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B cell
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This article is about the immune system cell. For the electrical cell, see Battery (vacuum tube). For β-cell of pancreas, see beta cell.
Basic B cell function: bind to an antigen, receive help from a cognate helper T cell, and differentiate into a plasma cell that secretes large amounts of antibodies
3D rendering of a B cell
B cells, also known as B lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell of the lymphocyte subtype.[1] They function in the humoral immunity component of the adaptive immune system by secreting antibodies.[1] Additionally, B cells present antigen (they are also classified as professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs)) and secrete cytokines.[1] It is mainly referred as humoral immunity cell In mammals, B cells mature in the bone marrow, which is at the core of most bones.[2] In birds, B cells mature in the bursa of Fabricius, a lymphoid organ. (The "B" from B cells comes from the name of this organ, where it was first discovered by Chang and Glick,[2] and not from bone marrow as commonly believed).
B cells, unlike the other two classes of lymphocytes, T cells and natural killer cells, express B cell receptors (BCRs) on their cell membrane.[1] BCRs allow the B cell to bind to a specific antigen, against which it will initiate an antibody response.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Development
2 Activation
2.1 T cell-dependent activation
2.2 T cell-independent activation
2.3 Memory B cell activation
3 B cell types
4 B cell-related pathology
5 Epigenetic
6 References
Development[edit]
B cells develop from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) that originate from bone marrow.[3] HSCs first differentiate into multipotent progenitor (MPP) cells, then common lymphoid progenitor (CLP) cells.[3] From here, their development into B cells occurs in several stages (shown in image to the right), each marked by various gene expression patterns and immunoglobulin H chain and L chain gene loci arrangements, the latter due to B cells undergoing V(D)J recombination as they develop.[4]
Early B cell development: from stem cell to immature B cell
B cells undergo two types of selection while developing in the bone marrow to ensure proper development. Positive selection occurs through antigen-independent signaling involving both the pre-BCR and the BCR.[5][6] If these receptors do not bind to their ligand, B cells do not receive the proper signals and cease to develop.[5][6] Negative selection occurs through the binding of self-antigen with the BCR; If the BCR can bind strongly to self-antigen, then the B cell undergoes one of four fates: clonal deletion, receptor editing, anergy, or ignorance (B cell ignores signal and continues development).[6] This negative selection process leads to a state of central tolerance, in which the mature B cells don't bind with self antigens present in the bone marrow.[4]
To complete development, immature B cells migrate from the bone marrow into the spleen as transitional B cells, passing through two transitional stages: T1 and T2.[7] Throughout their migration to the spleen and after spleen entry, they are considered T1 B cells.[8] Within the spleen, T1 B cells transition to T2 B cells.[8] T2 B cells differentiate into either follicular (FO) B cells or marginal zone (MZ) B cells depending on signals received through the BCR and other receptors.[9] Once differentiated, they are now considered mature B cells, or naive B cells.[8]
Transitional B cell development: from immature B cell to MZ B cell or mature (FO) B cell
While immature and during the T1 phase, B cells express BCR of class IgH, but BCR expression changes to the classes IgM and IgD after transition into the T2 phase and while mature up to activation.[8]
Activation[edit]
B cell activation occurs in the secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs), such as the spleen and lymph nodes.[1] After B cells mature in the bone marrow, they migrate through the blood to SLOs, which receive a constant supply of antigen through circulating lymph.[10] At the SLO, B cell activation begins when the B cell binds to an antigen via its BCR.[11] Of the three B cell subsets, FO B cells preferentially undergo T cell-dependent activation while MZ B cells and B1 B cells preferentially undergo T cell-independent activation.[12]
B cell activation: from immature B cell to plasma cell or memory B cell
B cell activation is enhanced through the activity of CD21, a surface receptor in complex with surface proteins CD19 and CD81 (all three are collectively known as the B cell coreceptor complex).[13] When a BCR binds an antigen tagged with a fragment of the C3 complement protein, CD21 binds the C3 fragment, co-ligates with the bound BCR, and signals are transduced through CD19 and CD81 to lower the activation threshold of the cell.[14]
T cell-dependent activation[edit]
Antigens that activate B cells with the help of T-cell are known as T cell-dependent (TD) antigens and include foreign proteins.[1] They are named as such because they are unable to induce a humoral response in organisms that lack T cells.[1] B cell response to these antigens takes multiple days, though antibodies generated have a higher affinity and are more functionally versatile than those generated from T cell-independent activation.[1]
