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Anno Domini
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"AD" and "Before Christ" redirect here. For other uses, see Anno Domini (disambiguation) and AD (disambiguation).
"Christian era" redirects here. For other uses, see Christian era (disambiguation).
Anno Domini inscription at a cathedral in Carinthia, Austria.
The terms anno Domini[a][1][2] (AD) and before Christ[b][3][4][5] (BC) are used to label or number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means "in the year of the Lord",[6] but is often presented using "our Lord" instead of "the Lord",[7][8] taken from the full original phrase "anno Domini nostri Jesu Christi", which translates to "in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ".
This calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with AD counting years from the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of the era. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor, but was not widely used until after 800.[9][10]
The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today. For decades, it has been the unofficial global standard, adopted in the pragmatic interests of international communication, transportation, and commercial integration, and recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations.[11]
Traditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the "AD" abbreviation before the year number.[c] However, BC is placed after the year number (for example: AD 2018, but 68 BC), which also preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in "fourth century AD" or "second millennium AD" (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions).[13] Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death, i.e., after the death of Jesus. However, this would mean that the approximate 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would neither be included in the BC nor the AD time scales.[14]
Terminology that is viewed by some as being more neutral and inclusive of non-Christian people is to call this the Current or Common Era (abbreviated as CE), with the preceding years referred to as Before the Common or Current Era (BCE). Astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Popularization
1.2 New year
2 Birth date of Jesus
3 Other eras
4 CE and BCE
5 No year zero: start and end of a century
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Notes
7.2 Citations
7.3 Sources
8 External links
History[edit]
The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.[15] The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was immediately followed by the first year of his table, AD 532. When he devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year—he himself stated that the "present year" was "the consulship of Probus Junior", which was 525 years "since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ".[16] Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus' incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred. "However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad, year of the world, or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify the underlying date."[17]
Bonnie J. Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or incarnation. Among the sources of confusion are:[10]
In modern times, incarnation is synonymous with the conception, but some ancient writers, such as Bede, considered incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity.
The civil or consular year began on 1 January but the Diocletian year began on 29 August (30 August in the year before a Julian leap year).
There were inaccuracies in the lists of consuls.
There were confused summations of emperors' regnal years.
It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesus's birth. Two major theories are that Dionysius based his calculation on the Gospel of Luke, which states that Jesus was "about thirty years old" shortly after "the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar", and hence subtracted thirty years from that date, or that Dionysius counted back 532 years from the first year of his new table.[18][19][20] It is convenient to initiate a calendar not from the very day of an event but from the beginning of a cycle which occurs in close proximity. For example, the Islamic calendar begins not from the date of the Hijra, but rather weeks prior, on the first occurrence of the month of Muharram (corresponding to 16 July 622).[21]
It has also been speculated by Georges Declercq[22] that Dionysius' desire to replace Diocletian years with a calendar based on the incarnation of Christ was intended to prevent people from believing the imminent end of the world. At the time, it was believed by some that the resurrection of the dead and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the world based on information in the Old Testament. It was believed that, based on the Anno Mundi calendar, Jesus was born in the year 5500 (or 5500 years after the world was created) with the year 6000 of the Anno Mundi calendar marking the end of the world.[23][24] Anno Mundi 6000 (approximately AD 500) was thus equated with the resurrection and the end of the world[25] but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius.
Popularization[edit]
The Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used Anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731. In this same history, he also used another Latin term, ante vero incarnationis dominicae tempus anno sexagesimo ("in fact in the 60th year before the time of the Lord's incarnation"), equivalent to the English "before Christ", to identify years before the first year of this era.[26] Both Dionysius and Bede regarded Anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus, but "the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch was identified with Christ's conception, i.e., the Annunciation on March 25" (Annunciation style).[27]
Statue of Charlemagne by Agostino Cornacchini (1725), at St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City. Charlemagne promoted the usage of the Anno Domini epoch throughout the Carolingian Empire.
On the continent of Europe, Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century. Its endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing the use of the epoch and spreading it throughout the Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, popes continued to date documents according to regnal years for some time, but usage of AD gradually became more common in Roman Catholic countries from the 11th to the 14th centuries.[28] In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius.[29] Eastern Orthodox countries only began to adopt AD instead of the Byzantine calendar in 1700 when Russia did so, with others adopting it in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Although Anno Domini was in widespread use by the 9th century, the term "Before Christ" (or its equivalent) did not become common until much later. Bede used the expression "anno igitur ante incarnationem Dominicam" (so in the year before the incarnation of the Lord) twice. "Anno an xpi nativitate" (in the year before the birth of Christ) is found in 1474 in a work by a German monk.[30] In 1627, the French Jesuit theologian Denis Pétau (Dionysius Petavius in Latin), with his work De doctrina temporum, popularized the usage ante Christum (Latin for "Before Christ") to mark years prior to AD.[31][32][33]
New year[edit]
Further information: New Year
When the reckoning from Jesus' incarnation began replacing the previous dating systems in western Europe, various people chose different Christian feast days to begin the year: Christmas, Annunciation, or Easter. Thus, depending on the time and place, the year number changed on different days in the year, which created slightly different styles in chronology:[34]
From 25 March 753 AUC (today in 1 BC), i.e., notionally from the incarnation of Jesus. That first "Annunciation style" appeared in Arles at the end of the 9th century, then spread to Burgundy and northern Italy. It was not commonly used and was called calculus pisanus since it was adopted in Pisa and survived there till 1750.
