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Red Sea
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The body of water between Arabia and Africa
This article is about the body of water between Arabia and Africa. For other uses, see Red Sea (disambiguation).
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Red Sea
Coordinates
22°N 38°E / 22°N 38°E / 22; 38Coordinates: 22°N 38°E / 22°N 38°E / 22; 38
Primary inflows
Barka River, Haddas River, Anseba River, Wadi Gasus
Primary outflows
Bab el Mandeb
Max. length
2,250 km (1,400 mi)
Max. width
355 km (221 mi)
Surface area
438,000 km2 (169,000 sq mi)
Average depth
490 m (1,610 ft)
Max. depth
3,040 m (9,970 ft)
Water volume
233,000 km3 (56,000 cu mi)
Play media
This video over the south-eastern Mediterranean Sea and down the coastline of the Red Sea was taken by the crew of Expedition 29 on board the International Space Station.
The Red Sea (also the Erythraean Sea) is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. To the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez (leading to the Suez Canal). The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion. The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley.
The Red Sea has a surface area of roughly 438,000 km2 (169,100 mi2),[1][2] is about 2250 km (1398 mi) long and, at its widest point, 355 km (220.6 mi) wide. It has a maximum depth of 3,040 m (9,970 ft) in the central Suakin Trough,[3] and an average depth of 490 m (1,608 ft). However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life and corals. The sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the world's northernmost tropical sea.
Contents
[hide]
1 Extent
2 Names
3 History
3.1 Ancient era
3.2 Middle Ages and modern era
4 Oceanography
4.1 Salinity
4.2 Tidal range
4.3 Current
4.4 Wind regime
5 Geology
5.1 Mineral resources
6 Ecosystem
7 Desalination plants
8 Security
9 Facts and figures
10 Tourism
11 Bordering countries
12 Towns and cities
13 See also
14 References
15 Further reading
16 External links
Extent
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows:[4]
On the North. The Southern limits of the Gulfs of Suez [A line running from Ràs Muhammed (27°43'N) to the South point of Shadwan Island (34°02'E) and thence Westward on a parallel (27°27'N) to the coast of Africa] and Aqaba [A line running from Ràs al Fasma Southwesterly to Requin Island (27°57′N 34°36′E / 27.950°N 34.600°E / 27.950; 34.600) through Tiran Island to the Southwest point thereof and thence Westward on a parallel (27°54'N) to the coast of the Sinaï Peninsula].
On the South. A line joining Husn Murad (12°40′N 43°30′E / 12.667°N 43.500°E / 12.667; 43.500) and Ras Siyyan (12°29′N 43°20′E / 12.483°N 43.333°E / 12.483; 43.333).
Names
Tihama on the Red Sea near Khaukha, Yemen
Red Sea is a direct translation of the Greek Erythra Thalassa (Ερυθρὰ Θάλασσα), Latin Mare Rubrum (alternatively Sinus Arabicus, literally "Arabian Gulf"), Arabic: البحر الأحمر, translit. Al-Baḥr Al-Aḥmar (alternatively بحر القلزم Baḥr Al-Qulzum, literally "the Sea of Clysma"), Somali Badda Cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī (ቀይሕ ባሕሪ). The name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the water's surface.[5] A theory favored by some modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south, just as the Black Sea's name may refer to north. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions.[6] Herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably.[7]
Historically, it was also known to western geographers as Mare Mecca (Sea of Mecca), and Sinus Arabicus (Gulf of Arabia).[8] Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf[9] or Gulf of Arabia.[10][11]
The association of the Red Sea with the biblical account of the Israelites crossing the Red Sea is ancient, and was made explicit in the Septuagint translation of the Book of Exodus from Hebrew to Koine Greek in approximately the third century B.C. In that version, the Yam Suph (Hebrew: ים סוף, lit. 'Sea of Reeds') is translated as Erythra Thalassa (Red Sea). The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms — the others being the Black Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea. The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the north-western part of the Indian Ocean, and also to a region on Mars.
History
Ancient era
Ancient Egyptian expedition to the Land of Punt on the Red Sea coast during the reign of Queen Hatshepsut
The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians, as they attempted to establish commercial routes to Punt. One such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC (by Hatshepsut). Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea.[12] Historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible.[13] The biblical Book of Exodus tells the tale of the Israelites' crossing of a body of water, which the Hebrew text calls Yam Suph (Hebrew: יַם סוּף). Yam Suph was traditionally identified as the Red Sea. Rabbi Saadia Gaon (882‒942 CE), in his Judeo-Arabic translation of the Pentateuch, identifies the crossing place of the Red Sea as Baḥar al-Qulzum, meaning the Gulf of Suez.[14]
Settlements and commercial centers in the vicinity of the Red Sea involved in the spice trade, as described in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
In the 6th century BC, Darius the Great of Persia sent reconnaissance missions to the Red Sea, improving and extending navigation by locating many hazardous rocks and currents. A canal was built between the Nile and the northern end of the Red Sea at Suez. In the late 4th century BC, Alexander the Great sent Greek naval expeditions down the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Greek navigators continued to explore and compile data on the Red Sea. Agatharchides collected information about the sea in the 2nd century BC. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ("Periplus of the Red Sea"), a Greek periplus written by an unknown author around the 1st century AD, contains a detailed description of the Red Sea's ports and sea routes.[15] The Periplus also describes how Hippalus first discovered the direct route from the Red Sea to India.
