text:
George A. Taylor
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George Arthur Taylor
Brigadier General Taylor in 1945
Born
(1899-02-14)February 14, 1899
Flat Rock, Illinois
Died
December 3, 1969(1969-12-03) (aged 70)
Palo Alto, California
Allegiance
United States of America
Service/branch
United States Army
Years of service
1922-1946
Rank
Brigadier General[1]
Unit
26th Infantry Regiment
16th Infantry Regiment
1st Infantry Division
Battles/wars
World War II
North African Campaign
Allied invasion of Sicily
Normandy landings
Awards
Distinguished Service Cross
Legion of Merit (2)
Bronze Star Medal (2)
Purple Heart[2]
George Arthur Taylor[3] (February 14, 1899 — December 3, 1969) was an officer of the United States Army. He is most famous for the leadership of his men in World War II on Omaha Beach during the Normandy landings, June 6 1944, where he served as commander of the 16th Infantry Regiment and for which he earned a Distinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism.[4]
He served most of his career during World War II with U.S. 1st Infantry Division, where he was assigned as deputy commander of the division.
Contents
[hide]
1 Prewar years
2 Second World War
3 Omaha Beach
3.1 Distinguished Service Cross
4 End of the War
5 Postwar Life
6 Medals and decorations
7 Further reading
8 References
9 External links
Prewar years[edit]
George Arthur Taylor was born in the small village Flat Rock, Illinois, in the southeast of Illinois. He was a graduate of the United States Military Academy, class of 1922, and was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant.
During 1920s and 1930s Taylor held a variety of infantry assignments, beginning with an infantry unit at Fort Sam Houston in Texas, and followed by posts in Hawaii, Washington, North Dakota, and San Francisco.
In 1937, he was finally detached to the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth for further staff training until the next year. Then he returned to the field duty and was assigned to the Fort William McKinley at the Philippines, where he served with the Philippine Scouts.
After returning from the Philippines, Taylor was assigned to the 16th Infantry Regiment, where he was promoted to the Intelligence Officer of the 1st Battalion. In June 1941, he was transferred for a short while to the Caribbean, where he served with US Forces at the Headquarters as assistant chief of staff.
After a month of service, he returned to the United States and became Instructor of tactics at the Infantry School in Fort Benning, Georgia.
Second World War[edit]
After entry of the United States into the war, Taylor was transferred to North Africa, where he served as a staff member of Advanced Echelon Amphibious Forces, Atlantic Fleet, and in October as a staff member to the Naval Operating Base Commander in Oran, Algeria. In February 1943, Taylor briefly led 26th Infantry Regiment and on 20 April of the same year, he was transferred back to the 16th Infantry Regiment, where he replaced Colonel d'Alary Fechet as regimental commander.
He then commanded the Regiment during the Allied invasion of Sicily and Omaha Beach.
Omaha Beach[edit]
He arrived on the beach in a later wave, about 0800. A colonel at the time, he was still the regimental commander for the 16th Infantry Regiment, which took many casualties in the initial assault. He found the remnants of his exhausted and shell-shocked men pinned down along the seawall. He was able to motivate, organize and lead the attack inland.
His famous quote from Omaha Beach:
"There are two kinds of people who are staying on this beach: those who are dead and those who are going to die. Now let’s get the hell out of here."[5]
Taylor is sometimes confused with General Norman Cota, who was also on the beach that day, but in a different sector with a different unit, the U.S. 29th Infantry Division. Both officers rallied the troops under fire. In the film The Longest Day General Cota (played by Robert Mitchum) was given Taylor's line.
Distinguished Service Cross[edit]
For this action, George Taylor was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. The official U.S. Army citation for Taylor's Distinguished Service Cross reads:
General Orders: Headquarters, First U.S. Army, General Orders No. 31 (July 1, 1944)
Action Date: 6-Jun-44
Name: George A. Taylor
Service: Army
Rank: Colonel
Company: Commanding Officer
Regiment: 16th Infantry Regiment
Division: 1st Infantry Division
Citation: The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Distinguished Service Cross to Colonel (Infantry) George A. Taylor (ASN: 0-14922), United States Army, for extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations against an armed enemy while serving as Commanding Officer of the 16th Infantry Regiment, 1st Infantry Division, in action against enemy forces on 6 June 1944, in France. Colonel Taylor landed during the most crucial and threatening period of the invasion operation. Thousands of men lay huddled on a narrow beachhead, their organizations and leaders cut down by the disastrous enemy fire. Without hesitation, unmindful of the snipe and machine gun fire which was sweeping the beach, Colonel Taylor began to reorganize the units. While continuously exposed to this murderous fire, Colonel Taylor never slackened in his efforts in directing and coordinating the attack. By his initiative and leadership, he was able to clear an exit from the beach and begin moving groups of men from the crowded beachhead. This was the only exit opened in the early part of the assault and subsequent events proved it to be one of the most vital points contributing to the success of this operation. The high professional skill and outstanding courage exhibited by Colonel Taylor exemplify the highest traditions of the military forces of the United States and reflect great credit upon himself, the 1st Infantry Division, and the United States Army.[6]
End of the War[edit]
Taylor was promoted to Brigadier General on 1 August 1944 and became the assistant commander of the 1st Division from Oct 1944 to July 1945.
During the final days of the War, U.S. 1st Infantry Division reached the area of western Bohemia, near the city of Karlovy Vary. German XII Army Corps under command of general of artillery Herbert Osterkamp was located in this area and surrendered to the Western Allies. Command of U.S. 1st Division accepted the German surrender and arranged a meeting in the nearby town of Loket. The representatives of the U.S. forces present were Brig. General Taylor, Col. Harrold and Maj. Wich. On the German side, it was general Osterkamp and some other staff officers.
When General Taylor checked the surrender document, he noted that the place of surrender was written as the city "Elbogen, Sudetenland". Taylor struck out the location "Elbogen, Sudetenland," adding a note "does not exist," and wrote "Loket, Czechoslovakia" instead, changing its name back to before the Nazi invasion. This act brought him great respect in Czechoslovakia.[7]
Postwar Life[edit]
General Taylor stayed with 1st Division in Europe during the rest of the year 1945 and finally retired in 1946 with the rank of Brigadier General on health grounds. Brigadier General George Taylor died on 3 December 1969 in the city of Palo Alto, California, after prolonged illness caused by a stroke.
