text:
Excess supply
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In economics, an excess supply or economic surplus[1] is a situation in which the quantity of a good or service supplied is more than the quantity demanded,[2] and the price is above the equilibrium level determined by supply and demand. That is, the quantity of the product that producers wish to sell exceeds the quantity that potential buyers are willing to buy at the prevailing price. It is the opposite of an economic shortage (excess demand).
In cultural evolution, agricultural surplus in the Neolithic period is theorized to have produced a greater division of labor, resulting in social stratification and class.[not verified in body]
Contents
[hide]
1 Prices
2 Disequilibrium
3 Market response to excess supply
4 Market spillovers
5 See also
6 References
Prices[edit]
Prices and the occurrence of excess supply illustrate a strong correlation. When the price of a good is set too high, the quantity of the product demanded will be diminished while the quantity supplied will be enhanced, so there is more quantity supplied than quantity demanded. The occurrence of excess supply either leads to the lowering of the price or unsold supply, the latter reflecting excess supply. Lowering the price of a good encourages consumers to purchase more and suppliers to produce less.
Disequilibrium[edit]
Main article: Disequilibrium (economics)
A disequilibrium occurs due to a non-equilibrium price giving a lack of balance between supply and demand.[3] Excess supply is one of the two types of disequilibrium in a perfectly competitive market, excess demand being the other. When quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded,[4] the equilibrium level does not obtain and instead the market is in disequilibrium. An excess supply prevents the economy from operating efficiently.
Market response to excess supply[edit]
Excess supply in a perfectly competitive market is the "extra" amount of supply, beyond the quantity demanded. As an example, suppose the price of a television is $600, the quantity supplied at that price is 1000 televisions, and the quantity demanded is 300 televisions. This illustrates that sellers are seeking to sell 700 more televisions than buyers are willing to purchase. Hence, an excess supply of 700 televisions exists, indicating that the market is in a state of disequilibrium. In this situation, producers would not be able to sell all the televisions they produce at the desired price of $600. This will induce them to reduce their price in order to make the product more attractive for the buyers. In response to the reduction in the price of the product, consumers will increase their quantity demanded and producers will not produce as many as before. The market will eventually become balanced as the market is transitioning to an equilibrium price and quantity. [5]
Market spillovers[edit]
Excess supply in one market can affect supply or demand in another market. For example, when there is excess supply in the labor market—that is, unemployment—consumer-laborers will be constrained in their disposable income and hence will demand a smaller quantity of goods at any given price. This diminished goods demand resulting from a constraint in another market is known as the effective demand for goods.
See also[edit]
Aggregate demand
Aggregate supply
Aggregation problem
Disequilibrium
Economic surplus
Effective demand
Excess demand
Excess demand function
Induced demand
Keynesian formula
Reproduction
Scarcity
Supply and demand
Supply shock
Business and economics portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "AmosWEB is Economics: Encyclonomic WEB*pedia". www.amosweb.com.
Jump up ^ O'Sullivan, Arthur; Sheffrin, Steven M. (2003). Economics: Principles in Action. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 128. ISBN 0-13-063085-3.
Jump up ^ Staff, Investopedia (29 October 2006). "Disequilibrium".
Jump up ^ "Excess supply". www.blacksacademy.net.
Jump up ^ "EconPort - Lecture to Accompany Supply and Demand Experiments". www.econport.org.

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Billboard 200
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Billboard 200 is a record chart ranking the 200 most popular music albums and EPs in the United States. It is published weekly by Billboard magazine. It is frequently used to convey the popularity of an artist or groups of artists. Often, a recording act will be remembered by its "number ones", those of their albums that outperformed all others during at least one week.
The chart is based mostly on sales (both at retail and digital) of albums in the United States. The weekly sales period was originally Monday to Sunday when Nielsen started tracking sales in 1991, but since July 2015, tracking week begins on Friday (to coincide with the Global Release Date of the music industry) and ends on Thursday. A new chart is published the following Tuesday with an issue post-dated to the Saturday of that week, four days later.[1] The chart's streaming schedule is also tracked from Friday to Thursday.[2]
Example:
Friday January 1 – sales tracking week begins
Thursday January 7 – sales tracking week ends
Tuesday January 12 – new chart published, with issue date of Saturday January 16.
New product is released to the American market on Fridays. Digital downloads of albums are also included in Billboard 200 tabulation. Albums that are not licensed for retail sale in the United States (yet purchased in the U.S. as imports) are not eligible to chart. A long-standing policy which made titles that are sold exclusively by specific retail outlets (such as Walmart and Starbucks) ineligible for charting, was reversed on November 7, 2007, and took effect in the issue dated November 17.[3]
Beginning with the December 13, 2014 issue, Billboard updated the methodology of their album chart to also include on-demand streaming and digital track sales (as measured by Nielsen SoundScan) by way of a new algorithm, utilizing data from all of the major on-demand audio subscription and online music sales services in the United States.[4]
As of the issue dated January 13, 2018, the number-one album on the Billboard 200 is The Greatest Showman by Various artists. [5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Catalog albums
1.2 Holiday albums
1.3 Incorporation of streaming data and track sales
2 Nielsen SoundScan
3 Year-end charts
4 Uses
5 All-Time Billboard 200 achievements (1963–2015)
5.1 Top 10 albums of All-Time (1963–2015)
5.2 Top 10 albums artists of All-Time (1963–2015)
5.3 Artists with the most albums on Billboard's Top 200 Albums of All-Time (1963–2015)
6 Artist milestones
6.1 Most top-ten albums
6.2 Most number-one albums
6.3 Most consecutive number-one studio albums
6.4 Most consecutive studio albums to debut at number-one
6.5 Most cumulative weeks at number one
6.6 Most albums in the top 10 simultaneously
6.7 Most albums in the Top 200 simultaneously
7 Album milestones
7.1 Most weeks at number one
7.2 Most weeks on the chart
7.3 Biggest jumps to number one
7.4 Biggest drops from number one
8 Additional milestones
9 See also
10 Sources
11 References
12 External links
History
Billboard began an album chart in 1945. Initially only five positions long, the album chart was not published on a weekly basis, sometimes three to seven weeks passing before it was updated. A biweekly (though with a few gaps), 15-position Best-Selling Popular Albums chart appeared in 1955. With the increase in album sales as the early 1950s format wars stabilized into market dominance by 45 RPM singles and long-playing twelve-inch albums, with 78 RPM record and long-playing ten-inch album sales decreasing dramatically, Billboard premiered a weekly Best-Selling Popular Albums chart on March 24, 1956. The position count varied anywhere from 10 to 30 albums. The first number-one album on the new weekly list was Belafonte by Harry Belafonte. The chart was renamed to Best-Selling Pop Albums later in 1956, and then to Best-Selling Pop LPs in 1957.