The Red Sea was favored for Roman trade with India starting with the reign of Augustus, when the Roman Empire gained control over the Mediterranean, Egypt, and the northern Red Sea. The route had been used by previous states but grew in the volume of traffic under the Romans. From Indian ports goods from China were introduced to the Roman world. Contact between Rome and China depended on the Red Sea, but the route was broken by the Aksumite Empire around the 3rd century AD.[16]
Middle Ages and modern era
During the Middle Ages, the Red Sea was an important part of the spice trade route. In 1513, trying to secure that channel to Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque laid siege to Aden[17] but was forced to retreat. They cruised the Red Sea inside the Bab al-Mandab, as the first European fleet to have sailed these waters.
In 1798, France ordered General Napoleon to invade Egypt and take control of the Red Sea. Although he failed in his mission, the engineer Jean-Baptiste Lepère, who took part in it, revitalised the plan for a canal which had been envisaged during the reign of the Pharaohs. Several canals were built in ancient times from the Nile to the Red Sea along or near the line of the present Sweet Water Canal, but none lasted for long. The Suez Canal was opened in November 1869. At the time, the British, French, and Italians shared the trading posts. The posts were gradually dismantled following the First World War. After the Second World War, the Americans and Soviets exerted their influence whilst the volume of oil tanker traffic intensified. However, the Six Day War culminated in the closure of the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975. Today, in spite of patrols by the major maritime fleets in the waters of the Red Sea, the Suez Canal has never recovered its supremacy over the Cape route, which is believed to be less vulnerable.
Oceanography
Annotated view of the Nile and Red Sea, with a dust storm[18]
The Red Sea is between arid land, desert and semi-desert. Reef systems are better developed along the Red Sea mainly because of its greater depths and an efficient water circulation pattern. The Red Sea water mass-exchanges its water with the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean via the Gulf of Aden. These physical factors reduce the effect of high salinity caused by evaporation in the north and relatively hot water in the south.
The climate of the Red Sea is the result of two monsoon seasons; a northeasterly monsoon and a southwesterly monsoon. Monsoon winds occur because of differential heating between the land and the sea. Very high surface temperatures and high salinities make this one of the warmest and saltiest bodies of seawater in the world. The average surface water temperature of the Red Sea during the summer is about 26 °C (79 °F) in the north and 30 °C (86 °F) in the south, with only about 2 °C (3.6 °F) variation during the winter months. The overall average water temperature is 22 °C (72 °F). Temperature and visibility remain good to around 200 m (656 ft). The sea is known for its strong winds and unpredictable local currents.
The rainfall over the Red Sea and its coasts is extremely low, averaging 0.06 m (2.36 in) per year. The rain is mostly short showers, often with thunderstorms and occasionally with dust storms. The scarcity of rainfall and no major source of fresh water to the Red Sea result in excess evaporation as high as 205 cm (81 in) per year and high salinity with minimal seasonal variation. A recent underwater expedition to the Red Sea offshore from Sudan and Eritrea[19] found surface water temperatures 28 °C in winter and up to 34 °C in the summer, but despite that extreme heat the coral was healthy with much fish life with very little sign of coral bleaching, with only 9% infected by Thalassomonas loyana, the 'white plague' agent. Favia favus coral there harbours a virus, BA3, which kills T. loyana.[20] Plans are afoot to use samples of these corals' apparently heat-adapted commensal algae to salvage bleached coral elsewhere.
Salinity
The Red Sea is one of the saltiest bodies of water in the world, owing to high evaporation. Salinity ranges from between ~36 ‰ in the southern part because of the effect of the Gulf of Aden water and reaches 41 ‰ in the northern part, owing mainly to the Gulf of Suez water and the high evaporation. The average salinity is 40 ‰. (Average salinity for the world's seawater is ~35 ‰ on the Practical Salinity Scale, or PSU; that translates to 3.5% of actual dissolved salts.)
The salinity of the Red Sea is greater than the world average, by approximately 4 percent. This is due to several factors:
High rate of evaporation and very little precipitation.
Lack of significant rivers or streams draining into the sea.
Limited connection with the Indian Ocean, which has lower water salinity.
