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Fahrenheit
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For other uses, see Fahrenheit (disambiguation).
Thermometer with Fahrenheit (marked on outer bezel) and Celsius (marked on inner dial) degree units. The Fahrenheit scale was the first standardized temperature scale to be widely used.
The Fahrenheit scale is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by Dutch-German-Polish physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736).[1] It uses the degree Fahrenheit (symbol: °F) as the unit. Several accounts of how he originally defined his scale exist. The lower defining point, 0 °F, was established as the temperature of a solution of brine made from equal parts of ice, water and salt (ammonium chloride).[2] Further limits were established as the melting point of ice (32 °F) and his best estimate of the average human body temperature (96 °F, about 2.6 °F less than the modern value due to a later redefinition of the scale).[3] The scale is now usually defined by two fixed points: the temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as 32 °F, and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 °F, a 180 °F separation, as defined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure.[citation needed]
By the end of the 20th century, Fahrenheit was used as the official temperature scale only in the United States (including its unincorporated territories), its freely associated states in the Western Pacific (Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands), the Bahamas, Belize, and the Cayman Islands.[4] All other countries in the world now use the Celsius scale, named after Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, defined since 1954 by absolute zero being −273.15 °C and the triple point of water being at 0.01 °C.[5] (Before 1954, the Celsius scale was based on 0 °C for the freezing point of water and 100 °C for the boiling point of water at 1 atm.)
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition and conversion
2 History
3 Usage
4 Unicode representation of symbol
5 See also
6 Notes and references
7 External links
Definition and conversion[edit]
Fahrenheit temperature conversion formulae
from Fahrenheit
to Fahrenheit
Celsius
[°C] = ([°F] − 32) × 5⁄9 [°F] = [°C] × 9⁄5 + 32
Kelvin
[K] = ([°F] + 459.67) × 5⁄9 [°F] = [K] × 9⁄5 − 459.67
Rankine
[°R] = [°F] + 459.67 [°F] = [°R] − 459.67
For temperature intervals rather than specific temperatures,
1 °F = 1 °R = 5⁄9 °C = 5⁄9 K
Comparisons among various temperature scales
On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and the boiling point is 212 °F (at standard atmospheric pressure). This puts the boiling and freezing points of water exactly 180 degrees apart.[6] Therefore, a degree on the Fahrenheit scale is 1⁄180 of the interval between the freezing point and the boiling point. On the Celsius scale, the freezing and boiling points of water are 100 degrees apart. A temperature interval of 1 °F is equal to an interval of 5⁄9 degrees Celsius. The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales intersect at −40° (i.e., −40 °F = −40 °C).
Absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F. The Rankine temperature scale uses degree intervals of the same size as those of the Fahrenheit scale, except that absolute zero is 0 °R — the same way that the Kelvin temperature scale matches the Celsius scale, except that absolute zero is 0 K.[6]
The Fahrenheit scale uses the symbol ° to denote a point on the temperature scale (as does Celsius) and the letter F to indicate the use of the Fahrenheit scale (e.g. "Gallium melts at 85.5763 °F"),[7] as well as to denote a difference between temperatures or an uncertainty in temperature (e.g. "The output of the heat exchanger experiences an increase of 72 °F" and "Our standard uncertainty is ±5 °F").
For an exact conversion, the following formulas can be applied. Here, f is the value in Fahrenheit and c the value in Celsius:
f °Fahrenheit to c °Celsius : (f − 32) °F × 5°C/9°F = (f − 32)/1.8 °C = c °C
c °Celsius to f °Fahrenheit : (c °C × 9°F/5°C) + 32 °F = (c × 1.8) °F + 32 °F = f °F
This is also an exact conversion making use of the identity -40 °F = -40 °C. Again, f is the value in Fahrenheit and c the value in Celsius:
f °Fahrenheit to c °Celsius : ((f + 40) ÷ 1.8) − 40 = c.
c °Celsius to f °Fahrenheit : ((c + 40) × 1.8) − 40 = f.
History[edit]
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, a pioneer of exact thermometry (temperature measurement). He invented the mercury thermometer (first practical, accurate thermometer) and Fahrenheit scale (first widely used, standardized temperature scale).
