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Lord of the Flies
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For the 1963 film, see Lord of the Flies (1963 film). For the 1990 film, see Lord of the Flies (1990 film). For other uses, see Lord of the Flies (disambiguation).
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Lord of the Flies
The original UK Lord of the Flies book cover
Author
William Golding
Cover artist
Anthony Gross[1]
Country
United Kingdom
Genre
Allegorical novel
Publisher
Faber and Faber
Publication date
17 September 1954
ISBN
0-571-05686-5 (first edition, paperback)
OCLC
47677622
Lord of the Flies is a 1954 novel by Nobel Prize–winning British author William Golding. The book focuses on a group of British boys stranded on an uninhabited island and their disastrous attempt to govern themselves.
The novel has been generally well received. It was named in the Modern Library 100 Best Novels, reaching number 41 on the editor's list, and 25 on the reader's list. In 2003 it was listed at number 70 on the BBC's The Big Read poll, and in 2005 Time magazine named it as one of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Plot
3 Themes
4 Reception
5 In other media
5.1 Film
5.2 Stage
5.3 Radio
6 Influence
6.1 Film
6.2 Literature
6.3 Music
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Background
Published in 1954, Lord of the Flies was Golding's first novel. Although it was not a great success at the time—selling fewer than three thousand copies in the United States during 1955 before going out of print—it soon went on to become a best-seller. It has been adapted to film twice in English, in 1963 by Peter Brook and 1990 by Harry Hook, and once in Filipino (1975).
The book takes place in the midst of an unspecified war.[2] Some of the marooned characters are ordinary students, while others arrive as a musical choir under an established leader. With the exception of Sam and Eric and the choirboys, they appear never to have encountered each other before. The book portrays their descent into savagery; left to themselves on a paradisiacal island, far from modern civilisation, the well-educated children regress to a primitive state.
Golding wrote his book as a counterpoint to R.M. Ballantyne's youth novel The Coral Island (1858),[3] and included specific references to it, such as the rescuing naval officer's description of the children's initial attempts at civilised cooperation as "a jolly good show, like the Coral Island".[4] Golding's three central characters—Ralph, Piggy and Jack—have been interpreted as caricatures of Ballantyne's Coral Island protagonists.[5]
Plot
In the midst of a wartime evacuation, a British aeroplane crashes on or near an isolated island in a remote region of the Pacific Ocean. The only survivors are boys in their middle childhood or preadolescence. Two boys—the fair-haired Ralph and an overweight, bespectacled boy nicknamed "Piggy"—find a conch, which Ralph uses as a horn to convene all the survivors to one area. Ralph is optimistic, believing that grown-ups will come to rescue them but Piggy realises the need to organise: ("put first things first and act proper"). Because Ralph appears responsible for bringing all the survivors together, he immediately commands some authority over the other boys and is quickly elected their "chief". He does not receive the votes of the members of a boys' choir, led by the red-headed Jack Merridew, although he allows the choir boys to form a separate clique of hunters. Ralph establishes three primary policies: to have fun, to survive, and to constantly maintain a smoke signal that could alert passing ships to their presence on the island and thus rescue them. The boys establish a form of democracy by declaring that whoever holds the conch shall also be able to speak at their formal gatherings and receive the attentive silence of the larger group.
Jack organises his choir into a hunting party responsible for discovering a food source. Ralph, Jack, and a quiet, dreamy boy named Simon soon form a loose triumvirate of leaders with Ralph as the ultimate authority. Upon inspection of the island, the three determine that it has fruit and wild pigs for food. The boys also use Piggy's spectacles to create a fire. Though he is Ralph's only real confidant, Piggy is quickly made into an outcast by his fellow "biguns" (older boys) and becomes an unwilling source of laughs for the other children while being hated by Jack. Simon, in addition to supervising the project of constructing shelters, feels an instinctive need to protect the "littluns" (younger boys).
The semblance of order quickly deteriorates as the majority of the boys turn idle; they give little aid in building shelters, spend their time having fun and begin to develop paranoias about the island. The central paranoia refers to a supposed monster they call the "beast", which they all slowly begin to believe exists on the island. Ralph insists that no such beast exists, but Jack, who has started a power struggle with Ralph, gains a level of control over the group by boldly promising to kill the creature. At one point, Jack summons all of his hunters to hunt down a wild pig, drawing away those assigned to maintain the signal fire. A ship travels by the island, but without the boys' smoke signal to alert the ship's crew, the vessel continues without stopping. Ralph angrily confronts Jack about his failure to maintain the signal; in frustration Jack assaults Piggy, breaking his glasses. The boys subsequently enjoy their first feast. Angered by the failure of the boys to attract potential rescuers, Ralph considers relinquishing his position as leader, but is convinced not to do so by Piggy, who both understands Ralph's importance and deeply fears what will become of him should Jack take total control.
One night, an aerial battle occurs near the island while the boys sleep, during which a fighter pilot ejects from his plane and dies in the descent. His body drifts down to the island in his parachute; both get tangled in a tree near the top of the mountain. Later on, while Jack continues to scheme against Ralph, the twins Sam and Eric, now assigned to the maintenance of the signal fire, see the corpse of the fighter pilot and his parachute in the dark. Mistaking the corpse for the beast, they run to the cluster of shelters that Ralph and Simon have erected to warn the others. This unexpected meeting again raises tensions between Jack and Ralph. Shortly thereafter, Jack decides to lead a party to the other side of the island, where a mountain of stones, later called Castle Rock, forms a place where he claims the beast resides. Only Ralph and a quiet suspicious boy, Roger, Jack's closest supporter, agree to go; Ralph turns back shortly before the other two boys but eventually all three see the parachutist, whose head rises via the wind. They then flee, now believing the beast is truly real. When they arrive at the shelters, Jack calls an assembly and tries to turn the others against Ralph, asking them to remove Ralph from his position. Receiving no support, Jack storms off alone to form his own tribe. Roger immediately sneaks off to join Jack, and slowly an increasing number of older boys abandon Ralph to join Jack's tribe. Jack's tribe continues to lure recruits from the main group by promising feasts of cooked pig. The members begin to paint their faces and enact bizarre rites, including sacrifices to the beast. One night, Ralph and Piggy decide to go to one of Jack's feasts.