Tidal range
In general tide ranges between 0.6 m (2.0 ft) in the north, near the mouth of the Gulf of Suez and 0.9 m (3.0 ft) in the south near the Gulf of Aden but it fluctuates between 0.20 m (0.66 ft) and 0.30 m (0.98 ft) away from the nodal point. The central Red Sea (Jeddah area) is therefore almost tideless, and as such the annual water level changes are more significant. Because of the small tidal range the water during high tide inundates the coastal sabkhas as a thin sheet of water up to a few hundred metres rather than flooding the sabkhas through a network of channels. However, south of Jeddah in the Shoiaba area the water from the lagoon may cover the adjoining sabkhas as far as 3 km (2 mi), whereas, north of Jeddah in the Al-Kharrar area the sabkhas are covered by a thin sheet of water as far as 2 km (1.2 mi). The prevailing north and northeast winds influence the movement of water in the coastal inlets to the adjacent sabkhas, especially during storms. Winter mean sea level is 0.5 m (1.6 ft) higher than in summer. Tidal velocities passing through constrictions caused by reefs, sand bars and low islands commonly exceed 1–2 m/s (3–6.5 ft/s). Coral reefs in the Red Sea are near Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan.
Current
In the Red Sea detailed current data is lacking, partially because they are weak and variable both spatially and temporally. Temporal and spatial currents variation is as low as 0.5 m (1.6 ft) and are governed all by wind. During the summer, NW winds drive surface water south for about four months at a velocity of 15–20 cm/s (6–8 in/s), whereas in winter the flow is reversed resulting in the inflow of water from the Gulf of Aden into the Red Sea. The net value of the latter predominates, resulting in an overall drift to the north end of the Red Sea. Generally, the velocity of the tidal current is between 50–60 cm/s (20–23.6 in/s) with a maximum of 1 m/s (3.3 ft/s) at the mouth of the al-Kharrar Lagoon. However, the range of the north-northeast current along the Saudi coast is 8–29 cm/s (3–11.4 in/s).
Wind regime
The north part of the Red Sea is dominated by persistent north-west winds, with speeds ranging between 7 km/h (4.3 mph) and 12 km/h (7.5 mph). The rest of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden are subjected to regular and seasonally reversible winds. The wind regime is characterized by seasonal and regional variations in speed and direction with average speed generally increasing northward.
Wind is the driving force in the Red Sea to transport material as suspension or as bedload. Wind-induced currents play an important role in the Red Sea in resuspending bottom sediments and transferring materials from sites of dumping to sites of burial in quiescent environment of deposition. Wind-generated current measurement is therefore important in order to determine the sediment dispersal pattern and its role in the erosion and accretion of the coastal rock exposure and the submerged coral beds.
Geology
Dust storm over the Red Sea
The Red Sea was formed by the Arabian peninsula being split from the Horn of Africa by movement of the Red Sea Rift. This split started in the Eocene and accelerated during the Oligocene. The sea is still widening, and it is considered that it will become an ocean in time (as proposed in the model of John Tuzo Wilson). In 1949, a deep water survey reported anomalously hot brines in the central portion of the Red Sea. Later work in the 1960s confirmed the presence of hot, 60 °C (140 °F), saline brines and associated metalliferous muds. The hot solutions were emanating from an active subseafloor rift. The high salinity of the waters was not hospitable to living organisms.[21]
Sometime during the Tertiary period, the Bab el Mandeb closed and the Red Sea evaporated to an empty hot dry salt-floored sink. Effects causing this would have been:
A "race" between the Red Sea widening and Perim Island erupting filling the Bab el Mandeb with lava.
The lowering of world sea level during the Ice Ages because of much water being locked up in the ice caps.
A number of volcanic islands rise from the center of the sea. Most are dormant. However, in 2007, Jabal al-Tair island in the Bab el Mandeb strait erupted violently. Two new islands were formed in 2011 and 2013 in the Zubair Archipelago, a small chain of islands owned by Yemen. The first island, Sholan Island, emerged in an eruption in December 2011, the second island, Jadid, emerged in September 2013.[22][23][24]
Mineral resources
Red Sea coast in Taba, Egypt
In terms of mineral resources the major constituents of the Red Sea sediments are as follows:
Biogenic constituents:
Nanofossils, foraminifera, pteropods, siliceous fossils
Volcanogenic constituents:
Tuffites, volcanic ash, montmorillonite, cristobalite, zeolites
Terrigenous constituents:
Quartz, feldspars, rock fragments, mica, heavy minerals, clay minerals
Authigenic minerals:
Sulfide minerals, aragonite, Mg-calcite, protodolomite, dolomite, quartz, chalcedony.
Evaporite minerals:
Magnesite, gypsum, anhydrite, halite, polyhalite
Brine precipitate:
Fe-montmorillonite, goethite, hematite, siderite, rhodochrosite, pyrite, sphalerite, anhydrite.