Fahrenheit proposed his temperature scale in 1724, basing it on two reference points of temperature. In his initial scale (which is not the final Fahrenheit scale), the zero point was determined by placing the thermometer in a mixture of ice, water, and ammonium chloride (salis Armoniaci).[8] This is a frigorific mixture which stabilizes its temperature automatically: that stable temperature was defined as 0 °F (−17.78 °C). The second point, 96 degrees, was approximately the human body's temperature (sanguine hominis sani, the blood of a healthy man).[9]
According to a story in Germany, Fahrenheit actually chose the lowest air temperature measured in his hometown Danzig in winter 1708/09 as 0 °F, and only later had the need to be able to make this value reproducible using brine.[10] This is one explanation given why 0 °F is −17.78 °C, but the ammonium chloride cooling temperature actually is −3 °C, whereas that of NaCl is −21.1 °C; the other explanation is that he did not have a good enough brine solution to obtain the eutectic equilibrium exactly (i.e. he might have had a mixture of salts, or it had not fully dissolved). In any case, the definition of the Fahrenheit scale has changed since.
According to a letter Fahrenheit wrote to his friend Herman Boerhaave,[11] his scale was built on the work of Ole Rømer, whom he had met earlier. In Rømer's scale, brine freezes at zero, water freezes and melts at 7.5 degrees, body temperature is 22.5, and water boils at 60 degrees. Fahrenheit multiplied each value by four in order to eliminate fractions and increase the granularity of the scale. He then re-calibrated his scale using the melting point of ice and normal human body temperature (which were at 30 and 90 degrees); he adjusted the scale so that the melting point of ice would be 32 degrees and body temperature 96 degrees, so that 64 intervals would separate the two, allowing him to mark degree lines on his instruments by simply bisecting the interval six times (since 64 is 2 to the sixth power).[12][13]
Fahrenheit observed that water boils at about 212 degrees using this scale. The use of the freezing and boiling points of water as thermometer fixed reference points became popular following the work of Anders Celsius and these fixed points were adopted by a committee of the Royal Society led by Henry Cavendish in 1776.[14] Under this system, the Fahrenheit scale is redefined slightly so that the freezing point of water is exactly 32 °F, and the boiling point is exactly 212 °F or 180 degrees higher. It is for this reason that normal human body temperature is approximately 98° (oral temperature) on the revised scale (whereas it was 90° on Fahrenheit's multiplication of Rømer, and 96° on his original scale).[15]
The Rankine temperature scale was based upon the Fahrenheit temperature scale, with its zero representing absolute zero instead.
Usage[edit]
Countries that use Fahrenheit.
Countries that use Celsius.
The Fahrenheit scale was the primary temperature standard for climatic, industrial and medical purposes in English-speaking countries until the 1960s. In the late 1960s and 1970s, the Celsius scale replaced Fahrenheit in almost all of those countries—with the notable exception of the United States—typically during their metrication process.
Fahrenheit is used in the United States, its territories and associated states (all served by the U.S. National Weather Service), as well as the Bahamas, Belize, and the Cayman Islands for everyday applications. For example, U.S. weather forecasts, food cooking, and freezing temperatures are typically given in degrees Fahrenheit. Scientists, such as meteorologists, use Celsius or Kelvin in all countries.[16]
Early in the 20th century, Halsey and Dale suggested that the resistance to the use of centigrade (now Celsius) system in the U.S. included the larger size of each degree Celsius and the lower zero point in the Fahrenheit system.[17]
Canada has passed legislation favoring the International System of Units, while also maintaining legal definitions for traditional Canadian imperial units.[18] Canadian weather reports are conveyed using degrees Celsius with occasional reference to Fahrenheit especially for cross-border broadcasts. Virtually all Canadian ovens make legal use of the Fahrenheit scale.[19] Thermometers, both digital and analog, sold in Canada usually employ both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.[20][21][22] Also, in some instances (swimming pool temperature, thermostats, or cooking temperatures for example), temperatures are still expressed in Fahrenheit.
