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Ruby
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This article is about the mineral or gem. For other uses, see Ruby (disambiguation).
Ruby
Natural ruby crystals from Winza, Tanzania
General
Category
Oxide mineral variety
Formula
(repeating unit)
aluminium oxide with chromium, Al2O3:Cr
Crystal system
Trigonal
Crystal class
Hexagonal scalenohedral (3m)
H-M symbol: (3 2/m)
Space group
R3c[1]
Identification
Color
Near colorless through pink through all shades of red to a deep crimson
Crystal habit
Terminated tabular hexagonal prisms
Cleavage
No true cleavage
Fracture
Conchoidal, splintery
Tenacity
Brittle
Mohs scale hardness
9.0
Luster
Subadamantine, vitreous, pearly (on partings)
Streak
White
Diaphaneity
Transparent, translucent
Specific gravity
3.97 – 4.05
Optical properties
Uniaxial -
Refractive index
nω=1.768–1.772
nε=1.760–1.763
Birefringence
0.008
Pleochroism
Strong: purplish-red – orangy-red
Dispersion
0.018
Ultraviolet fluorescence
Red under longwave
References
[2]
A ruby is a pink to blood-red colored gemstone, a variety of the mineral corundum (aluminium oxide). Other varieties of gem-quality corundum are called sapphires. Ruby is one of the traditional cardinal gems, together with amethyst, sapphire, emerald, and diamond.[3] The word ruby comes from ruber, Latin for red. The color of a ruby is due to the element chromium.
The quality of a ruby is determined by its color, cut, and clarity, which, along with carat weight, affect its value. The brightest and most valuable shade of red called blood-red or pigeon blood, commands a large premium over other rubies of similar quality. After color follows clarity: similar to diamonds, a clear stone will command a premium, but a ruby without any needle-like rutile inclusions may indicate that the stone has been treated. Ruby is the traditional birthstone for July and is usually more pink than garnet, although some rhodolite garnets have a similar pinkish hue to most rubies. The world's most valuable ruby is the Sunrise Ruby.
Contents
1 Physical properties
1.1 Ruby vs. pink sapphire
2 Natural occurrence
3 Factors affecting value
4 Treatments and enhancements
5 Synthetic and imitation rubies
6 Records and famous rubies
7 Historical and cultural references
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Physical properties
Crystal structure of rubies
Rubies have a hardness of 9.0 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Among the natural gems only moissanite and diamond are harder, with diamond having a Mohs hardness of 10.0 and moissanite falling somewhere in between corundum (ruby) and diamond in hardness. Sapphire, ruby, and pure corundum are α-alumina, the most stable form of Al2O3, in which 3 electrons leave each aluminum ion to join the regular octahedral group of six nearby O2− ions; in pure corundum this leaves all of the aluminum ions with a very stable configuration of no unpaired electrons or unfilled energy levels, and the crystal is perfectly colorless.
When a chromium atom replaces an occasional aluminum atom, it too loses 3 electrons to become a chromium3+ ion to maintain the charge balance of the Al2O3 crystal. However, the Cr3+ ions are larger and have electron orbitals in different directions than aluminum. The octahedral arrangement of the O2− ions is distorted, and the energy levels of the different orbitals of those Cr3+ ions are slightly altered because of the directions to the O2− ions.[4] Those energy differences correspond to absorption in the ultraviolet, violet, and yellow-green regions of the spectrum.
Transmittance of ruby in optical and near-IR spectra. Note the two broad violet and yellow-green absorption bands and one narrow absorption band at the wavelength of 694 nm, which is the wavelength of the ruby laser.
If one percent of the aluminum ions are replaced by chromium in ruby, the yellow-green absorption results in a red color for the gem.[4] Additionally, absorption at any of the above wavelengths stimulates fluorescent emission of 694-nanometer-wavelength red light, which adds to its red color and perceived luster.
After absorbing short-wavelength light, there is a short interval of time when the crystal lattice of ruby is in an excited state before fluorescence occurs. If 694-nanometer photons pass through the crystal during that time, they can stimulate more fluorescent photons to be emitted in-phase with them, thus strengthening the intensity of that red light. By arranging mirrors or other means to pass emitted light repeatedly through the crystal, a ruby laser in this way produces a very high intensity of coherent red light.
All natural rubies have imperfections in them, including color impurities and inclusions of rutile needles known as "silk". Gemologists use these needle inclusions found in natural rubies to distinguish them from synthetics, simulants, or substitutes. Usually, the rough stone is heated before cutting. These days, almost all rubies are treated in some form, with heat treatment being the most common practice. Untreated rubies of high quality command a large premium.
Some rubies show a three-point or six-point asterism or "star". These rubies are cut into cabochons to display the effect properly. Asterisms are best visible with a single-light source and move across the stone as the light moves or the stone is rotated. Such effects occur when light is reflected off the "silk" (the structurally oriented rutile needle inclusions) in a certain way. This is one example where inclusions increase the value of a gemstone. Furthermore, rubies can show color changes—though this occurs very rarely—as well as chatoyancy or the "cat's eye" effect.
Ruby vs. pink sapphire
Generally, gemstone-quality corundum in all shades of red, including pink, are called rubies.[5][6] However, in the United States, a minimum color saturation must be met to be called a ruby; otherwise, the stone will be called a pink sapphire.[5] Drawing a distinction between rubies and pink sapphires is relatively new, having arisen sometime in the 20th century. Often, the distinction between ruby and pink sapphire is not clear and can be debated.[7] As a result of the difficulty and subjectiveness of such distinctions, trade organizations such as the International Colored Gemstone Association (ICGA) have adopted the broader definition for ruby which encompasses its lighter shades, including pink.[8][9]
Natural occurrence
The Mogok Valley in Upper Myanmar (Burma) was for centuries the world's main source for rubies. That region has produced some exceptional rubies, however in recent years few good rubies have been found. In central Myanmar, the area of Mong Hsu began producing rubies during the 1990s and rapidly became the world's main ruby mining area. The most recently found ruby deposit in Myanmar is in Namya (Namyazeik) located in the northern state of Kachin.