Simon, who faints frequently and is likely an epileptic,[6][7] has a secret hideaway where he goes to be alone. One day while he is there, Jack and his followers erect an offering to the beast nearby: a pig's head, mounted on a sharpened stick and soon swarming with scavenging flies. Simon conducts an imaginary dialogue with the head, which he dubs the "Lord of the Flies". The head mocks Simon's notion that the beast is a real entity, "something you could hunt and kill", and reveals the truth: they, the boys, are the beast; it is inside them all. The Lord of the Flies also warns Simon that he is in danger, because he represents the soul of man, and predicts that the others will kill him. Simon climbs the mountain alone and discovers that the "beast" is the dead parachutist. He rushes down to tell the other boys, who are engaged in a ritual dance. The frenzied boys mistake Simon for the beast, attack him, and beat him to death. Both Ralph and Piggy participate in the melee, and they become deeply disturbed by their actions after returning from Castle Rock.
Jack and his rebel band decide that the real symbol of power on the island is not the conch, but Piggy's glasses—the only means the boys have of starting a fire. They raid Ralph's camp, confiscate the glasses, and return to their abode on Castle Rock. Ralph, now deserted by most of his supporters, journeys to Castle Rock to confront Jack and secure the glasses. Taking the conch and accompanied only by Piggy, Sam, and Eric, Ralph finds the tribe and demands that they return the valuable object. Confirming their total rejection of Ralph's authority, the tribe capture and bind the twins under Jack's command. Ralph and Jack engage in a fight which neither wins before Piggy tries once more to address the tribe. Any sense of order or safety is permanently eroded when Roger, now sadistic, deliberately drops a boulder from his vantage point above, killing Piggy and shattering the conch. Ralph manages to escape, but Sam and Eric are tortured by Roger until they agree to join Jack's tribe.
Ralph secretly confronts Sam and Eric, who warn him that Jack and Roger hate him and that Roger has sharpened a stick at both ends, implying the tribe intends to hunt him like a pig and behead him. The following morning, Jack orders his tribe to begin a hunt for Ralph. Jack's savages set fire to the forest while Ralph desperately weighs his options for survival. Following a long chase, most of the island is consumed in flames. With the hunters closely behind him, Ralph trips and falls. He looks up at a uniformed adult—a British naval officer whose party has landed from a passing cruiser to investigate the fire. Ralph bursts into tears over the death of Piggy and the "end of innocence". Jack and the other children, filthy and unkempt, also revert to their true ages and erupt into sobs. The officer expresses his disappointment at seeing British boys exhibiting such feral, warlike behaviour before turning to stare awkwardly at his own warship.
Themes
At an allegorical level, the central theme is the conflicting human impulses toward civilisation and social organisation—living by rules, peacefully and in harmony—and toward the will to power. Themes include the tension between groupthink and individuality, between rational and emotional reactions, and between morality and immorality. How these play out, and how different people feel the influences of these form a major subtext of Lord of the Flies.[citation needed] The name "Lord of the Flies" is a literal translation of Beelzebub, from 2 Kings 1:2–3, 6, 16.
Reception
In February 1960, Floyd C. Gale of Galaxy Science Fiction rated Lord of the Flies five stars out of five, stating that "Golding paints a truly terrifying picture of the decay of a minuscule society ... Well on its way to becoming a modern classic".[8]
Its stances on the already controversial subjects of human nature and individual welfare versus the common good earned it position 68 on the American Library Association's list of the 100 most frequently challenged books of 1900–1999.[9]
It was awarded a place on both lists of Modern Library 100 Best Novels, reaching number 41 on the editor's list, and 25 on the reader's list.
In 2003, the novel was listed at number 70 on the BBC's survey The Big Read.[10]
In 2005, the novel was chosen by TIME magazine as one of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005.[11]
In other media
Film
There have been three film adaptations based on the book:
Lord of the Flies (1963), directed by Peter Brook
Alkitrang Dugo (1975), a Filipino film, directed by Lupita A. Concio
Lord of the Flies (1990), directed by Harry Hook
A fourth adaptation, to feature an all-female cast, was announced by Warner Bros. in August 2017. Scott McGehee and David Siegel are slated to write and direct.[12][13] The film's concept has been negatively received, with some stating that an all-female cast goes against the novel's themes of masculinity and male power.[citation needed]
Stage
Nigel Williams adapted the text for the stage. It was debuted by the Royal Shakespeare Company in July 1996. The Pilot Theatre Company has toured it extensively in the United Kingdom and elsewhere.
In October 2014 it was announced that the 2011 production[14] of Lord of the Flies would return to conclude the 2015 season at the Regent's Park Open Air Theatre ahead of a major UK tour. The production was to be directed by the Artistic Director Timothy Sheader who won the 2014 Whatsonstage.com Awards Best Play Revival for To Kill A Mockingbird.
