text:
The Brussels Journal
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Part of a series on
Islamophobia
Issues[show]
Persecution of Muslims
Islamophobia in the media
Flying while Muslim
Airport racial profiling in the United States
Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims in the United States
Islamic scarf controversy in France
Head rag tax
Minaret controversy in Switzerland
Counter-jihad
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Status by country[show]
Australia
Canada
India
Myanmar
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United Kingdom
United States
Specific incidents[show]
2017 Beckton acid attack
Bijeljina massacre
Bosnian Genocide
Cave of the Patriarchs massacre
Dove World Quran-burning controversy
Expulsion of Muslims from the Northern province by LTTE
2017 Finsbury Park attack
Foča massacres
Flying imams incident
Glogova massacre
2002 Gujarat riots
Innocence of Muslims
Jerry Klein's 2006 radio experiment
Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
Kattankudy mosque massacre
Lašva Valley ethnic cleansing
Malmö Mosque Attacks
2016 Minneapolis shooting
Murder of Balbir Singh Sodhi
Murder of Marwa El-Sherbini
Murder of Du'a Khalil Aswad
2013 Myanmar anti-Muslim riots
Muslim Massacre: The Game of Modern Religious Genocide
National Socialist Underground murders
2011 Norway attacks
Omarska camp
2017 Portland train attack
2005 Quran desecration controversy
Quebec City mosque shooting
2012 Rakhine State riots
Sabra and Shatila massacre
1993 Solingen arson attack
Srebrenica massacre
Organisations[show]
969 Movement
Bodu Bala Sena
American Freedom Defense Initiative
ACT! for America
David Horowitz Freedom Center
Dove World Outreach Center
English Defence League
European Defence League
Pegida
Stop Islamization of America
Stop Islamisation of Denmark
Stop Islamisation of Europe
Stop Islamisation of Norway
Media[show]
Atlas Shrugs
FrontPage Magazine
Jihad Watch
Politically Incorrect
Opposition[show]
Forum Against Islamophobia and Racism
Islamophobia Watch
Tell MAMA UK
CAIR
Muslim American Society
Southern Poverty Law Center
Muslims Condemn
v
t
e
The Brussels Journal is a conservative blog, founded by the Flemish journalist Paul Beliën. It is consistently named as one of the Counter-jihad movement's main channels.[1][2][3][4] It was founded in 2005, and has both an English language section with various international contributions, and a Dutch section.
The Brussels Journal bills itself as a member of the OpinionJournal Federation but does not appear among the list of members on OpinionJournal's own site.[5] It is published by the Society for the Advancement of Freedom in Europe (SAFE), a Swiss non-profit organisation.[clarification needed][citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Political Affiliations
2 Notable debates
2.1 Allegations of racism
2.2 Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
3 Notable contributors
4 References
5 External links
Political Affiliations[edit]
Paul Beliën, editor and founder of The Brussels Journal
Paul Beliën's wife, Alexandra Colen, was a parliamentary member of Vlaams Belang.[6] However, Beliën himself has been at odds with the party at times, criticizing the party for its populism.[7] However, Beliën has since been employed as an advisor by Geert Wilders,[8] leader of the Dutch, right-wing Party for Freedom. According to the Brussels Journal, it is a nonpartisan publication, and most of its writers, both Belgian and non-Belgian, have no affiliation to any political party or organization.
Notable debates[edit]
Allegations of racism[edit]
According to an article in the Wall Street Journal by Bret Stephens, after a 17-year-old Belgian boy, Joe Van Holsbeeck, was murdered by romani from Poland, Paul Beliën wrote an article calling for the decriminalization of the possession of "self-defense weapons."[6] The article was titled "Geef ons Wapens!" (Give us Weapons!).[9] The government anti-discrimination agency Center for Equal Opportunities and Opposition to Racism claimed the article constituted incitement to violence and warned that unless it was removed, the blog would face state prosecution, among other things based on the quote
Muslims are predators that have learned from childhood (…) during the yearly feast of the sacrifice (…) how to slaughter warm herd animals.[8]
Beliën removed the article.[6] The article has been noted as an important event in the development of a harsher climate towards immigrants in Belgium.[8] The incident caused the site to shift to English-centric in order to be able to present future such cases to the international media.[clarification needed]
In June, Belgian police summoned Beliën for questioning regarding several articles, he wrote for the Brussels Journal.[10] According to Beliën the police continued to invite him in for questioning but he refused to show up.[11]
On 27 July 2011 Belgian media reported that the Belgian security agencies will ask the federal prosecutor to open a case file investigating relations between The Brussels Journal and Anders Behring Breivik, the confessed perpetrator of the 2011 Norway attacks. The security agencies would want clarity about a number of articles that have been published on the web site, and that are part of 2083: A European Declaration of Independence, Breivik's manifesto.[12]
Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy[edit]
The Brussels Journal was the first news and opinion site to cover the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy in English, bringing it to the attention to US bloggers, including Michelle Malkin,[13] and the mainstream media.