European laundry symbol for "Wash at 40 °C"
Within the European Union, it is mandatory to use kelvins or degrees Celsius when quoting temperature for "economic, public health, public safety and administrative" purposes, though degrees Fahrenheit may be used alongside degrees Celsius as a supplementary unit.[23] For example, the laundry symbols used in the United Kingdom follow the recommendations of ISO 3758:2005 showing the temperature of the washing machine water in degrees Celsius only.[24] The equivalent label in North America uses one to six dots to denote temperature with an optional temperature in degrees Celsius.[25][26]
Within the unregulated sector, such as journalism, the use of Fahrenheit in the United Kingdom follows no fixed pattern with degrees Fahrenheit often appearing alongside degrees Celsius. The Daily Mail, on its daily weather page, quotes Celsius first, followed by Fahrenheit in brackets,[27] The Daily Telegraph does not mention Fahrenheit on its daily weather page[28] while The Times also has an all-metric daily weather page but has a Celsius-to-Fahrenheit conversion table.[29] When publishing news stories, much of the UK press and population have adopted a convention of using degrees Celsius in headlines and discussion relating to low temperatures and Fahrenheit for high temperatures. In February 2006, the writer of an article in The Times suggested that the rationale was one of emphasis: "−6 °C" sounds colder than "21 °F" and "94 °F" sounds more impressive than "34 °C".[30]
Unicode representation of symbol[edit]
Unicode provides the Fahrenheit symbol at codepoint U+2109 ℉ degree fahrenheit. However, this is a compatibility character encoded for roundtrip compatibility with legacy encodings. The Unicode standard explicitly discourages the use of this character: "The sequence U+00B0 ° degree sign +U+0046 F latin capital letter f is preferred over U+2109 ℉ degree fahrenheit, and those two sequences should be treated as identical for searching."[31]
See also[edit]
Energy portal
Comparison of temperature scales
Degree of frost
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Robert T. Balmer (2010). Modern Engineering Thermodynamics. Academic Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-12-374996-3. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Fahrenheit: Facts, History & Conversion Formulas". Live Science. Retrieved 2018-02-09.
Jump up ^ Fahrenheit temperature scale, Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 September 2015
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Celsius vs. Fahrenheit
^ Jump up to: a b Walt Boyes (2009). Instrumentation Reference Book. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-0-7506-8308-1. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Preston–Thomas, H. (1990). "The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)" (PDF). Metrologia. 27: 6. Bibcode:1990Metro..27....3P. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/27/1/002. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Sal Armoniac" was an impure form of ammonium chloride. The French chemist Nicolas Lémery (1645 – 1715) discussed it in his book Cours de Chymie (A Course of Chemistry, 1675), describing where it occurs naturally and how it can be prepared artificially. It occurs naturally in the deserts of northern Africa, where it forms from puddles of animal urine. It can be prepared artificially by boiling 5 parts of urine, 1 part of sea salt, and ½ part of chimney soot until the mixture has dried. The mixture is then heated in a sublimation pot until it sublimates ; the sublimated crystals are sal Armoniac. See:
Nicolas Lémery, Cours de chymie … , 7th ed. (Paris, France: Estienne Michallet, 1688), Chapitre XVII: du Sel Armoniac, pp. 338-339.
English translation: Nicolas Lémery with James Keill, trans., A Course of Chymistry … , 3rd ed. (London, England: Walter Kettilby, 1698), Chap. XVII: of Sal Armoniack, p. 383. Available on-line at: Heinrich Heine University (Düsseldorf, Germany)
Jump up ^ Fahrenheit, Daniele Gabr. (1724) "Experimenta circa gradum caloris liquorum nonnullorum ebullientium instituta" (Experiments performed concerning the degree of heat of some boiling liquids), Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 33 : 1-3. For an English translation, see: Le Moyne College (Syracuse, New York)
Jump up ^ "Wetterlexikon - Lufttemperatur" (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Ernst Cohen and W.A.T. Cohen-De Meester. Chemisch Weekblad, volume 33 (1936), pages 374–393, cited and translated in http://www.sizes.com:80/units/temperature_Fahrenheit.htm
Jump up ^ Frautschi, Steven C.; Richard P. Olenick; Tom M. Apostol; David L. Goodstein (14 January 2008). The mechanical universe: mechanics and heat. Cambridge University Press. p. 502. ISBN 978-0-521-71590-4.
Jump up ^ Cecil Adams. "On the Fahrenheit scale, do 0 and 100 have any special significance?". The Straight Dope.
Jump up ^ Hasok Chang, Inventing Temperature: Measurement and Scientific Progress, pp. 8-11, Oxford University Press, 2004 ISBN 0198038240.
Jump up ^ Elert, Glenn; Forsberg, C; Wahren, LK (2002). "Temperature of a Healthy Human (Body Temperature)". Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences. 16 (2): 122–8. doi:10.1046/j.1471-6712.2002.00069.x. PMID 12000664. Archived from the original on 26 September 2010. Retrieved 12 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "782 - Aerodrome reports and forecasts: A user's handbook to the codes". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 23 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Halsey, Frederick A., Dale, Samuel S. (1919). The metric fallacy (2 ed.). The American Institute of Weights and Measures. pp. 165–166, 176–177. Retrieved 19 May 2009. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Canadian Units of Measurement; Department of Justice, Weights and Measures Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. W-6)". 17 May 2011. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Pearlstein, Steven (4 June 2000). "Did Canada go metric? Yes - and no". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "Example of analog thermometer frequently used in Canada". Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "Example of digital thermometer frequently used in Canada". Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Department of Justice (26 February 2009). "Canadian Weights and Measures Act". Federal Government of Canada. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Statutory Instrument 2009/3046 - Weights and Measures - The Units of Measurement Regulations 2009 (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-01, "The Secretary of State, being a Minister designated(a) for the purposes of section 2(2) of the European Communities Act 1972(b) in relation to units of measurement to be used for economic, health, safety, or administrative purposes, in exercise of the powers conferred by that subsection, makes the following Regulations:
Jump up ^ "Home Laundering Consultative Council - What Symbols Mean". Home Laundering Consultative Council. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Guide to Common Home Laundering & Drycleaning Symbols". Textile Industry Affairs. 2010. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Guide to Apparel and Textile Care Symbols". Office of Consumer Affairs, Government of Canada. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Weather". The Daily Mail. 3 July 2013. p. 3.
