text:
Competition between Airbus and Boeing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A Lufthansa Airbus A380 and Boeing 747-8 at Frankfurt Airport
The competition between Airbus and Boeing has been characterised as a duopoly in the large jet airliner market since the 1990s.[1] This resulted from a series of mergers within the global aerospace industry, with Airbus beginning as a European consortium while the American Boeing absorbed its former arch-rival, McDonnell Douglas, in a 1997 merger. Other manufacturers, such as Lockheed Martin, Convair and Fairchild Aircraft in the United States, and British Aerospace and Fokker in Europe, were no longer in a position to compete effectively and withdrew from this market.
In the 10 years from 2007 to 2016, Airbus has received 9,985 orders while delivering 5,644, and Boeing has received 8,978 orders while delivering 5,718. In the midst of their intense competition, each company regularly accuses the other of receiving unfair state aid from their respective governments.
Contents
[hide]
1 Competing products
1.1 Passenger capacity and range comparison
1.2 Cargo capacity and range comparison
1.3 Airbus A320 vs Boeing 737
1.4 Airbus A380 vs Boeing 747
1.5 EADS/Northrop Grumman KC-45A vs Boeing KC-767
2 Modes of competition
2.1 Outsourcing
2.2 Technology
2.3 Provision of engine choices
2.4 Currency and exchange rates
2.5 Safety and quality
2.6 Aircraft prices
3 Effect of competition on product plans
4 Orders and deliveries
5 Controversies
5.1 Subsidies
5.2 World Trade Organization litigation
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Competing products[edit]
Passenger capacity and range comparison[edit]
Airbus and Boeing have wide product ranges including single-aisle and wide-body aircraft covering a variety of combinations of capacity and range.
Single aisle : A320,[2] 737[3]
Type
length
span
MTOW
pax
range
list price (USD)[4][5]
A319neo 33.84 m 35.8 m 75.5 t 140 3750 nm $99.5M
737 MAX-7 35.6 m 35.9 m 80.3 t 138 3825 nm $92.2M
A320neo 37.57 m 35.8 m 79 t 165 3500 nm $112.4M
737 MAX-8 39.5 m 35.9 m 82.19 t 162 3515 nm $110M
737 MAX-9 42.11 m 35.9 m 88.31 t 180 3515 nm $119.2M
737 MAX-10 43.8 m 35.9 m TBA 188 3215 nm $125.0M
A321neo 44.51 m 35.8 m 97 t 206 4000 nm $127.0M
Flight Global fleet forecasts 26,860 single aisle deliveries for a $1,360 Bn value at a compound annual growth rate of 5% for the 2016-2035 period, with a 45% market share for Airbus (12090), 43% for Boeing (11550), 5% for Bombardier Aerospace (1340), 4% for COMAC (1070) and 3% for Irkut Corporation (810) ; Airbus predicts 23,531 and Boeing 28,140.[6] Single aisles generates a vast majority of profits for both, followed by legacy twin aisles like the A330 and B777: Kevin Michaels of AeroDynamic Advisory estimates the 737 have a 30% profit margin and the 777 classic 20%.[7]
See also: Middle of the market
Twin aisle : A330, A350,[2] 787,[8] 777X[9]
Type
length
span
MTOW
pax
range
list price (USD)[4][5]
787-8 56.69 m 60.17 m 227.93 t 242 7355 nm $229.5M
A330neo-800 58.82 m 64 m 242 t 257 7500 nm $254.8M
A350-800 60.45 m 64.75 m 259 t 280 8200 nm $275.1M
787-9 63 m 60.17 m 254 t 290 7635 nm $270.4M
A330neo-900 63.66 m 64 m 242 t 287 6550 nm $290.6M
A350-900 66.80 m 64.75 m 280 t 325 8100 nm $311.2M
787-10 68.27 m 60.17 m 254 t 330 6430 nm $312.8M
777X-8 69.8 m 71.8 m 351.5 t 350-375 8700 nm $379.2M
A350-1000 73.79 m 64.75 m 308 t 366 7950 nm $359.3M
777X-9 76.7 m 71.8 m 351.5 t 414 7600 nm $408.8M
Double deck
Type
length
span
MTOW
pax
range
list price (USD)
A380[2] 72.72 m 79.75 m 575 t 544 8200 nm $436.9M[4]
747-8[10] 76.3 m 68.4 m 447.7 t 410 7730 nm $386.8M[5]
Flight Global fleet forecasts 7,960 twin aisle deliveries for a $1,284 Bn value for the 2016-2035 period.[11] The B787 should lead with 31% of the market share, followed by the A350 with 27% and the 777 with 21%, then the A330 with 7% as the A380.[12] In June 2017, The orderbook was for 1038 Airbus (41%) and 1,514 Boeings (59%).[13]
Capacity
Market
North Atlantic[14]
Trans-pacific[15]
type
1H2006
1H2016
2005
2015
A310/DC10/MD11 3% 1% 3% -
A320/B737 1% 1% - -
A330 16% 26% 3% 10%
A340 10% 6% 11% 1%
A380 - 3% - 4%
B747 15% 9% 49% 10%
B757 6% 9% - -
B767 28% 19% 7% 7%
B777 21% 20% 27% 55%
B787 - 6% - 13%
Cargo capacity and range comparison[edit]
Type
length
span
MTOW
capacity
range
list price (USD)
A320P2F[16] 37.57 m 35.8 m 78.0 t 21.0 t 2100 nm converted
737-800BCF[17] 39.5 m 35.8 m 79.0 t 22.7 t 2000 nm converted
A321P2F[16] 44.51 m 35.8 m 93.5 t 27.0 t 1900 nm converted
767-300BCF[17] 54.94 m 50.9 m 186.9 t 51.7 t 3300 nm converted
767-300F[17] 54.94 m 47.57 m 186.9 t 52.5 t 3260 nm $203.7M
A330-200P2F[18] 58.82 m 60.3 m 233.0 t 59.0 t 4000 nm converted
A330-200F[2] 58.82 m 60.3 m 233.0 t 70.0 t 4000 nm $237.0M
A330-300P2F[18] 63.67 m 60.3 m 233.0 t 61.0 t 3600 nm converted
777F[17] 63.73 m 64.80 m 347.8 t 102.0 t 4970 nm $325.7M
747-8F[17] 76.3 m 68.4 m 447.7 t 137.7 t 4120 nm $387.5M
Airbus A320 vs Boeing 737[edit]
United Airlines Airbus A320 and Boeing 737-900 on final approach
In terms of sales, while the Boeing 737 Next Generation outsold the Airbus A320 family since its introduction in 1988, it is still lagging overall with 7,033 orders against 7,940 in January 2016. Airbus received 4,471 orders since the A320neo family launch in December 2010, while the 737 MAX got 3,072 from August 2011 till January 2016. In the same timeframe, the neo had 3,355 orders.[19] Through August, Airbus have a 59.4% market share of the re-engined single aisle market, while Boeing had 40.6%; Boeing has doubts on over-ordered A320 neos by new operators and expects to narrow the gap with replacements not already ordered.[20] In July 2017, Airbus still had sold 1,350 more A320neos than Boeing had sold 737 MAXs.[21]
In terms of deliveries, Boeing has shipped 9,522 aircraft of the 737 family since late 1967,[22] with 8,016 of those deliveries since March 1, 1988,[23] and has a further 4,430 on firm order as of May 2017.[22] In comparison, Airbus has delivered 7,610 A320 series aircraft since their certification/first delivery in early 1988, with another 5,501 on firm order (as of May 2017).[24]
Airbus A320 family deliveries[24][25]
Boeing 737 series deliveries[26]
Airbus A380 vs Boeing 747[edit]
Cross-section comparison of the Airbus A380 (full length double deck) and the front section of Boeing 747-400 (only the front section has double deck)
During the 1990s both companies researched the feasibility of a passenger aircraft larger than the Boeing 747, which was then the largest airliner in operation. Airbus subsequently launched a full-length double-deck aircraft, the A380, a decade later while Boeing decided the project would not be commercially viable and developed the third generation 747, Boeing 747-8,instead.[27] The Airbus A380 and the Boeing 747-8 are therefore placed in direct competition on long-haul routes.
Rival performance claims by Airbus and Boeing appear to be contradictory, their methodologies unclear and neither are validated by a third party source.[citation needed] Boeing claims the 747-8I to be over 10% lighter per seat and have 11% less fuel consumption per passenger, with a trip-cost reduction of 21% and a seat-mile cost reduction of more than 6%, compared to the A380. The 747-8F's empty weight is expected to be 80 tonnes (88 tons) lighter and 24% lower fuel burnt per ton with 21% lower trip costs and 23% lower ton-mile costs than the A380F.[28] On the other hand, Airbus claims the A380 to have 8% less fuel consumption per passenger than the 747-8I and in 2007 Singapore Airlines CEO Chew Choong Seng stated the A380 was performing better than both the airline and Airbus had anticipated, burning 20% less fuel per passenger than the airline's 747-400 fleet.[29] Emirates' Tim Clark also claims that the A380 is more fuel economic at Mach 0.86 than at 0.83.[30] One independent, industry analysis shows fuel consumption in litres per seat per 100 kilometres flown (L/seat/100 km) as 3.27 for the A380 and 3.35 for the B747-8I, or a fuel cost per seat mile of $0.055 and $0.057 respectively.[dubious – discuss] A possible, as yet uncommitted, re-engined A380neo is expected to achieve 2.82 or 2.65 L/seat/100 km depending on the options taken.[31]
Airbus emphasises the longer range of the A380 while using up to 17% shorter runways.[32] The A380-800 has 478 square metres (5,145.1 sq ft) of cabin floor space, 49% more than the 747-8, while commentators noted the "downright eerie" lack of engine noise, with the A380 being 50% quieter than a 747-400 on takeoff.[33] Airbus delivered the 100th A380 on 14 March 2013.[34] From 2012, Airbus will offer, as an option, a variant with improved maximum take-off weight allowing for better payload/range performance. The precise increase in maximum take-off weight is still unknown. British Airways and Emirates will be the first customers to take this offer.[35]