From 25 December 753 AUC (today in 1 BC), i.e., notionally from the birth of Jesus. It was called "Nativity style" and had been spread by Bede together with the Anno Domini in the early Middle Ages. That reckoning of the Year of Grace from Christmas was used in France, England and most of western Europe (except Spain) until the 12th century (when it was replaced by Annunciation style), and in Germany until the second quarter of the 13th century.
From 25 March 754 AUC (today in AD 1). That second "Annunciation style" may have originated in Fleury Abbey in the early 11th century, but it was spread by the Cistercians. Florence adopted that style in opposition to that of Pisa, so it got the name of calculus florentinus. It soon spread in France and also in England where it became common in the late 12th century and lasted until 1752.
From Easter, starting in 754 AUC (AD 1). That mos gallicanus (French custom) bound to a moveable feast was introduced in France by king Philip Augustus (r. 1180–1223), maybe to establish a new style in the provinces reconquered from England. However, it never spread beyond the ruling élite.
With these various styles, the same day could, in some cases, be dated in 1099, 1100 or 1101.
Birth date of Jesus[edit]
See also: Date of birth of Jesus, Nativity of Jesus § Date of birth, and Chronology of Jesus § Year of Jesus' birth
The date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, but most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 BC and 4 BC.[35] The historical evidence is too fragmentary to allow a definitive dating,[36] but the date is estimated through two different approaches – one by analyzing references to known historical events mentioned in the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, and the second by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus.[37][38]
Other eras[edit]
Further information: Calendar era
During the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used various systems to count years. Systems in use included consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating.[citation needed]
Although the last non-imperial consul, Basilius, was appointed in 541 by Emperor Justinian I, later emperors through Constans II (641–668) were appointed consuls on the first 1 January after their accession. All of these emperors, except Justinian, used imperial post-consular years for the years of their reign, along with their regnal years.[39] Long unused, this practice was not formally abolished until Novell XCIV of the law code of Leo VI did so in 888.
Another calculation had been developed by the Alexandrian monk Annianus around the year AD 400, placing the Annunciation on 25 March AD 9 (Julian)—eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius was to imply. Although this incarnation was popular during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, years numbered from it, an Era of Incarnation, were exclusively used and are yet used, in Ethiopia. This accounts for the seven- or eight-year discrepancy between the Gregorian and Ethiopian calendars. Byzantine chroniclers like Maximus the Confessor, George Syncellus, and Theophanes dated their years from Annianus' creation of the world. This era, called Anno Mundi, "year of the world" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, began its first year on 25 March 5492 BC. Later Byzantine chroniclers used Anno Mundi years from 1 September 5509 BC, the Byzantine Era. No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant throughout the Christian world. Eusebius of Caesarea in his Chronicle used an era beginning with the birth of Abraham, dated in 2016 BC (AD 1 = 2017 Anno Abrahami).[40]
Spain and Portugal continued to date by the Era of the Caesars or Spanish Era, which began counting from 38 BC, well into the Middle Ages. In 1422, Portugal became the last Catholic country to adopt the Anno Domini system.[28]
The Era of Martyrs, which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284, who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians, was used by the Church of Alexandria and is still used, officially, by the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic churches. It was also used by the Ethiopian church. Another system was to date from the crucifixion of Jesus, which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in some medieval manuscripts.
CE and BCE[edit]
Main article: Common Era
Alternative names for the Anno Domini era include vulgaris aerae (found 1615 in Latin),[41] "Vulgar Era" (in English, as early as 1635),[42] "Christian Era" (in English, in 1652),[43] "Common Era" (in English, 1708),[44] and "Current Era".[45] Since 1856,[46] the alternative abbreviations CE and BCE, (sometimes written C.E. and B.C.E.) are sometimes used in place of AD and BC.
The "Common/Current Era" ("CE") terminology is often preferred by those who desire a term that does not explicitly make religious references.[47][48] For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B.C.E./C.E. …do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D."[49] Upon its foundation, the Republic of China adopted the Minguo Era, but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was 西元 ("xī yuán", "Western Era"). Later, in 1949, the People's Republic of China adopted 公元 (gōngyuán, "Common Era") for all purposes domestic and foreign.
No year zero: start and end of a century[edit]
Further information: 0 (year), Astronomical year numbering, Millennium, and Century
In the AD year numbering system, whether applied to the Julian or Gregorian calendars, AD 1 is preceded by 1 BC. There is no year "0" between them, so a new century begins in a year which has "01" as the final digits (e.g., 1801, 1901, 2001). New millennia likewise are considered to have begun in 1001 and 2001. This is at odds with the much more common conception that centuries and millennia begin when the trailing digits are zeroes (1800, 1900, 2000, etc.); for example, the worldwide celebration of the new millennium took place on New Year's Eve 1999, when the year number ticked over to 2000.[9]
For computational reasons, astronomical year numbering and the ISO 8601 standard designate years so that AD 1 = year 1, 1 BC = year 0, 2 BC = year −1, etc.[d] In common usage, ancient dates are expressed in the Julian calendar, but ISO 8601 uses the Gregorian calendar and astronomers may use a variety of time scales depending on the application. Thus dates using the year 0 or negative years may require further investigation before being converted to BC or AD.
