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Continental Navy
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The Continental Navy was the navy of the United States during the American Revolutionary War, and was formed in 1775. The fleet cumulatively became relatively substantial through the efforts of the Continental Navy's patron John Adams and vigorous Congressional support in the face of stiff opposition, when considering the limitations imposed upon the Patriot supply pool.
The main goal of the navy was to intercept shipments of British matériel and generally disrupt British maritime commercial operations. The initial fleet consisted of converted merchantmen because of the lack of funding, manpower, and resources, with exclusively designed warships being built later in the conflict. The vessels that successfully made it to sea met with success only rarely, and the effort contributed little to the overall outcome of the war.
The fleet did serve to highlight a few examples of Continental resolve, notably launching Captain John Barry into the limelight. It provided needed experience for a generation of officers who went on to command conflicts which involved the early American navy.
With the war over and the Federal government in need of all available capital, the final vessel of the Continental Navy was auctioned off in 1785 to a private bidder.
The Continental Navy is the first establishment of what is now the United States Navy.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Congressional oversight of construction
2 Creation
3 The Thirteen Frigates
4 French naval collaboration
5 End of the Continental Navy
6 See also
7 Footnotes
8 References
Congressional oversight of construction[edit]
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John Adams took an active role in the formation of the navy and the drafting of suitable operational regulations. Painting by John Trumbull, c. 1792–93.
The original intent was to intercept the supply of arms and provisions to British soldiers, who had placed Boston under martial law. George Washington had already informed Congress that he had assumed command of several ships for this purpose, and individual governments of various colonies had outfitted their own warships. The first formal movement for a navy came from Rhode Island, whose State Assembly passed a resolution on August 26, 1775 instructing its delegates to Congress to introduce legislation calling "for building at the Continental expense a fleet of sufficient force, for the protection of these colonies, and for employing them in such a manner and places as will most effectively annoy our enemies...." The measure in the Continental Congress was met with much derision, especially on the part of Maryland delegate Samuel Chase who exclaimed it to be "the maddest idea in the world." John Adams later recalled, "The opposition... was very loud and vehement. It was... represented as the most wild, visionary, mad project that had ever been imagined. It was an infant taking a mad bull by his horns."
During this time, however, the issue arose of Quebec-bound British supply ships carrying desperately needed provisions that could otherwise benefit the Continental Army. The Continental Congress appointed Silas Deane and John Langdon to draft a plan to seize ships from the convoy in question.
Creation[edit]
Continental ship Columbus with captured British brig Lord Lifford, 1776
On June 12, 1775, the Rhode Island General Assembly, meeting at East Greenwich, passed a resolution creating a navy for the colony of Rhode Island. The same day, Governor Nicholas Cooke signed orders addressed to Captain Abraham Whipple, commander of the sloop Katy and commodore of the armed vessels employed by the government.[2]
The first formal movement for the creation of a Continental navy came from Rhode Island, because its merchants' widespread shipping activities had been severely harassed by British frigates. On August 26, 1775, Rhode Island General Assembly passed a resolution that there be a single Continental fleet funded by the Continental Congress.[3] The resolution was introduced in the Continental Congress on October 3, 1775 but was tabled. In the meantime, George Washington had begun to acquire ships, starting with the schooner Hannah which was paid for out of Washington's own pocket.[2] Hannah was commissioned and launched on September 5, 1775 from the port of Beverly, Massachusetts, after being sold by the future General John Glover of Marblehead, Massachusetts.[4]
Resolved, That a swift sailing vessel, to carry ten carriage guns, and a proportionable number of swivels, with eighty men, be fitted, with all possible despatch, for a cruise of three months, and that the commander be instructed to cruize eastward, for intercepting such transports as may be laden with warlike stores and other supplies for our enemies, and for such other purposes as the Congress shall direct.
That a Committee of three be appointed to prepare an estimate of the expence, and lay the same before the Congress, and to contract with proper persons to fit out the vessel.
Resolved, that another vessel be fitted out for the same purposes, and that the said committee report their opinion of a proper vessel, and also an estimate of the expence.
Resolution of the Continental Congress that marked the establishment of what is now the United States Navy.[5]
The United States Navy recognizes October 13, 1775 as the date of its official establishment,[1] the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia that created the Continental Navy.[5] On this day, Congress authorized the purchase of two vessels to be armed for a cruise against British merchant ships; these ships became Andrew Doria and Cabot.[1] The first ship in commission was the USS Alfred which was purchased on November 4 and commissioned on December 3 by Captain Dudley Saltonstall.[6] On November 10, 1775, the Continental Congress passed a resolution calling for two battalions of Marines to be raised for service with the fleet.[7] John Adams drafted its first governing regulations, which were adopted by Congress on November 28, 1775 and remained in effect throughout the Revolutionary War. The Rhode Island resolution was reconsidered by the Continental Congress and was passed on December 13, 1775, authorizing the building of thirteen frigates within the next three months: five ships of 32 guns, five with 28 guns, and three with 24 guns.[8]
Abraham Whipple painting by Edward Savage
The official Navy officer uniform of 1776 had red lapels and a red waistcoat. The unofficial uniform of 1777, worn by many officers, had white lapels and a white waistcoat, and in addition non-regulation epaulets.[9]
When it came to selecting commanders for ships, Congress tended to be split evenly between merit and patronage.[citation needed] Among those who were selected for political reasons were Esek Hopkins, Dudley Saltonstall, and Esek Hopkins' son John Burroughs Hopkins. However, Abraham Whipple, Nicholas Biddle, and John Paul Jones managed to be appointed with backgrounds in marine warfare. On December 22, 1775, Esek Hopkins was appointed the naval commander-in-chief, and officers of the navy were commissioned. Saltonstall, Biddle, Hopkins, and Whipple were commissioned as captains of the Alfred, Andrew Doria, Cabot, and Columbus, respectively.