Once a BCR binds a TD antigen, the antigen is taken up into the B cell through receptor-mediated endocytosis, degraded, and presented to T cells as peptide pieces in complex with MHC-II molecules on the cell membrane.[15] T helper (TH) cells, typically follicular T helper (TFH) cells, that were activated with the same antigen recognize and bind these MHC-II-peptide complexes through their T cell receptor (TCR).[16] Following TCR-MHC-II-peptide binding, T cells express the surface protein CD40L as well as cytokines such as IL-4 and IL-21.[16] CD40L serves as a necessary co-stimulatory factor for B cell activation by binding the B cell surface receptor CD40, which promotes B cell proliferation, immunoglobulin class switching, and somatic hypermutation as well as sustains T cell growth and differentiation.[1] T cell-derived cytokines bound by B cell cytokine receptors also promote B cell proliferation, immunoglobulin class switching, and somatic hypermutation as well as guide differentiation.[16] After B cells receive these signals, they are considered activated.[16]
Now activated, B cells participate in a two-step differentiation process that yields both short-lived plasmablasts for immediate protection and long-lived plasma cells and memory B cells for persistent protection.[12] The first step, known as the extrafollicular response, occurs outside lymphoid follicles but still in the SLO.[12] During this step activated B cells proliferate, may undergo immunoglobulin class switching, and differentiate into plasmablasts that produce early, weak antibodies mostly of class IgM.[17] The second step consists of activated B cells entering a lymphoid follicle and forming a germinal center (GC), which is a specialized microenvironment where B cells undergo extensive proliferation, immunoglobulin class switching, and affinity maturation directed by somatic hypermutation.[18] These processes are facilitated by TFH cells within the GC and generate both high-affinity memory B cells and long-lived plasma cells.[12] Resultant plasma cells secrete large amounts of antibody and either stay within the SLO or, more preferentially, migrate to bone marrow.[18]
T cell-independent activation[edit]
Main article: T independent antigen (TI)
Antigens that activate B cells without T cell help are known as T cell-independent (TI) antigens[1] and include foreign polysaccharides and unmethylated CpG DNA.[12] They are named as such because they are able to induce a humoral response in organisms that lack T cells.[1] B cell response to these antigens is rapid, though antibodies generated tend to have lower affinity and are less functionally versatile than those generated from T cell-dependent activation.[1]
As with TD antigens, B cells activated by TI antigens need additional signals to complete activation, but instead of receiving them from T cells, they are provided either by recognition and binding of a common microbial constituent to toll-like receptors (TLRs) or by extensive crosslinking of BCRs to repeated epitopes on a bacterial cell.[1] B cells activated by TI antigens go on to proliferate outside lymphoid follicles but still in SLOs (GCs do not form), possibly undergo immunoglobulin class switching, and differentiate into short-lived plasmablasts that produce early, weak antibodies mostly of class IgM, but also some populations of long-lived plasma cells.[19]
Memory B cell activation[edit]
Memory B cell activation begins with the detection and binding of their target antigen, which is shared by their parent B cell.[20] Some memory B cells can be activated without T cell help, such as certain virus-specific memory B cells, but others need T cell help.[21] Upon antigen binding, the memory B cell takes up the antigen through receptor-mediated endocytosis, degrades it, and presents it to T cells as peptide pieces in complex with MHC-II molecules on the cell membrane.[20] Memory T helper (TH) cells, typically memory follicular T helper (TFH) cells, that were derived from T cells activated with the same antigen recognize and bind these MHC-II-peptide complexes through their TCR.[20] Following TCR-MHC-II-peptide binding and the relay of other signals from the memory TFH cell, the memory B cell is activated and differentiates either into plasmablasts and plasma cells via an extrafollicular response or enter a germinal center reaction where they generate plasma cells and more memory B cells.[20][21] It is unclear whether the memory B cells undergo further affinity maturation within these secondary GCs.[20]
B cell types[edit]
Plasmablast - A short-lived, proliferating antibody-secreting cell arising from B cell differentiation.[1] Plasmablasts are generated early in an infection and their antibodies tend to have a weaker affinity towards their target antigen compared to plasma cell.[12] Plasmablasts can result from T cell-independent activation of B cells or the extrafollicular response from T cell-dependent activation of B cells.[1]
Plasma cell - A long-lived, non-proliferating antibody-secreting cell arising from B cell differentiation.[1] There is evidence that B cells first differentiate into a plasmablast-like cell, then differentiate into a plasma cell.[12] Plasma cells are generated later in an infection and, compared to plasmablasts, have antibodies with a higher affinity towards their target antigen due to affinity maturation in the germinal center (GC) and produce more antibodies.[12] Plasma cells typically result from the germinal center reaction from T cell-dependent activation of B cells, however they can also result from T cell-independent activation of B cells.[19]
