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List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union
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Map of the United States with names and borders of states
The order in which the original 13 states ratified the 1787 Constitution, then the order in which the others were admitted to the union
A state of the United States is one of the 50 constituent entities that shares its sovereignty with the federal government. Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside, due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government.[1] Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names.
States are the primary subdivisions of the United States. They possess all powers not granted to the federal government, nor prohibited to them by the United States Constitution. In general, state governments have the power to regulate issues of local concern, such as: regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, public school policy, and non-federal road construction and maintenance. Each state has its own constitution grounded in republican principles, and government consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial branches.[2]
All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, and at least one Representative, while the size of a state's House delegation depends on its total population, as determined by the most recent constitutionally-mandated decennial census.[3] Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that state.[4]
Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states.[5]
The following table is a list of all 50 states and their respective dates of statehood. The first 13 became states in July 1776 upon agreeing to the United States Declaration of Independence, and each joined the first Union of states between 1777 and 1781, upon ratifying the Articles of Confederation, its first constitution.[6] (A separate table is included below showing AoC ratification dates.) These states are presented in the order in which each ratified the 1787 Constitution, thus joining the present federal Union of states. The date of admission listed for each subsequent state is the official date set by Act of Congress.[a]
Contents
1 List of U.S. states
2 Articles of Confederation ratification dates
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 External links
List of U.S. states[edit]
State
Date
(admitted or ratified)
Formed from
1 Delaware December 7, 1787[8]
(ratified) Colony of Delaware[b]
2 Pennsylvania December 12, 1787[10]
(ratified) Proprietary Province of Pennsylvania
3 New Jersey December 18, 1787[11]
(ratified) Crown Colony of New Jersey
4 Georgia January 2, 1788[8]
(ratified) Crown Colony of Georgia
5 Connecticut January 9, 1788[12]
(ratified) Crown Colony of Connecticut
6 Massachusetts February 6, 1788[8]
(ratified) Crown Colony of Massachusetts Bay
7 Maryland April 28, 1788[8]
(ratified) Proprietary Province of Maryland
8 South Carolina May 23, 1788[8]
(ratified) Crown Colony of South Carolina
9 New Hampshire June 21, 1788[8]
(ratified) Crown Colony of New Hampshire
10 Virginia June 25, 1788[8]
(ratified) Crown Colony and Dominion of Virginia
11 New York July 26, 1788[13]
(ratified) Crown Colony of New York
12 North Carolina November 21, 1789[14]
(ratified) Crown Colony of North Carolina
13 Rhode Island May 29, 1790[8]
(ratified) Crown Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
14 Vermont March 4, 1791[15]
(admitted) Vermont Republic[c]
15 Kentucky June 1, 1792[16]
(admitted) Virginia (nine counties in its District of Kentucky[d])
16 Tennessee June 1, 1796[18]
(admitted) Southwest Territory
17 Ohio March 1, 1803[19][e]
(admitted) Northwest Territory (part)
18 Louisiana April 30, 1812[21]
(admitted) Territory of Orleans
19 Indiana December 11, 1816
(admitted) Indiana Territory
20 Mississippi December 10, 1817[22]
(admitted) Mississippi Territory
21 Illinois December 3, 1818[23]
(admitted) Illinois Territory (part)
22 Alabama December 14, 1819[24]
(admitted) Alabama Territory
23 Maine March 15, 1820[25]
(admitted) Massachusetts (District of Maine[f])
24 Missouri August 10, 1821[26]
(admitted) Missouri Territory (part)
25 Arkansas June 15, 1836[27]
(admitted) Arkansas Territory
26 Michigan January 26, 1837[28]
(admitted) Michigan Territory
27 Florida March 3, 1845
(admitted) Florida Territory
28 Texas December 29, 1845
(admitted) Republic of Texas
29 Iowa December 28, 1846
(admitted) Iowa Territory (part)
30 Wisconsin May 29, 1848[29]
(admitted) Wisconsin Territory (part)
31 California September 9, 1850[30]
(admitted) unorganized territory (part)
32 Minnesota May 11, 1858[31]
(admitted) Minnesota Territory (part)
33 Oregon February 14, 1859
(admitted) Oregon Territory (part)
34 Kansas January 29, 1861[32]
(admitted) Kansas Territory (part)
35 West Virginia June 20, 1863[33]
