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Gravitational constant
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The gravitational constant G is a key quantity in Newton's law of universal gravitation.
The gravitational constant (also known as the "universal gravitational constant", the "Newtonian constant of gravitation", or the "Cavendish gravitational constant"[1]), denoted by the letter G, is an empirical physical constant involved in the calculation of gravitational effects in Sir Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation and in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity.
In Newton's law, it is the proportionality constant connecting the gravitational force between two bodies with the product of their masses and the inverse square of their distance. In the Einstein field equations, it quantifies the relation between the geometry of spacetime and the energy–momentum tensor.
The measured value of the constant is known with some certainty to four significant digits. In SI units its value is approximately 6989667400000000000♠6.674×10−11 N·kg–2·m2.
The modern notation of Newton's law involving G was introduced in the 1890s by C. V. Boys. The first implicit measurement with an accuracy within about 1% is attributed to Henry Cavendish in a 1798 experiment.[2]
Contents
1 Definition
2 Value and dimensions
2.1 Natural units
2.2 Orbital mechanics
3 History of measurement
3.1 Early history
3.2 19th century
3.3 Modern value
4 Suggested time-variation
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Definition[edit]
According to Newton's law of universal gravitation, the attractive force (F) between two point-like bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses (m1 and m2), and inversely proportional to the square of the distance, r, (inverse-square law) between them:
F = G m 1 m 2 r 2 . {\displaystyle F=G{\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}\,.}
The constant of proportionality, G, is the gravitational constant. Colloquially, the gravitational constant is also called "Big G", for disambiguation with "small g" (g), which is the local gravitational field of Earth (equivalent to the free-fall acceleration).[3][4] The two quantities are related by g = GM⊕/r⊕2 (where M⊕ is the mass of the Earth and r⊕ is the radius of the Earth).
In the general theory of relativity, the Einstein field equations,[5][6]
R μ ν − 1 2 R g μ ν = 8 π G c 4 T μ ν , {\displaystyle R_{\mu \nu }-{\tfrac {1}{2}}R\,g_{\mu \nu }={\frac {8\pi G}{c^{4}}}T_{\mu \nu }\,,}
Newton's constant appears in the proportionality between the spacetime curvature and the energy density component of the stress–energy tensor. The scaled gravitational constant κ = 8π/c4G ≈ 6957207100000000000♠2.071×10−43 s2⋅m−1⋅kg−1 (depending on the choice of definition of the stress–energy tensor it can also be normalized as κ = 8π/c2G ≈ 6974186600000000000♠1.866×10−26 m⋅kg−1) is also known as Einstein's constant.[7]
Value and dimensions[edit]
The gravitational constant is a physical constant that is difficult to measure with high accuracy.[8] This is because the gravitational force is extremely weak as compared to other fundamental forces.[a]
In SI units, the 2014 CODATA-recommended value of the gravitational constant (with standard uncertainty in parentheses) is:[9][10]
G = 6.67408 ( 31 ) × 10 − 11 m 3 k g − 1 s − 2 {\displaystyle G=6.67408(31)\times 10^{-11}{\rm {\ m^{3}\ kg^{-1}\ s^{-2}}}}
This corresponds to a relative standard uncertainty of 6995460000000000000♠4.6×10−5 (46 ppm).
The dimensions assigned to the gravitational constant are force times length squared divided by mass squared; this is equivalent to length cubed, divided by mass and by time squared:
[ G ] = [ F ] [ L ] 2 [ M ] 2 = [ L ] 3 [ M ] [ T ] 2 {\displaystyle [G]={\frac {[F][L]^{2}}{[M]^{2}}}={\frac {[L]^{3}}{[M][T]^{2}}}}
In SI base units, this amounts to meters cubed per kilogram per second squared:
N m 2 k g − 2 = m 3 k g − 1 s − 2 {\displaystyle {\rm {\ N\ m^{2}\ kg^{-2}}}={\rm {\ m^{3}\ kg^{-1}\ s^{-2}}}} .
In cgs, G can be written as G ≈ 6992667400000000000♠6.674×10−8 cm3⋅g−1⋅s−2.
Natural units[edit]
Further information: Natural units and Gravitational coupling constant
The gravitational constant is taken as the basis of the Planck units: it is equal to the cube of the Planck length divided by the product of the Planck mass and the square of Planck time:
G = l P 3 m P t P 2 . {\displaystyle G={\frac {l_{\rm {P}}^{3}}{m_{\rm {P}}t_{\rm {P}}^{2}}}.}
In other words, in Planck units, G has the numerical value of 7000100000000000000♠1.
Thus, in Planck units, and other natural units taking G as their basis, the gravitational constant cannot be measured as it is set to its value by definition. Depending on the choice of units, variation in a physical constant in one system of units shows up as variation of another constant in another system of units; variation in dimensionless physical constants is preserved independently of the choice of units; in the case of the gravitational constant, such a dimensionless value is the gravitational coupling constant,
α G = G m e 2 ℏ c = ( m e m P ) 2 ≈ 1.7518 × 10 − 45 {\displaystyle \alpha _{\text{G}}={\frac {Gm_{\text{e}}^{2}}{\hbar c}}=\left({\frac {m_{\text{e}}}{m_{\text{P}}}}\right)^{2}\approx 1.7518\times 10^{-45}} ,
a measure for the gravitational attraction between a pair of electrons, proportional to the square of the electron rest mass.
Orbital mechanics[edit]
Further information: Standard gravitational parameter, orbital mechanics, celestial mechanics, Gaussian gravitational constant, Earth mass, and Solar mass
In astrophysics, it is convenient to measure distances in parsecs (pc), velocities in kilometers per second (km/s) and masses in solar units M⊙. In these units, the gravitational constant is:
G ≈ 4.302 × 10 − 3 p c M ⊙ − 1 ( k m / s ) 2 . {\displaystyle G\approx 4.302\times 10^{-3}{\rm {\ pc}}\ M_{\odot }^{-1}{\rm {\ (km/s)^{2}}}.\,}
For situations where tides are important, the relevant length scales are solar radii rather than parsecs. In these units, the gravitational constant is:
G ≈ 1.90809 × 10 5 R ⊙ M ⊙ − 1 ( k m / s ) 2 . {\displaystyle G\approx 1.90809\times 10^{5}{\rm {R_{\odot }}}\ M_{\odot }^{-1}{\rm {\ (km/s)^{2}}}.\,}
In orbital mechanics, the period P of an object in circular orbit around a spherical object obeys
G M = 3 π V P 2 {\displaystyle GM={\frac {3\pi V}{P^{2}}}}
where V is the volume inside the radius of the orbit. It follows that
P 2 = 3 π G V M ≈ 10.896 h r 2 g c m − 3 V M . {\displaystyle P^{2}={\frac {3\pi }{G}}{\frac {V}{M}}\approx 10.896\ {\rm {hr^{2}\ g\ cm^{-3}}}{\frac {V}{M}}.}
This way of expressing G shows the relationship between the average density of a planet and the period of a satellite orbiting just above its surface.