Lymphoplasmacytoid cell - A cell with a mixture of B lymphocyte and plasma cell morphological features that is thought to be closely related to or a subtype of plasma cells. This cell type is found in pre-malignant and malignant plasma cell dyscrasias that are associated with the secretion of IgM monoclonal proteins; these dyscrasias include IgM monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance and Waldenström's macroglobulinemia.[22]
Memory B cell - Dormant B cell arising from B cell differentiation.[1] Their function is to circulate through the body and initiate a stronger, more rapid antibody response (known as the anamnestic secondary antibody response) if they detect the antigen that had activated their parent B cell (memory B cells and their parent B cells share the same BCR, thus they detect the same antigen).[21] Memory B cells can be generated from T cell-dependent activation through both the extrafollicular response and the germinal center reaction as well as from T cell-independent activation of B1 cells.[21]
Follicular (FO) B Cell (also known as a B-2 cell) - Most common type of B cell and, when not circulating through the blood, is found mainly in the lymphoid follicles of secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs).[12] They are responsible for generating the majority of high-affinity antibodies during an infection.[1]
Marginal zone (MZ) B cell - Found mainly in the marginal zone of the spleen and serves as a first line of defense against blood-borne pathogens, as the marginal zone receives large amounts of blood from the general circulation.[23] They can undergo both T cell-independent and T cell-dependent activation, but preferentially undergo T cell-independent activation.[12]
B-1 cell - Arises from a developmental pathway different from FO B cells and MZ B cells.[24] In mice, they predominantly populate the peritoneal cavity and pleural cavity, generate natural antibodies (antibodies produced without infection), defend against mucosal pathogens, and primarily exhibit T cell-independent activation.[24] A true homologue of mouse B-1 cells has not been discovered in humans, though various cell populations similar to B-1 cells have been described.[24]
B-2 cell - FO B cells and MZ B cells.[24]
Regulatory B (Breg) cell - An immunosuppressive B cell type that stops the expansion of pathogenic, pro-inflammatory lymphocytes through the secretion of IL-10, IL-35, and TGF-β.[25] Also, it promotes the generation of regulatory T (Treg) cells by directly interacting with T cells to skew their differentiation towards Tregs.[25] No common Breg cell identity has been described and many Breg cell subsets sharing regulatory functions have been found in both mice and humans.[25] It is currently unknown if Breg cell subsets are developmentally linked and how exactly differentiation into a Breg cell occurs.[25] There is evidence showing that nearly all B cell types can differentiate into a Breg cell through mechanisms involving inflammatory signals and BCR recognition.[25]
B cell-related pathology[edit]
Autoimmune disease can result from abnormal B cell recognition of self-antigens followed by the production of autoantibodies.[26] Autoimmune diseases where disease activity is correlated with B cell activity include scleroderma, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, type 1 diabetes, and rheumatoid arthritis.[26]
Malignant transformation of B cells and their precursors can cause a host of cancers, including chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), hairy cell leukemia, follicular lymphoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and plasma cell malignancies such as multiple myeloma, Waldenström's macroglobulinemia, and certain forms of amyloidosis.[27][28]
Epigenetic[edit]
A study that investigated the methylome of B cells along their differentiation cycle, using whole-genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS), showed that there is a hypomethylation from the earliest stages to the most differentiated stages. The largest methylation difference is between the stages of germinal center B cells and memory B cells. Furthermore, this study showed that there is a similarity between B cell tumors and long-lived B cells in their DNA methylation signatures.[29]
References[edit]
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text:
Street-legal vehicle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Street legal (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Street legal or road going refers to a vehicle such as an automobile, motorcycle, or light truck that is equipped and licensed for use on public roads, being therefore roadworthy. This will require specific configurations of lighting, signal lights, and safety equipment. Some specialty vehicles that will not be operated on roads therefore do not need all the features of a street-legal vehicle; examples are a vehicle used only off-road (such as a sandrail) that is trailered to its off-road operating area, and a race car that is used only on closed race tracks and therefore does not need all the features of a street-legal vehicle. As well as motor vehicles, the street-legal distinction applies in some jurisdictions to track bicycles that lack street-legal brakes and lights. Street legality rules can even affect race car helmets, which possess visual fields too narrow for use on an open road without the risk of missing a fast-moving vehicle.[1]
The Porsche 911 GT1 '98 "Straßenversion" (German: Roadworthy Version) is a street-legal racing car and a single copy of the racing version, that succeeded at the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1998.