Beginning on May 25, 1959, Billboard split the ranking into two charts Best-Selling Stereophonic LPs for stereo albums (30 positions) and Best-Selling Monophonic LPs for mono albums (50 positions). These were renamed to Stereo Action Charts (30 positions) and Mono Action Charts (40 positions) in 1960. In January 1961, they became Action Albums—Stereophonic (15 positions) and Action Albums—Monophonic (25 positions). Three months later, they became Top LPs—Stereo (50 positions) and Top LPs—Monaural (150 positions).
On August 17, 1963 the stereo and mono charts were combined into a 150-position chart called Top LPs. On April 1, 1967, the chart was expanded to 175 positions, then finally to 200 positions on May 13, 1967. In February 1972, the album chart's title was changed to Top LPs & Tape; in 1984, it was retitled Top 200 Albums; in 1985, it was retitled again to Top Pop Albums; in 1991, it became The Billboard 200 Top Albums; and it was given its current title of The Billboard 200 on March 14, 1992.
Catalog albums
In 1960, Billboard began concurrently publishing album charts which ranked sales of older or mid-priced titles. These Essential Inventory charts were divided by stereo and mono albums, and featured titles that had already appeared on the main stereo and mono album charts. Mono albums were moved to the Essential Inventory—Mono chart (25 positions) after spending 40 weeks on the Mono Action Chart, and stereo albums were moved to the Essential Inventory—Stereo chart (20 positions) after 20 weeks on the Stereo Action Chart.
In January 1961, the Action Charts became Action Albums—Monophonic (24 positions), and Action Albums—Stereophonic (15 positions). Albums appeared on either chart for up to nine weeks, then were moved to an Essential Inventory list of approximately 200 titles, with no numerical ranking. This list continued to be published until the consolidated Top LPs chart debuted in 1963.
In 1982, Billboard began publishing a Midline Albums chart (alternatively titled Midline LPs) which ranked older or mid-priced titles. The chart held 50 positions and was published on a bi-weekly (and later tri-weekly) basis.
On May 25, 1991, Billboard premiered the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart. The criteria for this chart were albums that were more than 18 months old and had fallen below position 100 on the Billboard 200.[6] An album needed not have charted on the Billboard 200 at all to qualify for catalog status.
Starting with the issue dated December 5, 2009, however, the catalog limitations which removed albums over 18 months old, that have dropped below position 100 and have no currently-running single, from the Billboard 200 was lifted, turning the chart into an all-inclusive list of the 200 highest-selling albums in the country (essentially changing Top Comprehensive Albums into the Billboard 200). A new chart that keeps the previous criteria for the Billboard 200 (dubbed Top Current Albums) was also introduced in the same issue.[7]
Holiday albums
Billboard has adjusted its policies for Christmas[8] and holiday[8] albums several times. The albums were eligible for the main album charts until 1963, when a Christmas Albums list was created. Albums appearing here were not listed on the Top LPs chart. In 1974, this rule was reverted and holiday albums again appeared within the main list.
In 1983, the Christmas Albums chart was resurrected, but a title's appearance here did not disqualify it from appearing on the Top Pop Albums chart. In 1994 the chart was retitled Top Holiday Albums. As of 2009 the chart holds 50 positions and is run for several weeks during the end-of-calendar-year holiday season. Its current policy allows holiday albums to concurrently chart on the Top Holiday Albums list and the Billboard 200.
Incorporation of streaming data and track sales
See also: album-equivalent unit
Beginning with the December 13, 2014 issue, Billboard updated the methodology of its album chart again, changing from a "pure sales-based ranking" to one measuring "multi-metric consumption".[4] With this overhaul, the Billboard 200 includes on-demand streaming and digital track sales (as measured by Nielsen SoundScan) by way of a new algorithm, utilizing data from all of the major on-demand audio subscription services including Spotify, Beats Music, Google Play and Xbox Music. Under the new methodology, ten track sales or 1,500 song streams from an album are treated as equivalent to one purchase of the album. Billboard will continue to publish a pure album sales chart, called Top Album Sales, that maintains the traditional Billboard 200 methodology, based exclusively on SoundScan's sales data.[4]
Nielsen SoundScan
Since May 25, 1991, the Billboard 200's positions have been derived from Nielsen SoundScan sales data, as of 2008[update] contributed by approximately 14,000 music sellers. Because these numbers are supplied by a subset of sellers rather than record labels, it is common for these numbers to be substantially lower than those reported by the Recording Industry Association of America when Gold, Platinum and Diamond album awards are announced (RIAA awards reflect wholesale shipments, not retail sales).
Year-end charts
Billboard's "chart year" runs from the first week of December to the final week in November. This altered calendar allows for Billboard to calculate year-end charts and release them in time for its final print issue in the last week of December. Prior to Nielsen SoundScan, year-end charts were calculated by an inverse-point system based solely on an album's performance on the Billboard 200 (for example, an album would be given one point for a week spent at position 200, two points for a week spent at position 199... up to 200 points for each week spent at number one). Other factors including the total weeks on the chart and at its peak position were calculated into an album's year-end total.
After Billboard began obtaining sales information from Nielsen SoundScan, the year-end charts are now calculated by a very straightforward cumulative total of yearlong sales. This gives a more accurate picture of any given year's best-selling albums, as a title that hypothetically spent nine weeks at number one in March could possibly have sold fewer copies than one spending six weeks at number three in January. Interestingly, albums at the peak of their popularity at the time of the November/December chart-year cutoff many times end up ranked lower than one would expect on a year-end tally, yet are ranked on the following year's chart as well, as their cumulative points are split between the two chart-years.
Uses
The Billboard 200 can be helpful to radio stations as an indication of the types of music listeners are interested in hearing. Retailers can also find it useful as a way to determine which recordings should be given the most prominent display in a store. Other outlets, such as airline music services, also employ the Billboard charts to determine their programming.

All-Time Billboard 200 achievements (1963–2015)
In 2015, Billboard magazine compiled a ranking of the 100 best-performing albums on the chart over the 52 years, along with the best-performing artists.[9] Shown below are the top 10 albums and top 10 artists over the 52-year period of the Billboard 200, through October 2015. Also shown are the artists placing the most albums on the overall "all-time" top 100 album list.