See also[edit]
Ante Christum natum
Holocene calendar
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The word "anno" is often capitalized, but this is considered incorrect by many authorities and either not mentioned in major dictionaries or only listed as an alternative. Wikipedia's manual of style also prescribes lowercase.
Jump up ^ The word "before" is often capitalized, but this is considered incorrect by many authorities and either not mentioned in major dictionaries or only listed as an alternative. Wikipedia's manual of style also prescribes lowercase.
Jump up ^ This convention comes from grammatical usage. Anno 500 means "in the year 500"; anno domini 500 means "in the year 500 of Our Lord". Just as "500 in the year" is not good English syntax, neither is 500 AD; whereas "AD 500" preserves syntactic order when translated.[12]
Jump up ^ To convert from a year BC to astronomical year numbering, reduce the absolute value of the year by 1, and prefix it with a negative sign (unless the result is zero). For years AD, omit the AD and prefix the number with a plus sign (plus sign is optional if it is clear from the context that the year is after the year 0).[50]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ "anno Domini". Collins English Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "anno Domini". American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Jump up ^ "BC". Collins English Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "before Christ". American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Jump up ^ "BC". Merriam Webster Online Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "Anno Domini". Merriam Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. 2003. Retrieved 2011-10-04. Etymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of the Lord
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2011-10-04.
Jump up ^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 782 "since AD stands for anno Domini, 'in the year of (Our) Lord'"
^ Jump up to: a b Teresi, Dick (July 1997). "Zero". The Atlantic.
^ Jump up to: a b Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, pp. 778–9.
Jump up ^ Eastman, Allan. "A Month of Sundays". Date and Time. Archived from the original on 2010-05-06. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
Jump up ^ Chicago Manual of Style 2010, pp. 476–7; Goldstein 2007, p. 6.
Jump up ^ Chicago Manual of Style, 1993, p. 304.
Jump up ^ Donald P. Ryan, (2000), 15.
Jump up ^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 767.
Jump up ^ Nineteen year cycle of Dionysius Introduction and First Argumentum.
Jump up ^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 778.
Jump up ^ Teres, Gustav (October 1984). "Time computations and Dionysius Exiguus". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 15 (3). pp. 177–188.
Jump up ^ Tøndering, Claus, The Calendar FAQ: Counting years
Jump up ^ Mosshammer, Alden A (2009). The Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era. Oxford. pp. 345–347.
Jump up ^ F. A. Shamsi, "The Date of Hijrah", Islamic Studies 23 (1984): 189-224, 289-323 (JSTOR link 1 + JSTOR link 2).
Jump up ^ Declercq, Georges, "Anno Domini. The Origins of the Christian Era" Turnhout, Belgium, 2000
Jump up ^ Wallraff, Martin: Julius Africanus und die Christliche Weltchronik. Walter de Gruyter, 2006
Jump up ^ Mosshammer, Alden A.: The Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era. Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 254, p. 270, p. 328
Jump up ^ Declercq, Georges: Anno Domini. The Origins of the Christian Era. Turnhout Belgium. 2000
Jump up ^ Bede 731, Book 1, Chapter 2, first sentence.
Jump up ^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 881.
^ Jump up to: a b Patrick, 1908
Jump up ^ "General Chronology". New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol III. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1908. Retrieved 2011-10-25.
Jump up ^ Werner Rolevinck in Fasciculus temporum (1474) used Anno an xpi nativitatem (in the ...(th) year before the birth of Christ) for all years between creation and Jesus. "xpi" is the Greek χρι in Latin letters, which is an abbreviation for Christi. This phrase appears upside down in the centre of recto folios (right hand pages). From Jesus to Pope Sixtus IV he usually used Anno Christi or its abbreviated form Anno xpi (on verso folios—left hand pages). He used Anno mundi alongside all of these terms for all years.
Jump up ^ Steel, Duncan (2000). Marking time: the epic quest to invent the perfect calendar. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-471-29827-4. Retrieved 2010-06-01.
Jump up ^ Hunt, Lynn Avery (2008). Measuring time, making history. p. 33. ISBN 978-963-9776-14-2. Retrieved 2010-06-01.
Jump up ^ Petau, Denis (1758). search for "ante Christum" in a 1748 reprint of a 1633 abridgement entitled Rationarium temporum by Denis Petau. Retrieved 2010-06-01.
Jump up ^ C. R. Cheney, A Handbook of Dates, for students of British history, Cambridge University Press, 1945–2000, pp. 8–14.
Jump up ^ Dunn, James DG (2003). "Jesus Remembered". Eerdmans Publishing: 324.
Jump up ^ Doggett 1992, p579: "Although scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before AD 1, the historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating".
Jump up ^ Paul L. Maier "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 ISBN 0-931464-50-1 pp. 113–129
Jump up ^ New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pp. 121–124
Jump up ^ Roger S. Bagnall and Klaas A. Worp, Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt, Leiden, Brill, 2004.
Jump up ^ Alfred von Gutschmid, Kleine Schriften, F. Ruehl, Leipzig, 1889, p.433.