Hopkins led the first major naval action of the Continental Navy in early March 1776 with this small fleet, complemented by the Providence (12), Wasp (8), and Hornet (10). The battle occurred at Nassau, Bahamas where stores of much-needed gunpowder were seized for the use of the Continental Army. However, success was diluted with the appearance of disease spreading from ship to ship.
On April 6, 1776, the squadron, with the addition of the Fly (8), unsuccessfully encountered the 20-gun HMS Glasgow in the first major sea battle of the Continental Navy. Hopkins failed to give any substantive orders other than to recall the fleet from the engagement, a move which Captain Nicholas Biddle described: "away we all went helter, skelter, one flying here, another there."
On Lake Champlain, Benedict Arnold ordered the construction of 12 war vessels to slow down the British fleet that was invading New York from Canada. The British fleet destroyed Arnold's fleet, but the US fleet managed to slow down the British after a two-day battle, known as the Battle of Valcour Island, and managed to slow the progression of the British Army.[10]
The Thirteen Frigates[edit]
Continental frigates Hancock and Boston capturing British frigate Fox, June 7, 1777
By December 13, 1775, Congress had authorized the construction of 13 new frigates, rather than refitting merchantmen to increase the fleet. Five ships (Hancock, Raleigh, Randolph, Warren, and Washington) were to be rated 32 guns, five (Effingham, Montgomery, Providence, Trumble, and Virginia) 28 guns, and three (Boston, Congress, and Delaware) 24 guns. Only eight frigates made it to sea and their effectiveness was limited; they were completely outmatched by the mighty Royal Navy, and nearly all were captured or sunk by 1781.[11]
Washington, Effingham, Congress, and Montgomery were scuttled or burned in October and November 1777 before going to sea to prevent their capture by the British. USS Virginia, commanded by Captain James Nicholson, made a number of unsuccessful attempts to break through the blockade of Chesapeake Bay. On March 31, 1778, in another attempt, she ran aground near Hampton Roads, where her captain went ashore. Shortly after, HMS Emerald and Conqueror appeared on the scene to accept her surrender.
Guarding American commerce and raiding British commerce and supply were the principal duties of the Continental Navy. Privateers had some success, with 1,697 letters of marque being issued by Congress. Individual states, American agents in Europe and in the Caribbean also issued commissions; taking duplications into account more than 2,000 commissions were issued by the various authorities. Lloyd's of London estimated that 2,208 British ships were taken by Yankee privateers, amounting to almost $66 million, a significant sum at the time.[12]
Most of the eight frigates that went to sea took multiple prizes and had semi-successful cruises before their captures, however there were exceptions. On September 27, 1777, Delaware participated in a delaying action on the Delaware River against the British army pursuing George Washington's forces. The ebb tide arrived and left the Delaware stranded, leading to her capture. Warren was blockaded in Providence, Rhode Island, shortly after her completion, and did not break out of the blockade until March 8, 1778. After a successful cruise under Captain John Burroughs Hopkins, she was assigned to the ill-fated Penobscot Expedition under Captain Dudley Saltonstall, where she was trapped by the British and burned on August 15, 1779 to prevent her capture. Hancock, captained by John Manley, managed to capture two merchantmen as well as the Royal Navy vessel HMS Fox. Later on July 8, 1777, however, the Hancock was captured by HMS Rainbow of a pursuing squadron, and became the British man of war Iris.
Randolph took five prizes in her early cruises. On March 7, 1778, she was escorting a convoy of merchantmen when the British 64-gun ship HMS Yarmouth bore down on the convoy. Randolph, under the command of Captain Nicholas Biddle came to the defense of the merchantmen and engaged the heavily superior foe. In the ensuing engagement, the two ships were both severely manhandled but in the course of the action, the magazine of the Randolph exploded causing the destruction of the entire vessel and all but four of her crew. The falling debris from the explosion severely damaged the Yarmouth enough that she could no longer pursue the American ships.
Continental Navy Jack
Raleigh, under the command of Captain John Barry, captured three prizes before being run aground in action on September 27, 1778. Her crew scuttled her, but she was raised by the British who refloated her for further use in the name of the Crown.
Boston, under the command of Captains Hector McNeill and Samuel Tucker, had captured 17 prizes in earlier cruises, and had carried John Adams to France in February and March 1778. She was captured (along with the frigate Providence who had taken 14 prizes in her own service under Captain Abraham Whipple) in the fall of Charleston, South Carolina on May 12, 1780.
The final frigate to meet her end of Continental service was the Trumbull. Trumbull, which had not gone to sea until September 1779 under James Nicholson, had gained acclaim in bloody action against the Letter of Marque Watt. On August 28, 1781, she met HMS Iris and General Monk and engaged. In the action, Trumbull was forced to surrender to the former American naval vessels (the General Monk was the captured Rhode Island privateer General Washington, itself recaptured in April 1782 and placed in service with the Continental Navy).
French naval collaboration[edit]
John Paul Jones, the Continental Navy's first seaman to be appointed the rank of 1st Lieutenant. Oil painting by George Bagby Matthews, c. 1890.
Before the Franco-American Alliance, the royalist French government attempted to maintain a state of respectful neutrality during the Revolutionary War. That being said, the nation maintained neutrality at face value, often openly harboring Continental vessels and supplying their needs.
With the presence of American diplomats Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane, the Continental Navy gained a permanent link to French affairs. Through Franklin and like-minded agents, Continental officers were afforded the ability to receive commissions and to survey and purchase prospective ships for military use.
Early in the conflict, Captains Lambert Wickes and Gustavus Conyngham operated out of various French ports for the purpose of commerce raiding. The French did attempt to enforce their neutrality by seizing Dolphin and Surprise of the Continental Navy. However, with the commencement of the official alliance in 1778, ports were officially open to Continental ships.