The Brussels Journal republished the cartoons. This action was called a "deliberate provocation by the neocons," by an editorial in the Dutch language Knack magazine. According to Knack, Brussels Journal's aim was to "make Americans and Europeans believe that all Muslims are violent and dangerous, after which the clash in Palestine, Iran and Syria can really kick off."[6][14]
Notable contributors[edit]
The Brussels Journal has featured contributions by Diana West, Daniel Hannan, John Laughland, Fjordman, Tiberge, Koenraad Elst, Takuan Seiyo, Jos Verhulst, and Matthias Storme among others.[citation needed]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Nikolaj Nielsen (April 16, 2012). "EU authorities accused of blindness on 'counter-jihad'". EU Observer. Retrieved May 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ 7 "Europe’s radical right focuses on fighting Islam". Dawn. December 7, 2011. Retrieved May 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ Karl Ritter (December 8, 2011). "Anti-Muslim groups on the rise in Europe". Lancashire Telegraph. Retrieved May 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bjørn Stærk (March 1, 2012). "En nettreise gjennom islamkritikkens tiår" [A web travel through the decade of Islam criticism] (in Norwegian). Samtiden. Retrieved May 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Opinionjournal Federation". Opinionjournal.com. 1 January 2000. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bret Stephens (27 August 2006). "The Many Faces of Belgian Fascism". Wall Street Journal.
Jump up ^ Nicolas Raemdonk (2005-11-30). "Liberalisme is geen Fascisme". De Tijd.
^ Jump up to: a b c Zemni, S. (2011). "The shaping of Islam and Islamophobia in Belgium". Race & Class. 53: 28. doi:10.1177/0306396811406781.
Jump up ^ (in Dutch) Het Centrum heeft een einde gesteld aan haatartikel van Beliën
Jump up ^ (in Dutch) Politie tevergeefs bij Beliën, De Standaard, 20 July 2006
Jump up ^ Belgian Regime Keeps Harassing The Brussels Journal (2), Brussels Journal, 9 August 2006
Jump up ^ (in Dutch) Veiligheidsdiensten vragen onderzoek naar verband Breivik en Belgische site, Gazet Van Antwerpen, 27 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Malkin, Michelle (22 October 2005). "The Cartoons Islamists Don’t Want You To See". Michelle Malkin. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
Jump up ^ (in Dutch) Paul Beliën en zijn vriendjes, Knack, 15 February 2006
External links[edit]
The Brussels Journal
OpinionJournal Federation
[1] Interview with Seiyo on Dunedain.net
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Brussels_Journal&oldid=794452871"
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Uranium-238
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Uranium-238, 238U
10 gram sample
General
Name, symbol
Uranium-238,238U
Neutrons
146
Protons
92
Nuclide data
Natural abundance
99.2745%
Half-life
4.468 billion years
Parent isotopes
242Pu (α)
238Pa (β−)
Decay products
234Th
Isotope mass
238.05078826 u
Spin
0
Decay modes
Decay mode
Decay energy (MeV)
Alpha decay
4.267
Complete table of nuclides
Uranium-238 (238U or U-238) is the most common isotope of uranium found in nature, with a relative abundance of 99%. Unlike uranium-235, it is non-fissile, which means it cannot sustain a chain reaction. However, it is fissionable by fast neutrons, and is fertile, meaning it can be transmuted to fissile plutonium-239. 238U cannot support a chain reaction because inelastic scattering reduces neutron energy below the range where fast fission of one or more next-generation nuclei is probable. Doppler broadening of U-238's neutron absorption resonances, increasing absorption as fuel temperature increases, is also an essential negative feedback mechanism for reactor control.
Around 99.284% of natural uranium's mass is uranium-238, which has a half-life of 1.41×1017 seconds (4.468×109 years, or 4.468 billion years).[1] Due to its natural abundance and half-life relative to other radioactive elements, 238U produces ~40% of the radioactive heat produced within the Earth.[2] 238U decay contributes 6 electron anti-neutrinos per decay (1 per beta decay), resulting in a large detectable geoneutrino signal when decays occur within the Earth.[3] The decay of 238U to daughter isotopes is extensively used in radiometric dating, particularly for material older than ~ 1 million years.