Contents
1 Canada
2 India
3 United Kingdom
4 United States
5 See also
6 References
Canada[edit]
In Canada, all ten provinces follow a consistent set of national criteria issued by Transport Canada for specific equipment required as part of a street-legal vehicle. In some provinces, the Highway Traffic Act is a matter of provincial jurisdiction; provinces with such an Act include Ontario, Manitoba, and Newfoundland and Labrador.
Many but not all U.S.-model vehicles do qualify for importation to Canada, but must meet requirements for items such as daytime running lights (standard on Canadian-market vehicles since 1991, but not required in the U.S.), anti-theft immobilisers, and anchorage points for child seats.[2] Cars from other countries (such as the UK) typically do not qualify, as standards are too widely divergent from those in Canada.[3]
Laws regarding aftermarket items such as studded tires, snow tires and radar detectors vary widely between provinces.
India[edit]
Main article: Automotive Industry Standards
Requirements for manufacturing, registering, and operating motor vehicles in India are codified by the Central Motor Vehicles Rules (CMVR), as maintained by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.[4] Street-legal two-, three-, and four-wheeled vehicles must comply with structure, safety equipment, and operating conditions in CMVR 93–125.[5]
United Kingdom[edit]
In the United Kingdom, vehicles must pass the Single Vehicle Approval (SVA) scheme, a pre-registration inspection for cars and light goods vehicles[6] that have not been type-approved to British or European standards. Since August 2001, there have been two levels of SVA, those being 'standard' and 'enhanced.' The standard SVA is applied vehicles such as left-hand drive vehicles, personally imported vehicles, amateur built vehicles and armoured vehicles, to name a few. Vehicles which do not fall into one of the standard SVA categories – for example a vehicle of right-hand drive – require enhanced SVA in addition to standard SVA inspections.[7]
The SVA is in the process of being replaced by the Individual Vehicle Approval (IVA).[6]
United States[edit]
In the United States, the individual states have the authority to determine, by means of statutes and regulations, which types of vehicles are permitted on public streets, as a function of police power. Vehicles that are considered street-legal in the U.S. include automobiles, trucks, and motorcycles.[8] Some vehicles that are not generally sold for on-road driving – such as all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) and golf carts – can potentially be adapted for street use, if permitted by state law.[9][10]
Most requirements for automobiles are largely consistent between U.S. states.[11] A notable exception is California emission control, which has traditionally been more strict than that in other states.[12] Common requirements for automobiles include structure (examples: hood) and safety equipment (examples: headlamps and bumpers).[13]
Common requirements for motorcycles include side view mirrors and a dedicated seat in order to transport a passenger.[14] However, states vary widely on other equipment such as turn signals.[14]
See also[edit]
Roadworthiness
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Snell and Helmets". Snell Memorial Foundation, Inc.
Jump up ^ The Registrar of Imported Vehicles, a private company under contract by Transport Canada, provides some information on which US-model vehicles are or can be made street-legal in Canada.
Jump up ^ "Importing vehicles purchased in countries OTHER than the United States". Transport Canada. Government of Canada. 1 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Central Motor Vehicles Rules 1989". Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. 2012-06-18.
Jump up ^ "Rules relating to Type Approval of Vehicles and Methods of Establishing Compliance". Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM). 2005. Archived from the original on 2011-08-18.
^ Jump up to: a b "7. Single Vehicle Approval". Guide: Vehicle approval. GOV.UK. 23 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "The UK Single Vehicle Approval Scheme". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on September 22, 2009.
Jump up ^ "State Motorcycle Laws". American Motorcyclist Association.
Jump up ^ "State ATV Information". Consumer Product Safety Commission. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Attorney General Opinion No. 94-102". Kansas Attorney General Opinions. Washburn University School of Law. 17 August 1994. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Hinkelman, Edward G. (2003). Importers Manual USA. World Trade Press. p. 272. ISBN 1885073933.