(admitted) Virginia (50 Trans-Allegheny region counties[g])
36 Nevada October 31, 1864
(admitted) Nevada Territory
37 Nebraska March 1, 1867
(admitted) Nebraska Territory
38 Colorado August 1, 1876[36]
(admitted) Colorado Territory
39[h] North Dakota November 2, 1889[38][i]
(admitted) Dakota Territory (part)
40 South Dakota November 2, 1889[38][i]
(admitted) Dakota Territory (part)
41 Montana November 8, 1889[39]
(admitted) Montana Territory
42 Washington November 11, 1889[40]
(admitted) Washington Territory
43 Idaho July 3, 1890
(admitted) Idaho Territory
44 Wyoming July 10, 1890
(admitted) Wyoming Territory
45 Utah January 4, 1896[41]
(admitted) Utah Territory
46 Oklahoma November 16, 1907[42]
(admitted) Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory
47 New Mexico January 6, 1912
(admitted) New Mexico Territory
48 Arizona February 14, 1912
(admitted) Arizona Territory
49 Alaska January 3, 1959
(admitted) Territory of Alaska
50 Hawaii August 21, 1959
(admitted) Territory of Hawaii
Articles of Confederation ratification dates[edit]
The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. On March 4, 1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the present Constitution.[43]
State
Date
1 Virginia December 16, 1777
2 South Carolina February 5, 1778
3 New York February 6, 1778
4 Rhode Island February 9, 1778
5 Connecticut February 12, 1778
6 Georgia February 26, 1778
7 New Hampshire March 4, 1778
8 Pennsylvania March 5, 1778
9 Massachusetts March 10, 1778
10 North Carolina April 5, 1778
11 New Jersey November 19, 1778
12 Delaware February 1, 1779
13 Maryland February 2, 1781
See also[edit]
North America portal
United States portal
Enabling Act of 1802, authorizing residents of the eastern portion of the Northwest Territory to form the state of Ohio
Missouri Compromise, 1820 federal statute enabling the admission of Missouri (a slave state) and Maine (a free state) into the Union
Toledo War, 1835–36 boundary dispute between Ohio and the adjoining Michigan Territory, which delayed Michigan's admission to the Union
Texas annexation, the 1845 incorporation of the Republic of Texas into the United States as a state in the Union
Legal status of Texas
Compromise of 1850, a package of congressional acts, one of which provided for the admission of California to the Union
Bleeding Kansas, a series of violent conflicts in Kansas Territory involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions in the years preceding Kansas statehood, 1854–61
Enabling Act of 1889, authorizing residents of Dakota, Montana, and Washington territories to form state governments (Dakota to be divided into two states) and to gain admission to the Union
Enabling Act of 1906 authorizing residents of Oklahoma, Indian, New Mexico, and Arizona territories to form state governments (Indian and Oklahoma territories to be combined into one state) and to gain admission to the Union
Alaska Statehood Act, admitting Alaska as a state in the Union as of January 3, 1959
Legal status of Alaska
Hawaii Admission Act, admitting Hawaii as a state in the Union as of August 21, 1959
Legal status of Hawaii
List of states and territories of the United States
Federalism in the United States
Proposals for a 51st state
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This list does not account for the secession of 11 states (Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas) during the Civil War to form the Confederate States of America, nor for the subsequent restoration of those states to the Union, or each state's "readmission to representation in Congress" after the war, as the federal government does not give legal recognition to their having left the Union. Also, the Constitution is silent on the question of whether states have the power to secede from the Union, but the Supreme Court held that a state cannot unilaterally do so in Texas v. White (1869).[7]
Jump up ^ Also known as the "Three Lower Counties Upon Delaware". Delaware became a state on June 15, 1776, when the Delaware Assembly formally adopted a resolution declaring an end to Delaware's status as a colony of Great Britain and establishing the three counties as an independent state under the authority of "the Government of the Counties of New Castle, Kent and Sussex Upon Delaware".[9]
Jump up ^ Between 1749 and 1764 the provincial governor of New Hampshire, Benning Wentworth, issued approximately 135 grants for unoccupied land claimed by New Hampshire west of the Connecticut River (in what is today southern Vermont), territory that was also claimed by New York. The resulting "New Hampshire Grants" dispute led to the rise of the Green Mountain Boys, and the later establishment of the Vermont Republic. New Hampshire's claim upon the land was extinguished in 1764 by royal order of George III, and in 1790 the State of New York ceded its land claim to Vermont for 30,000 dollars.