Depleted uranium has an even higher concentration of the 238U isotope, and even low-enriched uranium (LEU), while having a higher proportion of the uranium-235 isotope (in comparison to depleted uranium), is still mostly 238U. Reprocessed uranium is also mainly 238U, with about as much uranium-235 as natural uranium, a comparable proportion of uranium-236, and much smaller amounts of other isotopes of uranium such as uranium-234, uranium-233, and uranium-232.[4]
Contents
1 Nuclear energy applications
1.1 Breeder reactors
1.2 Radiation shielding
1.3 Downblending
2 Nuclear weapons
3 Radium series (or uranium series)
4 Radioactive dating
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Nuclear energy applications[edit]
In a fission nuclear reactor, uranium-238 can be used to generate 239Pu, which itself can be used in a nuclear weapon or as a nuclear-reactor fuel supply. In a typical nuclear reactor, up to one-third of the generated power does come from the fission of 239Pu, which is not supplied as a fuel to the reactor, but rather, produced from 238U.
Breeder reactors[edit]
238U is not usable directly as nuclear fuel, though it can produce energy via "fast" fission. In this process, a neutron that has a kinetic energy in excess of 1 MeV can cause the nucleus of 238U to split in two. Depending on design, this process can contribute some one to ten percent of all fission reactions in a reactor, but too few of the about 2.5 neutrons[5] produced in each fission have enough speed to continue a chain reaction.
238U can be used as a source material for creating plutonium-239, which can in turn be used as nuclear fuel. Breeder reactors carry out such a process of transmutation to convert the fertile isotope 238U into fissile Pu-239. It has been estimated that there is anywhere from 10,000 to five billion years worth of 238U for use in these power plants.[6] Breeder technology has been used in several experimental nuclear reactors.[7]
By December 2005, the only breeder reactor producing power was the 600-megawatt BN-600 reactor at the Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station in Russia. Russia has planned to build another unit, BN-800, at the Beloyarsk nuclear power plant. Also, Japan's Monju breeder reactor is planned to be started, having been shut down since 1995, and both China and India have announced plans to build nuclear breeder reactors. However, after safety and design hazards were uncovered, in 2016 the Japanese government ordered the decommissioning of the Monju reactor which may be completed by 2047.
The breeder reactor as its name implies creates even larger quantities of Pu-239 than the fission nuclear reactor.
The Clean And Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor (CAESAR), a nuclear reactor concept that would use steam as a moderator to control delayed neutrons, will potentially be able to use 238U as fuel once the reactor is started with LEU fuel. This design is still in the early stages of development.
Radiation shielding[edit]
238U is also used as a radiation shield – its alpha radiation is easily stopped by the non-radioactive casing of the shielding and the uranium's high atomic weight and high number of electrons are highly effective in absorbing gamma rays and x-rays. It is not as effective as ordinary water for stopping fast neutrons. Both metallic depleted uranium and depleted uranium dioxide are used for radiation shielding. Uranium is about five times better as a gamma ray shield than lead, so a shield with the same effectiveness can be packed into a thinner layer.
DUCRETE, a concrete made with uranium dioxide aggregate instead of gravel, is being investigated as a material for dry cask storage systems to store radioactive waste.
Downblending[edit]
The opposite of enriching is downblending. Surplus highly enriched uranium can be downblended with depleted uranium or natural uranium to turn it into low enriched uranium suitable for use in commercial nuclear fuel.
238U from depleted uranium and natural uranium is also used with recycled Pu-239 from nuclear weapons stockpiles for making mixed oxide fuel (MOX), which is now being redirected to become fuel for nuclear reactors. This dilution, also called downblending, means that any nation or group that acquired the finished fuel would have to repeat the very expensive and complex chemical separation of uranium and plutonium process before assembling a weapon.
Nuclear weapons[edit]
Most modern nuclear weapons utilize 238U as a "tamper" material (see nuclear weapon design). A tamper which surrounds a fissile core works to reflect neutrons and to add inertia to the compression of the Pu-239 charge. As such, it increases the efficiency of the weapon and reduces the critical mass required. In the case of a thermonuclear weapon 238U can be used to encase the fusion fuel, the high flux of very energetic neutrons from the resulting fusion reaction causes 238U nuclei to split and adds more energy to the "yield" of the weapon. Such weapons are referred to as fission-fusion-fission weapons after the order in which each reaction takes place. An example of such a weapon is Castle Bravo.
The larger portion of the total explosive yield in this design comes from the final fission stage fueled by 238U, producing enormous amounts of radioactive fission products. For example, an estimated 77% of the 10.4-megaton yield of the Ivy Mike thermonuclear test in 1952 came from fast fission of the depleted uranium tamper. Because depleted uranium has no critical mass, it can be added to thermonuclear bombs in almost unlimited quantity. The Soviet Union's test of the "Tsar Bomba" in 1961 produced "only" 50 megatons of explosive power, over 90% of which came from fusion, because the 238U final stage had been replaced with lead. Had 238U been used instead, the yield of the "Tsar Bomba" could have been well-above 100 megatons, and it would have produced nuclear fallout equivalent to one third of the global total that had been produced up to that time.