For elliptical orbits, applying Kepler's 3rd law, expressed in units characteristic of Earth's orbit:
G = 4 π 2 A U 3 y r − 2 M − 1 ≈ 39.478 A U 3 y r − 2 M ⊙ − 1 {\displaystyle G=4\pi ^{2}{\rm {\ AU^{3}}}{\rm {\ yr^{-2}}}\ M^{-1}\approx 39.478{\rm {\ AU^{3}}}{\rm {\ yr^{-2}}}\ M_{\odot }^{-1}\,} ,
where distance is measured in terms of the semi-major axis of Earth's orbit (the astronomical unit, AU), time in years, and mass in the total mass of the orbiting system (M = M☉+M⊕+M☾[11]).
The above equation is exact only within the approximation of the Earth's orbit around the Sun as a two-body problem in Newtonian mechanics, the measured quantities contain corrections from the perturbations from other bodies in the solar system and from general relativity. From 1964 until 2012, however, it was used as the definition of the astronomical unit and thus held by definition:
1 A U = ( G M 4 π 2 y r 2 ) 1 3 ≈ 1.495979 ⋅ 10 11 m . {\displaystyle 1\ {\rm {AU}}=\left({\frac {GM}{4\pi ^{2}}}{\rm {yr}}^{2}\right)^{\frac {1}{3}}\approx 1.495979\cdot 10^{11}{\rm {m}}.}
Since 2012, the AU is defined as 7011149597870700000♠1.495978707×1011 m exactly, and the equation can no longer be taken as holding precisely.
The quantity GM—the product of the gravitational constant and the mass of a given astronomical body such as the Sun or Earth—is known as the standard gravitational parameter and (also denoted μ). The standard gravitational parameter GM appears as above in Newton's law of universal gravitation, as well as in formulas for the deflection of light caused by gravitational lensing, in Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and in the formula for escape velocity.
This quantity gives a convenient simplification of various gravity-related formulas. For the Sun, GM☉ is known to ten digits' accuracy, 7020132712440018000♠1.32712440018(9)×1020 m3s−2;[12] for the Earth, GM⊕ is known to nine digits, 7014398600441800000♠3.986004418(8)×1014 m3s−2,[13] i.e. much more accurately than each factor independently.
Calculations in celestial mechanics can also be carried out using the units of solar masses, mean solar days and astronomical units rather than standard SI units. For this purpose, the Gaussian gravitational constant was historically in widespread use, k = 6998172020989500000♠0.01720209895, expressing the mean angular velocity of the Sun-Earth system measured in radians per day. The use of this constant, and the implied definition of the astronomical unit discussed above, has been deprecated by the IAU in 2012.
History of measurement[edit]
Further information: Earth mass, Schiehallion experiment, and Cavendish experiment
Early history[edit]
Between 1640 and 1650, Grimaldi and Riccioli had discovered that the distance covered by objects in free fall was proportional to the square of the time taken, which led them to attempt a calculation of the gravitational constant by recording the oscillations of a pendulum.[14]
The constant appears as G in Newton's law of universal gravitation, but is not calculated in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica where it postulates the inverse-square law of gravitation. In the Principia, Newton considered the possibility of measuring gravity's strength by measuring the deflection of a pendulum in the vicinity of a large hill, but thought that the effect would be too small to be measurable.[15] Nevertheless, he estimated the order of magnitude of the constant when he surmised that "the mean density of the earth might be five or six times as great as the density of water", which is equivalent to a gravitational constant of the order:[16]
G ≈ 6989700000000000000♠(7±1)×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2
A measurement was attempted in 1738 by Pierre Bouguer and Charles Marie de La Condamine, in their "Peruvian expedition". Bouguer downplayed the significance of their results in 1740, suggesting that the experiment had at least proved that the Earth could not be a hollow shell, as some thinkers of the day, including Edmond Halley, had suggested.[17]
The Schiehallion experiment, proposed in 1772 and completed in 1776, was the first successful measurement of the mean density of the Earth, and thus indirectly of the gravitational constant. The result reported by Charles Hutton (1778) suggested a density of 7000450000000000000♠4.5 g/cm3 (41⁄2 times the density of water), about 20% below the modern value.[18] This immediately led to estimates on the densities and masses of the Sun, Moon and planets, sent by Hutton to Jérôme Lalande for inclusion in his planetary tables. As discussed above, establishing the average density of Earth is equivalent to measuring the gravitational constant, given Earth's mean radius and the mean gravitational acceleration at Earth's surface, by setting
G = g R ⊕ 2 M ⊕ = 3 g 4 π R ⊕ ρ ⊕ . {\displaystyle G=g{\frac {R_{\oplus }^{2}}{M_{\oplus }}}={\frac {3g}{4\pi R_{\oplus }\rho _{\oplus }}}.} [19]
Based on this, Hutton's 1778 result is equivalent to G ≈ 6989800000000000000♠8×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2.
Diagram of torsion balance used in the Cavendish experiment performed by Henry Cavendish in 1798, to measure G, with the help of a pulley, large balls hung from a frame were rotated into position next to the small balls.
The first direct measurement of gravitational attraction between two bodies in the laboratory was performed in 1798, seventy-one years after Newton's death, by Henry Cavendish.[20] He determined a value for G implicitly, using a torsion balance invented by the geologist Rev. John Michell (1753). He used a horizontal torsion beam with lead balls whose inertia (in relation to the torsion constant) he could tell by timing the beam's oscillation. Their faint attraction to other balls placed alongside the beam was detectable by the deflection it caused. In spite of the experimental design being due to Michell, the experiment is now known as the Cavendish experiment for its first successful execution by Cavendish.
Cavendish's stated aim was the "weighing of Earth", that is, determining the average density of Earth and the Earth's mass. His result, ρ⊕= 7000544800000000000♠5.448(33) g·cm−3, corresponds to value of G = 6989674000000000000♠6.74(4)×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2. It is surprisingly accurate, perhaps by chance, about 1% above the modern value (and thus still outside the cited standard uncertainty of 0.6%).[21]
19th century[edit]
The accuracy of the measured value of G has increased only modestly since the original Cavendish experiment.[22] G is quite difficult to measure because gravity is much weaker than other fundamental forces, and an experimental apparatus cannot be separated from the gravitational influence of other bodies. Furthermore, gravity has no established relation to other fundamental forces, so it does not appear possible to calculate it indirectly from other constants that can be measured more accurately, as is done in some other areas of physics.