Jump up ^ "Weather". The Daily Telegraph. 3 July 2013. p. 31.
Jump up ^ "Weather". The Times. 3 July 2013. p. 55.
Jump up ^ "Measure for measure". The Times. Times Newspapers. 23 February 2006.
Jump up ^ "22.2". The Unicode Standard, Version 8.0 (PDF). Mountain View, CA, USA: The Unicode Consortium. August 2015. ISBN 978-1-936213-10-8. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
External links[edit]
Look up fahrenheit in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (Polish-born Dutch physicist) -- Encyclopædia Britannica
"At Auction | One of Only Three Original Fahrenheit Thermometers" Enfilade page for 2012 Christie's sale of a Fahrenheit mercury thermometer with some nice pictures
Christie's press release
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Decline of the Byzantine Empire
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Map of the changes in borders of the Byzantine Empire. The dates represented are 476 (Fall of the Western Roman Empire; Basiliscus deposed and Zeno restored), 550 (Justinian I's western reclamations; Ostrogothic Kingdom), 717 (Leo III reign; 2nd Arab siege), 867 (Basil I reign begins), 1025 (Basil II dies; Constantine VIII reign begins), 1095 (Alexius I Comnenus requests western aid against the Seljuk Turks), 1170 (Amalric I and Manuel I alliance), 1270 (Michael VIII reign), and 1400 (Closing of the Byzantine–Ottoman Wars).
The Byzantine Empire (the Eastern Roman Empire during the medieval period, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire) following the crisis of the Gothic Wars managed to re-establish itself in a golden age under the Justinian dynasty in the 6th century, and during the Early Middle Ages it continued to flourish even after the Muslim conquest of the Levant and the constant threat of Arab invasion.
But in the High Middle Ages, under pressure from the Seljuk Empire, it entered a period of continuous decline. After the Battle of Manzikert (1071) it lost control of Anatolia, and while the Crusades provided a respite from the threat of Islamic expansion during the 12th century, the empire was captured and partitioned by the Crusaders themselves in the Fourth Crusade in 1204.
Even after Byzantine rule was restored in 1261, the empire was now a shadow of its former self, and after the end of the Crusades, the empire had little to set against the rise of the Ottoman Empire during the late medieval period, and was eventually conquered with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.
Contents
[hide]
1 Timeframes
2 Historical events
2.1 Collapse of the Western Roman Empire
2.2 Rise of Islam
2.3 Increasing Reliance on Foreign Military Intervention in Domestic Politics
2.4 Seljuk conquest of Anatolia
2.5 Final decline in the late medieval period
2.5.1 Civil Wars
2.5.2 Rise of the Ottomans
3 Structure of Byzantium
3.1 Politics of Byzantium
3.2 Society of Byzantium
3.3 The structure of the military
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Bibliography
Timeframes[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Further information: History of the Byzantine Empire
The process by which the empire waned, and from when its decline can be traced, is a matter of scholarly debate. In some cases, the entire history of the Byzantine Empire has been portrayed as a protracted period of decline of the Roman Empire. This holds especially for Enlightenment era writers such as Edward Gibbon, author of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, published in six volumes between 1776 and 1789, whose view was coloured by pro-western or anti-clerical biases, and tended to see the whole ten-century empire as merely a sad codicil to the Roman Empire of Antiquity.
Late-20th-century and early-21st-century historians have instead emphasized the empire's remarkable resiliency and adaptability to change.[1][2][3][4]
The Byzantine-Arab Wars and the Battle of Manzikert have traditionally been considered the most significant. However, recent books by Paul Magdalino and John Birkenmeier have re-evaluated the position of the empire in the 12th century, citing the collapse under the Angeloi (1185–1204) as the most decisive turning point in the empire's fortunes. Although this view is not universally held, historians generally agree that after the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the empire was only a shadow of its former self. The death of Michael VIII in 1282 marks the last period of Byzantine success on anything more than a minor scale. From this date onwards, the empire entered its final decline.