Historically, rubies have also been mined in Thailand, in the Pailin and Samlout District of Cambodia, as well as in Afghanistan, Australia, Brazil, Colombia, India, Namibia, Japan, and Scotland; after the Second World War ruby deposits were found in Madagascar, Nepal, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Tanzania, and Vietnam.[10] In Sri Lanka, lighter shades of rubies (often "pink sapphires") are more commonly found. The Republic of Macedonia is the only country in mainland Europe to have naturally occurring rubies. They can mainly be found around the city of Prilep. Macedonian rubies have a unique raspberry color. The ruby is also included on the Macedonian coat of arms.[11] A few rubies have been found in the U.S. states of Montana, North Carolina, South Carolina and Wyoming.
Spinel, another red gemstone, is sometimes found along with rubies in the same gem gravel or marble. Red spinels may be mistaken for rubies by those lacking experience with gems. However, the finest red spinels can have values approaching that of an average ruby.[12]
Factors affecting value
Rubies, as with other gemstones, are graded using criteria known as the four Cs, namely color, cut, clarity and carat weight. Rubies are also evaluated on the basis of their geographic origin.
Color: In the evaluation of colored gemstones, color is the most important factor. Color divides into three components: hue, saturation and tone. Hue refers to color as we normally use the term. Transparent gemstones occur in the pure spectral hues of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet.[13] In nature, there are rarely pure hues, so when speaking of the hue of a gemstone, we speak of primary and secondary and sometimes tertiary hues. Ruby is defined to be red. All other hues of the gem species corundum are called sapphire. Ruby may exhibit a range of secondary hues, including orange, purple, violet, and pink.
A naturally occurring ruby crystal
Natural ruby with inclusions
A cut pink ruby
Purple rubies
Victorian ruby and diamond brooch
The finest ruby is described as being a vivid medium-dark toned red. Secondary hues add an additional complication. Pink, orange, and purple are the normal secondary hues in ruby. Of the three, purple is preferred because it reinforces the red, making it appear richer.[13] Purple also occupies a position on the color wheel halfway between red and blue. When a purplish-red ruby is set in yellow, the yellow neutralizes its complement blue, leaving the stone appearing to be pure red in the setting.[original research?]
Treatments and enhancements
Improving the quality of gemstones by treating them is common practice. Some treatments are used in almost all cases and are therefore considered acceptable. During the late 1990s, a large supply of low-cost materials caused a sudden surge in supply of heat-treated rubies, leading to a downward pressure on ruby prices.
Improvements used include color alteration, improving transparency by dissolving rutile inclusions, healing of fractures (cracks) or even completely filling them.
The most common treatment is the application of heat. Most rubies at the lower end of the market are heat treated to improve color, remove purple tinge, blue patches, and silk. These heat treatments typically occur around temperatures of 1800 °C (3300 °F).[14] Some rubies undergo a process of low tube heat, when the stone is heated over charcoal of a temperature of about 1300 °C (2400 °F) for 20 to 30 minutes. The silk is partially broken, and the color is improved.
Another treatment, which has become more frequent in recent years, is lead glass filling. Filling the fractures inside the ruby with lead glass (or a similar material) dramatically improves the transparency of the stone, making previously unsuitable rubies fit for applications in jewelry.[15] The process is done in four steps:
The rough stones are pre-polished to eradicate all surface impurities that may affect the process
The rough is cleaned with hydrogen fluoride
The first heating process during which no fillers are added. The heating process eradicates impurities inside the fractures. Although this can be done at temperatures up to 1400 °C (2500 °F) it most likely occurs at a temperature of around 900 °C (1600 °F) since the rutile silk is still intact.
The second heating process in an electrical oven with different chemical additives. Different solutions and mixes have shown to be successful, however mostly lead-containing glass-powder is used at present. The ruby is dipped into oils, then covered with powder, embedded on a tile and placed in the oven where it is heated at around 900 °C (1600 °F) for one hour in an oxidizing atmosphere. The orange colored powder transforms upon heating into a transparent to yellow-colored paste, which fills all fractures. After cooling the color of the paste is fully transparent and dramatically improves the overall transparency of the ruby.[16]
If a color needs to be added, the glass powder can be "enhanced" with copper or other metal oxides as well as elements such as sodium, calcium, potassium etc.
The second heating process can be repeated three to four times, even applying different mixtures.[17] When jewelry containing rubies is heated (for repairs) it should not be coated with boracic acid or any other substance, as this can etch the surface; it does not have to be "protected" like a diamond.
The treatment can identified by noting bubbles in cavities and fractures using a 10x loupe.[18]
Synthetic and imitation rubies
Artificial ruby under a normal light (top) and under a green laser light (bottom). Red light is emitted
In 1837, Gaudin made the first synthetic rubies by fusing potash alum at a high temperature with a little chromium as a pigment. In 1847, Ebelmen made white sapphire by fusing alumina in boric acid. In 1877, Frenic and Freil made crystal corundum from which small stones could be cut. Frimy and Auguste Verneuil manufactured artificial ruby by fusing BaF2 and Al2O3 with a little chromium at red heat. In 1903, Verneuil announced he could produce synthetic rubies on a commercial scale using this flame fusion process.[19] By 1910, Verneuil's laboratory had expanded into a 30 furnace production facility, with annual gemstone production having reached 1,000 kilograms (2,000 lb) in 1907.
Other processes in which synthetic rubies can be produced are through Czochralski's pulling process, flux process, and the hydrothermal process. Most synthetic rubies originate from flame fusion, due to the low costs involved. Synthetic rubies may have no imperfections visible to the naked eye but magnification may reveal curves, striae and gas bubbles. The fewer the number and the less obvious the imperfections, the more valuable the ruby is; unless there are no imperfections (i.e., a perfect ruby), in which case it will be suspected of being artificial. Dopants are added to some manufactured rubies so they can be identified as synthetic, but most need gemological testing to determine their origin.
