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Minor League Baseball
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Minor League Baseball
Minor League Baseball logo
Sport
Baseball
Founded
1901, 116 years ago
No. of teams
247
Countries
United States
Canada
Mexico
Dominican Republic
Headquarters
St. Petersburg, Florida, U.S.
TV partner(s)
CBS Sports Network
MiLB.tv, local tv stations
Official website
MiLB.com
Minor League Baseball is a hierarchy of professional baseball leagues in the Americas that compete at levels below Major League Baseball (MLB) and provide opportunities for player development and a way to prepare for the major leagues. All of the minor leagues are operated as independent businesses. Most are members of the umbrella organization known as Minor League Baseball (MiLB), which operates under the Commissioner of Baseball within the scope of organized baseball. Several leagues, known as independent baseball leagues, do not have any official links to Major League Baseball.
Except for the Mexican League, teams in the organized minor leagues are generally independently owned and operated but are directly affiliated with one major league team through a standardized Player Development Contract (PDC). These leagues also go by the nicknames the "farm system," "farm club," or "farm team(s)" because of a joke passed around by major league players in the 1930s when St. Louis Cardinals general manager Branch Rickey formalized the system, and teams in small towns were "growing players down on the farm like corn."
Major League Baseball and Minor League Baseball teams may enter into a PDC for a two- or four-year term. At the expiration of a PDC term, teams may renew their affiliation, or sign new PDCs with different clubs, though many relationships are renewed and endure for extended time periods. For example, the Omaha Storm Chasers (formerly the Omaha Royals and Omaha Golden Spikes) have been the Triple-A affiliate of the Kansas City Royals since the Royals joined the American League in 1969, but the Columbus Clippers changed affiliations, after being associated with the New York Yankees from 1979, to the Washington Nationals in 2007 and have been affiliated with the Cleveland Indians since 2009.
A few minor league teams are directly owned by their major league parent club, such as the Springfield Cardinals, owned by the St. Louis Cardinals, and all of the Atlanta Braves' affiliates except the Florida Fire Frogs. Minor League teams that are owned directly by the major league club do not have PDCs with the parent club and are not part of the reaffiliation shuffles that occur every other year.
Today, 19 affiliated minor baseball leagues operate with 247 member clubs in large, medium, and small cities, as well as the suburbs of major cities, across the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Dominican Republic.[1] Several more independent leagues operate in the United States and Canada.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Current system
2.1 Triple-A
2.2 Double-A
2.3 Class A-Advanced
2.4 Class A
2.5 Short season leagues
2.5.1 Class A Short Season
2.5.2 Rookie Advanced
2.6 Rookie
2.7 Rehabilitation assignments
3 Reorganization of 1963
3.1 Previous structure (1946–1962)
3.2 The 1963 classification realignment
3.3 Further changes after 1963
4 Defunct levels
4.1 Open
4.2 Class A1
4.3 Class B, C and D
5 Players
6 Umpires
7 Presidents of Minor League Baseball
8 Television and radio
8.1 MiLB.TV
8.2 Radio
9 Independent baseball
10 List of leagues
11 Major league affiliations
12 Team rosters
13 Awards
13.1 MiLBY Awards
13.2 Other player awards
13.3 Major awards
13.4 Top 100 teams
14 See also
15 References
16 External links
History[edit]
Class A-Advanced California League game in San Jose, California, 1994
The earliest professional baseball association, the National Association of 1871 to 1875, comprised all fully professional teams. This system proved unworkable, however, as there was no way to ensure competitive balance, and financially unsound clubs often failed in midseason. This problem was solved in 1876 with the formation of the National League, with a limited membership which excluded less competitive and financially weaker teams. Professional clubs outside the National League responded by forming regional associations of their own. There was a series of ad hoc groupings, such as the New England Association of 1877 and the Eastern Championship Association of 1881. These were loose groups of independent clubs which agreed to play a series of games for a championship pennant.
The first minor league is traditionally considered to be the Northwestern League of 1883 to 1884. Unlike the earlier minor associations, it was conceived as a permanent organization. It also, along with the National League and the American Association, was a party to the National Agreement of 1883. Included in this was the agreement to respect the reserve lists of clubs in each league. Teams in the National League and the American Association could only reserve players who had been paid at least $1000. Northwest League teams could reserve players paid merely $750, implicitly establishing the division into major and minor leagues. Over the next two decades, more minor leagues signed various versions of the National Agreement. Eventually, the minor leagues joined together to negotiate jointly.
In the late 1890s, the Western League run by the fiery Ban Johnson decided to challenge the National League's position. In 1900, he changed the name of the league to the American League and vowed to make deals to sign contracts with players who were dissatisfied with the pay and terms of their deals with the National League. This led to a nasty turf war that heated up in 1901 enough to concern Patrick T. Powers, president of the Eastern League, and many other minor league owners about the conflict potentially affecting their organizations. Representatives of the different minor leagues met at the Leland Hotel in Chicago on September 5, 1901. In response to the National–American battle, they agreed to form the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues, called the NAPBL, or NA for short. (The NA uses the name Minor League Baseball today.) The purpose of the NA at the time was to maintain the independence of the leagues involved. Several did not sign the agreement and continued to work independently. Powers was made the first president of the NAPBL, whose offices were established in Auburn, New York.