Top 10 albums of All-Time (1963–2015)
Rank
Album
Year released
Artist(s)
Peak and duration
1 21 2011 Adele #1 for 24 weeks
2 The Sound of Music 1965 Soundtrack #1 for 2 weeks
3 Thriller 1983 Michael Jackson #1 for 37 weeks
4 Fearless 2008 Taylor Swift #1 for 11 weeks
5 Born in the U.S.A. 1984 Bruce Springsteen #1 for 7 weeks
6 Ropin' the Wind 1991 Garth Brooks #1 for 18 weeks
7 Jagged Little Pill 1995 Alanis Morissette #1 for 12 weeks
8 Doctor Zhivago 1966 Soundtrack #1 for 1 week
9 All the Right Reasons 2005 Nickelback #1 for 1 week
10 Tapestry 1971 Carole King #1 for 15 weeks
Source:[10]
Top 10 albums artists of All-Time (1963–2015)
Rank
Artist
1 The Beatles
2 The Rolling Stones
3 Barbra Streisand
4 Garth Brooks
5 Elton John
6 Mariah Carey
7 Herb Alpert
8 Taylor Swift
9 Chicago
10 Michael Jackson
Source:[11]
Artists with the most albums on Billboard's Top 200 Albums of All-Time (1963–2015)
Number of
albums
Artist
Albums (ranking)
5 The Beatles Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (54), A Hard Day's Night (105), 1 (131), Abbey Road (135), Meet the Beatles! (187)
4 Taylor Swift Fearless (4), Taylor Swift (18), 1989 (64), Red (140)
Led Zeppelin Led Zeppelin II (146), Houses of the Holy (185), Led Zeppelin IV (194), In Through the Out Door (198)
3 Michael Jackson Thriller (3), Bad (138), Off the Wall (149)
Nickelback All the Right Reasons (9), Silver Side Up (162), Dark Horse (182)
Whitney Houston Whitney Houston (11), The Bodyguard (23), Whitney (159)
Herb Alpert Whipped Cream & Other Delights (13), Going Places (44), What Now My Love (170)
Elton John Goodbye Yellow Brick Road (39), Honky Château (145), Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy (175)
Mariah Carey Mariah Carey (50), The Emancipation of Mimi (52), Music Box (87)
Janet Jackson Control (72), Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814 (94), Janet (119)
2 Garth Brooks Ropin' the Wind (6), No Fences (29)
Fleetwood Mac Rumours (15), Fleetwood Mac (74)
Celine Dion Falling into You (21), Let's Talk About Love (164)
Pink Floyd The Dark Side of the Moon (31), The Wall (92)
Creed Human Clay (34), Weathered (181)
Santana Supernatural (36), Abraxas (114)
Backstreet Boys Backstreet Boys (42), Millennium (70)
Eminem The Eminem Show (56), Recovery (93)
Boyz II Men II (61), Cooleyhighharmony (129)
Green Day American Idiot (73), Dookie (172)
Nelly Country Grammar (85), Nellyville (174)
John Denver John Denver's Greatest Hits (86), Back Home Again (193)
Chicago Chicago II (89), Chicago V (165)
The Black Eyed Peas The E.N.D (96), Monkey Business (134)
Justin Timberlake FutureSex/LoveSounds (97), The 20/20 Experience (200)
Mumford & Sons Sigh No More (106), Babel (116)
Alicia Keys Songs in A Minor (107), As I Am (128)
NSYNC No Strings Attached (111), NSYNC (137)
The Monkees The Monkees (132), More of the Monkees (156)
Eagles The Long Run (148), One of These Nights (155)
Billy Joel Glass Houses (168), 52nd Street (191)
Source:[10]
Artist milestones
Most top-ten albums
The following acts are the only ones with 30 or more top-ten albums[12]:
The Rolling Stones (37)
Barbra Streisand (34)
Frank Sinatra (32) (tie)
The Beatles (32) (tie)
Most number-one albums
Source:[13][14]
The Beatles (19)
Jay-Z (14)
Barbra Streisand (11) (tie)
Bruce Springsteen (11) (tie)
Elvis Presley (10)
Most consecutive number-one studio albums
Source:[15][16]
The Beatles (8) (tie)
The Rolling Stones (8) (tie)
Eminem (8) (tie)
Elton John (7) (tie)
Kanye West (7) (tie)
Most consecutive studio albums to debut at number-one
Source:[17] [18] [19]
Kanye West (7)
Metallica (6) (tie)
Beyoncé (6) (tie)
Dave Matthews Band (6) (tie)
Eminem (6) (tie)
Most cumulative weeks at number one
List of the ten acts with the most weeks at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 since Aug. 17, 1963.
Sources: [20][21]
The Beatles (132)
Garth Brooks (52)
Michael Jackson (51)
Whitney Houston (46)
Elton John (39) (tie)
Taylor Swift (39) (tie)
Fleetwood Mac (38) (tie)
The Rolling Stones (38) (tie)
The Monkees (37)
Prince (34)
Most albums in the top 10 simultaneously
Prince (5) 2016
The Kingston Trio (4 for 5 consecutive weeks) 1959 [22][23][24][25][26]
Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass (4) 1966
Peter, Paul & Mary (3)
Whitney Houston (3) 2012[27]
Led Zeppelin (3) 2014
Most albums in the Top 200 simultaneously
Prince (19) 2016[28]
The Beatles (13) 2014[29]
Whitney Houston (10) 2012[30]
David Bowie (10) 2016[29]
Led Zeppelin (9) 1979[31]
Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young (8) 1971[32]
Linkin Park (8) 2017[33]
The Monkees (7) 1986[34]
U2 (7)
Pearl Jam (7) 2001[35]
Album milestones
Most weeks at number one
(54 weeks) West Side Story – Soundtrack (1962–63) - this is its run on the stereo album chart; it was only number one for twelve weeks on the mono album chart
(37 weeks) Thriller – Michael Jackson (1983–84)
(31 weeks) Rumours – Fleetwood Mac (1977–78)
(31 weeks) South Pacific – Soundtrack (1958–59)
(31 weeks) Calypso – Harry Belafonte (1956–57)
(24 weeks) 21 – Adele (2011–12)
(24 weeks) Purple Rain – Prince and the Revolution/Soundtrack (1984–85)
(24 weeks) Saturday Night Fever: The Original Movie Sound Track – Bee Gees/Soundtrack (1978)
(21 weeks) Please Hammer, Don't Hurt 'Em – MC Hammer (1990)
(20 weeks) The Bodyguard: Original Soundtrack Album – Whitney Houston/Soundtrack (1992–93)
(20 weeks) Blue Hawaii – Elvis Presley/Soundtrack (1961–62) - this is its run on the mono album chart; it was only number one for four weeks on the stereo album chart
Most weeks on the chart
Note that totals are for the main albums chart only, catalog chart totals are not factored in.
