text:
List of most downloaded Android applications
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This is a list of most downloaded Android applications that includes most of the free apps that have been downloaded more than 100 million times and most of the paid apps that have been downloaded over one million times on unique Android devices; these are listed in the tables below. There are numerous Android apps that have been downloaded over one million times from the Google Play app store and it was reported in February 2017 that over 169 apps have been downloaded at least 100 million times and over 2,392 apps have been downloaded at least ten million times; the barrier for entry on this list is set at 100 million for free apps to limit its size.[1] Many of the applications in this list are distributed pre-installed on top-selling Android devices[2] and may be considered bloatware by some people because users did not actively choose to download them.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Free applications with one billion or more downloads
2 Free applications with over 500 million and fewer than one billion downloads
3 Paid applications with one million or more installations
4 See also
5 References
Free applications with one billion or more downloads[edit]
These are the Google Play apps with over one billion downloads on unique devices. As of October 25, 2017[update], there are 25 applications in this top category; all are owned by Google, Facebook, Samsung or Microsoft.
App
Developer
Date Reached
Category
Google Play services[4] Google 2014-01-29[5] Tools
Gmail[6] Google 2014-05-10[7] Communication
Maps[8] Google 2014-06-06[9] Travel & Local
YouTube[10] Google 2014-07-18[11] Video Players & Editors
Facebook[12] Facebook 2014-08-28[13] Social
Google[14] Google 2014-12-02[15] Tools
Google+[16] Google 2014-12-27[17] Social
Google Text-to-Speech[18] Google 2015-03-11[19] Tools
WhatsApp Messenger[20] Facebook 2015-03-12[21] Communication
Google Play Books[22] Google 2015-06-01[23] Books & Reference
Messenger[24] Facebook 2015-06-11[25] Communication
Hangouts[26] Google 2015-06-20[27] Communication
Google Chrome[28] Google 2015-06-26[29] Communication
Google Play Games[30] Google 2015-08-17[31] Entertainment
Google TalkBack[32] Google 2015-08-18[33] Tools
Google Play Music[34] Google 2015-08-23[35] Music & Audio
Google Play Newsstand[36] Google 2015-09-20[37] News & Magazines
Google Play Movies & TV[38] Google 2015-10-01[39] Video Players & Editors
Google Drive[40] Google 2015-10-12[41] Productivity
Samsung Push Service[42] Samsung 2016-04-09[43] Communication
Instagram[44] Facebook 2016-08-16[45] Social
Android System WebView[46] Google 2017-04-01[47] Tools
Google Photos[48] Google 2017-06-01[49] Photography
Google Street View[50] Google 2017-06-23[51] Travel & Local
Skype[52] Microsoft 2017-10-25[53] Communication
Free applications with over 500 million and fewer than one billion downloads[edit]
This is the majority of the Google Play free apps with over 500 million and less than one billion downloads on unique devices:
App
Developer
Date Reached
Category
Clean Master[54] Cheetah Mobile 2015-08-17[55] Tools
Subway Surfers[56] Kiloo Games 2015-08-23[57] Games/Arcade
Dropbox[58] Dropbox, Inc. 2016-01-09[59] Productivity
Candy Crush Saga[60] King 2016-01-15[61] Games/Casual
Viber Messenger[62] Viber Media, Ltd 2016-04-20[63] Communication
Twitter[64] Twitter 2016-04-26[65] News & Magazines
LINE[66] LINE Corporation 2016-05-22[67] Communication
HP Print Service Plugin[68] HP Inc. 2016-06-11[69] Productivity
Flipboard[70] Flipboard 2016-09-10[71] News & Magazines
Samsung Print Service Plugin[72] Samsung 2016-11-12[73] Productivity
Super-Bright LED Flashlight[74] Surpax Technology Inc. 2016-12-09[75] Productivity
Gboard[76] Google 2016-12-26[77] Tools
Cloud Print[78] Google 2017-01-01[79] Productivity
Snapchat[80] Snap Inc. 2017-03-01[81] Social
Pou[82] Zakeh 2017-05-01[83] Games/Casual
Google Translate[84] Google 2017-06-11[85] Tools
My Talking Tom[86] Outfit7 2017-07-10[87] Games/Casual
Security Master[88] Cheetah Mobile 2017-07-10[89] Tools
Facebook Lite[90] Facebook 2017-08-12[91] Social
Paid applications with one million or more installations[edit]
This is a majority of Google Play's paid apps that have had at least one million downloads on unique devices:[92]
App
Developer
Minecraft - Pocket Edition[93] Mojang
Minecraft: Story Mode[94] Telltale Games
Where's My Water?[95] Disney Mobile
Asphalt 7: Heat[96] Gameloft
Poweramp Full Version Unlocker[97] Max MP
Beautiful Widgets Pro[98] LevelUp Studio
Draw Something[99] OMGPop
Camera ZOOM FX[100] androidslide
Plants vs. Zombies[101] PopCap Games
Grand Theft Auto III[102] Rockstar Games
Grand Theft Auto San Andreas[103] Rockstar Games
Grand Theft Auto Vice City[104] Rockstar Games
Fruit Ninja[105] Halfbrick Studios
Cut the Rope[106] ZeptoLab
TuneIn Radio Pro[107] TuneIn
Where's My Perry?[108] Disney Mobile
Smart Tools[109] Smart Tools co.
HD Widgets[110] CloudTV
Doodle Jump[111] Lima Sky
Paper Camera[112] JFDP Labs
Angry Birds Space[113] Rovio Entertainment Ltd.
