovanni Pisano, who at the time was master builder of the Opera di Santa Maria Maggiore. Di Simone could be the same Giovanni Pisano who completed the belfry tower.[citation needed]
History following construction
Plaque in memory of Galileo Galilei's experiments
Galileo Galilei is said to have dropped two cannonballs of different masses from the tower to demonstrate that their speed of descent was independent of their mass. However, the only primary source for this is the biography Racconto istorico della vita di Galileo Galilei (Historical Account of the Life of Galileo Galilei), written by Galileo's secretary Vincenzo Viviani and published in 1717, long after Viviani's death.[18][19]
During World War II, the Allies discovered that the Germans were using the tower as an observation post. A U.S. Army sergeant sent to confirm the presence of German troops in the tower was impressed by the beauty of the cathedral and its campanile, and thus refrained from ordering an artillery strike, sparing it from destruction.[20][21]
Lead counterweights, 1998
Numerous efforts have been made to restore the tower to a vertical orientation or at least keep it from falling over. Most of these efforts failed; some worsened the tilt. On February 27, 1964, the government of Italy requested aid in preventing the tower from toppling. It was, however, considered important to retain the current tilt, due to the role that this element played in promoting the tourism industry of Pisa.[22]
A multinational task force of engineers, mathematicians, and historians gathered on the Azores islands to discuss stabilisation methods. It was found that the tilt was increasing in combination with the softer foundations on the lower side. Many methods were proposed to stabilise the tower, including the addition of 800 tonnes of lead counterweights to the raised end of the base.[23]
The tower and the neighbouring cathedral, baptistery, and cemetery are included in the Piazza del Duomo UNESCO World Heritage Site, which was declared in 1987.[24]
The tower was closed to the public on January 7, 1990, after more than two decades of stabilisation studies and spurred by the abrupt collapse of the Civic Tower of Pavia in 1989. The bells were removed to relieve some weight, and cables were cinched around the third level and anchored several hundred meters away. Apartments and houses in the path of the tower were vacated for safety. The solution chosen to prevent the collapse of the tower was to slightly straighten it to a safer angle by removing 38 cubic metres (1,342 cubic feet) of soil from underneath the raised end. The tower was straightened by 45 centimetres (17.7 inches), returning to its 1838 position. After a decade of corrective reconstruction and stabilization efforts, the tower was reopened to the public on December 15, 2001 and was declared stable for at least another 300 years.[23] In total, 70 metric tons (77 short tons) of earth were removed.[25]
In May 2008, engineers announced that the tower had been stabilized such that it had stopped moving for the first time in its history. They stated that it would be stable for at least 200 years.[25]
Alternative candidates
Two German churches have challenged the tower's status as the world's most lop-sided building: the 15th-century square Leaning Tower of Suurhusen and the 14th-century bell tower in the town of Bad Frankenhausen.[26] Guinness World Records measured the Pisa and Suurhusen towers, finding the former's tilt to be 3.97 degrees.[27] In June 2010, Guinness World Records certified the Capital Gate building in Abu Dhabi, UAE as the "World's Furthest Leaning Man-made Tower".[28] The Capital Gate tower has an 18-degree slope, almost five times more than the Pisa Tower; however the Capital Gate tower has been deliberately engineered to slant. The Leaning Tower of Wanaka in New Zealand, also deliberately built, leans at 53 degrees to the ground.[29]
Technical information
An elevation image of the Leaning Tower of Pisa cut with laser scan data from a University of Ferrara/CyArk research partnership, with source image accurate down to 5 mm (0.2 in). This elevation shows the interesting quandary facing the campanile. The circular shape and great height (currently 55.86 m (183 ft 3.21 in) on the lowest side and 56.67 m (185 ft 11.10 in) m on the highest) of the campanile were unusual for their time, and the crowning belfry is stylistically distinct from the rest of the construction. This belfry incorporates a 14 cm (5.5 in) correction for the inclined axis below. The siting of the campanile within the Piazza del Duomo diverges from the axial alignment of the cathedral and baptistery of the Piazza del Duomo