In 1903, the conflict between the American and National Leagues ended in the National Agreement of 1903.[2] The NAPBL became involved in the later stages of the negotiations to develop rules for the acquisition of players from their leagues by the National and the American. The 1903 agreement ensured that teams would be compensated for the players that they had taken the time and effort to scout and develop, and no NA team was required to sell their players, although most did because the cash was an important source of revenue for most teams. The NA leagues were still fiercely independent, and the term "minor" was seldom used in reference to them, save by the major-market sports writers. News did not travel far in the days before television and radio, so, while the leagues often bristled at the major market writers descriptions, they viewed themselves as independent sports businesses. Many baseball writers of that time regarded the greatest players of the minor leagues, such as Buzz Arlett, Jigger Statz, Ike Boone, Buddy Ryan, Earl Rapp and Frank Shellenback, as comparable to major league players. Leagues in the NA would not be truly called minor until Branch Rickey developed the first modern farm system in the 1930s. The Commissioner of Baseball, Kenesaw Mountain Landis fought Rickey's scheme, but, ultimately, the Great Depression drove teams to establish systems like Rickey's to ensure a steady supply of players, as many NA and independent teams could not afford to keep their doors open without the patronage of major league baseball. The leagues of the NA became subordinate to the major leagues, creating the first minor leagues. Other than the Pacific Coast League, which under its president Pants Rowland tried to become a third major league in the Western states, the other leagues maintained autonomy in name only, being totally economically dependent upon the American and National leagues.
In 1922, the United States Supreme Court decision Federal Baseball Club v. National League (259 U.S. 200), which grants baseball a special immunity from antitrust laws, had a major effect on the minor leagues. The special immunity meant that the American and National leagues could dictate terms under which every independent league did business. By 1925, major league baseball established a flat-fee purchase amount of $5,000 for the contract of any player from an NA league team. This power was leveled primarily at the Baltimore Orioles, then a Triple-A team that had dominated the minors with stars.
Current system[edit]
The third base stands of the Dell Diamond, home of the Round Rock Express.
Under most circumstances, minor league teams are not owned by major league clubs, but have affiliation contracts with them. A small number of minor league clubs are directly owned by major league clubs, but these are rare. Major league Rule 56 governs the standard terms of a Player Development Contract (PDC) which is the standard agreement of association between a minor league team and its major league affiliate. Generally, the parent major league club pays the salaries and benefits of uniformed personnel (players and coaches) and bats and balls, while the minor league club pays for in-season travel and other operational expenses.[3]
Minor league teams often change their affiliation with major league clubs for a variety of reasons. Sometimes major or minor League clubs wish to affiliate with a partner that is geographically closer. In recent years, some MLB clubs have attempted to place as many affiliated teams within their blackout area as possible, in order to make scouting and player transfers more convenient and to take advantage of the existing fan base when interest in the parent team builds support for the minor league affiliate and early fan interest in developing minor league players reinforces support for the parent team as "local players" reach the majors. Sometimes a minor league club wishes to improve the caliber of players its major league affiliate sends to play there. Sometimes a major league club wishes to improve the facility where it will send its developing players. In even-numbered years, any major or minor league club with an expiring PDC may notify Major League Baseball or Minor League Baseball, respectively, of its desire to explore a re-affiliation with a different PDC partner. The Major League Baseball and Minor League Baseball offices then send a list of the corresponding major and minor league clubs seeking new affiliations, and there is a limited period of time in September within which clubs may agree upon new PDCs. If any are left over after this process, the Major League Baseball and Minor League Baseball offices are empowered to assign major and minor league clubs to each other.
Going into the 2010 season, the longest continuous link between major league and minor league clubs was the link between the Orioles and their Rookie-level Appalachian League affiliate, the Bluefield Orioles. The teams were affiliated for 53 years, from 1958 through 2010. Baltimore ended the PDC after the 2010 season. At the start of the 2011 season, the longest continuous affiliations were two 45-year links: between the Philadelphia Phillies and their Double-A Eastern League affiliate, the Reading Fightin Phils; and the one between the Detroit Tigers and their Class A-Advanced Florida State League affiliate, the Lakeland Flying Tigers. Both Reading and Lakeland are owned by their parent Major League clubs.
There are several baseball clubs that operate teams at multiple levels of the minor leagues; they are not required to affiliate all of their clubs to the same major league franchise. Bob Rich, Jr., for example, owns the Triple-A Buffalo Bisons and the short-season West Virginia Black Bears, the latter of which had been the Jamestown Jammers before the 2015 season. Even though the teams were located slightly more than 70 miles (110 km) apart before the Jammers' relocation, Rich has never affiliated the two teams with the same parent club.
The current minor league classification system divides leagues into one of five classes, those being Triple-A (AAA), Double-A (AA), Class A (Single-A or A), Class A Short Season, and Rookie. Furthermore, Class A is further subdivided into Class A and Class A-Advanced (often called Low-A and High-A, respectively), and Rookie is further subdivided into Rookie Advanced, Complex-based Rookie and international summer baseball. Under the rules governing the affiliated minor leagues (specifically Major League Baseball Rule 51), Class A Short Season is a separate classification from the other leagues bearing the "Class A" name, despite the similarity in name.
Triple-A[edit]
Main article: Triple-A (baseball)
Coca-Cola Park in Allentown, Pennsylvania, home of the Lehigh Valley IronPigs, the Triple-A affiliate of the Philadelphia Phillies
This classification currently includes two affiliated leagues: the International League and the Pacific Coast League, which feature teams from Eastern and Western United States respectively.[4] For most of the 20th century, it also contained the American Association, based in the Midwest, but that league disbanded, its clubs absorbed by the other two leagues, as part of a reorganization of the Triple-A level in 1997. The Mexican League is also classified as a Triple-A league, though its clubs do not have PDCs with Major League clubs.
Both young players and veterans play for Triple-A teams. Teams usually hold many of the remaining 15 players of the 40-man major league roster whom the major league club has chosen not to play at the major league level. Players at Triple-A on the 40-man roster can be invited to come up to the major league club once the major league roster expands on September 1, although teams usually wait until their affiliates' playoff runs are over, should they qualify. For teams in contention for a pennant, it gives them fresh players. For those not in contention, it gives them an opportunity to evaluate their second-tier players against major-league competition.[5] Some Triple-A players are "career minor leaguers", former prospects whose skill growth has halted and are not likely to be ready for MLB action unless as a temporary replacement.[6]
Unlike at other levels of competition, the two affiliated Triple-A leagues meet each summer in the Triple-A All-Star Game, first played in 1988. Each league fields a team composed of the top players in their respective leagues as voted on by fans, the media, and each club's field manager and general manager.[7] In another instance of interleague play, the annual Triple-A Baseball National Championship Game has been held since 2006 to serve as a single championship game between the champions of the International League and Pacific Coast League to determine an overall champion of Triple-A baseball.[8]
Double-A[edit]
Main article: Double-A (baseball)
There are currently three leagues in this classification: Eastern League, Southern League, and the Texas League.[4] Some players jump to the majors from this level, as many of the top prospects are put here to play against each other rather than against minor and major league veterans in Triple-A.[6] A small handful of players might be placed here to start, usually veterans from foreign leagues with more experience in professional baseball. The expectation is usually that these players will be in the majors by the end of the season, as their salaries tend to be higher than those of most prospects.