Jump up ^ The Virginia General Assembly adopted legislation on December 18, 1789 separating its "District of Kentucky" from the rest of the State and approving its statehood.[17]
Jump up ^ The exact date upon which Ohio became a state is unclear. On April 30, 1802 the 7th Congress had passed an act "authorizing the inhabitants of Ohio to form a Constitution and state government, and admission of Ohio into the Union" (Sess. 1, ch. 40, 2 Stat. 173). On February 19, 1803 the same Congress passed an act "providing for the execution of the laws of the United States in the State of Ohio" (Sess. 2, ch. 7, 2 Stat. 201). Neither act, however, set a formal date of statehood. An official statehood date for Ohio was not set until 1953, when the 83rd Congress passed a Joint resolution "for admitting the State of Ohio into the Union", (Pub.L. 83–204, 67 Stat. 407, enacted August 7, 1953) which designated March 1, 1803, as that date.[20]
Jump up ^ The Massachusetts General Court passed enabling legislation on June 19, 1819 separating the "District of Maine" from the rest of the State (an action approved by the voters in Maine on July 19, 1819 by 17,001 to 7,132); then, on February 25, 1820, passed a follow-up measure officially accepting the fact of Maine's imminent statehood.[17]
Jump up ^ On May 13, 1862, the General Assembly of the Restored Government of Virginia passed an act granting permission for creation of West Virginia.[34] Later, by its ruling in Virginia v. West Virginia (1871), the Supreme Court implicitly affirmed that the breakaway Virginia counties did have the proper consents necessary to become a separate state.[35]
Jump up ^ When President Benjamin Harrison signed the statehood proclamations for North and South Dakota he shuffled the papers on his desk and covered up all but the signature line of the documents. No one knows which state he signed into existence first. North Dakota's proclamation was published first in the Statutes at Large, as it is first in alphabetical order.[37]
^ Jump up to: a b Brought into existence within moments of each other on the same day, North and South Dakota are the nation's only twin-born states.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Erler, Edward. "Essays on Amendment XIV: Citizenship". The Heritage Foundation.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions About the Minnesota Legislature". Minnesota State Legislature.
Jump up ^ Kristin D. Burnett. "Congressional Apportionment (2010 Census Briefs C2010BR-08)" (PDF). U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration.
Jump up ^ Elhauge, Einer R. "Essays on Article II: Presidential Electors". The Heritage Foundation.
Jump up ^ "Doctrine of the Equality of States". Justia.com.
Jump up ^ Jensen, Merrill (1959). The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. xi, 184. ISBN 978-0-299-00204-6.
Jump up ^ "Texas v. White 74 U.S. 700 (1868)". Justia.com.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Vile, John R. (2005). The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding (Volume 1: A-M). ABC-CLIO. p. 658. ISBN 1-85109-669-8.
Jump up ^ "Delaware Government". Delaware.gov. Government Information Center, Delaware Department of State.
Jump up ^ "Overview of Pennsylvania History - 1776-1861: Independence to the Civil War". PA.gov. Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission.
Jump up ^ "1787 Convention Minutes". NJ.gov. New Jersey Department of State.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: January 9". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: July 26". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: November 21". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "The 14th State". Vermont History Explorer. Vermont Historical Society.
Jump up ^ "Constitution Square Historic Site". Danville/Boyle County Convention and Visitors Bureau. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b "Official Name and Status History of the several States and U.S. Territories". TheGreenPapers.com.
Jump up ^ "State History Timeline". TN.gov. Tennessee Department of State. Archived from the original on April 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ Blue, Frederick J. (Autumn 2002). "The Date of Ohio Statehood". Ohio Academy of History Newsletter. Archived from the original on September 11, 2010.
Jump up ^ Clearing up the Confusion surrounding Ohio's Admission to Statehood
Jump up ^ "About Louisiana: quick facts". louisiana.gov. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Welcome from the Mississippi Bicentennial Celebration Commission". Mississippi Bicentennial Celebration Commission. Retrieved February 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: December 3". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "Alabama History Timeline: 1800-1860". alabama.gov. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: March 15". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: August 10". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: June 15". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: January 26". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: May 29". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "California Admission Day September 9, 1850". CA.gov. California Department of Parks and Recreation.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: May 11". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: January 29". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: June 20". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "A State of Convenience: The Creation of West Virginia, Chapter Twelve, Reorganized Government of Virginia Approves Separation". Wvculture.org. West Virginia Division of Culture and History.
Jump up ^ "Virginia v. West Virginia 78 U.S. 39 (1870)". Justia.com.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: August 1". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ MacPherson, James; Burbach, Kevin (November 2, 2014). "At 125 years of Dakotas statehood, rivalry remains". Bismarck Tribune.
^ Jump up to: a b "Today in History: November 2". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ Wishart, David J. (ed.). "Montana". Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Retrieved February 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: November 11". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ Thatcher, Linda Thatcher (2016). "Struggle For Statehood Chronology". historytogo.utah.gov. State of Utah.
Jump up ^ "Today in History: November 16". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ Rodgers, Paul (2011). United States Constitutional Law: An Introduction. McFarland. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-7864-6017-5.
External links[edit]
Find more aboutstatehoodat Wikipedia's sister projects
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"U.S. States Videos". History.com.