As of December 2015, Airbus has 319 orders[36] for the passenger version of the A380 and is not currently offering the A380-800 freighter. Production of the A380F has been suspended until the A380 production lines have settled with no firm availability date.[37] A number of original A380F orders were cancelled following delays to the A380 program in October 2006, notably FedEx and the United Parcel Service. Some A380 launch customers converted their A380F orders to the passenger version or switched to the 747-8F or 777F aircraft.[38][39]
At Farnborough in July 2016, Airbus announced that in a "prudent, proactive step," starting in 2018 it expects to deliver 12 A380 aircraft per year, down from 27 deliveries in 2015. The firm also warned production might slip back into red ink on each aircraft produced at that time, though it anticipates production will remain in the black for 2016 and 2017. The firm expects that healthy demand for its other aircraft would allow it to avoid job losses from the cuts.[40][41]
As of June 2014, Boeing has 51 orders for the 747-8I passenger version and 69 for the 747-8F freighter.[42]
EADS/Northrop Grumman KC-45A vs Boeing KC-767[edit]
Main article: KC-X
The announcement in March 2008 that Boeing had lost a US$40 billion refuelling aircraft contract to Northrop Grumman and Airbus for the EADS/Northrop Grumman KC-45 with the United States Air Force drew angry protests in the United States Congress.[43] Upon review of Boeing's protest, the Government Accountability Office ruled in favour of Boeing and ordered the USAF to recompete the contract. Later, the entire call for aircraft was rescheduled, then cancelled, with a new call decided upon in March 2010 as a fixed-price contract.
Boeing later won the contest against Airbus (Northrop having withdrawn) and US Aerospace/Antonov (disqualified), with a lower price, on February 24, 2011.[44] The price was so low some in the media believe Boeing would take a loss on the deal; they also speculated that the company could perhaps break even with maintenance and spare parts contracts.[45] In July 2011, it was revealed that projected development costs rose $1.4bn and will exceed the $4.9bn contract cap by $300m. For the first $1bn increase (from the award price to the cap), the U.S. government would be responsible for $600m under a 60/40 government/Boeing split. With Boeing being wholly responsible for the additional $300m ceiling breach, Boeing would be responsible for a total of $700m of the additional cost.[46][47][48][clarification needed]
Modes of competition[edit]
Outsourcing[edit]
Because many of the world's airlines are wholly or partially government owned, aircraft procurement decisions are often taken according to political criteria in addition to commercial ones. Boeing and Airbus seek to exploit this by subcontracting production of aircraft components or assemblies to manufacturers in countries of strategic importance in order to gain a competitive advantage overall.
For example, Boeing has maintained longstanding relationships since 1974 with Japanese suppliers including Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Kawasaki Heavy Industries by which these companies have had increasing involvement on successive Boeing jet programs, a process which has helped Boeing achieve almost total dominance of the Japanese market for commercial jets. Outsourcing was extended on the 787 to the extent that Boeing's own involvement was reduced to little more than project management, design, assembly and test operation, outsourcing most of the actual manufacturing all around the world. Boeing has since stated that it "outsourced too much" and that future airplane projects will depend far more on its own engineering and production personnel.[49]
Partly because of its origins as a consortium of European companies, Airbus has had fewer opportunities to outsource significant parts of its production beyond its own European plants. However, in 2009 Airbus opened an assembly plant in Tianjin, China for production of its A320 series airliners.[50]
Technology[edit]
Airbus sought to compete with the well-established Boeing in the 1970s through its introduction of advanced technology. For example, the A300 made the most extensive use of composite materials yet seen in an aircraft of that era, and by automating the flight engineer's functions, was the first widebody jet to have a two-man flight crew. In the 1980s Airbus was the first to introduce digital fly-by-wire controls into an airliner (the A320).
With Airbus now an established competitor to Boeing, both companies use advanced technology to seek performance advantages in their products. Many of these improvements are about weight reduction and fuel efficiency. For example, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner is the first large airliner to use 50% composites for its construction. The Airbus A350 XWB features 53% composites.[51]
Provision of engine choices[edit]
The competitive strength in the market of any airliner is considerably influenced by the choice of engine available. In general, airlines prefer to have a choice of at least two engines from the major manufacturers General Electric, Rolls-Royce and Pratt & Whitney. However, engine manufacturers prefer to be single source, and often succeed in striking commercial deals with Boeing and Airbus to achieve this.
Several notable aircraft have only provided a single engine offering: the Boeing 737-300 series onwards (CFM56), the Airbus A340-500 & 600 (Rolls-Royce Trent 500), the Airbus A350 XWB (Rolls-Royce Trent XWB), the Boeing 747-8 (GEnx-2B67), and the Boeing 777-300ER/200LR/F (General Electric GE90).[52] However, the Airbus A380 has a choice of either the Engine Alliance GP7000 or the Rolls-Royce Trent 900, while the Boeing 787 Dreamliner can be fitted with the General Electric GEnx or the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000.
As of the late 2000s, there appears to be a polarizing of both the engine suppliers as well as the airline manufacturers, such as Boeing and General Electric partnering for the upcoming Boeing 777X, and Airbus working closely with Rolls Royce for the Airbus A350-1000.[53][54]
Currency and exchange rates[edit]
Boeing's production costs are mostly in United States dollars, whereas Airbus' production costs are mostly in Euro. When the dollar appreciates against the euro the cost of producing a Boeing aircraft rises relatively to the cost of producing an Airbus aircraft, and conversely when the dollar falls relative to the euro it is an advantage for Boeing. There are also possible currency risks and benefits involved in the way aircraft are sold. Boeing typically prices its aircraft only in dollars, while Airbus, although pricing most aircraft sales in dollars, has been known to be more flexible and has priced some aircraft sales in Asia and the Middle East in multiple currencies. Depending on currency fluctuations between the acceptance of the order and the delivery of the aircraft this can result in an extra profit or extra expense—or, if Airbus has purchased insurance against such fluctuations, an additional cost regardless.[55]
Safety and quality[edit]
Both aircraft manufacturers have good safety records on recently manufactured aircraft and generally, both firms have a positive reputation of delivering well-engineered and high-quality products.[56][57] By convention, both companies tend to avoid safety comparisons when selling their aircraft to airlines or comparisons on product quality. Most aircraft dominating the companies' current sales, the Boeing 737-NG and Airbus A320 families and both companies' wide-body offerings, have good safety records. Older model aircraft such as the Boeing 707, Boeing 727, Boeing 737-100/-200, Boeing 747-100/SP/200/300, Airbus A300, and Airbus A310, which were respectively first flown during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, have had higher rates of fatal accidents.[58] According to Airbus' John Leahy, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner battery problems will not cause customers to switch airplane suppliers.[59]
Aircraft prices[edit]
Airbus and Boeing publish list prices for their aircraft but the actual prices charged to airlines vary; they can be difficult to determine and tend to be much lower than the list prices. Both manufacturers are engaged in a price competition to defend their market share.[60]