Unlike the major league and the Triple-A level, two of the three Double-A leagues play a split season, the Eastern League being the exception. One team may clinch a spot in the playoffs by winning the division in first half of the season. The teams' records are then cleared and another team will also clinch a playoff slot during the second half. Wild cards are used to fill out the remaining teams. Usually, four teams qualify for the league playoffs. This system is used at the Class A level as well.
Class A-Advanced[edit]
One level below Double-A, the California League, Carolina League, and the Florida State League play at the Class A-Advanced level, also known as "Class A+" or "High A".[4] This is often a second or third promotion for a minor league player, although a few high first-round draftees, particularly those with college experience, begin at this level. These leagues play a complete season like Triple-A and Double-A, from April through early September. Many of the teams in the Florida State League are owned by major league parent clubs and use their spring training complexes. The class consists of 30 teams from around the United States, from San Jose to Tampa.
Class A[edit]
Slightly below Class A-Advanced are the full season Class A leagues, the South Atlantic League and Midwest League.[4] These leagues are a mix of players moving up from the Short Season and Rookie leagues, as well as the occasional experienced first-year player. These leagues play a full, 140 game schedule, which runs from the first week of April through the first week of September.
Short season leagues[edit]
Short season leagues, as the name implies, play a shortened season of 76 games, starting in mid-June and ending in early September, with only a few off-days during the season. The late start of the season is designed to allow college players to complete their college seasons in the spring, then be drafted, signed, and immediately placed in a competitive league (The MLB First Year Player Draft begins on the first Monday in June).
Players in short season leagues are a mixture of newly signed draftees who are considered more advanced than other draftees, and second-year pros who were not ready or for whom there was not space at a higher level to move up. Second-year pros are assigned to "extended spring training" in Florida or Arizona during April and May before reporting to their short season leagues.
Of the 30 major league clubs, 13 field teams in Class A Short Season only, 8 clubs field their top short season teams in the Rookie Advanced leagues, and 9 clubs have affiliates at both levels.
Class A Short Season[edit]
Class A Short Season, despite the name, is a separate classification from Class A. Class A Short Season teams are slightly more limited than Class A teams with respect to player age and years of experience in professional baseball. There are two short season leagues, the New York–Penn League and Northwest League.
Rookie Advanced[edit]
The Appalachian League and Pioneer League are known as "Rookie Advanced" leagues. The players in these leagues are thought to be further along in their development than players in the pure Rookie leagues, and hence games are more competitive. Teams in these leagues sell concessions and charge admission.
Rookie[edit]
Leagues in the Rookie classification play a shortened season, similar to, but slightly shorter than, the short season leagues, starting in mid-June and ending in late August or early September. This lowest level of minor league baseball consists of two domestic leagues, the Arizona League and Gulf Coast League, and one foreign-based league, the Dominican Summer League.[4]
The domestic Rookie leagues play a 60-game schedule, and are usually called "complex leagues" because games are played at their parent clubs' spring training complexes. Rosters comprise newly drafted players who are not ready for a higher level of play. These leagues are intended almost exclusively to allow players to hone their skills; no admission is charged and no concessions are sold.
Rehabilitation assignments[edit]
Players on the disabled list (DL) can be sent to the minor leagues to aid in rehabilitation following an injury, typically for one or two weeks. Players are often sent to minor league clubs based on geography and facilities, not necessarily by class for these reassignments.
Curt Schilling's recovery from an ankle injury in 2005 saw him rehab in Pawtucket, Rhode Island at the Triple-A Pawtucket Red Sox, very close to the home club in Boston. The Cincinnati Reds often send players to their Class A affiliate, the Dayton Dragons, for rehab assignments. Despite Dayton's status as Low Class A, Dayton is a short, 50-mile drive away from the Reds' Great American Ball Park.
Minnesota Twins superstar Joe Mauer, who missed most of the first two months of the 2011 season due to a difficult recovery from arthroscopic knee surgery after the 2010 season, reported to Minnesota's Class A-Advanced Florida State League team, the Fort Myers Miracle, which is based in their well-equipped Spring Training facility in Fort Myers. In addition, the Miracle manager at the time was Mauer's older brother Jake. The Twins would later send Joe Mauer and pitcher Ricky Nolasco to rehab with the club's Low-A affiliate located across the Minnesota-Iowa border in Cedar Rapids.[9]
Mike Trout's first rehab assignment of his career, in July 2017, was with the Inland Empire 66ers of San Bernardino, California, the Class A-Advanced affiliate of the Los Angeles Angels. This allowed Trout to stay closer to the Angels compared to the team's Triple-A affiliate, the Salt Lake Bees.[10]
Reorganization of 1963[edit]
The current minor league structure is largely based on a significant reorganization that occurred before the 1963 season, which was caused by the club and league contraction of the 1950s and early 1960s. In 1949, the peak of the post-World War II minor league baseball boom, 438 teams in 59 leagues were members of the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues. By the end of 1963, only 15 leagues survived in the United States and Canada.[11]
Previous structure (1946–1962)[edit]
Before 1946, the minors' highest level was labeled Double-A. In 1946, the Triple-A classification was created and the three Double-A circuits (the Pacific Coast and International leagues, and the American Association) were automatically reclassified Triple-A. The Class A1 level, two rungs below the Majors and comprising the Texas League and the Southern Association, was then renamed Double-A.