Ecosystem
See also: Persian Gulf § Wildlife
Ain Sukhna beach, Suez - Mollusca collection
The Red Sea is a rich and diverse ecosystem. More than 1200 species of fish[25] have been recorded in the Red Sea, and around 10% of these are found nowhere else.[26] This also includes 42 species of deepwater fish.[25]
Red Sea coral and marine fish
The rich diversity is in part due to the 2,000 km (1,240 mi) of coral reef extending along its coastline; these fringing reefs are 5000–7000 years old and are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole (Red Sea) at Dahab). These coastal reefs are also visited by pelagic species of Red Sea fish, including some of the 44 species of shark.
The Red Sea also contains many offshore reefs including several true atolls. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes, and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area.
The special biodiversity of the area is recognized by the Egyptian government, who set up the Ras Mohammed National Park in 1983. The rules and regulations governing this area protect local marine life, which has become a major draw for diving enthusiasts.
Divers and snorkellers should be aware that although most Red Sea species are innocuous, a few are hazardous to humans: see Red Sea species hazardous to humans.[27]
Other marine habitats include sea grass beds, salt pans, mangroves and salt marshes.
Desalination plants
There is extensive demand for desalinated water to meet the needs of the population and the industries along the Red Sea.
There are at least 18 desalination plants along the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia which discharge warm brine and treatment chemicals (chlorine and anti-scalants) that bleach and kill corals and cause diseases to the fish. This is only localized, but it may intensify with time and profoundly impact the fishing industry.[28]
The water from the Red Sea is also used by oil refineries and cement factories for cooling. Used water drained back into the coastal zones may harm the nearshore environment of the Red Sea.
Security
The Red Sea is part of the sea roads between Europe, the Persian Gulf and East Asia, and as such has heavy shipping traffic. Government-related bodies with responsibility to police the Red Sea area include the Port Said Port Authority, Suez Canal Authority and Red Sea Ports Authority of Egypt, Jordan Maritime Authority, Israel Port Authority, Saudi Ports Authority and Sea Ports Corporation of Sudan.
Facts and figures
Length: ~2,250 km (1,398.1 mi) - 79% of the eastern Red Sea with numerous coastal inlets
Maximum Width: ~ 306–355 km (190–220 mi)– Massawa (Eritrea)
Minimum Width: ~ 26–29 km (16–18 mi)- Bab el Mandeb Strait (Yemen)
Average Width: ~ 280 km (174.0 mi)
Average Depth: ~ 490 m (1,607.6 ft)
Maximum Depth: ~2,211 m (7,253.9 ft)
Surface Area: 438-450 x 102 km2 (16,900–17,400 sq mi)
Volume: 215–251 x 103 km3 (51,600–60,200 cu mi)
Approximately 40% of the Red Sea is quite shallow (under 100 m/330 ft), and about 25% is under 50 m (164 ft) deep.
About 15% of the Red Sea is over 1,000 m (3,300 ft) depth that forms the deep axial trough.
Shelf breaks are marked by coral reefs
Continental slope has an irregular profile (series of steps down to ~500 m or 1,640 ft)
Centre of Red Sea has a narrow trough (Suakin Trough) (~ 1,000 m or 3,281 ft; with maximum depth 3,040 m or 9,974 ft)
Tourism
Hotels in Eilat, Israel
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The sea is known for its recreational diving sites, such as Ras Mohammed, SS Thistlegorm (shipwreck), Elphinstone Reef, The Brothers, Daedalus Reef, St.John's Reef, Rocky Island in Egypt[29] and less known sites in Sudan such as Sanganeb, Abington, Angarosh and Shaab Rumi.
The Red Sea became a popular destination for diving after the expeditions of Hans Hass in the 1950s, and later by Jacques-Yves Cousteau. Popular tourist resorts include El Gouna, Hurghada, Safaga, Marsa Alam, on the west shore of the Red Sea, and Sharm-el-Sheikh, Dahab, and Taba on the Egyptian side of Sinaï, as well as Aqaba in Jordan and Eilat in Israel in an area known as the Red Sea Riviera.
The popular tourist beach of Sharm el-Sheikh was closed to all swimming in December 2010 due to several serious shark attacks, including a fatality. As of December 2010, scientists are investigating the attacks and have identified, but not verified, several possible causes including over-fishing which causes large sharks to hunt closer to shore, tourist boat operators who chum offshore for shark-photo opportunities, and reports of ships throwing dead livestock overboard. The sea's narrowness, significant depth, and sharp drop-offs, all combine to form a geography where large deep-water sharks can roam in hundreds of meters of water, yet be within a hundred meters of swimming areas.