However, the actual transaction prices may be as much as 50% less than the list prices, as reported in 2012 in the Wall Street Journal, giving some examples from the Flight International subsidiary Ascend:[61]
Model
List price 2012, US$M
Market price
% Discount
Boeing 737-800 84 41 51%
Boeing 737-900ER 90 45 50%
Boeing 777-300ER 298 149 50%
Airbus A319 81 30 63%
Airbus A320 88 40 55%
Airbus A330-200 209 84 60%
In May 2013, Forbes magazine reported that the Boeing 787 offered at $225 million was selling at an average of $116m, a 48% discount.[62]
For Ascend's Les Weal, Launch customers obtain good prices on heavier aircraft, Lessors are large buyers and benefit too, like airlines as Singapore Airlines or Cathay Pacific since their name gives credibility to a program. In its annual report, Air France cites a €149 million ($195 million) A380, a 52% cut, while in an October 2011 financial release Doric Nimrod Air notes a $234 million for its A380 leased to Emirates. Teal group's Richard Aboulafia notes that Boeing's pricing power for the 777-300ER was better when it was alone in its long-haul, large capacity twinjet market but this advantage dissipates with the A350-1000 coming.[63]
For Leeham's Scott Hamilton, small orders are content with 35-40 % discount but large airlines sometimes attain 60% and customers with old ties with Boeing like American, Delta or Southwest get a Most-Favoured-Customer Clause guaranteeing them no other customer gets a lower price. Wells Fargo indicates Southwest, the largest 737 customer with 577, got a unit price of $34,7 million for its 737 MAX order of 150 in December 2011, a 64 % discount. Ryanair got 53 % in September 2001 and claims to obtain at least the same on its last 175 orders. The Airbus-Boeing WTO proceedings indicates EasyJet got a $19,4 million unit price on its A 319 order for 120 in 2002, a 56% discount at the time, the same kind of rebate Lion Air got for its A320 order of 234 on 18 March 2013.[63]
Each sale include an escalation rate covering the workforce and raw material costs increases and as acquisition cost represents 15% of the 20 year total cost of ownership, discussions also include the delivery date, fuel consumption guarantees, financial incentives, maintenance and training. At Airbus, final price in large campaigns is validated by a committee comprising sales head John Leahy, program director Tom Williams, financial principal Harald Wilhelm and CEO Fabrice Brégier who has the final cut.[63]
Those discounts were presented again in Le Nouvel Observateur's Challenges.fr again with Ascend valuations in 2013:[63]
Model
List price 2013
Market price
Discount
Boeing 747-8 351.4 145.0 59%
Airbus A320-200 91.5 38.75 58%
Airbus A330-200 239.4 99.5 58%
Boeing 737-800 89.1 41.8 53%
Boeing 777-300ER 315.0 152.5 52%
Airbus A380 403.9 193.0 52%
Airbus A320neo 100.2 49.2 51%
Boeing 737 MAX-8 100.5 51.4 49%
Boeing 787-8 206.8 107.0 48%
Airbus A350-900 287.7 152.0 47%
In 2014, Airways news indicated discounted list prices for long haul liners :[64]
Model
List price 2014
Market price
Discount
Airbus A330-900neo 275.6 124.0 55%
Airbus A350-900 295.2 159.4 46%
Boeing 777-200LR 296.0 118.4 60%
Boeing 787-9 249.5 134.7 46%
On 24 December 2014, Transasia Airways announced a commitment to four A330-800neos, list price $241.7m, for $480m or $120m each.[65] At the end of 2015, the sale and leaseback of new Airbus A350-900 from GECAS to Finnair value them at €132.5M ($144M)[66]
In order to close the production gap between the B777 classic and the new 777X, Boeing is challenged by a $120m market price for the -300ERs. Competitive pressure from the Bombardier CSeries and E-Jet E2 lead Boeing to pursue the development of the 737 MAX-7 despite low sales,[67] and to sell the Boeing 737-700 at $22m to United Airlines, 27% of the 2015 list price and well below what Embraer or Bombardier could offer for their aircraft.[68]
Moody’s Investors Service estimates Delta Air Lines paid $40 million each for its 37 A321ceo order on 29 April 2016, an "end-of-the-line model pricing" of 35% of the $114.9 million list price.[69] Likewise, Air Caraïbes subsidiary French Blue received its A330-300 for $100 million in September 2016.[70]
May 2016 market prices[71]
Aircraft
List ($m)
Mkt Value ($m)
Discount
Seats
Mkt/Seat
A380 432.6 236.5 45% 544 434743
B777-300ER 339.6 154.8 54% 368 420652
A350-900 308.1 150.0 51% 325 461538
B787-9 264.6 142.8 46% 290 492414
B787-8 224.6 117.1 48% 242 483884
A330-300 256.4 109.5 57% 277 395307
A330-200 231.5 86.6 63% 247 350607
A321 114.9 52.5 54% 185 283784
A320neo 107.3 48.5 55% 165 293939
B737-900ER 101.9 48.1 53% 174 276437
B737-800 96.0 46.5 52% 160 290625
A320 98.0 44.4 55% 150 296000
A319 89.6 37.3 58% 124 300806
B737-700 80.6 35.3 56% 128 275781
Effect of competition on product plans[edit]
The A320 has been selected by 222 operators (Dec. 2008), among these several low-cost operators, gaining ground against the previously well established 737 in this sector; it has also been selected as a replacement for 727s and aging 737s by many full-service airlines such as Star Alliance members United Airlines, Air Canada and Lufthansa. After dominating the very large aircraft market for four decades, the Boeing 747 now faces a challenge from the A380. In response, Boeing now offer the stretched and updated 747-8, with greater capacity, fuel efficiency, and longer range. Frequent delays to the Airbus A380 program caused several customers to consider cancelling their orders in favour of the refreshed 747-8.[72] However, all orders for the A380F freight variant have been cancelled. To date, Boeing has secured orders for 78 747-8F and 51 747-8I aircraft with first deliveries originally scheduled for 2011 and 2012 as the 747-8I is only in service with Lufthansa, while Airbus has orders for 318 A380s, the first of which entered service in 2007 and has delivered a total of 152 to customers (as of December 31, 2014).
Several Boeing projects were pursued and then cancelled, for example the Sonic Cruiser. Boeing's current platform for fleet rejuvenation is the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, which uses technology from the Sonic Cruiser concept.
Boeing initially ruled out producing a re-engined version of its 737 to compete with the Airbus A320neo family launch planned for 2015, believing airlines would be looking towards the Boeing Y1 and a 30% fuel saving, instead of paying 10% more for fuel efficiency gains of only a few percent. Industry sources believe that the 737's design makes re-engining considerably more expensive for Boeing than it was for the Airbus A320. However, there did prove to be considerable demand. Southwest Airlines, who use the 737 for their entire fleet (680 in service or on order), said they were not prepared to wait 20 years or more for a new 737 model and threatened to convert to Airbus.[73] Boeing eventually bowed to airline pressure and in 2011 approved the 737 MAX project, scheduled for first delivery in 2017.
Orders and deliveries[edit]
It took Boeing 42 years and 1 month to deliver its 10,000 7series aircraft (October 1958-November 2000) and, 42 years and 5 months for Airbus to achieve the same milestone (May 1974-October 2016).[74] Boeing deliveries considerably exceeded that of Airbus throughout the 1980s. In the 1990s this lead narrowed significantly but Boeing remained ahead of Airbus. In the 2000s Airbus assumed the lead in narrow-body aircraft. By 2010 little difference remained between Airbus and Boeing in both the wide-body or narrow-body categories or the range on offer.
Orders
2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989
Airbus 271 731 1080 1456 1503 833 1419 574 271 777 1341 790 1055 370 284 300 375 520 476 556 460 326 106 125 38 136 101 404 421
Boeing 460 668 768 1432 1355 1203 805 530 142 662 1413 1044 1002 272 239 251 314 588 355 606 532 664 379 112 220 230 240 456 563
Sources:
Airbus Orders & Deliveries to 30 September, 2017
Boeing orders to 30 September, 2017
Deliveries
2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989
Airbus 454 688 635 629 626 588 534 510 498 483 453 434 378 320 305 303 325 311 294 229 182 126 124 123 138 157 163 95 105
Boeing 541 748 762 723 648 601 477 462 481 375 441 398 290 285 281 381 527 491 620 563 346 219 207 272 330 446 435 385 491
Sources:
Airbus Orders & Deliveries to 30 September, 2017
Boeing deliveries to 30 September, 2017
The former McDonnell Douglas MD-80, the MD-90 and the MD-11 are included in Boeing deliveries since MD's August 1997 merger with Boeing.
Airbus orders
Airbus deliveries
Boeing orders
Boeing deliveries
Annual net orders and aircraft deliveries by Airbus and Boeing Commercial Airplanes, respectively, since 1992.[75][76]
v
t
e