Synthetic rubies have technological uses as well as gemological ones. Rods of synthetic ruby are used to make ruby lasers and masers. The first working laser was made by Theodore H. Maiman in 1960.[20] Maiman used a solid-state light-pumped synthetic ruby to produce red laser light at a wavelength of 694 nanometers (nm). Ruby lasers are still in use. Rubies are also used in applications where high hardness is required such as at wear exposed locations in modern mechanical clockworks, or as scanning probe tips in a coordinate measuring machine.
Imitation rubies are also marketed. Red spinels, red garnets, and colored glass have been falsely claimed to be rubies. Imitations go back to Roman times and already in the 17th century techniques were developed to color foil red—by burning scarlet wool in the bottom part of the furnace—which was then placed under the imitation stone.[21] Trade terms such as balas ruby for red spinel and rubellite for red tourmaline can mislead unsuspecting buyers. Such terms are therefore discouraged from use by many gemological associations such as the Laboratory Manual Harmonisation Committee (LMHC).
Records and famous rubies
Rubies at the National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C., USA
The Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. has some of the world's largest and finest ruby gemstones. The 23.1 carats (4.62 g) Burmese ruby, set in a platinum ring with diamonds, was donated by businessman and philanthropist Peter Buck in memory of his late wife Carmen Lúcia. This gemstone displays a richly saturated red color combined with an exceptional transparency. The finely proportioned cut provides vivid red reflections. The stone was mined from the Mogok region of Burma (now Myanmar) in the 1930s.[22]
In 2007 the London jeweler Garrard & Co featured on their website a heart-shaped 40.63-carat ruby.[23]
On December 13/14, 2011 Elizabeth Taylor's complete jewellery collection was auctioned by Christie's. Several ruby-set pieces were included in the sale, notably a ring set with an 8.24 ct gem that broke the 'price-per-carat' record for rubies ($512,925 per carat, i.e. over $4.2 million in total),[24] and a necklace[25] that sold for over $3.7 million.
The Liberty Bell Ruby is the largest mined ruby in the world. It was stolen in a heist in 2011.[26]
The Sunrise Ruby is the world's most expensive ruby, most expensive coloured gemstone, and most expensive gemstone other than a diamond. In May 2015, it sold at auction in Switzerland to an anonymous buyer for US$30 million.[27]
A synthetic ruby crystal became the gain medium in the world's first optical laser, conceived, designed and constructed by Theodore H. "Ted" Maiman, on the 16th of May, 1961 at Hughes Research Laboratories.[20][28] The concept of electromagnetic radiation amplification through the mechanism of stimulated emission had already been successfully demonstrated in the laboratory by way of the Maser, using other materials such as ammonia and, later, ruby, but the Ruby Laser was the first device to work at optical (694.3 nm) wavelengths. Maiman's prototype laser is still in working order.
Historical and cultural references
In Job 28:18 and Proverbs 3:15, wisdom is more valuable than rubies. In Proverbs 31:10, a wife of noble character is worth more than rubies.
An early recorded transport and trading of rubies arises in the literature on the North Silk Road of China, wherein about 200 BC rubies were carried along this ancient trackway moving westward from China.[29]
Rubies have always been held in high esteem in Asian countries. They were used to ornament armor, scabbards, and harnesses of noblemen in India and China. Rubies were laid beneath the foundation of buildings to secure good fortune to the structure.[30]
See also
Book: Gemstones
Gemology and Jewelry portal
Anyolite
List of gemstones
List of minerals
Shelby Gem Factory
Verneuil process
References
Jump up ^ Corundum data on Webmineral Archived October 1, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Ruby on Gemdat.org Archived March 17, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Precious Stones Archived December 18, 2017, at the Wayback Machine., Max Bauer, p. 2
^ Jump up to: a b "Ruby: causes of color". Archived from the original on March 21, 2016. Retrieved March 28, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Matlins, Antoinette Leonard (2010). Colored Gemstones. Gemstone Press. p. 203. ISBN 0-943763-72-X. Archived from the original on May 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ Reed, Peter (1991). Gemmology. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 337. ISBN 0-7506-6449-5. Archived from the original on January 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Wise, Richard G. "Gemstone Connoisseurship; The Finer Points, Part II". Archived from the original on April 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ Hughes, Richard W. "Walking the line in ruby & sapphire". ruby-sapphire.com. Archived from the original on January 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ Federman, David. "Pink Sapphire". Modern Jeweler. Archived from the original on January 31, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on December 30, 2014. Retrieved December 23, 2014. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
Jump up ^ "This is the New Coat of Arms of Republic of Macedonia - Independent.mk". Independent.mk. Archived from the original on March 30, 2017. Retrieved March 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; Bulakh, A. G. (2004). Minerals: their constitution and origin. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 539–541. ISBN 0-521-52958-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Wise, Richard W. (2006). Secrets Of The Gem Trade, The Connoisseur's Guide To Precious Gemstones. Brunswick House Press. pp. 18–22. ISBN 0-9728223-8-0.
Jump up ^ The Heat Treatment of Ruby and Sapphire. Bangkok, Thailand: Gemlab Inc. 1992. ISBN 0940965100.
Jump up ^ Vincent Pardieu Lead Glass Filled/Repaired Rubies Archived August 31, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.. Asian Institute of Gemological Sciences Gem Testing Laboratory. February 2005
Jump up ^ Richard W. Hughes (1997), Ruby & Sapphire, Boulder, CO, RWH Publishing, ISBN 978-0-9645097-6-4
Jump up ^ Milisenda, C C (2005). "Rubine mit bleihaltigen Glasern gefullt". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft (in German). Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft. 54 (1): 35–41.