Prior to 1963, the Class A level was a higher-rung classification. In 1946, Class A consisted of the Eastern League and the original South Atlantic or "Sally" League, and it would soon include the Western League (1947–1958), the Central League (1948–1951), and the Western International League (1952–1954). The WIL became the Class B Northwest League in 1955, and the Western and Central loops folded. But postwar Class A cities included communities such as Denver, in Major League Baseball since 1993, as well as Vancouver, Omaha, Colorado Springs, Scranton and Allentown, which would establish themselves as Triple-A venues.
The lower levels of the minors were ranked Classes B through D in descending order. With the exception of the 1952–1957 Open Classification experiment for the Pacific Coast League, this structure would remain intact through 1962. (see Defunct levels, below)
The 1963 classification realignment[edit]
After the 1962 season, the Triple-A American Association disbanded and the surviving International and Pacific Coast leagues absorbed the four remaining American Association franchises. Meanwhile, at the Double-A level and below there were even more significant changes:
The two existing Class A leagues—the Eastern and South Atlantic—were upgraded to Double-A, joining the Texas League and the Mexican League, then Double-A, as members of this classification. This move was caused by the disbanding of the Southern Association after 1961, leaving the six-team Texas League as the only U.S.-based Double-A circuit in 1962. (The Mexican League, although a formal member of minor league baseball, was not affiliated with any Major League teams.) In addition, many Major League parent teams had frequently treated the pre-1963 Eastern and South Atlantic leagues as de facto Double-A circuits, one step (rather than two) below Triple-A.
The Class B Carolina League and Northwest League, the Class C California League, Pioneer League and Northern League, and the Class D Florida State League, Georgia–Florida League, Midwest League, New York–Penn League, and Western Carolinas League were all designated Class A (or Single-A) leagues. (The unaffiliated Mexican Central League of 1960–1978, ranked Class C in 1962, also was upgraded to Class A.)
The Class D Appalachian League, then the only "short-season" circuit, was given a new designation as a "Rookie" league.
As part of the 1963 reorganization, Major League clubs increased their commitments to affiliate with minor league teams through Player Development Contracts, outright ownerships, or shared affiliations and co-op arrangements.[11]
Further changes after 1963[edit]
Triple-A: The American Association was revived as a Triple-A league in 1969 and flourished with the minor league baseball boom of the 1980s and 1990s. However, all of its teams were again absorbed into the International and Pacific Coast leagues in 1998 as part of a sweeping reorganization of the minors' top classification. The American Association and the International League also played an interlocking schedule during the late 1980s as part of the Triple-A Alliance. The Mexican League was upgraded from Double-A to Triple-A in 1967.
Double-A: In 1964, the South Atlantic League changed its name to its current identity, the Southern League. Because of continued contraction (and Major League expansion) that left each circuit with only seven teams, the Texas and Southern leagues merged into an umbrella circuit, the Dixie Association, in 1971. The arrangement lasted only for that season and the records and history of the Texas and Southern loops were kept distinct. In 1972, each league added an eighth team, rebalancing their schedules. They resumed their former, separate identities, and returned to prosperity with the revival of minor league baseball that began in the 1980s.
Class A: In 1965, the Class A–Short Season designation was created, and the Northern and Northwest loops moved from "full season" Class A into the new classification (with the New York–Penn League following in 1967). The Georgia–Florida League disbanded after the 1963 season, while the Northern League played its last year in official minor league baseball in 1971. In 1980, the Western Carolinas League changed its identity to become the modern incarnation of the South Atlantic League.
Rookie: In 1964, the Pioneer League stepped down from Class A to Rookie league status, and the first "complex-based" leagues, the Sarasota Rookie League and the Cocoa Rookie League, made their debuts. The Sarasota Rookie League underwent a name change to the Florida Rookie League in 1965 before becoming the modern Gulf Coast League the next season. The Cocoa Rookie League lasted only one season, and the Florida East Coast League of 1972, based in the same region of the state, also existed for only one year. In 1989, an Arizona-based counterpart to the Gulf Coast League, the Arizona League, made its debut in minor league baseball, and it continues to operate as a Rookie-level league for MLB teams with spring training facilities based in that state.
Failed start-up leagues: During the 1970s, three "official" minor leagues attempted unsuccessfully to revive unaffiliated baseball within the organized baseball structure. These were the Class A Gulf States League (1976) and Lone Star League (1977), and the Triple-A Inter–American League (1979). None lasted more than a full season.
Defunct levels[edit]
Open[edit]
The Pacific Coast League, from 1952–1957, was the only minor league to obtain open classification. At this time, the major leagues only extended as far west as St. Louis and as far south as Washington, D.C. This classification severely restricted the rights of the major leagues to draft players out of the PCL, and at the time it seemed like the PCL would eventually become a third major league. The PCL would revert to Triple-A classification in 1958 due to increasing television coverage of major league games and in light of the Dodgers and Giants moving to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively. The open classification no longer exists in the major league rules.
Class A1[edit]
The forerunner to the modern Double-A classification, the A1 level existed from 1936 through 1945. In 1936, two Class A circuits, the Texas League and the Southern Association, were upgraded to Class A1 to signify their continued status as one step below the highest classification, then Double-A, yet a notch above their former Class A peers, the New York–Pennsylvania League and Western League. Ten years later, after World War II, with the minor leagues poised for unprecedented growth, classification terminology was changed. Beginning in 1946, the three Double-A leagues (the American Association and International and Pacific Coast leagues) joined a new classification, Triple-A, and the Class A1 level became known as Double-A.
