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Montreal Protocol
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For other similarly named agreements, see Montreal Convention (disambiguation).
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
Signed
14–16 September 1987
Location
Montreal
Effective
1 January 1989 if 11 states have ratified by then.
Condition
ratification by 20 states
Signatories
46
Ratifiers
197 (all United Nations members, as well as Niue, the Cook Islands, the Holy See and the European Union)
Depositary
Secretary-General of the United Nations
Languages
Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.
Play media
Retrospective video on the Montreal Protocol and the collaboration between policy-makers, scientists, and industry leaders to regulate CFCs.
The largest Antarctic ozone hole recorded as of September 2006
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone eight revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1998 (Australia), 1999 (Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali, adopted, but not in force).[1][2] As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering.[3] Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070.[4][5] Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation, with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol".[6][7] In comparison, effective burden sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the ozone depletion challenge, where global regulation based on the Kyoto Protocol has failed to do so.[8] In this case of the ozone depletion challenge, there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established. Also, overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks.[9][10]
The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties, which includes 196 states and the European Union,[11] making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history.[12]
These truly universal treaties have also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy-making process at the global scale, where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research discovery (1973) and the international agreement signed (1985 & 1987).
Contents
[hide]
1 Terms and purposes
1.1 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan
1.2 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP)
1.3 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
2 History
3 Multilateral Fund
4 Parties
5 Effect
6 25th anniversary celebrations
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Terms and purposes[edit]
The treaty[13] is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that deplete stratospheric ozone. All of the ozone depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer). Some ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) are not yet controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including nitrous oxide (N2O) For a table of ozone-depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol see:[14]
For each group of ODSs, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances must be shot out and eventually eliminated.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan[edit]
The stated purpose of the treaty is that the signatory states
"Recognizing that worldwide emissions of certain substances can significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the environment. Determined to protect the ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete it with the ultimate objective of their elimination on the basis of developments in scientific knowledge"
"Acknowledging that special provision is required to meet the needs of developing countries"
shall accept a series of stepped limits on CFC use and production, including:
from 1991 to 1992 its levels of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A do not exceed 150 percent of its calculated levels of production and consumption of those substances in 1986;
from 1994 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A does not exceed, annually, twenty-five percent of its calculated level of consumption and production in 1986.
from 1996 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex A does not exceed zero.
There was a faster phase-out of halon-1211, -2402, -1301, There was a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc.)[contradictory] and some chemicals were given individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane). The phasing-out of the less damaging HCFCs only began in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved by 2030.
There were a few exceptions for "essential uses", where no acceptable substitutes were initially found (for example, in the past metered dose inhalers commonly used to treat asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease were exempt) or Halon fire suppression systems used in submarines and aircraft (but not in general industry).
The substances in Group I of Annex A are:
CFCl3 (CFC-11)
CF2Cl2 (CFC-12)
C2F3Cl3 (CFC-113)
C2F4Cl2(CFC-114)
C2F5Cl (CFC-115)
The provisions of the Protocol include the requirement that the Parties to the Protocol base their future decisions on the current scientific, environmental, technical, and economic information that is assessed through panels drawn from the worldwide expert communities. To provide that input to the decision-making process, advances in understanding on these topics were assessed in 1989, 1991, 1994, 1998 and 2002 in a series of reports entitled Scientific assessment of ozone depletion.
Numerous reports have been published by various inter-governmental, governmental and non-governmental organizations to catalogue and assess alternatives to the ozone depleting substances, since the substances have been used in various technical sectors, like in refrigeration, air conditioning, flexible and rigid foam, fire protection, aerospace, electronics, agriculture, and laboratory measurements[15][16][17]
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP)[edit]
Under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, especially Executive Committee (ExCom) 53/37 and ExCom 54/39, Parties to this Protocol agreed to set year 2013 as the time to freeze the consumption and production of HCFCs. They also agreed to start reducing its consumption and production in 2015. The time of freezing and reducing HCFCs is then known as 2013-2015.
The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foam manufacture, and fire extinguishers. In terms of ozone depletion potential (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that have ODP 0.6 – 1.0, these HCFCs have lower ODPs (0.01 – 0.5). In terms of global warming potential (GWP), in comparison to CFCs that have GWP 4,680 – 10,720, HCFCs have lower GWPs (76 – 2,270).
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (October 2016)
Produced mostly in developed countries, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) replaced CFCs and HCFCs. HFCs pose no harm to the ozone layer because, unlike CFCs and HCFCs, they do not contain chlorine. They are however greenhouse gases, with a high global warming potential (GWP), comparable to that of CFCs and HCFCs.[18]
At 28th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol in Kigali amendment was adopted to eliminate planet-warming HFC gases, They also figure in the basket of six greenhouse gases under the Kyoto Protocol. Developed countries following the Kyoto Protocol report their HFC emission data to the UNFCCC; .