Threema[114] Threema GmbH
Nova Launcher Prime[115] TeslaCoil Software
Runtastic Running PRO[116] Runtastic
OfficeSuite 8 Pro + PDF[117] MobiSystems
Flightradar24 - Flight Tracker[118] Flightradar24
Geometry Dash[119] RobTop Games
Bloons TD 5[120] Ninja Kiwi
Root Explorer Apk[121] Speed Software
See also[edit]
List of Google apps for Android
List of most downloaded iOS applications
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Android Market App Statistics". Android Rank. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Shocker, nobody uses Samsung bloatware".
Jump up ^ "Bloatware is a creeping problem".
Jump up ^ "Google Play services - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google Play services - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Gmail - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Gmail - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Maps - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Maps - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "YouTube".
Jump up ^ "YouTube - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Facebook - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Facebook - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google+ - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google+ - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google Text-to-Speech - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google Text-to-Speech - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "WhatsApp Messenger - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "WhatsApp Messenger - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google Play Books - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google Play Books - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Messenger - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Messenger - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Hangouts - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Hangouts - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google Chrome - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google Chrome - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google Play Games - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google Play Games - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google TalkBack - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google TalkBack - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google Play Music - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google Play Music - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google Play Newsstand - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google Play Newsstand - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google Play Movies & TV - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google Play Movies & TV - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google Drive - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google Play Newsstand - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Samsung Push Service - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Samsung Push Service - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Instagram - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Instagram - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Android System WebView - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Android System WebView - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google Photos - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google Photos - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google Street View - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google Street View - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Skype - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Skype - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Clean Master - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Clean Master - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Subway Surfers - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Subway Surfers - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Dropbox - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Dropbox - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Candy Crush Saga - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Candy Crush Saga - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Viber Messenger - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Viber Messenger - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Twitter - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Twitter - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "LINE - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "LINE - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "HP Print Service Plugin - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "HP Print Service Plugin - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Flipboard - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Flipboard - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Samsung Print Service Plugin - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Samsung Print Service Plugin - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Super-Bright LED Flashlight - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Super-Bright LED Flashlight - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Gboard - Android Apps on Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Gboard - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Cloud Print - Android Apps on Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Cloud Print - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Snapchat - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Snapchat - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Pou - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Pou - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Google Translate - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Google Translate - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "My Talking Tom - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "My Talking Tom - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Security Master - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Security Master - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ "Facebook Lite - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Facebook Lite - android market data, growth and stats".
Jump up ^ Android Market App Ranklist (paid) | androidrank.org Retrieved December 18, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Minecraft - Pocket Edition - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Minecraft: Story Mode - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Where's My Water? - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Asphalt 7: Heat - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Poweramp Full Version Unlocker - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Beautiful Widgets Pro - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Draw Something - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Camera ZOOM FX - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Plants vs. Zombies - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Grand Theft Auto III - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Grand Theft Auto San Andreas - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Grand Theft Auto Vice City - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Fruit Ninja - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Cut the Rope - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "TuneIn Radio Pro - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Where's My Perry? - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Smart Tools - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "HD Widgets - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Doodle Jump - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Paper Camera - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Angry Birds Space Premium - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Threema - Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Nova Launcher Prime - Android Apps on Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Runtastic Running PRO - Android Apps on Google Play".
Jump up ^ "OfficeSuite 8 Pro + PDF - Android Apps on Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Flightradar24 - Flight Tracker - Android Apps on Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Geometry Dash - Android Apps on Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Bloods TD 5 - Android Apps on Google Play".
Jump up ^ "Root Explorer Apk - Android Apps on Google Play".
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Plaster
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the type of building material and "plaster of Paris". For other uses, see Plaster (disambiguation).
Early 19th Century plasterer at work - painting by John Cranch (1751–1821)
Elaborate stucco (plaster) reliefs decorating the Chateau de Fontainebleau were hugely influential in Northern Mannerism. There is a plaster low-relief decorative frieze above.
Clay plastered ceiling defying gravity with the help of straw and manure. Economy Landmark, 1827
Modern tools for plastering
Plaster is a building material used for the protective or decorative coating of walls and ceilings and for moulding and casting decorative elements.[1] In English "plaster" usually means a material used for the interiors of buildings, while "render" commonly refers to external applications.[2] Another imprecise term used for the material is stucco, which is also often used for plasterwork that is worked in some way to produce relief decoration, rather than flat surfaces.
The most common types of plaster mainly contain either gypsum, lime, or cement,[3] but all work in a similar way. The plaster is manufactured as a dry powder and is mixed with water to form a stiff but workable paste immediately before it is applied to the surface. The reaction with water liberates heat through crystallization and the hydrated plaster then hardens.
Plaster can be relatively easily worked with metal tools or even sandpaper, and can be moulded, either on site or to make pre-formed sections in advance, which are put in place with adhesive. Plaster is not a strong material; it is suitable for finishing, rather than load-bearing, and when thickly applied for decoration may require a hidden supporting framework, usually in metal.
Forms of plaster have several other uses. In medicine plaster orthopedic casts are still often used for supporting set broken bones. In dentistry plaster is used to make dental models. Various types of models and moulds are made with plaster. In art, lime plaster is the traditional matrix for fresco painting; the pigments are applied to a thin wet top layer of plaster and fuse with it so that the painting is actually in coloured plaster. In the ancient world, as well as the sort of ornamental designs in plaster relief that are still used, plaster was also widely used to create large figurative reliefs for walls, though few of these have survived.