Director Samuel Fuller served under Taylor during the war and mentioned his name in several of his films.
Medals and decorations[edit]
Combat Infantryman Badge
Distinguished Service Cross
Legion of Merit with one Oak Leaf Cluster
Bronze Star Medal
Purple Heart
Presidential Unit Citation
World War I Victory Medal
American Defense Service Medal with Base Clasp
American Campaign Medal
European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with 8 service stars and Arrowhead device
World War II Victory Medal
Army of Occupation Medal
French Croix de Guerre 1939-1945 with Palm
Czechoslovak Order of the White Lion
Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945
Further reading[edit]
Omaha Beachhead. American Forces in Action. United States Army Center of Military History. 1945. CMH Pub 100-11.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Generals.dk / http://www.generals.dk/general/Taylor/George_Arthur/USA.html
Jump up ^ Unithistories.com / http://www.unithistories.com/officers/US_Army_officers_T01.html
Jump up ^ First Division Museum / http://www.firstdivisionmuseum.org/museum/online/george_a_taylor/biography/default.aspx
Jump up ^ Hall of Valor / http://valor.militarytimes.com/recipient.php?recipientid=22725
Jump up ^ First Division Museum / http://www.firstdivisionmuseum.org/museum/online/george_a_taylor/biography/default.aspx
Jump up ^ Hall of Valor / http://valor.militarytimes.com/recipient.php?recipientid=22725
Jump up ^ The First Division / http://www.ww2lhawebpages.com/THEFIRSTDIVISION/HISTORY_TAYLORS_REPORT.html
External links[edit]
First Division Museum Bio
George A. Taylor at Find a Grave
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_A._Taylor&oldid=786707532"
Categories:
1899 births
1969 deaths
People from Crawford County, Illinois
Operation Overlord people
United States Army generals
United States Military Academy alumni
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
American military personnel of World War II
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Croix de guerre 1939–1945 (France)
Recipients of the Military Order of the White Lion
Recipients of the Czechoslovak War Cross
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Alexandra Breckenridge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Alexandra Breckenridge
Breckenridge in 2012
Born
Alexandra Hetherington Breckenridge
(1982-05-15) May 15, 1982 (age 35)
Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S.
Other names
Alex Breckenridge
Occupation
Actress, voice actress, photographer
Years active
1998–present
Spouse(s)
Casey Hooper (m. 2015)
Children
2
Relatives
Michael Weatherly (uncle)
Website
alexandrabreckenridge.com
Alexandra Hetherington Breckenridge (born May 15, 1982) is an American actress and photographer.[1] She began her career with supporting roles in the teen comedy films Big Fat Liar (2002) and She's the Man (2006). She later played reporter Willa McPherson in the series Dirt, and had a supporting role on the short-lived series The Ex List. She is also the voice of various characters on the animated television series Family Guy. She starred in the first season of FX's American Horror Story: Murder House as young Moira O'Hara, and portrayed Kaylee in the third season, American Horror Story: Coven.[2] She portrayed Jessie Anderson in the AMC series The Walking Dead, and Sophie on the NBC series This Is Us.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
2.1 Acting
2.2 Photography
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
4.1 Film
4.2 Television
5 References
6 External links
Early life[edit]
Breckenridge was born in Bridgeport, Connecticut. She lived in Darien, Connecticut, until the age of 10, when she and her mother moved to Los Angeles. A year later, they moved to Mill Valley, California. At age 13, Breckenridge became interested in acting, photography, and singing. At age 15, she and her mother moved back to Los Angeles to pursue Breckenridge's acting career. She is the niece of actor Michael Weatherly.[1]
Career[edit]
Acting[edit]
Breckenridge guest starred as Shelly Weaver on Freaks and Geeks in 2000. When she was 15, she met James Franco at an audition. She was surprised that Franco recognized her on the set of Freaks and Geeks.[3] She also guest starred on Dawson's Creek, CSI, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Charmed, Undeclared, Medium, and JAG.[4] She guest-starred as Francise in three episodes of Opposite Sex.[5] In 2002, she appeared in the film Big Fat Liar, starring Frankie Muniz, as Jason Shepherd's older sister Janie.