The history of the empire includes a number of periods of crisis, interspersed with periods of at least partial recovery:
The crisis of Late Antiquity, which saw invasions by the Visigoths, Huns, Alans, and Vandals across both the Rhine and Danube frontiers, sweeping through most of Europe
602 - Start of the Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–28, which exhausted the Empire's resources and contributed to major territorial losses during the Muslim conquests of the 7th century.
The crisis of the 7th century, which saw Muslim conquest of the Levant and the Arab-Byzantine Wars
634 – Start of the Byzantine-Arab Wars
636 - The Battle of Yarmouk
The crisis of the 11th century, which simultaneously saw the Norman conquest of southern Italy, the Pechenegs (in the Crimea and the Balkans), and the Seljuk invasion of Asia Minor and the devaluation of the nomisma
1025 – Death of the soldier-emperor Basil II
1071 – The Battle of Manzikert[5]
1176 - The Battle of Myriokephalon
1180 – Death of Manuel I Komnenos
1185 – Demise of the Komnenos dynasty
The crises of the 13th century, which followed the Sack of Constantinople and partitioning of the empire by the Fourth Crusade
1204 – The Sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade[5]
The final decline during the Byzantine–Ottoman Wars.
Historical events[edit]
Collapse of the Western Roman Empire[edit]
In the 5th – 7th century, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire was a continuation of the Roman Empire. The loss of the Western territories in the 5th century led to the loss of some important cities such as Rome. The creation of the Germanic states of the Franks, Visigoths, Ostrogoths and later of the Lombards out of the rubble of the Western Roman Empire meant that in time they would seek to challenge the authority of the Eastern Roman Empire. General Flavius Belisarius under Justinian I in the early 6th century made a serious attempt to recover the western half; however his gains were short-lived and poorly planned out – resources and troops that could have been used to defeat the Persians were diverted forcing the Byzantines into tribute and diplomacy to deal with this Eastern threat. The loss of the western territories led to the Patriarch of Rome achieving greater independence from Byzantium, which no longer provided adequate protection to the Pope. Consequently, the Holy See and Byzantium would have disagreements, culminating in the schism of 1054 and the disaster of the Fourth Crusade in the 13th century.
Rise of Islam[edit]
In the 7th – 9th century, Islam gave the Arabs a newfound zeal and desire to conquer. They expanded to the territories in the Levant and Egypt. The Arab invasions led to the loss of Egypt, Syria, Palestine and for a short period of time, Crete, Sicily, Cyprus and Asia Minor. Though Asia Minor was recaptured and substantial parts of Syria and Mesopotamia either taken back or subjugated, Egypt remained firmly in Arab hands as did the rest of Palestine. The loss of Egypt was a major blow to the Byzantines since the province of Aegyptus had provided much of the Empire's manufactured goods and natural resources, especially grain, ever since the times of Roman Antiquity. Conversely the Arab acquisition of Egypt gave the Ummayad and later Abbasid Caliphates huge resources, meaning that the Byzantines had to direct large amounts of resources to stave off constant Arab incursions into Asia Minor and Syria. When the Fatimid Caliphate broke away from the Abbasids the Byzantines were able to launch successful offensives into Syria and Palestine, due to this division amongst their enemies.