Class B, C and D[edit]
Until 1963, there were also Class B, C, and D leagues (and, for half a season, one E league). The Class D of that period would be equivalent to the Rookie level today. The other class designations disappeared because leagues of that level could not sustain operation during a large downturn in the financial fortunes of minor league baseball in the 1950s and 1960s caused by the rise of television broadcasts of major league sports across broad regions of the country. The impact of the Korean War in 1950 caused a player shortage in most cities in class D and C. The Class E level existed briefly in 1943 in the form of the Twin Ports League. It folded July 13 after six weeks of operation.
Players[edit]
Only 25 of the players on a Major League Baseball team's 40-man major league reserve list may be active for the major league club, with two exceptions. One minor exception is that when a team is scheduled to play a day-night doubleheader, it is allowed to carry 26 players on the active roster for that day only. The more significant exception is that from September 1 to the end of the regular season, teams are allowed to expand their game-day rosters to 40 players. The remaining 15 players are generally either on the disabled list or play at some level of the minor leagues (usually at the Triple-A or Double-A level). Players on the 40-man reserve list are eligible for membership in the Major League Baseball Players Association. The minor league players work at the lower end of major league pay scales and are covered by all rules and player agreements of the players association. Minor league players not on the 40-man reserve list are under contract to their respective parent Major League Baseball clubs but have no union. They generally work for far less pay as they develop their skills and work their way up the ladder toward the major leagues.[12] Many players have signing bonuses and other additional compensation that can run into the millions of dollars, although that is generally reserved for early round draft picks.
A major league team's Director of Player Development determines where a given player will be placed in the farm system, in coordination with the coaches and managers who evaluate their talent. At the end of spring training, players both from the spring major camp and minor league winter camp are placed by the major league club on the roster of a minor league team. The Director of Player Development and the general manager usually determine the initial assignments for new draftees, who typically begin playing professionally in June after they have been signed to contracts. The farm system is ever-changing, and evaluation of players is a constantly ongoing process. The Director of Player Development and his managers meet or teleconference regularly to discuss how players are performing at each level. Personal development, injuries, and high levels of achievement by players in the classes below all steer a player's movement up and down in the class system.
Players will play for the team to which they are assigned for the duration of that season unless they are "called up" (promoted to a higher level), "sent down" (demoted to a lower-class team in the major league club's farm system), or "released" from the farm system entirely. A release from minor-league level used to spell the end of a minor league player's career. In more modern times, released players often sign with independent baseball clubs, which are scouted heavily by major league organizations. Many players get a second or third look from the major league scouts if they turn their career around in the independent leagues.
Even though minor league players are paid considerably less than their major league counterparts, they are nevertheless paid for their services and are thus considered professional athletes. Minor league salaries vary based on class level and length of season; however, the majority of players make less than $10,000 per season.[13] Baseball cards refer to "pro record" and "pro seasons" as including both major and minor leagues. For this reason, minor league players generally consider it an insult when someone asks when they're going to "get to the pros". More accurately, a player's aim is to reach "The Show" or the "big leagues."
Umpires[edit]
Umpires at the minor league level are overseen by Minor League Baseball Umpire Development, which is responsible for the training, evaluation, and recommendation for promotion and retention or release of the umpires.[14]
The umpires are evaluated eight times a season by the staff of the MiLB Umpire Development, and receive a ranking at mid-season and the end of each year. Based on performance during the year, an umpire may advance in classification when a position opens in-season or during the off-season. Umpire Development holds an annual evaluation course every year in March to evaluate rookie umpires. Participants are normally the best students from the two professional umpire schools (one owned and operated by the same entity). The top students who pass the evaluation course are recommended for the first openings in the Rookie and short season leagues.[15]
Any student who wants to work as an umpire must attend a professional umpire training school. The MiLB recognizes two schools for training prospective professional umpires, the Harry Wendelstedt Umpire School and Minor League Baseball Umpire Training Academy, both located in Florida. The Minor League Baseball Umpire Training Academy is owned and operated by Minor League Baseball Umpire Development (MiLBUD), while Wendelstedt is independently owned by MLB Umpire Hunter Wendelstedt. The classes for each school are held for five weeks in January and February. The instructors at these schools are former or present major or minor league umpires. Simply attending one of these schools, however, does not guarantee that the candidate will also be recommended either to the evaluation course or to the openings in the Rookie or short season leagues. Generally, less than 20% of umpire school students move on to the Rookie Evaluation Course.[16]
Before the umpire development program was created, the Minor League presidents would recruit umpires directly from the schools. Umpires were then "sold" from league to league by word of mouth through the various league presidents.[17]
The umpire development program first started in 1964, when it was decided that a method of recruitment, training and development for umpires of both major and minor leagues was needed. The Umpire Development Program was founded at Baseball's 1964 Winter Meetings in Houston, and it began operating the next year. The program aimed to recruit more athletic, energetic and dedicated individuals who would also have high morals and integrity standards. In 1968, it was decided that the program needed its own umpire training course which would be held each year. The first "Umpire Specialization Course" was held in St. Petersburg, Florida the following year.[18]
Presently, the candidates for a job in professional umpiring must meet several requirements in order to be considered. An applicant must have a high school diploma or a G.E.D., must be athletic, and also must have 20/20 vision, though they are permitted to wear glasses or contact lenses.[19] They must also have good communication skills, good reflexes and coordination, and must have trained at one of the two professional umpire schools.
On June 21, 2016, the Gulf Coast League hired Jen Pawol, the first female umpire in Minor League Baseball since 2007.[20]
Presidents of Minor League Baseball[edit]
Minor League Baseball Headquarters, St. Petersburg, Florida
Patrick T. Powers, 1901–1909
Michael H. Sexton, 1909–1931
William G. Bramham, 1932–1946
George Trautman, 1947–1963
Phil Piton, 1964–1971
Hank Peters, 1972–1975
Bobby Bragan, 1976–1978
John H. Johnson, 1979–1988
Sal Artiaga, 1988–1991
Mike Moore, 1991–2007
Pat O'Conner, 2008–present
Television and radio[edit]
Minor League Baseball has a national television contract with CBS Sports Network, which airs 10–15 games on Thursday nights. The arrangement began in 2014 and will continue through the 2015 season.[21] For the 2015 season, select MiLB games will be featured on the American Sports Network.[22] Also, many individual teams have contracts with local over-the-air channels. Games are also occasionally simulcast on MLB Network.