Radio
In June 2013, BBC Radio 4 Extra broadcast a dramatisation by Judith Adams in four 30-minute episodes directed by Sasha Yevtushenko.[15] The cast included Ruth Wilson as "The Narrator", Finn Bennett as "Ralph", Richard Linnel as "Jack", Caspar Hilton-Hilley as "Piggy" and Jack Caine as "Simon".
Fire on the Mountain
Painted Faces
Beast from the Air
Gift for Darkness
Influence
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2015)
Many writers have borrowed plot elements from Lord of the Flies. By the early 1960s, it was required reading in many schools and colleges.[16]
Film
Stephen King's fictional town of Castle Rock, inspired by the fictional mountain fort of the same name in Lord of the Flies, in turn inspired the name of Rob Reiner's production company, Castle Rock Entertainment, which produced the film Lord of the Flies (1990).[17]
Literature
Stephen King got the name Castle Rock from the fictional mountain fort of the same name in Lord of the Flies and used the name to refer to a fictional town that has appeared in a number of his novels.[18] The book itself appears prominently in his novels Hearts in Atlantis (1999), Misery (1987), and Cujo (1981).[19]
Stephen King wrote an introduction for a new edition of Lord of the Flies (2011) to mark the centenary of William Golding's birth in 2011.[17]
The novel Garden Lakes by Jaime Clarke is an homage to Lord of the Flies.
Music
The final song on U2's debut album Boy (1980) takes its title, "Shadows and Tall Trees", from Chapter 7 in the book.[20]
Iron Maiden wrote a song inspired by the book, included in their 1995 album The X Factor.[21]
Blues Traveler wrote a song called "Justify the Thrill", in which a small part of the lyrics are in reference to the book:[22]
"The pig's head on a stick does grin. As we teeter on the brink. He's singing you are all my children. My island's bigger than you think."
The Radiohead song "The Daily Mail" includes lyrics that make direct reference to the title of the novel.[23]
See also
A High Wind in Jamaica
Batavia (ship)
"Das Bus", an episode of The Simpsons with a similar plot[24]
Heart of Darkness (1899), short novel by Joseph Conrad
Island mentality
State of nature
The Coral Island: A Tale of the Pacific Ocean (1858), novel by R. M. Ballantyne with a similar premise but an opposite perspective
Two Years' Vacation (1888), adventure novel by Jules Verne
Robbers Cave Experiment
References
Jump up ^ "Bound books – a set on Flickr". Archived from the original on 25 October 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Weiskel, Portia Williams, ed. (2010). "Peter Edgerly Firchow Examines the Implausible Beginning and Ending of Lord of the Flies". William Golding's Lord of the Flies. Bloom's Guides. Infobase. ISBN 9781438135397.
Jump up ^ Kundu, Rama (2006), New Perspectives on British Authors: From William Shakespeare to Graham Greene, Sarup & Sons, p. 219, ISBN 978-81-7625-690-2
Jump up ^ Reiff, Raychel Haugrud (2010), William Golding: Lord of the Flies, Marshall Cavendish, p. 93, ISBN 978-0-7614-4700-9
Jump up ^ Singh, Minnie (1997), "The Government of Boys: Golding's Lord of the Flies and Ballantyne's Coral Island", Children's Literature, 25: 205–213, doi:10.1353/chl.0.0478
Jump up ^ Baker, James Rupert; Ziegler, Arthur P., eds. (1983). William Golding's Lord of the Flies. Penguin. p. xxi.
Jump up ^ Rosenfield, Claire (1990). "Men of a Smaller Growth: A Psychological Analysis of William Golding's Lord of the Flies". Contemporary Literary Criticism. 58. Detroit, MI: Gale Research. pp. 93–101.
Jump up ^ Gale, Floyd C. (February 1960). "Galaxy's 5 Star Shelf". Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 164–168.
Jump up ^ "100 most frequently challenged books: 1990–1999". American Library Association. 2009. Archived from the original on 15 May 2010. Retrieved 16 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "The Big Read – Top 100 Books". BBC. April 2003. Archived from the original on 28 October 2012. Retrieved 18 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Grossman, Lev; Lacayo, Richard (6 October 2005). "ALL-TIME 100 Novels. Lord of the Flies (1955), by William Golding". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on 10 December 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Fleming, Mike, Jr (30 August 2017). "Scott McGehee & David Siegel Plan Female-Centric 'Lord Of The Flies' At Warner Bros". Deadline. Archived from the original on 6 March 2018. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
Jump up ^ France, Lisa Respers (1 September 2017). "'Lord of the Flies' all-girl remake sparks backlash". Entertainment. CNN. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Lord of the Flies, Open Air Theatre, Regent's Park, review". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 30 May 2011. Retrieved 26 May 2011. [not in citation given]
Jump up ^ "William Golding – Lord of the Flies". BBC Radio 4. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Ojalvo, Holly Epstein; Doyne, Shannon (5 August 2010). "Teaching 'The Lord of the Flies' With The New York Times". nytimes.com. Archived from the original on 8 January 2018. Retrieved 6 May 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b King, Stephen (2011). "Introduction by Stephen King". Faber and Faber. Archived from the original on 24 July 2012. Retrieved 12 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Beahm, George (1992). The Stephen King story (Revised ed.). Kansas City: Andrews and McMeel. p. 120. ISBN 0-8362-8004-0. Castle Rock, which King in turn had got from Golding's Lord of the Flies.
Jump up ^ Liukkonen, Petri. "Stephen King". Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi). Finland: Kuusankoski Public Library. Archived from the original on 23 March 2007.