The most prominent Continental officer to operate out of France was Captain John Paul Jones. Jones had been preying upon British commerce aboard the Ranger but only now saw the opportunity for higher command. The French loaned Jones the merchantman Duc de Duras, which Jones refitted and renamed Bonhomme Richard as a more powerful replacement for the Ranger. In August 1779, Jones was given command of a squadron of vessels of both American and French ownership. The goal was not only to harass British commerce but also to prospectively land 1,500 French regulars in the lightly guarded western regions of Britain. Unfortunately for the ambitious Jones, the French pulled out of the agreement pertaining to an invasion force, but the French did manage to uphold the plan regarding his command of the naval squadron. Sailing in a clockwise fashion around Ireland and down the east coast of Britain, the squadron captured a number of merchantmen. French commander Landais decided early on in the expedition to retain control of the French ships, thereby often leaving and rejoining the effort when he felt that it was fortuitous.
The Franco-American squadron closely engages the pair of British frigates on September 23, 1779.
On September 23, 1779, Jones' squadron was off Flamborough Head when the British man-of-war HMS Serapis and HM hired ship Countess of Scarborough bore down on the Franco-American force. The lone Continental frigate Bonhomme Richard engaged Serapis. The rigging of the two ships became entangled during the combat, and several guns of Jones' ship had been taken out of action. The captain of Serapis asked Jones if he had struck his colors, to which Jones has been quoted as replying, "I have not yet begun to fight!"[13] Upon raking the Serapis, the crew of the Bonhomme Richard led by Jones boarded the British ship and captured her. Likewise, the French frigate Pallas captured Countess of Scarborough. Two days later, Bonhomme Richard sank from the overwhelming amount of damage that she had sustained. The action was an embarrassing defeat for the Royal Navy.[13]
The French also loaned the Continental Navy the use of the corvette Ariel. The one ship of the line built for service in the Continental Navy was the 74-gun America, but it was offered as a gift to France on September 3, 1782 in compensation for the loss of Le Magnifique in service to the American Revolution.
France officially entered the war on June 17, 1778. Still, the ships that the French sent to the Western Hemisphere spent most of the year in the West Indies, and only sailed near the Thirteen Colonies during the Caribbean hurricane season from July until November. The first French fleet attempted landings in New York and Rhode Island, but ultimately failed to engage British forces during 1778.[14] In 1779, a fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Charles Henri, comte d'Estaing assisted American forces attempting to recapture Savannah, Georgia.[15]
In 1780, a fleet with 6,000 troops commanded by Lieutenant General Jean-Baptiste, comte de Rochambeau landed at Newport, Rhode Island; shortly afterwards, the British blockaded the fleet. In early 1781, Washington and de Rochambeau planned an attack against the British in the Chesapeake Bay area to coordinate with the arrival of a large fleet under Vice Admiral François, comte de Grasse. Washington and de Rochambeau marched to Virginia after successfully deceiving the British that an attack was planned in New York, and de Grasse began landing forces near Yorktown, Virginia. On September 5, 1781 de Grasse and the British met in the Battle of the Virginia Capes, which ended with the French fleet in control of Chesapeake Bay. Protected from the sea by the French fleet, American and French forces surrounded, besieged, and forced the surrender of the British forces under Lord Corwallis, effectively winning the war and leading to peace two years later.[16] John Paul Jones is the name of the Uvas men basketball arena
End of the Continental Navy[edit]
Alliance at sail[17]
Of the approximately 65 vessels (new, converted, chartered, loaned, and captured) that served at one time or another with the Continental Navy, only 11 survived the war. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 ended the Revolutionary War and, by 1785, Congress had disbanded the Continental Navy and sold the remaining ships.
The frigate Alliance fired the final shots of the American Revolutionary War; it was also the last ship in the Navy. A faction within Congress wanted to keep her, but the new nation did not have the funds to keep her in service, and she was auctioned off for $26,000. Factors leading to the dissolution of the Navy included a general lack of money, the loose confederation of the states, a change of goals from war to peace, and more domestic and fewer foreign interests.[18]
See also[edit]
United States Navy portal
United States Navy
Bibliography of early American naval history
Footnotes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Miller 1997, p. 16
^ Jump up to: a b Miller 1997, p. 15
Jump up ^ Howarth 1991, p. 6
Jump up ^ Westfield, Duane and Bill Purdin. "The Birthplace of the American Navy". Marblehead Magazine. Retrieved April 26, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Establishment of the Navy, 13 October 1775". United States Navy. Retrieved November 5, 2009.
Jump up ^ Sweetman 2002, p. 1
Jump up ^ Journal of the Continental Congress (November 10, 1775). "Resolution Establishing the Continental Marines". United States Marine Corps History Division. Retrieved April 26, 2011.
Jump up ^ Miller 1997, p. 17
Jump up ^ Perrenot 2010, p. 4.
Jump up ^ Miller 1997, pp. 21–22
Jump up ^ Miller 1997, p. 19
Jump up ^ Howarth 1991, p. 16
^ Jump up to: a b Howarth 1991, p. 39
Jump up ^ Sweetman 2002, p. 8
Jump up ^ Sweetman 2002, p. 9
Jump up ^ Sweetman 2002, pp. 11–12
Jump up ^ "USS Alliance (1778)". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. United States Navy. Retrieved November 23, 2009.
Jump up ^ Miller 1997, pp. 33–35
References[edit]
This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships.
William M. Fowler, Rebels Under Sail (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1976)
Howarth, Stephen (1999). To Shining Sea: a History of the United States Navy, 1775–1998. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3026-1. OCLC 40200083.
Miller, Nathan (1997). The U.S. Navy: A History (3rd ed.). Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-595-0. OCLC 37211290.
Perrenot, Preston B. (2010). United States Navy Grade Insignia 1776-1852. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
Sondhaus, Lawrence (2001). Naval Warfare 1815–1914. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-21478-5. OCLC 44039349.
Sweetman, Jack (2002). American Naval History: An Illustrated Chronology of the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps, 1775–present. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-867-4.
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Test (assessment)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Exam" redirects here. For other uses, see Exam (disambiguation).