Elevation of Piazza del Duomo: about 2 metres (6 feet, DMS)
Height from the ground floor: 55.863 metres (183 ft 3 in), 8 stories
Height from the foundation floor: 58.36 m (191 ft 5.64 in)
Outer diameter of base: 15.484 metres (50 ft 9.6 in)
Inner diameter of base: 7.368 metres (24 ft 2.1 in)
Angle of slant: 3.97 degrees[27] or 3.9 metres (12 ft 10 in) from the vertical[30]
Weight: 14,700 metric tons (16,200 short tons)
Thickness of walls at the base: 2.44 metres (8 ft 0 in)
Total number of bells: 7, tuned to musical scale, clockwise
1st bell: L'Assunta, cast in 1654 by Giovanni Pietro Orlandi, weight 3,620 kg (7,981 lb)
2nd bell: Il Crocifisso, cast in 1572 by Vincenzo Possenti, weight 2,462 kg (5,428 lb)
3rd bell: San Ranieri, cast in 1719–1721 by Giovanni Andrea Moreni, weight 1,448 kg (3,192 lb)
4th bell: La Terza (1st small one), cast in 1473, weight 300 kg (661 lb)
5th bell: La Pasquereccia or La Giustizia, cast in 1262 by Lotteringo, weight 1,014 kg (2,235 lb)
6th bell: Il Vespruccio (2nd small one), cast in the 14th century and again in 1501 by Nicola di Jacopo, weight 1,000 kg (2,205 lb)
7th bell: Dal Pozzo, cast in 1606 and again in 2004, weight 652 kg (1,437 lb)[31]
Number of steps to the top: 296[32]
About the 5th bell: The name Pasquareccia comes from Easter, because it used to ring on Easter day. However, this bell is older than the bell-chamber itself, and comes from the tower Vergata in Palazzo Pretorio in Pisa, where it was called La Giustizia (The Justice). The bell was tolled to announce executions of criminals and traitors, including Count Ugolino in 1289.[33] A new bell was installed in the bell tower at the end of the 18th century to replace the broken Pasquareccia.
Gallery
View looking up
Entrance door to the bell tower
External loggia
Inner staircase from sixth to seventh floor
Inner staircase from seventh to eighth (the top) floor
View from the top
Assunta bell
Pasquareccia bell
View, looking down from the top
A popular photo opportunity with tourists is to pose as if one was either holding up or pushing over the tower
See also
Leaning Temple of Huma – Only leaning temple in the world
List of leaning towers
Leaning Tower of Niles, a replica of the Tower of Pisa
Leaning Tower of Zaragoza, was a famous European leaning tower
Great Mosque of al-Nuri (Mosul), an ancient leaning tower that stood until 2017
Machang, Kelantan – home to another leaning tower
Round tower (disambiguation), for other types of round towers
The Greyfriars Tower – the remains of a Franciscan monastery in King's Lynn, nicknamed "The Leaning Tower of Lynn"
Torre delle Milizie, a tilting medieval tower in Rome
Tour de Pise, a rock dome in Antarctica, was named after this tower
References
Jump up ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa Facts". Leaning Tower of Pisa. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Europe | Saving the Leaning Tower". BBC News. December 15, 2001. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Tower of Pisa". Archidose.org. June 17, 2001. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa (tower, Pisa, Italy) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "E la Torre di Pisa non oscilla più". Scienze.TV. May 28, 2008. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ tan(3.99 degrees) * (55.86 m + 56.70 m)/2 = 3.9 m
Jump up ^ Controversy about the identity of the architect
Jump up ^ Pierotti, Piero. (2001). Deotisalvi – L'architetto pisano del secolo d'oro. Pisa: Pacini Editore
Jump up ^ McLain, Bill (1999). Do Fish Drink Water?. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. pp. 291–292. ISBN 0-688-16512-5.
Jump up ^ G. Barsali (1999), Pisa. History and masterpieces, Bonechi, p. 18, ISBN 8872041880
Jump up ^ A profile of an engineer employed to straighten the tower Ingenia, March 2005
Jump up ^ Restoration work is mentioned at the official website of the square
Jump up ^ Capitular Record Offices of Pisa, parchment n. 248
Jump up ^ Public Record Offices of Pisa, Opera della Primaziale, December 27, 1234
Jump up ^ Public Record Offices of Pisa, Opera della Primaziale, February 23, 1260
Jump up ^ Public Record Offices of Pisa, Roncioni, April 12, 1265.