Jump up ^ Bailie, Stuart (13 June 1992). "Rock and Roll Should Be This Big!". NME. UK. Archived from the original on 23 December 2007. Retrieved 28 November 2007.
Jump up ^ "CALA (-) LAND". ilcala.blogspot.com. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "BluesTraveler.net Song Search Results". www.bluestraveler.net. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Lord of all the flies in the sky / The beasts of the earth, the fish in the sea / You've lost command". Genius. Retrieved 6 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Cohen, David (2006). The Simpsons The Complete Ninth Season DVD commentary for 'Das Bus' (DVD). 20th Century Fox.
Golding, William (1958) [1954]. Lord of the Flies (Print ed.). Boston: Faber & Faber.
External links
Wikibooks has more on the topic of: Lord of the Flies
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Lord of the Flies
Chapter 1: "The Sound of the Shell" of the novel Lord of the Flies by William Golding on eNotes
Lord of the Flies student guide and teacher resources; themes, quotes, characters, study questions
Reading and teaching guide from Faber and Faber, the book's UK publisher
An interview with Judy Golding, the author's daughter, in which she discusses the inspiration for the book, and the reasons for its enduring legacy
William Golding official website run and administered by the William Golding Estate
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Works by William Golding
Poems (1934)
Lord of the Flies (1954)
The Inheritors (1955)
Pincher Martin (1956)
The Brass Butterfly : a Play in Three Acts (1958)
Free Fall (1959)
The Spire (1964)
The Hot Gates, and Other Occasional Pieces (1965)
The Pyramid (1967)
The Scorpion God : Three Short Novels (1971)
Darkness Visible (1979)
Rites of Passage (1980)
A Moving Target (1982)
Nobel Lecture, 7 December 1983 (1984)
The Paper Men (1984)
An Egyptian Journal (1985)
Close Quarters (1987)
Fire Down Below (1989)
The Double Tongue (1995)
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William Golding's Lord of the Flies
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Lord of the Flies (1963)
Alkitrang Dugo (1975)
Lord of the Flies (1990)
Other
"Lord of the Flies" (song)
Related
"Das Bus"
Exile
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Foreign trade of the United States
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Part of a series on
World trade
Policy[show]
Import
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Export orientation
Import substitution
Trade finance
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Tax, tariff and trade
Restrictions[show]
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Embargo
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History[show]
Mercantilism
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Terms of trade
v
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Average tariff rates (France, UK, US)
Average Tariff Rates in US (1821–2016)
US Trade Balance and Trade Policy (1895–2015)
U.S. Productivity, Real Hourly Compensation and Trade Policy (1948-2013)[1]
Real GDP, Real Wages and Trade Policy in the US (1947–2014)
Imports vs exports & net imports
China–US trade Imbalance
US Trade Balance 1980 2010
Deteriorating US net international investment position (NIIP) has caused concern among economists over the effects of outsourcing and high US trade deficits over the long-run.[2]
Foreign trade of the United States comprises the international imports and exports of the United States, one of the world's most significant economic markets. The country is among the top three global importers and exporters.
US Merchandise Trade Balance (2011)
Merchandise exports (1870–1992)
US manufacturing employment
The regulation of trade is constitutionally vested in the United States Congress. After the Great Depression, the country emerged as among the most significant global trade policy-makers, and it is now a partner to a number of international trade agreements, including the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Gross U.S. assets held by foreigners were $16.3 trillion as of the end of 2006 (over 100% of GDP).
Contents
1 Introduction
2 History
3 Trade policy
4 Customs territory
5 Investment in the United States
6 Trade agreements
7 Internal institutions
8 Imports and exports
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Introduction[edit]
The country has trade relations with many other countries. Within that, the trade with Europe and Asia is predominant. To fulfill the demands of the industrial sector, the country has to import mineral oil and iron ore on a large scale. Machinery, cotton yarn, toys, mineral oil, lubricants, steel, tea, sugar, coffee, and many more items are traded. The country's export list includes food grains like wheat, corn, and soybean. Aeroplane, cars, computers, paper, and machine tools required for different industries. In 2016 United States current account balance was -$469,400,000,000.[3]
History[edit]
Main articles: List of tariffs in the United States, Tariffs in United States history, and Protectionism in the United States
See also: American Civil War
The Constitution gives Congress express power over the imposition of tariffs and the regulation of international trade. As a result, Congress can enact laws including those that: establish tariff rates; implement trade agreements; provide remedies against unfairly traded imports; control exports of sensitive technology; and extend tariff preferences to imports from developing countries. Over time, and under carefully prescribed circumstances, Congress has delegated some of its trade authority to the Executive Branch. Congress, however, has, in some cases, kept tight reins on the use of this authority by requiring that certain trade laws and programs be renewed; and by requiring the Executive Branch to issue reports to Congress to monitor the implementation of the trade laws and programs.[4]
The authority of Congress to regulate international trade is set out in Article I, Section 8, Paragraph 1 of the United States Constitution:
The Congress shall have power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and to promote the general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
The Embargo Act of 1807 was designed to force Britain to rescind its restrictions on American trade, but failed, and was repealed in early 1809.
During the Civil War period, leaders of the Confederacy were confident that Britain would come to their aid because of British reliance on Southern cotton.[5] The Union was able to avoid this, through skillful use of diplomacy and threats to other aspects of European-U.S. trade relations.