(936 weeks) The Dark Side of the Moon – Pink Floyd[36]
(502 weeks) Legend – Bob Marley and the Wailers[37]
(492 weeks) Journey's Greatest Hits – Journey[38]
(490 weeks) Johnny's Greatest Hits – Johnny Mathis
(480 weeks) My Fair Lady – Original Cast Recording
(463 weeks) Metallica – Metallica[39]
(425 weeks) Greatest Hits – Guns N' Roses[40]
(382 weeks) Nevermind – Nirvana[41]
(373 weeks) Curtain Call: The Hits – Eminem[42]
(357 weeks) 21 – Adele
(355 weeks) Doo-Wops & Hooligans – Bruno Mars
(347 weeks) The Eminem Show – Eminem
(347 weeks) Chronicle: The 20 Greatest Hits – Creedence Clearwater Revival
(331 weeks) Highlights from the Phantom of the Opera – Original Cast Recording
(318 weeks) Tapestry – Carole King[43]
(315 weeks) Thriller – Michael Jackson
(305 weeks) Oklahoma! – Soundtrack
(303 weeks) Recovery – Eminem
(302 weeks) Back in Black – AC/DC
(298 weeks) Born to Die – Lana Del Rey
Biggest jumps to number one
(176–1) Life After Death – The Notorious B.I.G. (April 12, 1997)
(173–1) Vitalogy – Pearl Jam (December 24, 1994)
(156–1) In Rainbows – Radiohead (January 19, 2008)
(137–1) Ghetto D – Master P (September 20, 1997)
(122–1) More of The Monkees – The Monkees (February 11, 1967)
(112–1) MP da Last Don – Master P (June 20, 1998)
(98–1) Beatles '65 – The Beatles (January 9, 1965)
(61–1) Help! – The Beatles (September 11, 1965)
(60–1) Rubber Soul – The Beatles (January 8, 1966)
(53–1) Ballad of the Green Berets – Barry Sadler (March 12, 1966)
Biggest drops from number one
(1–97) Science Fiction – Brand New [44] (September 16, 2017)
(1–59) Wonderful Wonderful – The Killers (October 21, 2017)
(1–56) American Dream – LCD Soundsystem (September 30, 2017)
(1–43) This House Is Not for Sale – Bon Jovi (December 3, 2016)
(1–41) A Pentatonix Christmas – Pentatonix[45] (January 21, 2017)
(1–38) Everything Now – Arcade Fire[46] (August 26, 2017)
(1–37) Light Grenades – Incubus (December 23, 2006)
(1–30) One More Light – Linkin Park (June 17, 2017)
(1–29) Now – Shania Twain (October 28, 2017)
(1–26) Mission Bell – Amos Lee[47] (February 19, 2011)
(1–26) I Like It When You Sleep, for You Are So Beautiful yet So Unaware of It – The 1975[48] (March 26, 2016)
Additional milestones
Barbra Streisand is the only artist to have number 1 albums in 6 decades. Her first was the 1964 album People and her most recent was the 2016 album Encore: Movie Partners Sing Broadway, with a few weeks shy of 52 years between the two hitting number 1.
The first album to debut at number one was Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy by Elton John.[49] John repeated the same feat with the album Rock of the Westies – the second album to debut at number one – making John the first artist to have two consecutive studio albums debut at number one.[49] Whitney Houston's second album Whitney was the first album by a female artist to debut at number one.
In the early 1960s, Bob Newhart had the accomplishment of having the number-one and number-two albums simultaneously on the Billboard albums chart, with The Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart and The Button-Down Mind Strikes Back! This feat was equaled by The Beatles multiple times. They did this twice in 1964 with Meet The Beatles! and Introducing... The Beatles, and then with A Hard Day's Night and Something New, followed in 1969 with the album The Beatles (commonly known as The White Album) and the soundtrack for the film Yellow Submarine. In 1991, Guns N' Roses held the top two with Use Your Illusion I and Use Your Illusion II, in 2004, Nelly's Suit and Sweat and in 2017, Future's Future and HNDRXX.[50]
As a musician, Paul McCartney has the most number-one albums, with 26. This includes 19 albums from his work with The Beatles (referenced earlier in this article), 2 solo albums, 1 album credited to him and his first wife Linda McCartney, and 4 albums as a part of his 1970s group Wings. John Lennon is in second place with 22, including 19 albums with The Beatles, 2 solo albums, and 1 album credited to him and his wife Yoko Ono. George Harrison had 19 number-one albums with The Beatles, 2 as a solo artist, and was the main performer on the various artists Concert For Bangladesh album.
McCartney also has the most top 10 albums, with 50. This includes 32 with The Beatles (referenced earlier in this article), 8 albums with the group Wings, 1 album credited to him and his first wife Linda McCartney, and 9 solo albums.[51]
As of 2008, Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon has been on the charts for over 1,630 weeks, or approximately 31 years. The album spent a record 936 weeks on the Billboard 200. The other weeks were spent on the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart. Its closest rival is Bob Marley's Legend, checking in at over 975 weeks (Billboard 200 and Top Pop Catalog Albums combined).
Tapestry by Carole King holds the record for most consecutive weeks at number one on the Billboard 200 for any one album by a female solo artist with 15 weeks.[52]
Forever Your Girl by Paula Abdul spent 64 consecutive weeks on the Billboard 200 before hitting number one, making it the longest time for an album to reach the number-one spot, while the soundtrack to O Brother, Where Art Thou took 63 weeks to reach number one in 2001 making it the longest run since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales.
The only EPs to reach number one on the chart are Alice in Chains's Jar of Flies in 1994, Linkin Park and Jay-Z's collaboration EP, Collision Course in 2004, the cast of the television series Glee with Glee: The Music, The Power of Madonna and Glee: The Music, Journey to Regionals in 2010, and Bad Meets Evil's Hell: The Sequel.
The Monkees are the only band to have had four number-one albums in the same year.[53] Elvis Presley,[54] The Kingston Trio,[55] The Beatles, and the cast of the television series Glee had three different albums hit number one in the same year. Fourteen artists have had two different albums hit number one in the same year: The Kingston Trio in 1959,[55][56] Beyoncé, Led Zeppelin, DMX, Jay-Z, Garth Brooks, 2Pac, System of a Down, Eminem, Susan Boyle, One Direction, Justin Timberlake, Drake and Future.
Prince is the only artist to have five albums simultaneously in the top ten, which occurred for a week in May 2016.
The Kingston Trio had four albums simultaneously in the top ten, which occurred for five consecutive weeks in November and December 1959.[22][23][24][25][26][57][58] Herb Alpert and The Tijuana Brass matched this with four albums in the Top Ten in April 1966.[59]
In 2001, Britney Spears became the first female artist in the chart's history to have her first three albums debut at number one. She broke this record two years later with a fourth number-one debut.[60] With the number-one debut of her Circus album in 2008, Spears also became the youngest female artist in history to have five number-one albums.[61] She later beat the record when her 7th studio album, Femme Fatale debuted at number one on April, 2011.
The first UK solo artist to debut at number one with a debut album is Leona Lewis on April 26, 2008 with the album Spirit.[62] The first UK group to debut at number one with a debut album is One Direction on March 31, 2012 with the album Up All Night.[63]
Oldest male to debut at number one: Tony Bennett on October 8, 2011 (7004311120000000000♠85 years, 66 days old) with the album Duets II. He was born August 3, 1926. Later, he surpassed his own record when his collaborative album with Lady Gaga, Cheek to Cheek debuted at number one on October 11, 2014 (7004322110000000000♠88 years, 69 days old).