Contents
[hide]
1 Types
1.1 Clay plaster
1.2 Gypsum plaster
1.3 Lime plaster
1.4 Cement plaster
1.5 Heat resistant plaster
2 Uses
2.1 Architecture
2.2 Art
2.3 Funeral processes
2.4 Medicine
2.5 Fire protection
2.5.1 3D printing
3 Safety issues
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Types[edit]
Clay plaster[edit]
Clay plaster is a mixture of clay, sand and water with the addition of plant fibers for tensile strength over wood lath.
Clay plaster has been used since antiquity. Settlers in the American colonies used clay plaster on the interiors of their houses: “Interior plastering in the form of clay antedated even the building of houses of frame, and must have been visible in the inside of wattle filling in those earliest frame houses in which …wainscot had not been indulged. Clay continued in the use long after the adoption of laths and brick filling for the frame."[4] Where lime was not available or easily accessible it was rationed or substituted with other binders. In Martin Weaver’s seminal work he says, “Mud plaster consists of clay or earth which is mixed with water to give a “plastic” or workable consistency. If the clay mixture is too plastic it will shrink, crack and distort on drying. It will also probably drop off the wall. Sand and fine gravels were added to reduce the concentrations of fine clay particles which were the cause of the excessive shrinkage.”[5] Straw or grass was added sometimes with the addition of manure.
In the Earliest European settlers’ plasterwork, a mud plaster was used or more usually a mud-lime mixture.[6] In Harley McKee’s book on early American masonry[7] he writes, of a circa 1675 Massachusetts contract that specified the plasterer, “Is to lath and siele[8] the four rooms of the house betwixt the joists overhead with a coat of lime and haire upon the clay; also to fill the gable ends of the house with ricks and plaister them with clay. 5. To lath and plaster partitions of the house with clay and lime, and to fill, lath, and plaister them with lime and haire besides; and to siele and lath them overhead with lime; also to fill, lath, and plaster the kitchen up to the wall plate on every side. 6. The said Daniel Andrews is to find lime, bricks, clay, stone, haire, together with laborers and workmen… .”[9] Records of the New Haven colony in 1641 mention clay and hay as well as lime and hair also. In German houses of Pennsylvania the use of clay persisted.”[10]
Old Economy Village is one such German settlement. The early Nineteenth-Century utopian village in present-day Ambridge, Pennsylvania, used clay plaster substrate exclusively in the brick and wood frame high architecture of the Feast Hall, Great House and other large and commercial structures as well as in the brick, frame and log dwellings of the society members. The use of clay in plaster and in laying brickwork appears to have been a common practice at that time not just in the construction of Economy village when the settlement was founded in 1824. Specifications for the construction of, “Lock keepers houses on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, written about 1828, require stone walls to be laid with clay mortar, excepting 3 inches on the outside of the walls…which (are) to be good lime mortar and well pointed.”[11] The choice of clay was because of its low cost, but also the availability. At Economy, root cellars dug under the houses yielded clay and sand (stone), or the nearby Ohio river yielded washed sand from the sand bars; and lime outcroppings and oyster shell for the lime kiln. Other required building materials were also sourced locally.
The surrounding forests of the new village of Economy provided straight grain, old-growth oak trees for lath.[12] Hand split lath starts with a log of straight grained wood of the required length. The log is spit into quarters and then smaller and smaller bolts with wedges and a sledge. When small enough, a froe and mallet were used to split away narrow strips of lath - unattainable with field trees and their many limbs. Farm animals pastured in the fields cleared of trees provided the hair and manure for the float coat of plaster. Fields of wheat and grains provided straw and other grasses for binders for the clay plaster. But there was no uniformity in clay plaster recipes.
Straw or grass was added sometimes with the addition of manure providing fiber for tensile strength as well as protein adhesive. Proteins in the manure act as binders. The hydrogen bonds of proteins must stay dry to remain strong, so the mud plaster must be kept dry.[13] With braced timber framed structures clay plaster was used on interior walls and ceilings as well as exterior walls as the wall cavity and exterior cladding isolated the clay plaster from moisture penetration. Application of clay plaster in brick structures risked water penetration from failed mortar joints on the exterior brick walls. In Economy Village, the rear and middle wythes of brick dwelling walls are laid in a clay and sand mortar with the front wythe bedded in a lime and sand mortar to provide a weather proof seal to protect from water penetration. This allowed a rendering of clay plaster and setting coat of thin lime and fine sand on exterior-walled rooms.
Split lath was nailed with square cut lath nails, one into each framing member. With hand split lath the plaster had the luxury of making lath to fit the cavity being plastered. Lengths of lath two to six foot are not uncommon at Economy Village. Hand split lath is not uniform like sawn lath. The straightness or waviness of the grain affected the thickness or width of each lath, and thus the spacing of the lath. The clay plaster rough coat varied to cover the irregular lath. Window and door trim as well as the mudboard (baseboard) acted as screeds. With the variation of the lath thickness and use of coarse straw and manure, the clay coat of plaster was thick in comparison to later lime-only and gypsum plasters. In Economy Village, the lime top coats are thin veneers often an eighth inch or less attesting to the scarcity of limestone supplies there.
Lime setting-coat on clay plaster with straw binder. Applied to hand-split lath over a timber framed wall of a brick family house at Economy Landmark village.