According to Michael Lind, protectionism was America's de facto policy from the passage of the Tariff of 1816 to World War II, "switching to free trade only in 1945".[6] It has been argued that one of the underlying motivations for the American Revolution itself was a desire to industrialize, and reverse the trade deficit with Britain, which had grown by a factor of ten in the space of a few decades, from £67,000 (1721–30) to £739,000 (1761–70).[7]
According to Paul Bairoch, since the end of the 18th century, the United States has been "the homeland and bastion of modern protectionism". In fact, the United States never adhered to free trade until 1945. A very protectionist policy was adopted as soon as the presidency of George Washington by Alexander Hamilton, the first US Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795 and author of the text Report on Manufactures which called for customs barriers to allow American industrial development and to help protect infant industries, including bounties (subsidies) derived in part from those tariffs. This text was one of the references of the German economist Friedrich List (1789–1846). The United States has become the main opposition to free trade and this policy remained throughout the 19th century and the overall level of tariffs was very high (close to 50% in 1830). The victory of the protectionist states of the North over the free trade southern states at the end of the Civil War (1861–1865) perpetuated this trend, even during periods of free trade in Europe (1860–1880).[8]
Hamilton explained that despite an initial “increase of price” caused by regulations that control foreign competition, once a “domestic manufacture has attained to perfection… it invariably becomes cheaper.” George Washington signed the Tariff Act of 1789, making it the Republic's second ever piece of legislation. Increasing the domestic supply of manufactured goods, particularly war materials, was seen as an issue of national security. Washington and Hamilton believed that political independence was predicated upon economic independence.[9]
In the 19th century, statesmen such as Senator Henry Clay continued Hamilton's themes within the Whig Party under the name "American System." The fledgling Republican Party led by Abraham Lincoln, who called himself a "Henry Clay tariff Whig", strongly opposed free trade, and implemented a 44-percent tariff during the Civil War—in part to pay for railroad subsidies and for the war effort, and to protect favored industries.[10]
From 1871 to 1913, “the average U.S. tariff on dutiable imports never fell below 38 percent [and] gross national product (GNP) grew 4.3 percent annually, twice the pace in free trade Britain and well above the U.S. average in the 20th century,” notes Alfred Eckes Jr., chairman of the U.S. International Trade Commission under President Reagan.
In 1896, the GOP platform pledged to “renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection, as the bulwark of American industrial independence, and the foundation of development and prosperity. This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry. It puts the burden of revenue on foreign goods; it secures the American market for the American producer. It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman.”
While the United States has always participated in international trade, it did not take a leading role in global trade policy-making until the Great Depression. Congress and The Executive Branch came into conflict in deciding the mix of trade promotion and protectionism. In order to stimulate employment, Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1934, allowing the executive branch to negotiate bilateral trade agreements for a fixed period of time.[citation needed] During the 1930s the amount of bilateral negotiation under this act was fairly limited, and consequently did little to expand global trade.
Near the end of the Second World War U.S. policy makers began to experiment on a broader level. In the 1940s, working with the British government, the United States developed two innovations to expand and govern trade among nations: the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the International Trade Organization (ITO). GATT was a temporary multilateral agreement designed to provide a framework of rules and a forum to negotiate trade barrier reductions among nations.
The growing importance of international trade led to the establishment of the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative in 1963 by Executive Order 11075, originally called The Office of the Special Representative for Trade Negotiations.[11]
Trade policy[edit]
China gains entry to the WTO as Most favoured nation in early 2000s.
United States trade policy has varied widely through various American historical and industrial periods. As a major developed nation, the U.S. has relied heavily on the import of raw materials and the export of finished goods. Because of the significance for American economy and industry, much weight has been placed on trade policy by elected officials and business leaders.[12]
The 1920s marked a decade of economic growth in the United States following a Classical supply side policy.[13] U.S. President Warren Harding signed the Emergency Tariff of 1921 and the Fordney–McCumber Tariff of 1922. Harding's policies reduced taxes and protected U.S. business and agriculture.[14] Following the Great Depression and World War II, the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference brought the Bretton Woods currency agreement followed by the economy of the 1950s and 1960s. In 1971, President Richard Nixon ended U.S. ties to Bretton Woods, leaving the U.S. with a floating fiat currency. The stagflation of the 1970s saw a U.S. economy characterized by slower GDP growth. In 1988, the United States ranked first in the world in the Economist Intelligence Unit "quality of life index" and third in the Economic Freedom of the World Index.[15]
Over the long run, nations with trade surpluses tend also to have a savings surplus. The U.S. generally has developed lower savings rates than its trading partners, which have tended to have trade surpluses. Germany, France, Japan, and Canada have maintained higher savings rates than the U.S. over the long run.[16]
Some economists believe that GDP and employment can be dragged down by an over-large deficit over the long run.[17] Others believe that trade deficits are good for the economy.[18] The opportunity cost of a forgone tax base may outweigh perceived gains, especially where artificial currency pegs and manipulations are present to distort trade.[19]
In 2006, the primary economic concerns focused on: high national debt ($9 trillion), high non-bank corporate debt ($9 trillion), high mortgage debt ($9 trillion), high financial institution debt ($12 trillion), high unfunded Medicare liability ($30 trillion), high unfunded Social Security liability ($12 trillion), high external debt (amount owed to foreign lenders) and a serious deterioration in the United States net international investment position (NIIP) (−24% of GDP),[2] high trade deficits, and a rise in illegal immigration.[20][21]
These issues have raised concerns among economists and unfunded liabilities were mentioned as a serious problem facing the United States in the President's 2006 State of the Union address.[21][22] On June 26, 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, called for the U.S. to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive demand.[23]
U.S. deficit by country (in billions, goods only), 2014
In 1985, the U.S. had just begun a growing trade deficit with China. During the 1990s, the U.S. trade deficit became a more excessive long-run trade deficit, mostly with Asia. By 2012, the U.S. trade deficit, fiscal budget deficit, and federal debt increased to record or near-record levels following the implementation of broad unconditional or unilateral U.S. free trade policies and formal trade agreements in the preceding decades.[24][25]
The US last had a trade surplus in 1975.[26] However, recessions may cause short-run anomalies to rising trade deficits. The balance of trade in the United States has been a concern among economists and business people. Warren Buffett, founder of Berkshire Hathaway, was quoted in the Associated Press (January 20, 2006) as saying "The U.S. trade deficit is a bigger threat to the domestic economy than either the federal budget deficit or consumer debt and could lead to political turmoil... Right now, the rest of the world owns $3 trillion more of us than we own of them."