"Dates of statehood". 50states.com.
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Authentication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses of the terms "authentic" and "authenticity", see Authenticity.
Authentication (from Greek: αὐθεντικός authentikos, "real, genuine", from αὐθέντης authentes, "author") is the act of confirming the truth of an attribute of a single piece of data claimed true by an entity. In contrast with identification, which refers to the act of stating or otherwise indicating a claim purportedly attesting to a person or thing's identity, authentication is the process of actually confirming that identity. It might involve confirming the identity of a person by validating their identity documents, verifying the authenticity of a website with a digital certificate,[1] determining the age of an artifact by carbon dating, or ensuring that a product is what its packaging and labeling claim to be. In other words, authentication often involves verifying the validity of at least one form of identification.
Contents
[hide]
1 Methods
2 Factors and identity
2.1 Types
2.1.1 Single-factor authentication
2.1.2 Two-factor authentication
2.1.3 Multi-factor authentication
2.1.4 Strong authentication
2.1.5 Continuous Authentication
3 Digital authentication
4 Product authentication
4.1 Packaging
5 Information content
5.1 Factual verification
5.2 Video authentication
5.3 Literacy and literature authentication
6 History and state-of-the-art
7 Authorization
8 Access control
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Methods[edit]
Main article: Provenance
Authentication is relevant to multiple fields. In art, antiques and anthropology, a common problem is verifying that a given artifact was produced by a certain person or in a certain place or period of history. In computer science, verifying a person's identity is often required to allow access to confidential data or systems.
Authentication can be considered to be of three types:
The first type of authentication is accepting proof of identity given by a credible person who has first-hand evidence that the identity is genuine. When authentication is required of art or physical objects, this proof could be a friend, family member or colleague attesting to the item's provenance, perhaps by having witnessed the item in its creator's possession. With autographed sports memorabilia, this could involve someone attesting that they witnessed the object being signed. A vendor selling branded items implies authenticity, while he or she may not have evidence that every step in the supply chain was authenticated. Centralized authority-based trust relationships back most secure internet communication through known public certificate authorities; decentralized peer-based trust, also known as a web of trust, is used for personal services such as email or files (pretty good privacy, GNU Privacy Guard) and trust is established by known individuals signing each other's cryptographic key at Key signing parties, for instance.
Authentication using spectroscopic material analysis: The differences in constituent materials reveals the counterfeit item.[2]
The second type of authentication is comparing the attributes of the object itself to what is known about objects of that origin. For example, an art expert might look for similarities in the style of painting, check the location and form of a signature, or compare the object to an old photograph. An archaeologist, on the other hand, might use carbon dating to verify the age of an artifact, do a chemical and spectroscopic analysis of the materials used, or compare the style of construction or decoration to other artifacts of similar origin. The physics of sound and light, and comparison with a known physical environment, can be used to examine the authenticity of audio recordings, photographs, or videos. Documents can be verified as being created on ink or paper readily available at the time of the item's implied creation.
Attribute comparison may be vulnerable to forgery. In general, it relies on the facts that creating a forgery indistinguishable from a genuine artifact requires expert knowledge, that mistakes are easily made, and that the amount of effort required to do so is considerably greater than the amount of profit that can be gained from the forgery.
In art and antiques, certificates are of great importance for authenticating an object of interest and value. Certificates can, however, also be forged, and the authentication of these poses a problem. For instance, the son of Han van Meegeren, the well-known art-forger, forged the work of his father and provided a certificate for its provenance as well; see the article Jacques van Meegeren.
Criminal and civil penalties for fraud, forgery, and counterfeiting can reduce the incentive for falsification, depending on the risk of getting caught.
Currency and other financial instruments commonly use this second type of authentication method. Bills, coins, and cheques incorporate hard-to-duplicate physical features, such as fine printing or engraving, distinctive feel, watermarks, and holographic imagery, which are easy for trained receivers to verify.
The third type of authentication relies on documentation or other external affirmations. In criminal courts, the rules of evidence often require establishing the chain of custody of evidence presented. This can be accomplished through a written evidence log, or by testimony from the police detectives and forensics staff that handled it. Some antiques are accompanied by certificates attesting to their authenticity. Signed sports memorabilia is usually accompanied by a certificate of authenticity. These external records have their own problems of forgery and perjury, and are also vulnerable to being separated from the artifact and lost.
In computer science, a user can be given access to secure systems based on user credentials that imply authenticity. A network administrator can give a user a password, or provide the user with a key card or other access device to allow system access. In this case, authenticity is implied but not guaranteed.