For other uses of "Examination", see Examination (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Students take exams in Mahatma Gandhi Seva Ashram, Jaura, India.
Cambodian students taking an exam in order to apply for the Don Bosco Technical School of Sihanoukville in 2008.
American students in a computer fundamentals class taking a computer-based test
A test or examination (informally, exam or evaluation) is an assessment intended to measure a test-taker's knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many other topics (e.g., beliefs).[1] A test may be administered verbally, on paper, on a computer, or in a confined area that requires a test taker to physically perform a set of skills. Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. For example, in a closed book test, a test taker is often required to rely upon memory to respond to specific items whereas in an open book test, a test taker may use one or more supplementary tools such as a reference book or calculator when responding to an item. A test may be administered formally or informally. An example of an informal test would be a reading test administered by a parent to a child. An example of a formal test would be a final examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an I.Q. test administered by a psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score.[2] A test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or occasionally both. The norm may be established independently, or by statistical analysis of a large number of participants. An exam is meant to test a child's knowledge or willingness to give time to manipulate that subject.
A standardized test is any test that is administered and scored in a consistent manner to ensure legal defensibility.[3] Standardized tests are often used in education, professional certification, psychology (e.g., MMPI), the military, and many other fields.
A non-standardized test is usually flexible in scope and format, variable in difficulty and significance. Since these tests are usually developed by individual instructors, the format and difficulty of these tests may not be widely adopted or used by other instructors or institutions. A non-standardized test may be used to determine the proficiency level of students, to motivate students to study, and to provide feedback to students. In some instances, a teacher may develop non-standardized tests that resemble standardized tests in scope, format, and difficulty for the purpose of preparing their students for an upcoming standardized test.[4] Finally, the frequency and setting by which a non-standardized tests are administered are highly variable and are usually constrained by the duration of the class period. A class instructor may for example, administer a test on a weekly basis or just twice a semester. Depending on the policy of the instructor or institution, the duration of each test itself may last for only five minutes to an entire class period.
In contrasts to non-standardized tests, standardized tests are widely used, fixed in terms of scope, difficulty and format, and are usually significant in consequences. Standardized tests are usually held on fixed dates as determined by the test developer, educational institution, or governing body, which may or may not be administered by the instructor, held within the classroom, or constrained by the classroom period. Although there is little variability between different copies of the same type of standardized test (e.g., SAT or GRE), there is variability between different types of standardized tests.
Any test with important consequences for the individual test taker is referred to as a high-stakes test.
A test may be developed and administered by an instructor, a clinician, a governing body, or a test provider. In some instances, the developer of the test may not be directly responsible for its administration. For example, Educational Testing Service (ETS), a nonprofit educational testing and assessment organization, develops standardized tests such as the SAT but may not directly be involved in the administration or proctoring of these tests. As with the development and administration of educational tests, the format and level of difficulty of the tests themselves are highly variable and there is no general consensus or invariable standard for test formats and difficulty. Often, the format and difficulty of the test is dependent upon the educational philosophy of the instructor, subject matter, class size, policy of the educational institution, and requirements of accreditation or governing bodies. In general, tests developed and administered by individual instructors are non-standardized whereas tests developed by testing organizations are standardized.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early history
1.2 Modern era
1.2.1 Civil service
1.2.2 Education
2 Modern-day use
2.1 Education
2.2 Licensing and certification
2.3 Immigration and naturalization
2.4 Intelligence quotient
2.5 Competitions
2.6 Group memberships
3 Types
3.1 Written tests
3.1.1 Multiple choice
3.1.2 Alternative response
3.1.3 Matching type
3.1.4 Completion type
3.1.5 Essay
3.1.6 Mathematical questions
3.2 Oral tests
3.3 Physical fitness tests
3.4 Performance tests
4 Preparations
5 Cheating
6 Support and criticisms
7 Other types of tests and other related terms
8 See also
8.1 International examinations
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
History[edit]
Early history[edit]
Ancient China was the first country in the world that implemented a nationwide standardized test, which was called the imperial examination. The main purpose of this examination was to select able candidates for specific governmental positions.[5] The imperial examination was established by the Sui dynasty in 605 AD and was later abolished by the Qing dynasty 1300 years later in 1905. England had adopted this examination system in 1806 to select specific candidates for positions in Her Majesty's Civil Service, modeled on the Chinese imperial examination.[6] This examination system was later applied to education and it started to influence other parts of the world as it became a prominent standard (e.g. regulations to prevent the markers from knowing the identity of candidates), of delivering standardized tests.
Modern era[edit]
Civil service[edit]
From the mid 19th century, universities began to institute written examinations to assess the aptitude of the pupils. This is an excerpt from the 1842 Tripos examination in Cambridge University.
As the profession transitioned to the modern mass-education system, the style of examination became fixed, with the stress on standardized papers to be sat by large numbers of students. Leading the way in this regard was the burgeoning Civil Service that began to move toward a meritocratic basis for selection in the mid 19th century in England.
British civil service was influenced by the imperial examinations system and meritocratic system of China. Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in Guangzhou, China argued in his Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China, published in 1847, that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only," and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic.[7] As early as in 1806, the Honourable East India Company established a college near London to train and examine administrators of the Company's territories in India.[8] Examinations for the Indian 'civil service'- a term coined by the Company – were introduced in 1829.[9]
In 1853 the Chancellor of the Exchequer William Gladstone, commissioned Sir Stafford Northcote and Charles Trevelyan to look into the operation and organisation of the Civil Service. Influenced by the ancient Chinese Imperial Examination, the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 made four principal recommendations: that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through standardized written examination, that candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, that recruits should be graded into a hierarchy and that promotion should be through achievement, rather than 'preferment, patronage or purchase'.[10] A Civil Service Commission was also set up in 1855 to oversee open recruitment and end patronage, and most of the other Northcote–Trevelyan recommendations were implemented over some years.[11]
The Northcote–Trevelyan model of meritocratic examination remained essentially stable for a hundred years. This was a tribute to its success in removing corruption, delivering public services (even under the stress of two world wars), and responding effectively to political change. It also had a great international influence and was adapted by members of the Commonwealth. The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act established a similar system in the United States.