Radium series (or uranium series)[edit]
The decay chain of 238U is commonly called the "radium series" (sometimes "uranium series"). Beginning with naturally occurring uranium-238, this series includes the following elements: astatine, bismuth, lead, polonium, protactinium, radium, radon, thallium, and thorium. All are present, at least transiently, in any uranium-containing sample, whether metal, compound, or mineral. The decay proceeds as:
U 92 238 → 4.468 × 10 9 y α Th 90 234 → 24.1 d β − Pa 91 234 m { → 1.17 min 0.16 % Pa 91 234 → 6.7 h β − → 1.17 min 99.84 % β − } U 92 234 → 2.445 × 10 5 y α Th 90 230 → 7.7 × 10 4 y α Ra 88 226 → 1600 y α Rn 86 222 Rn 86 222 → 3.8235 d α Po 84 218 → 3.05 min α Pb 82 214 → 26.8 min β − Bi 83 214 → 19.9 min β − Po 84 214 → 164.3 μ s α Pb 82 210 → 22.26 y β − Bi 83 210 → 5 , 013 d β − Po 84 210 → 138.38 d α Pb 82 206 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{}\\{\ce {^{238}_{92}U->[\alpha ][4.468\times 10^{9}\ {\ce {y}}]{^{234}_{90}Th}->[\beta ^{-}][24.1\ {\ce {d}}]{^{234\!m}_{91}Pa}}}{\begin{Bmatrix}{\ce {->[0.16\%][1.17\ {\ce {min}}]{^{234}_{91}Pa}->[\beta ^{-}][6.7\ {\ce {h}}]}}\\{\ce {->[99.84\%\ \beta ^{-}][1.17\ {\ce {min}}]}}\end{Bmatrix}}{\ce {^{234}_{92}U->[\alpha ][2.445\times 10^{5}\ {\ce {y}}]{^{230}_{90}Th}->[\alpha ][7.7\times 10^{4}\ {\ce {y}}]{^{226}_{88}Ra}->[\alpha ][1600\ {\ce {y}}]{^{222}_{86}Rn}}}\\{\ce {^{222}_{86}Rn->[\alpha ][3.8235\ {\ce {d}}]{^{218}_{84}Po}->[\alpha ][3.05\ {\ce {min}}]{^{214}_{82}Pb}->[\beta ^{-}][26.8\ {\ce {min}}]{^{214}_{83}Bi}->[\beta ^{-}][19.9\ {\ce {min}}]{^{214}_{84}Po}->[\alpha ][164.3\ \mu {\ce {s}}]{^{210}_{82}Pb}->[\beta ^{-}][22.26\ {\ce {y}}]{^{210}_{83}Bi}->[\beta ^{-}][5,013\ {\ce {d}}]{^{210}_{84}Po}->[\alpha ][138.38\ {\ce {d}}]{^{206}_{82}Pb}}}\end{array}}}
parent nuclide
historic name (short)
[citation needed]
historic name (long)
atomic mass [RS 1]
decay mode [RS 2]
branch chance [RS 2]
half life [RS 2]
energy released, MeV [RS 2]
daughter nuclide [RS 2]
Subtotal MeV
238U UI Uranium I 238.051 α 100 % 4.468·109 a 4.26975 234Th 4.2698
234Th UX1 Uranium X1 234.044 β− 100 % 24.10 d 0.273088 234mPa 4.5428
234mPa UX2, Bv Uranium X2, Brevium 234.043 IT 0.16 % 1.159 min 0.07392 234Pa 4.6168
234mPa UX2, Bv Uranium X2, Brevium 234.043 β− 99.84 % 1.159 min 2.268205 234U 6.8110
234Pa UZ Uranium Z 234.043 β− 100 % 6.70 h 2.194285 234U 6.8110
234U UII Uranium II 234.041 α 100 % 2.455·105 a 4.8598 230Th 11.6708
230Th Io Ionium 230.033 α 100 % 7.54·104 a 4.76975 226Ra 16.4406
226Ra Ra Radium 226.025 α 100 % 1600 a 4.87062 222Rn 21.3112
222Rn Rn Radon, Radium Emanation 222.018 α 100 % 3.8235 d 5.59031 218Po 26.9015
218Po RaA Radium A 218.009 β− 0.020 % 3.098 min 0.259913 218At 27.1614
218Po RaA Radium A 218.009 α 99.980 % 3.098 min 6.11468 214Pb 33.0162
218At 218.009 β− 0.1 % 1.5 s 2.881314 218Rn 30.0428
218At 218.009 α 99.9 % 1.5 s 6.874 214Bi 34.0354
218Rn 218.006 α 100 % 35 ms 7.26254 214Po 37.3053
214Pb RaB Radium B 214.000 β− 100 % 26.8 min 1.019237 214Bi 34.0354
214Bi RaC Radium C 213.999 β− 99.979 % 19.9 min 3.269857 214Po 37.3053
214Bi RaC Radium C 213.999 α 0.021 % 19.9 min 5.62119 210Tl 39.6566
214Po RaC' Radium C' 213.995 α 100 % 164.3 μs 7.83346 210Pb 45.1388
210Tl RaC" Radium C" 209.990 β− 100 % 1.30 min 5.48213 210Pb 45.1388
210Pb RaD Radium D 209.984 β− 100 % 22.20 a 0.063487 210Bi 45.2022
210Pb RaD Radium D 209.984 α 1.9·10−6 % 22.20 a 3.7923 206Hg 48.9311
210Bi RaE Radium E 209.984 β− 100 % 5.012 d 1.161234 210Po 46.3635
210Bi RaE Radium E 209.984 α 13.2·10−5 % 5.012 d 5.03647 206Tl 50.2387
210Po RaF Radium F 209.983 α 100 % 138.376 d 5.40745 206Pb 51.7709
206Hg 205.978 β− 100 % 8.32 min 1.307649 206Tl 50.2387