In both a 1987 guest editorial to the Omaha-World Herald and a more detailed 2003 Fortune article, Buffett proposed a tool called Import Certificates as a solution to the United States' problem and ensure balanced trade. "The rest of the world owns a staggering $2.5 trillion more of the U.S. than we own of other countries. Some of this $2.5 trillion is invested in claim checks—U.S. bonds, both governmental and private—and some in such assets as property and equity securities."[27]
In 2013 the United States' largest trading partner was Canada.[28] China has seen substantial economic growth in the past 50 years[when?] and though a nuclear-security summit that took place in early 2010 President Obama hoped to insure another 50 years of growth between the two countries. On April 19, 2010, President Obama met with China's President Hu Jintao to discuss trade policies between the two countries.[29]
Though the US trade deficit has been stubborn, and tends to be the largest by dollar volume of any nation, even the most extreme months as measured by percent of GDP there are nations that are far more noteworthy. Case in point, post 2015 Nepal earthquake, Nepal's trade gap (in goods & services) was a shocking 33.3% of GDP[30] although heavy remittances considerably offset that number. According to the US Department of Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), January 27, 2017 report, the GDP "increased 4.0 percent, or $185.5 billion, in the fourth quarter of 2016 to a level of $18,860.8 billion."[31]
Customs territory[edit]
The main customs territory of the United States includes the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and the territory of Puerto Rico, with the exception of over 200 foreign trade zones designated to encourage economic activity. People and goods entering this territory are subject to inspection by U.S. Customs and Border Protection. The remaining insular areas are separate customs territories administered largely by local authorities:
American Samoa
Guam
Northern Mariana Islands
United States Minor Outlying Islands (mostly uninhabited)
United States Virgin Islands
Transportation of certain living things or agricultural products may be prohibited even within a customs territory. This is enforced by U.S. Customs and Border Protection, the federal Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, and even state authorities such as the California Department of Food and Agriculture.
Investment in the United States[edit]
Gross U.S. assets held by foreigners were $16.3 trillion as of the end of 2006 (over 100% of GDP). The U.S. net international investment position (NIIP)[32] became a negative $2.5 trillion at the end of 2006, or about minus 19% of GDP.[2][33]
This figure rises as long as the US maintains an imbalance in trade, when the value of imports substantially outweighs the value of exports. This external debt does not result mostly from loans to Americans or the American government, nor is it consumer debt owed to non-US creditors. It is an accounting entry that largely represents US domestic assets purchased with trade dollars and owned overseas, largely by US trading partners.[34]
For countries like the United States, a large net external debt is created when the value of foreign assets (debt and equity) held by domestic residents is less than the value of domestic assets held by foreigners. In simple terms, as foreigners buy property in the US, this adds to the external debt. When this occurs in greater amounts than Americans buying property overseas, nations like the United States are said to be debtor nations, but this is not conventional debt like a loan obtained from a bank.[2][32]
Account balance as of 2006[35]
If the external debt represents foreign ownership of domestic assets, the result is that rental income, stock dividends, capital gains and other investment income is received by foreign investors, rather than by U.S. residents. On the other hand, when American debt is held by overseas investors, they receive interest and principal repayments. As the trade imbalance puts extra dollars in hands outside of the U.S., these dollars may be used to invest in new assets (foreign direct investment, such as new plants) or be used to buy existing American assets such as stocks, real estate and bonds. With a mounting trade deficit, the income from these assets increasingly transfers overseas.[2][32]
Of major concern is the magnitude of the NIIP (or net external debt), which is larger than those of most national economies. Fueled by the sizable trade deficit, the external debt is so large that economists are concerned over whether the current account deficit is unsustainable. A complicating factor is that trading partners such as China, depend for much of their economy on exports, especially to America. There are many controversies about the current trade and external debt situation, and it is arguable whether anyone understands how these dynamics will play out in a historically unprecedented floating exchange rate system. While various aspects of the U.S. economic profile have precedents in the situations of other countries (notably government debt as a percentage of GDP), the sheer size of the U.S., and the integral role of the US economy in the overall global economic environment, create considerable uncertainty about the future.[2][32]
According to economists such as Larry Summers and Paul Krugman, the enormous inflow of capital from China is one of the causes of the global financial crisis of 2008–2009. China had been buying huge quantities of dollar assets to keep its currency value low and its export economy humming, which caused American interest rates and saving rates to remain artificially low. These low interest rates, in turn, contributed to the United States housing bubble because when mortgages are cheap, house prices are inflated as people can afford to borrow more.[36][37]
Trade agreements[edit]
United States
Free-trade areas
2008 Exports, Imports[38] 2009 Exports, Imports[39]
The United States is a partner to many trade agreements, shown in the chart below and the map to the right.