Breckenridge has had numerous voice roles on the animated television series Family Guy. During an interview with FHM, she stated, "When I first went for Family Guy, I auditioned for a guest voice. I don't know why, but [creator] Seth MacFarlane really likes the sound of my voice. I'll never understand that. He just liked me and they call me back all the time to do different things."[3] Breckenridge often does celebrity impressions on the show, such as Sarah Jessica Parker and Renée Zellweger. She also had roles on MacFarlane's web series Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy. She guest starred in the episode "With Friends Like Steve's" of American Dad!, also created by MacFarlane.[4]
In 2006, Breckenridge starred as Monique in the film She's the Man. She starred as Willa McPherson in the series Dirt from 2007 to 2008. She has appeared in a couple of shows that have later been cancelled.[3] In 2009, Breckenridge co-starred in the independent film The Bridge to Nowhere by Blair Underwood.[6] She also had a role in the film Ticket Out.[7]
Breckenridge had a recurring role in season four of HBO's True Blood, and also in season one of FX's American Horror Story as Moira O'Hara, the ghost of a maid trapped in the house in which she was employed. She also returned for several episodes in season three of the show, American Horror Story: Coven, as Kaylee: a young witch who excels in pyrokinesis.[8][9]
In 2015, Breckenridge began playing Jessie Anderson in season five of the AMC series The Walking Dead. In 2015, she next co-starred in the psychological thriller Dark from executive producer Joe Dante and director Nick Basile.[10] In 2017 Breckenridge appeared in the recurring role of Sophie, Kate's childhood friend and Kevin's ex-wife, on the first season of NBC drama series This Is Us;[11] she was promoted to the full-time cast for the series' second season.[12][13]
Photography[edit]
Breckenridge is interested in photography and has her own darkroom in her apartment. At age 24, she began taking photography seriously as a form of self-expression. Her then-boyfriend Bryten Goss helped her with lighting. In 2008, she had her first exhibit with Shalon Goss hosted by her uncle Michael Weatherly and presented by Edgar Valera. She said, "I had so much to express emotionally with this show. Each photo is an expression of myself and the things I have gone through in the last three years. From my perspective, the purpose of art is to evoke feeling and to inspire. That's all I hope to achieve."[1]
Personal life[edit]
In September 2015, Breckenridge married guitarist Casey Hooper.[14] In September 2016, she gave birth to the couple's first child, a son.[15] In August 2017, she announced that they were expecting their second child;[16] their daughter was born in December 2017.[17]
Breckenridge has several tattoos, which get covered by make-up for her on-screen projects, but not during photoshoots. She has said about them, "We cover them up. Some make-up artists are better than others, but there's airbrushing, and there's a sort of latex waterproof paint, body paint obviously."[3]
Filmography[edit]
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2002 Orange County Anna Uncredited
2002 Big Fat Liar Janie Shepherd
2002 Wishcraft Kristie
2002 Vampire Clan Charity Lynn Keesee
2002 Slasher Flick Laura Short film
2003 D.E.B.S. Amy Short film
2005 Rings Vanessa Short film
2006 She's the Man Monique Valentine
2006 Jack Rabbit Harley Short film
2008 Art of Travel, TheThe Art of Travel Kate
2009 Bridge to Nowhere, TheThe Bridge to Nowhere Sienna
2011 Darkest Hour Alicia Short film
2012 Ticket Out Jocelyn
2014 Other People's Children Ariel
2015 Always Watching: A Marble Hornets Story Sara
2015 Dark Leah
2015 Zipper Christy
2016 Broken Vows Debra
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1998 Even the Losers Unknown Television film
1999 Locust Valley Arden Television film
2000 Dawson's Creek Kate Douglas Episode: "Valentine's Day Massacre"
2000 Freaks and Geeks Shelly Weaver Episode: "Looks and Books"
2000 Opposite Sex Francise 3 episodes
2001 Undeclared Prim and Proper Girl Episode: "Prototype"
2002 Undeclared Celeste Episode: "Eric's POV"
2002 Charmed Michelle Miglis Episode: "A Paige from the Past"
2002 Buffy the Vampire Slayer Kit Holburn Episode: "Lessons"
2004 Mystery Girl Katie Hill Television short
2004 CSI: Crime Scene Investigation Lisa 'Cleopatra' Hunt Episode: "Turn of the Screws"
2004 JAG Pia Bonfilio Episode: "There Goes the Neighborhood"
2005 Murder Book Sarah Television film
2005 Romy and Michele: In the Beginning Michele Weinberger Television film
2005 Medium Isabel Galvan Episode: "Jump Start"
2005 Sex, Love & Secrets Maddie Lyall Episode: "Protection"
2005–present Family Guy Various characters Voice role; 60 episodes
2006 American Dad! Girl Voice role; episode: "With Friends Like Steve's"
2007 Psych Betty Episode: "Scary Sherry: Bianca's Toast"
2007–2008 Dirt Willa McPherson Main role
2008 Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy Princess Peach Voice role; 2 episodes
2008 Ex List, TheThe Ex List Vivian Main role
2010 Sons of Tucson Gina 2 episodes
2010 Life Unexpected Abby Cassidy Recurring role; 5 episodes
2011 Cooper and Stone Jenna Cooper Television film
2011 Franklin & Bash Emily Claire Episode: "Bachelor Party"
2011 True Blood Katerina Pelham 4 episodes
2011;
2013 American Horror Story Young Moira O'Hara Recurring role; 6 episodes (Murder House)
Kaylee 2 episodes (Coven)
2012 Men at Work Katelyn Episode: "Wake and Bake"
2013 Save Me Carly Brugano Main role; 7 episodes
2014 Rake Brooke Episode: "A Close Shave"
2015–2016 The Walking Dead Jessie Anderson Recurring (season 5); Also Starring (season 6); 11 episodes
2015 Extant Zoe Grant Episode: "Morphoses"
2016 Pure Genius Margot Byer Episode: Pilot
2017 This Is Us Sophie Recurring role (season 1); main role (season 2)
Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Alexandra Breckenridge – Biography". alexandrabreckenridge.com. Archived from the original on September 17, 2010. Retrieved November 23, 2009.
Jump up ^ "'American Horror Story': Alexandra Breckenridge Returns for 'Coven'". The Hollywood Reporter.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Woodfin, Josh (May 27, 2009). "Family Guy's Alex Breckenridge laid bare". FHM. Archived from the original on January 6, 2010. Retrieved November 23, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Alex Breckenridge from Family Guy". Film.com. Retrieved November 24, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Alex Breckenridge". FilmReference.com. Retrieved November 24, 2009.
Jump up ^ "The Bridge to Nowhere". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 20, 2009. Retrieved November 25, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Ticket Out". Copeland Casting. Archived from the original on January 17, 2010. Retrieved November 24, 2009.
Jump up ^ "True Blood Promotes Jessica Tuck; Adds Three New Actresses". TV Guide. Retrieved November 29, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Alexandra Breckenridge returns to Coven as Kaylee". Yahoo!. Retrieved November 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Hipes, Patrick (February 9, 2016). "Joe Dante-Produced Thriller 'Dark' Alights At Screen Media". Deadline.com. Retrieved May 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ Snierson, Dan (December 5, 2016). "This Is Us: Alexandra Breckenridge nabs recurring role". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ Snierson, Dan (June 28, 2017). "This Is Us promotes two actors to series regulars for season 2". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved September 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (June 28, 2017). "'This Is Us': Alexandra Breckenridge, & Jon Huertas Upped To Series Regulars For Season 2 Of NBC Drama". Deadline.com. Retrieved September 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Alexandra Breckenridge and Casey Hooper DUNTON HOT SPRINGS". Chowen Photography. Retrieved October 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Alexandra Breckenridge Welcomes Son Jack". People. Retrieved September 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ White, Chelsea (August 17, 2017). "This Is Us' Alexandra Breckenridge Expecting Second Child". People. Retrieved October 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Calvario, Liz (December 21, 2017). "'This Is Us' Star Alexandra Breckenridge Gives Birth to Daughter -- Find Out Her Name!". ETOnline.com. CBS Studios Inc. Retrieved January 20, 2018.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alexandra Breckenridge.