Oldest female to debut at number one: Barbra Streisand on September 17, 2016 (7004271750000000000♠74 years, 146 days old) with the album Encore: Movie Partners Sing Broadway. She was born April 24, 1942.
The issue dated July 11, 2009 was the first time any catalog album outsold the number-one album on the Billboard 200. Three of Michael Jackson's albums (Number Ones, The Essential Michael Jackson and Thriller) claimed positions 1-3 respectively on Top Pop Catalog Albums and Top Comprehensive Albums in the week following Jackson's death.[64][65]
With 24 weeks at number one for her album 21, Adele holds the record for the longest time for a solo album by a female to remain at the top of the Billboard 200. This run was concurrent with her three number-one singles on the Hot 100. 21 also holds the record for the longest time for an album by a female solo artist to remain on the Billboard albums chart, with over six years.
In 2012, Adam Lambert became the first openly gay musician to debut at No. 1 with his album Trespassing.[66]
There have been 23 albums released on an independent label to reach No. 1 on the Billboard 200.[67]
As of September 9, 2017, only fifteen artists had topped the Billboard 200 without having had any singles appear on the Hot 100: Van Cliburn, Bob Newhart, Judy Garland (who had hit singles which predated the Hot 100), Vaughn Meader, Frank Fontaine, Blind Faith, Pantera, Bob Carlisle (whose hit song "Butterfly Kisses" was ineligible for the Hot 100 but charted on radio airplay charts), Il Divo, Slipknot, Vampire Weekend, The Decemberists, Amos Lee, Lecrae, and Brand New.[68] Jackie Gleason, at least for a time, held the record for the most albums to top the Billboard 200 without charting any songs in the top 40 of the Hot 100; three of Gleason's mood music albums topped the Billboard 200 in the mid-1950s.[69]
As of December 18, 2013, Beyoncé became the only female artist to have her first 5 studio albums debut at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 chart, following the release of her self-titled album Beyoncé.[70]
One Direction became the first group in history to debut at No. 1 with its first three albums when Midnight Memories debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 dated December 14, 2013. They later became the first group to debut at No. 1 with their first four albums when Four debuted atop the chart on November 26, 2014.[71]
Led Zeppelin hold the record for the longest gap between an album returning to the Top 10. Led Zeppelin first hit the Top 10 on the Billboard Top LP's chart for the week ending 17 May 1969 and returned 45 years and 35 days later at No.7, on the Billboard 200, for the week ending 21 June 2014.
On May 1, 2016, Beyoncé broke the record she previously set in 2013, by becoming the only female artist to have her first 6 studio albums debut at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 chart, following the release of her sixth studio album Lemonade. Beyoncé also becomes the first and only artist in Billboard chart history to have all of her studio albums debut at No. 1, breaking a tied record with DMX.
On May 22, 2016, Coloring Book by Chance the Rapper became the first streaming-only album to chart on the Billboard 200, debuting at No. 8, with the album being streamed 57.3 million times in its first week, which was equivalent to 38,000 units sold.[72]
On March 18, 2017, Future made history by achieving back-to-back No. 1 album debuts in successive weeks with Future and HNDRXX for the first time in the chart's history.[50]
See also
List of Billboard 200 number-one albums
Sources
Joel Whitburn Presents the Billboard Albums, 6th edition, ISBN 0-89820-166-7
Whitburn, Joel (1991). The Billboard Book of Top 40 Albums (Revised and enlarged 2nd ed.). Billboard Books. ISBN 0-8230-7534-6.
Additional information obtained can be verified within Billboard's online archive services and print editions of the magazine.
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External links
Current Billboard 200
Billboard methodology
[show]
v
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List of Billboard 200 number-one albums
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1941 · 1942 · 1943 · 1944 · 1945
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[show]
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Roman sculpture
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Allegorical scene from the Augustan Ara Pacis, 13 BCE, a highpoint of the state Greco-Roman style.
The study of Roman sculpture is complicated by its relation to Greek sculpture. Many examples of even the most famous Greek sculptures, such as the Apollo Belvedere and Barberini Faun, are known only from Roman Imperial or Hellenistic "copies." At one time, this imitation was taken by art historians as indicating a narrowness of the Roman artistic imagination, but, in the late 20th century, Roman art began to be reevaluated on its own terms: some impressions of the nature of Greek sculpture may in fact be based on Roman artistry.
The strengths of Roman sculpture are in portraiture, where they were less concerned with the ideal than the Greeks or Ancient Egyptians, and produced very characterful works, and in narrative relief scenes. Examples of Roman sculpture are abundantly preserved, in total contrast to Roman painting, which was very widely practiced but has almost all been lost. Latin and some Greek authors, particularly Pliny the Elder in Book 34 of his Natural History, describe statues, and a few of these descriptions match extant works. While a great deal of Roman sculpture, especially in stone, survives more or less intact, it is often damaged or fragmentary; life-size bronze statues are much more rare as most have been recycled for their metal.[1]
Most statues were actually far more lifelike and often brightly colored when originally created; the raw stone surfaces found today is due to the pigment being lost over the centuries.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Development
2 Portraiture
3 Religious and funerary art
4 Gardens and baths
5 Technology
6 Architecture
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Development[edit]
Detail from the Ahenobarbus relief showing (centre-right) two Roman foot-soldiers ca. 122 BC. Note the Montefortino-style helmets with horsehair plume, chain mail cuirasses with shoulder reinforcement, oval shields with calfskin covers, gladius and pilum
Left image: Section of Trajan's Column, Rome, 113 AD, with scenes from the Trajan's Dacian Wars
Right image: Section and detail of the Column of Marcus Aurelius, Rome, 177-180 AD, with scenes from the Marcomannic Wars
Early Roman art was influenced by the art of Greece and that of the neighbouring Etruscans, themselves greatly influenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscan speciality was near life size tomb effigies in terracotta, usually lying on top of a sarcophagus lid propped up on one elbow in the pose of a diner in that period. As the expanding Roman Republic began to conquer Greek territory, at first in Southern Italy and then the entire Hellenistic world except for the Parthian far east, official and patrician sculpture became largely an extension of the Hellenistic style, from which specifically Roman elements are hard to disentangle, especially as so much Greek sculpture survives only in copies of the Roman period.[3] By the 2nd century BCE, "most of the sculptors working at Rome" were Greek,[4] often enslaved in conquests such as that of Corinth (146 BCE), and sculptors continued to be mostly Greeks, often slaves, whose names are very rarely recorded. Vast numbers of Greek statues were imported to Rome, whether as booty or the result of extortion or commerce, and temples were often decorated with re-used Greek works.[5]
A native Italian style can be seen in the tomb monuments of prosperous middle-class Romans, which very often featured portrait busts, and portraiture is arguably the main strength of Roman sculpture. There are no survivals from the tradition of masks of ancestors that were worn in processions at the funerals of the great families and otherwise displayed in the home, but many of the busts that survive must represent ancestral figures, perhaps from the large family tombs like the Tomb of the Scipios or the later mausolea outside the city. The famous "Capitoline Brutus", a bronze head supposedly of Lucius Junius Brutus is very variously dated, but taken as a very rare survival of Italic style under the Republic, in the preferred medium of bronze.[6] Similarly stern and forceful heads are seen in the coins of the consuls, and in the Imperial period coins as well as busts sent around the Empire to be placed in the basilicas of provincial cities were the main visual form of imperial propaganda; even Londinium had a near-colossal statue of Nero, though far smaller than the 30 metre high Colossus of Nero in Rome, now lost.[7] The Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker, a successful freedman (c. 50-20 BC) has a frieze that is an unusually large example of the "plebeian" style.[8]
Arch of Constantine, 315: Hadrian lion-hunting (left) and sacrificing (right), above a section of the Constantinian frieze, showing the contrast of styles.