MiLB.TV[edit]
MiLB.TV is the minor leagues' official online video streaming service, in the vein of Major League Baseball's MLB.tv. The service currently offers every Triple-A game and select games from the other classifications.
Radio[edit]
Nearly every minor-league team has its own local radio contract, though unlike their major-league counterparts, these generally consist of only one or two individual stations. Minor League Baseball currently has an arrangement with TuneIn to provide free audio streams of virtually every game.[23]
Independent baseball[edit]
Main article: Independent baseball league
Independent leagues are those professional leagues in the United States and Canada not under the purview of organized Minor League Baseball and the Commissioner of Baseball. Independent baseball existed in the early 20th century and has become prominent again since 1993.[24]
Leagues operated mostly autonomously before 1902, when the majority joined the NAPBL. From then until 1915, a total of eight new and existing leagues remained independent. Most joined the National Association after one season of independence. Notable exceptions were the California League, which was independent in 1902 and from 1907–1909, the United States Baseball League, which folded during its independent 1912 season, and the Colonial League, a National Association Member that went independent in 1915 and then folded.[25] Another independent league, the Federal League, played at a level considered major league from 1914–1915.
Few independent leagues existed between 1915 and 1993. Major exceptions included the Carolina League and the Quebec-based Provincial League. The Carolina League, based in the North Carolina Piedmont region, gained a reputation as a notorious "outlaw league" during its existence from 1936–1938.[26] The Provincial League had six teams across Quebec and was independent from 1948–1949. Similarly to early 20th-century independent leagues, it joined the National Association in 1950, playing for six more years.[25][27]
Independent leagues saw new growth after 1992, after the new Professional Baseball Agreement in organized baseball instituted more stringent revenue and stadium requirements on members.[28] Over the next eight years, at least 16 independent leagues formed, of which six existed in 2002.[25] As of 2016, seven independent leagues are in operation in the U.S. and Canada, compared to 19 in organized Minor League Baseball.
List of leagues[edit]
Main article: List of Minor League Baseball leagues and teams
Triple-A
International League
Pacific Coast League
Mexican League[29]
Double-A
Eastern League
Southern League
Texas League
Class A-Advanced
California League
Carolina League
Florida State League
Class A
Midwest League
South Atlantic League
Class A Short Season
New York–Penn League
Northwest League
Rookie Advanced
Pioneer League
Appalachian League
Rookie
Arizona League
Gulf Coast League
Dominican Summer League
Off-season leagues
Arizona Fall League
Australian Baseball League
Colombian Professional Baseball League
Dominican Professional Baseball League
Mexican Pacific League
Puerto Rico Baseball League
Venezuelan Professional Baseball League
Independent leagues
American Association
Atlantic League
Can-Am League
Empire Professional Baseball League
Frontier League
Pacific Association
Pecos League
United Shore League
Major league affiliations[edit]
Table key
Triple-A Double-A Class A-Advanced Class A Class A Short Season Rookie Advanced
International League Eastern League Carolina League South Atlantic League New York-Penn League Appalachian League
Pacific Coast League Texas League California League Midwest League Northwest League Pioneer League
—
Southern League Florida State League
—
—
—
Division
Team
Triple-A
Double-A
Class A-Advanced
Class A
Class A Short Season
Rookie Advanced
American League
East
Baltimore Orioles Norfolk Tides Bowie Baysox Frederick Keys Delmarva Shorebirds Aberdeen IronBirds
—
Boston Red Sox Pawtucket Red Sox Portland Sea Dogs Salem Red Sox Greenville Drive Lowell Spinners
—
New York Yankees Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders Trenton Thunder Tampa Yankees Charleston RiverDogs Staten Island Yankees Pulaski Yankees
Tampa Bay Rays Durham Bulls Montgomery Biscuits Charlotte Stone Crabs Bowling Green Hot Rods Hudson Valley Renegades Princeton Rays
Toronto Blue Jays Buffalo Bisons New Hampshire Fisher Cats Dunedin Blue Jays Lansing Lugnuts Vancouver Canadians Bluefield Blue Jays
Central
Chicago White Sox Charlotte Knights Birmingham Barons Winston-Salem Dash Kannapolis Intimidators
—
Great Falls Voyagers
Cleveland Indians Columbus Clippers Akron RubberDucks Lynchburg Hillcats Lake County Captains Mahoning Valley Scrappers
—
Detroit Tigers Toledo Mud Hens Erie SeaWolves Lakeland Flying Tigers West Michigan Whitecaps Connecticut Tigers
—
Kansas City Royals Omaha Storm Chasers Northwest Arkansas Naturals Wilmington Blue Rocks Lexington Legends
—
Burlington Royals Idaho Falls Chukars
Minnesota Twins Rochester Red Wings Chattanooga Lookouts Fort Myers Miracle Cedar Rapids Kernels
—
Elizabethton Twins
West
Houston Astros Fresno Grizzlies Corpus Christi Hooks Buies Creek Astros Quad Cities River Bandits Tri-City ValleyCats
—
Los Angeles Angels Salt Lake Bees Mobile BayBears Inland Empire 66ers Burlington Bees
—
Orem Owlz
Oakland Athletics Nashville Sounds Midland RockHounds Stockton Ports Beloit Snappers Vermont Lake Monsters
—
Seattle Mariners Tacoma Rainers Arkansas Travelers Modesto Nuts Clinton LumberKings Everett AquaSox
—
Texas Rangers Round Rock Express Frisco RoughRiders Down East Wood Ducks Hickory Crawdads Spokane Indians
—
National League
East
Atlanta Braves Gwinnett Braves Mississippi Braves Florida Fire Frogs Rome Braves
—
Danville Braves
Miami Marlins New Orleans Baby Cakes Jacksonville Jumbo Shrimp Jupiter Hammerheads Greensboro Grasshoppers Batavia Muckdogs
—
New York Mets Las Vegas 51s Binghamton Rumble Ponies St. Lucie Mets Columbia Fireflies Brooklyn Cyclones Kingsport Mets