Clay plasters with their lack of tensile and compressive strength fell out of favor as industrial mining and technology advances in kiln production led to the exclusive use of lime and then gypsum in plaster applications. However, clay plasters still exist after hundreds of years clinging to split lath on rusty square nails. The wall variations and roughness reveal a hand-made and pleasing textured alternative to machine-made modern substrate finishes. But clay plaster finishes are rare and fleeting. According to Martin Weaver, “Many of North America’s historic building interiors…are all too often…one of the first things to disappear in the frenzy of demolition of interiors which has unfortunately come to be a common companion to “heritage preservation” in the guise of building rehabilitation.”[14]
Gypsum plaster[edit]
Gypsum plaster, or plaster of Paris, is produced by heating gypsum to about 300 °F (150 °C):[15]
CaSO4·2H2O + heat → CaSO4·0.5H2O + 1.5H2O (released as steam).
When the dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it re-forms into gypsum. The setting of unmodified plaster starts about 10 minutes after mixing and is complete in about 45 minutes; but not fully set for 72 hours.[16] If plaster or gypsum is heated above 266 °F (130 °C), hemihydrate is formed, which will also re-form as gypsum if mixed with water.[17][18]
On heating to 180 °C, the nearly water-free form, called γ-anhydrite (CaSO4·nH2O where n = 0 to 0.05) is produced. γ-Anhydrite reacts slowly with water to return to the dihydrate state, a property exploited in some commercial desiccants. On heating above 250 °C, the completely anhydrous form called β-anhydrite or dead burned plaster is formed.
A large gypsum deposit at Montmartre in Paris led "calcined gypsum" (roasted gypsum or gypsum plaster) to be commonly known as "plaster of Paris".[19]
Plasterers often use gypsum to simulate the appearance of surfaces of wood, stone, or metal, on movie and theatrical sets for example. Nowadays, theatrical plasterers often use expanded polystyrene, although the job title remains unchanged.
Plaster of Paris can be used to impregnate gauze bandages to make a sculpting material called plaster bandages. It is used similarly to clay, as it is easily shaped when wet, yet sets into a resilient and lightweight structure. This is the material that was (and sometimes still is) used to make classic plaster orthopedic casts to protect limbs with broken bones, the artistic use having been partly inspired by the medical use (see orthopedic cast). Set Modroc is an early example of a composite material. The hydration of plaster of Paris relies on the reaction of water with the dehydrated or partially hydrated calcium sulfate present in the plaster.
Lime plaster[edit]
Main article: Lime plaster
Lime plaster is a mixture of calcium hydroxide and sand (or other inert fillers). Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes the plaster to set by transforming the calcium hydroxide into calcium carbonate (limestone). Whitewash is based on the same chemistry.
To make lime plaster, limestone (calcium carbonate) is heated above approximately 850 °C to produce quicklime (calcium oxide). Water is then added to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), which is sold as a wet putty or a white powder. Additional water is added to form a paste prior to use. The paste may be stored in airtight containers. When exposed to the atmosphere, the calcium hydroxide very slowly turns back into calcium carbonate through reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide, causing the plaster to increase in strength.
Lime plaster was a common building material for wall surfaces in a process known as lath and plaster, whereby a series of wooden strips on a studwork frame was covered with a semi-dry plaster that hardened into a surface. The plaster used in most lath and plaster construction was mainly lime plaster, with a cure time of about a month. To stabilize the lime plaster during curing, small amounts of plaster of Paris were incorporated into the mix. Because plaster of Paris sets quickly, "retardants" were used to slow setting time enough to allow workers to mix large working quantities of lime putty plaster. A modern form of this method uses expanded metal mesh over wood or metal structures, which allows a great freedom of design as it is adaptable to both simple and compound curves. Today this building method has been partly replaced with drywall, also composed mostly of gypsum plaster. In both these methods, a primary advantage of the material is that it is resistant to a fire within a room and so can assist in reducing or eliminating structural damage or destruction provided the fire is promptly extinguished.
Lime plaster is used for frescoes, where pigments, diluted in water, are applied to the still wet plaster.
USA and Iran are the main plaster producers in the world.[citation needed]
Cement plaster[edit]
See also: Cement render
Cement plaster is a mixture of suitable plaster, sand, portland cement and water which is normally applied to masonry interiors and exteriors to achieve a smooth surface. Interior surfaces sometimes receive a final layer of gypsum plaster. Walls constructed with stock bricks are normally plastered while face brick walls are not plastered. Various cement-based plasters are also used as proprietary spray fireproofing products. These usually use vermiculite as lightweight aggregate. Heavy versions of such plasters are also in use for exterior fireproofing, to protect LPG vessels, pipe bridges and vessel skirts.
Cement plaster was first introduced in America around 1909 and was often called by the generic name adamant plaster after a prominent manufacturer of the time. The advantages of cement plaster noted at that time were its strength, hardness, quick setting time and durability.[20]
Heat resistant plaster[edit]
Heat resistant plaster is a building material used for coating walls and chimney breasts. Its purpose is to replace conventional gypsum plasters in cases where the temperature can get too high for gypsum plaster to stay on the wall. Heat resistant plaster should be used in cases where the wall is likely to exceed temperatures of 50 °C.[citation needed]
Uses[edit]
Architecture[edit]
19th century stucco plasterwork from House of Borujerdies in Kashan, Iran.
19th century, plasterwork in Mazandaran, Behshahr, Iran.