Bordering countries
The Red Sea may be geographically divided into three sections: the Red Sea proper, and in the north, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Gulf of Suez. The six countries bordering the Red Sea proper are:
Eastern shore:
Saudi Arabia
Yemen
Western shore:
Egypt
Sudan
Eritrea
Djibouti
The Gulf of Suez is entirely bordered by Egypt. The Gulf of Aqaba borders Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Saudi Arabia.
In addition to the standard geographical definition of the six countries bordering the Red Sea cited above, areas such as Somalia are sometimes also described as Red Sea territories. This is primarily due to their proximity to and geological similarities with the nations facing the Red Sea and/or political ties with said areas.[30][31]
Towns and cities
Towns and cities on the Red Sea coast (including the coasts of the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez) include:
Al Hudaydah (الحديدة)
Al Lith (الليِّث)
Al Qunfudhah (القنفذة)
Al-Qusair (القصير)
Al Wajh (الوجه)
Aqaba (العقبة)
Asseb (ዓሳብ)
Dahab (دهب)
Duba (ضباء)
Eilat (אילת ، ايلات)
El Gouna (الجونة)
El Suweis (السويس)
/ Hala'ib (حلايب) (disputed)
Haql (حقل)
Hirgigo (ሕርጊጎ)
Hurghada (الغردقة)
Jeddah (جدة)
Jazan (جازان)
Marsa Alam (مرسى علم)
Massawa (ምጽዋ)
Moulhoule (مول هولة )
Nuweiba (نويبع)
Port Safaga (ميناء سفاجا)
Port Sudan (بورت سودان)
Rabigh (رابغ)
Sharm el Sheikh (شرم الشيخ)
Soma Bay (سوما باي)
Suakin (سواكن)
Taba (طابا)
Thuwal (ثول)
Yanbu (ينبع)
See also
Benjamin Kahn
MS al-Salam Boccaccio 98 ferry disaster
Red Sea Dam
Robert Moresby
References
Jump up ^ "The Red Sea". Retrieved 6 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "Red Sea" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2009. Retrieved 6 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Robert Dinwiddie: Ocean_ The World's Last Wilderness Revealed. Dorling Kindersley, London 2008, p. 452
Jump up ^ "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition" (PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "Red Sea". Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2008-01-14.
Jump up ^ Smithsonianjourneys.org
Jump up ^ Schmitt 1996
Jump up ^ "Arabia". World Digital Library. Retrieved 11 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Michael D. Oblath (2004). The Exodus itinerary sites: their locations from the perspective of the biblical sources. Peter Lang. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-8204-6716-0.
Jump up ^ Herodotus, ed. George Rawlinson (2009), The histories, p.105
Jump up ^ Andrew E. Hill, John H. Walton (2000), A survey of the Old Testament, p.32 [1]
Jump up ^ Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe (2006). Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 24. ISBN 0-393-06259-7.
Jump up ^ Louis, Jaucourt de chevalier (1765). Red Sea. pp. 367–368.
Jump up ^ Tafsir, Saadia Gaon, s.v. Exodus 15:22, et al.
Jump up ^ Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe (2006). Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration. W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 32–33. ISBN 0-393-06259-7.
Jump up ^ East, W. Gordon (1965). The Geography behind History. W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 174–175. ISBN 0-393-00419-8.
Jump up ^ By M. D. D. Newitt, "A history of Portuguese overseas expansion, 1400-1668", p.87, Routledge, 2005, ISBN 0-415-23979-6
Jump up ^ Egyptian Dust Plume, Red Sea
Jump up ^ BBC 2 television program "Oceans 3/8 The Red Sea", 8 pm - 9 pm Wednesday 26 November 2008
Jump up ^ 'Virus protects coral from 'white plague',' at New Scientist, 7 July 2012.p.17.
Jump up ^ Degens, Egon T. (ed.), 1969, Hot Brines and Recent Heavy Metal Deposits in the Red Sea, 600 pp, Springer-Verlag
Jump up ^ MSNBC (accessed 29 December 2011)
Jump up ^ Israel, Brett (December 28, 2011). "New Island Rises in the Red Sea". LiveScience.com. Retrieved 2015-07-31.
Jump up ^ Oskin, Becky; SPACE.com (May 30, 2015). "Red Sea Parts for 2 New Islands". Scientific American. Retrieved 2015-07-31.
^ Jump up to: a b Froese, Ranier; Pauly, Daniel (2009). "FishBase". Retrieved 2009-03-12.
Jump up ^ Siliotti, A. (2002). Verona, Geodia, ed. Fishes of the red sea. ISBN 88-87177-42-2.
Jump up ^ Lieske, E. and Myers, R.F. (2004) Coral reef guide; Red Sea London, HarperCollins ISBN 0-00-715986-2
Jump up ^ Mabrook, B. "Environmental Impact of Waste Brine Disposal of Desalination Plants, Red Sea, Egypt", Desalination, 1994, Vol.97, pp.453-465.