Orders and Deliveries by Product
Manufacturer
Class
Product
2016
Historical Deliveries *
Orders
Deliveries
Backlog
Airbus [77]
Narrow-body
A320
607 545 5645 7421
Wide-body
A300
561
A310
255
330
83 66 363 1323
A340
377
A350
41 49 754 64
A380
28 112 207
Total
731 688 6874 10208
Boeing [78]
Narrow-body
707
1010
717
155
727
1831
737
550 490 4452 9335
757
1049
Wide-body
747
17 9 28 1528
767
26 13 93 1096
777
17 99 442 1460
787
158 137 700 500
Total
668 748 5715 17964
* Historical deliveries are all jet airliners from Boeing since 1958 and Airbus since 1974 until 31 December 2016
Deliveries by year and product (through September 30, 2017)
707
717
727
737
747
757
767
777
787
Boeing[79]
A300
A310
A320
A330
A340
A350
A380
Airbus
1974
21 91 55 22 189 4 4
1975
7 91 51 21 170 8 8
1976
9 61 41 27 138 13 13
1977
8 67 25 20 120 15 15
1978
13 118 40 32 203 15 15
1979
6 136 77 67 286 26 26
1980
3 131 92 73 299 39 39
1981
2 94 108 53 257 38 38
1982
8 26 95 26 2 20 177 46 46
1983
8 11 82 22 25 55 203 19 17 36
1984
8 8 67 16 18 29 146 19 29 48
1985
3 115 24 36 25 203 16 26 42
1986
4 141 35 35 27 242 10 19 29
1987
9 161 23 40 37 270 11 21 32
1988
165 24 48 53 290 17 28 16 61
1989
5 146 45 51 37 284 24 23 58 105
1990
4 174 70 77 60 385 19 18 58 95
1991
14 215 64 80 62 435 25 19 119 163
1992
5 218 61 99 63 446 22 24 111 157
1993
152 56 71 51 330 22 22 71 1 22 138
1994
1 121 40 69 41 272 23 2 64 9 25 123
1995
89 25 43 37 13 207 17 2 56 30 19 124
1996
76 26 42 43 32 219 14 2 72 10 28 126
1997
135 39 46 42 59 321 6 2 127 14 33 182
1998
282 53 54 47 74 510 13 1 168 23 24 229
1999
12 320 47 67 44 83 573 8 222 44 20 294
2000
32 282 25 45 44 55 483 8 241 43 19 311
2001
49 299 31 45 40 61 525 11 257 35 22 325
2002
20 223 27 29 35 47 381 9 236 42 16 303
2003
12 173 19 14 24 39 281 8 233 31 33 305
2004
12 202 15 11 9 36 285 12 233 47 28 320
2005
13 212 13 2 10 40 290 9 289 56 24 378
2006
5 302 14 12 65 398 9 339 62 24 434
2007
330 16 12 83 441 6 367 68 11 1 453
2008
290 14 10 61 375 386 72 13 12 483
2009
372 8 13 88 481 402 76 10 10 498
2010
376 12 74 462 401 87 4 18 510
2011
372 9 20 73 3 477 421 87 26 534
2012
415 31 26 83 46 601 455 101 2 30 588
2013
440 24 21 98 65 648 493 108 25 626
2014
485 19 6 99 114 723 490 108 1 30 629
2015
495 18 16 98 135 762 491 103 14 27 635
2016
490 9 13 99 137 748 545 66 49 28 688
2017
381 8 7 58 100 554 350 45 50 9 454
Total
(All-time)
1010
155
1831
9716
1536
1049
1103
1518
600
18518
561
255
7771
1368
377
114
216
10662
707
717
727
737
747
757
767
777
787
A300
A310
A320
A330
A340
A350
A380
Deliveries by Continent and fuselage type (through December 31, 2016)
Airliner
Europe
North America
Latin America & Caribbean
Asia Pacific
Middle East
Africa
Leasing Companies
VIP-Gov-Others
Total
Narrow-body
Wide-body
Narrow-body
Wide-body
Narrow-body
Wide-body
Narrow-body
Wide-body
Narrow-body
Wide-body
Narrow-body
Wide-body
Narrow-body
Wide-body
Narrow-body
Wide-body
707 139 582 21 73 37 31 127 1010
717 9 125 10 11 155
727 210 1301 89 106 36 54 25 10 1831
737 Original 284 455 60 138 44 94 34 35 1144
737 Classic 457 691 18 276 27 513 6 1988
737NG 1163 1609 213 1404 88 143 1301 282 6203
737 MAX
A320ceo 1639 1029 521 1734 207 103 2004 116 7353
A320neo 18 4 4 24 18 68
757 172 634 83 10 7 137 6 1049
767 115 447 60 264 28 19 149 14 1096
A300 101 179 9 187 32 28 22 3 561
A310 114 39 4 48 27 13 7 3 255
777 194 211 12 538 246 30 207 22 1460
777X
A330ceo 203 90 41 458 114 38 339 40 1323
A330neo
A340 179 10 4 80 35 22 33 14 377
787 67 72 31 198 48 29 50 5 500
A350 8 7 24 13 12 64
747 366 280 13 637 63 31 14 14 1418
747-8 43 10 47 10 110
A380 36 64 107 207
Total 4091 1426 6430 1338 926 181 3848 2545 422 713 459 210 4043 833 582 125 28172
Boeing [80] Airbus [81]
Deliveries by decade and fuselage type (through Dec 31, 2016)
Narrow-body
Wide-body
Boeing[79]
Narrow-body
Wide-body
Airbus
Ratio B:A
1980s
1747 624 2371 74 402 476 4.98:1
1990s
2466 1232 3698 1068 563 1631 2.27:1
2000s
2974 966 3940 2983 827 3810 1.03:1
2010s
3073 1348 4421 3296 914 4210 1.05:1
Total
13380
4584
17964
7421
2787
10208
Commercial airliners still in operation
707
717
727
737
747
757
767
777
787
Boeing[79]
A300
A310
A320
A330
A340
A350
A380
Airbus
Ratio B:A
2006
68 155 620 4328 989 996 862 575 8593 408 199 2761 418 306 4092 2.09:1
2007
63 155 561 4583 985 1000 880 640 8867 392 193 3095 481 330 4491 1.97:1
2008
61 154 500 4761 955 980 873 714 8998 387 194 3395 533 330 4 4843 1.86:1
2009
58 142 442 4928 947 970 864 780 9131 376 188 3737 607 345 16 5269 1.73:1
2010
39 147 398 5153 915 945 863 858 9318 348 160 4092 675 342 30 5647 1.65:1
2011
10 130 250 5177 736 898 837 924 8962 296 121 4392 766 332 50 5957 1.50:1
2012
2 143 169 5357 690 860 838 1017 15 9091 262 102 4803 848 312 76 6403 1.42:1
2013
148 109 5458 627 855 821 1094 68 9180 234 84 5170 927 298 106 6819 1.35:1
2014
154 87 5782 585 812 795 1188 163 9564 216 71 5632 1020 266 136 7341 1.30:1
2015
136 69 6135 571 738 765 1265 286 9965 207 62 6050 1095 227 5 167 7813 1.28:1
2016
154 64 6512 515 688 742 1324 423 10422 210 47 6510 1154 196 29 193 8339 1.25:1
2017
154 57 6864 489 689 744 1387 554 10938 211 37 6965 1214 176 92 212 8907 1.23:1
707
717
727
737
747
757
767
777
787
A300
A310
A320
A330
A340
A350
A380
World Airliner Census 2006 [82] 2007 [83] 2008 [84] 2009 [85] 2010 [86][87] 2011 [88] 2012 [89] 2013 [90] 2014 [91][92] 2015 [93] 2016[94][95]2017[96][97]
The commercial aircraft in service of the Airbus A320 family, surpassed for the first time in the history of aviation to the series Boeing 737 in 2017.
Controversies[edit]
The Boeing 787 Dreamliner (above) will compete with the Airbus A330 and the Airbus A350 in the medium to long range market.
Subsidies[edit]
Boeing has continually protested over launch aid in the form of credits to Airbus, while Airbus has argued that Boeing receives illegal subsidies through military and research contracts and tax breaks.[98]
In July 2004, Harry Stonecipher (then CEO of Boeing) accused Airbus of abusing a 1992 bilateral EU-US agreement regarding large civil aircraft support from governments. Airbus is given reimbursable launch investment (RLI, called "launch aid" by the US) from European governments with the money being paid back with interest, plus indefinite royalties if the aircraft is a commercial success.[99] Airbus contends that this system is fully compliant with the 1992 agreement and WTO rules. The agreement allows up to 33 per cent of the program cost to be met through government loans which are to be fully repaid within 17 years with interest and royalties. These loans are held at a minimum interest rate equal to the cost of government borrowing plus 0.25%, which would be below market rates available to Airbus without government support.[100] Airbus claims that since the signing of the EU-U.S. agreement in 1992, it has repaid European governments more than U.S.$6.7 billion and that this is 40% more than it has received.
Airbus argues that pork barrel military contracts awarded to Boeing (the second largest U.S. defence contractor) are in effect a form of subsidy (see the Boeing KC-767 vs EADS (Airbus) KC-45 military contracting controversy). The U.S. government support of technology development via NASA also provides support to Boeing. In its recent products such as the 787, Boeing has also received support from local and state governments.[101] Airbus' parent, EADS, itself is a military contractor, and is paid to develop and build projects such as the Airbus A400M transport and various other military aircraft.[102]
In January 2005, European Union and United States trade representatives Peter Mandelson and Robert Zoellick agreed to talks aimed at resolving the increasing tensions. These talks were not successful, with the dispute becoming more acrimonious rather than approaching a settlement.
World Trade Organization litigation[edit]
"We remain united in our determination that this dispute shall not affect our cooperation on wider bilateral and multilateral trade issues. We have worked together well so far, and intend to continue to do so."
Joint EU-US statement[103]
On 31 May 2005 the United States filed a case against the European Union for providing allegedly illegal subsidies to Airbus. Twenty-four hours later the European Union filed a complaint against the United States protesting support for Boeing.[104]
Increased tensions, due to the support for the Airbus A380, escalated toward a potential trade war as the launch of the Airbus A350 neared. Airbus preferred the A350 program to be launched with the help of state loans covering a third of the development costs, although it stated it will launch without these loans if required. The A350 will compete with Boeing's most successful project in recent years, the 787 Dreamliner. EU trade officials questioned the nature of the funding provided by NASA, the Department of Defense, and in particular the form of R&D contracts that benefit Boeing; as well as funding from US states such as Washington, Kansas, and Illinois, for the development and launch of Boeing aircraft, in particular the 787.[105] An interim report of the WTO investigation into the claims made by both sides was made in September 2009.[106]
In September 2009, the New York Times and Wall Street Journal reported that the World Trade Organization would likely rule against Airbus on most, but not all, of Boeing's complaints; the practical effect of this ruling would likely be blunted by the large number of international partners engaged by both plane makers, as well as the expected delay of several years of appeals. For example, 35% of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner is manufactured in Japan. Thus, some experts are advocating a negotiated settlement.[107] In addition, the heavy government subsidies offered to automobile manufacturers in the United States have changed the political environment; the subsidies offered to Chrysler and General Motors dwarf the amounts involved in the Airbus-Boeing dispute.[108]
In March 2010, the WTO ruled that European governments unfairly financed Airbus.[109] In September 2010, a preliminary report of the WTO found unfair Boeing payments broke WTO rules and should be withdrawn.[110] In two separate findings issued in May 2011, the WTO found, firstly, that the US defence budget and NASA research grants could not be used as vehicles to subsidise the civilian aerospace industry and that Boeing must repay $5.3 billion of illegal subsidies.[111] Secondly, the WTO Appellate Body partly overturned an earlier ruling that European Government launch aid constituted unfair subsidy, agreeing with the point of principle that the support was not aimed at boosting exports and some forms of public-private partnership could continue. Part of the $18bn in low interest loans received would have to be repaid eventually; however, there was no immediate need for it to be repaid and the exact value to be repaid would be set at a future date.[112] Both parties claimed victory in what was the world's largest trade dispute.[113][114][115]