Plasterwork in Pompeii (79 AD)
Himeji Castle, Himeji, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan
Plaster work at the Abuhav Synagogue Tzfat, Israel
Plaster Ceiling in the Abuhav Synagogue in Tzfat, Israel
Main articles: Stucco and Plasterwork
Plaster may also be used to create complex detailing for use in room interiors. These may be geometric (simulating wood or stone) or naturalistic (simulating leaves, vines, and flowers). These are also often used to simulate wood or stone detailing found in more substantial buildings.
In modern days this material is also used for False Ceiling. In this, the powder form is converted in a sheet form and the sheet is then attached to the basic ceiling with the help of fasteners. It is done in various designs containing various combinations of lights and colors. The common use of this plaster can be seen in the construction of houses. After the construction, direct painting is possible (the French do it), but elsewhere plaster is used. The walls are painted with the plaster which (in some countries) is nothing but calcium carbonate. After drying the calcium carbonate plaster turns white and then the wall is ready to be painted. Elsewhere in the world, such as the UK, ever finer layers of plaster are added on top of the plasterboard (or sometimes the brick wall directly) to give a smooth brown polished texture ready for painting.
Art[edit]
See also: Plaster cast
Many of the greatest mural paintings in Europe, like Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling, are executed in fresco, meaning they are painted on a thin layer of wet plaster, called intonaco; the pigments sink into this layer so that the plaster itself becomes the medium holding them, which accounts for the excellent durability of fresco. Additional work may be added a secco on top of the dry plaster, though this is generally less durable.
Plaster (often called stucco in this context) is a far easier material for making reliefs than stone or wood, and was widely used for large interior wall-reliefs in Egypt and the Near East from antiquity into Islamic times (latterly for architectural decoration, as at the Alhambra), Rome, and Europe from at least the Renaissance, as well as probably elsewhere. However, it needs very good conditions to survive long in unmaintained buildings – Roman decorative plasterwork is mainly known from Pompeii and other sites buried by ash from Mount Vesuvius.
Plaster may be cast directly into a damp clay mold. In creating this piece molds (molds designed for making multiple copies) or waste molds (for single use) would be made of plaster. This "negative" image, if properly designed, may be used to produce clay productions, which when fired in a kiln become terra cotta building decorations, or these may be used to create cast concrete sculptures. If a plaster positive was desired this would be constructed or cast to form a durable image artwork. As a model for stonecutters this would be sufficient. If intended for producing a bronze casting the plaster positive could be further worked to produce smooth surfaces. An advantage of this plaster image is that it is relatively cheap; should a patron approve of the durable image and be willing to bear further expense, subsequent molds could be made for the creation of a wax image to be used in lost wax casting, a far more expensive process. In lieu of producing a bronze image suitable for outdoor use the plaster image may be painted to resemble a metal image; such sculptures are suitable only for presentation in a weather-protected environment.
Example of a stenciled plaster design
Plaster expands while hardening then contracts slightly just before hardening completely. This makes plaster excellent for use in molds, and it is often used as an artistic material for casting. Plaster is also commonly spread over an armature (form), made of wire mesh, cloth, or other materials; a process for adding raised details. For these processes, limestone or acrylic based plaster may be employed, known as stucco.[citation needed]
Products composed mainly of plaster of Paris and a small amount of Portland cement are used for casting sculptures and other art objects as well as molds. Considerably harder and stronger than straight plaster of Paris, these products are for indoor use only as they rapidly degrade in the rain.
Funeral processes[edit]
Plaster is used by many morticians and funeral home directors to recreate destroyed tissue, reconnect severed limbs to corpses, and to fill wounds sustained during the accident or murder that caused the death.
Medicine[edit]
Plaster is widely used as a support for broken bones; a bandage impregnated with plaster is moistened and then wrapped around the damaged limb, setting into a close-fitting yet easily removed tube, known as an orthopedic cast.
Plaster is also used in preparation for radiotherapy when fabricating individualized immobilization shells for patients. Plaster bandages are used to construct an impression of a patient's head and neck, and liquid plaster is used to fill the impression and produce a plaster bust. The transparent material polymethyl methacrylate (Plexiglas, Perspex) is then vacuum formed over this bust to create a clear face mask which will hold the patient's head steady while radiation is being delivered.[citation needed]
In dentistry, plaster is used for mounting casts or models of oral tissues. These diagnostic and working models are usually made from dental stone, a stronger, harder and denser derivative of plaster which is manufactured from gypsum under pressure. Plaster is also used to invest and flask wax dentures, the wax being subsequently removed by "burning out," and replaced with flowable denture base material. The typically acrylic denture base then cures in the plaster investment mold. Plaster investments can withstand the high heat and pressure needed to ensure a rigid denture base. Moreover, in dentistry there are 5 types of gypsum products depending on their consistency and uses: 1) impression plaster (type 1), 2) model plaster (type 2), dental stones (types 3, 4 and 5)[citation needed]
In orthotics and prosthetics, plaster bandages traditionally were used to create impressions of the patient's limb (or residuum). This negative impression was then, itself, filled with plaster of Paris, to create a positive model of the limb and used in fabricating the final medial device.
In addition, dentures (false teeth) are made by first taking a dental impression using a soft, pliable material that can be removed from around the teeth and gums without loss of fidelity and using the impression to creating a wax model of the teeth and gums. The model is used to create a plaster mold (which is heated so the wax melts and flows out) and the denture materials are injected into the mold. After a curing period, the mold is opened and the dentures are cleaned up and polished.