Jump up ^ "Lead Glass-Filled Rubies". GIA Global Dispatch. Gemological Institute of America. 2012. Archived from the original on June 14, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Bahadur: a Handbook of Precious Stones". 1943. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved August 19, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Maiman, T.H. (1960). "Stimulated optical radiation in ruby". Nature. 187 (4736): 493–494. Bibcode:1960Natur.187..493M. doi:10.1038/187493a0.
Jump up ^ "Thomas Nicols: A Lapidary or History of Gemstones". 1652. Archived from the original on August 19, 2007. Retrieved August 19, 2007.
Jump up ^ "The Carmen Lúcia Ruby". Exhibitions. Archived from the original on March 9, 2008. Retrieved February 28, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Garrards – Treasures (large and important jewelry pieces)". Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved November 8, 2010.
Jump up ^ The Legendary Jewels, Evening Sale & Jewelry (Sessions II and III) | Press Release | Christie's Archived January 29, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.. Christies.com (2011-12-14). Retrieved on 2012-07-11.
Jump up ^ Elizabeth Taylor's ruby and diamond necklace Archived March 5, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.. News.yahoo.com (2011-09-07). Retrieved on 2012-07-11.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on December 29, 2016. Retrieved March 17, 2017. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
Jump up ^ "World's most expensive coloured gem sells for $30m". BBC. May 13, 2015. Archived from the original on May 13, 2015. Retrieved May 13, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Laser inventor Maiman dies; tribute to be held on anniversary of first laser". Laser Focus World. May 9, 2007. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved May 14, 2007.
Jump up ^ C. Michael Hogan, Silk Road, North China Archived October 2, 2013, at the Wayback Machine., The Megalithic Portal. 19 November 2007
Jump up ^ Smith, Henry G. (1896). "Chapter 2, Sapphires, Rubies". Gems and Precious Stones. Charles Potter Government Printer, Australia. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ruby.
International Colored Stone Association's ruby overview page
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Gemmological Classifiactions by E. Ya. Kievlenko, 1980, updated
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ruby&oldid=861283344"
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text:
Ecotone
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Ecotone (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Reed beds are a common form of lakeside ecotone. The beds tend to accumulate organic matter which is then colonised by trees, forcing the reeds further in to the lake.
Fig.1 & 2 show simple ecotones with equal and homogeneous surfaces in both cases. Fig.3 shows an inclusion of each medium in the other, creating multiple ecotones, which are shown in a more complex form in figure 4. Fig. 5 & 6 show the edges of forests or banks treated in such a way as to lengthen the ecotone considerably without excessively modifying the environment. Fig.7 shows a common interpenetration of media (such as that found at the edge of a forest). Fig.8 shows an ecotone that could have been formed by an animal modifying its environment.
An ecotone is a transition area between two biomes.[1] It is where two communities meet and integrate.[2] It may be narrow or wide, and it may be local (the zone between a field and forest) or regional (the transition between forest and grassland ecosystems).[3] An ecotone may appear on the ground as a gradual blending of the two communities across a broad area, or it may manifest itself as a sharp boundary line.
The word ecotone was coined from a combination of eco(logy) plus -tone, from the Greek tonos or tension – in other words, a place where ecologies are in tension.
Contents
[hide]
1 Features
2 Formation
3 Ecotones and ecoclines
4 Examples
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Features[edit]
There are several distinguishing features of an ecotone. First, an ecotone can have a sharp vegetation transition, with a distinct line between two communities.[4] For example, a change in colors of grasses or plant life can indicate an ecotone. Second, a change in physiognomy (physical appearance of a plant species) can be a key indicator. Water bodies, such as estuaries, can also have a region of transition, and the boundary is characterized by the differences in heights of the macrophytes or plant species present in the areas because this distinguishes the two areas' accessibility to light.[5] Scientists look at color variations and changes in plant height. Third, a change of species can signal an ecotone. There will be specific organisms on one side of an ecotone or the other.
Other factors can illustrate or obscure an ecotone, for example, migration and the establishment of new plants. These are known as spatial mass effects, which are noticeable because some organisms will not be able to form self-sustaining populations if they cross the ecotone. If different species can survive in both communities of the two biomes, then the ecotone is considered to have species richness; ecologists measure this when studying the food chain and success of organisms. Lastly, the abundance of exotic species in an ecotone can reveal the type of biome or efficiency of the two communities sharing space.[6] Because an ecotone is the zone in which two communities integrate, many different forms of life have to live together and compete for space. Therefore, an ecotone can create a diverse ecosystem.
Formation[edit]
Changes in the physical environment may produce a sharp boundary, as in the example of the interface between areas of forest and cleared land. Elsewhere, a more gradually blended interface area will be found, where species from each community will be found together as well as unique local species. Mountain ranges often create such ecotones, due to the wide variety of climatic conditions experienced on their slopes. They may also provide a boundary between species due to the obstructive nature of their terrain. Mont Ventoux in France is a good example, marking the boundary between the flora and fauna of northern and southern France.[7] Most wetlands are ecotones. The spatial variation of ecotones often form due to disturbances, creating patches that separate patches of vegetation. Different intensity of disturbances can cause landslides, land shifts, or movement of sediment that can create these vegetation patches and ecotones.[8]
Plants in competition extend themselves on one side of the ecotone as far as their ability to maintain themselves allows. Beyond this competitors of the adjacent community take over. As a result, the ecotone represents a shift in dominance. Ecotones are particularly significant for mobile animals, as they can exploit more than one set of habitats within a short distance. The ecotone contains not only species common to the communities on both sides; it may also include a number of highly adaptable species that tend to colonize such transitional areas.[3] The phenomenon of increased variety of plants as well as animals at the community junction is called the edge effect and is essentially due to a locally broader range of suitable environmental conditions or ecological niches.