The Romans did not generally attempt to compete with free-standing Greek works of heroic exploits from history or mythology, but from early on produced historical works in relief, culminating in the great Roman triumphal columns with continuous narrative reliefs winding around them, of which those commemorating Trajan (CE 113) and Marcus Aurelius (by 193) survive in Rome, where the Ara Pacis ("Altar of Peace", 13 BCE) represents the official Greco-Roman style at its most classical and refined. Among other major examples are the earlier re-used reliefs on the Arch of Constantine and the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius (161),[9] Campana reliefs were cheaper pottery versions of marble reliefs and the taste for relief was from the imperial period expanded to the sarcophagus.
All forms of luxury small sculpture continued to be patronized, and quality could be extremely high, as in the silver Warren Cup, glass Lycurgus Cup, and large cameos like the Gemma Augustea, Gonzaga Cameo and the "Great Cameo of France".[10] For a much wider section of the population, moulded relief decoration of pottery vessels and small figurines were produced in great quantity and often considerable quality.[11]
After moving through a late 2nd century "baroque" phase,[12] in the 3rd century, Roman art largely abandoned, or simply became unable to produce, sculpture in the classical tradition, a change whose causes remain much discussed. Even the most important imperial monuments now showed stumpy, large-eyed figures in a harsh frontal style, in simple compositions emphasizing power at the expense of grace. The contrast is famously illustrated in the Arch of Constantine of 315 in Rome, which combines sections in the new style with roundels in the earlier full Greco-Roman style taken from elsewhere, and the Four Tetrarchs (c. 305) from the new capital of Constantinople, now in Venice. Ernst Kitzinger found in both monuments the same "stubby proportions, angular movements, an ordering of parts through symmetry and repetition and a rendering of features and drapery folds through incisions rather than modelling... The hallmark of the style wherever it appears consists of an emphatic hardness, heaviness and angularity — in short, an almost complete rejection of the classical tradition".[13]
This revolution in style shortly preceded the period in which Christianity was adopted by the Roman state and the great majority of the people, leading to the end of large religious sculpture, with large statues now only used for emperors, as in the famous fragments of a colossal acrolithic statue of Constantine, and the 4th or 5th century Colossus of Barletta. However rich Christians continued to commission reliefs for sarcophagi, as in the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, and very small sculpture, especially in ivory, was continued by Christians, building on the style of the consular diptych.[14]
Etruscan sarcophagus, 3rd century BCE
The "Capitoline Brutus", probably late 4th to early 3rd century BC, possibly 1st century BC.[15]
A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste (Palastrina),[16] which was built c. 120 BC;[17] exhibited in the Pius-Clementine Museum (Museo Pio-Clementino) in the Vatican Museums.
The Patrician Torlonia bust, believed to be of Cato the Elder. 1st century BC
The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze statue depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman toga while engaged in rhetoric; the statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabet
Scipio Africanus, bronze bust, mid 1st century BC
The so-called "Togatus Barberini", a statue depicting a Roman senator holding portrait effigies (possibly imagines) of deceased ancestors; marble, late 1st century BC; head (not belonging): mid 1st century BC.
The Grave relief of Publius Aiedius and Aiedia, 30 BC, Pergamon Museum (Berlin)
Arles bust, marble bust found in the Rhone River near Arles, c. 46 BC
Roman, Republican or Early Imperial, Relief of a seated poet (Menander) with masks of New Comedy, 1st century BC – early 1st century AD, Princeton University Art Museum
Augustus of Prima Porta, statue of the emperor Augustus, 1st century CE. Vatican Museums
The cameo gem known as the "Great Cameo of France", c. 23 CE, with an allegory of Augustus and his family
Bust of Emperor Claudius, c. 50 CE, (reworked from a bust of emperor Caligula), It was found in the so-called Otricoli basilica in Lanuvium, Italy, Vatican Museums
The so-called "Venus in a bikini", from the House of Julia Felix, Pompeii, Italy actually depicts her Greek conterpart Aphrodite as she is about to untie her sandal, with a small Eros squating beneath her left arm
Tomb relief of the Decii, 98–117 CE
Statue of Mars from the Forum of Nerva, early 2nd century AD, based on an Augustan-era original that in turn used a Hellenistic Greek model of the 4th century BC, Capitoline Museums[18]
Polychrome marble statue depicting the goddess Tyche holding the infant Plutus in her arms, 2nd century AD, Istanbul Archaeological Museum
Statue of Antinous (Delphi), depicting Antinous, polychrome Parian marble, made during the reign of Hadrian (r. 117-138 AD)
Ancient bust of Roman emperor Lucius Verus (r. 161-169), a natural blond who would sprinkle gold dust in his hair to make it even blonder,[19] Bardo National Museum, Tunis
Remnants of a Roman bust of a youth with a blond beard, perhaps depicting Roman emperor Commodus (r. 177-192), National Archaeological Museum, Athens
Commodus dressed as Hercules, c. 191 CE, in the late imperial "baroque" style
Marcus Aurelius receiving the submission of vanquished foes from the Marcomannic Wars, a relief from his now destroyed triumphal arch in Rome, Capitoline Museums, 177-180 AD
Private portrait with both individualized and unforgiving naturalism and stylized influence of portraits of the emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius in his beard and hairstyle.
Ancient Roman statue of Isis, in the Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna; first half of the 2nd century AD, found in Naples, Italy; made out of black and white marble.