Jump up ^ Johannes Kepler (1615). Joannis Keppleri Eclogae chronicae: ex epistolis doctissimorum aliquot virorum & suis mutuis, quibus examinantur tempora nobilissima: 1. Herodis Herodiadumque, 2. baptismi & ministerii Christi annorum non plus 2 1/4, 3. passionis, mortis et resurrectionis Dn. N. Iesu Christi, anno aerae nostrae vulgaris 31. non, ut vulgo 33., 4. belli Iudaici, quo funerata fuit cum Ierosolymis & Templo Synagoga Iudaica, sublatumque Vetus Testamentum. Inter alia & commentarius in locum Epiphanii obscurissimum de cyclo veteri Iudaeorum. (in Latin). Francofurti : Tampach. Retrieved 2011-05-18. anno aerae nostrae vulgaris
Jump up ^ Kepler, Johann; Vlacq, Adriaan (1635). Ephemerides of the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeers of the Vulgar Era 1633... Retrieved 2011-05-18.
Jump up ^ Sliter, Robert (1652). A celestiall glasse, or, Ephemeris for the year of the Christian era 1652 being the bissextile or leap-year: contayning the lunations, planetary motions, configurations & ecclipses for this present year ... : with many other things very delightfull and necessary for most sorts of men: calculated exactly and composed for ... Rochester. London: Printed for the Company of Stationers.
Jump up ^ The History of the Works of the Learned. 10. London: Printed for H. Rhodes. January 1708. p. 513. Retrieved 2011-05-18.
Jump up ^ BBC Team (8 February 2005). "History of Judaism 63BCE–1086CE". BBC Religion & Ethics. British Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2011-05-13. Retrieved 2011-05-18. Year 1: CE – What is nowadays called the 'Current Era' traditionally begins with the birth of a Jewish teacher called Jesus. His followers came to believe he was the promised Messiah and later split away from Judaism to found Christianity
Jump up ^ Raphall, Morris Jacob (1856). Post-Biblical History of The Jews. Moss & Brother. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-18. The term common era does not appear in this book; the term Christian era [lowercase] does appear a number of times. Nowhere in the book is the abbreviation explained or expanded directly.
Jump up ^ Robinson, B.A. (20 April 2009). "Justification of the use of "CE" & "BCE" to identify dates. Trends". ReligiousTolerance.org.
Jump up ^ William Safire (17 August 1997). "On Language: B.C./A.D. or B.C.E./C.E.?". The New York Times Magazine.
Jump up ^ Cunningham, ed. by Philip A. (2004). Pondering the Passion : what's at stake for Christians and Jews?. Lanham, Md. [u.a.]: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 193. ISBN 978-0742532182. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Doggett, 1992, p. 579
Sources[edit]
Abate, Frank R. (ed.) (1997). Oxford Pocket Dictionary and Thesaurus (American ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513097-9. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Goldstein, Norm, ed. (2007). Associated Press Style Book. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-00489-X.
Bede. (731). Historiam ecclesiasticam gentis Anglorum. Accessed 2007-12-07.
Chicago Manual of Style (2nd ed.). University of Chicago. 1993. ISBN 0-226-10389-7.
Chicago Manual of Style (16th ed.). University of Chicago. 2010. ISBN 0-226-10420-6.
Blackburn, Bonnie; Holford-Strevens, Leofranc (2003). The Oxford companion to the Year: An exploration of calendar customs and time-reckoning. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-214231-3. Corrected reprinting of original 1999 edition.
Cunningham, Philip A; Starr, Arthur F (1998). Sharing Shalom: A Process for Local Interfaith Dialogue Between Christians and Jews. Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-3835-2.
Declercq, Georges (2000). Anno Domini: The origins of the Christian era. Turnhout: Brepols. ISBN 2-503-51050-7. (despite beginning with 2, it is English)
Declercq, G. "Dionysius Exiguus and the Introduction of the Christian Era". Sacris Erudiri 41 (2002): 165–246. An annotated version of part of Anno Domini.
Doggett. (1992). "Calendars" (Ch. 12), in P. Kenneth Seidelmann (Ed.) Explanatory supplement to the astronomical almanac. Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-68-7.
Patrick, J. (1908). "General Chronology". In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2008-07-16 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm
Richards, E. G. (2000). Mapping Time. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-286205-7.
Riggs, John (January 2003). "Whatever happened to B.C. and A.D., and why?". United Church News. Retrieved 2005-12-19.
Ryan, Donald P. (2000). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Biblical Mysteries. Alpha Books. p. 15. ISBN 0-02-863831-X.
External links[edit]
Look up AD or Anno Domini in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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Price controls
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Price controls are governmental restrictions on the prices that can be charged for goods and services in a market. The intent behind implementing such controls can stem from the desire to maintain affordability of goods, to prevent during shortages, and to slow inflation, or, alternatively, to ensure a minimum income for providers of certain goods or a minimum wage. There are two primary forms of price control, a price ceiling, the maximum price that can be charged, and a price floor, the minimum price that can be charged.
Historically, price controls have often been imposed as part of a larger incomes policy package also employing wage controls and other regulatory elements.