On 1 December 2011 Airbus reported that it had fulfilled its obligations under the WTO findings and called upon Boeing to do likewise in the coming year.[116] The United States did not agree and had already begun complaint procedures prior to December, stating the EU had failed to comply with the DSB's recommendations and rulings, and requesting authorisation by the DSB to take countermeasures under Article 22 of the DSU and Article 7.9 of the SCM Agreement. The European Union requested the matter be referred to arbitration under Article 22.6 of the DSU. The DSB agreed that the matter raised by the European Union in its statement at that meeting be referred to arbitration as required by Article 22.6 of the DSU however on 19 January 2012 the US and EU jointly agreed to withdraw their request for arbitration.[117]
On 12 March 2012 the appellate body of the WTO released its findings confirming the illegality of subsidies to Boeing whilst confirming the legality of repayable loans made to Airbus. The WTO stated that Boeing had received at least $5.3 billion in illegal cash subsidies at an estimated cost to Airbus of $45 billion. A further $2 billion in state and local subsidies that Boeing is set to receive have also been declared illegal. Boeing and the US government were given six months to change the way government support for Boeing is handled.[118] At the DSB meeting on 13 April 2012, the United States informed the DSB that it intended to implement the DSB recommendations and rulings in a manner that respects its WTO obligations and within the time-frame established in Article 7.9 of the SCM Agreement. The European Union welcomed the US intention and noted that the 6-month period stipulated in Article 7.9 of the SCM Agreement would expire on 23 September 2012. On 24 April 2012, the European Union and the United States informed the DSB of Agreed Procedures under Articles 21 and 22 of the DSU and Article 7 of the SCM Agreement.[119]
On 25 September 2012 the EU requested discussions with the USA, because of the alleged non compliance of the US and Boeing with the WTO ruling of 12 March 2012. On 27 September 2012 the EU requested the WTO to approve EU countermeasures against USA's subsidy of Boeing. The WTO approved creating a panel to rule on the disputed compliance this was initially to rule in 2014 but is not now expected to complete its work before 2016 due to the complexity of the case. The EU wants permission to place trade sanctions of up to 12 billion US$ annually against the USA. The EU believes this amount represents the damage the illegal subsidies of Boeing cause to the EU.[120][121]
On 19 December 2014 the EU requested WTO mediated consultations with the US over the tax incentives given by the state of Washington to large civil aircraft manufacturers which they believed violated the earlier WTO ruling, on 22 April 2015 at the request of the EU a WTO panel was set up to rule on the complaint.[122] The tax incentives given by the state of Washington and believed to be the largest in US history[123] surpassing the previous record of $5.6bn over 30 years awarded by the state of New York to the aluminum producer Alcoa in 2007. The $8.7bn over 40 years incentive to Boeing to manufacture the 777X in the state includes $4.2bn from a 40% reduction in business taxes, £3.5bn in tax credits for the firm, a $562m tax credit on property and buildings belonging to Boeing, a $242m sales tax exemption for buying computers and $8m to train 1000 workers,[124] Airbus alleges this is larger than the budgeted cost of Boeing's 777X development program and the EU argues amounts to an entire publicly funded free aircraft program for Boeing, the legislation was an extension of the duration of a tax break program given to Boeing for Dreamliner development that had already been ruled illegal by the WTO in 2012.[125] Boeing defends the allegation by arguing the subsidies are available to anyone however for an aircraft to qualify for the tax breaks a company must manufacture aircraft wings and perform all final assembly for an aircraft model or variant exclusively in the state.[126]
See also[edit]
Airbus Corporate Jets
Boeing Commercial Airplanes
Competition in the Regional jet market
List of civil aircraft
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Airlines Industry Profile: United States, Datamonitor, November 2008, pp. 13–14
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Family figures" (PDF). Airbus. March 2016.
Jump up ^ "737 MAX". Boeing.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Aircraft list prices". Airbus. 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Commercial Airplanes prices". Boeing.
Jump up ^ "Flight Fleet Forecast's single-aisle outlook 2016-2035". Flight Global. 16 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Pontifications: Boeing's long-term message doesn't resonate". Leeham Co. Feb 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ "787 Dreamliner". Boeing.
Jump up ^ "777X". Boeing.
Jump up ^ "747-8". Boeing.
Jump up ^ "Flight Fleet Forecast Summary". Flight Global. 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ascend widebody fleet forecast". Flight Global. 13 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "wide boys". Flight Global. June 2017.
Jump up ^ "747-400 fleet profile: Air France, Cathay Pacific and Saudia retire passenger 747 fleets in 2016". CAPA - Centre for Aviation. 18 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Singapore Airlines to resume non-stop US services with A350-900ULR: a strategic imperative". CAPA - Centre for Aviation. 15 October 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "EFW, ST Aerospace and Airbus to launch A320/A321P2F freighter conversion programme". Airbus. 17 June 2015. Retrieved 16 May 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Freighters". Boeing. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "A330P2F Passenger to Freighter". Airbus. Retrieved 16 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "ANALYSIS: A320neo vs. 737 MAX: Airbus is Leading (Slightly) – Part I". Airways News. January 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Boeing positioned to narrow market share gap". Leeham Co. Sep 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ Addison Schonland (July 10, 2017). "The Big Duopoly Race". Airinsight.
^ Jump up to: a b Cite error: The named reference 737_O_D_summ was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ "Orders and Deliveries search page". Boeing. May 31, 2017. Retrieved June 14, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Orders & deliveries viewer". Airbus. Retrieved May 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Historical Orders and Deliveries 1974–2009". Airbus S.A.S. January 2010. Archived from the original (Microsoft Excel) on December 23, 2010. Retrieved 10 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Historical Deliveries". Boeing. December 2015. Retrieved February 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Boeing, partners expected to scrap Super-Jet study". Los Angeles Times. 10 July 1995. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Boeing 747-8 Family background". boeing.com. 2005-11-14. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
Jump up ^ "SIA's Chew: A380 pleases, Virgin Atlantic disappoints". ATW Online. 13 December 2007. Archived from the original on 15 December 2007. Retrieved 13 December 2007.
Jump up ^ Flottau, Jens (21 November 2012). "Emirates A350-1000 Order 'In Limbo'". Aviation Week. Retrieved 22 November 2012. Clark points out that "the faster you fly [the A380], the more fuel-efficient she gets; when you fly at [Mach] 0.86 she is better than at 0.83."
Jump up ^ "Updating the A380: the prospect of a neo version and what's involved". 2014-02-03. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
Jump up ^ "A380 family presskit". 2012-01-01. Retrieved 2012-02-08.
Jump up ^ Saporito, Bill (23 November 2009). "Can the A380 Bring the Party Back to the Skies?". TIME magazine. Archived from the original on 19 September 2010. Retrieved 21 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "The A380 global fleet spreads its wings as deliveries hit the 'century mark'". Airbus, 14 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "British Airways and Emirates will be first for new longer-range A380". flightglobal.com. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
Jump up ^ "Orders & Deliveries". Airbus.com. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Quentin Wilber, Dell (8 November 2006). "Airbus bust, Boeing boost". The Washington Post. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Robertson, David. "Airbus will lose €4.8bn because of A380 delays", Time, 3 October 2006.
Jump up ^ Schwartz, Nelson D. "Big plane, big problems", CNN, 1 March 2007.
Jump up ^ NY Times: Airbus Cuts Delivery Goal for A380 Jumbo Jets
Jump up ^ WSJ: Airbus Cuts A380 Production Plans
Jump up ^ "747 model summary". boeing.com. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "Air tanker deal provokes US row, BBC, 1 March 2008". BBC News. 2008-03-01. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
Jump up ^ "The USAF's KC-X Aerial Tanker RFP: Canceled". Defense Industry Daily. 13 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Leeham News and Comment: How will Boeing profit from tanker contract?, 12-7-2011, visited: 3-2-2012
Jump up ^ Broken link: missing 3-2-2012
Jump up ^ A1 Blog: Mc Cain blasts Boeing overruns
Jump up ^ Defensenews.com: Boeing Lowers KC-46 Cost Estimate, 27-7-2011, visited: 3-2-2012
Jump up ^ Gates, Dominic (March 1, 2010). "Albaugh: Boeing's 'first preference' is to build planes in Puget Sound region". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 2010-06-16.
Jump up ^ "Airbus' China gamble". Flight International. October 28, 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-15.
Jump up ^ "Qatar Airways A350 XWB factsheet". Airbus. Airbus. Retrieved 28 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Geoffrey (April 4, 2008). "Engines the thrust of the Boeing-Airbus battle". The Australian. Retrieved 2008-11-08.
Jump up ^ "ANALYSIS: Rolls and Airbus – how the latecomer excelled". Flightglobal.com.
Jump up ^ "GE In, Rolls Out As Boeing Seeks 777X Approval". aviationweek.com.
Jump up ^ "Strong Euro Weighs on Airbus, Suppliers". Wall Street Journal: B3. October 30, 2009.
Jump up ^ Muellerleile, Christopher M (2009). "Financialization takes off at Boeing". Journal of Economic Geography. doi:10.1093/jeg/lbp025. Boeing’s engineers [...] tended to be first and foremost concerned with safety and quality. This contributed to Boeing’s solid reputation
Jump up ^ Gray, Edmund R.; Balmer, John MT (1998). "Managing corporate image and corporate reputation". Long Range Planning. 31.5. doi:10.1016/S0024-6301(98)00074-0. Airbus [...] enjoys a high-profile image and positive reputation
Jump up ^ "Statistical Summary of Commercial Jet Airplane Accidents - Worldwide Operations - 1959–2015" (PDF). Boeing. July 2016.
Jump up ^ Robert Wall & Andrea Rothman (17 January 2013). "Airbus Says A350 Design Is 'Lower Risk' Than Troubled 787". Bloomberg. Retrieved 17 January 2013. I don't believe that anyone's going to switch from one airplane type to another because there's a maintenance issue," Leahy said. "Boeing will get this sorted out.