Measurements with pendulums were made by Francesco Carlini (1821, 7000438999999999999♠4.39 g/cm3), Edward Sabine (1827, 7000476999999999999♠4.77 g/cm3) Carlo Ignazio Giulio (1841, 7000495000000000000♠4.95 g/cm3) and George Biddell Airy (1854, 7000660000000000000♠6.6 g/cm3).[23]
Cavendish's experiment was first repeated by Ferdinand Reich (1838, 1842, 1853), who found a value of 7000558320000000000♠5.5832(149) g·cm−3,[24] which is actually worse than Cavendish's result, differing from the modern value by 1.5%. Cornu and Baille (1873), found 7000555999999999999♠5.56 g·cm−3.[25]
Cavendish's experiment proved to result in more reliable measurements than pendulum experiments of the "Schiehallion" (deflection) type or "Peruvian" (period as a function of altitude) type. Pendulum experiments still continued to be performed, by Robert von Sterneck (1883, results between 5.0 and 7000630000000000000♠6.3 g/cm3) and Thomas Corwin Mendenhall (1880, 7000577000000000000♠5.77 g/cm3).[26]
Cavendish's result was first improved upon by John Henry Poynting (1891), who published a value of 7000549000000000000♠5.49(3) g·cm−3, differing from the modern value by 0.2%, but compatible with the modern value within the cited standard uncertainty of 0.55%. In addition to Poynting, measurements were made by C. V. Boys (1895)[27] and Carl Braun (1897),[28] with compatible results suggesting G = 6989666000000000000♠6.66(1)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2. The modern notation involving the constant G was introduced by Boys in 1894[19] and becomes standard by the end of the 1890s, with values usually cited in the cgs system. Richarz and Krigar-Menzel (1898) attempted a repetition of the Cavendish experiment using 100,000 kg of lead for the attracting mass. The precision of their result of 6989668300000000000♠6.683(11)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 was, however, of the same order of magnitude as the other results at the time.[29]
Arthur Stanley Mackenzie in The Laws of Gravitation (1899) reviews the work done in the 19th century.[30] Poynting is the author of the article "Gravitation" in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911). Here, he cites a value of G = 6989666000000000000♠6.66×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 with an uncertainty of 0.2%.
Modern value[edit]
Paul R. Heyl (1930) published the value of 6989667000000000000♠6.670(5)×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2 (relative uncertainty 0.1%),[31] improved to 6989667300000000000♠6.673(3)×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2 (relative uncertainty 0.045% = 450 ppm) in 1942.[32]
Published values of G derived from high-precision measurements since the 1950s have remained compatible with Heyl (1930), but within the relative uncertainty of about 0.1% (or 1,000 ppm) have varied rather broadly, and it is not entirely clear if the uncertainty has been reduced at all since the 1942 measurement. Some measurements published in the 1980s to 2000s were, in fact, mutually exclusive.[8][33] Establishing a standard value for G with a standard uncertainty better than 0.1% has therefore remained rather speculative.
By 1969, the value recommended by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) was cited with a standard uncertainty of 0.046% (460 ppm), lowered to 0.012% (120 ppm) by 1986. But the continued publication of conflicting measurements led NIST to radically increase the standard uncertainty in the 1998 recommended value, by a factor of 12, to a standard uncertainty of 0.15%, larger than the one given by Heyl (1930).
The value was again lowered in 2002 and 2006, but once again raised, by a more conservative 20%, in 2010, matching the standard uncertainty of 120 ppm published in 1986.[34] For the 2014 update, CODATA reduced the uncertainty to 46 ppm, less than half the 2010 value, and one order of magnitude below the 1969 recommendation.
The following table shows the NIST recommended values published since 1969:
Timeline of measurements and recommended values for G since 1900: values recommended based on a literature review are shown in red, individual torsion balance experiments in blue, other types of experiments in green.
year
G
(10−11·m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2)
standard
uncertainty
(ppm)
ref.
1969 6.6732(31) 460 [35]
1973 6.6720(49) 730 [36]
1986 6.67449(81) 120 [37]
1998 6.673(10) 1,500 [38]
2002 6.6742(10) 150 [39]
2006 6.67428(67) 100 [40]
2010 6.67384(80) 120 [41]
2014 6.67408(31) 46 [42]
In the January 2007 issue of Science, Fixler et al. described a new measurement of the gravitational constant by atom interferometry, reporting a value of G = 6989669300000000000♠6.693(34)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2.[43] An improved cold atom measurement by Rosi et al. was published in 2014 of G = 6989667191000000000♠6.67191(99)×10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2,[44] below the recommended 2014 CODATA value by 1,200 ppm, with non-overlapping standard uncertainty intervals.
As of 2018, efforts to re-evaluate the conflicting results of measurements are underway, coordinated by NIST, notably a repetition of the experiments reported by Quinn et al. (2013) .[45] In August 2018 a Chinese research group announced new measurements based on torsion balances, 6989667418400000000♠6.674184(78)×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2 and 6989667448400000000♠6.674484(78)×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2 based on two different methods.[46][47]
Suggested time-variation[edit]
Further information: Time-variation of fundamental constants
A controversial 2015 study of some previous measurements of G, by Anderson et al., suggested that most of the mutually exclusive values in high-precision measurements of G can be explained by a periodic variation.[48] The variation was measured as having a period of 5.9 years, similar to that observed in length-of-day (LOD) measurements, hinting at a common physical cause which is not necessarily a variation in G. A response was produced by some of the original authors of the G measurements used in Anderson et al.[49] This response notes that Anderson et al. not only omitted measurements, they also used the time of publication not the time the experiments were performed. A plot with estimated time of measurement from contacting original authors seriously degrades the length of day correlation. Also taking the data collected over a decade by Karagioz and Izmailov shows no correlation with length of day measurements.[49][50] As such the variations in G most likely arise from systematic measurement errors which have not properly been accounted for. Under the assumption that the physics of type Ia supernovae are universal, analysis of observations of 580 type Ia supernovae has shown that the gravitational constant has varied by less than one part in ten billion per year over the last nine billion years according to Mould et al. (2014).[51]
See also[edit]
Physics portal
Gravity of Earth
Standard gravity
Standard gravitational parameter
Gaussian gravitational constant
Orbital mechanics
Escape velocity
Gravitational coupling constant
Gravitational potential
Gravitational wave
Strong gravitational constant
Dirac large numbers hypothesis
Accelerating universe
Lunar Laser Ranging experiment
Cosmological constant
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ For example, the gravitational force between an electron and proton one meter apart is approximately 6933099999999999999♠10−67 N, whereas the electromagnetic force between the same two particles is approximately 6972100000000000000♠10−28 N. The electromagnetic force in this example is some 39 orders of magnitude (i.e. 1039) greater than the force of gravity—roughly the same ratio as the mass of the Sun to a microgram.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Newtonian constant of gravitation" is the name introduced for G by Boys (1894). Use of the term by T.E. Stern (1928) was misquoted as "Newton's constant of gravitation" in Pure Science Reviewed for Profound and Unsophisticated Students (1930), in what is apparently the first use of that term. Use of "Newton's constant" (without specifying "gravitation" or "gravity") is more recent, as "Newton's constant" was also used for the heat transfer coefficient in Newton's law of cooling, but has by now become quite common, e.g. Calmet et al, Quantum Black Holes (2013), p. 93; P. de Aquino, Beyond Standard Model Phenomenology at the LHC (2013), p. 3. The name "Cavendish gravitational constant", sometimes "Newton-Cavendish gravitational constant", appears to have been common in the 1970s to 1980s, especially in (translations from) Soviet-era Russian literature, e.g. Sagitov (1970 [1969]), Soviet Physics: Uspekhi 30 (1987), Issues 1-6, p. 342 [etc.]. "Cavendish constant" and "Cavendish gravitational constant" is also used in Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne, John Archibald Wheeler, "Gravitation", (1973), 1126f. Colloquial use of "Big G", as opposed to "little g" for gravitational acceleration dates to the 1960s (R.W. Fairbridge, The encyclopedia of atmospheric sciences and astrogeology, 1967, p. 436; note use of "Big G's" vs. "little g's" as early as the 1940s of the Einstein tensor Gμν vs. the metric tensor gμν, Scientific, medical, and technical books published in the United States of America: a selected list of titles in print with annotations : supplement of books published 1945-1948, Committee on American Scientific and Technical Bibliography National Research Council, 1950, p. 26).