Although price controls are sometimes used by governments, economists usually agree that price controls don't accomplish what they are intended to do and are generally to be avoided.[1] For example, nearly three-quarters of economists surveyed disagreed with the statement, "Wage-price controls are a useful policy option in the control of inflation."[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Postwar
1.1.1 United Kingdom
1.1.2 United States
2 Criticism
3 See also
4 References
History[edit]
Parts of this article (those related to California electricity price controls) need to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (January 2015)
WWI poster of the United States Food Administration
WWII poster about US price controls
The Roman Emperor Diocletian tried to set maximum prices for all commodities in the late 3rd century AD but with little success.
During the French Revolution, the Law of the Maximum set price limits on the sale of food and other staples.
Governments in planned economies typically control prices on most or all goods but have not sustained high economic performance and have been almost entirely replaced by mixed economies.
Price controls have also been used in modern times in less-planned economies, such as rent control.[1]
During World War I, the United States Food Administration enforced price controls on food.[3][4][5][6] Price controls were also imposed in the US and Nazi Germany during World War II.[7][8]
Postwar[edit]
Wage controls have been tried in many countries to reduce inflation, seldom successfully. Modern neoclassical economic theory supports the alternative remedy of reducing the money supply and proposes that monetary inflation is caused by too much money creation by the central bank.[citation needed]
United Kingdom[edit]
The National Board for Prices and Incomes was created by the government of Harold Wilson in 1965 in an attempt to solve the problem of inflation in the British economy by managing wages and prices. The Prices and Incomes Act 1966 c. 33 affected UK labour law, regarding wage levels and price policies. It allowed the government to begin a process to scrutinise rising levels of wages (then around 8% per year) by initiating reports and inquiries and ultimately giving orders for a standstill. The objective was to control inflation. It proved unpopular after the 1960s.
United States[edit]
States have sometimes chosen to implement their own control policies. California controls the prices of electricity within the state, which conservative economist Thomas Sowell blames for the occasional electricity shortages the state experiences.[9] Sowell said in 2001, "Since the utility companies have been paying more for electricity than they were allowed to charge their customers, they were operating in the red and the financial markets are downgrading their bonds."[9] California's price-setting board agreed to raise rates but not as much as the companies were paying on the wholesale market for their electricity.[10] Economist Lawrence Makovich contended, "We've already seen in California that price caps on retail rates increased demand and made the shortage worse and price caps also forced the largest utility, Pacific Gas and Electric, into bankruptcy in four months."[11] While some charged that electricity providers had in past years charged above-market rates,[11] in 2002 the San Francisco Chronicle reported that before the blackouts, many energy providers left the state because they could make a greater profit in other Western states.[12] The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission stepped in and set price caps for each megawatt of power bought after lifting the caps to avoid rolling blackouts six months previously.[12]
The state of Hawaii briefly introduced a cap on the wholesale price of gasoline (the Gas Cap Law) in an effort to fight "price gouging" in that state in 2005. Because it was widely seen as too soft and ineffective, it was repealed shortly thereafter.[13]
Criticism[edit]
The primary criticism leveled against price controls is that by keeping prices artificially low, demand is increased to the point where supply can not keep up, leading to shortages in the price-controlled product.[14] For example, Lactantius wrote that Diocletian "by various taxes he had made all things exceedingly expensive, attempted by a law to limit their prices. Then much blood [of merchants] was shed for trifles, men were afraid to offer anything for sale, and the scarcity became more excessive and grievous than ever. Until, in the end, the [price limit] law, after having proved destructive to many people, was from mere necessity abolished."[15] As with Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices, shortages lead to black markets where prices for the same good exceed those of an uncontrolled market.[14] Furthermore, once controls are removed, prices will immediately increase, which can temporarily shock the economic system.[14]
A classic example of how price controls cause shortages was during the Arab oil embargo between October 19, 1973 and March 17, 1974. Long lines of cars and trucks quickly appeared at retail gas stations in the U.S. and some stations closed because of a shortage of fuel at the low price set by the U.S. Cost of Living Council. The fixed price was below what the market would otherwise bear and, as a result, the inventory disappeared. It made no difference whether prices were voluntarily or involuntarily posted below the market clearing price. Scarcity resulted in either case. Price controls fail to achieve their proximate aim, which is to reduce prices paid by retail consumers, but such controls do manage to reduce supply.[16][17]
Nobel prize winner Milton Friedman said "We economists don't know much, but we do know how to create a shortage. If you want to create a shortage of tomatoes, for example, just pass a law that retailers can't sell tomatoes for more than two cents per pound. Instantly you'll have a tomato shortage. It's the same with oil or gas."[18]
U.S. President Richard Nixon's Secretary of the Treasury, George Shultz, enacting Nixon's "New Economic Policy," lifted price controls that had begun in 1971 (part of the Nixon Shock). This lifting of price controls resulted in a rapid increase in prices. Price freezes were re-established five months later.[19] Stagflation was eventually ended in the United States when the Federal Reserve under chairman Paul Volcker raised interest rates to unusually high levels. This successfully ended high inflation but caused a recession that ended in the early 1980s.