Jump up ^ TIM HEPHER (9 July 2012). "How plane giants descended into global 'price war'". Reuters.
Jump up ^ DANIEL MICHAELS (9 July 2012). "The Secret Price of a Jet Airliner". Wall Street Journal.
Jump up ^ Agustino Fontevecchia (21 May 2013). "Boeing Bleeding Cash As 787 Dreamliners Cost $200M But Sell For $116m, But Productivity Is Improving". Forbes.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Vincent Lamigeon (13 June 2013). "Le vrai prix des avions d'Airbus et de Boeing" (in French). Challenges.fr.
Jump up ^ Vinay Bhaskara (November 25, 2014). "UPDATED ANALYSIS: Delta Order for A350; A330neo Hinged on Pricing, Availability". Airways News.
Jump up ^ DAVID KAMINSKI-MORROW (24 December 2014). "TransAsia to take four A330-800neo jets". Flight Global.
Jump up ^ "Finnair has entered into a memorandum of understanding on the sale and leaseback of two A350 aircraft" (Press release). Finnair. 2015-12-23.
Jump up ^ "In strategy shift, Boeing backs 7 MAX: sources". Leeham news and comment. 22 February 2016.
Jump up ^ "Boeing Gives United A Smoking Deal On 737s To Block Bombardier From Gaining Traction". Forbes. 8 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "ANALYSIS: Delta sees long upgauge runway ahead with A321s". Flightglobal. 2 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Premier vol français (et vendéen) low-cost long courrier" (in French). Ouest France. 13 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Aircraft Pricing - List vs. market". Airinsight. May 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Robertson, David (October 4, 2006). "Airbus will lose €4.8bn because of A380 delays". London: The Times Business News.
Jump up ^ Associated, The (2011-01-20). "Southwest waiting to hear Boeing's plan for 737". BusinessWeek. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
Jump up ^ "How Airbus went from zero to 10,000". Flight Global. 14 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Airbus.com
Jump up ^ Boeing.com
Jump up ^ "Orders & deliveries". Airbus.com. 2016-01-16. Retrieved 2016-01-16.
Jump up ^ "The Boeing Company". Active.boeing.com. Retrieved 2014-02-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c Time Period Reports. boeing.com
Jump up ^ "Boeing". boeing.com.
Jump up ^ "Orders & deliveries". airbus.
Jump up ^ http://www.flightglobal.com/assets/getAsset.aspx?ItemID=14954
Jump up ^ http://www.flightglobal.com/assets/getAsset.aspx?ItemID=18906
Jump up ^ http://www.flightglobal.com/assets/getasset.aspx?ItemID=24736
Jump up ^ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/World_Airliner_Census_2009.pdf
Jump up ^ https://www.flightglobal.com/assets/getAsset.aspx?ItemID=35827
Jump up ^ "Airliner Census 2010 – fleet growth marginal and idle jets at record high". Flight Global. 2010-08-23. Retrieved 2014-02-06.
Jump up ^ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/World_Airliner_Census_2011.pdf
Jump up ^ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/World_Airliner_Census_2012.pdf
Jump up ^ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/WorldAirlinerCensus2013.pdf
Jump up ^ "ANALYSIS: The changing size and shape of the world airliner fleet". Flightglobal.com.
Jump up ^ https://d1fmezig7cekam.cloudfront.net/VPP/Global/WorldAirlinerCensus2014.pdf
Jump up ^ https://d1fmezig7cekam.cloudfront.net/VPP/Global/Flight/fint-archive/feature-images/AirlinerCensus2015.pdf
Jump up ^ https://www.flightglobal.com/asset/12798
Jump up ^ https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/analysis-flightglobal-airliner-census-reveals-fleet-428019/
Jump up ^ https://www.flightglobal.com/asset/18365
Jump up ^ https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/analysis-787-stars-in-annual-airliner-census-439552/
Jump up ^ "Don't Let Boeing Close The Door On Competition" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-01-09.
Jump up ^ O'Connell, Dominic; Porter, Andrew (29 May 2005). "Trade war threatened over £379m subsidy for Airbus". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 14 January 2006. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Q&A: Boeing and Airbus". BBC News. 7 October 2004. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "See you in court". The Economist. 23 March 2005.
Jump up ^ "EADS Military Air Systems Website, retrieved September 3, 2009". eads.net. 2011-05-13. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
Jump up ^ "EU, US face off at WTO in aircraft spat". Defense Aerospace. 31 May 2005.
Jump up ^ "Flare-up in EU-US air trade row". BBC News. 31 May 2005. Retrieved 2010-01-02.
Jump up ^ Milmo, Dan (14 August 2009). "US accuse Britain of stoking trade row with £340m Airbus loan". London: The Guardian.
Jump up ^ "US refuses to disclose WTO ruling on Boeing-Airbus row". EU Business. 5 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Clark, Nicola (2009-09-03). "W.T.O. to Weigh In on E.U. Subsidies for Airbus, New York Times, September 3, 2009, retrieved September 3, 2009". Europe;United States: nytimes.com. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
Jump up ^ Boeing Set for Victory Over Airbus in Illegal Subsidy Case, Wall Street Journal, September 3, 2009, p.A1
Jump up ^ "WTO says Europe subsidises Airbus, Boeing's rival, unfairly". USA Today. 3 March 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-16.
Jump up ^ "EU claims victory in WTO case versus Boeing". Paris: Reuters. 15 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Freedman, Jennifer M. "WTO Says U.S. Gave at Least $5.3 Billion Illegal Aid to Boeing". Bloomberg. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
Jump up ^ "BBC News: WTO Airbus ruling leaves both sides claiming victory". bbc.co.uk. 2011-04-19. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Barbara (2011-05-19). "WTO gives mixed verdict on Airbus appeal". Reuters. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
Jump up ^ "WTO final ruling: Decisive victory for Europe". LogisticsWeek. 2011-03-25. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
Jump up ^ Khimm, Suzy (2011-05-17). "U.S. claims victory in Airbus-Boeing case". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
Jump up ^ "Airbus satisfy WTO obligations".
Jump up ^ "European Communities — Measures Affecting Trade in Large Civil Aircraft".
Jump up ^ "Sweeping Loss for Boeing in WTO Appeal". Airbus.com. 2014-01-16. Retrieved 2014-02-06.
Jump up ^ "United States — Measures Affecting Trade in Large Civil Aircraft — Second Complaint".
Jump up ^ "WTO Boeing case: EU requests to impose countermeasures against the US". European Commission. 2012-09-27. Retrieved 2012-09-28.
Jump up ^ "Next chapter in eight year old WTO conflict: Boeing's WTO Default Prompts $ 12 Bn in Annual Sanctions". Airbus. 2012-09-27. Retrieved 2012-09-28.
Jump up ^ https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds487_e.htm
Jump up ^ Reid Wilson (12 November 2013). "Washington just awarded the largest state tax subsidy in U.S. history". Washington Post.
Jump up ^ Jon Ostrower (10 December 2013). "Boeing Holds Bake-Off for Biggest Tax Breaks". WSJ.
Jump up ^ "Exclusive: EU may challenge $8.7 billion U.S. tax breaks in Boeing-Airbus trade dispute - sources". Reuters UK.
Jump up ^ "Washington state’s Boeing tax breaks are illegal, Europe charges". mcclatchydc.
Bibliography
Newhouse, John (2007), Boeing versus Airbus, USA: Vintage Books, ISBN 978-1-4000-7872-1
External links[edit]
Official Airbus website
Official Boeing website
Official Airbus Military website
Complete production lists of all Airbus models
BBC Q&A: Boeing and Airbus
[show]
v
t
e
Airbus
Divisions
Defence and Space
Helicopters
Subsidiaries
Airbus Group, Inc.
Stelia Aerospace
Airbus UK
Airbus Corporate Jets
Airbus Operations S.A.S.
Airbus ProSky
People
Denis Ranque
Tom Enders
Former units
Airbus SAS
Euroflag
Airbus Military
Astrium
Cassidian
EADS CASA
Eurocopter
Other
European Union defence procurement
Competition between Airbus and Boeing
Related
Aérospatiale-Matra
ArianeGroup
Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA
DASA
[show]
v
t
e
Boeing
Companies
Boeing Aircraft Holding Company
Boeing Australia
Boeing Canada
Boeing Capital
Boeing Commercial Airplanes
Boeing Defense, Space & Security
Boeing Phantom Works
Boeing Rotorcraft Systems
Boeing UK
HRL Laboratories
Jeppesen
McDonnell Douglas
Narus
Spectrolab
United Launch Alliance
People
William M. Allen
James A. Bell
John H. Biggs
William Boeing
John Bryson
Arthur D. Collins Jr.
Philip M. Condit
William M. Daley
Kenneth Duberstein
Lynn Good
Edgar Gott
Philip G. Johnson
Caroline Kennedy
John McDonnell
James McNerney
Susan Schwab
Frank Shrontz
Harry Stonecipher
Malcolm T. Stamper
Thornton Wilson
Mike S. Zafirovski
Projects
BCT Modernization
Boeing Black
Boeing 7x7 series
Boeing hydrofoils
Boeing Jetfoils
Connexion by Boeing
Future Combat Systems
Facilities
Boeing Everett Factory
Boeing Plant 1
Boeing Plant 2
Boeing Renton Factory
Boeing South Carolina
Boeing Store
Future of Flight Aviation Center & Boeing Tour
Michoud Assembly Facility
Plant 42
Other
Boeing strike of 1948
Boeing Technical Fellowship
Competition between Airbus and Boeing
[show]
v
t
e
Aircraft of Airbus
Aeroplanes
Civil
A300
A300 Beluga
A310
A320 family (A318 / A319 / A320 / A321)
A320neo family
A330
A330 Beluga XL
A340
A350 XWB
A380
E-Fan (experimental)
Thor (UAV) (experimental)
A330neo (in development)
NSR (proposed)
Airbus Corporate Jets
Military
(Airbus Defence and Space)
A310 MRTT
CC-150 Polaris
A330 MRTT
A400M
C212
CN235
C295
HC-144
Mako/HEAT (defunct)
KC-45 (proposed)
Eurofighter Typhoon
Helicopters
(Airbus Helicopters)
Civil
BK 117
EC120 (H120)
EC130 (H130)
EC135 (H135)
EC145 (H145)
EC155 (H155)
H160
EC175 (H175)
EC225 (H225)
AS332 (H215)
AS350 (H125)
AS355
SA/AS365
X3 (experimental)
X6
Military
AS532
AS550 (H125M)/AS555
AS565
EC635 (H135M)
EC645 (H145M)
EC665
EC725 (H225M)
HH/MH-65
NH90
UH-72
European Union portal · Aviation portal
[show]
v
t
e
Boeing airliners
Piston-engined
40A
80
221
247
307
314
377
Jet-engined
367-80
707/720
717
727
737
737 Classic
737 NG
737 MAX
747
747SP
747-400
747-8
757
767
777
787
Boeing Business Jet
In development
777X
Proposed
Y1
Y3
New Midsize Airplane
Not developed
2707
7J7
New Large Airplane
Sonic Cruiser
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Competition_between_Airbus_and_Boeing&oldid=807846151"
Categories:
Aerospace companies
Airbus
Boeing
Business rivalries
Multinational aircraft manufacturers
Hidden categories:
Pages with reference errors
Pages with broken reference names
CS1 French-language sources (fr)
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2014
All accuracy disputes
Articles with disputed statements from July 2016
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2011
Pages with graphs
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Deutsch
Español
Français
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
日本語
Русский
Edit links
This page was last edited on 30 October 2017, at 12:57.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: A Lufthansa Airbus A380 in the air about to land. In the foreground, a Lufthansa Boeing 747-8, is on the ground taxiing on a taxiway.