206Tl RaE" Radium E" 205.976 β− 100 % 4.202 min 1.532221 206Pb 51.7709
206Pb RaG Radium G 205.974 stable - - - - 51.7709
Jump up ^ "The Risk Assessment Information System: Radionuclide Decay Chain". The University of Tennessee.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Evaluated Nuclear Structure Data File". National Nuclear Data Center.
The mean lifetime of 238U is 1.41×1017 seconds divided by 0.693 (or multiplied by 1.443), i.e. ca. 2×1017 seconds, so 1 mole of 238U emits 3×106 alpha particles per second, producing the same number of thorium-234 (Th-234) atoms. In a closed system an equilibrium would be reached, with all amounts except for lead-206 and 238U in fixed ratios, in slowly decreasing amounts. The amount of Pb-206 will increase accordingly while that of 238U decreases; all steps in the decay chain have this same rate of 3×106 decayed particles per second per mole 238U.
Thorium-234 has a mean lifetime of 3×106 seconds, so there is equilibrium if one mole of 238U contains 9×1012 atoms of thorium-234, which is 1.5×10−11 mole (the ratio of the two half-lives). Similarly, in an equilibrium in a closed system the amount of each decay product, except the end product lead, is proportional to its half-life.
As already touched upon above, when starting with pure 238U, within a human timescale the equilibrium applies for the first three steps in the decay chain only. Thus, for one mole of 238U, 3×106 times per second one alpha and two beta particles and gamma ray are produced, together 6.7 MeV, a rate of 3 µW. Extrapolated over 2×1017 seconds this is 600 gigajoules, the total energy released in the first three steps in the decay chain.
Radioactive dating[edit]
238U abundance and its decay to daughter isotopes comprises multiple "uranium dating" techniques and is one of the most common radioactive isotopes used in radiometric dating. The most common dating method is uranium-lead dating, which is used to date rocks older than 1 million years old and has provided ages for the oldest rocks on Earth at 4.4 billion years old.[8]
The relation between 238U and 234U gives an indication of the age of sediments and seawater that are between 100,000 years and 1,200,000 years in age.[9]
The 238U daughter product (206Pb) is an integral part of Lead–lead dating, which is most famous for the determination of the age of the Earth.[10]
The Voyager spacecrafts carry small amounts of initially pure 238U on the covers of their golden records to facilitate dating in the same manner.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Depleted uranium
Uranium-lead dating
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Mcclain, D. E.; Miller, A. C.; Kalinich, J. F. (December 20, 2007). "Status of Health Concerns about Military Use of Depleted Uranium and Surrogate Metals in Armor-Penetrating Munitions" (PDF). NATO. Archived from the original (pdf) on April 19, 2011. Retrieved November 14, 2010.
Jump up ^ Arevalo, Ricardo; McDonough, William F.; Luong, Mario. "The K/U ratio of the silicate Earth: Insights into mantle composition, structure and thermal evolution". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 278 (3–4): 361–369. Bibcode:2009E&PSL.278..361A. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.12.023.
Jump up ^ Araki, T.; Enomoto, S.; Furuno, K.; Gando, Y.; Ichimura, K.; Ikeda, H.; Inoue, K.; Kishimoto, Y.; Koga, M. "Experimental investigation of geologically produced antineutrinos with KamLAND". Nature. 436 (7050): 499–503. Bibcode:2005Natur.436..499A. doi:10.1038/nature03980.
Jump up ^ Nuclear France: Materials and sites. "Uranium from reprocessing". Archived from the original on 2007-10-19. Retrieved 2013-03-29.