Consumer goods such as pharmaceuticals, perfume, fashion clothing can use all three forms of authentication to prevent counterfeit goods from taking advantage of a popular brand's reputation (damaging the brand owner's sales and reputation). As mentioned above, having an item for sale in a reputable store implicitly attests to it being genuine, the first type of authentication. The second type of authentication might involve comparing the quality and craftsmanship of an item, such as an expensive handbag, to genuine articles. The third type of authentication could be the presence of a trademark on the item, which is a legally protected marking, or any other identifying feature which aids consumers in the identification of genuine brand-name goods. With software, companies have taken great steps to protect from counterfeiters, including adding holograms, security rings, security threads and color shifting ink.[3]
Factors and identity[edit]
The ways in which someone may be authenticated fall into three categories, based on what are known as the factors of authentication: something the user knows, something the user has, and something the user is. Each authentication factor covers a range of elements used to authenticate or verify a person's identity prior to being granted access, approving a transaction request, signing a document or other work product, granting authority to others, and establishing a chain of authority.
Security research has determined that for a positive authentication, elements from at least two, and preferably all three, factors should be verified.[4] The three factors (classes) and some of elements of each factor are:
This is a picture of the front (top) and back (bottom) of an ID Card.
the knowledge factors: Something the user knows (e.g., a password, partial password, pass phrase, or personal identification number (PIN), challenge response (the user must answer a question, or pattern), Security question
the ownership factors: Something the user has (e.g., wrist band, ID card, security token, cell phone with built-in hardware token, software token, or cell phone holding a software token)
the inherence factors: Something the user is or does (e.g., fingerprint, retinal pattern, DNA sequence (there are assorted definitions of what is sufficient), signature, face, voice, unique bio-electric signals, or other biometric identifier).
Types[edit]
The most frequent types of authentication available in use for authenticating online users differ in the level of security provided by combining factors from the one or more of the three categories of factors for authentication:
Single-factor authentication[edit]
As the weakest level of authentication, only a single component from one of the three categories of factors is used to authenticate an individual’s identity. The use of only one factor does not offer much protection from misuse or malicious intrusion. This type of authentication is not recommended for financial or personally relevant transactions that warrant a higher level of security.[1]
Two-factor authentication[edit]
Main article: Two-factor authentication
When elements representing two factors are required for authentication, the term two-factor authentication is applied—e.g. a bankcard (something the user has) and a PIN (something the user knows). Business networks may require users to provide a password (knowledge factor) and a pseudorandom number from a security token (ownership factor). Access to a very-high-security system might require a mantrap screening of height, weight, facial, and fingerprint checks (several inherence factor elements) plus a PIN and a day code (knowledge factor elements), but this is still a two-factor authentication.
Multi-factor authentication[edit]
Instead of using two factors as used in 2FA, multiple authentication factors are used to enhance security of a transaction in comparison to the 2FA authentication process.[1]
Strong authentication[edit]
Main article: strong authentication
The U.S. government's National Information Assurance Glossary defines strong authentication as
layered authentication approach relying on two or more authenticators to establish the identity of an originator or receiver of information.
[5] The European Central Bank (ECB) has defined strong authentication as “a procedure based on two or more of the three authentication factors”. The factors that are used must be mutually independent and at least one factor must be “non-reusable and non-replicable”, except in the case of an inherence factor and must also be incapable of being stolen off the Internet. In the European, as well as in the US-American understanding, strong authentication is very similar to multi-factor authentication or 2FA, but exceeding those with more rigorous requirements.[1][6]
The Fast IDentity Online (FIDO) Alliance has been striving to establish technical specifications for strong authentication.[7]
Continuous Authentication[edit]
Conventional computer systems authenticate users only at the initial log-in session, which can be the cause of a critical security flaw. To resolve this problem, systems need continuous user authentication methods that continuously monitor and authenticate users based on some biometric trait(s). A study used behavioural biometrics based in writing styles as a continuous authentication method.[8]
Digital authentication[edit]
A High Level overview concerning identities and authenticity.
The authentication of information can pose special problems with electronic communication, such as vulnerability to man-in-the-middle attacks, whereby a third party taps into the communication stream, and poses as each of the two other communicating parties, in order to intercept information from each. Extra identity factors can be required to authenticate each party's identity.
The term digital authentication refers to a group of processes where the confidence for user identities is established and presented via electronic methods to an information system. It is also referred to as e-authentication. The digital authentication process creates technical challenges because of the need to authenticate individuals or entities remotely over a network. The American National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has created a generic model for digital authentication that describes the processes that are used to accomplish secure authentication:
Enrollment – an individual applies to a credential service provider (CSP) to initiate the enrollment process. After successfully proving the applicant’s identity, the CSP allows the applicant to become a subscriber.