Jump up ^ Giorgio Vasari, Jean Paul Richter (1855), Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, H. G. Bohn, p. 153
Jump up ^ "Sci Tech : Science history: setting the record straight". The Hindu. June 30, 2005. Retrieved May 5, 2009.
Jump up ^ Vincenzo Viviani on museo galileo
Jump up ^ Shrady, Nicholas (2003): Tilt: a skewed history of the Tower of Pisa
Jump up ^ "Why I spared the Leaning Tower of Pisa". The Guardian. January 12, 2000. Retrieved July 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Securing the Lean In Tower of Pisa". The New York Times. November 1, 1987.
^ Jump up to: a b "Tipping the Balance". TIME Magazine. June 25, 2001.
Jump up ^ "Piazza del Duomo, Pisa". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Duff, Mark (May 28, 2008). "Europe | Pisa's leaning tower 'stabilised'". BBC News. Retrieved May 5, 2009.
Jump up ^ Sunday Telegraph no 2,406- July 22, 2007
^ Jump up to: a b "German steeple beats Leaning Tower of Pisa into Guinness book". The Raw Story. Archived from the original on May 4, 2009. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Not so fast, Pisa! UAE lays claim to world's furthest leaning tower". CNN news. June 7, 2010. Retrieved June 6, 2010.
Jump up ^ 'Leaning and tumbling towers' on Puzzling World website, viewed 2011-07-30
Jump up ^ tan(3.97 degrees) * (55.86m + 56.70m)/2 = 3.9m
Jump up ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa: 1920's Photo of Dal Pozzo". www.endex.com. Archived from the original on April 18, 2010. Retrieved August 9, 2010.
Jump up ^ Davies, Andrew (2005). The Children's Visual World Atlas. Sydney, Australia: The Fog Press. ISBN 1-74089-317-4.
Jump up ^ "Torre pendente" (in Italian). Lucca turismo. Retrieved March 19, 2008.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leaning Tower (Pisa).
Opera della Primaziale Pisana — official site
Piazza dei Miracoli digital media archive (Creative Commons-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from a University of Ferrara/CyArk research partnership, includes 3D scan data from Leaning Tower.
Leaning Tower of Pisa at Structurae
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Logan family
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the fictional characters. For the real family, see Logan family (historical).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Logan family
The Bold and the Beautiful and The Young and the Restless family
Created by
William J. Bell
Introduced by
William J. Bell
Duration
1987–
First appearance
March 23, 1987 (1987-03-23)
The Logan family is a fictional family in the CBS Daytime soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful. This is a list of all known members of the Logan family, both past and present, deceased and living.
Contents
[hide]
1 Family members
1.1 First generation
1.2 Second generation
1.3 Third generation
1.4 Fourth generation
1.5 In-laws
2 Logan family tree
3 Descendants
4 References
Family members[edit]
First generation[edit]
Stephen Logan Sr. (Patrick Duffy)
Son of Mr. Logan (deceased) and Helen Logan (deceased). Patriarch of the Logan family. Ex-husband to Beth Henderson. Father to Stephen "Storm" Logan, Brooke Logan, Donna Logan and Katie Logan. Has a rivalry with Stephanie Forrester due to the way that she has treated his daughters, Brooke and Donna. He dated Stephanie's sister Pam Douglas, and tried to convince her to shoot Stephanie, but it was Stephanie who shot him. He passed a period in jail, but now, thanks to Bill Spencer Jr., he was set free.
Second generation[edit]
Storm Logan
The Bold and the Beautiful character
Portrayed by
Ethan Wayne (1987–2003)
Brian Patrick Clarke (1991)
William deVry (2006–12)
Duration
1987-88
1990-91
1994
1998
2000
2001
2003
2006-08
2012
First appearance
March 23, 1987
Last appearance
September 26, 2012
Created by
William J. Bell
Introduced by
William J. Bell and Lee Phillip Bell
Classification
Former; guest
Profile
Other names
Stephen Logan, Jr.