Increasing Reliance on Foreign Military Intervention in Domestic Politics[edit]
As far back as the invasion of Africa by Belisarius, foreign soldiers were used in war.[6] While foreign military invention was not an all together new occurrence,[7] the reliance on it, and its ability to damage political, social, and economic institutions were dramatically increased in the 11th, 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. The 11th century saw increasing tensions between Courtly, and Military factions.[8][9] Until the mid 11th century the empire had long been under the control of the Military Factions with leaders such as Basil II, and John I Tzimiskes,[10] however the crisis of Basil II's succession led to increasing uncertainty in the future of politics.[8] The army demanded Basil's daughters remain in power, leading to a number of marriages, and increasing power for the Courtly faction.[8] This culminated after the failed Battle of Manzikert. As civil wars broke out, and tensions between courtly, and military factions reached a zenith, an increasing demand for soldiers led to the hiring of Turkish Mercenaries to fight internal civil war.[11] These mercenaries aided in the Byzantine loss of Anatolia by drawing more Turkish soldiers in to the interior of the empire, and by giving the Turks an increasing presence in Byzantine politics. These interventions also led to further destabilization of the political system.[11][12]
Reliance on foreign military intervention, and sponsorship for political motives, continued even during the Komnenoi Restoration, Alexius I utilized Turkish mercenaries in the civil wars he participated in with Nikephoros III Botaneiates.[12] In 1204, Alexios IV Angelos relied on Latin soldiers to claim the throne of Byzantium, leading to the sack of Byzantium, and the creation of the successor states.[11] After the resurgence of the Byzantine Empire with the ascension of Michael VIII Palaiologos reliance on foreign sponsorship increased still more. At this time it was common for emperors to seek sponsorship from Venice, Genoa, and the Turks. This led to a series of disastrous trade deals with the Italian states; drying up one of the empire's final sources of revenue.[13] This further led to competition between Venice, and Genoa to get emperors on the throne who supported their respective trade agenda to the detriment of the other, adding another level of instability to the Byzantine political process.[13]
Seljuk conquest of Anatolia[edit]
Main article: Byzantine–Seljuq wars
Further information: Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty
In spite of its grievous losses of territory in Egypt and the Levant, the Byzantine empire successfully re-established itself against the threat of Islam under the Macedonian dynasty in the 9th and 10th century. But in the 11th century, a new threat arose as a consequence of the Turkic expansion out of Central Asia. The Seljuks, a division of the Kankalis branch of Oghuz Turks, profiting from both the breakup of the Abbasid Caliphate and the absorption of the Byzantines with internal crisis and the loss of Italy to the Normans, managed to establish themselves in Asia Minor.
Following the Battle of Manzikert, the Byzantine Empire lost most of its territory in Asia Minor, and was in immediate danger of complete annihilation. It recovered following the Komnenian restoration, as Alexios I Komnenos restored relations with the Papacy, and requested aid against the Turks from Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza in 1095. Later that same year, the pope preached the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont.
In the wake of the success of the First Crusade, the three competent Komnenian emperors, especially Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180), may have had the power to expel the outnumbered Seljuks, several factors combined to ensure that they never did so. Alexios was unable to derive much of the expected benefit from the Crusade, though it did at least help him to recover Nicaea and western Asia Minor. No emperor after the Komnenian period was in a position to expel the Turks from Asia Minor, while the preoccupation of the Nicaean emperors with the attempt to recover Constantinople meant that resources were diverted away from Asia Minor and towards the west. The result was a weakening of the Byzantine defenses in the region, which, when combined with insufficient resources and incompetent leadership, led to the complete loss of all the empire's Asian territory to the Turks by 1338.
Map showing the partition of the empire following the Fourth Crusade, c. 1204. The overall outcome of the Crusades left the Empire permanently weakened.
Though the Crusades assisted Byzantium in driving back some of the Turks, they went far beyond the military assistance envisaged by Alexios I. Instead of following the strategic necessities of the war against the Turks, the Crusaders were focussed on the quest of re-conquering Jerusalem, and instead of returning territory to Byzantium, the Crusaders established their own principalities, becoming a territorial rival to Byzantine interests in their own right.
This was true already during the Third Crusade, which induced emperor Isaac II Angelos to make a secret alliance with Saladin to impede the progress of Frederick Barbarossa, but open conflict between Crusaders and Byzantium erupted in the Fourth Crusade, resulting in the Sack of Constantinople in 1204. Constantinople was now itself a Crusader state, known as the Latin Empire in historiography, but from the Greek perspective as Frankokratia or "rule of the Franks". Vestiges of imperial power were preserved in minor principalities, the Nicaean Empire, Trebizond and Epirus. Much of the Nicaean Emperors' efforts now went into combating the Latins, and even after Constantinople was returned to Greek rule under the Palaiologoi in 1261, the Empire exerted much of its efforts into defeating its Latin neighbours, contributing to the eventual failure of the Crusades by 1291.
Final decline in the late medieval period[edit]
Throughout the 14th and 15th centuries the Empire suffered from many natural disasters, invasions and several coups.
Civil Wars[edit]
A series of societal infighting also weakened the Byzantine Empire's military power. There were two major civil wars during the late Byzantine Empire, one in 1321 another in 1341. These civil wars also severely diminished the Byzantines' military capabilities.