Authentication – After becoming a subscriber, the user receives an authenticator e.g., a token and credentials, such as a user name. He or she is then permitted to perform online transactions within an authenticated session with a relying party, where they must provide proof that he or she possesses one or more authenticators.
Life-cycle maintenance – the CSP is charged with the task of maintaining the user’s credential of the course of its lifetime, while the subscriber is responsible for maintaining his or her authenticator(s).[1][9]
Product authentication[edit]
A security hologram label on an electronics box for authentication
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Counterfeit products are often offered to consumers as being authentic. Counterfeit consumer goods such as electronics, music, apparel, and counterfeit medications have been sold as being legitimate. Efforts to control the supply chain and educate consumers help ensure that authentic products are sold and used. Even security printing on packages, labels, and nameplates, however, is subject to counterfeiting.
A secure key storage device can be used for authentication in consumer electronics, network authentication, license management, supply chain management, etc. Generally the device to be authenticated needs some sort of wireless or wired digital connection to either a host system or a network. Nonetheless, the component being authenticated need not be electronic in nature as an authentication chip can be mechanically attached and read through a connector to the host e.g. an authenticated ink tank for use with a printer. For products and services that these secure coprocessors can be applied to, they can offer a solution that can be much more difficult to counterfeit than most other options while at the same time being more easily verified.
Packaging[edit]
Packaging and labeling can be engineered to help reduce the risks of counterfeit consumer goods or the theft and resale of products.[10][11] Some package constructions are more difficult to copy and some have pilfer-indicating seals. Counterfeit goods, unauthorized sales (diversion), material substitution and tampering can all be reduced with these anti-counterfeiting technologies. Packages may include authentication seals and use security printing to help indicate that the package and contents are not counterfeit; these too are subject to counterfeiting. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye-packs, RFID tags, or electronic article surveillance[12] tags that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Anti-counterfeiting technologies that can be used with packaging include:
Taggant fingerprinting – uniquely coded microscopic materials that are verified from a database
Encrypted micro-particles – unpredictably placed markings (numbers, layers and colors) not visible to the human eye
Holograms – graphics printed on seals, patches, foils or labels and used at point of sale for visual verification
Micro-printing – second-line authentication often used on currencies
Serialized barcodes
UV printing – marks only visible under UV light
Track and trace systems – use codes to link products to database tracking system
Water indicators – become visible when contacted with water
DNA tracking – genes embedded onto labels that can be traced
Color-shifting ink or film – visible marks that switch colors or texture when tilted
Tamper evident seals and tapes – destructible or graphically verifiable at point of sale
2d barcodes – data codes that can be tracked
RFID chips
NFC chips
Information content[edit]
Literary forgery can involve imitating the style of a famous author. If an original manuscript, typewritten text, or recording is available, then the medium itself (or its packaging – anything from a box to e-mail headers) can help prove or disprove the authenticity of the document. However, text, audio, and video can be copied into new media, possibly leaving only the informational content itself to use in authentication. Various systems have been invented to allow authors to provide a means for readers to reliably authenticate that a given message originated from or was relayed by them. These involve authentication factors like:
A difficult-to-reproduce physical artifact, such as a seal, signature, watermark, special stationery, or fingerprint.
A shared secret, such as a passphrase, in the content of the message.
An electronic signature; public-key infrastructure is often used to cryptographically guarantee that a message has been signed by the holder of a particular private key.
The opposite problem is detection of plagiarism, where information from a different author is passed off as a person's own work. A common technique for proving plagiarism is the discovery of another copy of the same or very similar text, which has different attribution. In some cases, excessively high quality or a style mismatch may raise suspicion of plagiarism.
Factual verification[edit]
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Determining the truth or factual accuracy of information in a message is generally considered a separate problem from authentication. A wide range of techniques, from detective work, to fact checking in journalism, to scientific experiment might be employed.
Video authentication[edit]
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
It is sometimes necessary to authenticate the veracity of video recordings used as evidence in judicial proceedings. Proper chain-of-custody records and secure storage facilities can help ensure the admissibility of digital or analog recordings by a court.
Literacy and literature authentication[edit]
In literacy, authentication is a readers’ process of questioning the veracity of an aspect of literature and then verifying those questions via research. The fundamental question for authentication of literature is – Does one believe it? Related to that, an authentication project is therefore a reading and writing activity which students documents the relevant research process ([13]). It builds students' critical literacy. The documentation materials for literature go beyond narrative texts and likely include informational texts, primary sources, and multimedia. The process typically involves both internet and hands-on library research. When authenticating historical fiction in particular, readers consider the extent that the major historical events, as well as the culture portrayed (e.g., the language, clothing, food, gender roles), are believable for the period.[14]
History and state-of-the-art[edit]
NSA KAL-55B Tactical Authentication System used by the U.S. military during the Vietnam War – National Cryptologic Museum
Historically, fingerprints have been used as the most authoritative method of authentication, but court cases in the US and elsewhere have raised fundamental doubts about fingerprint reliability.[citation needed] Outside of the legal system as well, fingerprints have been shown to be easily spoofable, with British Telecom's top computer-security official noting that "few" fingerprint readers have not already been tricked by one spoof or another.[15] Hybrid or two-tiered authentication methods offer a compelling[according to whom?] solution, such as private keys encrypted by fingerprint inside of a USB device.