Education[edit]
Students taking a scholarship examination inside a classroom in 1940
Written examinations had been unheard of before 1702 for European education. "The Chinese examinations were described repeatedly in Western literature on China of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries."[12] Standardized testing began to influence the method of examination in British universities from the 1850s, where oral examination had been the norm since the Middle Ages. In the US, the transition happened under the influence of the educational reformer Horace Mann. This shift decisively helped to move education into the modern era, by standardizing expanding curricula in the sciences and humanities, creating a rationalized method for the evaluation of teachers and institutions and creating a basis for the streaming of students according to ability.[13]
Both World War I and World War II demonstrated the necessity of standardized testing and the benefits associated with these tests. Tests were used to determine the mental aptitude of recruits to the military. The US Army used the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale to test the IQ of the soldiers.[14]
After the War, industry began using tests to evaluate applicants for various jobs based on performance. In 1952, the first Advanced Placement (AP) test was administered to begin closing the gap between high schools and colleges.[15]
Modern-day use[edit]
Education[edit]
Some countries such as the United Kingdom and France require all their secondary school students to take a standardized test on individual subjects such as the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) (in England) and Baccalauréat respectively as a requirement for graduation.[16] These tests are used primarily to assess a student's proficiency in specific subjects such as mathematics, science, or literature. In contrast, high school students in other countries such as the United States may not be required to take a standardized test to graduate. Moreover, students in these countries usually take standardized tests only to apply for a position in a university program and are typically given the option of taking different standardized tests such as the ACT or SAT, which are used primarily to measure a student's reasoning skill.[17][18] High school students in the United States may also take Advanced Placement tests on specific subjects to fulfill university-level credit. Depending on the policies of the test maker or country, administration of standardized tests may be done in a large hall, classroom, or testing center. A proctor or invigilator may also be present during the testing period to provide instructions, to answer questions, or to prevent cheating.
Grades or test scores from standardized test may also be used by universities to determine if a student applicant should be admitted into one of its academic or professional programs. For example, universities in the United Kingdom admit applicants into their undergraduate programs based primarily or solely on an applicant's grades on pre-university qualifications such as the GCE A-levels or Cambridge Pre-U.[19][20] In contrast, universities in the United States use an applicant's test score on the SAT or ACT as just one of their many admission criteria to determine if an applicant should be admitted into one of its undergraduate programs. The other criteria in this case may include the applicant's grades from high school, extracurricular activities, personal statement, and letters of recommendations.[21] Once admitted, undergraduate students in the United Kingdom or United States may be required by their respective programs to take a comprehensive examination as a requirement for passing their courses or for graduating from their respective programs.
Standardized tests are sometimes used by certain countries to manage the quality of their educational institutions. For example, the No Child Left Behind Act in the United States requires individual states to develop assessments for students in certain grades. In practice, these assessments typically appear in the form of standardized tests. Test scores of students in specific grades of an educational institution are then used to determine the status of that educational institution, i.e., whether it should be allowed to continue to operate in the same way or to receive funding.
Finally, standardized tests are sometimes used to compare proficiencies of students from different institutions or countries. For example, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) uses Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) to evaluate certain skills and knowledge of students from different participating countries.[22]
Licensing and certification[edit]
Standardized tests are sometimes used by certain governing bodies to determine if a test taker is allowed to practice a profession, to use a specific job title, or to claim competency in a specific set of skills. For example, a test taker who intends to become a lawyer is usually required by a governing body such as a governmental bar licensing agency to pass a bar exam.
Immigration and naturalization[edit]
Standardized tests are also used in certain countries to regulate immigration. For example, intended immigrants to Australia are legally required to pass a citizenship test as part of that country's naturalization process.[23]
Intelligence quotient[edit]
Main article: Intelligence quotient
Competitions[edit]
Tests are sometimes used as a tool to select for participants that have potential to succeed in a competition such as a sporting event. For example, serious skaters who wish to participate in figure skating competitions in the United States must pass official U.S. Figure Skating tests just to qualify.[24]
Group memberships[edit]
Tests are sometimes used by a group to select for certain types of individuals to join the group. For example, Mensa International is a high I.Q. society that requires individuals to score at the 98th percentile or higher on a standardized, supervised IQ test.[25]
Types[edit]
Written tests[edit]
Indonesian Students taking a written test
Written tests are tests that are administered on paper or on a computer (as an eExam). A test taker who takes a written test could respond to specific items by writing or typing within a given space of the test or on a separate form or document.
In some tests; where knowledge of many constants or technical terms is required to effectively answer questions, like Chemistry or Biology – the test developer may allow every test taker to bring with them a cheat sheet.
A test developer's choice of which style or format to use when developing a written test is usually arbitrary given that there is no single invariant standard for testing. Be that as it may, certain test styles and format have become more widely used than others. Below is a list of those formats of test items that are widely used by educators and test developers to construct paper or computer-based tests. As a result, these tests may consist of only one type of test item format (e.g., multiple choice test, essay test) or may have a combination of different test item formats (e.g., a test that has multiple choice and essay items).
Multiple choice[edit]
Main article: Multiple choice
In a test that has items formatted as multiple choice questions, a candidate would be given a number of set answers for each question, and the candidate must choose which answer or group of answers is correct. There are two families of multiple choice questions.[26] The first family is known as the True/False question and it requires a test taker to choose all answers that are appropriate. The second family is known as One-Best-Answer question and it requires a test taker to answer only one from a list of answers.