Jump up ^ Cavendish determined the value of G indirectly, by reporting a value for the Earth's mass, or the average density of Earth, as 5.448 g·cm−3
Jump up ^ Gundlach, Jens H.; Merkowitz, Stephen M. (2002-12-23). "University of Washington Big G Measurement". Astrophysics Science Division. Goddard Space Flight Center. Since Cavendish first measured Newton's Gravitational constant 200 years ago, "Big G" remains one of the most elusive constants in physics
Jump up ^ Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl. Fundamentals of Physics (8th ed.). p. 336. ISBN 978-0-470-04618-0.
Jump up ^ Grøn, Øyvind; Hervik, Sigbjorn (2007). Einstein's General Theory of Relativity: With Modern Applications in Cosmology (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-387-69200-5.
Jump up ^ Einstein, Albert (1916). "The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity". Annalen der Physik. 354 (7): 769. Bibcode:1916AnP...354..769E. doi:10.1002/andp.19163540702. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-06.
Jump up ^ Adler, Ronald; Bazin, Maurice; Schiffer, Menahem (1975). Introduction to General Relativity (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 345. ISBN 0-07-000423-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Gillies, George T. (1997). "The Newtonian gravitational constant: recent measurements and related studies". Reports on Progress in Physics. 60 (2): 151–225. Bibcode:1997RPPh...60..151G. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/60/2/001. . A lengthy, detailed review. See Figure 1 and Table 2 in particular.
Jump up ^ Mohr, Peter J.; Newell, David B.; Taylor, Barry N. (2015-07-21). "CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2014". Reviews of Modern Physics. 88. arXiv:1507.07956. Bibcode:2016RvMP...88c5009M. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.88.035009.
Jump up ^ "Newtonian constant of gravitation G". CODATA, NIST.
Jump up ^ M ≈ 1.000003040433 M☉, so that M = M☉ can be used for accuracies of five or fewer significant digits.
Jump up ^ "Astrodynamic Constants". NASA/JPL. 27 February 2009. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "Numerical Standards for Fundamental Astronomy". maia.usno.navy.mil. IAU Working Group. Retrieved 31 October 2017. , citing Ries, J. C., Eanes, R. J., Shum, C. K., and Watkins, M. M., 1992, "Progress in the Determination of the Gravitational Coefficient of the Earth," Geophys. Res. Lett., 19(6), pp. 529-531. Ries, J. C.; Eanes, R. J.; Shum, C. K.; Watkins, M. M. (20 March 1992). "Progress in the determination of the gravitational coefficient of the Earth". Geophysical Research Letters. 19 (6): 529–531. Bibcode:1992GeoRL..19..529R. doi:10.1029/92GL00259. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
Jump up ^ J.L. Heilbron, Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), 180.
Jump up ^ Davies, R.D. (1985). "A Commemoration of Maskelyne at Schiehallion". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 26 (3): 289–294. Bibcode:1985QJRAS..26..289D.
Jump up ^ "Sir Isaac Newton thought it probable, that the mean density of the earth might be five or six times as great as the density of water; and we have now found, by experiment, that it is very little less than what he had thought it to be: so much justness was even in the surmises of this wonderful man!" Hutton (1778), p. 783
Jump up ^ Poynting, J.H. (1913). The Earth: its shape, size, weight and spin. Cambridge. pp. 50–56.
Jump up ^ Hutton, C. (1778). "An Account of the Calculations Made from the Survey and Measures Taken at Schehallien". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 68 (0). doi:10.1098/rstl.1778.0034.
^ Jump up to: a b Boys 1894, p.330 In this lecture before the Royal Society, Boys introduces G and argues for its acceptance. See: Poynting 1894, p. 4, MacKenzie 1900, p.vi
Jump up ^ Published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (1798); reprint: Cavendish, Henry (1798). "Experiments to Determine the Density of the Earth". In MacKenzie, A. S., Scientific Memoirs Vol. 9: The Laws of Gravitation. American Book Co. (1900), pp. 59–105.
Jump up ^ 2014 CODATA value 6989667400000000000♠6.674×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2.
Jump up ^ Brush, Stephen G.; Holton, Gerald James (2001). Physics, the human adventure: from Copernicus to Einstein and beyond. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. p. 137. ISBN 0-8135-2908-5. Lee, Jennifer Lauren (November 16, 2016). "Big G Redux: Solving the Mystery of a Perplexing Result". NIST.
Jump up ^ Poynting, John Henry (1894). The Mean Density of the Earth. London: Charles Griffin. pp. 22–24.
Jump up ^ F. Reich, On the Repetition of the Cavendish Experiments for Determining the mean density of the Earth" Philosophical Magazine 12: 283-284.
Jump up ^ Mackenzie (1899), p. 125.
Jump up ^ A.S. Mackenzie , The Laws of Gravitation (1899), 127f.
Jump up ^ C.V. Boys, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A. Pt. 1. (1895).
Jump up ^ Carl Braun, Denkschriften der k. Akad. d. Wiss. (Wien), math. u. naturwiss. Classe, 64 (1897). Braun (1897) quoted an optimistic standard uncertainty of 0.03%, 6989664900000000000♠6.649(2)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 but his result was significantly worse than the 0.2% feasible at the time.