In a computer data context, cryptographic methods have been developed (see digital signature and challenge-response authentication) which are currently[when?] not spoofable if and only if the originator's key has not been compromised. That the originator (or anyone other than an attacker) knows (or doesn't know) about a compromise is irrelevant. It is not known whether these cryptographically based authentication methods are provably secure, since unanticipated mathematical developments may make them vulnerable to attack in future. If that were to occur, it may call into question much of the authentication in the past. In particular, a digitally signed contract may be questioned when a new attack on the cryptography underlying the signature is discovered.[citation needed]
Authorization[edit]
Main article: Authorization
A soldier checks a driver's identification card before allowing her to enter a military base.
The process of authorization is distinct from that of authentication. Whereas authentication is the process of verifying that "you are who you say you are", authorization is the process of verifying that "you are permitted to do what you are trying to do". This does not mean authorization presupposes authentication; an anonymous agent could be authorized to a limited action set.[citation needed]
For example, a client showing proper identification credentials to a bank teller is asking to be authenticated that he really is the one whose identification he is showing. A client whose authentication request is approved becomes authorized to access the accounts of that account holder, but no others.
However note that if a stranger tries to access someone else's account with his own identification credentials, the stranger's identification credentials will still be successfully authenticated because they are genuine and not counterfeit; however, the stranger will not be successfully authorized to access the account, as the stranger's identification credentials had not been previously set to be eligible to access the account, even if valid (i.e. authentic).
Similarly when someone tries to log on a computer, they are usually first requested to identify themselves with a login name and support that with a password. Afterwards, this combination is checked against an existing login-password validity record to check if the combination is authentic. If so, the user becomes authenticated (i.e. the identification he supplied in step 1 is valid, or authentic). Finally, a set of pre-defined permissions and restrictions for that particular login name is assigned to this user, which completes the final step, authorization.
To distinguish "authentication" from the closely related "authorization", the shorthand notations A1 (authentication), A2 (authorization) as well as AuthN / AuthZ (AuthR) or Au / Az are used in some communities.[16]
Normally delegation was considered to be a part of authorization domain. Recently authentication is also used for various type of delegation tasks. Delegation in IT network is also a new but evolving field.[17]
Access control[edit]
Main article: Access control
One familiar use of authentication and authorization is access control. A computer system that is supposed to be used only by those authorized must attempt to detect and exclude the unauthorized. Access to it is therefore usually controlled by insisting on an authentication procedure to establish with some degree of confidence the identity of the user, granting privileges established for that identity. One such procedure involves the usage of Layer 8 which allows IT administrators to identify users, control Internet activity of users in the network, set user based policies and generate reports by username. Common examples of access control involving authentication include:
Asking for photoID when a contractor first arrives at a house to perform work.
Using captcha as a means of asserting that a user is a human being and not a computer program.
By using a one-time password (OTP), received on a tele-network enabled device like mobile phone, as an authentication password or PIN
A computer program using a blind credential to authenticate to another
Entering a country with a passport
Logging into a computer
Using a confirmation E-mail to verify ownership of an e-mail address
Using an Internet banking system
Withdrawing cash from an ATM
In some cases, ease of access is balanced against the strictness of access checks. For example, the credit card network does not require a personal identification number for authentication of the claimed identity, and a small transaction usually does not require a signature of the authenticated person for proof of authorization of the transaction. The security of the system is maintained by limiting distribution of credit card numbers, and by the threat of punishment for fraud.
Computer security experts[who?] argue that it is impossible to prove the identity of a computer user with absolute certainty. It is only possible to apply one or more tests which, if passed, have been previously declared to be sufficient to proceed. The problem is to determine which tests are sufficient, and many such are inadequate. Any given test can be spoofed one way or another, with varying degrees of difficulty.[citation needed]
Computer security experts are now also recognising that despite extensive efforts, as a business, research and network community, we[who?] still do not have a secure understanding of the requirements for authentication, in a range of circumstances. Lacking this understanding is a significant barrier to identifying optimum methods of authentication. major questions are:
What is authentication for?
Who benefits from authentication/who is disadvantaged by authentication failures?