The amendment to the legally-binding Montreal Protocol will ensure that the rich and industrialised countries bring down their HFC production and consumption by at least 85 per cent compared to their annual average values in the period 2011-2013. A group of developing countries including China, Brazil and South Africa are mandated to reduce their HFC use by 85 per cent of their average value in 2020-22 by the year 2045. India and some other developing countries — Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, and some oil economies like Saudi Arabia and Kuwait — will cut down their HFCs by 85 per cent of their values in 2024-26 by the year 2047.
History[edit]
In 1973, the chemists Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, who were then at the University of California, Irvine, began studying the impacts of CFCs in the Earth's atmosphere. They discovered that CFC molecules were stable enough to remain in the atmosphere until they got up into the middle of the stratosphere where they would finally (after an average of 50–100 years for two common CFCs) be broken down by ultraviolet radiation releasing a chlorine atom. Rowland and Molina then proposed that these chlorine atoms might be expected to cause the breakdown of large amounts of ozone (O3) in the stratosphere. Their argument was based upon an analogy to contemporary work by Paul J. Crutzen and Harold Johnston, which had shown that nitric oxide (NO) could catalyze the destruction of ozone. (Several other scientists, including Ralph Cicerone, Richard Stolarski, Michael McElroy, and Steven Wofsy had independently proposed that chlorine could catalyze ozone loss, but none had realized that CFCs were a potentially large source of chlorine.) Crutzen, Molina and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for their work on this problem.
The environmental consequence of this discovery was that, since stratospheric ozone absorbs most of the ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation reaching the surface of the planet, depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs would lead to an increase in UV-B radiation at the surface, resulting in an increase in skin cancer and other impacts such as damage to crops and to marine phytoplankton.
But the Rowland-Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries. The chair of the board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction tale...a load of rubbish...utter nonsense". Robert Abplanalp, the president of Precision Valve Corporation (and inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about Rowland's public statements (Roan, p. 56.)
After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at a hearing before the U.S. House of Representatives in December 1974. As a result, significant funding was made available to study various aspects of the problem and to confirm the initial findings. In 1976, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) released a report that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis.[19] NAS continued to publish assessments of related science for the next decade.
Then, in 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin published results of abnormally low ozone concentrations above Halley Bay near the South Pole. They speculated that this was connected to increased levels of CFCs in the atmosphere. It took several other attempts to establish the Antarctic losses as real and significant, especially after NASA had retrieved matching data from its satellite recordings. The impact of these studies, the metaphor 'ozone hole', and the colourful visual representation in a time lapse animation proved shocking enough for negotiators in Montreal to take the issue seriously.[20]
Also in 1985, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-depleting substances. After the discovery of the ozone hole it only took 18 months to reach a binding agreement in Montreal.
But the CFC industry did not give up that easily. As late as 1986, the Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy (an association representing the CFC industry founded by DuPont) was still arguing that the science was too uncertain to justify any action. In 1987, DuPont testified before the US Congress that "We believe there is no imminent crisis that demands unilateral regulation."[21] And even in March 1988, Du Pont Chair Richard E. Heckert would write in a letter to the United States Senate, "we will not produce a product unless it can be made, used, handled and disposed of safely and consistent with appropriate safety, health and environmental quality criteria. At the moment, scientific evidence does not point to the need for dramatic CFC emission reductions. There is no available measure of the contribution of CFCs to any observed ozone change..."[22]
Multilateral Fund[edit]
The main objective of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol is to assist developing country parties to the Montreal Protocol whose annual per capita consumption and production of ozone depleting substances (ODS) is less than 0.3 kg to comply with the control measures of the Protocol. Currently, 147 of the 196 Parties to the Montreal Protocol meet these criteria (they are referred to as Article 5 countries).
It embodies the principle agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 that countries have a common but differentiated responsibility to protect and manage the global commons.
The Fund is managed by an Executive Committee with an equal representation of seven industrialized and seven Article 5 countries, which are elected annually by a Meeting of the Parties. The Committee reports annually to the Meeting of the Parties on its operations. The work of the Multilateral Fund on the ground in developing countries is carried out by four Implementing Agencies, which have contractual agreements with the Executive Committee:[23]
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), through the UNEP DTIE OzonAction Programme.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).
World Bank.
Up to 20 percent of the contributions of contributing parties can also be delivered through their bilateral agencies in the form of eligible projects and activities.
The fund is replenished on a three-year basis by the donors. Pledges amount to US$3.1 billion over the period 1991 to 2005. Funds are used, for example, to finance the conversion of existing manufacturing processes, train personnel, pay royalties and patent rights on new technologies, and establish national ozone offices.