Marble table support adorned by a group including Dionysos, Pan and a Satyr; Dionysos holds a rhyton in the shape of a panther; traces of red and yellow colour are preserved on the hair of the figures and the branches; from an Asia Minor workshop, 170-180 AD, National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece
The Farnese Hercules, probably an enlarged copy made in the early 3rd century AD and signed by a certain Glykon, from an original by Lysippos (or one of his circle) that would have been made in the 4th century BC; The copy was made for the Baths of Caracalla in Rome (dedicated in 216 AD), where it was recovered in 1546
Ancient Roman statue of emperor Balbinus, dating from 238 AD, on display in the Archaeological Museum of Piraeus (Athens)
Bronze of Trebonianus Gallus dating from the time of his reign as Roman Emperor, the only surviving near-complete full-size 3rd-century Roman bronze (Metropolitan Museum of Art)[20]
The Four Tetrarchs, c. 305, showing the new anti-classical style, in porphyry, now San Marco, Venice
Head and other fragments of Constantine I from a colossal bronze statue, early 4th century AD, Musei Capitolini (Rome)
A marble portrait bust of a Roman matron, early 4th century AD, Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg
Bust depicting an idealized portrait of Menander of Ephesus, 4th century AD, Ephesus Archaeological Museum
Detail of a sarcophagus depicting the Christian belief in the multiplication of bread loaves and fish by Jesus Christ, c. 350-375 AD, Vatican Museums
A Roman bust depicting either Valens or Honorius; marble, ca. 400 AD
Honorius on the consular diptych of Anicius Petronius Probus (406 AD)
Stone-carved relief depicting the liberation of a besieged city by a relief force, with those defending the walls making a sortie (i.e. a sudden attack against a besieging enemy from within the besieged town); Western Roman Empire, early 5th century AD
Portrait of an unknown man, found in the Agora of Athens, dating from around 400-450 AD; National Archaeological Museum, Athens
Bust of Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II (r. 408–450 AD); marble, 5th century AD
Bust of an Eastern Roman lady (Galla Placidia?) in the Musée Saint-Raymond de Toulouse, 5th century AD
Bust of an unknown orator or philosopher from Tartus, now in the Louvre, 5th century AD
Portraiture[edit]
Roman portraiture is characterized by its "warts and all" realism; bust of Lucius Caecilius Iucundus, a cast in the Pushkin Museum; the original in bronze was found in Pompeii, and is now in the Naples National Archaeological Museum
Marble bust of Caligula, Roman emperor AD 37–41, with traces of original paint beside a plaster replica trying to recreate the polychrome traditions of ancient sculpture. Exhibition in Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen, Denmark.
Main article: Roman portraiture
Portraiture is a dominant genre of Roman sculpture, growing perhaps from the traditional Roman emphasis on family and ancestors; the entrance hall (atrium) of a Roman elite house displayed ancestral portrait busts. During the Roman Republic, it was considered a sign of character not to gloss over physical imperfections, and to depict men in particular as rugged and unconcerned with vanity: the portrait was a map of experience. During the Imperial era, more idealized statues of Roman emperors became ubiquitous, particularly in connection with the state religion of Rome. Tombstones of even the modestly rich middle class sometimes exhibit portraits of the otherwise unknown deceased carved in relief.
Among the many museums with examples of Roman portrait sculpture, the collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the British Museum in London are especially noteworthy.
Religious and funerary art[edit]
Further information: Early Christian sarcophagi
Religious art was also a major form of Roman sculpture. A central feature of a Roman temple was the cult statue of the deity, who was regarded as "housed" there (see aedes). Although images of deities were also displayed in private gardens and parks, the most magnificent of the surviving statues appear to have been cult images. Roman altars were usually rather modest and plain, but some Imperial examples are modeled after Greek practice with elaborate reliefs, most famously the Ara Pacis, which has been called "the most representative work of Augustan art."[21] Small bronze statuettes and ceramic figurines, executed with varying degrees of artistic competence, are plentiful in the archaeological record, particularly in the provinces, and indicate that these were a continual presence in the lives of Romans, whether for votives or for private devotional display at home or in neighborhood shrines. These typically show more regional variation in style than large and more official works, and also stylistic preferences between different classes.[22]
Roman marble sarcophagi mostly date from the 2nd to the 4th century CE,[23] after a change in Roman burial customs from cremation to inhumation, and were mostly made in a few major cities, including Rome and Athens, which exported them to other cities. Elsewhere the stela gravestone remained more common. They were always a very expensive form reserved for the elite, and especially so in the relatively few very elaborately carved examples; most were always relatively plain, with inscriptions, or symbols such as garlands. Sarcophagi divide into a number of styles, by the producing area. "Roman" ones were made to rest against a wall, and one side was left uncarved, while "Attic" and other types were carved on all four sides; but the short sides were generally less elaborately decorated in both types.[24]
The time taken to make them encouraged the use of standard subjects, to which inscriptions might be added to personalize them, and portraits of the deceased were slow to appear. The sarcophagi offer examples of intricate reliefs that depict scenes often based on Greek and Roman mythology or mystery religions that offered personal salvation, and allegorical representations. Roman funerary art also offers a variety of scenes from everyday life, such as game-playing, hunting, and military endeavors.[25]
Early Christian art quickly adopted the sarcophagus, and they are the most common form of early Christian sculpture, progressing from simple examples with symbols to elaborate fronts, often with small scenes of the Life of Christ in two rows within an architectural framework. The Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (c. 359) is of this type, asnd the earlier Dogmatic Sarcophagus rather simpler. The huge porphyry Sarcophagi of Helena and Constantina are grand Imperial examples.
Scenes from Roman sarcophagi
Scenes of Orphic religion (2nd century)
Portonaccio sarcophagus with a battle
Dionysus riding a panther and accompanied by attendants, 220-230 AD
Children playing with nuts (3rd century)
Sarcophagus with the Calydonian hunt, Palazzo dei Senatori - Musei Capitolini, Rome.
Sarcophagus with the Four Seasons allegory
(3rd century), Palazzo dei Senatori - Musei Capitolini, Rome.
Sarcophagus of the Quinta Flavia Severina, Palazzo dei Senatori - Musei Capitolini, Rome.
Early Christian marble sarcophagus with a high-relief representing scenes from the Old and the New Testament, c. 310 AD
Cast of Christ's trial before Pilate, with Pilate about to wash his hands. Detail from the Early Christian Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (d. 359)
Gardens and baths[edit]
The Dying Gaul, Capitoline Museum, copy of Hellenistic original
A number of well-known large stone vases sculpted in relief from the Imperial period were apparently mostly used as garden ornaments; indeed many statues were also placed in gardens, both public and private. Sculptures recovered from the site of the Gardens of Sallust, opened to the public by Tiberius, include:
the Obelisco Sallustiano, a Roman copy of an Egyptian obelisk which now stands in front of the Trinità dei Monti church above the Piazza di Spagna at the top of the Spanish Steps
the Borghese Vase, discovered there in the 16th century.
the sculptures known as the Dying Gaul and the Gaul Killing Himself and His Wife, marble copies of parts a famous Hellenistic group in bronze commissioned for Pergamon in about 228 BC.
the Ludovisi Throne (probably an authentic Greek piece in the Severe style), found in 1887, and the Boston Throne, found in 1894.
the Crouching Amazon, found in 1888 near the via Boncompagni, about twenty-five meters from the via Quintino Sella (Museo Conservatori).