The United States has also negotiated many Trade and Investment Framework Agreements, which are often precursors to free trade agreements. It has also negotiated many bilateral investment treaties, which concern the movement of capital rather than goods.
The U.S. is a member of several international trade organizations. The purpose of joining these organizations is to come to agreement with other nations on trade issues, although there is domestic political controversy to whether or not the U.S. government should be making these trade agreements in the first place. These organizations include:
World Trade Organization
Organization of American States
Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America
show
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United States free-trade agreements
Existing
Bilateral
Australia
Bahrain
Chile
Colombia
Israel
Jordan
Morocco
Oman
Panama
Peru
Singapore
South Korea
Multilateral
Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR)
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Proposed
Bilateral
Ecuador
Ghana
Indonesia
Kenya
Kuwait
Malaysia
Mauritius
Mozambique
New Zealand
Taiwan
United Arab Emirates
Uruguay
Multilateral
Middle East Free Trade Area (MEFTA)
Transatlantic Free Trade Area (TAFTA)
Trade in Services Agreement (TISA)
Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP)
Suspended
Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) (no interest since 2005)
Southern African Customs Union (on hold since 2006)
Thailand (on hold after 2006 coup)
Qatar (on hold since 2006)
Defunct or
expired
Canada (became part of North American Free Trade Agreement)
Canada–United States Automotive Products Agreement
Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)
Internal institutions[edit]
American foreign trade is regulated internally by:
United States Court of International Trade
United States International Trade Commission
Imports and exports[edit]
See also: List of imports of the United States, List of exports of the United States, and List of the largest trading partners of the United States
Proportion of US exports to imports 1960–2004
US exports of goods and services 1960–2004
US imports of goods and services 1960–2004
US exported $1.44 trillion to other countries in 2014
US exports of goods by country in 2004 (does not include exports of services)
US imports of goods by country in 2004 (does not include imports of services)
US imported $2.13 trillion from other countries in 2014
See also[edit]
Business and economics portal
United States portal
Comparison of imports vs exports of the United States
Federal Trade Commission Act
Trade Act of 2002
Trading with the Enemy Act 1917
Trade wars
Tariff in American history
Mergers
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ravikumar, B.; Shao, Lin. "Labor Compensation and Labor Productivity: Recent Recoveries and the Long-Term Trend". Retrieved 15 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Bivens, L. Josh (December 14, 2004). Debt and the dollar Archived December 17, 2004, at the Wayback Machine. Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved on July 8, 2007.
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". Cia.gov. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Bolle, Mary Jane (2007-10-02). "U.S. Trade Statutes: Expiration Dates and Mandated Periodic Reports to Congress" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-07-24. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
Jump up ^ U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian Preventing Diplomatic Recognition of the Confederacy
Jump up ^ Michael Lind, "Free Trade Fallacy", New America Foundation, January 1, 2003.
Jump up ^ Morrison, Spencer P (2016). America Betrayed. Edmonton: Outremer Publishing Ltd. p. 67.
Jump up ^ Morrison, Spencer P. (December 23, 2016). "America's Protectionist Past: The Hidden History Of Trade". National Economics Editorial. Retrieved January 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ Morrison, Spencer P. (December 23, 2016). "America's Protectionist Past: The Hidden History Of Trade". National Economics Editorial. Retrieved December 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lind, Matthew. "Free Trade Fallacy". Prospect. Archived from the original on January 6, 2006. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
Jump up ^ International Trade and Investment art S. Fisher and Michael P. Malloy
Jump up ^ "World Business Leaders Urge Trade Ministers To Seize The Opportunity to Resurrect the Doha Round - Trade Resource Center - Business Roundtable". 3 January 2006. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Joseph A. Schumpeter, "The Decade of the Twenties", American Economic Review vol. 36, No. 2, (May, 1946), pp. 1–10 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ "The Harding/Coolidge Prosperity of the 1920s". Calvin-coolidge.org. Archived from the original on 2009-03-12. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
Jump up ^ Star Parker (December 17, 2012).Tea Partiers must hang tough.Urbancure.com
Jump up ^ "The shift away from thrift". The Economist, April 7, 2005.
Jump up ^ Causes and Consequences of the Trade Deficit: An Overview Archived March 15, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Growing Trade Deficit Good News for U.S. Economy". Blog.heritage.org. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Bivens, Josh (September 25, 2006 ).China Manipulates Its Currency – A Response is Needed. Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved on February 2, 2010.
Jump up ^ Phillips, Kevin (2007). Bad Money: Reckless Finance, Failed Politics, and the Global Crisis of American Capitalism. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-314328-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Cauchon, Dennis and John Waggoner (October 3, 2004). The Looming National Benefit Crisis USA Today
Jump up ^ George W. Bush (2006) State of the Union. Retrieved on April 17, 2009. Archived November 23, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Bailey, David and Soyoung Kim (June 26, 2009).GE's Immelt says U.S. economy needs industrial renewal. UK Guardian.. Retrieved on June 28, 2009. Archived August 15, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Trade in Goods and Services – Balance of Payments, 1960 through 2014". Census.gov. Retrieved October 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "FTD – Statistics – Country Data – U.S. Trade Balance with World (Seasonally Adjusted)". Census.gov. Retrieved October 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-05-17. Retrieved 2013-02-04.