There are several reasons to using multiple choice questions in tests. In terms of administration, multiple choice questions usually requires less time for test takers to answer, are easy to score and grade, provide greater coverage of material, allows for a wide range of difficulty, and can easily diagnose a test taker's difficulty with certain concepts.[27] As an educational tool, multiple choice items test many levels of learning as well as a test taker's ability to integrate information, and it provides feedback to the test taker about why distractors were wrong and why correct answers were right. Nevertheless, there are difficulties associated with the use of multiple choice questions. In administrative terms, multiple choice items that are effective usually take a great time to construct.[27] As an educational tool, multiple choice items do not allow test takers to demonstrate knowledge beyond the choices provided and may even encourage guessing or approximation due to the presence of at least one correct answer. For instance, a test taker might not work out explicitly that 6.14 ⋅ 7.95 = 48.813 {\displaystyle 6.14\cdot 7.95=48.813} , but knowing that 6 ⋅ 8 = 48 {\displaystyle 6\cdot 8=48} , they would choose an answer close to 48. Moreover, test takers may misinterpret these items and in the process, perceive these items to be tricky or picky. Finally, multiple choice items do not test a test taker's attitudes towards learning because correct responses can be easily faked.
Alternative response[edit]
True/False questions present candidates with a binary choice – a statement is either true or false. This method presents problems, as depending on the number of questions, a significant number of candidates could get 100% just by guesswork, and should on average get 50%.
Matching type[edit]
A matching item is an item that provides a defined term and requires a test taker to match identifying characteristics to the correct term.[28]
Completion type[edit]
A fill-in-the-blank item provides a test taker with identifying characteristics and requires the test taker to recall the correct term.[28] There are two types of fill-in-the-blank tests. The easier version provides a word bank of possible words that will fill in the blanks. For some exams all words in the word bank are used exactly once. If a teacher wanted to create a test of medium difficulty, they would provide a test with a word bank, but some words may be used more than once and others not at all. The hardest variety of such a test is a fill-in-the-blank test in which no word bank is provided at all. This generally requires a higher level of understanding and memory than a multiple choice test. Because of this, fill-in-the-blank tests[with no word bank] are often feared by students.
Essay[edit]
Items such as short answer or essay typically require a test taker to write a response to fulfill the requirements of the item. In administrative terms, essay items take less time to construct.[27] As an assessment tool, essay items can test complex learning objectives as well as processes used to answer the question. The items can also provide a more realistic and generalizable task for test. Finally, these items make it difficult for test takers to guess the correct answers and require test takers to demonstrate their writing skills as well as correct spelling and grammar.
The difficulties with essay items is primarily administrative. For one, these items take more time for test takers to answer.[27] When these questions are answered, the answers themselves are usually poorly written because test takers may not have time to organize and proofread their answers. In turn, it takes more time to score or grade these items. When these items are being scored or graded, the grading process itself becomes subjective as non-test related information may influence the process. Thus, considerable effort is required to minimize the subjectivity of the grading process. Finally, as an assessment tool, essay questions may potentially be unreliable in assessing the entire content of a subject matter.
Mathematical questions[edit]
Most mathematics questions, or calculation questions from subjects such as chemistry, physics or economics employ a style which does not fall into any of the above categories, although some papers, notably the Maths Challenge papers in the United Kingdom employ multiple choice. Instead, most mathematics questions state a mathematical problem or exercise that requires a student to write a freehand response. Marks are given more for the steps taken than for the correct answer. If the question has multiple parts, later parts may use answers from previous sections, and marks may be granted if an earlier incorrect answer was used but the correct method was followed, and an answer which is correct (given the incorrect input) is returned.
Higher level mathematical papers may include variations on true/false, where the candidate is given a statement and asked to verify its validity by direct proof or stating a counterexample.
Oral tests[edit]
Physical fitness tests[edit]
A Minnesota National Guardsman performs pushups during a physical fitness test.
A physical fitness test is a test designed to measure physical strength, agility, and endurance. They are commonly employed in educational institutions as part of the physical education curriculum, in medicine as part of diagnostic testing, and as eligibility requirements in fields that focus on physical ability such as military or police. Throughout the 20th century, scientific evidence emerged demonstrating the usefulness of strength training and aerobic exercise in maintaining overall health, and more agencies began to incorporate standardized fitness testing. In the United States, the President's Council on Youth Fitness was established in 1956 as a way to encourage and monitor fitness in schoolchildren.
Common tests[29][30][31] include timed running or the multi-stage fitness test (commonly known as the "beep test), and numbers of push-ups, sit-ups/abdominal crunches and pull-ups that the individual can perform. More specialised tests may be used to test ability to perform a particular job or role. Many gyms, private organisations and event organisers have their own fitness tests. Using military techniques developed by the British Army and modern test like Illinois Agility Run and Cooper Test.[32]
Performance tests[edit]
A performance test is an assessment that requires an examinee to actually perform a task or activity, rather than simply answering questions referring to specific parts. The purpose is to ensure greater fidelity to what is being tested.
An example is a behind-the-wheel driving test to obtain a driver's license. Rather than only answering simple multiple-choice items regarding the driving of an automobile, a student is required to actually drive one while being evaluated.
Performance tests are commonly used in workplace and professional applications, such as professional certification and licensure. When used for personnel selection, the tests might be referred to as a work sample. A licensure example would be cosmetologists being required to demonstrate a haircut or manicure on a live person. The Group-Bourdon test is one of a number of psychometric tests which trainee train drivers in the UK are required to pass.[33]
Some performance tests are simulations. For instance, the assessment to become certified as an ophthalmic technician includes two components, a multiple-choice examination and a computerized skill simulation. The examinee must demonstrate the ability to complete seven tasks commonly performed on the job, such as retinoscopy, that are simulated on a computer.
Preparations[edit]
From the perspective of a test developer, there is great variability with respect to time and effort needed to prepare a test. Likewise, from the perspective of a test taker, there is also great variability with respect to the time and needed to obtain a desired grade or score on any given test. When a test developer constructs a test, the amount of time and effort is dependent upon the significance of the test itself, the proficiency of the test taker, the format of the test, class size, deadline of test, and experience of the test developer.