Jump up ^ Overly, Steven (23 February 2017). "Even in Trump's America, California could decide how cleanly your car runs". Washington Post. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "10 Common Illegal Alterations Made to Cars". National Motorists Association Blog. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b American Motorcyclist Association (27 September 2012), Motocycle Laws by State (Revised 9-27-2012), archived from the original on 14 October 2013
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Street-legal_vehicle&oldid=858220898"
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text:
Learner's permit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A driver's permit, learner's permit, learner's license or provisional license, is a restricted license that is given to a person who is learning to drive, but has not yet satisfied the requirement to obtain a driver's license. Having a driver's permit for a certain length of time is usually one of the requirements (along with driver's education and a road test) for applying for a full driver's license. To get a learner's permit, one must typically pass a written permit test, traffic, and rules of the road.
Contents
[hide]
1 Australia
2 Belgium
3 Canada
4 France
5 Germany
6 Hong Kong
7 India
8 New Zealand
9 Norway
10 Singapore
11 South Africa
12 Sweden
13 United Kingdom
14 United States
15 References
Australia[edit]
Laws regarding learner's permits in Australia differ between states. However, all states require a number of hours supervised driving to be undertaken and for the permit to be held for a set period. The age to get a Learner Permit is 16 in all states and territories except the ACT where it is 15 and 9 months. When a person is on their learners permit, they have to log 50–120 hours depending on the state they are in, and must obtain at least 5 night hours. They can be supervised or taught in their log book hours by any person/persons holding a full license. They must sign the log book for allocated hours.
Belgium[edit]
A provisionally learners license can be obtained after passing a theoretical exam less than three years earlier. The minimum age for a learners permit is 17 years. The learner needs to be accompanied by a designated person with a valid driving license. The vehicle needs to bear a clearly visible predesigned sign with the letter "L".
Canada[edit]
In Canada, the minimum age varies from province to province and may be 14 or 16. In Ontario, a G1 License is issued to new drivers at the age of 16 after completing a written test. G1 license restrictions include:
Have time and/or road restrictions, and the learner must drive with a fully licensed driver of at least 4 years. After one year with a G2, the learner may upgrade to their full G class license by taking another road test, which has a major highway component. A similar program is in effect for motorcycles, the M class license.
In Nova Scotia, a beginner's permit (L) is issued to new drivers after the age of 16 after a written test. The L license restrictions include:
A fully licensed driver must sit in the seat adjacent the new driver
There can not be additional other passengers
The learner must have a blood alcohol count of 0
No time or road restrictions
In Alberta, a learners permit is issued to those who complete a knowledge test, an eye exam and one who is 14 years of age or older. They're then put into a GDL program with restrictions. Some include: having a 0 blood alcohol level, fully licensed driver in passenger seat, no more people than there are seats, and must hold the license for a one-year minimum before upgrading.
In Alberta, one has to pass a basic road test after having a learner's permit for at least a year and at or over the age of 16, then can apply for a Class 5 GDL license, which carries some of the same restrictions, but no longer requires a fully licensed Class 5 non-GDL driver in the passenger seat. Once the person becomes 18 and holds the Class 5 GDL license for at least 2 years, they can do an advanced road test which if they pass, they'll become a fully licensed Class 5 driver.
France[edit]
(See also Driving licence in France )
In France, exists a Graduated driver licensing for people between the age of 15 and 17 and half, for B Driving licence.
Some restriction exist; one of the main condition is that a fully agreed licensed must accompany the learner.
With 18, the learner's permit can apply to a normal driving license, that it can pass more easily due to its previous experience; additionally, its probation license is reduced from three to two years.
This Graduated driver licensing is valid only within France, so it's not possible to cross their border with the Graduated driver licensing.
For people over 18, a system similar to the Graduated driver licensing exists, but rules are slightly different, for instance it does not provide the reduction from three to two years for the probation licence[1].
Furthermore, any person who initially gets a driving license, for the first one, has to mind following restrictions for two or three years[2] known as permis probatoire. The permis probatoire starting with specific issue:
Speed is reduced for new drivers: 110 km/h instead of 130 on motorways, 100 km/h instead of 110, and 80 instead of 90 on rural roads[3].
The permis probatoire has only six points, and the driver access to 12 points when he pas it three year term[4]
Points
When
général case
apprentissage anticipé case
Driving licence passed 6 6
After one year +2 → 8 (if no point loss) +3 → 9 (if no point loss)
After two years +2 → 10 (if no point loss) +3 → 12 (if no point loss)
After three years +2 → 12 (if no point loss)
Some training to road traffic safety might help to recover points.