Jump up ^ Sagitov, M. U., "Current Status of Determinations of the Gravitational Constant and the Mass of the Earth", Soviet Astronomy, Vol. 13 (1970), 712-718, translated from Astronomicheskii Zhurnal Vol. 46, No. 4 (July–August 1969), 907-915 (table of historical experiments p. 715).
Jump up ^ Mackenzie, A. Stanley, The laws of gravitation; memoirs by Newton, Bouguer and Cavendish, together with abstracts of other important memoirs, American Book Company (1900 [1899]).
Jump up ^ P. R. Heyl, A redetermination of the constant of gravitation, National Bureau of Standards Journal of Research 5 (1930), 1243–1290.
Jump up ^ P. R. Heyl and P. Chrzanowski (1942), cited after Sagitov (1969:715).
Jump up ^ Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N. (January 2005). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2002" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 77 (1): 1–107. Bibcode:2005RvMP...77....1M. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.77.1. Retrieved 2006-07-01. . Section Q (pp. 42–47) describes the mutually inconsistent measurement experiments from which the CODATA value for G was derived.
Jump up ^ "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2010" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 84: 1527–1605. 13 November 2012. arXiv:1203.5425. Bibcode:2012RvMP...84.1527M. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.84.1527.
Jump up ^ B. N. Taylor, W. H. Parker, and D. N. Langenberg, Rev. Mod. Phys. 41(3), 375-496 (1969)
Jump up ^ E. R. Cohen and B. N. Taylor, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 2(4) 663-734 (1973), p. 699.
Jump up ^ E. R. Cohen and B. N. Taylor, Rev. Mod. Phys. 59(4) 1121-1148 (1987)
Jump up ^ P. J. Mohr and B. N. Taylor, Rev. Mod. Phys. 72(2), 351-495 (2000)
Jump up ^ P. J. Mohr and B. N. Taylor, Rev. Mod. Phys. 77(1), 1-107 (2005)
Jump up ^ P. J. Mohr, B. N. Taylor, and D. B. Newell, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 37(3), 1187-1284 (2008)
Jump up ^ P. J. Mohr, B. N. Taylor, and D. B. Newell, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 41 (2012)
Jump up ^ P. J. Mohr, D. B. Newell, and B. N. Taylor, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 45 (2016)
Jump up ^ Fixler, J. B.; Foster, G. T.; McGuirk, J. M.; Kasevich, M. A. (2007-01-05). "Atom Interferometer Measurement of the Newtonian Constant of Gravity". Science. 315 (5808): 74–77. Bibcode:2007Sci...315...74F. doi:10.1126/science.1135459. PMID 17204644.
Jump up ^ Rosi, G., Sorrentino, F., Cacciapuoti, L., Prevedelli, M. & Tino, G. M., "Precision measurement of the Newtonian gravitational constant using cold atoms ", Nature 510 (2014), 518–521. Schlamminger, Stephan (18 June 2014). "Fundamental constants: A cool way to measure big G". Nature. 510: 478–480. Bibcode:2014Natur.510..478S. doi:10.1038/nature13507. PMID 24965646.
Jump up ^ C. Rothleitner, S. Schlamminger, "Invited Review Article: Measurements of the Newtonian constant of gravitation, G", Review of Scientific Instruments 88, 111101 (2017) doi:10.1063/1.4994619. "However, re-evaluating or repeating experiments that have already been performed may provide insights into hidden biases or dark uncertainty. NIST has the unique opportunity to repeat the experiment of Quinn et al. [2013] with an almost identical setup. By mid-2018, NIST researchers will publish their results and assign a number as well as an uncertainty to their value." (referencing T. Quinn, H. Parks, C. Speake, and R. Davis, "Improved determination of G using two methods," Phys. Rev. Lett. 111, 101102 (2013).) The 2018 experiment was described by C. Rothleitner, "Newton’s Gravitational Constant ‚Big‘ G – A proposed Free-fall Measurement", CODATA Fundamental Constants Meeting, Eltville, 5 February 2015].
Jump up ^ . doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0431-5. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "Physicists just made the most precise measurement ever of Gravity's strength". August 31, 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ Anderson, J. D.; Schubert, G.; Trimble, 3=V.; Feldman, M. R. (April 2015). "Measurements of Newton's gravitational constant and the length of day" (PDF). EPL. 110: 10002. arXiv:1504.06604. Bibcode:2015EL....11010002A. doi:10.1209/0295-5075/110/10002.
^ Jump up to: a b Schlamminger, S.; Gundlach, J. H.; Newman, R. D. (2015). "Recent measurements of the gravitational constant as a function of time". Physical Review D. 91 (12). arXiv:1505.01774. Bibcode:2015PhRvD..91l1101S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.91.121101. ISSN 1550-7998.
Jump up ^ Karagioz, O. V.; Izmailov, V. P. (1996). "Measurement of the gravitational constant with a torsion balance". Measurement Techniques. 39 (10): 979–987. doi:10.1007/BF02377461. ISSN 0543-1972.
Jump up ^ Mould, J.; Uddin, S. A. (2014-04-10). "Constraining a Possible Variation of G with Type Ia Supernovae". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia. 31: e015. arXiv:1402.1534. Bibcode:2014PASA...31...15M. doi:10.1017/pasa.2014.9.
Standish., E. Myles (1995). "Report of the IAU WGAS Sub-group on Numerical Standards". In Appenzeller, I. Highlights of Astronomy. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Complete report available online: PostScript; PDF. Tables from the report also available: Astrodynamic Constants and Parameters)
Gundlach, Jens H.; Merkowitz, Stephen M. (2000). "Measurement of Newton's Constant Using a Torsion Balance with Angular Acceleration Feedback". Physical Review Letters. 85 (14): 2869–2872. arXiv:gr-qc/0006043. Bibcode:2000PhRvL..85.2869G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.2869. PMID 11005956.
External links[edit]
Newtonian constant of gravitation G at the National Institute of Standards and Technology References on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
The Controversy over Newton's Gravitational Constant — additional commentary on measurement problems
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This is a list of companies which use multi-level marketing (also known as network marketing,[1][2][3][4][5] direct selling,[3][6] referral marketing,[7] and pyramid selling[8][9][10][11][12]) for most of their sales.
Active
5Linx
ACN Inc.