Jump up ^ America's Growing Trade Deficit Warren E. Buffett
Jump up ^ Division, US Census Bureau Foreign Trade. "Foreign Trade: Data". Census.gov. Retrieved October 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "EBSCOhost Login". search.ebscohost.com. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Nepal's trade deficit soars to 33.34 percent of GDP". Kathmandupost.ekantipur.com. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) (January 27, 2017), "National Income and Product Accounts : Gross Domestic Product: Fourth Quarter and Annual 2016 (Advance Estimate)", US Department of Commerce, retrieved February 24, 2017
^ Jump up to: a b c d Chapter 5–10: The International Investment Position. International Finance Theory and Policy. 3 June 2004. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "News Release: U.S. International Investment Position, 2006". BEA. June 28, 2007. Retrieved 2008-11-17.
Jump up ^ Bivens, L. Josh (December 14, 2004). "Debt and the dollar: The United States damages future living standards by borrowing itself into a deceptively deep hole". Epinet.org. Retrieved 2009-06-28.
Jump up ^ Current account balance, U.S. dollars, Billions from International Monetary Fund World Economic Outlook Database, April 2008
Jump up ^ "Reflections on Global Account Imbalances and Emerging Markets Reserve Accumulation". 9 May 2008. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Unofficial Paul Krugman Web Page". Pkarchive.org. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "2009 US Trade by Country and Area" (PDF). Census.gov. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "2008 US Trade by Country and Area" (PDF). Census.gov. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
External links[edit]
Comprehensive US Trade Data
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Sister chromatids
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The paternal (blue) chromosomal and the maternal (pink) chromosome are homologous chromosomes. Following chromosomal replication, the blue chromosome is composed of two identical sister chromatids and the pink chromosome is composed of two identical sister chromatids. In mitosis, the sister chromatids separate into the daughter cells, but are now referred to as chromosomes (rather than chromatids) much in the way that one child is not referred to as a single twin.
A sister chromatid refers to the identical copies (chromatids) formed by the replication of a chromosome, with both copies joined together by a common centromere. In other words, a sister chromatid may also be said to be 'one-half' of the duplicated chromosome. A full set of sister chromatids is created during the synthesis (S) phase of interphase, when all the chromosomes in a cell are replicated. The two sister chromatids are separated from each other into two different cells during mitosis or during the second division of meiosis.
Compare sister chromatids to homologous chromosomes, which are the two different copies of a chromosome that diploid organisms (like humans) inherit, one from each parent. Sister chromatids are by and large identical (since they carry the same alleles, also called variants or versions, of genes) because they derive from one original chromosome. An exception is towards the end of meiosis, after crossing over has occurred, because sections of each sister chromatid may have been exchanged with corresponding sections of the homologous chromatids with which they are paired during meiosis. Homologous chromosomes might or might not be the same as each other because they derive from different parents.
There is evidence that, in some species, sister chromatids are the preferred template for DNA repair.[1] Sister chromatid cohesion is essential for the correct distribution of genetic information between daughter cells and the repair of damaged chromosomes. Defects in this process may lead to aneuploidy and cancer, especially when checkpoints fail to detect DNA damage or when incorrectly attached mitotic spindles don't function properly.
Contents
[hide]
1 Mitosis
2 Meiosis
3 See also
4 References
Mitosis[edit]
Mitotic recombination is primarily a result of DNA repair processes responding to spontaneous or induced damages.[2][3] (Also reviewed in Bernstein and Bernstein, pp 220–221).[4] Homologous recombinational repair during mitosis is largely limited to interaction between nearby sister chromatids that are present in a cell subsequent to DNA replication but prior to cell division. Due to the special nearby relationship they share, sister chromatids are not only preferred over distant homologous chromatids as substrates for recominational repair, but have the capacity to repair more DNA damage than do homologs.[1]
Meiosis[edit]
Studies with the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae[5] indicate that inter-sister recombination occurs frequently during meiosis, and up to one-third of all recombination events occur between sister chromatids.
See also[edit]
Biorientation
Sister chromatid exchange
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Kadyk, Lc; Hartwell, Lh (Oct 1992). "Sister chromatids are preferred over homologs as substrates for recombinational repair in Saccharomyces cerevisiae" (Free full text). Genetics. 132 (2): 387–402. ISSN 0016-6731. PMC 1205144  . PMID 1427035.
Jump up ^ Moynahan ME, Jasin M (2010). "Mitotic homologous recombination maintains genomic stability and suppresses tumorigenesis". Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 11 (3): 196–207. doi:10.1038/nrm2851. PMC 3261768  . PMID 20177395.
Jump up ^ Symington LS, Rothstein R, Lisby M (2014). "Mechanisms and regulation of mitotic recombination in Saccharomyces cerevisiae". Genetics. 198 (3): 795–835. doi:10.1534/genetics.114.166140. PMC 4224172  . PMID 25381364.
Jump up ^ Bernstein C, Bernstein H. (1991) Aging, Sex, and DNA Repair. Academic Press, San Diego. ISBN 978-0120928606 partly available at https://books.google.com/books?id=BaXYYUXy71cC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=Aging,+Sex,+and+DNA+Repair&source=bl&ots=9E6VrRl7fJ&sig=kqUROJfBM6EZZeIrkuEFygsVVpo&hl=en&sa=X&ei=z8BqUpi7D4KQiALC54Ew&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Aging%2C%20Sex%2C%20and%20DNA%20Repair&f=false
Jump up ^ Goldfarb T, Lichten M (2010). "Frequent and efficient use of the sister chromatid for DNA double-strand break repair during budding yeast meiosis". PLoS Biol. 8 (10): e1000520. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000520. PMC 2957403  . PMID 20976044.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sister_chromatids&oldid=814071351"
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