values: Edit section: Passenger capacity and range comparison

values: Narrowbodies passenger capacity and range comparison

values:
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

values:
/wiki/Flight_Global
mw-redirect
Flight Global

values: Widebodies passenger capacity and range comparison

values: Edit section: Cargo capacity and range comparison

attrs: data-sort-type class tabindex role title

values:
number
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:green; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: -webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:blue; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2014)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (July 2016)

values: Talk:Competition between Airbus and Boeing

values: Edit section: EADS/Northrop Grumman KC-45A vs Boeing KC-767

values: The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2011)

values:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Provision of engine choices

values:
/wiki/Rolls-Royce_plc
mw-redirect
Rolls-Royce plc

values:
/wiki/Airbus_A350-1000
mw-redirect
Airbus A350-1000

values: Edit section: Currency and exchange rates

values:
/wiki/Price_competition
mw-redirect
Price competition

values:
/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal
mw-redirect
Wall Street Journal

values:
/wiki/Airbus_A320
mw-redirect
Airbus A320

values:
wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter
text-align:right;

values:
/wiki/Pricing_power
mw-redirect
Pricing power

values: Tom Williams (executive) (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Le_Nouvel_Observateur
mw-redirect
Le Nouvel Observateur

values:
/wiki/Airbus_A320neo
mw-redirect
Airbus A320neo

values:
/wiki/Airbus_A350
mw-redirect
Airbus A350

values:
/wiki/Airbus_A330-900neo
mw-redirect
Airbus A330-900neo

values:
/wiki/Airbus_A350-900
mw-redirect
Airbus A350-900

values:
/wiki/Boeing_777-200LR
mw-redirect
Boeing 777-200LR

values:
/wiki/Boeing_787-9
mw-redirect
Boeing 787-9

values:
/wiki/Transasia_Airways
mw-redirect
Transasia Airways

values:
/wiki/Sale_and_leaseback
mw-redirect
Sale and leaseback

values: Edit section: Effect of competition on product plans

values:
/wiki/Low_cost_carrier
mw-redirect
Low cost carrier

values: border-top: 2px solid white; border-left: 2px solid white; background:white

values: line-height: 1em; font-size:90%; text-align:left; background:#F2F2F2

values: line-height: 1em; border-bottom: 2px solid white; border-left: 2px solid white; background:white

values:
wikitable
text-align: right; font-size: 95%;

values: display:inline-block; border:1px solid #ddd;

values: display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 2em; height: 0px; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted #000; border-top: 2px solid blue;

values: display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 2em; height: 0px; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted #000; border-top: 2px solid #9999FF;

values: display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 2em; height: 0px; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted #000; border-top: 2px solid red;

values: display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 2em; height: 0px; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted #000; border-top: 2px solid #FF9999;

values: Template:Orders for and deliveries of Airbus and Boeing aircraft

values: Template talk:Orders for and deliveries of Airbus and Boeing aircraft

values: width:450px; margin-left:10px; margin-bottom: 10px;

values:
2
background-color:#ccddff
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

values:
/wiki/Boeing_737NG
mw-redirect
Boeing 737NG

values:
/wiki/Airbus_A320ceo
mw-redirect
Airbus A320ceo

values:
/wiki/Airbus_A330ceo
mw-redirect
Airbus A330ceo

values:
wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter
text-align:center

values:
/wiki/Airbus_A400M
mw-redirect
Airbus A400M

values: Edit section: World Trade Organization litigation

values: float: right; clear: right; margin: 0.5em 0 0.8em 1.4em; width:30%; padding: 10px; border: 1px solid #aaa; font-size: 88%; background-color: #F9F9F9;

values:
/wiki/787_Dreamliner
mw-redirect
787 Dreamliner

values:
/wiki/New_York_Times
mw-redirect
New York Times

values:
/wiki/Defence_Science_Board
mw-redirect
Defence Science Board

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.boeing.com/commercial/737max

values:
nofollow
http://www.boeing.com/commercial/787/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.boeing.com/commercial/777x

values:
nofollow
http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747-8/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.flightglobal.com/asset/2509

values: Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text

values: Defense Industry Daily (page does not exist)

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fjeg%2Flbp025

values:
/wiki/Ouest_France
mw-redirect
Ouest France

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
http://www.airbus.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://boeing.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.abcdlist.nl/main.html

values:
/wiki/Airbus_Operations_S.A.S.
mw-redirect
Airbus Operations S.A.S.

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Boeing_7x7_series
mw-redirect
Boeing 7x7 series

values: Future of Flight Aviation Center & Boeing Tour

values:
/wiki/Template_talk:Airbus_aircraft
mw-redirect
Template talk:Airbus aircraft

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Boeing_New_Midsize_Airplane
mw-redirect
Boeing New Midsize Airplane

values: Category:Pages with broken reference names

values: Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2014

values: Category:Articles with disputed statements from July 2016

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2011

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: تنافس إيرباص وبوينغ – Arabic

values: Competencia entre Airbus y Boeing – Spanish

values: Concurrence entre Airbus et Boeing – French

values: Natjecanje između Airbusa i Boeinga – Croatian

values: Persaingan antara Airbus dan Boeing – Indonesian

values: Concorrenza tra Airbus e Boeing – Italian

values: ボーイングとエアバス – Japanese

values: Конкуренция между Airbus и Boeing – Russian

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Competition_between_Airbus_and_Boeing rootpage-Competition_between_Airbus_and_Boeing vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view