Official website
Alexandra Breckenridge on IMDb
[show]
v
t
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Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series (2010–2019)
2010: Boardwalk Empire, season 1
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text:
Famous in Love
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Famous in Love
Genre
Drama
Based on
Famous in Love
by Rebecca Serle
Developed by
I. Marlene King and Rebecca Serle
Starring
Bella Thorne
Charlie DePew
Georgie Flores
Carter Jenkins
Niki Koss
Keith Powers
Pepi Sonuga
Perrey Reeves
Composer(s)
Michael Suby
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
1
No. of episodes
10 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Dan Farah
Christopher Fife
Miguel Arteta
I. Marlene King
Producer(s)
Tawnya Bhattacharya & Ali Laventhol
Hynndie Wali
Camera setup
Single-camera
Running time
38–42 minutes
Production company(s)
Long Lake
Carmina Productions
Farah Films
Warner Horizon Television
Distributor
Warner Bros. Television Distribution[1]
Release
Original network
Freeform
Original release
April 18, 2017 (2017-04-18) – present
External links
Website
freeform.go.com/shows/famous-in-love
Production
website
www.disneyabcpress.com/freeform/shows/famous-in-love/
Famous in Love is an American drama television series that premiered on Freeform on April 18, 2017, and is based on the novel of the same name by Rebecca Serle. The series stars Bella Thorne, Charlie DePew, Georgie Flores, Carter Jenkins, Niki Koss, Keith Powers, Pepi Sonuga, and Perrey Reeves.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast and characters
2.1 Main
2.2 Recurring
3 Production
4 Episodes
5 Ratings
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Paige Townsen, an ordinary college student, gets her big break after auditioning for the starring role in a Hollywood blockbuster and must now navigate her new star-studded life and undeniable chemistry with her co-lead and her best friend.
Cast and characters[edit]
Main[edit]
Bella Thorne as Paige Townsen, a young college student who gets cast in the movie adaptation of a blockbuster book series called Locked, causing her life to change overnight.
Charlie DePew as Jake Salt, a down-to-earth guy from the Midwest with an edge who aspires to be a screenwriter and an indie filmmaker. He is Paige's best friend and one of her love interests. Charlie DePew replaced Jesse Henderson in the role from the original pilot.
Georgie Flores as Cassandra Perkins, Paige's roommate and close friend.
Carter Jenkins as Rainer Devon, the son of famous producer Nina Devon, and, as later revealed, Alan Mills. He is labeled the "sexiest man alive", and is a famous actor. He has a complicated friendship with Jordan Wilder and soon develops a romantic interest in Paige Townsen.
Niki Koss as Alexis Glenn, Rainer's old friend who competes for the same role as Paige and also holds a secret, revealed at the end of the pilot to be that she is bisexual.
Keith Powers as Jordan Wilder, a troubled star who lands the role of the other point in the movie's famous love triangle. He and Rainer have a complicated history which is further heightened by the fact that both share a past with Tangey.
Pepi Sonuga as Tangey Turner, a pop star with a controlling mother who was previously romantically connected with both Rainer Devon and Jordan Wilder, one of them as a love affair, which caused lots of drama and tension.
Perrey Reeves as Nina Devon, Rainer's smart and cunning mother. Confident and manipulative, she will do whatever it takes to make sure things go her way.
Recurring[edit]
Jason Antoon as Wyatt
Nathan Stewart-Jarrett as Barrett
Shawn Christian as Alan
Vanessa Williams as Ida
Tom Maden as Adam
Production[edit]
Freeform, then known as ABC Family, had picked up the pilot for fast-track development on March 19, 2015.[2] The pilot was shot in November 2015; Freeform greenlit the pilot on April 7, 2016,[3] and shooting began on July 13, 2016, and wrapped up on October 18, 2016. On November 18, 2016, Freeform announced that the series would premiere on April 18, 2017. Freeform also released the entire season for viewing online on April 18, 2017. The series is based on the novel of the same name, written by Rebecca Serle. Serle worked with I. Marlene King to develop the novel into a television series.[4][5] Freeform renewed the series for a second season on August 3, 2017.[6]
Episodes[edit]
The entire first season was released on digital platforms, such as OnDemand, the Freeform App and website, and Hulu, on April 18, 2017.[7]
No.
Title [8][9]
Directed by
Written by
Original air date [8][9]
U.S. viewers
(millions)
1
"Pilot"
Miguel Arteta
Tawnia McKiernan
Story by : Rebecca Serle
Teleplay by : I. Marlene King and Rebecca Serle April 18, 2017 (2017-04-18) 0.65[10]
2
"A Star Is Torn" Norman Buckley I. Marlene King & Christopher Fife April 25, 2017 (2017-04-25) 0.39[11]
3
"Not So Easy A" Michael Goi Tawnya Bhattacharya & Ali Laventhol May 2, 2017 (2017-05-02) 0.30[12]
4
"Prelude to a Diss" Mary Lou Belli Rebecca Serle May 9, 2017 (2017-05-09) 0.28[13]
5
"Some Like It Not" Tanya Hamilton William H. Brown May 16, 2017 (2017-05-16) 0.21[14]
6
"Found in Translation" Ron Lagomarsino Kateland Brown May 23, 2017 (2017-05-23) 0.26[15]
7
"Secrets & Pies" Roger Kumble Miguel Ian Raya May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30) 0.29[16]
8
"Crazy Scripted Love" Geary McLeod Tawnya Bhattacharya & Ali Laventhol June 6, 2017 (2017-06-06) 0.33[17]
9
"Fifty Shades of Red" Susanna Fogel Christopher Fife & William H. Brown June 13, 2017 (2017-06-13) 0.36[18]
10
"Leaving Los Angeles" Elizabeth Allen Rosenbaum Melissa Carter June 13, 2017 (2017-06-13) 0.23[18]
Ratings[edit]
Season
Episodes
First aired
Last aired
Avg. viewers
(millions)
Date
Viewers
(millions)
Date
Viewers
(millions)
1 10 April 18, 2017 (2017-04-18) 0.65[10] June 13, 2017 (2017-06-13) 0.23[18] 0.33
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Famous in Love". Warner Bros.