Jump up ^ World Nuclear Association http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/physics-of-nuclear-energy.aspx. Retrieved November 17, 2017. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Facts from Cohen Archived 2007-04-10 at the Wayback Machine.. Formal.stanford.edu (2007-01-26). Retrieved on 2010-10-24.
Jump up ^ Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors | Generation III+ Nuclear Reactors. World-nuclear.org. Retrieved on 2010-10-24.
Jump up ^ Valley, John W.; Reinhard, David A.; Cavosie, Aaron J.; Ushikubo, Takayuki; Lawrence, Daniel F.; Larson, David J.; Kelly, Thomas F.; Snoeyenbos, David R.; Strickland, Ariel (2015-07-01). "Nano- and micro-geochronology in Hadean and Archean zircons by atom-probe tomography and SIMS: New tools for old minerals" (PDF). American Mineralogist. 100 (7): 1355–1377. Bibcode:2015AmMin.100.1355V. doi:10.2138/am-2015-5134. ISSN 0003-004X.
Jump up ^ Henderson, Gideon M. "Seawater (234U/238U) during the last 800 thousand years". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 199 (1–2): 97–110. Bibcode:2002E&PSL.199...97H. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(02)00556-3. Retrieved 2017-08-09.
Jump up ^ Patterson, Claire (1956-10-01). "Age of meteorites and the earth". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 10 (4): 230–237. Bibcode:1956GeCoA..10..230P. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(56)90036-9.
External links[edit]
NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Uranium, Radioactive

Lighter:
uranium-237 Uranium-238 is an
isotope of uranium Heavier:
uranium-239
Decay product of:
plutonium-242 (α)
protactinium-238 (β-) Decay chain
of uranium-238 Decays to:
thorium-234 (α)
hide
v
t
e
Main isotopes of uranium
232U
233U
234U
235U
236U
238U
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uranium-238&oldid=866337386"
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text:
Laboratory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Lab (disambiguation) and Laboratory (disambiguation).
A medical laboratory run by the Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology of China Medical University (Taiwan)
Molecular Biology Technics Laboratory at Faculty of Biology of Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan
A workbench in a chemistry laboratory
The Schuster Laboratory, University of Manchester (a physics laboratory)
A laboratory (British English: /ləˈbɒrətəri/ or /ləˈbɒrətri/, American English: /ˈlæbərətɔːri/ or /ˈlæbrətɔːri/; informally, lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 History
2.1 The early laboratories
3 Techniques
4 Equipment and supplies
5 Specialized types
6 Safety
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Overview[edit]
Laboratories used for scientific research take many forms because of the differing requirements of specialists in the various fields of science and engineering. A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, while a metallurgy laboratory could have apparatus for casting or refining metals or for testing their strength. A chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologist's laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as those commonly used by computer scientists, computers (sometimes supercomputers) are used for either simulations or the analysis of data. Scientists in other fields will use still other types of laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices.
Scientific laboratories can be found as research room and learning spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft.
Despite the underlying notion of the lab as a confined space for experts[1], the term "laboratory" is also increasingly applied to workshop spaces such as Living Labs, Fab Labs, or Hackerspaces, in which people meet to work on societal problems or make prototypes, working collaboratively or sharing resources.[2][3][4] This development is inspired by new, participatory approaches to science and innovation and relies on user-centred design methods[5] and concepts like Open innovation or User innovation,[6][7]. One distinctive feature of work in Open Labs is phenomena of translation, driven by the different backgrounds and levels of expertise of the people involved[8].
History[edit]
Early instances of "laboratories" recorded in English involved alchemy and the preparation of medicines.[9]
The emergence of Big Science during World War II increased the size of laboratories and scientific equipment, introducing particle accelerators and similar devices.
The early laboratories[edit]
The earliest laboratory according to the present evidence is a home laboratory of Pythagoras of Samos, the well-known Greek philosopher and scientist. This laboratory was created when Pythagoras conducted an experiment about tones of sound and vibration of string.[10]
In the painting of Louis Pasteur by Albert Edelfelt in 1885, Louis Pasteur is the shown comparing a note in his left hand with a bottle filled with a solid in his right hand, and not wearing an personal protective equipment.[11]
Researching in teams started in the 19th century, and many new kinds of equipment were developed in the 20th century.[12]
A 16th century underground alchemical laboratory was accidentally discovered in the year 2002. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor was believed to be the owner. The laboratory is called Speculum Alchemiae and is preserved as a museum in Prague.[13]
Chemistry laboratory of the 18th century, of the sort used by Antoine Lavoisier and his contemporaries
Thomas Edison in his laboratory, 1901
A laboratory in the 1970s
Chemical laboratory in Mahidol University International College since 2009
Early 2000s style of counter in Chemical Laboratory, Mahidol University International College, Thailand
Techniques[edit]
Laboratory techniques are the set of procedures used on natural sciences such as chemistry, biology, physics in order to conduct an experiment, all of them follow the scientific method; while some of them involve the use of complex laboratory equipment from laboratory glassware to electrical devices, and others require more specific or expensive supplies.