Parties[edit]
As of 23 June 2015, all countries in the United Nations, the Cook Islands, Holy See, Niue and the supranational European Union have ratified the original Montreal Protocol[24] (see external link below), South Sudan being the last country to ratify the agreement, bringing the total to 197. These countries have also ratified the London, Copenhagen, Montreal, and Beijing amendments.[11]
Effect[edit]
Ozone-depleting gas trends
Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased.[25] Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as the halons presently stored in fire extinguishers are released, but their rate of increase has slowed and their abundances are expected to begin to decline by about 2020. Also, the concentration of the HCFCs increased drastically at least partly because for many uses (e.g. used as solvents or refrigerating agents) CFCs were substituted with HCFCs. While there have been reports of attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g. by smuggling CFCs from undeveloped to developed nations, the overall level of compliance has been high. Statistical analysis from 2010 show a clear positive signal from the Montreal Protocol to the stratospheric ozone.[26] In consequence, the Montreal Protocol has often been called the most successful international environmental agreement to date. In a 2001 report, NASA found the ozone thinning over Antarctica had remained the same thickness for the previous three years,[27] however in 2003 the ozone hole grew to its second largest size.[28] The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects of the Montreal Protocol states, "The Montreal Protocol is working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in the atmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some early signs of stratospheric ozone recovery."[29]
The Montreal Protocol is also expected to have effects on human health. A 2015 report by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that the protection of the ozone layer under the treaty will prevent over 280 million cases of skin cancer, 1.5 million skin cancer deaths, and 45 million cataracts in the United States.[30]
However, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs, are now thought to contribute to anthropogenic global warming. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, these compounds are up to 10,000 times more potent greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide. The Montreal Protocol currently calls for a complete phase-out of HCFCs by 2030, but does not place any restriction on HFCs. Since the CFCs themselves are equally powerful greenhouse gases, the mere substitution of HFCs for CFCs does not significantly increase the rate of anthropogenic climate change, but over time a steady increase in their use could increase the danger that human activity will change the climate.[31]
Policy experts have advocated for increased efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection efforts.[32][33][34] Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements in the other.
25th anniversary celebrations[edit]
The year 2012 marked the 25th anniversary of the signing of the Montreal Protocol. Accordingly, the Montreal Protocol community organized a range of celebrations at the national, regional and international levels to publicize its considerable success to date and to consider the work ahead for the future.[35] Among its accomplishments are: The Montreal Protocol was the first international treaty to address a global environmental regulatory challenge; the first to embrace the "precautionary principle" in its design for science-based policymaking; the first treaty where independent experts on atmospheric science, environmental impacts, chemical technology, and economics, reported directly to Parties, without edit or censorship, functioning under norms of professionalism, peer review, and respect; the first to provide for national differences in responsibility and financial capacity to respond by establishing a multilateral fund for technology transfer; the first MEA with stringent reporting, trade, and binding chemical phase-out obligations for both developed and developing countries; and, the first treaty with a financial mechanism managed democratically by an Executive Board with equal representation by developed and developing countries.[36]
Within 25 years of signing, parties to the MP celebrate significant milestones. Significantly, the world has phased-out 98% of the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) contained in nearly 100 hazardous chemicals worldwide; every country is in compliance with stringent obligations; and, the MP has achieved the status of the first global regime with universal ratification; even the newest member state, South Sudan, ratified in 2013. UNEP received accolades for achieving global consensus that "demonstrates the world’s commitment to ozone protection, and more broadly, to global environmental protection".[37]
See also[edit]
Carbon footprint
Copenhagen Accord
Greenhouse gases
Kyoto Protocol
Net Capacity Factor
Ozone depletion
Paris Agreement
R-134a
Refrigerant
Vienna Conference (1985)
Action for climate empowerment (ACE)
References[edit]
This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document "2003 edition".(referred to as Ozone Layer Protection)
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Jump up ^ Ewenfeldt B, "Ozonlagret mår bättre", Arbetarbladet 12-9-2014, p. 10.
Jump up ^ "Ozone Layer on Track to Recovery: Success Story Should Encourage Action on Climate". UNEP. UNEP. 10 September 2014. Retrieved 18 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Susan Solomon; Anne R. Douglass; Paul A. Newman (July 2014). "The Antarctic ozone hole: An update". Physics today. Retrieved 18 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Ozone Hole-The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer". Theozonehole.com. 16 September 1987.
Jump up ^ "Background for International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer - 16 September". www.un.org. Retrieved 2017-05-28.
Jump up ^ Of Montreal and Kyoto: A Tale of Two Protocols by Cass R. Sunstein 38 ELR 10566 8/2008
Jump up ^ Environmental Politics Climate Change and Knowledge Politics Reiner Grundmann, Vol. 16, No. 3, 414–432, June 2007
Jump up ^ Technische Problemlösung, Verhandeln und umfassende Problemlösung, (eng. technical trouble shooting, negotiating and generic problem solving capability) in Gesellschaftliche Komplexität und kollektive Handlungsfähigkeit (Societys complexity and collective ability to act), ed. Schimank, U. (2000). Frankfurt/Main: Campus, p.154-182 book summary at the Max Planck Gesellschaft
^ Jump up to: a b "Status of Ratification – The Ozone Secretariat". Ozone.unep.org.