Jump up ^ Scuba Diving in Egypt - The Red Sea: Holidays in Sharm El Sheikh, Hurghada, The Brothers, Daedalus Reef and St. John's - Liveaboard and Day Trips
Jump up ^ Barth, Hans-Jörg (2002). Sabkha ecosystems, Volume 2. Springer. p. 148. ISBN 1-4020-0504-0.
Jump up ^ Makinda, Samuel M. (1987). Superpower diplomacy in the Horn of Africa. Routledge. p. 37. ISBN 0-7099-4662-7.
Further reading
Hamblin, W. Kenneth & Christiansen, Eric H. (1998). Earth's Dynamic Systems (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-745373-6.
External links
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Potts, D., R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. "Places: 39290 (Arabicus Sinus/Erythr(ae)um/Rubrum Mare)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
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WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 155944421
GND: 4050664-2
NDL: 00634145
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red_Sea&oldid=819524657"
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text:
Neutral powers during World War II
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Allied Powers
Allied Powers after the attack on Pearl Harbor
Axis Powers
The neutral powers were countries that remained neutral during World War II. Some of these countries had large colonies abroad or had great economic power. Spain had just been through its civil war, which ended on 1 April 1939 (five months prior to the Invasion of Poland)—a war that involved several countries that subsequently participated in World War II.
During World War II, the neutral powers took no official side, hoping to avoid attack. However, Portugal, Sweden, Colombia, and Switzerland all helped the Allied Powers by supplying "voluntary" brigades to the United Kingdom, while Spain avoided the Allies in favor of the Axis. Ireland generally favoured the Allied side, as with the United States. The United States remained neutral until December 8, 1941, a day following the sneak attack by Japan on Pearl Harbor.
The Lateran Treaty between Italy and the Vatican, signed in 1929, required that the Pope maintain "perpetual neutrality in international relations"—making the Vatican City a neutral state.
Several countries suffered invasions in spite of their efforts to be neutral. These included Nazi Germany's invasion of Denmark and Norway on 9 April 1940—then Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg on 10 May 1940. On the same day, 10 May 1940, the British invaded Iceland and established an occupying force (subsequently replaced by the then-neutral United States). In the eastern Baltic, the Soviet Union invaded Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia on 14 June 1940. In the Balkans, the Italo-Greek War began on 28 October 1940 and Yugoslavia was invaded in April 1941. Iran was also attacked and occupied by Britain and the Soviet Union in August 1941.
See also the histories of Afghanistan, Andorra, Guatemala, Liechtenstein, Saudi Arabia and Yemen during this period.
Contents
[hide]
1 Continent
1.1 Europe
1.1.1 Ireland
1.1.2 Portugal
1.1.3 Spain
1.1.4 Sweden
1.1.5 Switzerland
1.1.6 Lithuania
1.1.7 Latvia
1.1.8 Estonia
1.1.9 Microstates
1.1.9.1 Andorra
1.1.9.2 Liechtenstein
1.1.9.3 Monaco
1.1.9.4 San Marino
1.1.9.5 Vatican City
1.2 Asia
1.2.1 Afghanistan
1.2.2 Saudi Arabia
1.2.3 Tibet
1.2.4 Turkey
1.2.5 Yemen
1.3 Americas
1.3.1 Argentina
1.3.2 Chile
1.3.3 Peru
1.3.4 United States
1.3.5 Venezuela
2 Conclusion
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Continent[edit]
Europe[edit]
Ireland[edit]
Main article: Irish neutrality during World War II
See also: Bombing of Dublin in World War II
Ireland – The policy of Irish neutrality during World War II was adopted by the Oireachtas (parliament of Ireland) at the instigation of Éamon de Valera, the Taoiseach (head of government) upon the outbreak of hostilities in Europe. It was maintained throughout the conflict, in spite of several German air raids (understood to be by aircraft that missed their intended targets in Britain or Northern Ireland) and attacks on Ireland's shipping fleet by Allies and Axis alike. De Valera refrained from joining either the Allies or Axis powers.
Portugal[edit]
Main article: Portugal in World War II
Portugal – Portugal was officially neutral during the World War II. However, it maintained a close relationship with the UK, due to the alliance it had for the last six hundred years, which is the longest lasting alliance in history, it also remained neutral because of the many sympathies that the Estado Novo had with the Axis Powers. Portugal continued trading with countries from both sides of the conflict throughout the war. In the second half of the war, it let the Allies use bases in the Azores to fight German submarines, because Salazar feared already an allied invasion over Azores.
Colonies of Portugal:
Angola
Cape Verde
Portuguese Guinea
Portuguese India
Macau
Mozambique
São Tomé and Príncipe
Portuguese Timor (Occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1944)
Spain[edit]
Main article: Spain in World War II
Spain – Franco sent the Blue Division to fight for the Axis on the Eastern Front.