Occupation
Lawyer
[show]Family
Family
Logan family
Father
Stephen Logan
Mother
Beth Logan
Sisters
Brooke Logan
Donna Logan
Katie Logan
Grandmothers
Helen Logan
Nephews
Rick Forrester
R.J. Forrester
Jack Marone
Marcus Forrester
Will Spencer
Nieces
Bridget Forrester
Hope Logan
Stephen "Storm" Logan Jr. (William deVry)
Eldest child and only son of Stephen Logan and Beth Henderson, born on December 13, 1964. Was very protective of his younger sisters and had to act as a father figure since their father Stephen was not there very often. Storm was a lawyer and has defended many people on the show. He was engaged to Taylor Hamilton. He shot Stephanie Douglas after the way she had treated Donna, and tried to frame his father Stephen for the crime. This showed that Storm still had unresolved issues with his father. He then accidentally shot his sister Katie Logan, and when she needed a heart transplant as a result, he took his own life to give his sister his heart.
Brooke Logan (Katherine Kelly Lang)
Eldest daughter of Stephen and Beth Henderson, born on June 28, 1966. She has been married to Eric Forrester (twice), Ridge Forrester (seven times), Grant Chambers, Thorne Forrester, Whipple Jones, Nick Marone and Bill Spencer, Jr.. She is the mother of Rick Forrester, Bridget Forrester, Hope Logan, R.J. Forrester. and Jack Hamilton Marone. She works at Forrester Creations. She had a longtime rivalry with the late Stephanie Douglas and Taylor Hamilton Hayes. A former CEO of Forrester Creations due to blackmailing the Forrester family who tried to steal her invention, she was a part of Forrester Originals when it started.
Donna Logan (Jennifer Gareis)
Daughter of Stephen and Beth Henderson, born in 1969. She had an affair with her sister Katie's fiancé Rocco Carner in 1989. In 2006 she began a relationship with Ridge Forrester Sr. She was engaged to Thorne Forrester, but the wedding was cancelled when it was revealed Donna was using Thorne to get back at Stephanie Forrester. She is the mother of Marcus Forrester, biological son of Justin Barber but adopted by Eric Forrester during Donna's marriage to Eric.
Katie Logan (Heather Tom)
Youngest child of Stephen and Beth Henderson, born in 1970. Early in life she was perceived as the "ugly duckling" of the Logan family. She had a platonic relationship with Thorne Forrester. She was shot by her brother, Storm, and needed a heart transplant. Storm committed suicide to give Katie his heart. Her body was rejecting the transplanted heart, but her niece/physician Bridget found a cure, and Katie's life was saved. Katie had a baby with Nick Marone while he was married to Bridget.
(Season 22 - Episode 59 - Jun 9, 2008 Nick, trying to make up for the past, gives Katie the time of her life on Catalina(?spelling) beach; Stephanie and Nick share a tender moment.(Katie falls pregnant.)) She is the mother of Will Spencer, third son of Bill Spencer.
Third generation[edit]
Eric "Rick" Forrester Jr. (Jacob Young)[1]
Son of Brooke and Eric Forrester. As a child he shot Grant Chambers, but repressed the memory. In his late teens to early 20s, he was married to Amber Moore twice. He spent time in Paris, working at Forrester International. After Nick Marone blackmailed Eric into selling him the company, Rick returned from Paris and developed an antagonistic relationship with step-father Ridge Forrester, ostensibly due to Ridge's treatment of Brooke. Rick has romanced Ridge's daughters Phoebe and Steffy, and was briefly engaged to their mother Dr. Taylor Hayes. He is the husband of Maya Avant Forrester and father of Lizzy Forrester.
Bridget Forrester (Ashley Jones)
Daughter of Brooke and Eric Forrester. She worked as a physician at University Hospital, and as a head designer at Jackie M. She has been married to both Deacon Sharpe and Nick Marone, both of whom cheated on her with her mother. She is the mother of Nicole Marone and Logan Knight. She is now living in New York.
Marcus Barber Forrester (Texas Battle)
Son of Donna and Justin Barber. He was given up for adoption at birth, and adopted by the Waltons. He arrived in Los Angeles as a teenager after hearing about his mother's wedding in the newspaper. He had a relationship with Steffy Forrester, who refused his marriage proposal. In October 2009, he was adopted by Eric Forrester (who was married to Donna at the time) and in February 2011, he was also adopted by his biological father. He is the father of Ambrosia "Rosie" Barber Forrester.