Philadelphia Phillies Lehigh Valley IronPigs Reading Fightin' Phils Clearwater Threshers Lakewood BlueClaws Williamsport Crosscutters
—
Washington Nationals Syracuse Chiefs Harrisburg Senators Potomac Nationals Hagerstown Suns Auburn Doubledays
—
Central
Chicago Cubs Iowa Cubs Tennessee Smokies Myrtle Beach Pelicans South Bend Cubs Eugene Emeralds
—
Cincinnati Reds Louisville Bats Pensacola Blue Wahoos Daytona Tortugas Dayton Dragons
—
Billings Mustangs
Milwaukee Brewers Colorado Springs Sky Sox Biloxi Shuckers Carolina Mudcats Wisconsin Timber Rattlers
—
Helena Brewers
Pittsburgh Pirates Indianapolis Indians Altoona Curve Bradenton Marauders West Virginia Power West Virginia Black Bears Bristol Pirates
St. Louis Cardinals Memphis Redbirds Springfield Cardinals Palm Beach Cardinals Peoria Chiefs State College Spikes Johnson City Cardinals
West
Arizona Diamondbacks Reno Aces Jackson Generals Visalia Rawhide Kane County Cougars Hillsboro Hops Missoula Osprey
Colorado Rockies Albuquerque Isotopes Hartford Yard Goats Lancaster JetHawks Asheville Tourists Boise Hawks Grand Junction Rockies
Los Angeles Dodgers Oklahoma City Dodgers Tulsa Drillers Rancho Cucamonga Quakes Great Lakes Loons
—
Ogden Raptors
San Diego Padres El Paso Chihuahuas San Antonio Missions Lake Elsinore Storm Fort Wayne TinCaps Tri-City Dust Devils
—
San Francisco Giants Sacramento River Cats Richmond Flying Squirrels San Jose Giants Augusta GreenJackets Salem-Keizer Volcanoes
—
Team rosters[edit]
Main article: Minor League Baseball rosters
Awards[edit]
For additional awards, see Baseball awards § U.S. minor leagues.
MiLBY Awards[edit]
The Minor League Baseball Yearly (MiLBY) Awards (formerly "This Year in Minor League Baseball Awards") are given in nine categories. In five categories (Best Starter, Best Hitter, Best Reliever, Best Game, and Best Team), winners are selected in each of the five levels of minor-league baseball (Triple-A, Double-A, Class A-Advanced, Class A, and Class A Short Season). In three categories (Play of the Year, Moment of the Year, and Homer of the Year), one overall winner is chosen for all of minor-league baseball. In the remaining category (Promo of the Year), there are overall winners in each of five subcategories: Best Promotion (of all types), Best Theme Night, Best Giveaway, Best Celebrity Appearance, and Best Miscellaneous Promotion.
Other player awards[edit]
MiLB J.G. Taylor Spink Award (Topps/Minor League Player of the Year)[30][31]
MiLB George M. Trautman Awards (Topps Player of the Year) (in each of 16 domestic minor leagues)[32]
MiLB Joe Bauman Home Run Award[33]
Major awards[edit]
John H. Johnson President's Award (1974) – given each year, MiLB's top award recognizes "the complete baseball franchise—based on franchise stability, contributions to league stability, contributions to baseball in the community, and promotion of the baseball industry."[34][35]
Rawlings Woman Executive of the Year (1976) – given each year to a woman in MiLB for exceptional contributions to her club, her league, or baseball.[34][36]
Warren Giles Award (1984) – given each year to a league president for outstanding service.[34][36][37]
King of Baseball (1951) – given annually in recognition of longtime dedication and service to professional baseball.[34]
Larry MacPhail Award (1966) – given annually in recognition of team promotions.[34][38]
Sheldon "Chief" Bender Award (2008) – given to a person with distinguished service who has been instrumental in player development.[34]
Mike Coolbaugh Award (2008) – given to someone who has shown an outstanding baseball work ethic, knowledge of the game, and skill in mentoring young players on the field.[34]
Top 100 teams[edit]
Main article: The National Baseball Association's top 100 minor league teams
During its centennial celebration in 2001, Minor League Baseball compiled a list of the 100 best minor-league baseball teams of the century.[39]
See also[edit]
Baseball portal
Korea Baseball Futures League
History of baseball
Collegiate summer baseball
2006 Minor League Baseball umpire strike
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Teams by Name – MiLB.com Official Info – The Official Site of Minor League Baseball". MiLB.com. Retrieved September 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ National Agreement of 1903
Jump up ^ "Minor league teams, but mighty big numbers as franchise values soar". sportsbusinessdaily.com. Retrieved July 22, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Standings". Minor League Baseball Official Website. Retrieved April 9, 2010.
Jump up ^ Shelburne, Ramona (September 1, 2010). "John Lindsey waits for his chance". ESPN. Retrieved September 28, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Moore, Jeff (July 2, 2013). "Understanding minor league levels". The Hardball Times. Retrieved November 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ Wild, Danny (May 30, 2014). "Voting begins for Triple-A All-Star Game". Minor League Baseball. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ Hill, Benjamin (February 8, 2011). "Isotopes to Host Triple-A Championship". Minor League Baseball. Retrieved August 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Twins Tuesday: Joe Mauer toiling for family in Cedar Rapids". FoxSports.com. Retrieved June 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Angels' Trout to make rehab start Wednesday". ESPN.com. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Johnson, Lloyd, and Wolff, Miles, eds., The Encyclopedia of Minor League Baseball, 2nd edition. Durham, North Carolina: Baseball America, 1997
Jump up ^ "Most minor league ballplayers earn less than half as much money as fast-food workers". For The Win. Retrieved July 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Babb, Kent. "Baseball’s minor leaguers pursue their dreams below the poverty line". WashingtonPost.com. The Washington Post. Retrieved 8 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Umpires". MiLB.com. Retrieved March 7, 2016.