The civil war of 1321–1328 was led by a grandson of the Byzantine emperor Andronikos II who was supported by Byzantine Magnates who often clashed with the centralized authority of Byzantium. The Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328 was inconclusive and ended with Andronikos III being made co-emperor with his grandfather. This civil war allowed the Turks to make notable gains in Anatolia and set up their capital in Bursa 100 kilometers from Constantinople the Byzantine's capital. After the initial conflict Andronikos III dethroned his grandfather and became emperor.[14]
Following the death of Andronikos III in 1341, another civil war broke out which was to continue until 1347. When Andronikos III died he left his six-year-old son under the regency of Anne of Savoy. The de facto leader of the empire, John Cantacuzenus, who was not only a close associate of the deceased emperor but an extremely wealthy landowner, wanted to become regent.[15] However, things did not go his way and he was declared emperor in Thrace.[16] This conflict had elements of class warfare, in that the rich supported Cantacuzenus while the poorer folk supported the empress regent. The civil war of 1341–1347 saw exploitation of the Byzantine Empire by the Serbs, whose ruler took advantage of the chaos to proclaim himself emperor of the Serbs and Greeks. The Serbian king Stefan Uroš IV Dušan made significant territorial gains in Byzantine Macedonia in 1345 and conquered large swathes of Thessaly and Epirus in 1348.[17] Although Dusan would die along with his dream of a Serbian Greek empire in 1355,[18] Byzantium would still face a powerful Turkish state across the Sea of Marmara. Luckily for Cantacuzenus, he conquered Constantinople in 1347 and ended the civil war afterwards.[19] In order to secure his authority during the civil war, Cantacuzenus hired Turkish mercenaries. Although these mercenaries were of some use, in 1352 they seized Gallipoli from the Byzantines.[18] Although in 1354 the rogue mercenaries were defeated by western crusaders,[20] Turkish armies would eventually control many of the Byzantine Empire's once-held territories. These two monumental civil wars severely diminished the Byzantine Empire's military strength and allowed its opportunistic enemies to make substantial gains into Byzantine territory.
Rise of the Ottomans[edit]
The disintegration of the Seljuk Turks led to the rise of the Ottoman Turks. Their first important leader was Osman I Bey, who attracted Ghazi warriors and carved out a domain in north-western Asia Minor.[21] Attempts by the Byzantine Emperors to drive back the Ottomans were unsuccessful, and ceased in 1329 with the Battle of Pelekanon. Following a number of civil disputes in the Byzantine Empire, the Ottomans subjugated the Byzantines as vassals in the late 14th century and attempts to relieve this vassal status culminated in the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.
Structure of Byzantium[edit]
The Byzantine Empire's survival depended upon its administration and the logistics that enabled it to run the Empire. Though considered complex, its system was one more advanced than those practised by the Frankish Kingdoms in the West and one modelled by the Islamic Powers of the East. As the Empire evolved into an increasingly smaller and defensive state, the governing of the state changed as well. However, by the 14th century the burdens of running an Empire surrounded by many enemies became too much of a strain on Byzantium's increasingly smaller resources. By c. 1350's, the Byzantines lost Thrace to the Ottomans; thereafter Constantinople became the government's primary administrative region.
Politics of Byzantium[edit]
The Byzantine Empire experienced numerous civil wars. The defeats in the 7th and 12th centuries to the Arabs and Turks respectively speaking were in no small part assisted by numerous internal conflicts. The situation became worse later in the 14th and 15th centuries where Byzantine Emperors were forced to fight their own grandchildren/children, as in the cases of Andronikus II and Andronikus III.
Society of Byzantium[edit]
The Military of the Byzantine Empire was often smaller than that of its opponents and thus relied more upon strategy rather than brute strength to achieve success.[22][23] This was in part achieved by the logistics of the Byzantine administration which allowed it to utilize their troops as efficiently as possible. Taxes on the peasantry were collected at times of need so as to raise the supplies needed at the time.[24] However, this bureaucratic system was exploited by the social elite [24] whose increasing power challenged that of the Emperor. Whilst the Theme system worked well to provide efficient military service, it led to the decentralization of power leading to disastrous civil conflicts in the 11th century.
Furthermore, as the taxation system became ever more of a burden on the peasantry, the lower classes of the Empire began to resent the state. This contributed to the loss of Asia Minor in the 11th and 14th centuries owing to the arrival of the Turks.
The structure of the military[edit]
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Another major factor in the decline of the Byzantine empire may have been the disintegration of its traditional military system, the 'theme' system. Under this arrangement, the empire was divided into several regions which contributed locally raised troops to the imperial armies. The system provided an effective means of cheaply mobilizing large numbers of men, and the result was a comparatively large and powerful force – the army of the theme of Thrakesion alone had provided about 9,600 men in the period 902–936, for example. However, the demise of the system made the organization of the Byzantine armies less self-sufficient.