Roman baths were another site for sculpture; among the well-known pieces recovered from the Baths of Caracalla are the Farnese Bull and Farnese Hercules and over life-size early 3rd century patriotic figures somewhat reminiscent of Soviet Social Realist works (now in the Museo di Capodimonte, Naples).
Found in the Gardens of Sallust
Falling Niobid, discovered in the site in 1906 (Museo Nazionale Romano)' a Greek original[26]
Borghese Vase
Caryatid statue, Palazzo dei Senatori - Musei Capitolini, Rome.
Fountain in the form of a horn-shaped drinking cup (rhyton), Palazzo dei Senatori - Musei Capitolini, Rome.
Child with a theatre mask, for a garden or house, Palazzo Nuovo - Musei Capitolini, Rome.
Technology[edit]
Detail from Trajan's column with ballista
Roman harvesting machine from Trier (Germany), a city of the Roman province Gallia Belgica
Scenes shown on reliefs such as that of Trajan's column and those shown on sarcophogi reveal images of Roman technology now long lost, such as ballistae and the use of waterwheel-driven saws for cutting stone. The latter was only recently discovered at Hieropolis and commemorates the miller who used the machine. Other reliefs show harvesting machines, much as they were described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia.
Architecture[edit]
Compared to the Greeks, the Romans made less use of stone sculpture on buildings, apparently having few friezes with figures. Important pediments, such as the Pantheon for example, originally had sculpture, but hardly any have survived. Terracotta relief panels called Campana reliefs have survived in good numbers. These were used to decorate interior walls, in strips.
The architectural writer Vitruvius is oddly reticent on the architectural use of sculpture, mentioning only a few examples, though he says that an architect should be able to explain the meaning of architectural ornament and gives as an example the use of caryatids.[27]
See also[edit]
Ancient Roman pottery
Classical sculpture
Gallo-Roman art
History of sculpture
Roman art
Roman engineering
Roman technology
Notes[edit]
Ancient art history
Middle East
Ancient Egypt
Mesopotamia
Persia
Asia
India
China
Japan
Korea
Cambodia
European prehistory
Cycladic
Nuragic
Etruscan
Celtic
Scythia
Classical art
Ancient Greece
Hellenistic
Rome
v
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Jump up ^ Hennig, 94-95
Jump up ^ http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/true-colors-17888/?all
Jump up ^ Strong, 58–63; Hennig, 66-69
Jump up ^ Hennig, 24
Jump up ^ Henig, 66–69; Strong, 36–39, 48; At the trial of Verres, former governor of Sicily, Cicero's prosecution details his depredations of art collections at great length.
Jump up ^ Henig, 23–24; Strong, 47
Jump up ^ Henig, 66–71
Jump up ^ Hennig, 66; Strong, 125
Jump up ^ Henig, 73–82;Strong, 48–52, 80–83, 108–117, 128–132, 141–159, 177–182, 197–211
Jump up ^ Henig, Chapter 6; Strong, 303–315
Jump up ^ Henig, Chapter 8
Jump up ^ Strong, 171–176, 211–214
Jump up ^ Kitzinger, 9 (both quotes), more generally his Ch 1; Strong, 250–257, 264–266, 272–280; also on the Arch of Constantine, Elsner, 98-101
Jump up ^ Strong, 287–291, 305–308, 315–318; Henig, 234–240
Jump up ^ Strong, 47
Jump up ^ D.B. Saddington (2011) [2007]. "the Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets," in Paul Erdkamp (ed), A Companion to the Roman Army, 201-217. Malden, Oxford, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2153-8. Plate 12.2 on p. 204.
Jump up ^ Coarelli, Filippo (1987), I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana. NIS, Rome, pp 35-84.
Jump up ^ Capitoline Museums. "Colossal statue of Mars Ultor also known as Pyrrhus - Inv. Scu 58." Capitolini.info. Accessed 8 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Michael Grant (1994). The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10754-7, pp 27-28.
Jump up ^ Bronze portrait of Trebonianus Gallus, 05.30
Jump up ^ Karl Galinsky, Augustan Culture: An Interpretive Introduction (Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 141.
Jump up ^ Hennig, 95-96
Jump up ^ The Sarcophagus of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus is a rare example from much earlier
Jump up ^ Hennig, 93-94
Jump up ^ Hennig, 93-94
Jump up ^ T. Ashby, "Recent Excavations in Rome", CQ 2/2 (1908) p.49.
Jump up ^ Brunilde Sismondo Ridgway, Prayers in Stone: Greek Architectural Sculpture ca. 600-100 B.C.E. (University of California Press, 1999), pp. 13–14 online and 145.
References[edit]
Elsner, Jas, "Style" in Critical Terms for Art History, Nelson, Robert S. and Shiff, Richard, 2nd Edn. 2010, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226571696, 9780226571690, google books
Henig, Martin (ed, Ch 3, "Sculpture" by Anthony Bonanno), A Handbook of Roman Art, Phaidon, 1983, ISBN 0714822140
Kitzinger, Ernst, Byzantine art in the making: main lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art, 3rd–7th century, 1977, Faber & Faber, ISBN 0571111548 (US: Cambridge UP, 1977)
Strong, Donald, et al., Roman Art, 1995 (2nd edn.), Yale University Press (Penguin/Yale History of Art), ISBN 0300052936
Williams, Dyfri. Masterpieces of Classical Art, 2009, British Museum Press, ISBN 9780714122540
Further reading[edit]
Conlin, Diana Attnally, The Artists of the Ara Pacis, University of North Carolina Press, 1997.
Hallett, Christopher H., The Roman Nude: Heroic Portrait Statuary 200 BC - AD 300, Oxford University Press, 2005.
Kleiner, Diana E.E., Roman Sculpture, Yale University Press, 1992.
Gerhard Koeppel, "Official State Reliefs of the City of Rome in the Imperial Age: A Bibliography." ANRW II.12.1, 477-506.
Koortbojian, Michael, Myth, Meaning, and Memory on Roman Sarcophagi, University of California Press, 1995.
Mattusch, Carol A., The Villa dei Papiri at Herculaneum: Life and Afterlife of a Sculptural Collection, J. Paul Getty Museum, 2005.
Ryberg, Inez Scott, Rites of the State Religion in Roman Art, American Academy in Rome, 1955.
Varner, Eric R., Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture, Brill, 2004.
External links[edit]
"Roman art: Sculpture". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th edition. © 2006. Columbia University Press / Infoplease. Visited May 28, 2006.
Ancient Roman sculpture
Comprehensive visual documentation of Ara Pacis Sculpture".
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