The process of test construction has been aided in several ways. For one, many test developers were themselves students at one time, and therefore are able to modify or outright adopt questions from their previous tests. In some countries, book publishers often provide teaching packages that include test banks to university instructors who adopt their published books for their courses.[34] These test banks may contain up to four thousand sample test questions that have been peer-reviewed and time-tested. The instructor who chooses to use this testbank would only have to select a fixed number of test questions from this test bank to construct a test.
As with test constructions, the time needed for a test taker to prepare for a test is dependent upon the frequency of the test, the test developer, and the significance of the test. In general, nonstandardized tests that are short, frequent, and do not constitute a major portion of the test taker's overall course grade or score do not require the test taker to spend much time preparing for the test.[35] Conversely, nonstandardized tests that are long, infrequent, and do constitute a major portion of the test taker's overall course grade or score usually require the test taker to spend great amounts of time preparing for the test. To prepare for a nonstandardized test, test takers may rely upon their reference books, class or lecture notes, Internet, and past experience. Test takers may also use various learning aids to study for tests such as flashcards and mnemonics.[36] Test takers may even hire tutors to coach them through the process so that they may increase the probability of obtaining a desired test grade or score. In countries such as the United Kingdom, demand for private tuition has increased significantly in recent years.[37] Finally, test takers may rely upon past copies of a test from previous years or semesters to study for a future test. These past tests may be provided by a friend or a group that has copies of previous tests or by instructors and their institutions, or by the test provider (such as an examination board) itself.[38][39]
Unlike a nonstandardized test, the time needed by test takers to prepare for standardized tests is less variable and usually considerable. This is because standardized tests are usually uniform in scope, format, and difficulty and often have important consequences with respect to a test taker's future such as a test taker's eligibility to attend a specific university program or to enter a desired profession. It is not unusual for test takers to prepare for standardized tests by relying upon commercially available books that provide in-depth coverage of the standardized test or compilations of previous tests (e.g., 10 year series in Singapore). In many countries, test takers even enroll in test preparation centers or cram schools that provide extensive or supplementary instructions to test takers to help them better prepare for a standardized test. In Hong Kong, it has been suggested that the tutors running such centers are celebrities in their own right.[40] This has led to private tuition being a popular career choice for new graduates in developed economies.[41][42] Finally, in some countries, instructors and their institutions have also played a significant role in preparing test takers for a standardized test.
Cheating[edit]
Invigilators may oversee a test to reduce cheating methods such as copying
Cheating on a test is the process of using unauthorized means or methods for the purpose of obtaining a desired test score or grade. This may range from bringing and using notes during a closed book examination, to copying another test taker's answer or choice of answers during an individual test, to sending a paid proxy to take the test.[43]
Several common methods have been employed to combat cheating. They include the use of multiple proctors or invigilators during a testing period to monitor test takers. Test developers may construct multiple variants of the same test to be administered to different test takers at the same time, or write tests with few multiple-choice options, based on the theory that fully worked answers are difficult to imitate.[44] In some cases, instructors themselves may not administer their own tests but will leave the task to other instructors or invigilators, which may mean that the invigilators do not know the candidates, and thus some form of identification may be required. Finally, instructors or test providers may compare the answers of suspected cheaters on the test themselves to determine if cheating did occur.
Support and criticisms[edit]
Despite their widespread use, the validity, quality, or use of tests, particularly standardized tests in education have continued to be widely supported or criticized. Like the tests themselves, supports and criticisms of tests are often varied and may come from a variety of sources such as parents, test takers, instructors, business groups, universities, or governmental watchdogs.
Supporters of standardized tests in education often provide the following reasons for promoting testing in education:
Feedback or diagnosis of test taker's performance[45]
Fair and efficient[46]
Promotes accountability[45][46]
Prediction and selection[45]
Improves performance[45]
Critics of standardized tests in education often provide the following reasons for revising or removing standardized tests in education:
Narrows curricular format and encourages teaching to the test.[4]
Poor predictive quality.[47]
Grade inflation of test scores or grades.[48][49][50]
Culturally or socioeconomically biased.[51][52]
Other types of tests and other related terms[edit]
This section provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject. Please help improve the article with a good introductory style. (August 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
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ordinary exam: an exam taken during the corresponding course;
sufficiency exam or examination for credit: an exam which should be taken as a way of getting official credits from the academic institution;
revalidation exam or equivalence exam: offering value for an exam previously taken in another institution;
extraordinary exam: an exam taken after the period of ordinary exams corresponding to the course.
See also[edit]
Academic dishonesty
Assignment (education)
Bar examination
Blue book exam, used in free response exams
Computerized adaptive testing
Computerized classification test
Concept inventory
Cooper Test, used by Law, Military and Fire
Credential
Driver's license
E-assessment
E-scape, a technology and approach that looks specifically at the assessment of creativity and collaboration.
Educational software
Exam stress
Examiner (disambiguation)
General Educational Development
Grade (education)
Harvard Step Test, a cardiovascular test
Law
Cross examination
Direct examination
List of standardized tests in the United States
Matriculation examination
Medical College Admission Test
Optical mark recognition
Performance testing
Physical examination
Pilot certification in the United States
Progress testing
Project Talent (in the US)
Vertical Jump, a leg power test
International examinations[edit]
Abitur—used in Germany.
GCSE and A-level—Used in the UK except Scotland.
International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme—International examination.
International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE)—international examinations
Junior Certificate and Leaving Certificate—Republic of Ireland.
Matura/Maturita—used in Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Italy, Liechtenstein, Hungary, Macedonia, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Ukraine; previously used in Albania.
Nationella prov—used in Sweden.
Standard Grade, Higher Grade, and Advanced Higher—used in Scotland
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Definition of TEST".
Jump up ^ Thissen, D., & Wainer, H. (2001). Test Scoring. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Page 1, sentence 1.