See also[edit]
Administered prices
Capital control
Monopsony
Incomes policy
Rent regulation
Council on Wage and Price Stability
Shortages in Venezuela
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Rockoff, Hugh (2008). "Price Controls". In David R. Henderson (ed.). The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0865976658. OCLC 237794267. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
Jump up ^ Alston, Richard M.; Kearl, J.R.; Vaughan, Michael B. (May 1992). "Is There a Consensus Among Economists in the 1990's?" (PDF). 82 (2). American Economic Review: 203–209. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "File: "Prices charged in this store will not exceed those indicated in the most recent list of Fair Prices applicable to this – NARA – 512556.jpg – Wikimedia Commons". Retrieved 2012-01-21.
Jump up ^ "File: "Closed. Public Notice. For Violation of the rules of the United States Food Administration This Place is Closed days... – NARA – 512564.tif – Wikimedia Commons". Retrieved 2012-01-21.
Jump up ^ "File: "This Store sells at FAIR PRICES as interpreted by U.S. Food Administration...", ca. 1917 – ca. 1919 – NARA – 512714.tif – Wikimedia Commons". Retrieved 2012-01-21.
Jump up ^ "File: "We violated the regulations of the Food Administration but have pledged Full Obedience in the Future.", ca. 1917 – ca. – NARA – 512528.jpg – Wikimedia Commons". Retrieved 2012-01-21.
Jump up ^ Paths to Democracy: Revolution and Totalitarianism By Rosemary H. T. O'Kane page 135
Jump up ^ "File: "Cost of Living 1918–1944" – NARA – 514088.jpg – Wikimedia Commons". Retrieved 2012-01-21.
^ Jump up to: a b Sowell, Thomas (2001-01-11). "The Cause of the California Electricity Shortages: "Price Controls"". Capitalism Magazine. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
Jump up ^ "Power problems". NewsHour with Jim Lehrer. PBS. 2001-01-04. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
^ Jump up to: a b "Power struggle". NewsHour with Jim Lehrer. PBS. 2001-06-20. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
^ Jump up to: a b Martin, Mark (2002-05-10). "Memos show makings of power crisis". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
Jump up ^ the well of natal
^ Jump up to: a b c Walter J. Wessels, Economics (2000), pp. 232–33.
Jump up ^ Lactantius. "CHAP. VII.". On the Deaths of the Persecutors. ca. 300 (Christian Classics Ethereal Library ed.). Calvin College.
Jump up ^ Taylor and Van Doren, pp. 26–28
Jump up ^ Thomas Sowell, Applied Economics: Thinking Beyond Stage One (2008), pp. 7–9, 112–13, ISBN 0-465-00345-1
Jump up ^ "Controls blamed for U.S. energy woes", Los Angeles Times, February 13, 1977, Milton Friedman press conference in Los Angeles.
Jump up ^ "George P. Shultz (1972–1974)". Treasury.gov. 2010-11-20. Retrieved 2013-09-27.
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Timeline of Kentucky history
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Timeline of Kentucky history
Contents
[hide]
1 Early history
2 Seven Years War / French and Indian War
3 Lord Dunmore's War
4 Revolutionary War
5 Between the wars
6 Civil War
7 Post Civil War period
8 Twentieth century
9 Twenty-first century
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 Further reading
Early history[edit]
History of Kentucky
Pre-statehood
U.S. Civil War
Since 1900
Timeline
Topics: African-Americans - Cities - Politics
Kentucky portal
v
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e
Before 1750, Kentucky was populated nearly exclusively by Cherokee, Chickasaw, Shawnee and several other tribes of Native Americans[1] See also Pre-Columbian
April 13, 1750 • While leading an expedition for the Loyal Land Company in what is now southeastern Kentucky, Dr. Thomas Walker was the first recorded American of European descent to discover and use coal in Kentucky;[2]
By 1751 surveyor-explorer and Indian scout Christopher Gist, representing the Ohio Company, together with a bonded African, mapped the Ohio River area from its headwaters (near today's Pittsburgh) and crossed into what is now Kentucky.[3]
Seven Years War / French and Indian War[edit]
1754 The Piqua, of the Shawnee nation, abandoned Eskippakithiki, "place of blue licks" - or Little Pict Town as the European traders called it. This may also have been the town that the Wyandot (of the Iroquois nations) referred to as Kentucky[4] or "Meadow" and so the name for the nearby river came to serve as the name for the whole area. Eskppakithiki was probably the last permanent non-European town in the area that became Kentucky; later European-American settlers called the well-kept farmlands around the stockaded village location the "Indian Old Fields."
1767 Daniel Boone led his first band of hunters as far west as what is now Floyd County, Kentucky and hunted along the Big Sandy River.
1769 Judge Richard Henderson financed a venture proposed by John Finley to find the Cherokees' Warriors Path through a gap in the Cumberland Mountains; Finley convinced his friend Daniel Boone to lead a hunting party on a long hunt in Kentucky, including John Stewart, Boone's brother-in-law; they cleared a trail through the Cumberland Gap; on December 22, a Shawnee war party confiscated their store of pelts, warning them not to return, but Daniel Boone, his brother Squire and John Stewart remained in Kentucky for two more years, exploring and hunting - tales of these exploits drew the attention of easterners eager for new lands to settle.[5]
Lord Dunmore's War[edit]
June 16, 1774 • James Harrod and 37 men, while on a surveying expedition ordered by Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, claimed the territory in what is now Mercer County, Kentucky as the first English settlement west of the Alleghenies, Harrod's Town; in July they abandoned the few buildings there when called into military service, but returned the next spring with women (like Ann Kennedy Wilson Poague Lindsay McGinty[6]) to build up what became a bustling frontier town[7] at Old Fort Hill.