Jump up ^ Nellie Andreeva (March 19, 2015). "Bella Thorne to Star in ABC Family Drama Famous in Love from Marlene King". Deadline. Retrieved July 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ Nellie Andreeva (April 7, 2016). "Bella Thorne Drama Pilot Famous in Love Picked Up to Series by Freeform". Deadline. Retrieved July 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ Erik Pedersen (November 19, 2016). "Pretty Little Liars Final Season & New Bella Thorne Drama Famous in Love Get Premiere Dates on Freeform". Deadline. Retrieved November 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lesley Goldberg (August 29, 2016). "It's Official: Pretty Little Liars to End with Season 7". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved August 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Denise Petski (August 3, 2017). "Famous in Love Renewed for Season 2 by Freeform". Deadline. Retrieved August 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Elizabeth Wagmeister (March 9, 2017). "Freeform's Marlene King Series Famous in Love to Launch with Full-Season Binge". Variety. Retrieved April 18, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Famous in Love Episode Listings". The Futon Critic.
^ Jump up to: a b "Famous in Love Episode Guide". Zap2it.
^ Jump up to: a b Mitch Metcalf (April 19, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 4.18.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved April 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (April 26, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 4.25.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved April 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (May 3, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 5.2.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved May 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (May 10, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 5.9.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved May 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (May 17, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 5.16.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved May 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (May 24, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 5.23.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved May 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (June 1, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 5.30.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mitch Metcalf (June 7, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 6.6.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mitch Metcalf (June 14, 2017). "Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals: 6.13.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved June 14, 2017.
External links[edit]
Official website
Famous in Love on IMDb
[hide]
v
t
e
Freeform original programming
History
History of Freeform
Christian Broadcasting Network
ABC Family Worldwide Inc.
Original
programming
1990s debuts
Amateur Hour (revival) (1992)
Big Brother Jake (1990–1994)
Donkey Kong Country (1997–2000)
Great Pretenders (1999–2002)
Home and Family (1996–1998)
Maniac Mansion (1990–1993)
Monster Farm (1998–1999)
Ohh Nooo! Mr. Bill Presents (1998–1999)
2000s debuts
10 Things I Hate About You (2009–2010)
Beautiful People (2005–2006)
Brat Camp (2005–2007)
Da Möb (2001–2002)
Greek (2007–2011)
Knock First (2003–2004)
Kyle XY (2006–2009)
Las Vegas Garden of Love (2005)
Lincoln Heights (2007–2009)
Make It or Break It (2009–2012)
The Middleman (2008)
Power Rangers Dino Thunder (2004)
Power Rangers Ninja Storm (2003)
Power Rangers S.P.D.(2005)
Power Rangers Wild Force (2002)
Roommates (2009)
Ruby & The Rockits (2009)
Scariest Places On Earth (2000–2006)
The Secret Life of the American Teenager (2008–2013)
Slacker Cats (2007–2009)
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State of Grace (2001–2002)
Switched! (2003–2004)
Three Moons Over Milford (2006)
Wildfire (2005–2008)
2010s debuts
Baby Daddy (2012–2017)
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Beverly Hills Nannies (2012)
Bunheads (2012–2013)
Chasing Life (2014–2015)
Dead of Summer (2016)
Freak Out (2014–2015)
Guilt (2016)
Huge (2010)
Jane by Design (2012)
Job or No Job (2015)
Kevin from Work (2015)
The Lying Game (2011–2013)
Melissa & Joey (2010–2015)
Mystery Girls (2014)
Next Step Realty: NYC (2015)
The Nine Lives of Chloe King (2011)
Pretty Little Liars (2010–2017)
Ravenswood (2013–2014)
Recovery Road (2016)
Spell-Mageddon (2013)
Startup U (2015)
State of Georgia (2011)
Stitchers (2015–2017)
Switched at Birth (2011–2017)
Twisted (2013–2014)
The Vineyard (2013)
Monica the Medium (2015–2016)
Current
Beyond (since 2017)
The Bold Type (since 2017)
Famous in Love (since 2017)
The Fosters (since 2013)
Shadowhunters (since 2016)
Truth & Iliza (since 2017)
The Twins: Happily Ever After? (since 2017)
Young & Hungry (since 2014)
Upcoming
Alone Together (2018)
Cloak & Dagger (2018)
Grown-ish (2018)
New Warriors (2018)
Nicki (TBA)
Pretty Little Liars: The Perfectionists (TBA)
Siren (2018)
Related
13 Nights of Halloween
Freeform's 25 Days of Christmas
ABC Spark
Jetix
List of ABC Family original films
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Famous_in_Love&oldid=807895244"
Categories:
2010s American drama television series
2017 American television series debuts
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text:
Light-independent reactions
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
See also: Light-dependent reactions
This article needs attention from an expert in Biology or Molecular and Cell Biology. The specific problem is: The title and scope of this article have issues. See the talk page for details. WikiProject Biology or WikiProject Molecular and Cell Biology may be able to help recruit an expert. (April 2017)
The internal structure of a chloroplast
The light-independent reactions, or dark reactions,[1] of photosynthesis are chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. These reactions occur in the stroma, the fluid-filled area of a chloroplast outside the thylakoid membranes. These reactions take the products (ATP and NADPH) of light-dependent reactions and perform further chemical processes on them. There are three phases to the light-independent reactions, collectively called the Calvin cycle: carbon fixation, reduction reactions, and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration.
This process occurs only when light is available. Plants do not carry out the Calvin cycle during nighttime. They instead release sucrose into the phloem from their starch reserves. This process happens when light is available independent of the kind of photosynthesis (C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation, and Crassulacean acid metabolism); CAM plants store malic acid in their vacuoles every night and release it by day to make this process work. They are also known as dark reactions.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Coupling to other metabolic pathways
1.1 Steps
1.2 Products
2 Light-dependent regulation
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links
Coupling to other metabolic pathways [edit]
These reactions are closely coupled to the thylakoid electron transport chain as reducing power provided by NADPH produced in the photosystem I is actively needed. The process of photorespiration, also known as C2 cycle, is also coupled to the dark reactions, as it results from an alternative reaction of the RuBisCO enzyme, and its final byproduct is also another glyceraldehyde-3-P.