Fire protection[edit]
Plasters have been in use in passive fire protection, as fireproofing products, for many decades.
The finished plaster releases water vapor when exposed to flame, acting to slow the spread of the fire, for as much as an hour or two depending on thickness. It also provides some insulation to retard heat flow into structural steel elements, that would otherwise lose their strength and collapse in a fire. Early versions of these plasters have used asbestos fibres, which have by now been outlawed in industrialized nations and have caused significant removal and re-coating work. More modern plasters fall into the following categories:
fibrous (including mineral wool and glass fiber)
cement mixtures either with mineral wool or with vermiculite
gypsum plasters, leavened with polystyrene beads, as well as chemical expansion agents to decrease the density of the finished product
One differentiates between interior and exterior fireproofing. Interior products are typically less substantial, with lower densities and lower cost. Exterior products have to withstand more extreme fire and other environmental conditions. Exterior products are also more likely to be attractively tooled, whereas their interior cousins are usually merely sprayed in place. A rough surface is typically forgiven inside of buildings as dropped ceilings often hide them. Exterior fireproofing plasters are losing ground to more costly intumescent and endothermic products, simply on technical merit. Trade jurisdiction on unionized construction sites in North America remains with the plasterers, regardless of whether the plaster is decorative in nature or is used in passive fire protection. Cementitious and gypsum based plasters tend to be endothermic. Fireproofing plasters are closely related to firestop mortars. Most firestop mortars can be sprayed and tooled very well, due to the fine detail work that is required of firestopping, which leads their mix designers to utilise concrete admixtures, that enable easier tooling than common mortars.
3D printing[edit]
Powder bed and inkjet head 3D printing is commonly based on the reaction of gypsum plaster with water, where the water is selectively applied by the inkjet head.
Safety issues[edit]
The chemical reaction that occurs when plaster is mixed with water is exothermic. When plaster sets, it can reach temperatures of more than 60 °C and, in large volumes, can burn the skin. In January 2007, a secondary school student in Lincolnshire, England sustained third-degree burns after encasing her hands in a bucket of plaster as part of a school art project. The burns were so severe she required amputation of both her thumbs and six of her fingers.[21]
Some variations of plaster that contain powdered silica or asbestos may present health hazards if inhaled. Asbestos is a known irritant when inhaled and can cause cancer, especially in people who smoke,[22][23] and inhalation can also cause asbestosis. Inhaled silica can cause silicosis and (in very rare cases) can encourage the development of cancer.[24] Persons working regularly with plaster containing these additives should take precautions to avoid inhaling powdered plaster, cured or uncured. (Note that asbestos is rarely used in modern plaster formulations because of its carcinogenic[25] effects.)
People can be exposed to plaster of Paris in the workplace by breathing it in, swallowing it, skin contact, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for plaster of Paris exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.[26]
See also[edit]
Anhydrite
Bughole, a structural defect in concrete or plaster
Calcium Sulfate
Cast Courts (Victoria and Albert Museum)
Clay panel
Harl, a lime-plaster exterior finish used on buildings in Scotland
Hy-Rib
International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers
Intumescent, a fire-protection additive in some plasters
Intonaco, the plaster coat on and in which a fresco is painted
Joint compound
Lath and plaster, a construction method
Opus albarium, a marble plaster used in fine decorative work
Passive fire protection
Parge coat, a thin layer of plaster added to an outside wall
Pargeting, a style of plaster sculpture used historically in England
Phosphogypsum
Plasterwork
Polished plaster
Ready-mix lightweight joint compound
Roughcast, an exterior finish used on buildings
Stucco
Tadelakt, a waterproof plaster made by ramming, polishing, and staining with soap
Wattle and daub, a construction method
Paigah Tombs, Hyderabad, India, intricate stucco work made in 19th century
Yeseria, a style of plaster sculpture used historically in the Middle East, Magreb, and Iberian Peninsula
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Plaster. In: Weyer, Angela; Roig Picazo, Pilar; Pop, Daniel; Cassar, JoAnn; Özköse, Aysun; Vallet, Jean-Marc; Srša, Ivan, eds. (2015). EwaGlos. European Illustrated Glossary Of Conservation Terms For Wall Paintings And Architectural Surfaces. English Definitions with translations into Bulgarian, Croatian, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Romanian, Spanish and Turkish. Petersberg: Michael Imhof. p. 50.
Jump up ^ Henry, Alison; Stewart, John, eds. (2011). English Heritage. Practical Building Conservation. Mortars, Renders & Plasters. Farnham / Burlington: Ashgate. p. 87.
Jump up ^ Franz Wirsching "Calcium Sulfate" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2012 Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a04_555
Jump up ^ McKee, Harvey J. (2017). An Introduction to Early American Masonry, Stone, Brick, Mortar and Plaster. Springfield, IL: Association of Preservation Technology. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-9986347-0-8.
Jump up ^ Weaver, Martin E. (1997). Conserving Buildings, A Manual of Techniques and Materials, Revised Edition. New York: Preservation Press. p. 149. ISBN 0-471-50944-2.
Jump up ^ Weaver, Martin (1997). Conserving Buildings, A Manual of Techniques and Materials, Revised Edition. New York: Preservation Press. p. 149. ISBN 0-471-50944-2.
Jump up ^ McKee, Harley J. (2017). An Introduction to Early American Masonry, Stone, Brick, Mortar and Plaster. Springfield, IL: Association of Preservation Technology. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-9986347-0-8.