Revolutionary War[edit]
March 10, 1775 • Daniel Boone along with 35 axmen begin to blaze a trail from Fort Chiswell through Cumberland Gap into central Kentucky. Financed by the Transylvania Company, the trail eventually came to be known as the Wilderness Road.
June 1775 • Led by Major John Morrison, a small band of Virginia militia including Levi Todd and William McConnell camped at a spring near Elkhorn Creek. Upon hearing about the Battle of Lexington, a skirmish between the British and the Minutemen of Lexington, Massachusetts, the soldiers named their campsite Lexington in honor of the first military conflict in the American Revolution; McConnell built a cabin on the site (later called McConnell's Station); Lexington, Kentucky was one of the first permanent settlements by the English moving west into the frontier territory of what was then at the center of a colonial war between France, England and Spain.
1777 • Levi Todd moved to Kentucky and settled in Harrodsburg where he became the first clerk of Kentucky County in the Commonwealth of Virginia.
May 27, 1778 *(1778) George Rogers Clark arrives at the Falls of the Ohio and establishes Corn Island settlement.
1779 • Lexington Station is established on the "Town Branch" of Elkhorn Creek; refurbished by Col. John Todd (Virginia) in 1781 as a blockhouse fort; the town of Lexington was established in 1782.
August 19, 1782 • The Battle of Blue Licks in what is now Robertson County, was the last major conflict of the American Revolutionary War; Col. John Todd, co-founder of the town of Lexington, is one of the dead.
Between the wars[edit]
October 1, 1789 • Jenny Brevard Wiley, mother of four children and pregnant with her fifth at the time, was kidnapped from her home in Virginia by a war party of Cherokees, Shawnees, Wyandots and Delawares; forced to work for her captors at Little Mud Lick Creek in Johnson County, Kentucky, she escaped and returned to her husband, eventually returning to live with her new family in the same area where she had been held as a slave. Jenny Wiley State Resort Park near Dewey Lake in eastern Kentucky and the Jenny Wiley Stakes thoroughbred race at Keeneland Race Course in Lexington, Kentucky are named after her.
June 1, 1792 • Kentucky became the fifteenth state to be admitted to the union and Isaac Shelby, a military veteran from Virginia, was elected the first Governor of the Commonwealth of Kentucky.
1795 • Free Frank McWorter builds and manages a farming settlement in Pulaski County, Kentucky while enslaved by his father, George McWhorter; his saltpeter factory becomes highly profitable during the War of 1812 and by 1817 he had earned enough money of his own to purchase his wife Lucy from her master, and in 1819 bought his own freedom from his father, earning the moniker Free Frank; he traded his saltpeter plant in 1829 in exchange for the freedom of his eldest son Frank and moved with his family to Illinois, continuing to purchase the freedom of his relatives.[8]
December, 1811 through February, 1812 • A series of very large or great earthquakes strike the New Madrid Seismic Zone creating a "Hell on Earth" scenario for early Kentuckians, both native and European.
1818 • The portion of Kentucky west of the Tennessee River was purchased from the Chickasaw by U.S. President Andrew Jackson, hence the name of this region — The Jackson Purchase.
May 27, 1830 • A veto by President Andrew Jackson prevented the federal funding of refurbishing of the Maysville Road from the Ohio River to Lexington since, according to Jackson, the bill only benefited the Commonwealth of Kentucky; this was a personal and political blow to Henry Clay and the Whig Party's American System.
February 2, 1833 • Kentucky's legislature passed the Non-Importation Act was part of a national trend to strengthen the laws regarding slavery and the rising efforts for personal liberty, including the increased efforts within the Underground Railroad freedom movement[9] in which the state of Kentucky focused as an important crossroads. The act was repealed in 1849 as part of the work in building the state's new constitution.
January 1856 • Margaret Garner led seven members of her family out of slavery in Kentucky, walking across the frozen Ohio River from the Covington side to Cincinnati, Ohio; but they are pursued by federal marshals and Archibald K. Gaines who surround the cabin where they are hiding; she tried to kill her two children and herself rather than surrender but succeeds only in killing her daughter Mary before being captured; her story became widely known and was immotalized in Toni Morrison's 1987 novel Beloved.[10]
Civil War[edit]
See Timeline of Kentucky in the Civil War
Post Civil War period[edit]
January 31, 1865 • The Constitutional Amendment ending slavery in the U.S. is passed and enough states ratify it by December[11] - Kentucky's legislature, not under federal "reconstruction," refused to ratify the Thirteenth Amendment until Kentucky woman legislator, Mae Street Kidd won this battle in 1976.
May 17, 1875 • The first Kentucky Derby was won by a colt named Aristides ridden by African-American jockey, Oliver Lewis in front of an estimated crowd of 10,000 people.
Twentieth century[edit]
January 1937 • A massive flood occurs as the result of snowmelt and record rainfall effecting nearly every Kentucky town and city along the Ohio River, its tributaries and the Mississippi.
1954 • A twelve-year-old then known as Cassius Clay approached a Louisville police officer named Joe Martin to report that his bicycle had been stolen. Martin, then the coach of Louisville's city boxing program, tells Cassius that instead of "whooping" the thief, he should learn to box. The next day, the boy takes his first boxing lessons, the first step on a journey that would take him to a legendary boxing career.