Ecotones and ecoclines[edit]
An ecotone is often associated with an ecocline: a "physical transition zone" between two systems. The ecotone and ecocline concepts are sometimes confused: an ecocline can signal an ecotone chemically (ex: pH or salinity gradient), or microclimatically (hydrothermal gradient) between two ecosystems.
In contrast:
an ecocline is a variation of the physicochemical environment dependent of one or two physico-chemical factors of life, and thus presence/absence of certain species.[9] An ecocline can be a thermocline, chemocline (chemical gradient), halocline (salinity gradient) or pycnocline (variations in density of water induced by temperature or salinity).
ecocline transitions are less distinct (less clear-cut), have more stable conditions within, hence a higher plant species richness.[10]
an ecotone describes a variation in species prevalence and is often not strictly dependent on a major physical factor separating one ecosystem from another, with resulting habitat variability. An ecotone is often unobtrusive and harder to measure.
an ecotone is the area where two communities interact. Ecotones can be easily identified by distinct change in soil gradient and soil composition between two communities.[11]
ecotone transitions are more clear-cut (distinct), conditions are less stable, hence they have a low species richness.[10]
Examples[edit]
The Kra ecotone between 11°N and 13°N latitude just north of the Kra Isthmus that connects the Thai-Malay Peninsula with mainland Asia is an example of a regional scale ecotone.[12] It marks the transition zone between the moist deciduous forest in the mainland Southeast Asia biogeographical region in the north and the wet seasonal dipterocarp forest in the Sundaland region in the south.[12] It has been shown to be the biogeographical transition between Indochinese and Sundaic faunas.[13] Approximately 152 species of bird were found to have northern or southern range limits between these latitudes.[13] Population genetics studies have also found that the Kra ecotone is the major physical barrier that limits gene flow in the honeybees Apis cerana and Apis dorsata and the stingless bees Trigona collina and Trigona pagdeni.[14]
The Wallace Line running through the Lombok Strait between the Indonesian islands of Bali and Lombok is a faunal boundary that separates the Indomalaya ecozone from that of Wallacea.[15] It is named for Alfred Russel Wallace, who first observed the abrupt boundary between the two biomes in 1859. Biologists believe it was the depth of the Lombok Strait itself that kept the animals on either side isolated from one another. However, it has been found that some flightless animals such as certain weevil species have, in the past, been involved in several transgression events in which species from land east of the Wallace Line relocated to Bali.[16] When sea levels dropped during the Pleistocene ice age, the islands of Bali, Java and Sumatra were all connected to one another and to the mainland of Asia. They shared the Asian fauna. The Lombok Strait's deep water kept Lombok and the Lesser Sunda archipelago isolated from the Asian mainland. These islands were, instead, colonized by Australasian fauna.
Mbam Djerem National Park's ecotone in Cameroon is up to 1,000 km wide in places and differences within species are believed to be precursors to speciation.[17]
General examples of ecotones include salt marshes and riparian zones.
See also[edit]
Ecology portal
Biology portal
Environment portal
Cline (biology) - Ecocline
Ecotype
Phylogenetic niche conservatism
Plant functional type
Terrestrial ecozone
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Senft, Amanda (2009). Species Diversity Patterns at Ecotones (Master's thesis). University of North Carolina.
Jump up ^ Pearl, Solomon Eldra; Berg, Linda R.; Martin, Diana W. (2011). Biology. Belmont, California: Brooks/Cole. [page needed]
^ Jump up to: a b Smith, Robert Leo (1974). Ecology and Field Biology (2nd ed.). Harper & Row. p. 251. ISBN 0-06-500976-2.
Jump up ^ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Ecotone.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 23 Jan. 2012, www.britannica.com/science/ecotone.
Jump up ^ Janauer, G.A (1997). "Macrophytes, hydrology, and aquatic ecotones: A GIS-supported ecological survey". Aquatic Botany. 58 (3–4): 379–91. doi:10.1016/S0304-3770(97)00047-8.
Jump up ^ Walker, Susan; Wilson, J. Bastow; Steel, John B; Rapson, G.L; Smith, Benjamin; King, Warren McG; Cottam, Yvette H (2003). "Properties of ecotones: Evidence from five ecotones objectively determined from a coastal vegetation gradient". Journal of Vegetation Science. 14 (4): 579–90. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2003.tb02185.x.
Jump up ^ Kubisch, P; Leuschner, C; Coners, H; Gruber, A; Hertel, D (2017). "Fine Root Abundance and Dynamics of Stone Pine (Pinus cembra) at the Alpine Treeline Is Not Impaired by Self-shading". Front Plant Sci. 8: 602. doi:10.3389/fpls.2017.00602. PMC 5395556  . PMID 28469633.
Jump up ^ https://andrewsforest.oregonstate.edu/sites/default/files/lter/pubs/pdf/pub1056.pdf
Jump up ^ Maarel, Eddy (1990). "Ecotones and ecoclines are different". Journal of Vegetation Science. 1 (1): 135–8. doi:10.2307/3236065. JSTOR 3236065.
^ Jump up to: a b Backeus, Ingvar (1993). "Ecotone Versus Ecocline: Vegetation Zonation and Dynamics Around a Small Reservoir in Tanzania". Journal of Biogeography. 20 (2): 209–18. doi:10.2307/2845672. JSTOR 2845672.
Jump up ^ Brownstein, G; Johns, C; Fletcher, A; Pritchard, D; Erskine, P. D (2015). "Ecotones as indicators: Boundary properties in wetland-woodland transition zones". Community Ecology. 16 (2): 235–43. doi:10.1556/168.2015.16.2.11.
^ Jump up to: a b Smith, Deborah R (2011). "Asian Honeybees and Mitochondrial DNA". Honeybees of Asia. pp. 69–93. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-16422-4_4. ISBN 978-3-642-16421-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Hughes, Jennifer B; Round, Philip D; Woodruff, David S (2003). "The Indochinese-Sundaic faunal transition at the Isthmus of Kra: An analysis of resident forest bird species distributions". Journal of Biogeography. 30 (4): 569–80. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2003.00847.x.