Jump up ^ Richardson, Charles (1846). "A New Dictionary of the English Language". Books.Google.com. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Cousins, Frank; Riley, Phil M. (1919). The Colonial Architecture of Salem. Boston: Little Brown and Company. pp. 39–40.
Jump up ^ Kimbal, Sidney Fiske (1922). Domestic Architecture of American Colonies and the Early Republic. New York: Scribner’s Sons. p. 30.
Jump up ^ McKee, Harley (2017). An Introduction to Early American Masonry, Stone, Brick, Mortar and Plaster. Springfield, IL: Association of Preservation Technology,. p. 61.
Jump up ^ Dendrochronology study, Geology Department, Wooster College, Wooster, Ohio. Study commissioned by Dennis Lapic, 2009. The study showed straight grained logs with first year of growth from 1662 to 1748, characteristic of trees of a virgin forest.
Jump up ^ Chen, S. (19 December 2003). "Value-Added Chemicals from Animal Manure". Penn State University. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Weaver, Martin E. (1997). Conserving Buildings, A Manual of Techniques and Material. New York: Preservation Press. p. 149. ISBN 0-471-50944-2.
Jump up ^ Staff. "CaSO4, ½ H2O". LaFargePrestia. Archived from the original on November 20, 2008. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
Jump up ^ Schmidt, V.E.; Somerset, J.H.; Porter, R.E. (1973). "Mechanical Properties of Orthopeadic Plaster Bandages". Journal of Biomechanics. Elsevier. 6: 173–185. doi:10.1016/0021-9290(73)90086-9. Hardening stage of plaster of paris is basically a crystalline change in which orthorhombic form of gypsum converts into monoclinic form of gypsum.
Jump up ^ Deer, Howie, & Zussman. "An Introduction to the Rock Forming Minerals." Pearson Education Limited, England, 2nd Edition, 1992, Page 614. ISBN 0-582-30094-0
Jump up ^ Posnjak, E. (1938), The System CaSO4–H2O (PDF), pp. 247–, The long experience in the manufacture of plaster of Paris presents a consistent record that whenever gypsum is heated at not too high a temperature–usually about 130°–the product formed is invariably the hemihydrate ; and further, that if the temperature is permitted to go considerably higher, the product becomes "dead burned," it has then been converted into anhydrite.
Jump up ^ plaster of Paris definition. Webster's New World College Dictionary at YourDictionary.com.
Jump up ^ Roberts, Isaac Phillips. The farmstead; the making of the rural home and the lay-out of the farm,. 7th ed. New York: Macmillan Co., 1914. Print. 188.
Jump up ^ "Amputation after art class burns". BBC News. 2007-03-23. Retrieved 2010-05-22.
Jump up ^ Hammond, EC; Garfinkel, L; Seidman, H; Lew, EA (December 1976). ""Tar" and nicotine content of cigarette smoke in relation to death rates". Environmental Research. 12 (3): 263–74. doi:10.1016/0013-9351(76)90036-0. PMID 1001298.
Jump up ^ Saracci, R (1987). "The interactions of tobacco smoking and other agents in cancer etiology". Epidemiologic Reviews. 9: 175–93. PMID 3315716.
Jump up ^ Soutar, CA; Robertson, A; Miller, BG; Searl, A; Bignon, J (January 2000). "Epidemiological evidence on the carcinogenicity of silica: factors in scientific judgement". The Annals of Occupational Hygiene. 44 (1): 3–14. doi:10.1093/annhyg/44.1.3. PMID 10689755.
Jump up ^ Hazardous chemicals: second report on the inquiry into hazardous chemicals. Canberra : Australia: Australian Government Publications Service. 1982. OCLC 66780789. The carcinogenic activity of asbestos derives from its morphology, not its chemical nature
Jump up ^ "CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Plaster of Paris". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-21.
External links[edit]
Look up plaster in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Look up plaster of Paris in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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"Third space" redirects here. For the concept of informal shared public space in community planning, see Third place.
The human body and even its individual body fluids may be conceptually divided into various fluid compartments, which, although not literally anatomic compartments, do represent a real division in terms of how portions of the body's water, solutes, and suspended elements are segregated. The two main fluid compartments are the intracellular and extracellular compartments. The intracellular compartment is the space within the organism's cells; it is separated from the extracellular compartment by cell membranes.[1]
About two thirds of the total body water of humans is held in the cells, mostly in the cytosol, and the remainder is found in the extracellular compartment. The extracellular fluids may be divided into three types: interstitial fluid in the "interstitial compartment" (surrounding tissue cells and bathing them in a solution of nutrients and other chemicals), blood plasma and lymph in the "intravascular compartment" (inside the blood vessels and lymphatic vessels), and small amounts of transcellular fluid such as ocular and cerebrospinal fluids in the "transcellular compartment". The interstitial and intravascular compartments readily exchange water and solutes but the third extracellular compartment, the transcellular, is thought of as separate from the other two and not in dynamic equilibrium with them.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Intracellular compartment
2 Extracellular compartment
2.1 Interstitial compartment
2.2 Intravascular compartment
2.3 Transcellular compartment
3 Fluid shift
3.1 Third spacing
4 See also
5 References
Intracellular compartment[edit]
The intracellular fluid, also known as cytosol, is all fluid contained inside the cells.[3] It is the matrix in which cellular organelles are suspended. The cytosol and organelles together compose the cytoplasm. The cell membranes are the outer barrier. In humans, the intracellular compartment contains on average about 28 litres of fluid, and under ordinary circumstances remains in osmotic equilibrium. It contains moderate quantities of magnesium and sulphate ions.