Overview of the Calvin cycle and carbon fixation
The Calvin cycle, Calvin–Benson–Bassham (CBB) cycle, reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms.
The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson at the University of California, Berkeley[3] by using the radioactive isotope carbon-14.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage and transport molecules ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle uses the energy from short-lived electronically excited carriers to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds[4] that can be used by the organism (and by animals that feed on it). This set of reactions is also called carbon fixation. The key enzyme of the cycle is called RuBisCO. In the following biochemical equations, the chemical species (phosphates and carboxylic acids) exist in equilibria among their various ionized states as governed by the pH.
The enzymes in the Calvin cycle are functionally equivalent to most enzymes used in other metabolic pathways such as gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway, but they are found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytosol, separating the reactions. They are activated in the light (which is why the name "dark reaction" is misleading), and also by products of the light-dependent reaction. These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. Energy (in the form of ATP) would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity.
The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following:
3 CO
2 + 6 NADPH + 6 H+ + 9 ATP → glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 3 H
2O + 8 Pi (Pi = inorganic phosphate)
Hexose (six-carbon) sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle. Although many texts list a product of photosynthesis as C
6H
12O
6, this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration, where six-carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three-carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates", namely, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
Steps[edit]
In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a CO2 molecule is incorporated into one of two three-carbon molecules (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or G3P), where it uses up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH, which had been produced in the light-dependent stage. The three steps involved are:
Calvin cycle step 1 (black circles represent carbon atoms)
Calvin cycle steps 2 and 3 combined
The enzyme RuBisCO catalyses the carboxylation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, RuBP, a 5-carbon compound, by carbon dioxide (a total of 6 carbons) in a two-step reaction.[5] The product of the first step is enediol-enzyme complex that can capture CO
2 or O
2. Thus, enediol-enzyme complex is the real carboxylase/oxygenase. The CO
2 that is captured by enediol in second step produces an unstable six-carbon compound called 2-carboxy 3-keto 1,5-biphosphoribotol (or 3-keto-2-carboxyarabinitol 1,5-bisphosphate) that immediately splits into 2 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate, or 3-PGA, a 3-carbon compound[6] (also: 3-phosphoglyceric acid, PGA, 3PGA).
The enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase catalyses the phosphorylation of 3-PGA by ATP (which was produced in the light-dependent stage). 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPGA, glycerate-1,3-bisphosphate) and ADP are the products. (However, note that two 3-PGAs are produced for every CO
2 that enters the cycle, so this step utilizes two ATP per CO
2 fixed.)
The enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase catalyses the reduction of 1,3BPGA by NADPH (which is another product of the light-dependent stage). Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (also called G3P, GP, TP, PGAL, GAP) is produced, and the NADPH itself is oxidized and becomes NADP+. Again, two NADPH are utilized per CO
2 fixed.
Regeneration stage of the Calvin cycle
The next stage in the Calvin cycle is to regenerate RuBP. Five G3P molecules produce three RuBP molecules, using up three molecules of ATP. Since each CO2 molecule produces two G3P molecules, three CO2 molecules produce six G3P molecules, of which five are used to regenerate RuBP, leaving a net gain of one G3P molecule per three CO2 molecules (as would be expected from the number of carbon atoms involved).
Simplified C3 cycle with structural formulas
The regeneration stage can be broken down into steps.
Triose phosphate isomerase converts all of the G3P reversibly into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), also a 3-carbon molecule.
Aldolase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase convert a G3P and a DHAP into fructose 6-phosphate (6C). A phosphate ion is lost into solution.
Then fixation of another CO
2 generates two more G3P.
F6P has two carbons removed by transketolase, giving erythrose-4-phosphate. The two carbons on transketolase are added to a G3P, giving the ketose xylulose-5-phosphate (Xu5P).
E4P and a DHAP (formed from one of the G3P from the second CO
2 fixation) are converted into sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate (7C) by aldolase enzyme.
Sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase (one of only three enzymes of the Calvin cycle that are unique to plants) cleaves sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate into sedoheptulose-7-phosphate, releasing an inorganic phosphate ion into solution.
Fixation of a third CO
2 generates two more G3P. The ketose S7P has two carbons removed by transketolase, giving ribose-5-phosphate (R5P), and the two carbons remaining on transketolase are transferred to one of the G3P, giving another Xu5P. This leaves one G3P as the product of fixation of 3 CO
2, with generation of three pentoses that can be converted to Ru5P.
R5P is converted into ribulose-5-phosphate (Ru5P, RuP) by phosphopentose isomerase. Xu5P is converted into RuP by phosphopentose epimerase.
Finally, phosphoribulokinase (another plant-unique enzyme of the pathway) phosphorylates RuP into RuBP, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, completing the Calvin cycle. This requires the input of one ATP.
Thus, of six G3P produced, five are used to make three RuBP (5C) molecules (totaling 15 carbons), with only one G3P available for subsequent conversion to hexose. This requires nine ATP molecules and six NADPH molecules per three CO
2 molecules. The equation of the overall Calvin cycle is shown diagrammatically below.
The overall equation of the Calvin cycle (black circles represent carbon atoms)
RuBisCO also reacts competitively with O
2 instead of CO
2 in photorespiration. The rate of photorespiration is higher at high temperatures. Photorespiration turns RuBP into 3-PGA and 2-phosphoglycolate, a 2-carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and glyoxalate to glycine. Via the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate, two glycines are converted into serine +CO
2. Serine can be converted back to 3-phosphoglycerate. Thus, only 3 of 4 carbons from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to 3-PGA. It can be seen that photorespiration has very negative consequences for the plant, because, rather than fixing CO
2, this process leads to loss of CO
2. C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates—corn, for example.
Products[edit]
The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP+. (ADP and NADP+ are not really "products." They are regenerated and later used again in the Light-dependent reactions). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. For the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5 out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs.[7]
Light-dependent regulation[edit]
Main article: Light-dependent reactions
These reactions do not occur in the dark or at night. There is a light-dependent regulation of the cycle enzymes, as the third step requires reduced NADP.