Jump up ^ Theeraapisakkun, M; Klinbunga, S; Sittipraneed, S (2010). "Development of a species-diagnostic marker and its application for population genetics studies of the stingless bee Trigona collina in Thailand". Genetics and Molecular Research. 9 (2): 919–30. doi:10.4238/vol9-2gmr775. PMID 20486087.
Jump up ^ Alfano, Niccolò; Michaux, Johan; Morand, Serge; Aplin, Ken; Tsangaras, Kyriakos; Löber, Ulrike; Fabre, Pierre-Henri; Fitriana, Yuli; Semiadi, Gono; Ishida, Yasuko; Helgen, Kristofer M; Roca, Alfred L; Eiden, Maribeth V; Greenwood, Alex D (2016). "Endogenous Gibbon Ape Leukemia Virus Identified in a Rodent (Melomys burtoni subsp.) from Wallacea (Indonesia)". Journal of Virology. 90 (18): 8169–80. doi:10.1128/JVI.00723-16. PMC 5008096  . PMID 27384662.
Jump up ^ Tanzler, R; Toussaint, E. F. A; Suhardjono, Y. R; Balke, M; Riedel, A (2014). "Multiple transgressions of Wallace's Line explain diversity of flightless Trigonopterus weevils on Bali". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 281 (1782): 20132528. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.2528. PMC 3973253  . PMID 24648218.
Jump up ^ Steve Nadis (11 June 2016). "Life on the edge". New Scientist.
External links[edit]
Look up ecotone in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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text:
Star Wars opening crawl
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The three shots which constitute the opening sequence: the phrase "A long time ago in a galaxy far, far away....", the Star Wars logo and the opening text, from the beginning of Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope.
The opening crawl is the signature device of every numbered film of the Star Wars series, an American epic space opera franchise created by George Lucas. It opens with the static blue text, "A long time ago in a galaxy far, far away....", followed by the Star Wars logo and the crawl text, which describes the backstory and context of the film. The visuals are accompanied by the "Main Title Theme", composed by John Williams.
The sequence has been featured in every live-action Star Wars film produced by Lucasfilm with the exception of Rogue One and Solo, though the latter contains some background text at the beginning, just not in the same style. Although it retains the basic elements, it has significantly evolved throughout the series. It is one of the most immediately recognizable elements of the franchise and has been frequently parodied.
Contents
1 Structure
2 Origin
3 Production
4 Episode IV opening crawl
5 References
6 External links
Structure[edit]
Each film opens with the static blue text, "A long time ago in a galaxy far, far away....", followed by the Star Wars logo shrinking in front of a field of stars. Initially the logo's extremities are beyond the edge of the frame. While the logo is retreating, the "crawl" text begins, starting with the film's episode number and subtitle (with the exception of the original release of Star Wars – see below), and followed by a three-paragraph prologue to the film. The text scrolls up and away from the bottom of the screen towards a vanishing point above the top of the frame in a perspective projection. Each version of the opening crawl ends with a four-dot ellipsis, except for Return of the Jedi which has a three-dot ellipsis. When the text has nearly reached the vanishing point, it fades out, the camera tilts down (or, in the case of Episode II: Attack of the Clones, up), and the film begins.[1]
Two typefaces are used in the text, both in yellow: News Gothic for the episode number and main body of the text, and Univers Ultra Condensed Light for the title of the film.[2] Three subtle exceptions were made to Star Wars, The Empire Strikes Back and The Force Awakens,[3] as the titles of the films were presented in News Gothic. Several words are in all-capital letters to stress their importance: "DEATH STAR" in Star Wars, "GALACTIC EMPIRE" in Return of the Jedi, "ARMY OF THE REPUBLIC" in Attack of the Clones, and "FIRST ORDER", "REPUBLIC" and "RESISTANCE" in The Force Awakens. Each line of the text spans the width of the screen when it enters from the bottom. In the "fullscreen" (4:3 aspect ratio for standard-definition television) versions of the films, the full lines of text are cut off on the sides until they have scrolled further onto the screen. As a result, by the time the full lines are visible, the text is much smaller and harder to read. In addition, the viewer also has less time to read it.
Origin[edit]
The opening crawl as seen at the beginning of an episode of Flash Gordon Conquers the Universe.