Extracellular compartment[edit]
The interstitial, intravascular and transcellular compartments comprise the extracellular compartment. Its extracellular fluid (ECF) contains about one-third of total body water.
Interstitial compartment[edit]
The interstitial compartment (also called "tissue space") surrounds tissue cells. It is filled with interstitial fluid. Interstitial fluid provides the immediate microenvironment that allows for movement of ions, proteins and nutrients across the cell barrier. This fluid is not static, but is continually being refreshed by the blood capillaries and recollected by lymphatic capillaries. In the average male (70 kg) human body, the interstitial space has approximately 10.5 litres of fluid.
Intravascular compartment[edit]
The main intravascular fluid in mammals is blood, a complex mixture with elements of a suspension (blood cells), colloid (globulins), and solutes (glucose and ions). The blood represents both the intracellular compartment (the fluid inside the blood cells) and the extracellular compartment (the blood plasma). The other intravascular fluid is lymph. It too represents both the intracellular compartment (the fluid inside its lymphocytes) and the extracellular compartment (the noncellular matrix of the lymph, which is roughly equivalent to serum). The average volume of plasma in the average (70 kg) male is approximately 3.5 liters. The volume of the intravascular compartment is regulated in part by hydrostatic pressure gradients, and by reabsorption by the kidneys.
Transcellular compartment[edit]
The third extracellular compartment, the transcellular, consists of those spaces in the body where fluid does not normally collect in larger amounts,[4][5] or where any significant fluid collection is physiologically nonfunctional.[6] Examples of transcellular spaces include the eye, the central nervous system, the peritoneal and pleural cavities, and the joint capsules. A small amount of fluid, called transcellular fluid, does exist normally in such spaces. For example, the aqueous humor, the vitreous humor, the cerebrospinal fluid, the serous fluid produced by the serous membranes, and the synovial fluid produced by the synovial membranes are all transcellular fluids. They are all very important, yet there is not much of each. For example, there is only about 150 mL of cerebrospinal fluid in the entire central nervous system at any moment. All of the aforementioned fluids are produced by active cellular processes working with blood plasma as the raw material, and they are all more or less similar to blood plasma except for certain modifications tailored to their function. For example, the cerebrospinal fluid is made by various cells of the CNS, mostly the ependymal cells, from blood plasma.
Fluid shift[edit]
Fluid shifts occur when the body's fluids move between the fluid compartments. Physiologically, this occurs by a combination of hydrostatic pressure gradients and osmotic pressure gradients. Water will move from one space into the next passively across a semi permeable membrane until the hydrostatic and osmotic pressure gradients balance each other. Many medical conditions can cause fluid shifts. When fluid moves out of the intravascular compartment (the blood vessels), blood pressure can drop to dangerously low levels, endangering critical organs such as the brain, heart and kidneys; when it shifts out of the cells (the intracellular compartment), cellular processes slow down or cease from intracellular dehydration; when excessive fluid accumulates in the interstitial space, oedema develops; and fluid shifts into the brain cells can cause increased cranial pressure. Fluid shifts may be compensated by fluid replacement or diuretics.
Third spacing[edit]
"Third spacing" is the abnormal accumulation of fluid into an extracellular and extravascular space. In medicine, the term is often used with regard to loss of fluid into interstitial spaces, such as with burns or edema, but it can also refer to fluid shifts into a body cavity (transcellular space), such as ascites and pleural effusions. With regard to severe burns, fluids may pool on the burn site (i.e. fluid lying outside of the interstitial tissue, exposed to evaporation) and cause depletion of the fluids. With pancreatitis or ileus, fluids may "leak out" into the peritoneal cavity, also causing depletion of the intracellular, interstitial or vascular compartments.
Patients who undergo long, difficult operations in large surgical fields can collect third-space fluids and become intravascularly depleted despite large volumes of intravenous fluid and blood replacement.
The precise volume of fluid in a patient's third spaces changes over time and is difficult to accurately quantify.
Third spacing conditions may include peritonitis, pyometritis, and pleural effusions.[7] Hydrocephalus and glaucoma are theoretically forms of third spacing, but the volumes are too small to induce significant shifts in blood volumes, or overall body volumes, and thus are generally not referred to as third spacing.
See also[edit]
Volume of distribution
Compartment (pharmacokinetics)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rodney A. Rhoades; David R. Bell (18 January 2012). Medical Phisiology: Principles for Clinical Medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-1-60913-427-3.
Jump up ^ Jacob M, Chappell D, Rehm M (2009). "The 'third space'--fact or fiction?". Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 23 (2): 145–57. PMID 19653435.
Jump up ^ Brown, Thomas A. (2011). Rapid Review Physiology. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 2. ISBN 0323072607.
Jump up ^ Barbara Kuhn Timby (1 January 2008). Fundamental Nursing Skills and Concepts. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 319–. ISBN 978-0-7817-7909-8. Retrieved 9 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Redden M, Wotton K (June 2002). "Third-space fluid shift in elderly patients undergoing gastrointestinal surgery: Part 1: Pathophysiological mechanisms". Contemp Nurse. 12 (3): 275–83. PMID 12219956.
Jump up ^ Drain, Cecil B. (2003). Perianesthesia nursing: a critical care approach. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co. ISBN 0-7216-9257-5. [1]
Jump up ^ "FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE THERAPY". Retrieved 2010-06-08.
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