Hope Logan (Annika Noelle)
Daughter of Brooke and Deacon Sharpe, born onscreen in 2002. Her paternity was hidden because Deacon was married to Brooke's daughter Bridget at the time. Brooke wanted Nick Marone, but the plan fell through. Hope had a relationship with Oliver Jones, but it was over when she discovered he had sex with her mother. Hope was engaged to Liam Spencer, but she called off the engagement. She was married to Liam's older half brother Wyatt Spencer.
R.J. Forrester
The Bold and the Beautiful character
Portrayed by
Ridge Perkett (2006–09)
Jack Horan (2011)
Mace Coronel (2013–14)
Anthony Turpel (2016–)
Duration
2004–09, 2011, 2013–14, 2016–
First appearance
June 22, 2004
Introduced by
Bradley Bell
Classification
Present; recurring
Profile
Other names
Ridge Forrester, Jr.
Occupation
Student
Intern at Forrester Creations
Home
Beverly Hills, California
[show]Family
Family
Logan family
Marone family
Father
Ridge Forrester
Mother
Brooke Logan
Half-brothers
Rick Forrester
Thomas Forrester
Jack Marone
Half-sisters
Bridget Forrester
Steffy Forrester
Phoebe Forrester
Hope Logan
Grandfathers
Massimo Marone
Stephen Logan
Grandmothers
Stephanie Forrester
Elizabeth Logan
Uncles
Thorne Forrester
Nick Marone
Storm Logan
Aunts
Kristen Forrester
Felicia Forrester
Angela Forrester
Diana Carter
Donna Logan
Katie Logan
Nephews
Logan Knight
Douglas Forrester
Nieces
Lizzy Forrester
First cousins
Alexandria Forrester
Zende Forrester Dominguez
Dino Damiano
Marcus Forrester
Jack Marone
Will Spencer
Ridge "R.J." Forrester Jr. (Anthony Turpel)
Brooke's son with Ridge Forrester, born onscreen in June 2004. Prior to his birth, he was thought to be the son of Nick Marone but a paternity test proved he was Ridge's son.
Jack Marone
The Bold and the Beautiful character
Portrayed by
Mallory Mae Garza (2007)
Cameron and McKenzie Carr (2007–09)
Frank and Morgan Gingerich (2010–11)
Duration
2007–2011
First appearance
October 15, 2007
Last appearance
December 15, 2011
Introduced by
Bradley Bell
Classification
Former, recurring
Profile
Other names
Jack Hamilton Marone
Home
Beverly Hills, California
[show]Family
Family
Logan family
Marone family
Father
Nick Marone
Mother
Brooke Logan
Half-brothers
Rick Forrester
R.J. Forrester
Half-sisters
Bridget Forrester
Hope Logan
Grandfathers
Massimo Marone
Stephen Logan
Grandmothers
Jackie Marone
Elizabeth Logan
Uncles
Ridge Forrester
Storm Logan
Aunts
Diana Carter
Donna Logan
Katie Logan
Nephews
Logan Knight
Nieces
Lizzy Forrester
First cousins
Phoebe Forrester
Steffy Forrester
R.J. Forrester
Thomas Forrester
Marcus Forrester
Will Spencer
Jack Hamilton Marone
Biological son of Brooke and Nick Marone, but he was carried by Taylor Hamilton. Wanting Nick back after he got engaged to Taylor, Brooke attempted to give Nick a child before Taylor could and went to the hospital to have her eggs checked for viability. Her eggs were mistakenly transplanted into Taylor. Both Taylor and Brooke agreed to take care of Jack. He was named after Jackie Marone, Nick's mother, and Jack Hamilton, Taylor's father.
Will Spencer
The Bold and the Beautiful character
Portrayed by
Caelan and Declan Warden (2012)
Benjamin Weldon Taylor (2012)
Zane Alexander Achor (2013–)
Duration
2012–
First appearance
September 25, 2012
Introduced by
Bradley Bell
Classification
Present; recurring
Profile
Other names
William Spencer IV
William Logan Spencer IV
William Logan Spencer
Home
Beverly Hills, California
Bel Air, Los Angeles, California
[show]Family
Family
Logan family
Spencer family
Father
Bill Spencer, Jr.