The Byzantine military did not immediately collapse following the disappearance of the theme system. In the 12th century, the Komnenian dynasty re-established an effective military force. Manuel I Komnenos, for example, was able to muster an army of over 40,000 men. This was sufficient to ensure the empire's continued status as a great power for the duration of the Komnenian period. However, the Komnenoi never provided for a future that saw their decisive leadership replaced by incompetence. After the deposition of Andronikos I Komnenos in 1185, the dynasty of the Angeloi oversaw a period of military decline. From 1185 onwards, Byzantine emperors found it increasingly difficult to muster and pay for sufficient military forces, while the failure of their efforts to sustain their empire exposed the limitations of the entire Byzantine military system, dependent as it was on competent personal direction from the emperor. The culmination of the empire's military disintegration under the Angeloi was reached on 13 April 1204, when the armies of the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople and dismantled the Byzantine Empire.
Despite the restoration under the Palaiologoi, Byzantium was never again a great power on the scale of the past. By the 13th century, the imperial army numbered a mere 6,000 men, while the empire's territories had been reduced to little more than the lands immediately surrounding the Aegean sea.
Thus, it is possible to argue that the demise of the theme system was one of the most significant factors in the decline of the Byzantine empire. As one of the main institutional strengths of the Byzantine state, the theme system was never replaced by a viable long-term alternative. This left the empire lacking in underlying structural strengths. The result was an empire that depended more than ever before on the strengths of each individual emperor or dynasty. The collapse of imperial power and authority after 1185 revealed the inadequacy of this approach.
See also[edit]
Byzantine Empire portal
Byzantine-Lombard Wars
Byzantine–Seljuq wars
Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty
Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty
Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Herrin, Judith (2007). Byzantium, the Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. Princeton University Press (Princeton & Oxford).
Jump up ^ Ash, John, A Byzantine Journey, Random House (New York) 1995
Jump up ^ Runciman, Steven (1970). The Last Byzantine Renaissance. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge).
Jump up ^ Runciman, Steven (1958). The Sicilian Vespers: A History of the Mediterranean World in the Later Thirteenth Century. Pelican Publishing (London).
^ Jump up to: a b Runciman, Fall, 2.
Jump up ^ Procopius History of the Wars Book III
Jump up ^ Justinian II Constance Head
^ Jump up to: a b c Chronographia Michael Psellos
Jump up ^ The Histories Michael Attaleiites
Jump up ^ A Synopsis of Byzantine History John Skylitzes
^ Jump up to: a b c The Grand Byzantine Strategy Edward Luttwak
^ Jump up to: a b The Alexiad Anna Komnene
^ Jump up to: a b City of Fortune: How Venice Ruled the Seas Roger Crowley
Jump up ^ Robert Browning, The Byzantine Empire (Washington D. C. :The Catholic U of America P, 1992), 234.
Jump up ^ Robert Browning, The Byzantine Empire (Washington D. C. :The Catholic U of America P, 1992), 235.
Jump up ^ Robert Browning The Byzantine Empire (Washington D. C. :The Catholic U of America P, 1992), 236.
Jump up ^ Robert Browning, The Byzantine Empire (Washington D. C. :The Catholic U of America P, 1992), 240.
^ Jump up to: a b Robert Browning, The Byzantine Empire (Washington D. C. :The Catholic U of America P, 1992), 241.
Jump up ^ Robert Browning, The Byzantine Empire (Washington D. C. :The Catholic U of America P, 1992), 182.
Jump up ^ Robert Browning, The Byzantine Empire (Washington D. C. :The Catholic U of America P, 1992), 242.
Jump up ^ Stanford Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge: University Press, 1976), vol. 1 pp. 13f
Jump up ^ Philip Sherrard, Great Ages of Man Byzantium, Time-Life Books
Jump up ^ Haldon, John. Byzantium at War 600 – 1453. New York: Osprey, 2000.
^ Jump up to: a b Haldon, John. Byzantium at War 600 – 1453. New York: Osprey, 2000. pg 90
Bibliography[edit]
Angold, Michael (1997). The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204. Longman. ISBN 0-582-29468-1.
Haldon, John (2002). Byzantium – A History. Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-2343-6.
Harris, Jonathan (2003). Byzantium and the Crusades. Hambledon and London. ISBN 1-85285-298-4.
Alan Harvey, "Economic expansion in the Byzantine empire, 900–1200"
John Haldon, "The Byzantine Wars"
J.W. Birkenmeier, The Development of the Komnenian Army 1081–1180
Magdalino, Paul, The empire of Manuel I Komnenos 1143–1180
Norwich, John Julius (1998). A Short History of Byzantium. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-025960-0.
Runciman, Steven. The Fall of Constantinople 1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965.
Vryonis, Speros. The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971.
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