Sweden[edit]
Main article: Sweden during World War II
Sweden – The Swedish government supported Finland during the Winter War. During the Liberation of Finnmark it sent Norwegian "police" troops over the border to link up with Allied forces. At the end of the war it was preparing to invade Norway and Denmark with the Allies should the occupying Wehrmacht forces refuse to accept a general German armistice.
Switzerland[edit]
Main article: Switzerland during the World Wars
Switzerland – Switzerland maintained its neutrality so as to protect its own banking interests from plunder by the Axis. It also depended on German coal, with 10 million tons imported during the war, making up 41% of Swiss energy supplies. Often, Swiss soldiers opened fire on Axis bombers invading their airspace. On several occasions, Switzerland also shot down Allied planes. Throughout the war, cities in Switzerland were "accidentally" bombed by both Axis and Allied airplanes. Adolf Hitler did indeed plan to invade Switzerland, but Switzerland had formed complex fortifications and amassed hundreds of thousands of soldiers in the mountains to thwart any Axis invasion. Because of the extreme mountainous conditions in Switzerland, Hitler decided to bombard the United Kingdom rather than engage in a costly war with Switzerland.
Lithuania[edit]
Main article: Resistance in Lithuania during World War II
Lithuania – Lithuania, along with its Baltic neighbours Latvia and Estonia, jointly declared their neutrality on November 18, 1938, in Riga, at the Conference of Baltic Foreign Ministers with their respective parliaments passing neutrality laws later that year.[1] Despite that, all three Baltic states were occupied twice by the Soviet Union and once by the Nazi Germany.
Latvia[edit]
Main article: Military history of Latvia during World War II
Latvia – Latvia, along with its Baltic neighbours Lithuania and Estonia, jointly declared their neutrality on November 18, 1938, in Riga, at the Conference of Baltic Foreign Ministers with their respective parliaments passing neutrality laws later that year.[2] Despite that, all three Baltic states were occupied twice by the Soviet Union and once by the Nazi Germany.
Estonia[edit]
Main article: Estonia in World War II
Estonia – Estonia, along with its Baltic neighbours Lithuania and Latvia, jointly declared their neutrality on November 18, 1938, in Riga, at the Conference of Baltic Foreign Ministers with their respective parliaments passing neutrality laws later that year.[3] Despite that, all three Baltic states were occupied twice by the Soviet Union and once by the Nazi Germany.
Microstates[edit]
Andorra[edit]
Andorra
Liechtenstein[edit]
Liechtenstein
Monaco[edit]
Monaco (occupied by Italy and later Germany)
San Marino[edit]
San Marino (briefly occupied by Germany, 17–20 September 1944; declared war on Germany, 21 September 1944)
Vatican City[edit]
Vatican City, see Vatican City in World War II
Asia[edit]
Afghanistan[edit]
Afghanistan remained neutral throughout World War II.
Saudi Arabia[edit]
Saudi Arabia severed diplomatic contacts with Germany on 11 September 1939, and with Japan in October 1941. Although officially neutral, the Saudis provided the Allies with large supplies of oil. Diplomatic relations with the United States were established in 1943. King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud was a personal friend of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Americans were then allowed to build an air force base near Dhahran.[4] Saudi Arabia declared war on Germany on 28 February 1945 and Japan on 1 April 1945, but no military actions resulted from the declaration.
Tibet[edit]
Tibet (unrecognised; claimed by China but de facto independent), remained neutral throughout World War II
Turkey[edit]
Main articles: Single-party period of the Republic of Turkey § 1938–1950: İnönü (National Chief), and History of the Republic of Turkey § World War II
Turkey was neutral until several months before the end of the war, at which point it joined the Allies. Prior to the outbreak of war, Turkey signed a Mutual Aid Pact with France and Britain in 1939. After the German invasion of France, however, Turkey remained neutral, relying on a clause excusing them if military action might bring conflict with the USSR, which, after the division of Poland, Turkey feared. Then, in June 1941, after neighbouring Bulgaria joined the Axis and allowed Germany to move troops through to invade Yugoslavia and Greece, Turkey signed a non-aggression pact with Germany. Turkey was an important producer of chromite — a key ingredient in the manufacture of stainless steel and refractory brick — to which the Germans had limited access. Sale of chromite to Germany or to the Allies (who had access to other sources, and mainly bought Turkish chromite in order to preclude its sale to Germany) was the key issue in Turkey's negotiations with both sides. Turkey halted its sales to Germany in April 1944 and broke off relations in August. In February 1945, after the Allies made its invitation to the inaugural meeting of the United Nations (along with the invitations of several other nations) conditional on full belligerency, Turkey declared war on the Axis powers, but no Turkish troops ever saw combat.