Mother
Katie Logan
Half-brothers
Liam Spencer
Wyatt Spencer
Grandfathers
Bill Spencer, Sr.
Stephen Logan
Grandmothers
Elizabeth Logan
Uncles
Storm Logan
Aunts
Caroline Spencer Forrester
Karen Spencer
Brooke Logan
Donna Logan
First cousins
Caroline Spencer
Bridget Forrester
Rick Forrester
R.J. Forrester
Hope Logan
Jack Marone
Marcus Forrester
William Logan "Will" Spencer IV
Son of Katie and Bill Spencer Jr., born on September 25, 2012.
Fourth generation[edit]
Eric Forrester III
Son of Rick and Amber Moore, stillborn in 1999.
Nicole Marone
Daughter of Bridget and Nick Marone, stillborn in 2006.
Logan Forrester Knight
Son of Bridget and Owen Knight, born on air September 3, 2010. He came out of a one-night stand between Bridget and Owen. At the time, Bridget was married to Nick Marone and Owen to Jacqueline Marone.
Ambrosia "Rosie" Barber Forrester
Daughter of Marcus and Amber Moore, born on air on June 20, 2011. Rosie was initially thought to be the daughter of Liam Spencer or Oliver Jones.
Elizabeth Nicole "Lizzy" Forrester
Daughter of Rick Forrester and Nicole Avant, and legally adopted by Maya Avant.
In-laws[edit]
Beth Henderson (Robin Riker) - Stephen's wife (deceased)
Eric Forrester Sr. (John McCook) - Brooke's husband (1991–93, 2005–06); Donna's husband (2008–10).
Ridge Forrester Sr. (Thorsten Kaye) - Brooke's husband (1994–95, 1998, 2003–05, 2009–11, 2012, 2018—).
Grant Chambers (Charles Grant) - Brooke's husband (1997).
Whipple "Whip" Jones III (Rick Hearst) - Brooke's husband (2002).
Thorne Forrester (Ingo Rademacher) - Brooke's husband (2001).
Justin Barber (Aaron D. Spears) - Donna's husband (2011).
William "Bill" Spencer Jr. (Don Diamont) - Katie's husband (2009–14, 2015–16); Brooke's husband (2017–18).
Ambrosia "Amber" Moore (Adrienne Frantz) - Rick's wife (1999–2000, 2001–03).
Caroline Spencer (Linsey Godfrey) - Rick's wife (2013–15).
Maya Avant (Karla Mosley) - Rick's wife (2015—).
Deacon Sharpe (Sean Kanan) - Bridget's husband (2001–03).
Dominick "Nick" Marone (Jack Wagner) - Bridget's husband (2005–06, 2008, 2009–10); Brooke's husband (2006–07).
William "Liam" Spencer III (Scott Clifton) - Hope's husband (2012).
Wyatt Spencer (Darin Brooks) - Hope's husband (2014–15).
Dayzee Leigh (Krystolyn Lloyd) - Marcus' wife (2012—).
Logan family tree[edit]
Lines
Boxes
Dashed = Romance/Marriage
Solid = Children
Character is currently on the Show
Character not on the Show
Character is deceased or presumed dead

Unknown Man
Helen Logan
Stephen Logan Sr.