The opening crawl of Cecil B. DeMille's Union Pacific (1939)
Dan Perri's rejected Star Wars logotype
Lucas has stated that the opening crawl was inspired by the opening crawls used at the beginning of each episode of the original Flash Gordon and Buck Rogers film serials, which were the inspiration for Lucas to write much of the Star Wars saga.[4] The development of the opening crawl came about as part of a collaboration between Lucas and the seasoned film title designer Dan Perri. In 1976, Lucas invited Perri to Industrial Light & Magic, Lucasfilm's post-production operation at Van Nuys, California. Perri, who had previously worked on Close Encounters of the Third Kind and The Exorcist, suggested that they take inspiration from the 1939 Cecil B. DeMille film, Union Pacific, whose opening credits are shown distorted by a sharp perspective and rolling along a railroad track towards a distant vanishing point. Lucas was keen on the idea and Perri developed sketches and prototype mechanical artwork. One of the earliest iterations of the opening crawl is evidenced in storyboards drawn by the production artist Alex Tavoularis, depicting the title “THE STAR WARS” as a three-dimensional logo.[5]
Perri also designed a logotype, consisting of block-capital letters filled with stars and skewed towards a vanishing point to follow the same perspective as the opening crawl. Lucas eventually rejected Perri's logo due to readability problems, turning instead to the graphic designer Suzy Rice, an art director at the Los Angeles advertising agency Seiniger Advertising. Lucas had commissioned Rice to design a promotional brochure that was to be distributed to cinema theatre owners. He instructed Rice to produce a logo that would intimidate the viewer, and he reportedly asked for the logo to appear "very fascist" in style. Rice, inspired by historical German typography, produced a bold logotype using an outlined, modified Helvetica Black. After some feedback from Lucas, Rice decided to join the S and T of STAR and the R and S of WARS. Lucas's producer, Gary Kurtz, found that Rice's logo worked well in the opening title; the logo was modified further to flatten the pointed tips on the letter W before it was inserted into the final cut. While Perri's skewed logo did not appear on-screen, it was used widely on pre-release print advertising, and it featured prominently on film posters promoting the release of Star Wars on cinema billboards in 1977 (notably Tom Jung's Style ‘A’ poster, the Style ‘B’ poster by the Brothers Hildebrandt and Tom Chantrell's Style ‘C’ poster).[6][7]
In a 2005 interview, George Lucas described how the final phrasing of the text for Star Wars came about. "The crawl is such a hard thing because you have to be careful that you're not using too many words that people don't understand. It's like a poem. I showed the very first crawl to a bunch of friends of mine in the 1970s. It went on for six paragraphs with four sentences each. Brian De Palma was there...". De Palma helped to edit the text into the form used in the film.[8]
Production[edit]
According to Dennis Muren, who worked on the six films, crawls on the original trilogy films were accomplished by filming physical models laid out on the floor. The models were approximately 60 cm (2') wide and 1.80 m (6') long. The crawl effect was accomplished by the camera moving longitudinally along the model. It was difficult and time-consuming to achieve a smooth scrolling effect. Furthermore, different versions in other languages (such as German, French and Spanish) were produced by Industrial Light & Magic.[1][9]
With the advent of computer-generated graphics, the crawls for the prequel trilogy were achieved much more quickly.[1] The 2004 DVD special edition versions of the original trilogy were later updated with computer-generated crawls as part of their restoration and enhancement.
Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy stated that the 2016 spin-off film Rogue One would "more than likely" eschew certain traditional elements of the franchise, including the crawl, in an effort to distinguish it from the main film series.[10] In fact, Rogue One retains "A long time ago, in a galaxy far, far, away...", but then immediately cuts to the opening scene with no crawl. At the end of the opening scene, the title "ROGUE ONE" recedes against a star field, like the "STAR WARS" title of the main series, then there is a cut to the next scene.
The second spin-off film Solo does not feature a crawl, but does feature an introductory text shown sentence by sentence in the same font and color as and immediately after "A long time ago, in a galaxy far, far away...". This places it halfway between Rogue One and the main saga[11]
Episode IV opening crawl[edit]
The opening crawl in the first Star Wars film is very different from Lucas' original intention. The original text, used in the rough cut he showed to friends and studio executives in February 1977, appears in the Marvel Comics adaptation of the film.[12] When originally released in May 1977, the first film was simply titled Star Wars, as 20th Century Fox forbade Lucas to use a subtitle because it could be confusing, since there had been no other Star Wars movies prior to 1977.[1][9] In addition, it was not certain if the film would be followed with a sequel. When The Empire Strikes Back was released in 1980, the episode number, "Episode V", and subtitle "THE EMPIRE STRIKES BACK" appeared as the first two lines of the opening crawl. To match its sequel's crawl, the episode number "Episode IV" and subtitle "A NEW HOPE" were added for the film's theatrical re-release in April 1981.[13] The original version, without the subtitle, was not released again until the 2006 limited edition DVDs.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace DVD commentary
Jump up ^ [1]. Univers 49 Light Ultra Condensed from Linotype
Jump up ^ "Does The Force Awakens Crawl Use The Wrong Font?".
Jump up ^ Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith DVD commentary
Jump up ^ Perkins, Will (16 December 2015). "Star Wars". Art of the Title. Archived from the original on 2 April 2016. Retrieved 8 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Chris (2014). "11. The First Reel". How Star Wars Conquered the Universe: The Past, Present, and Future of a Multibillion Dollar Franchise. Head of Zeus. ISBN 9781784970451. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Evolution of the Star Wars Poster". PhotoSecrets.com. Archived from the original on 28 July 2017. Retrieved 28 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Pearlman, Cindy (May 15, 2005). The Force. Chicago Sun-Times.
^ Jump up to: a b Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope DVD commentary
Jump up ^ Alexander, Julia (November 22, 2016). "Rogue One is bucking a Star Wars tradition". Polygon. Vox Media. Retrieved March 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ Does Solo: A Star Wars Story have an opening crawl?
Jump up ^ Thomas, Roy (2007-06-01). "Star Wars: The Comic Book That Saved Marvel!". starwars.com. Retrieved December 5, 2012. [dead link]
Jump up ^ "Star Wars: Episode IV A New Hope". StarWars.com.
External links[edit]
The official Star Wars website
"Star Wars: Episode IV A New Hope - Opening Crawl". official Star Wars website. Retrieved 8 June 2016.
"Library of Star Wars Opening Crawls". official Star Wars website. Retrieved 8 June 2016.
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Coat of many colors
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This article is about the garment in the Bible. For other uses, see Coat of many colors (disambiguation).
Jacob blesses Joseph and gives him the coat.
"Coat of Many Colors" (1981) a painting by Michael Sgan-Cohen, the Israel Museum Collection, Jerusalem
In the Hebrew Bible, the coat of many colors (Hebrew: כְּתֹנֶת פַּסִּים kəṯōneṯ passîm) is the name for the garment that Joseph owned, which was given to him by his father, Jacob.