AdvoCare
Ambit Energy
Amsoil
Amway[13]
Amway Global, previously known as Quixtar
Arbonne International
Avon Products
Beachbody[14]
Beautycounter
BioPerformance
Discovery Toys[13]
doTerra[15]
Forever Living Products
FreeLife
Fuel Freedom International
Herbalife
Isagenix International
Juice Plus
Kleeneze
LegalShield, previously known as Pre-Paid Legal Services
LifeVantage
The Longaberger Company[13]
LuLaRoe
Lyoness
Mannatech
Market America
Mary Kay[13]
Medifast
Melaleuca[16]
Morinda Bioactives[17]
National Safety Associates
Nature's Sunshine Products
Neal's Yard Remedies Organic
Neways
Nu Skin Enterprises[13][18]
NXIVM[19][20]
Omnilife
Oriflame
The Pampered Chef[13]
Primerica[13]
Qnet, previously known as QuestNet, GoldQuest, and QI Limited
Rodan + Fields
Shaklee[13]
SeneGence
Stream Energy
Success University
Sunrider[13]
Tastefully Simple
Telecom Plus
USANA Health Sciences
Vector Marketing
Vemma[21]
ViSalus
Wakaya Perfection
Watkins Incorporated[13]
World Financial Group
XanGo[18]
Young Living
YTB International
Defunct
BurnLounge (shut down as pyramid scheme by FTC in 2012)
Equinox International (dissolved in 2001)
European Grouping of Marketing Professionals/CEDIPAC SA (dissolved 1995)
European Home Retail (dissolved 2007)
Fortune Hi-Tech Marketing (dissolved 2013)
FundAmerica (bankrupt 1990)[22]
Holiday Magic (dissolved in 1974)
Metabolife (dissolved in 2005)
MonaVie (went into foreclosure 2015)
Nouveau Riche (real estate investment college) (dissolved 2010)
Solavei (dissolved 2015)[23]
Royal Tongan Limu (dissolved in 2003)
Sunshine Empire (dissolved 2009)
Telexfree (bankrupt 2014)
United Sciences of America (dissolved in 1987)
WakeUpNow (dissolved 2015)
World Leadership Group (dissolved in 2008)
References
Companies portal
Lists portal
Jump up ^ Pratt, Michael G.; Rosa, José Antonio (2003). "Transforming work-family conflict into commitment in network marketing organizations". The Academy of Management Journal. 46 (4): 395–418. doi:10.2307/30040635.
Jump up ^ Vander Nat, Peter J.; Keep, William W. (2002). "Marketing Fraud: An Approach for Differentiating Multilevel Marketing from Pyramid Schemes". Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. 21 (1): 139–15. doi:10.1509/jppm.21.1.139.17603.
^ Jump up to: a b Merrilees, Bill; Miller, Dale (1999). "Direct Selling in the West and East: The Relative Roles of Product and Relationship (Guanxi) Drivers". Journal of Business Research. 45 (3): 267–273.
Jump up ^ Cahn, Peter S. (2006). "Building down and Dreaming up: Finding Faith in a Mexican Multilevel Marketer". American Ethnologist. 33 (1): 126–142. doi:10.1525/ae.2006.33.1.126.
Jump up ^ Marcason, Wendy (2006). "What Are the Facts and Myths about Mangosteen?". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 106 (6): 986. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2006.04.008.
Jump up ^ Valentine, Debra A. (May 13, 1998). "Pyramid Schemes". FTC. Retrieved July 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ "multi-level marketing (a.k.a. network marketing & referral marketing) – The Skeptic's Dictionary". Skepdic.com. 1991-12-09. Retrieved 2010-02-04.
Jump up ^ Edwards, Paul (1997). Franchising & licensing: two powerful ways to grow your business in any economy. Tarcher. p. 356. ISBN 0-87477-898-0.
Jump up ^ Clegg, Brian (2000). The invisible customer: strategies for successive customer service down the wire. Kogan Page. p. 112. ISBN 0-7494-3144-X.
Jump up ^ Higgs, Philip; Smith, Jane (2007). Rethinking Our World. Juta Academic. p. 30. ISBN 0-7021-7255-3.
Jump up ^ Kitching, Trevor (2001). Purchasing scams and how to avoid them. Gower Publishing Company. p. 4. ISBN 0-566-08281-0.
Jump up ^ Mendelsohn, Martin (2004). The guide to franchising. Cengage Learning Business Press. p. 36. ISBN 1-84480-162-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Roha, Ronaleen R. (November 1991). The Ups and Downs of "Downlines". Kiplinger's Personal Finance. p. 66.
Jump up ^ Rovell, Darren. "Beach Body Grows Exponentially Thanks to Network Marketing". CNBC. Retrieved 2015-03-28.
Jump up ^ Harvey, Tom (October 23, 2014). "Judge dismisses much of lawsuit between rival Utah 'oils' companies". The Salt Lake Tribune. Retrieved July 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Berman, Phyllis (October 11, 2004). "If You Believe". Forbes.
Jump up ^ "DSN Global 100: The Top Direct Selling Companies in the World". Direct Selling News. June 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-15.
^ Jump up to: a b Ressner, Jeffrey (2006-10-01). "Industries: State of Reliefs". Time.
Jump up ^ "Women say they were branded and traumatized by secret group's doctors". CBSNews.com. CBS. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Odato, James. "Lawyer attacks NXIVM 'scheme'". TimesUnion.com. The Hearst Corporation. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Celarier, Michelle (29 September 2013). "Verve energy drink turning college students into sales force". New York Post. Retrieved 2015-03-28.
Jump up ^ Crouch, Gregory (18 August 1990). "FundAmerica Files for Bankruptcy, Cites 2 Overseas Creditors". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ Soper, Taylor. "Multi-level marketing mobile service provider Solavei shuts down due to 'competitive landscape'". GeekWire. Retrieved 31 December 2015.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_multi-level_marketing_companies&oldid=843273756"
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Matthew McGrory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Matthew McGrory
McGrory at the world premiere of Big Fish in 2003
Born
(1973-05-17)May 17, 1973
West Chester, Pennsylvania, United States
Died
August 8, 2005 (aged 32)
Los Angeles, California, United States
Cause of death
Heart failure
Occupation
Actor
Years active
1999–2005
Height
7 ft 6 in (2.29 m)
Weight
317 lb (144 kg)
Website
http://matthewmcgrory.com/
Matthew McGrory (May 17, 1973 – August 8, 2005) was an American actor, known for his great height.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Death
4 Filmography
5 References
6 External links
Early life[edit]
McGrory was born in West Chester, Pennsylvania, the son of Maureen, a homemaker, and George McGrory, an accountant.[1][2] He studied pre-law at Widener University. He also studied Criminal Justice at West Chester University. McGrory grew to the height of 7 ft 6 in (2.29 m) and had size 29.5 shoes.[3] He was over five feet (1.5 m) tall by the time he completed kindergarten.[4]
Career[edit]
McGrory's large size led to appearances on The Howard Stern Show[5] beginning in December 1996[6][7] as a member of Stern's Wack Pack. He also appeared on Oprah Winfrey's daytime talk show and in music videos including Iron Maiden's "The Wicker Man" and the 1999 Marilyn Manson "Coma White"[8] (and God is in the TV VHS cover). He can also be seen in Blondie's video for their 2003 hit "Good Boys."