Beth Henderson Logan
Deacon Sharpe
Nick Marone
Ridge Forrester
Brooke Logan
Eric Forrester
Storm Logan
Donna Logan
Justin Barber
Katie Logan
Bill Spencer
Hope Logan
Jack Marone
R.J. Forrester
Bridget Forrester
Owen Knight
Rick Forrester
Nicole Avant
Marcus Forrester
Amber Moore
Will Spencer
Nicole Marone
Logan Forrester Knight
Lizzie Forrester
Eric Forrester III
Rosie Barber Forrester
Descendants[edit]
Unnamed man (deceased); married Helen Logan (deceased)
Stephen Logan; Mr. Logan and Helen's son; married Beth Henderson (deceased)
Storm Logan (1964–2008); Stephen and Beth's son
Brooke Logan (1966–); Stephen and Beth's daughter; married Eric Forrester (1991–93, 2005), Ridge Forrester (1994–95, 1998, 2003–04, 2004–05, 2009–11, 2012, 2018–), Grant Chambers (1997), Thorne Forrester (2001), Whip Jones (2002), Nick Marone (2006–07), Bill Spencer Jr. (2017–18)
Rick Forrester (1990–); Brooke and Eric's son; married Amber Moore (1999–2000, 2001–03), Caroline Spencer (2013–15), Maya Avant (2015–)
Eric Forrester III (1999); Rick and Amber's son
Lizzy Forrester (2016–); Rick's daughter with Nicole Avant, legally adopted by Maya
Bridget Forrester (1992–); Brooke and Eric's daughter; married Deacon Sharpe (2001–03), Nick Marone (2005–06, 2008, 2009–10)
Nicole Marone (2006); Bridget and Nick's daughter
Logan Forrester Knight (2010–); Bridget's son with Owen Knight
Hope Logan (2002–); Brooke's daughter with Deacon Sharpe; married Liam Spencer (2012), Wyatt Spencer (2014–15)
RJ Forrester (2004–); Brooke and Ridge's son
Jack Marone (2007–); Brooke and Nick's son, carried by Dr. Taylor Hayes
Donna Logan (1969–); Stephen and Beth's daughter; married Eric Forrester (2008–10), Justin Barber (2011)
Marcus Forrester (1987–); Donna and Justin's son, adopted by Eric; married Dayzee Leigh (2012–)
Rosie Forrester (2012–); Marcus' daughter with Amber Moore
Katie Logan (1970–); Stephen and Beth's daughter; married Bill Spencer Jr. (2009–14, 2015–16)
Will Spencer (2012–); Katie and Bill's son
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Jacob Young to Return to B&B". Soapcentral.com. 2011-08-15. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
[show]
v
t
e
The Bold and the Beautiful
Current characters
Maya Avant
Nicole Avant
Sheila Carter
Zende Dominguez
Pamela Douglas
Eric Forrester
Ivy Forrester
Rick Forrester
Ridge Forrester
R.J. Forrester
Steffy Forrester
Thorne Forrester
Quinn Fuller
Taylor Hayes
Brooke Logan
Hope Logan
Katie Logan
Coco Spectra
Sally Spectra
Shirley Spectra
Bill Spencer
Liam Spencer
Wyatt Spencer
Recurring characters
Alison Montgomery
Justin Barber
Bradley Baker
Julius Avant
Vivienne Avant
Saul Feinberg
Antonio Dominguez
Felicia Forrester
Kristen Forrester
Bridget Forrester
C.J. Garrison
Deacon Sharpe
Caroline Spencer
Donna Logan
Sasha Thompson
Carter Walton
James Warwick
Charlie Webber
John Forrester
Jarrett Maxwell
Mateo
Darlita
Notable previous
characters
Ashley Abbott
Adam Alexander
Macy Alexander
Morgan DeWitt
Deveney Dixon
Dante Damiano
Kimberly Fairchild
Darla Einstein
Lauren Fenmore
Aly Forrester
Jessica Forrester
Marcus Forrester
Maggie Forrester
Phoebe Forrester
Stephanie Forrester
Thomas Forrester
Clarke Garrison
Agnes Jones
Whipple Jones
Oliver Jones
Owen Knight
Dayzee Leigh
Beth Logan
Stephen Logan
Storm Logan
Erica Lovejoy
Margo Lynley
Jake Maclaine
Mark Maclaine
Massimo Marone
Jackie Marone
Nick Marone
Oscar Marone
Amber Moore
Sally Spectra
Bill Spencer
Caroline Spencer Forrester
Karen Spencer
Danielle Spencer
Production crew
Executive Producer
Bradley Bell
Head Writers
Bradley Bell
Michael Minnis
Creators
William J. Bell and Lee Phillip Bell
Related articles
Cast members
Crew
Characters
Forrester Creations
Jackie M Designs
Spencer family
Forrester family
Logan family
Marone family
The Young and the Restless
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Logan_family&oldid=841440198"
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