Contents
[hide]
1 The problem of translation
2 In Genesis
3 In popular culture
4 References
The problem of translation[edit]
Further information: Biblical clothing
According to the King James Version, Genesis 37:3 reads, "Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was the son of his old age: and he made him a coat of many colours."[1]
Ford Madox Brown, The Coat of Many Colours; some have suggested that the phrase may merely mean a "coat with long sleeves"
The Hebrew phrase kethoneth passim is translated here as "coat of many colors", but some have suggested that the phrase may merely mean a "coat with long sleeves"[2] or a "long coat with stripes."[citation needed]
The Septuagint translation of the passage uses the word ποικίλος (poikilos),[3] which indicates "many colored";[4] the Jewish Publication Society of America Version also employs the phrase "coat of many colors".[5] On the other hand, the Revised Standard Version translates kethoneth passim as "a long robe with sleeves"[6] while the New International Version notes the translation difficulties in a footnote, and translates it as "a richly ornamented robe".[7]
Aryeh Kaplan, in The Living Torah gives a range of possible explanations:
Kethoneth passim in Hebrew. It was a royal garment; 2 Samuel 13:18 (cf. Ralbag ad loc.). The word passim can be translated as 'colorful' (Radak; Septuagint), embroidered (Abraham ibn Ezra; Bahya ibn Paquda; Nachmanides on Exodus 28:2), striped (Jonah ibn Janah; Radak, Sherashim), or with pictures (Targum Jonathan). It can also denote a long garment, coming down to the palms of the hands (Rashbam; Ibn Ezra; Tosafot; Genesis Rabbah 84), and the feet (Lekach Tov). Alternatively, the word denotes the material out of which the coat was made, which was fine wool (Rashi) or silk (Ibn Janach). Hence, kethoneth passim, may be translated as "a full-sleeved robe", "a coat of many colors", "a coat reaching to his feet", "an ornamented tunic", "a silk robe", or "a fine woolen cloak".[8]
James Swanson suggests that the phrase indicates a "tunic or robe unique in design for showing special favor or relationship" and that "either the robe was very long-sleeved and extending to the feet, or a richly-ornamented tunic either of special color design or gold threading, both ornamental and not suitable for working."[9]
The phrase is used one other time in the Hebrew Scriptures, to describe the garment worn by Tamar, daughter of David, in 2 Samuel 13:18-19. This is the relevant comparison. Joseph lived among the tents with the women, rather than going out to the fields and hunting with his brothers. As it was with Tamar, the "coat of many colors" was, essentially, a dress (which his brothers found offensive).
In Genesis[edit]
Joseph cast into the pit.
Joseph's father Jacob (also called Israel) favored him and gave Joseph the coat as a gift; as a result, he was envied by his brothers, who saw the special coat as an indication that Joseph would assume family leadership. His brothers' suspicion grew when Joseph told them of his two dreams (Genesis 37:11) in which all the brothers bowed down to him. The narrative tells that his brothers plotted against him when he was 17, and would have killed him had not the eldest brother Reuben interposed. He persuaded them instead to throw Joseph into a pit and secretly planned to rescue him later. However, while Reuben was absent, the others planned to sell him to a company of Ishmaelite merchants. When the passing Midianites arrived, the brothers dragged Joseph up and sold him to the merchants for 20 pieces of silver. The brothers then dipped Joseph's coat in goat blood and showed it to their father, saying that Joseph had been torn apart by wild beasts.
Joseph's coat, by Diego Velázquez (1630), depicts Joseph's brothers bringing the coat to their father Jacob and asking him to identify it.
Recent scholarship, especially among literary critics, has noted how the exhortation to "identify" and the theme of recognition in Genesis 37:32-33 also appears in 38:25-26, in the story of Judah and Tamar. This serves to connect the chapters and unify the narrative. Victor Hamilton calls these "intentional literary parallels,"[10] while Robert Alter suggests that the verb "identify" plays "a crucial thematic role in the dénouement of the Joseph story when he confronts his brothers in Egypt, he recognizing them, they failing to recognize him."[11]
The envy of his brothers may also have stemmed from the fact that Joseph was the son of Rachel, Jacob's first love. However, Joseph's brothers were the sons of Rachel's older sister Leah and the sons of the handmaidens, who were given to Jacob during a time when Rachel could not conceive. There was a battle between Leah and Rachel to compete for Jacob's attention. Jacob had told Joseph, when he was seventeen years old, to go check on his brothers. Joseph would report back to his father of their evil deeds. In addition to this he shares his dreams of them bowing down to him. Their anger towards him only increased.
In popular culture[edit]
The coat is featured in the musical Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat.
In 1971, Dolly Parton referred to the coat in the song "Coat of Many Colors", a story about an incident in her childhood. The 2015 TV-movie Dolly Parton's Coat of Many Colors tells the story depicted in the song.
In 1997, Anita Diamant's novel The Red Tent, Dinah mentions that Rachel is making a colorful garment for her son Joseph; she also mentions that it will make him the target of his brothers' taunting.
In the video game Castlevania Symphony Of The Night for PS1, a cloak called "Joseph's cloak" can be found in the American localization of the game. It also features adjustable colors in the equip screen of the game as further reference from the Bible
Joseph's coat is in the Dreamworks' film Joseph: King of Dreams.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Genesis 37, King James.
Jump up ^ A Dictionary of the Targumim, Talmud Bavli, Talmud Yerushalmi and Midrashic Literature, 1903. ISBN 1-932443-20-7
Jump up ^ Genesis 37, Septuagint.
Jump up ^ Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon: ποικίλος, 1889.
Jump up ^ Genesis 37, JPS.
Jump up ^ Genesis 37, Revised Standard. Archived 2007-07-10 at WebCite
Jump up ^ Genesis 37, NIV.
Jump up ^ Genesis » Chapter 37, Accessed December 15, 2010.
Jump up ^ James Swanson, Dictionary of Biblical Languages With Semantic Domains: Hebrew (Old Testament) (Electronic ed. Oak Harbor : Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1997).
Jump up ^ Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis, Chapters 18-50 (NICOT; Eerdmans, 1995), 431-432.
Jump up ^ Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative (Basic Books, 1981), 10.
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