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Jump up ^ The full terms are available from http://ozone.unep.org/Publications/MP_Handbook/Section_1.1_The_Montreal_Protocol/.
Jump up ^ "Class I Ozone-depleting Substances | Science | Ozone Layer Protection | US EPA". Epa.gov.
Jump up ^ Use of ozone depleting substances in laboratories. TemaNord 2003:516. http://norden.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:796602/FULLTEXT01.pdf
Jump up ^ The Technical and Economic Feasibility of Replacing Methyl Bromide in Developing Countries. Friends of the Earth, Washington, 173 pp, 1996
Jump up ^ Guidance on the DOE Facility Phaseout of Ozone-Depleting Substances. 1995. http://homer.ornl.gov/nuclearsafety/nsea/oepa/guidance/ozone/phaseout.pdf
Jump up ^ "Climate of irrationality". Down To Earth. 18 September 2012.
Jump up ^ National Academy of Sciences (1976). Halocarbons, effects on stratospheric ozone. Washington, DC.
Jump up ^ Grundmann, Reiner, Transnational Environmental Policy: Reconstructing Ozone, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-22423-3
Jump up ^ Doyle, Jack (October 1991). "DuPont's Disgraceful Deeds: The Environmental Record of E.I. DuPont de Nemour". The Multinational Monitor. 12 (10). The Multinational Monitor. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Du Pont: A Case Study In the 3D Corporate Strategy". Greenpeace. 1997. Archived from the original on 2012-04-06. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Creating a real change for the environment. Secretariat of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol. 2007.
Jump up ^ "EUROPA – PRESS RELEASES – Press Release – Environment: European Union hails universal ratification of the Montreal Protocol on protecting the ozone layer". Europa.eu.
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Jump up ^ Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2006, http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/csd/assessments/2006/report.html
Jump up ^ Updating Ozone Calculations and Emissions Profiles for Use in the Atmospheric and Health Effects Framework Model http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/effects/AHEF_2015_Update_Report-FINAL_508.pdf
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Jump up ^ Mario Molina, Durwood Zaelke, K. Madhava Sarma, Stephen O. Andersen, Veerabhadran Ramanathan, and Donald Kaniaru. "Reducing abrupt climate change risk using the Montreal Protocol and other regulatory actions to complement cuts in CO2 emissions" PNAS 2009 106 (49) 20616-20621; doi:10.1073/pnas.0902568106
Jump up ^ CS Norman, SJ DeCanio and L Fan. "The Montreal Protocol at 20: Ongoing opportunities for integration with climate protection." Global Environmental Change Volume 18, Issue 2, May 2008, Pages 330–340; doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.03.003
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Further reading[edit]
Andersen, S. O. and K. M. Sarma. (2002). Protecting the Ozone Layer: the United Nations History, Earthscan Press. London.
Andersen, S. O., K. M. Sarma and K. N. Taddonio. (2007). Technology Transfer for the Ozone Layer: Lessons for Climate Change. Earthscan Press, London.
Benedick, Richard E. (1991). Ozone Diplomacy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-65001-8 (Ambassador Benedick was the Chief U.S. Negotiator at the meetings that resulted in the Protocol.)
Brodeur, Paul (1986). "Annals of Chemistry: In the Face of Doubt." The New Yorker, 9 June 1986, pp. 70–87.
Chasek, Pam, David Downie, and J.W. Brown (2013 – forthcoming). Global Environmental Politics, 6th Edition, Boulder: Westview Press.
Dotto, Lydia and Harold Schiff (1978). The Ozone War. New York: Double Day.
Downie, David (1993). "Comparative Public Policy of Ozone Layer Protection." Political Science (NZ) 45(2): (December): 186–197.
Downie, David (1995). "Road Map or False Trail: Evaluating the Precedence of the Ozone Regime as Model and Strategy for Global Climate Change," International Environmental Affairs, 7(4):321–345 (Fall 1995).
Downie, David (1999). "The Power to Destroy: Understanding Stratospheric Ozone Politics as a Common Pool Resource Problem", in J. Barkin and G. Shambaugh (eds.) Anarchy and the Environment: The International Relations of Common Pool Resources. Albany: State University of New York Press.
David L. Downie (2012). "The Vienna Convention, Montreal Protocol and Global Policy to Protect Stratospheric Ozone", in P. Wexler et al. (eds.) Chemicals, Environment, Health: A Global Management Perspective. Oxford: Taylor & Francis.