text:
Freezing-point depression
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the phenomenon caused by solutes. For the phenomenon in pure fluids, see supercooling.
Freezing-point depression is the decrease of the freezing point of a solvent on addition of a non-volatile solute. Examples include salt in water, alcohol in water, or the mixing of two solids such as impurities into a finely powdered drug. In the last case, the added compound is the solute, and the original solid is thought of as the solvent. The resulting solution or solid–solid mixture has a lower freezing point than the pure solvent or solid. This phenomenon is what causes sea water, (a mixture of salt [and other things] in water) to remain liquid at temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F), the freezing point of pure water.
Contents
[hide]
1 Explanation
2 Uses
3 Of a solvent and a nonvolatile solute
4 Calculation
5 See also
6 References
Explanation[edit]
The freezing point is the temperature at which the vapor pressures of liquid solvent and solid solvent are equal. When a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile liquid solvent, the solution vapor pressure will be lower than that of the pure solvent. As a result the solid will reach equilibrium with the solution at a lower temperature than with the pure solvent.[1]
Uses[edit]
Ice on a road
The phenomenon of freezing-point depression has many practical uses. The radiator fluid in an automobile is a mixture of water and ethylene glycol. As a result of freezing-point depression, radiators do not freeze in winter (unless it is extremely cold, e.g. −30 to −40 °C (−22 to −40 °F)). Road salting takes advantage of this effect to lower the freezing point of the ice it is placed on. Lowering the freezing point allows the street ice to melt at lower temperatures, preventing the accumulation of dangerous, slippery ice. Commonly used sodium chloride can depress the freezing point of water to about −21 °C (−6 °F). If the road surface temperature is lower, NaCl becomes ineffective and other salts are used, such as calcium chloride, magnesium chloride or a mixture of many. These salts are somewhat aggressive to metals, especially iron, so in airports safer media such as sodium formate, potassium formate, sodium acetate, potassium acetate are used instead.
Freezing-point depression is used by some organisms that live in extreme cold. Such creatures have evolved means through which they can produce high concentration of various compounds such as sorbitol and glycerol. This elevated concentration of solute decreases the freezing point of the water inside them, preventing the organism from freezing solid even as the water around them freezes, or as the air around them becomes very cold. Examples of organisms that produce antifreeze compounds include some species of arctic-living fish such as the rainbow smelt, which produces glycerol and other molecules to survive in frozen-over estuaries during the winter months.[2] In other animals, such as the spring peeper frog (Pseudacris crucifer), the molality is increased temporarily as a reaction to cold temperatures. In the case of the peeper frog, freezing temperatures trigger a large-scale breakdown of glycogen in the frog's liver and subsequent release of massive amounts of glucose into the blood.[3]
With the formula below, freezing-point depression can be used to measure the degree of dissociation or the molar mass of the solute. This kind of measurement is called cryoscopy (Greek cryo = cold, scopos = observe; "observe the cold"[4]) and relies on exact measurement of the freezing point. The degree of dissociation is measured by determining the van 't Hoff factor i by first determining mB and then comparing it to msolute. In this case, the molar mass of the solute must be known. The molar mass of a solute is determined by comparing mB with the amount of solute dissolved. In this case, i must be known, and the procedure is primarily useful for organic compounds using a nonpolar solvent. Cryoscopy is no longer as common a measurement method as it once was, but it was included in textbooks at the turn of the 20th century. As an example, it was still taught as a useful analytic procedure in Cohen's Practical Organic Chemistry of 1910,[5] in which the molar mass of naphthalene is determined using a Beckmann freezing apparatus.
Freezing-point depression can also be used as a purity analysis tool when analysed by differential scanning calorimetry. The results obtained are in mol%, but the method has its place, where other methods of analysis fail.
This is also the same principle acting in the melting-point depression observed when the melting point of an impure solid mixture is measured with a melting-point apparatus, since melting and freezing points both refer to the liquid–solid phase transition (albeit in different directions).
In principle, the boiling-point elevation and the freezing-point depression could be used interchangeably for this purpose. However, the cryoscopic constant is larger than the ebullioscopic constant, and the freezing point is often easier to measure with precision, which means measurements using the freezing-point depression are more precise.
FPD measurements are used in the dairy industry to ensure that milk has not had extra water added. Milk with a FPD of over 0.509 °C is considered to be unadulterated.[6]
Of a solvent and a nonvolatile solute[edit]
Consider the problem in which the solvent freezes to a very nearly pure crystal, regardless of the presence of the nonvolatile solute. This typically occurs simply because the solute molecules do not fit well in the crystal, i.e. substituting a solute for a solvent molecule in the crystal has high enthalpy. In this case, for low solute concentrations, the freezing point depression depends solely on the concentration of solute particles, not on their individual properties. The freezing point depression thus is called a colligative property.[7]
The explanation for the freezing point depression is then simply that as solvent molecules leave the liquid and join the solid, they leave behind a smaller volume of liquid in which the solute particles can roam. The resulting reduced entropy of the solute particles thus is independent of their properties. This approximation ceases to hold when the concentration becomes large enough for solute-solute interactions to become important. In that case, the freezing point depression depends on particular properties of the solute other than its concentration.[citation needed]
Calculation[edit]
If the solution is treated as an ideal solution, the extent of freezing-point depression depends only on the solute concentration that can be estimated by a simple linear relationship with the cryoscopic constant ("Blagden's Law"):
ΔTF = KF · b · i,
where:
ΔTF, the freezing-point depression, is defined as TF (pure solvent) − TF (solution).
KF, the cryoscopic constant, which is dependent on the properties of the solvent, not the solute. (Note: When conducting experiments, a higher KF value makes it easier to observe larger drops in the freezing point. For water, KF = 1.853 K·kg/mol.[8])
b is the molality (moles solute per kilogram of solvent)
i is the van 't Hoff factor (number of ion particles per individual molecule of solute, e.g. i = 2 for NaCl, 3 for BaCl2).
This simple relation doesn't include the nature of the solute, so this is only effective in a diluted solution. For a more accurate calculation at a higher concentration, for ionic solutes, Ge and Wang (2010)[9][10] proposed a new equation:
Δ T F = Δ H T F fus − 2 R T F ⋅ ln  a liq − 2 Δ C p fus T F 2 R ⋅ ln  a liq + ( Δ H T F fus ) 2 2 ( Δ H T F fus T F + Δ C p fus 2 − R ⋅ ln  a liq ) . {\displaystyle \Delta T_{\text{F}}={\frac {\Delta H_{T_{\text{F}}}^{\text{fus}}-2RT_{\text{F}}\cdot \ln a_{\text{liq}}-{\sqrt {2\Delta C_{p}^{\text{fus}}T_{\text{F}}^{2}R\cdot \ln a_{\text{liq}}+(\Delta H_{T_{\text{F}}}^{\text{fus}})^{2}}}}{2\left({\frac {\Delta H_{T_{\text{F}}}^{\text{fus}}}{T_{\text{F}}}}+{\frac {\Delta C_{p}^{\text{fus}}}{2}}-R\cdot \ln a_{\text{liq}}\right)}}.}
In the above equation, TF is the normal freezing point of the pure solvent (273 K for water, for example); aliq is the activity of the solution (water activity for aqueous solution); ΔHfusTF is the enthalpy change of fusion of the pure solvent at TF, which is 333.6 J/g for water at 273 K; ΔCfusp is the differences of heat capacity between the liquid and solid phases at TF, which is 2.11 J/(g·K) for water.
The solvent activity can be calculated from Pitzer model or modified TCPC model, which typically requires 3 adjustable parameters. For the TCPC model, these parameters are available[11][12][13][14] for many single salts.
See also[edit]
Melting-point depression
Boiling-point elevation
Colligative properties
Deicing
Eutectic point
Frigorific mixture
List of boiling and freezing information of solvents
Snow removal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Petrucci, Ralph H.; Harwood, William S.; Herring, F. Geoffrey (2002). General Chemistry (8th ed.). Prentice-Hall. p. 557-558. ISBN 0-13-014329-4.
Jump up ^ Treberg, J. R.; Wilson, C. E.; Richards, R. C.; Ewart, K. V.; Driedzic, W. R. (2002). "The freeze-avoidance response of smelt Osmerus mordax: initiation and subsequent suppression 6353". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 205 (Pt 10): 1419–1427.
Jump up ^ L. Sherwood et al., Animal Physiology: From Genes to Organisms, 2005, Thomson Brooks/Cole, Belmont, CA, ISBN 0-534-55404-0, p. 691–692.
Jump up ^ BIOETYMOLOGY – Biomedical Terms of Greek Origin. cryoscopy. bioetymology.blogspot.com.
Jump up ^ Julius B. Cohen. Practical Organic Chemistry. 1910.
Jump up ^ "Freezing Point Depression of Milk". Dairy UK. 2014. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
Jump up ^ Atkins, Peter (2006). Atkins' Physical Chemistry. Oxford University Press. pp. 150–153. ISBN 0198700725.
Jump up ^ Aylward, Gordon; Findlay, Tristan (2002), SI Chemical Data 5th ed. (5 ed.), Sweden: John Wiley & Sons, p. 202, ISBN 0-470-80044-5
Jump up ^ Ge, Xinlei; Wang, Xidong (2009). "Estimation of Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Vaporization Enthalpies of Electrolyte Solutions". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 48 (10): 5123–5123. doi:10.1021/ie900434h. ISSN 0888-5885.
Jump up ^ Ge, Xinlei; Wang, Xidong (2009). "Calculations of Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, Vapor Pressure and Enthalpies of Vaporization of Electrolyte Solutions by a Modified Three-Characteristic Parameter Correlation Model". Journal of Solution Chemistry. 38 (9): 1097–1117. doi:10.1007/s10953-009-9433-0. ISSN 0095-9782.
Jump up ^ Ge, Xinlei; Wang, Xidong; Zhang, Mei; Seetharaman, Seshadri (2007). "Correlation and Prediction of Activity and Osmotic Coefficients of Aqueous Electrolytes at 298.15 K by the Modified TCPC Model". Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 52 (2): 538–547. doi:10.1021/je060451k. ISSN 0021-9568.
Jump up ^ Ge, Xinlei; Zhang, Mei; Guo, Min; Wang, Xidong (2008). "Correlation and Prediction of Thermodynamic Properties of Some Complex Aqueous Electrolytes by the Modified Three-Characteristic-Parameter Correlation Model". Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 53 (4): 950–958. doi:10.1021/je7006499. ISSN 0021-9568.
Jump up ^ Ge, Xinlei; Zhang, Mei; Guo, Min; Wang, Xidong (2008). "Correlation and Prediction of Thermodynamic Properties of Nonaqueous Electrolytes by the Modified TCPC Model". Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 53 (1): 149–159. doi:10.1021/je700446q. ISSN 0021-9568.
Jump up ^ Ge, Xinlei; Wang, Xidong (2009). "A Simple Two-Parameter Correlation Model for Aqueous Electrolyte Solutions across a Wide Range of Temperatures†". Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 54 (2): 179–186. doi:10.1021/je800483q. ISSN 0021-9568.
hide
v
t
e
Articles related to solutions
Solution
Ideal solution
Aqueous solution
Solid solution
Buffer solution
Flory–Huggins
Mixture
Suspension
Colloid
Phase diagram
Eutectic point
Alloy
Saturation
Supersaturation
Serial dilution
Dilution (equation)
Apparent molar property
Miscibility gap
Concentration
and related quantities
Molar concentration
Mass concentration
Number concentration
Volume concentration
Normality
Percentage solution
Molality
Mole fraction
Mass fraction
Isotopic abundance
Mixing ratio
Ternary plot
Solubility
Solubility equilibrium
Total dissolved solids
Solvation
Solvation shell
Enthalpy of solution
Lattice energy
Raoult's law
Henry's law
Solubility table (data)
Solubility chart
Solvent
(Category)
Acid dissociation constant
Protic solvent
Inorganic nonaqueous solvent
Solvation
List of boiling and freezing information of solvents
Partition coefficient
Polarity
Hydrophobe
Hydrophile
Lipophilic
Amphiphile
Lyonium ion
Lyate ion
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Freezing-point_depression&oldid=846476407"
Categories:
Amount of substance
Chemical properties
Phase transitions
Hidden categories:
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2012
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Català
Deutsch
Español
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
हिन्दी
Italiano
Magyar
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Polski
Português
Slovenščina
Svenska
Tiếng Việt
中文
10 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 19 June 2018, at 00:39 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

attrs: href title

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: b

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Sea_water
mw-redirect
Sea water

value: p

attrs: role tabindex class

values: button 0 togglelink

value: span

attrs: class dir

values: toctitle ltr

values: Edit section: Of a solvent and a nonvolatile solute

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: vertical-align: -6.171ex; width:67.385ex; height:12.009ex;

values:
/wiki/Eutectic_point
mw-redirect
Eutectic point

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fie900434h

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0888-5885

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0095-9782

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fje060451k

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9568

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fje7006499

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fje700446q

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fje800483q

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Isotopic_abundance
mw-redirect
Isotopic abundance

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2012

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Freezing-point_depression
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: کاهش نقطه انجماد – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values: हिमांक अवनमन – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: A fagyáspontcsökkenés törvénye – Hungarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: Frysepunktsnedsetting – Norwegian Nynorsk

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Abaixamento do ponto de fusão – Portuguese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Freezing-point_depression rootpage-Freezing-point_depression skin-vector action-view