There are two regulation systems at work when the cycle must be turned on or off: the thioredoxin/ferredoxin activation system, which activates some of the cycle enzymes; and the RuBisCo enzyme activation, active in the Calvin cycle, which involves its own activase.
The thioredoxin/ferredoxin system activates the enzymes glyceraldehyde-3-P dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde-3-P phosphatase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase, and ribulose-5-phosphatase kinase, which are key points of the process. This happens when light is available, as the ferredoxin protein is reduced in the photosystem I complex of the thylakoid electron chain when electrons are circulating through it.[8] Ferredoxin then binds to and reduces the thioredoxin protein, which activates the cycle enzymes by severing a cystine bond found in all these enzymes. This is a dynamic process as the same bond is formed again by other proteins that deactivate the enzymes. The implications of this process are that the enzymes remain mostly activated by day and are deactivated in the dark when there is no more reduced ferredoxin available.
The enzyme RuBisCo has its own, more complex activation process. It requires that a specific lysine amino acid be carbamylated to activate the enzyme. This lysine binds to RuBP and leads to a non-functional state if left uncarbamylated. A specific activase enzyme, called RuBisCo activase, helps this carbamylation process by removing one proton from the lysine and making the binding of the carbon dioxide molecule possible. Even then the RuBisCo enzyme is not yet functional, as it needs a magnesium ion bound to the lysine to function. This magnesium ion is released from the thylakoid lumen when the inner pH drops due to the active pumping of protons from the electron flow. RuBisCo activase itself is activated by increased concentrations of ATP in the stroma caused by its phosphorylation.
References[edit]
Citations
Jump up ^ Silverstein, Alvin (2008). Photosynthesis. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 21. ISBN 9780822567981.
Jump up ^ John C. Cushman (2001). "A Plastic Photosynthetic Adaptation to Arid Environments". Plant Physiology. 127 (4): 1439–1448. doi:10.1104/pp.010818. PMC 1540176  . PMID 11743087.
Jump up ^ Bassham J, Benson A, Calvin M (1950). "The path of carbon in photosynthesis" (PDF). J Biol Chem. 185 (2): 781–7. doi:10.2172/910351. PMID 14774424.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006). Biology: Exploring Life. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-250882-6.
Jump up ^ Farazdaghi H (2009). "Modeling the Kinetics of Activation and Reaction of RuBisCO from Gas Exchange". Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration. 29 (IV): 275–294. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9237-4_12.
Jump up ^ Campbell, and Reece Biology: 8th Edition, page 198. Benjamin Cummings, December 7, 2007.
Jump up ^ Russell, Wolfe et al.Biology: Exploring the Diversity of Life'.Toronto:Nelson College Indigenous,1st ed, Vol. 1, 2010, pg 151
Jump up ^ Besse, I; Buchanan, B (1997). "Thioredoxin-linked animal and plant processes: the new generation". Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin. 38: 1–11.
Bibliography
Bassham JA (2003). "Mapping the carbon reduction cycle: a personal retrospective". Photosyn. Res. 76 (1-3): 35–52. doi:10.1023/A:1024929725022. PMID 16228564.
Diwan, Joyce J. (2005). "Photosynthetic Dark Reaction". Biochemistry and Biophysics, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
Portis, Archie; Parry, Martin (2007). "Discoveries in Rubisco (Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase): a historical perspective" (PDF). Photosynthesis Research. 94 (1): 121–143. doi:10.1007/s11120-007-9225-6. PMID 17665149. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-12
Further reading[edit]
Rubisco Activase, from the Plant Physiology Online website
Thioredoxins, from the Plant Physiology Online website
External links[edit]
The Biochemistry of the Calvin Cycle at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
The Calvin Cycle and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway from Biochemistry, Fifth Edition by Jeremy M. Berg, John L. Tymoczko and Lubert Stryer. Published by W. H. Freeman and Company (2002).
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Echinopsis pachanoi
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the mountain in Bolivia, see Achuma (Bolivia).
San Pedro cactus
Echinopsis pachanoi in Hawaii
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Order: Caryophyllales
Family: Cactaceae
Subfamily: Cactoideae
Genus: Echinopsis
Species: E. pachanoi
Binomial name
Echinopsis pachanoi
(Britton and Rose) Friedrich and Rowley
Synonyms
Trichocereus pachanoi Britton & Rose
Echinopsis pachanoi (syn. Trichocereus pachanoi) — known as San Pedro cactus — is a fast-growing columnar cactus native to the Andes Mountains at 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) in altitude.[1][2] It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru,[3] and it is cultivated in other parts of the world. Uses for it include traditional medicine and traditional veterinary medicine, and it is widely grown as an ornamental cactus. It has been used for healing and religious divination in the Andes Mountains region for over 3,000 years.[4] It is sometimes confused with its close relative Echinopsis peruviana (Peruvian torch cactus).