Downie, David (2013) "Stratospheric Ozone Depletion." The Routledge Handbook of Global Environmental Politics. New York: Routledge.
Farman, J.C., B.G. Gardiner, and J.D. Shanklin (1985). "Large Losses of Total Ozone in Antarctica Reveal Seasonal ClOx/NOx Interaction." Nature 315: 207–210, 16 May 1985.
Gareau, Brian J. (2013). From Precaution to Profit: Contemporary Challenges to Environmental Protection in the Montreal Protocol. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300175264
Grundmann, Reiner. (2001). Transnational Environmental Policy: Reconstructing Ozone, London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22423-3
Litfin, Karen T. (1994). Ozone Discourses. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08137-5
Molina, Mario and F. Sherwood Rowland (1974). "Stratospheric Sink for Chlorofluoromethanes: Chlorine Atomic Catalyzed Destruction of Ozone." Nature 249: 810–12, 28 June 1974.
Morissette, P.M. (1989). "The evolution of policy responses to stratospheric ozone depletion." Natural Resources Journal 29: 793–820.
Parson, Edward (2003). Protecting the Ozone Layer: Science and Strategy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Roan, Sharon (1989). Ozone Crisis: The 15-Year Evolution of a Sudden Global Emergency. New York, John Wiley and Sons
United Nations Environmental Programme. (2012). The Montreal Protocol and The Green Economy.
Velders, G. J. M., S. O. Andersen, J. S. Daniel, D. W. Fahey, and M. McFarland. (2007). The Importance of the Montreal Protocol in Protecting the Climate. Proc. of the Natl. Acad. Of Sci., 104(12), 4814–4819, doi:10.1073/pnas.0610328104.
Velders, G. J. M., D. W. Fahey, J. S Daniel, M. McFarland, and S. O. Andersen. (2009). The Large Contribution of Projected HFC Emissions to Future Climate Forcing. Proc. of the Natl. Acad. Of Sci., 106(27), doi:10.1073/pnas.090281716.
Velders, G. J. M., A. R. Ravishankara, M. K. Miller, M. J. Molina, J. Alcamo, J. S. Daniel, D. W. Fahey, S. A. Montzka, and S. Reimann. (2012). Preserving Montreal Protocol Climate Benefits by Limiting HFCs. Science, 335(6071), 922–923, doi:10.1126/science.1216414.
External links[edit]
The Ozone Secretariat
Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol
Status of Ratification
The Montreal Protocol
The Vienna Convention
Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) Controlled Under the Montreal Protocol
U.S. EPA Ozone Layer Protection Information Home Page
The Montreal Protocol Who's Who
[2] by F.Sherwood Rowland and Mario J.Molina
Has the Montreal Protocol been successful in reducing ozone-depleting gases in the atmosphere? (NOAA Aeronomy Lab)
Doomsday Déjà vu: Ozone Depletion's Lessons for Global Warming by Ben Lieberman
EIA reports: Reports on illegal trade and solutions.
Introductory note by Edith Brown Weiss, procedural history note and audiovisual material on the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
Green Cooling Initiative
Green Cooling Initiative on alternative natural refrigerants cooling technologies
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Jeepers Creepers (2001 film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Jeepers Creepers
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Victor Salva
Produced by
Tom Luse
Barry Opper
Written by
Victor Salva
Starring
Gina Philips
Justin Long
Jonathan Breck
Eileen Brennan
Music by
Bennett Salvay
Cinematography
Don E. FauntLeRoy
Edited by
Ed Marx
Production
company
American Zoetrope[1]
Distributed by
United Artists
Release date
August 31, 2001 (2001-08-31)
Running time
91 minutes[2]
Country
United States[1]
Germany[1]
Language
English
Budget
$10 million[3]
Box office
$59.2 million[3]
Jeepers Creepers is a 2001 American-German horror film written and directed by Victor Salva. The film takes its name from the 1938 song "Jeepers Creepers", which is featured in the film. Francis Ford Coppola executive produced, and the film stars Gina Philips, Justin Long, Jonathan Breck, and Eileen Brennan. Philips and Long play two older siblings who become the targets of a demonic creature (Breck) in rural Florida.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
4.1 Box office
4.2 Awards
5 Sequels
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
Trish Jenner and her brother Darry are traveling home from college for spring break. As they drive through the Florida countryside, an old, rusty truck tries to run them off the road. The vehicle eventually passes them, and they later see the same truck parked next to an abandoned church with a man sliding what appears to be a body wrapped in bloodstained sheets into a large pipe sticking out of the ground. The man notices Trish and Darry watching him and attempts to run them off the road a second time.