Jump up ^ North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, NCREL.org
^ Jump up to: a b "Goswami U (1991) Put to the Test: The Effects of External Testing on Teachers. Educational Researcher 20: 8-11".
Jump up ^ Advanced Level Examination, Chinese Language and Culture, Paper 1A
Jump up ^ Bodde, D., Chinese Ideas in the West
Jump up ^ Bodde,, Derke. "China: A Teaching Workbook". Columbia University.
Jump up ^ (Bodde 2005)
Jump up ^ Mark W. Huddleston, William W. Boyer (1996). The Higher Civil Service in the United States: Quest for Reform. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. .
Jump up ^ Kazin, Edwards, and Rothman (2010), 142.
Jump up ^ Walker, David (2003-07-09). "Fair game". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2003-07-09.
Jump up ^ Bodde, D., Chinese Ideas in the West, p.9
Jump up ^ David R. Russell (2002). Writing in the Academic Disciplines: A Curricular History. SIU Press. pp. 158–159.
Jump up ^ Kaplan, R. M., & Saccuzzo, D. P. (2009) Psychological Testing Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Jump up ^ http://www.collegeboard.com/prod_downloads/about/news_info/ap/ap_history_english.pdf
Jump up ^ "GCSEs: The official guide to the system" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "About the SAT".
Jump up ^ "About ACT: History". Retrieved October 31, 2006. Name changed in 1996.
Jump up ^ "Cambridge Pre-U".
Jump up ^ "International Qualifications - University of Oxford".
Jump up ^ "Harvard College Admissions".
Jump up ^ "PISA".
Jump up ^ "Australian Citizenship - Australian Citizenship test".
Jump up ^ "Welcome to U.S. Figure Skating".
Jump up ^ "What is Mensa?".
Jump up ^ "Constructing Written Test Questions For the Basic and Clinical Sciences" (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Types of Test Item Formats".
^ Jump up to: a b "MFO Topic C5: Developing Test Questions".
Jump up ^ "Army Fitness Standards".
Jump up ^ "RAF Fitness Standards".
Jump up ^ "USMC Personal Fitness Test (Chapter 2 - Conduct of the PFT)" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Welcome". Fittest.live. Retrieved 2016-11-10.
Jump up ^ "Group-Bourdon tool". Digital Reality. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
Jump up ^ WEHMEIER, Nicolas. "Oxford University Press | Online Resource Centre | Learn about Test banks". global.oup.com. Retrieved 2016-12-09.
Jump up ^ "How to study for Quizzes and Exams in Biochemistry" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Study strategies".
Jump up ^ Weale, Sally (2016-09-07). "Sharp rise in children receiving private tuition". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2016-12-09.
Jump up ^ "Past Exam Papers".
Jump up ^ "Past papers and mark schemes". www.aqa.org.uk. AQA. Retrieved 2016-12-09.
Jump up ^ Sharma, Yojana (2012-11-27). "Meet the 'tutor kings and queens'". BBC News. Retrieved 2016-12-09.
Jump up ^ Lomax, Robert. "How to become a private tutor". Retrieved 2016-12-09.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Daniel H. (2013-10-25). "The new boom in home tuition – if you can pay £40 an hour". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2016-12-09.
Jump up ^ "Proxy test takers, item harvesters and cheaters... be very afraid". ccie-in-3-months.blogspot.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-12-09.
Jump up ^ "Easy Ways to Prevent Cheating". TeachHUB. Retrieved 2016-12-09.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Phelps, Richard (2005). Defending standardized testing. London: Psychology Press. ISBN 0-8058-4912-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Hirsch Jr., Eric (1999). The Schools We Need: And Why We Don't Have Them. New York: Anchor. ISBN 0-385-49524-2.
Jump up ^ "FairTest criticism of the SAT". fairtest.org.
Jump up ^ Paton, Graeme (July 6, 2010). "Universities criticise exam 'grade inflation'". The Daily Telegraph. London.
Jump up ^ Vasagar, Jeevan (August 2, 2010). "Fears for state pupils as top universities insist on A* at A-level". The Guardian. London.
Jump up ^ Finch, Julia (March 10, 2010). "They can't read, can't write, keep time or be tidy: Tesco director's verdict on school-leavers". The Guardian. London.
Jump up ^ "Hedges LV (1994) An Exchange: Part I*: Does Money Matter? A Meta-Analysis of Studies of the Effects of Differential School Inputs on Student Outcomes. Educational Researcher 23: 5-14".
Jump up ^ Coughlan, Sean. Bright poor 'held back for decades', BBC, October 16, 2013. Retrieved on October 17, 2013.
Further reading[edit]
Airasian, P. (1994) "Classroom Assessment," Second Edition, NY" McGraw-Hill.
Cangelosi, J. (1990) "Designing Tests for Evaluating Student Achievement." NY: Addison-Wesley.
Gronlund, N. (1993) "How to make achievement tests and assessments," 5th edition, NY: Allyn and Bacon.
Haladyna, T.M. & Downing, S.M. (1989) Validity of a Taxonomy of Multiple-Choice Item-Writing Rules. "Applied Measurement in Education," 2(1), 51-78.
Monahan, T. (1998) The Rise of Standardized Educational Testing in the U.S. – A Bibliographic Overview.
Ravitch, Diane, "The Uses and Misuses of Tests", in The Schools We Deserve (New York: Basic Books, 1985), pp. 172–181.
Wilson, N. (1997) Educational standards and the problem of error. Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol 6 No 10
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Examinations.
"About the Joint Committee on Testing Practices". http://www.apa.org: American Psychological Association. Retrieved 2 Aug 2011. The Joint Committee on Testing Practices (JCTP) was established in 1985 by the American Educational Research Association (AERA), the American Psychological Association (APA), and the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME). In 2007 the JCTP disbanded, but JCTP publications are still available and may be obtained by contacting any of the groups listed in the product descriptions shown below.
How the traditional Chinese system of exams worked
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