Due to his height and deep voice, he was in demand to play roles in movies[8] cast as a giant – he did so in films such as Bubble Boy (2001), Big Fish (2003), House of 1000 Corpses (2003) and The Devil's Rejects (2005). Television appearances included Malcolm in the Middle, Charmed, and Carnivàle. The Guinness Book of World Records awarded him the title of the tallest actor. At the time of his death, he was filming a biography film about André the Giant in which he portrayed the famous wrestler.[3]
Death[edit]
He lived in Sherman Oaks, California, with his girlfriend Melissa who is now good friends with Scott Pollock. On August 8, 2005, McGrory died at age 32 of heart failure.[3]
Rob Zombie's film The Devil's Rejects was dedicated to him.[9]
Filmography[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2000 The Dead Hate the Living! Gaunt
2001 Bubble Boy Human Sasquatch
2002 Men in Black II Tall Alien (uncredited)
2003 House of 1000 Corpses Tiny Firefly
Big Fish Karl the Giant
2003-2004 Charmed Ogre
2004 Big Time Richard Blunderbore
Planet of the Pitts Toto
Carnivàle
2005 Constantine Demon (uncredited)
ShadowBox Hort Willows
The Devil's Rejects Tiny Firefly
2017 The Evil Within Posthumous role, dedicated to McGrory
2017 Dark Place in his final film performance as a hillbilly giant.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ August 11, 2005 (2005-08-11). "Matthew McGrory, 32; Actor Played Key Role in Movie 'Big Fish' - latimes". Articles.latimes.com. Retrieved 2017-05-27.
Jump up ^ "High Class". People.com. 2004-01-19. Retrieved 2017-05-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c "'Big Fish' Actor Matthew McGrory Dies". Fox News. August 15, 2005.
Jump up ^ News Clip, WPLG Miami, Matthewmcgrory.com
Jump up ^ "Matthew McGrory, 32, a Film Actor Typecast as a Giant". New York Times (Associated Press). August 15, 2005.
Jump up ^ Dempster, Michael. "The Rundown - Wack Pack profiles". The Howard Stern Radio Show. Archived from the original on 2008-05-30.
Jump up ^ "Obituaries: Matthew McGrory". The Daily Telegraph (UK). August 13, 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b Kaufman, Gil (August 11, 2005) "Matthew McGrory, Big Man In 'Big Fish' And 'Devil's Rejects,' Dead At 32". MTV News.
Jump up ^ The Devil's Rejects (2005). Dir. Rob Zombie. Cinelamda, Lionsgate. Dedication.
External links[edit]
Matthew McGrory at Find a Grave
Matthew McGrory on IMDb
Matthew McGrory at Allmovie
MatthewMcGrory.com
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
GND: 130296252
ISNI: 0000 0000 7988 040X
LCCN: no2010100625
VIAF: 28173837
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Matthew_McGrory&oldid=847119763"
Categories:
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American male film actors
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People with gigantism
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Yvonne Craig
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Yvonne Craig
Craig in 1960
Born
Yvonne Joyce Craig
(1937-05-16)May 16, 1937
Taylorville, Illinois, U.S.
Died
August 17, 2015(2015-08-17) (aged 78)
Pacific Palisades, California, U.S.
Occupation
Actress, dancer
Years active
1957–2011
Spouse(s)
Jimmy Boyd
(m. 1960; div. 1962)

Kenneth Aldrich
(m. 1988; d. 2015)
Website
www.yvonnecraig.com
Yvonne Joyce Craig (May 16, 1937 – August 17, 2015) was an American ballet dancer and actress best known for her role as Batgirl in the 1960s television series Batman and as the green-skinned Orion slave girl Marta in the Star Trek episode "Whom Gods Destroy" (1969). The Huffington Post called her "a pioneer of female superheroes" for television.[1]
Contents
1 Early life
2 Career
2.1 Ballet
2.2 Acting
2.2.1 Batman
2.2.2 After Batman
3 Later life
4 Death
5 Filmography
6 Bibliography
7 References
8 External links
Early life[edit]
Yvonne Craig was born in Taylorville, Illinois, and was raised in Columbus, Ohio.[citation needed] In 1951, her family moved to the Oak Cliff neighborhood in Dallas, Texas, where she attended WH Adamson High School and then Sunset High School, from which she technically did not graduate due to the lack of "a single PE credit".[2]
Career[edit]
Ballet[edit]
After being discovered by Alexandra Danilova, a ballerina and instructor, Craig joined the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo as its youngest corps de ballet member.[3][4] This training was helpful when she performed stunts while playing Batgirl.[5] She left the ballet company in 1957 "over a disagreement on casting changes" and moved to Los Angeles in the hopes of continuing her dancing career but found herself cast in film roles.[2]
Acting[edit]
One of her earliest television roles was in an episode of the TV series Perry Mason ("The Case of the Lazy Lover", 1958) alongside Neil Hamilton, who played her stepfather (later Hamilton played Police Commissioner James Gordon, Batgirl's father). Shortly afterwards, she appeared in three films—The Young Land, The Gene Krupa Story, and Gidget (all 1959)—and also guest-starred in TV series Mr. Lucky as Beverly Mills in the episode "Little Miss Wow" (also 1959). Craig appeared with Bing Crosby in High Time (1960) and in Seven Women from Hell (1961) featured alongside Cesar Romero. In 1962 she guest starred on the Western, Laramie in "The Long Road Back".
Craig starred in roles with Elvis Presley in two films: It Happened at the World's Fair (1963) and Kissin' Cousins (1964). She also starred in the 1966 cult sci-fi film Mars Needs Women and appeared in In Like Flint (1967) as a Russian ballet dancer opposite James Coburn.[citation needed]
During the 1960s, Craig regularly appeared in television drama series. She appeared five times on The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis, portraying five separate girlfriends for the titular character between 1959 and 1962. She played Jo, a young photographer with Charles Bronson in Man with a Camera in 1960. In 1964 Craig guest starred as Carol, an underwater photographer, on Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea, Season 1, Episode 7: "Turn Back the Clock".[6] In 1965, Craig appeared in The Big Valley Season 1, Ep. 16 "The Invaders". Craig also appeared on Star Trek as Marta, a green-skinned Orion slave girl in the episode "Whom Gods Destroy" (1969).