Contents
[hide]
1 Taxonomy
2 Description
3 Traditional uses
4 Alkaloids
5 Cultivation
5.1 Propagation
6 Legality
7 Gallery
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Taxonomy[edit]
Echinopsis pachanoi is known by many names throughout South America such as achuma, huachuma, wachuma, aguacolla, hahuacollay, or giganton.[citation needed]
Description[edit]
Echinopsis pachanoi is native to Ecuador and Peru. Its stems are light to dark green, sometimes glaucous, with a diameter of 6–15 cm (2.4–5.9 in) and usually 6–8 ribs. The whitish areoles may produce up to seven yellow to brown spines, each up to 2 cm (0.8 in) long; the plant is sometimes spineless.[2] The areoles are spaced evenly along the ribs, approximately 2 cm (0.8 in) apart.[3] Echinopsis pachanoi is normally 3–6 m (10–20 ft) tall and has multiple branches, usually extending from the base.[2] The tallest recorded specimen was 12.2 metres (40 ft) tall.[3] White flowers are produced at the end of the stems; they open at night. The flowers are large, around 19–24 cm (7.5–9.4 in) long with a diameter of up to 20 cm (7.9 in). There are black hairs along the length of the tube leading to the flower. Oblong dark green fruits are produced after fertilization, about 3 cm (1.2 in) across and 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 in) long.[2]
Traditional uses[edit]
Hordenine, an alkaloid found in Echinopsis pachanoi
Echinopsis pachanoi, San Pedro Cactus, the tall cactus in the mid-foreground, in its natural habitat in Peru
Echinopsis pachanoi has a long history of being used in Andean traditional medicine. Archeological studies have found evidence of use going back two thousand years, to Moche culture.[5] Although Roman Catholic church authorities[who?] after the Spanish conquest attempted to suppress its use,[citation needed] this failed, as shown by the Christian element in the common name "San Pedro cactus" – Saint Peter cactus. The name is attributed[by whom?] to the belief that just as St Peter holds the keys to heaven, the effects of the cactus allow users "to reach heaven while still on earth."[6]
Alkaloids[edit]
San Pedro cactus sliced to be brewed
The San Pedro cactus contains a number of alkaloids, including the well-studied chemical mescaline (0.21–1.8%), and also 3,4-dimethoxyphenethylamine, 3-Methoxytyramine, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenethylamine, 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine, anhalonidine, anhalinine, hordenine, tyramine, and 3-methoxytyramine.[7]
Mescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine) is a psychedelic drug and entheogen, which is also found in some other species of genus Echinopsis (i.e. Echinopsis lageniformis, Echinopsis peruviana, and Echinopsis scopulicola) and the species Lophophora williamsii (peyote).[8]
Anecdotal evidence suggests that the highest concentration of active substances is found in the layer of green photosynthetic tissue just beneath the skin.[3]
There are various mescaline extraction techniques, simple (simmering in water 5 to 7 hours) and complex (such as an acid-base extraction), the latter technique yielding a material with a significantly higher concentration of mescaline.
Cultivation[edit]
A newly planted Echinopsis pachanoi (San Pedro Cactus) cutting
The San Pedro cactus grows in USDA hardiness zones 8b to 10.[9]
The San Pedro cactus is very easy to grow in most areas. Because it grows naturally in the Andes Mountains at high altitude and with high rainfall, it can withstand temperatures far below that of many other cacti. It requires fertile, free-draining soil. They average half a meter per year of new growth.[3][unreliable source?] They are susceptible to fungal diseases if over-watered, but are not nearly as sensitive as many other cacti, especially in warm weather. They can be sunburned and display a yellowing chlorotic reaction to overexposure to sunlight.
In winter, plants will etiolate, or become thin, due to lower levels of light. This may be problematic if the etiolated zone is not sufficiently strong to support future growth as the cactus may break in strong winds.
Propagation[edit]
Like many other plants, Echinopsis pachanoi can be propagated from cuttings. The result is a genetic clone of the parent plant.[10] A long cactus column can be also laid on its side on the ground (like a log), and eventually roots will sprout from it and grow into the ground. After time, sprouts will form and cactus columns will grow upward out of it along its length.[10]
Legality[edit]
Main article: Legality of mescaline cactus by country
In most countries it is legal to cultivate the San Pedro cactus, but in countries where possession of mescaline and related compounds is illegal and highly penalized, cultivation for the purposes of consumption is most likely illegal and also highly penalized. This is the case in the United States, Australia, Canada, Sweden, Germany, New Zealand, and Norway, where it is currently legal to cultivate the San Pedro cactus for gardening and ornamental purposes, but not for consumption.[citation needed]
Gallery[edit]
Seeds
Three-week-old seedling
Five-month-old seedling
See also[edit]
Ayahuasca
List of psychoactive plants
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rätsch, Christian (2002). Enzyklopädie der psychoaktiven Pflanzen. Botanik, Ethnopharmakologie und Anwendungen. Aarau: AT-Verlag. p. 15. ISBN 3-85502-570-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Anderson 2001, p. 276.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Visionary Cactus Guide, Erowid.org, retrieved 2012-10-24
Jump up ^ Bigwood, Jeremy; Stafford, Peter J. (1992). Psychedelics encyclopedia. Berkeley, CA: Ronin Pub. pp. 118–9. ISBN 0-914171-51-8.
Jump up ^ Bussmann RW, Sharon D (2006). "Traditional medicinal plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture". J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2 (1): 47. doi:10.1186/1746-4269-2-47. PMC 1637095  . PMID 17090303.
Jump up ^ Anderson, Edward F. (2001). The Cactus Family. Pentland, Oregon: Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-88192-498-5. pp. 45–49.
Jump up ^ Crosby, D.M.; McLaughlin, J.L. (Dec 1973). "Cactus Alkaloids. XIX Crystallization of Mescaline HCl and 3-Methoxytyramine HCl from Trichocereus panchanoi" (PDF). Lloydia and the Journal of Natural Products. 36 (4): 416–418. PMID 4773270. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Anderson 2001, pp. 44–49.
Jump up ^ "San Pedro Cactus (Echinopsis pachanoi)". desert-tropicals.com. Retrieved 2008-02-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "What if the cut end doesn't dry properly and starts to mold" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-02-07.
External links[edit]
Media related to Echinopsis pachanoi at Wikimedia Commons
Psychoactive Cacti vault – Erowid
Taxon identifiers
Echinopsis pachanoi
Wd: Q133426
EoL: 5182508
GBIF: 5622352
GRIN: 404213
iNaturalist: 327669
IPNI: 88444-2
ITIS: 908086
IUCN: 152445
NCBI: 1001097
Plant List: kew-2783547
Species+: 27770
Tropicos: 5102168
Trichocereus pachanoi
Wd: Q14931625
GBIF: 7282455
GRIN: 404214
IPNI: 257116-2
ITIS: 911120
Tropicos: 5101738
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Echinopsis_pachanoi&oldid=826054939"
Categories:
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Cacti of South America
Flora of the Andes
Flora of Argentina
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Medicinal plants of South America
Psychedelic phenethylamine carriers
Night-blooming plants
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