Equipment and supplies[edit]
Three beakers, an Erlenmeyer flask, a graduated cylinder and a volumetric flask
Laboratory equipment refers to the various tools and equipment used by scientists working in a laboratory:
The classical equipment includes tools such as Bunsen burners and microscopes as well as specialty equipment such as operant conditioning chambers, spectrophotometers and calorimeters.
Chemical laboratories
laboratory glassware such as the beaker or reagent bottle
Analytical devices as HPLC or spectrophotometers
Molecular biology laboratories + Life science laboratories
Autoclavable bench-top laboratory bioreactor and fermenter
autoclave
microscope
Centrifuges
Shakers & mixers
Pipette
Thermal cyclers (PCR)
Photometer
Refrigerators and Freezers
Universal testing machine
ULT Freezers
Incubators
bioreactor
Biological safety cabinets
Sequencing instruments
fume hoods
Environmental chamber
Humidifier
weighing scale
Reagents (supply)
Pipettes tips (supply)
Polymer (supply) consumables for small volumes (µL and mL scale), mainly sterile
Laboratory equipment is generally used to either perform an experiment or to take measurements and gather data. Larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a scientific instrument.
Specialized types[edit]
The title of laboratory is also used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. These notably include:
Film laboratory or Darkroom
Clandestine lab for the production of illegal drugs
Computer lab
Crime lab used to process crime scene evidence
Language laboratory
Medical laboratory (involves handling of chemical compounds)
Public health laboratory
Industrial laboratory
Safety[edit]
Main article: Laboratory safety
An eyewash station in a laboratory.
Geneticist Riin Tamm wearing protective lab coat
In many laboratories, hazards are present. Laboratory hazards might include poisons; infectious agents; flammable, explosive, or radioactive materials; moving machinery; extreme temperatures; lasers, strong magnetic fields or high voltage. Therefore, safety precautions are vitally important. Rules exist to minimize the individual's risk, and safety equipment is used to protect the lab users from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the United States, recognizing the unique characteristics of the laboratory workplace, has tailored a standard for occupational exposure to hazardous chemicals in laboratories. This standard is often referred to as the "Laboratory Standard". Under this standard, a laboratory is required to produce a Chemical Hygiene Plan (CHP) which addresses the specific hazards found in its location, and its approach to them.
In determining the proper Chemical Hygiene Plan for a particular business or laboratory, it is necessary to understand the requirements of the standard, evaluation of the current safety, health and environmental practices and assessment of the hazards. The CHP must be reviewed annually. Many schools and businesses employ safety, health, and environmental specialists, such as a Chemical Hygiene Officer (CHO) to develop, manage, and evaluate their CHP. Additionally, third party review is also used to provide an objective "outside view" which provides a fresh look at areas and problems that may be taken for granted or overlooked due to habit.
Inspections and audits like also be conducted on a regular basis to assess hazards due to chemical handling and storage, electrical equipment, biohazards, hazardous waste management, chemical waste, housekeeping and emergency preparedness, radiation safety, ventilation as well as respiratory testing and indoor air quality. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance and the training of individuals who have access to and/or work in the laboratory. Training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries and potential litigation. Efforts are made to ensure laboratory safety videos are both relevant and engaging.[14]
See also[edit]
Cargo cult science
Chemical accident
Contamination control
Controlled lab reactor
Environmental health
Fume hood
Hackspace
ISO/IEC 17025
Lab website
Laboratory automation
Laboratory safety
Standard conditions for temperature and pressure
Workshop
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Latour, Bruno (1987). Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Jump up ^ Flaherty, Joe (May 14, 2012). "Ford + TechShop: Getting Employees to Tinker". Wired.
Jump up ^ Burress, Charles (December 22, 1997). "A Tinkerer's Paradise in Berkeley / Young, old inventors are offered tools, techniques and inspiration". SF Chronicle.
Jump up ^ Carlson, Adam (September 5, 2013). "Top 8 Tools for Building a Personal Prototyping Laboratory". EE Times.
Jump up ^ ISO 13407:(1999), titled Human-centred design processes for interactive systems, is an ISO Standard providing Guidance on human-centred design activities throughout the life cycle of interactive computer-based systems.
Jump up ^ Von Hippel, E. (1986). Lead users: a source of novel product concepts. Management Science 32, 791–805.
Jump up ^ Chesbrough, H.W. (2003). Open Innovation: The new imperative for creating and profiting from technology. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Jump up ^ Fritzsche, A (2017). "Corporate Foresight in Open Laboratories - A Translational Approach". Technology Analysis & Strategic Management. doi:10.1080/09537325.2017.1380180.