In an episode of The Man from U.N.C.L.E. ("The Brain-Killer Affair", 1965), she helps solve the mystery of a brain-endangering poison.[7] Craig appeared as an U.N.C.L.E. employee in a theatrical film, One Spy Too Many (1966) expanded from the episode "The Alexander the Greater Affair". In a 1966 episode of The Wild Wild West ("The Night of the Grand Emir"), she played an assassin who performs an exotic Arabian dance. She also played a Navy nurse with exotic Arabian dance skills in an episode of McHale's Navy ("Pumpkin Takes Over", 1965). She appeared in an episode of The Big Valley with Lee Majors and Barbara Stanwyck. In a 1968 episode of The Ghost & Mrs. Muir ("Haunted Honeymoon"), she played Gladys Zimmerman, a bride-to-be who was stranded overnight at Gull Cottage. In a 1970 episode of Land of the Giants ("Wild Journey"), she played one-half of a humanoid, time-observing duo (alongside Bruce Dern) who chase two of the Earth castaways (series stars Gary Conway and Don Marshall) into the past, ultimately forcing them to relive the flight that sent them to the giants' planet.[citation needed]
Batman[edit]
Yvonne Craig as Batgirl in 1967
From September 1967 until March 1968, Craig appeared in her highest-profile role as Batgirl for the third and final season of the 1960s ABC TV series Batman. As Batgirl she wore a purple and yellow outfit and rode a "purple motorcycle with white lace trim",[5] whereas her alter ego Barbara Gordon was the librarian daughter of Commissioner Gordon.[8] The New York Times praised her for "add[ing] a scrappy girl-power element" to a TV series it described as "campy".[3]
During this time Craig appeared as a contestant on the show The Dating Game (1967).[9]
Craig reprised her Batgirl role in a 1974 public service announcement for equal pay for women sponsored by the U.S. Department of Labor Wage & Hour Division. In the PSA, Batman and Robin were tied to a post amid the threat of a ticking time bomb, but Batgirl refused to release them because she was paid less than Robin, in violation of the Federal Equal Pay Law. The PSA was written and directed by Sidney Galanty, and narrated by William Dozier, who had narrated the Batman TV series. (Dick Gautier played Batman this time, because Adam West was, at the time, trying to distance himself from that role.)[10]
Craig reportedly felt some connection to the character and complained to DC Comics after Barbara Gordon was shot and paralyzed by the Joker in the graphic novel Batman: The Killing Joke (1988).[11]
After Batman[edit]
After Batman, Craig continued to act sporadically in movies and television. She appeared in guest roles in Love, American Style (the first episode), Kentucky Jones, It Takes a Thief, The Mod Squad, Kojak and Emergency!. From 1969 to 1972, she appeared in four episodes of the comedy series Love, American Style. In 1973 she appeared in a first-season episode of Kojak ("Dark Sunday") and in 1977 made a guest appearance in The Six Million Dollar Man. She also appeared as herself on some celebrity editions of Family Feud (1976-1985 version).
Later life[edit]
When her Hollywood career ended, she ventured into private business. She was briefly a co-producer of industrial shows, before starting a new career as a real estate broker. From 2009 to 2011, she voiced "Grandma" on the animated children's show Olivia. Craig published an autobiography called From Ballet to the Batcave and Beyond in 2000.[3] She appeared in the documentary film Ballets Russes.
She was also a philanthropist and advocate for workers unions, free mammograms, and equal pay for women.[1][5]
Death[edit]
Craig died at age 78 at her home in Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles, California, on August 17, 2015, from metastatic breast cancer that had spread to her liver.[3][12][5]
Filmography[edit]
Eighteen and Anxious (1957) - Gloria Dorothy McCormick
The Young Land (1959) - Elena de la Madrid
Gidget (1959) - Nan
The Gene Krupa Story (1959) - Gloria Corregio
High Time (1960) - Randy 'Scoop' Pruitt
By Love Possessed (1961) - Veronica Kovacs
Seven Women from Hell (1961) - Janet Cook
It Happened at the World's Fair (1963) - Dorothy Johnson
Kissin' Cousins (1964) - Azalea Tatum
Advance to the Rear (1964) - Ora (uncredited)
Quick Before It Melts (1964) - Sharon Sweigert
Ski Party (1965) - Barbara Norris
One Spy Too Many (1966) - Maude Waverly
One of Our Spies Is Missing (1966) - Wanda
Mars Needs Women (1967) - Dr. Marjorie Bolen
In Like Flint (1967) - Natasha, the Ballerina
How to Frame a Figg (1971) - Glorianna Hastings
Diggin' Up Business (1990) - Lucille
Bibliography[edit]
Craig, Yvonne (2000). From Ballet to the Batcave and Beyond. New York: Kudu Press. ISBN 0-9678075-6-5.
Erickson, Hal (2007). "Yvonne Craig". Allmovie. New York Times. Retrieved 27 June 2007.
McLeod, Mike (2007). "It's African Mask for TV's Batgirl". The Celebrity Collector. Retrieved 27 June 2007.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Mosbergen, Dominique (August 19, 2015). "Actress Yvonne Craig, The Original 1960s Batgirl, Dies At 78". The Huffington Post.
^ Jump up to: a b Wilonsky, Robert (August 19, 2015). "Yvonne Craig, TV's Batgirl from Oak Cliff, has died at 78". Dallas Morning News.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Rogers, Katie (August 19, 2015). "Yvonne Craig, Actress Who Played Batgirl, Is Dead at 78". New York Times.
Jump up ^ "Ballets Russes". Zeitgeist Films. Archived from the original on 6 February 2010. Retrieved 17 June 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Booker, Brakkton (August 19, 2015). "Yvonne Craig, Best Known As 'Batgirl,' Dies At 78". NPR.org. National Public Radio.
Jump up ^ Klossner, Michael (2006). "Voyage To The Bottom of the Sea". Prehistoric Humans in Film and Television: 581 Dramas, Comedies and Documentaries, 1905-2004. McFarland. p. 273. ISBN 9780786422159.
Jump up ^ "Yvonne Craig's Film and TV Credits". 25 July 1959. Archived from the original on 25 October 2009. Retrieved 17 June 2010.
Jump up ^ "Yvonne Craig Movies - Yvonne Craig Film — Yvonne Craig TV Shows". TV.com. December 31, 1969. Archived from the original on March 22, 2009. Retrieved June 17, 2010.
Jump up ^ BatGirl on The Dating Game (1967). YouTube video clip.
Jump up ^ "Batman, ca. 1973". U.S. National Archives – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ Jankiewicz, Pat. "Interview With Yvonne: Recalling Batgirl". Retrieved November 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Yvonne Craig's Official Obituary". YvonneCraig.com. August 19, 2015.
External links[edit]
Film portal
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Yvonne Craig at Find a Grave
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WorldCat Identities
ISNI: 0000 0000 5251 8689
LCCN: no96006217
VIAF: 19268908
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yvonne_Craig&oldid=857029996"
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