Germany[edit]
Since 2010, it's possible to get a learner's permit at 17 in Germany. The only restriction is that a fully licensed and previously stated driver who is at least 30 years old must accompany the learner (but is not allowed to intervene in the drive). That does not apply to light motorcycles, which can be driven freely with this license.
Furthermore, any person who initially gets a driving license has to mind following restrictions for 2 years starting with its issue:
He must have a blood alcohol count of 0 (this applies at least until the age of 21)
Any penalties are stricter than for advanced drivers
With 18, the learner's permit will be automatically replaced by a normal driving license - no further test is needed. These legal circumstances in Germany are comparable to those in Austria in that matter - thus, it's possible to cross their border with a learner's permit.
Hong Kong[edit]
In Hong Kong any person aged 18 or above can apply for a Learner's Driving License for private cars, light goods vehicle and motorcycles. For other types of vehicle the age required is 21 and the applicant must have a valid private car or light goods vehicle driving license for 3 years. Unlike other jurisdictions, a learner must be supervised by an approved driving instructor instead of an ordinary fully licensed driver, or attending an approved driving school to learn to drive (except motorcycles, which learners can drive on their own, but motorcycle learners must pass a motorcycle course from an approved driving school before they can learn to drive on road). L-plate is also required when the learner is practicing.
India[edit]
In India, the minimum age at which a provisional licence is valid is 18 (and 16 for riding a gear less scooter). When driving under a provisional license, the learner must be accompanied by a driver who holds a full driving license. The supervisor has to be in view of the road and be in a position to control the vehicle. The provisional license is available only after passing the theory test. A full licence can be acquired only after passing the driving test. Once the learner has passed the theory test, they may take the practical driving test. Once the practical driving test has been taken and passed, a full driving licence will be automatically issued. While it is possible to take both tests immediately after each other, most learner drivers take a period between taking the theory and applying for a practical test to carry out driving lessons, either with their supervisor or a professional Driving school.
The vehicle being driven by the learner must also be fitted with L-plates on both the back and front of the vehicle. This tells other road users that the vehicle is being operated by a driver without their full license and that they may make mistakes easily and that the driver may not be fully competent yet. The L-plate consists of a white square plate with a large red L in the middle. after 1 month of lerner licence issued you can apply for driving licence...Jabir Laskar
New Zealand[edit]
In New Zealand any person 16 years or over can sit a learner's licensing test, which is a theory multiple choice test on road rules. Once they have passed this, they may drive with an adult who has had their full license for at least two years.[5] They must display L plates at all times when driving. They may drive up to the speed of 100 km/h in allowed areas .They may carry passengers with an adult in the car that has had their full licence for more than two years. After at least 6 months have passed, they take a road test in order to receive their restricted license. On a restricted license, the learner may only drive between 5am and 10pm, with no passengers other than their dependent children, spouse, or persons holding a full license for more than 2 years. A learner may only drive between 5am and 10pm. Learners who sit the practical test in an automatic car are only legally allowed to drive an automatic while restricted. People can also sit a full license road test after 18 months or a year if they have undertaken a defensive driving course. In March 2010 the New Zealand Government announced changes to licence regulations which included raising the minimum age for a learner's licence to 16,[6] since September 2011 the minimum age to attempt to obtain a learners licence is the age of 16.
Norway[edit]
In Norway, the learner may drive as long the learner is over 16 years of age, have passed a basic course in the rules of the road and first aid, and a person 25 or above who has had their driver's license for more than 5 years is present.
Singapore[edit]
In Singapore, any person 18 or above may obtain a provisional driving licence for a fee of S$25.00 after passing the Basic Theory Test. The provisional driving licence is valid for 6 months from the date of payment, and permits the holder to drive on public roads (with a few exceptions) in the presence of a Certified Driving Instructor. A car driven by a learner must display an L-plate on the front and rear of the car. Passing the Final Theory Test enables a learner to apply for the Practical Driving Test. A valid provisional driving licence and a photo ID must be presented to be allowed to take the practical test. Should a learner's provisional driving licence expire before the date of their practical test, he or she will have to renew it at the same cost.
A Qualified Driving Licence (QDL) is awarded to a person who has passed the practical test and made a one-time payment of S$50.00. Any person who has possessed a QDL for a period of less than a year is required to display a probation plate at the top right of their front and rear windscreens. The probation plate is made of a reflective material and consists of an orange triangle on a yellow background.