After escaping, Darry convinces Trish to go back to the church and investigate. At the church, Darry hears noises coming from within the pipe and crawls inside with Trish holding on to his feet, but he ends up falling in after being startled by a swarm of rats. At the bottom, he finds a dying man with stitches running down his stomach, and hundreds of other bodies sewn to the walls and ceiling. After Darry escapes, the two flee the scene and attempt to contact the police at a diner. At the diner, they are phoned by a strange woman who warns them that they are in danger. Confused and frightened, they ignore her warning. Trish and Darry leave, with two police officers providing a security escort. As they travel, the police learn that the church has caught fire, and any evidence of bodies has been destroyed. The police are then attacked and killed by the mysterious driver, who loads their bodies into his truck.
Fleeing, Trish and Darry stop at a reclusive old woman's house, and beg her to call the police. The woman complies until she notices the driver hiding in her yard. She attempts to kill him, but the driver kills her and reveals his inhuman face to Trish and Darry, before pursuing them once again. Trish runs the driver over with her car, but they are horrified to see a giant wing tear through his trench coat and flap frantically in the air. They drive to the local police station, where they are approached by psychic Jezelle Gay Hartman. She reveals herself as the woman who called them at the diner and tells them the true nature of their pursuer: it is an ancient creature, known as "The Creeper", which hunts every twenty-third spring for twenty-three days to feast on human body parts, which then form parts of its own body. She also tells them that it seeks out its victims through fear, and, by smelling the fear from Trish and Darry, it has found something it likes, but she does not know what.
The wounded Creeper arrives and attacks the police station. After cutting off the power, it gains entrance to the cells and feasts on prisoners to heal. The Creeper is swarmed by police but kills a number of them and evades capture. Trapped, Jezelle warns Trish and Darry that one of them will die a horrible death. Darry demands to know who, and Jezelle looks at Trish. The Creeper finds them, spares Jezelle as she does not have anything it wants, and pursues Trish and Darry. The Creeper corners them in an upstairs interrogation room. After sniffing and tasting them, the Creeper throws Trish aside and chooses Darry. Trish offers her life for her brother's, but the Creeper escapes out of the window and flies away with Darry.
The next day, Trish is picked up by her parents, and Jezelle returns home in regret.
Finally, the Creeper is in its new hideout, an abandoned factory, where it becomes clear that he has removed the back of Darry's head and taken his eyes.
Cast[edit]
Gina Philips as Patricia "Trish" Jenner
Justin Long as Darius "Darry" Jenner/Creeper at the end scene of the movie (uncredited cameo)[citation needed]
Jonathan Breck as the Creeper / Bald Cop
Patricia Belcher as Jezelle Gay Hartman
Brandon Smith as Sergeant Davis Tubbs
Eileen Brennan as the Cat Lady
Jon Beshara as Trooper Robert Gideon
Avis-Marie Barnes as Trooper Natasha Weston
Tom Tarantini as Roach
Production[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2016)
Jeepers Creepers was filmed in Dunnellon, Florida in the summer of 2000.[4]
Reception[edit]
Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 45% of 108 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating was 5.1/10. The sites consensus reads: "Jeepers Creepers has a promising start. Unfortunately, the tension and suspense quickly deflates into genre cliches as the movie goes on."[5] Metacritic rated it 49/100.[6] Scott Foundas of Variety wrote that it is "the most conventional and least imaginative of the recent crop of high-class fright movies".[7] Stephen Holden of The New York Times called it "a cannier-than-average teen horror movie" that "disintegrates into a shoot-by-numbers monster hunt".[8] Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the film "has the scariest opening sequence of any horror picture in recent memory" but becomes an "amusing horror-comedy, spooky and jolting but too literally preposterous to regain its initial aura of suspense."[9] Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian wrote that the film starts off well but quickly degenerates into cliche.[10]
Box office[edit]
Jeepers Creepers opened in 2,944 theaters and took in a US gross of $37.9 million; it later made $21.3 million internationally, making a total of $59.2 million worldwide.[3]
It broke the record for the highest ever Labor Day opening weekend four-day gross, holding the record until the 2003 release of its sequel, Jeepers Creepers 2.[11] After the 2015 Labor Day weekend, Jeepers Creepers holds the #7 spot and the #5 spot goes to its sequel.[11] Allowing for films that had been released prior to Labor Day, Jeepers Creepers holds the #16 spot for the Labor Day four-day weekend, with the #9 spot going to Jeepers Creepers 2.[12]
Awards[edit]
Nominated: 28th Saturn Awards - Best Horror Film
Nominated: 28th Saturn Awards - Best Young Actor: Justin Long
Nominated: International Horror Guild Award - Best Movie[13]
Nominated: 34th Sitges Film Festival - Best Film[14]
Sequels[edit]
In 2003, a sequel was released, Jeepers Creepers 2. Events in the second film take place four days after the first film. The Creeper and Darry are the only characters to appear in both films, although they are not the only actors to appear in both films. In the first film, actor Tom Tarantini appears as the minor character "Austin McCoy" AKA "Roach" who is a car thief and regular in the Poho County jail. In the second film, he portrays "Coach Dwayne Barnes".