February 28, 1958 • Prestonsburg bus disaster — A school bus traveling on US 23 in Floyd County collides with a wrecker truck and plunges into a flooded Levisa Fork River. The driver and 26 children drown in what remains the deadliest bus disaster in U.S. history.
May 28, 1977 • Beverly Hills Supper Club fire — A fire at the Beverly Hills Supper Club, a nightclub in Southgate in Campbell County, kills 165 and injures over 200.
May 14, 1988 • Carrollton bus collision — Larry Mahoney, intoxicated and driving the wrong way on Interstate 71 in Carroll County, hits a converted school bus carrying a youth group from First Assembly of God in Radcliff. The crash and the ensuing fire kill 27, which equals the toll from the Prestonsburg disaster 30 years earlier.
December 1, 1997 • Heath High School shooting — Michael Carneal, an emotionally troubled freshman at Heath High School in McCracken County, opens fire on a group of his fellow students who were leaving a preschool prayer meeting. Three are killed and five wounded, with one of the wounded left a paraplegic. Carneal is eventually sentenced to three concurrent life sentences plus 120 years.
Twenty-first century[edit]
August 27, 2006 – Comair Flight 5191 crashes shortly after takeoff from Blue Grass Airport in Lexington. Of the 50 passengers and crew on board, 49 are killed.
November 3, 2015 – In the gubernatorial election, Jenean Hampton is elected Lieutenant Governor on the ticket of Matt Bevin, becoming the first African American ever elected to statewide office.
See also[edit]
Outline of Kentucky
History of Kentucky
Cities
Timeline of Louisville, Kentucky
Timeline of Lexington, Kentucky
Timeline of Newport, Kentucky
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Teaching materials are available at the Kentucky Heritage Council website, http://heritage.ky.gov/kas/projects/curriculum+materials.htm
Jump up ^ KY Coal Facts - History of Coal
Jump up ^ Christopher Gist, Ohio History Central; read Christopher Gist's journals online via the University of Toronto's Roberts Library
Jump up ^ "Kentucky," Online Etymology Dictionary
Jump up ^ The Adventures of Colonel Daniel Boone, Formerly A Hunter; Containing a Narrative of the Wars of Kentucky
Jump up ^ For more on this iconic frontierswoman, see Nuckols, Mrs. S.V., "The History of William Page and his Wife, Ann Kennedy Wilson Poague Lindsay McGinty," Register of the Kentucky State Historical Society 10 (1912). See an image of her gravestone at Digital Collections, University of Louisville Libraries
Jump up ^ See the history of Old Fort Harrod State Park
Jump up ^ Walker, Juliet E.K. Free Frank: A Black Pioneer on the Antebellum Frontier. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983.
Jump up ^ See more on this at the National Underground Railroad Freedom Center and see online the Kentucky Educational Television's documentary, "Kentucky's Underground Railroad—Passage to Freedom."
Jump up ^ Weisenburger, Steven. Modern Medea: A Family Story of Slavery and Child-Murder from the Old South. New York: Hill and Wang, 1998. See also the webpage on essays and articles for Margaret Garner: A New American Opera. Accessed 11 December 2010. www.margaretgarner.org.
Jump up ^ See the Library of Congress primary documents
References[edit]
Kyleidoscope: Explore Kentucky History Online
Kleber, John E., Clark, Thomas D. and Harrison, Lowell H., eds. The Kentucky Encyclopedia. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993.
Jones, Reinette. "Notable Kentucky African Americans Database," University of Kentucky Libraries. Accessed 11 December 2010. www.uky.edu/Libraries/NKAA.
A History of Kentucky by Thomas D. Clark
Mulligan, William H., "Interpreting the Civil War at Columbus-Belmont State Park and Sacramento, Kentucky: Two Case Studies", paper presented at "International, Multicultural, Interdisciplinary: Public History Policy and Practice", the 20th Annual Conference of the National Council on Public History, April 16–19, 1998, Austin, Texas
Secession and the Union in Tennessee and Kentucky: A Comparative Analysis James Copeland, Walters State Community College
The Ohio River Flood of 1937 Michael Pitt - University High School, Urbana, Illinois
Vintage Post Cards of Old Louisville - The Great 1937 Flood
Further reading[edit]
Benson John Lossing, ed. (1905). "United States: Kentucky (chronology)". Harper's Encyclopedia of United States History. 9. Harper & Bros. – via HathiTrust.
Federal Writers' Project (1939), "Chronology", Kentucky, American Guide Series, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, OCLC 498232 – via Hathi Trust
[show]
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Years in Kentucky (1792–present)
18th-19th century
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
1797
1798
1799
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
1807
1808
1809
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1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
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1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
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1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
20th century
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
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1918
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1921
1922
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1929
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1931
1932
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1989
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1991
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1998
1999
2000
21st century
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
[show]
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Years in the United States (1776–present)
18th century
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780
1781
1782
1783
1784
1785
1786
1787
1788
1789
1790
1791
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
1797
1798
1799
1800
19th century
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
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1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
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1831
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1833
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1900
20th century
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1911
1912
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21st century
2001
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2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
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