See Driving licence in Singapore for detailed requirements of each class of licence.
South Africa[edit]
A South African learners license consists of three sections with the following criteria required:[citation needed]
Rules of the road - There are 30 questions in this category with 22 being the pass mark
Vehicle controls - There are 8 questions in this section, the required pass mark is 6
Road signs, road markings and traffic signals - There are 30 questions in this category with a pass mark of 23
There are primarily three codes to choose from:[citation needed]
Code 1 - This is for motorcycles, motorised tricycle or quadrucycle not more than 125cc and the driver should be 16 or older on the date of the test. If the motorcycle engine in above 125cc, the driver will need to be 17 years or older.
Code 2- This is for motor vehicles, bus and minibus or goods vehicle up to a maximum vehicle mass of 3500 kg. The driver will need to be 17 years or older on the date of the test.
Code 3 - This is for motor vehicles exceeding a gross vehicle mass of 3500 kg. The driver will need to be 18 years or older to apply for a learners license in this category.
The following documents will need to be presented when applying for a learners license:[citation needed]
Identity card or passport
2 Recent passport size photographs (colour or black and white)
In South Africa, any person who is of the minimum required age and holds a valid ID document may sit a learner's licence exam.[7] The minimum required age varies by vehicle class and has the following minimum age restrictions:[8]
for a motorcycle (without a sidecar) with an engine not exceeding 125 cc – 16 years
for light motor vehicles with a mass not exceeding 3 500 kilograms – 17 years
for all other vehicles (also motorcycles with an engine exceeding 125 cc) – 18 years
The Learner's Licence exam is a 68 question multiple choice exam with questions spread over three sections: Rules of the road (30 questions); Signs, signals and road markings (30 questions), and vehicle controls (8 questions).[9] [10] The holder of a learner’s licence is allowed to drive only when supervised by a licensed driver. If the category of vehicle being driven requires a professional driving permit, the licensed driver must also hold a professional driving permit. South African Learners must carry their Learner's Licence with them whenever they are driving a vehicle and have L plates on the rear window. The Learner's Licence is valid for 24 months.[11]
Sweden[edit]
In Sweden, the minimum age is 16 years old to get a basic car learner's permit; 17 years and six months are required for more advanced light vehicle combinations and up to 23 years for heavy vehicle combinations. Körkortslag 4kap 2§[12]
United Kingdom[edit]
In the United Kingdom, the minimum age at which a provisional licence is valid is 17 (16 for driving a tractor, riding a scooter, or those receiving Disability Mobility Allowance). When driving under a provisional licence, the learner must be accompanied by a driver who has held a full driving licence for three years, and who is 21 or over.[13] The supervisor has to be in view of the road, however the road safety act 1988 states that the supervisor does not have to be in the passenger seat, although the passenger in the front seat does have to be over the age of 15. A full licence can be acquired as soon as the provisional licence is received, unlike many other countries where applicants must wait a minimum of 6–12 months with this being said, before getting a full license. The provisional licence is available without taking a test, although to get a full, unrestricted licence - the applicant must take a written 'Theory' test containing fifty multiple choice questions and fourteen-clip hazard perception test, both of which are done on a computer at one of the many DSA (Driving Standards Agency) Test centres.[14] Once the learner has passed the theory test, they may take the practical driving test, however the practical driving test has to be done within 2 years of completing the theory test, as the theory test certificate expires 2 years after receiving it. Once the practical driving test has been taken and passed a full driving licence will be automatically issued. While it is possible to take both tests immediately after each other, most learner drivers take a period between taking the theory and applying for a practical test to carry out driving lessons, either with their supervisor or a professional Driving school.
The vehicle being driven by the learner must also be fitted with L-plates on both the back and front of the vehicle. This tells other road users that the vehicle is being operated by a driver without their full licence and that they may make mistakes easily and that the driver may not be fully competent yet. The L-plate consists of a white square plate (often tied to the vehicle or attached by magnets) with a large red L in the middle. In Wales the L-plate or the D-plate may be used due to bilingual laws in effect in Wales. If the vehicle is operated by multiple named drivers (As specified by the car insurance policy), then the L-Plate should be removed and stored if the current driver holds a full licence. When the learner has passed, they can get a non-compulsory 'P' plate, which shows that they have just passed their test, and so may not have much experience on the road. The P plate has a white background, with a green 'P'.