On September 11, 2015, Jeepers Creepers 3 was officially greenlit.,[15] with a planned 2017 release.[16] Victor Salva returns as director, Jonathan Breck returns as "The Creeper",[15] and Gina Philips is going to be returning as "Trish Jenner", her first screen role in five years.[16] Production was halted in 2016 until it resumed in February 2017,[17] and completed in April. The film is opting for a September 2017 theatrical release. [18]
See also[edit]
Jersey Devil
Spring-Heeled Jack, a supernatural creature said to prowl Victorian England, from which the 'Creeper' in the film draws inspiration.[19]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Jeepers Creepers". AFI Catalog of Feature Films. Retrieved September 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ "JEEPERS CREEPERS (15)". British Board of Film Classification. June 26, 2001. Retrieved February 21, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jeepers Creepers (2001). Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
Jump up ^ http://pohocounty.blogspot.com/2010/07/creeper-still-circles-his-3rd-and.html
Jump up ^ "Jeepers Creepers (2001)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 2014-07-25.
Jump up ^ "Jeepers Creepers". Metacritic. Retrieved 2014-07-25.
Jump up ^ Foundas, Scott (2001-08-26). "Review: 'Jeepers Creepers'". Variety. Retrieved 2014-07-25.
Jump up ^ Holden, Stephen (2001-08-31). "Jeepers Creepers (2001)". The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-07-25.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Kevin (2001-08-31). "Clever 'Jeepers Creepers' Pushes Too Far". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2014-07-25.
Jump up ^ Bradshaw, Peter (2001-10-18). "Jeepers Creepers". The Guardian. Retrieved 2014-07-25.
^ Jump up to: a b All Time Labor Day Weekend - Opening. Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2016-05-25.
Jump up ^ All Time Labor Weekend - All Movies. Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2016-05-25.
Jump up ^ "2001 International Horror Guild Awards". HorrorAward.org. Archived from the original on September 5, 2014. Retrieved 2016-05-27.
Jump up ^ "Fantàstic Official Selection". Sitges Film Festival. Retrieved 2016-05-27.
^ Jump up to: a b McNary, Dave (2015-09-11). "‘Jeepers Creepers 3’ in the Works From Producer Francis Ford Coppola". Variety. Retrieved 2016-08-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Orange, B. Alan (2016-03-22). "Jeepers Creepers 3 Shooting Next Month, Gina Philips to Return as Trish?". MovieWeb. Retrieved 2016-05-25.
Jump up ^ http://movieweb.com/jeepers-creepers-3-2017-production-start-date-victor-salva/
Jump up ^ http://movieweb.com/jeepers-creepers-3-2017-production-start-date-victor-salva/
Jump up ^ Mentioned in the directors commentary audio track, in the Jeepers Creepers DVD
External links[edit]
Official website
Jeepers Creepers on IMDb
Jeepers Creepers at Box Office Mojo
Jeepers Creepers at Rotten Tomatoes
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American Pie 2 Box office number-one films of 2001 (U.S.)
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Prayer flag
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Prayer flags connect the two peaks of the Peak of Victory over Leh, Ladakh, India. The Namgyal Tsemo Gompa can be seen on the peak.
A prayer flag is a colorful rectangular cloth, often found strung along mountain ridges and peaks high in the Himalayas. They are used to bless the surrounding countryside and for other purposes. Prayer flags are believed to have originated with Bon.[1] In Bon, shamanistic Bonpo used primary-colored plain flags in Tibet.[2] Traditional prayer flags include woodblock-printed text and images.
Contents
1 History
2 Lung ta/Darchog styles
3 Color and order
4 Symbols and prayers
5 Symbolism and tradition
6 Timing of hanging and taking down
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
Close-up view of prayer flags.
Lung ta prayer flags hang along a mountain path in Nepal.
Nepal Sutras, originally written on cloth banners, were transmitted to other regions of the world as prayer flags.[3] Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to the Gautama Buddha, whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the devas against their adversaries, the asuras.[4] The legend may have given the Indian bhikku a reason for carrying the heavenly banner as a way of signifying his commitment to ahimsa.[5] This knowledge was carried into Tibet by 800 CE,and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.[5] The Indian monk Atisha (980 – 1054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet and Nepal.[4]
During the Cultural Revolution, prayer flags were discouraged but not entirely eliminated. Many traditional designs may have been lost. Currently, different styles of prayer flags can be seen all across the Tibetan region.
Lung ta/Darchog styles[edit]
Prayer flags in the Qilian Mountains, China.