Jump up ^ "laboratory". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.): "Originally: a room or building for the practice of alchemy and the preparation of medicines. Later: one equipped for carrying out scientific experiments or procedures, esp. for the purposes of research, teaching, or analysis; (also) one in which chemicals or drugs are manufactured."
Jump up ^ "World's Oldest Laboratory". Analytical Chemistry. 62 (13): 701A–701A. 30 May 2012. doi:10.1021/ac00212a716.
Jump up ^ Schummer, Joachim; Spector, Tami I (July 2007). "The Visual Image of Chemistry: Perspectives from the History of Art and Science". HYLE International Journal for Philosophy of Chemistry (1): 3–41.
Jump up ^ Lowe, Derek (27 May 2015). "Laboratory history: The chemistry chronicles". Nature. 521 (7553): 422–422. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..422L. doi:10.1038/521422a.
Jump up ^ "Museum of Alchemy". Speculum Alchemiae.
Jump up ^ Michael L. Matson; Jeffrey P. Fitzgerald; Shirley Lin (October 1, 2007). "Creating Customized, Relevant, and Engaging Laboratory Safety Videos". Journal of Chemical Education. 84 (10): 1727. Bibcode:2007JChEd..84.1727M. doi:10.1021/ed084p1727. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Laboratory.
The dictionary definition of laboratory at Wiktionary
Media related to Laboratory at Wikimedia Commons
Nobel Laureates Interactive 360° Laboratories
[show]
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Laboratory equipment
[show]
General
Heaters
Dryers
Alcohol burner
Bunsen burner
Desiccator
Heating mantle
Hot plate
Lab oven
Kiln
Meker-Fisher burner
Striker
Teclu burner
Water bath
Vacuum dry box
Mixers
Shakers
Chemostat
Homogenizer
Liquid whistle
Magnetic stirrer
Mortar and pestle
Shaker
Sonicator
Static mixer
Stirring rod
Vortex mixer
Wash bottle
Stands
Clamps
Holders
Beaker clamp
Clamp holder
Tripod
Burette clamp
Extension clamp
Flask clamp
Funnel support
Iron ring
Pinch clamp
Retort stand
Screw clamp
Test tube holder
Test tube rack
Wire gauze
Lab drying rack
Containers
Storage
Agar plate
Cryogenic storage dewar
Incubator
Laminar flow cabinet
Microtiter plate
Petri dish
Picotiter plate
Refrigerator
Weighing boat
Weighing dish
Other items
Aspirator
Autoclave
Balance brush
Cork borer
Crucible
Filter paper
File
Forceps
Centrifuge
Microscope
Pipeclay triangle
Spectrophotometer
Splint
Stopper
Scoopula
Spatula
Test tube brush
Wire brush
Inoculation needle
Inoculation loop
[show]
Glassware
Apparatus
Dean-Stark
Soxhlet extractor
Kipp's
Bottles
Boston round
Pycnometer
Condensers
Cold finger
Liebig
Dishes
Evaporating
Petri
Watch glass
Flasks
Büchner
Vacuum (Dewar)
Erlenmeyer
Fernbach
Fleaker
Florence
Retort
Round-bottom
Schlenk
Volumetric
Funnels
Büchner
Hirsch
Dropping
Separatory
Measuring devices
Burette
Conical measure
Cuvette
Eudiometer
Graduated cylinder
Ostwald viscometer
Pipette
Pipette (dropper)
Tubes
Boiling
Drying
Cragie
Ignition
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
Test
Thiele
Thistle
Other items
Beaker
Gas syringe
Vial
[show]
Analytical chemistry
Compositional
AutoAnalyzer
CHN analyzer
Colorimeter
Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) device
Gas chromatograph (GC)
Liquid Chromatograph (LC)
Mass spectrometer (MS)
pH indicator
pH meter
Microscopy
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
Thermochemistry
Calorimeter
differential scanning
Melting point apparatus
Thermometer
Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA)
Other items
Analytical balance
Colony counter
Spiral plater
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instrument
Plate reader
[show]
Electronics
Ammeter
Current source
Function generator
Galvanostat
Multimeter
Network analyzer
Oscilloscope
Pulse generator
Potentiostat
Spectrum analyzer
Time-domain reflectometer
Voltage source
Voltmeter
[show]
Safety
Personal protective
equipment (PPE)
Lab coat
Face shield
Respirator
Rubber apron
Safety shower
Eye and hand
Acid-resistant gloves
Eyewash station
Glove box
Medical gloves
Nitrile gloves
Safety glasses
Safety goggles
Other items
Acid (solvent) cabinet
Biosafety cabinet
Fire blanket
Fire extinguisher
Fume hood
Instruments used in medical laboratories
Authority control
GND: 4033927-0
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