In the UK, provisional licence holders are disallowed from driving on motorways until they pass the practical test.
After gaining a full licence, the driver is subject to a probationary period; 6 or more penalty points accumulated within 2 years of passing the test, will lead to a revocation of the licence and both test will need to be retaken.[15]
In Northern Ireland for one year after the passing of a driving test, the driver is defined as a "restricted driver" who must not exceed 45 mph (72 km/h) and must display an "R-plate" consisting of an amber sans-serif R on a white background.
United States[edit]
In order for a minor to receive a permit, they must have signed permission from a parent or guardian. After nine months (six months in some states), of driving supervised with a permit, and reaching the requisite age, a person can apply for a provisional license. Obtaining a provisional license allows certain restrictions to be lifted from the driver, such as the times that they are allowed to drive, and the number of people allowed in the car. In some states, permit holders are allowed to drive to and from school or work with a permit, without a supervising driver. In Indiana, Iowa, Texas, Rhode Island, Maryland and Kentucky, a permit holder between 17 and 18 may legally drive unaccompanied only if heading to work or to school. The permit holder is required to have 50 hours (states may vary) of driving 2 of which must be alone. Rule C-19 student drivers must have viable proof of driving two hours unattended such as Tracking records from parents, parking from schools, and transportation themselves to work. In California, Nebraska, Oregon, Maine, New York, Florida, Kansas, Illinois, Oklahoma and Arizona, permitted drivers, with a signed note from a legal guardian, can legally drive family members under the age of 21 without adult supervision.
A provisional license allows the driver to drive to and from school and work. In order to obtain a provisional license the licensee be at least the age of 16 and must hold their instructional permit for 6 months after obtaining it in the following states: California, New Mexico, Arizona, Kansas, Georgia [as per 2015, holding period 1 year and 1 day], Texas, Oklahoma [if a student is 18+ holding period is 1 month], Florida [for the student under 18 holding period is 12 months], Nevada, Washington, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, New York (Excludes NYC) North Carolina and South Carolina.[16] While the licensee has a provisional license they are able to drive between the hours of 6am-9pm without supervision(excludes the following states: Alabama, Colorado, Arizona, Delaware, Ohio and Illinois.)
In some states, but not all, an adult learner need only have the driver's permit for a few days before being able to get a driver's license. If the adult learner is over the age of 21, he/she may take the written test and pass for a permit, then is granted to take the driving test for a license on the same day if all fees are paid, and if it is convenient for both the DMV and the adult learner. In the state of Colorado, an adult learner over the age of 21 can take both tests on the same day, so long as the driving test is scheduled by appointment and the learner has passed and paid in full the written exam/permit first.
To obtain a restricted license, the driver must be the minimum age for testing and have had his or her permit for the required duration. A computerized knowledge test is first required. After that is passed, a 6 hrs drive test is given over a two-day period. It consists of driving around a residential neighborhood. There are no hazard tests. If a candidate fails the test, they must usually wait a week or two to retake it.
In the state of New Hampshire, a permit is not given but the young driver may begin to drive with a parent or guardian, or an adult 25 years of age, at the age of 15 and a half.
A driver operating with a learner's permit must be accompanied by an adult 21 years of age or older in the passenger seat at all times.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://www.service-public.fr/particuliers/vosdroits/F21012
Jump up ^ https://www.service-public.fr/particuliers/vosdroits/F2390
Jump up ^ https://www.permisapoints.fr/permis-a-points/permis-probatoire/
Jump up ^ https://www.service-public.fr/particuliers/vosdroits/F2390
Jump up ^ "About your licence". NZ Transport Agency. 30 September 2011. Retrieved 14 October 2011.
Jump up ^ John Hartevelt, Hank Schouten and NZPA (2 March 2010). "Government to raise driving age". Stuff.co.nz. Retrieved 14 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "When can I apply for my Learners Licence? What requirements do I need to meet? - Page 3". Retrieved 13 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Restrictions and Requirements - Light Motor Vehicle - African License". African Licence. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Preparation - Light Motor Vehicle - African License". African Licence. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Services". Retrieved 13 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "What the Licence Permits - Light Motor Vehicle - African License". African Licence. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Körkortslag (1998:488)". Retrieved 13 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Driving tests, motorcycle tests and learning to drive". Retrieved 13 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Theory test for cars and motorcycles". Retrieved 13 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Penalty points (endorsements)". Retrieved 13 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "How to Pass the Florida Permit Test". Practice Permit Test. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
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