A Tibetan "lung ta" or "wind horse" from an 1895 book by Laurence Austine Waddell
There are two kinds of prayer flags: horizontal ones, called Lung ta (Wylie: rlung-rta, meaning "Wind Horse") in Tibetan, and vertical ones, called Darchog (Wylie: dar-lcog, meaning "flagstaff").
Lung ta (horizontal) prayer flags are of square or rectangular shape, and are connected along their top edges to a long string or thread. They are commonly hung on a diagonal line from high to low between two objects (e.g., a rock and the top of a pole) in high places such as the tops of temples, monasteries, stupas, and mountain passes
Darchog (vertical) prayer flags are usually large single rectangles attached to poles along their vertical edge. Darchog are commonly planted in the ground, mountains, cairns, and on rooftops, and are iconographically and symbolically related to the Dhvaja.
Color and order[edit]
Prayer flags in Kathmandu, Nepal.
Traditionally, prayer flags come in sets of five: one in each of five colors. The five colors are arranged from left to right in a specific order: blue, white, red, green, and yellow. The five colors represent the five elements[2] and the Five Pure Lights. Different elements are associated with different colors for specific traditions, purposes and sadhana. Blue symbolizes the sky and space, white symbolizes the air and wind, red symbolizes fire, green symbolizes water, and yellow symbolizes earth.[2] According to Traditional Tibetan medicine, health and harmony are produced through the balance of the five elements.[2]
Symbols and prayers[edit]
The center of a prayer flag traditionally features a Lung ta (powerful or strong horse) bearing three flaming jewels (specifically ratna) on its back. The Ta is a symbol of speed and the transformation of bad fortune to good fortune. The three flaming jewels symbolize the Buddha, the Dharma (Buddhist teachings), and the Sangha (Buddhist community): the three cornerstones of Tibetan philosophical tradition.
Surrounding the Lung ta are various versions of approximately 400 traditional mantras, each dedicated to a particular deity. These writings include mantras from three of the great Buddhist Bodhisattvas: Padmasambhava (Guru Rinpoche), Avalokiteśvara (Chenrezig, the bodhisattva of compassion, and the patron of the Tibetan people), and Manjusri.
In addition to mantras, prayers for a long life of good fortune are often included for the person who mounts the flags.
Images or the names of four powerful animals, also known as the Four Dignities, adorn each corner of a flag: the dragon, the garuda, the tiger, and the snowlion.
Symbolism and tradition[edit]
Traditionally, prayer flags are used to promote peace, compassion, strength, and wisdom. The flags do not carry prayers to gods, which is a common misconception; rather, the Tibetans believe the prayers and mantras will be blown by the wind to spread the good will and compassion into all pervading space. Therefore, prayer flags are thought to bring benefit to all.
By hanging flags in high places the Lung ta will carry the blessings depicted on the flags to all beings. As wind passes over the surface of the flags, which are sensitive to the slightest movement of the wind, the air is purified and sanctified by the mantras.
The prayers of a flag become a permanent part of the universe as the images fade from exposure to the elements. Just as life moves on and is replaced by new life, Tibetans renew their hopes for the world by continually mounting new flags alongside the old. This act symbolizes a welcoming of life's changes and an acknowledgment that all beings are part of a greater ongoing cycle.
According to traditional belief, because the symbols and mantras on prayer flags are sacred, they should be treated with respect. They should not be placed on the ground or used on clothing. Old prayer flags should be burned.
Prayer flags
Prayer flags at Swayambunath, Kathmandu.
A Darchog prayer flag in northern India.
Close-up of a Lung ta ("Wind Horse") prayer flag, Ladakh, India.
Prayer flags in central Nepal.
Timing of hanging and taking down[edit]
Some believe that if the flags are hung on inauspicious astrological dates, they may bring negative results for as long as they are flying. The best time to put up new prayer flags is in the morning on sunny, windy days.
Old prayer flags are replaced with new ones annually on the Tibetan New Year.
See also[edit]
Namkha
Phurba
Buddhist prayer beads
Tibetan prayer wheel
Stupa
Bunting (textile)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Barker, page 14
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Radiant Heart: The Prayer Flag Tradition" (PDF). prayerflags.com. Retrieved 2007-12-29.
Jump up ^ Barker, page 13
^ Jump up to: a b Beer, page 60
^ Jump up to: a b Wise, page 11-12
References[edit]
Barker, Dian (2003). Tibetan Prayer Flags. Connections Book Publishing. ISBN 1-85906-106-0.
Beer, Robert (2004). Encyclopedia of Tibetan Symbols and Motifs. Serindia Publications Inc. ISBN 1-932476-10-5
Wise, Tad (2002). Blessings on the Wind: The Mystery & Meaning of Tibetan Prayer Flags. Chronicle Books. ISBN 0-8118-3435-2.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Prayer flags.
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values: Молитвенный флаг – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: Молитовний прапор – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Prayer_flag rootpage-Prayer_flag skin-vector action-view