What disadvantages can effective authentication actually guard against?
See also[edit]
This "see also" section may contain an excessive number of suggestions. Please ensure that only the most relevant links are given, that they are not red links, and that any links are not already in this article. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Access Control Service
AssureID
Atomic authorization
Authentication Open Service Interface Definition
Authenticity in art
Authorization
Basic access authentication
Biometrics
CAPTCHA
Chip Authentication Program
Closed-loop authentication
Diameter (protocol)
Digital identity
EAP
Electronic authentication
Encrypted key exchange (EKE)
Fingerprint Verification Competition
Geolocation
Global Trust Center
Hash-based message authentication code
Identification (information)
Java Authentication and Authorization Service
Kantara Initiative
Kerberos
Multi-factor authentication
Needham–Schroeder protocol
OAuth – an open standard for authorization
OpenAthens
OpenID Connect – an authentication method for the web
OpenID – an authentication method for the web
Provenance
Public-key cryptography
RADIUS
Reliance authentication
Secret sharing
Secure Remote Password protocol (SRP)
Secure Shell
Security printing
SQRL
Strong authentication
Tamper-evident technology
TCP Wrapper
Time-based authentication
Two-factor authentication
Usability of web authentication systems
Woo–Lam
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Turner, Dawn M. "Digital Authentication: The Basics". Cryptomathic. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Ahi, Kiarash (May 26, 2016). "Advanced terahertz techniques for quality control and counterfeit detection". Proc. SPIE 9856, Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems X: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense, 98560G. doi:10.1117/12.2228684. Retrieved May 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ "How to Tell – Software". microsoft.com. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council (2008). "Authentication in an Internet Banking Environment" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-31.
Jump up ^ Committee on National Security Systems. "National Information Assurance (IA) Glossary" (PDF). National Counterintelligence and Security Center. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
Jump up ^ European Central Bank. "Recommendations for the Security of Internet Payments" (PDF). European Central Bank. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "FIDO Alliance Passes 150 Post-Password Certified Products". InfoSecurity Magazine. 2016-04-05. Retrieved 2016-06-13.
Jump up ^ Brocardo ML, Traore I, Woungang I, Obaidat MS. "Authorship verification using deep belief network systems". Int J Commun Syst. 2017. doi:10.1002/dac.3259
Jump up ^ "Draft NIST Special Publication 800-63-3: Digital Authentication Guideline". National Institute of Standards and Technology, USA. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Eliasson, C; Matousek (2007). "Noninvasive Authentication of Pharmaceutical Products through Packaging Using Spatially Offset Raman Spectroscopy". Analytical Chemistry. 79 (4): 1696–1701. PMID 17297975. doi:10.1021/ac062223z. Retrieved 9 Nov 2014.
Jump up ^ Li, Ling (March 2013). "Technology designed to combat fakes in the global supply chain". Business Horizons. 56 (2): 167–177. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2012.11.010. Retrieved 9 Nov 2014.
Jump up ^ How Anti-shoplifting Devices Work", HowStuffWorks.com
Jump up ^ Norton, D. E. (2004). The effective teaching of language arts. New York: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Jump up ^ McTigue, E.; Thornton, E.; Wiese, P. (2013). "Authentication Projects for Historical Fiction: Do you believe it?". The Reading Teacher. 66: 495–505. doi:10.1002/trtr.1132.
Jump up ^ The Register, UK; Dan Goodin; 30 March 2008; Get your German Interior Minister's fingerprint, here. Compared to other solutions, "It's basically like leaving the password to your computer everywhere you go, without you being able to control it anymore", one of the hackers comments.
Jump up ^ "AuthN, AuthZ and Gluecon – CloudAve". cloudave.com. 26 April 2010. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
Jump up ^ A mechanism for identity delegation at authentication level, N Ahmed, C Jensen – Identity and Privacy in the Internet Age – Springer 2009
External links[edit]
National Institute of Standards and Technology, U.S. Department of Commerce (August 2013). "Electronic Authentication Guideline – NIST Special Publication 800-63-2" (PDF).
" New NIST Publications Describe Standards for Identity Credentials and Authentication Systems"
[hide]
v
t
e
Authentication
Authentication APIs
BSD Authentication (BSD Auth)
eAuthentication
Generic Security Services API (GSSAPI)
Java Authentication and Authorization Service (JAAS)
OAuth
OpenID
OpenID Connect (OIDC)
Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM)
Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL)
Security Support Provider Interface (SSPI)
XCert Universal Database API (XUDA)
Authentication protocol
ACF2
AKA
CAVE-based authentication
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TACACS
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Authority control
LCCN: sh85009783
BNF: cb11976657c (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Authentication&oldid=797330926"
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