Yemen[edit]
Yemen remained neutral throughout World War II
Americas[edit]
Argentina[edit]
Argentina was ruled during the period of World War II by a series of conservative and military governments. Neutralist feelings prevailed in the military, while sentiment in the population was overwhelmingly pro-Allied. Argentina was traditionally a main economic partner of the United Kingdom, and the main supplier of beef and wheat to the British Isles, and this neutrality allowed shipments to continue unimpeded, provided at generous loans. Thousands of Argentines volunteered for the British armed services, mostly in the No. 164 RAF Argentine squadron,[5][6]even though Argentina was officially a neutral country during the war.[6][7] The government of Edelmiro Julián Farrell eventually declared war on Germany and Japan, one month before the war was over in Europe and four months before it was over in Asia, on 27 March 1945. See also Argentina during World War II.
Chile[edit]
Chile initially chose to remain neutral in the war, having close trading links with Germany. Later in the war, however, Chile distanced itself from the Axis powers, and the Chilean government took steps to dismiss pro-German military officers. Relations with Axis countries were broken in 1943, and on 11 April 1945, Chile declared war on Japan, being the last nation to join the war. Throughout the duration of the war, Chile stationed several navy ships around its colony of Easter Island to protect it from a potential Japanese attack against South America.
Peru[edit]
Peru Declared war on 12 February 1945
United States[edit]
See also: First engagement of neutral United States in World War II before the attack on Pearl Harbor
United States – The United States remained neutral following the outbreak of World War II. However, the sudden defeat of France by Nazi Germany in spring 1940 caused the nation to begin to greatly grow its armed forces, including the first peacetime draft. On December 29, President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared that the U.S. was to be the "Arsenal of Democracy" for the Allied Powers. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, America began sending Lend Lease aid to the Soviet Union as well as Britain and China. United States non-interventionism remained the nominal policy, as it stayed out of actual fighting until December 8, 1941, when it declared war on Japan in response to that country's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor the previous day.
Venezuela[edit]
Venezuela Declared war on 15 February 1945.
Conclusion[edit]
Portugal, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland held to the concept of armed neutrality, and continuously amassed soldiers to defend their nation's sovereignty from potential invasion. Thus, they maintained the right to become belligerent if attacked while in a state of neutrality. The concept of neutrality in war is narrowly defined and puts specific constraints on the neutral party in return for the internationally recognized right to remain neutral. A wider concept is that of non-belligerence. The basic international law covering neutral territories is the Second Hague Convention. It is important to note that a neutral country takes no side in a war between other parties, and in return hopes to avoid being attacked by either of them. A neutralist policy aims at neutrality in case of an armed conflict that could involve the party in question. A neutralist is an advocate of neutrality in international affairs. The concept of neutrality in conflicts is distinct from non-alignment, i.e., the willful desistance from military alliances in order to preserve neutrality in case of war, and perhaps with the hope of preventing a war altogether.
In a study of Spain, Switzerland and Sweden during WWII, Eric Golson found that they engaged in economic realpolitik, as they traded with both the Axis and the Allied Powers.[8]
See also[edit]
Participants in World War II
Allies of World War II
Axis powers
Declarations of war during World War II
Latin America during World War II
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Liekis, Šarūnas (2010). 1939: The Year that Changed Everything in Lithuania's History. New York: Rodopi. pp. 119–122. ISBN 9042027622.
Jump up ^ Neiburgs, Uldis. "Soviet occupation". Latvijas Okupācijas muzejs. Retrieved 17 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Estonian Neutrality Law of December lst, 1938
Jump up ^ Jan Romein (1962). The Asian Century: A History of Modern Nationalism in Asia. University of California Press. p. 382.
Jump up ^ Argentine pilots break silence over World War Two – Reuters
^ Jump up to: a b "Wings of Thunder – Wartime RAF Veterans Flying in From Argentina". PR Newswire. 6 April 2005. Retrieved 8 January 2008.
Jump up ^ Buckley, Martha (9 April 2005). "How Argentines helped British win war". BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 March 2006. Retrieved 8 January 2008.
Jump up ^ Golson, Eric (2016). Economic History of Warfare and State Formation. Studies in Economic History. Springer, Singapore. pp. 259–278. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-1605-9_11. ISBN 9789811016042.
Karsh, E. "Neutrality and Small States." 1989.
Gabriel, J. M. "The American Conception of Neutrality After 1941." 1989.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-neutral.html
External links[edit]
Second Hague Convention
[hide]
v
t
e
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Africa
Belgian Congo
British Somaliland
Egypt
French West Africa
French Somaliland
Gold Coast
Kenya
Liberia
Nyasaland
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South Africa
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Cuba
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United States
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Philippines
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Sweden
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United Kingdom
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Channel Islands
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Vatican City
Yugoslavia
Oceania
Australia
Nauru
New Zealand
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II&oldid=829741710"
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