Jump up ^ Wendelstedt course overview Wendelstedt umpire school. February 19, 2010
Jump up ^ Minor league baseball umpires February 19, 2010
Jump up ^ Umpire development history Minor League Baseball portal. February 19, 2010
Jump up ^ Minor league umpires Retrieved on February 19, 2010
Jump up ^ How to become an umpire Retrieved on February 19, 2010
Jump up ^ Rivera, Joe. "Minor League Baseball hires first female umpire since 2007". Sporting News. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Minor League Baseball returns to CBS Sports – MiLB.com News – The Official Site of Minor League Baseball". MiLB.com. Retrieved July 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Sinclair to televise Minors games on ASN – MiLB.com News – The Official Site of Minor League Baseball". MiLB.com. Retrieved July 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Listen Live on TuneIn Radio – MiLB.com Multimedia – The Official Site of Minor League Baseball". MiLB.com. Retrieved July 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kraus, Rebecca S. (2012). Minor League Baseball: Community Building Through Hometown Sports. Routledge. p. 43. ISBN 0789017563. Retrieved November 6, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kraus, Rebecca S. (2012). Minor League Baseball: Community Building Through Hometown Sports. Routledge. p. 44. ISBN 0789017563. Retrieved November 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ R.G. (Hank) Utley, Scott Verner (1999). The Independent Carolina Baseball League, 1936–1938: Baseball Outlaws. ISBN 0786423188.
Jump up ^ Bjarkman, Peter C. (2005). Diamonds Around the Globe: The Encyclopedia of International Baseball. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 78–79. ISBN 0313322686. Retrieved November 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ Kraus, Rebecca S. (2012). Minor League Baseball: Community Building Through Hometown Sports. Routledge. p. 47. ISBN 0789017563. Retrieved November 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ Mexican Baseball Is Finally Eliminating One Of The Worst Unwritten Rules VICE Sports
Jump up ^ In October 2009, Buster Posey received the 50th annual J.G. Taylor Spink Award as the Topps/Minor League Player of the Year. Wild, Danny (October 28, 2009). "Giants' Posey wins '09 Spink Award: Catcher skipped Double-A, dominated at San Jose, Fresno". Minor League Baseball (MiLB.com). Retrieved June 9, 2010. See also MLB 2009 Awards (MLB.com/News/Awards/2009 Awards). MLB Advanced Media, L.P. (MLB.com). Retrieved June 9, 2010.
Jump up ^ The MiLB J.G. Taylor Spink Award should not be confused with the identically named J. G. Taylor Spink Award that is the highest award given by the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) to its members.
Jump up ^ "Topps, MiLB name Players of the Year: Trautman Award winners announced for each league". Minor League Baseball (MiLB.com). November 5, 2009. Retrieved June 9, 2010.
Jump up ^ Hill, Benjamin, "Jones slugs way to Bauman Award: Home run crown, first big league action mark milestone season", MLB.com, September 15, 2009. Minor League Baseball. Retrieved September 22, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "History: MiLB Major Award Winners". Minor League Baseball. Retrieved November 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ Avallone, Michael (November 19, 2007). "Minor League Baseball announces top honorees: Annual awards salute outstanding organizations and executives". Minor League Baseball. Retrieved October 22, 2009. [Presented] annually to the franchise that best exemplifies the complete Minor League Baseball organization. Categories under consideration include long-term financial stability, contributions to the industry and the community, financial success and overall promotion of the industry.
^ Jump up to: a b Avallone, Michael (November 19, 2007). "Minor League Baseball announces top honorees: Annual awards salute outstanding organizations and executives". Minor League Baseball. Retrieved October 22, 2009.
Jump up ^ Czerwinski, Kevin T. (December 14, 2006). "McEacharn claims 2006 Warren Giles Award". Minor League Baseball. Retrieved October 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ Avallone, Michael (November 19, 2007). "Minor League Baseball announces top honorees: Annual awards salute outstanding organizations and executives". Minor League Baseball. Retrieved October 22, 2009. The award recognize[s] the team's special tie with its community through unique promotions, a commitment to area events and support for charitable endeavors.
Jump up ^ Top 100 Teams (1901–2001). Minor League Baseball. Retrieved August 19, 2010.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Minor League Baseball.
Official website (Mobile)
Minor League Sports – A Primer
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Lady Macbeth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the character in Shakespeare's Macbeth. For other uses, see Lady Macbeth (disambiguation).
Lady Macbeth
Macbeth character
Lady Macbeth observes King Duncan (Lady Macbeth by George Cattermole, 1850)
Created by
William Shakespeare
Portrayed by
Sarah Siddons
Charlotte Melmoth
Charlotte Cushman
Helen Faucit
Ellen Terry
Jeanette Nolan
Vivien Leigh
Judith Anderson
Simone Signoret
Vivien Merchant
Francesca Annis
Judi Dench
Glenda Jackson
Angela Bassett
Alex Kingston
Kate Fleetwood
Marion Cotillard
Hannah Taylor-Gordon
Date(s)
c.1603–1607
Source
Holinshed's Chronicles (1587-1589)
Information
Family
Macbeth (husband)
Role
Goads her husband into committing regicide
Lady Macbeth is a leading character in William Shakespeare's tragedy Macbeth (c.1603–1607). The wife of the play's tragic hero, Macbeth (a Scottish nobleman), Lady Macbeth goads her husband into committing regicide, after which she becomes queen of Scotland. Later, however, she suffers pangs of guilt for her part in the crime, which drives her to sleepwalk. She dies off-stage in the last act, an apparent suicide.
According to some genealogists, Lady Macbeth and King Duncan's wife were siblings or cousins, where Duncan's wife had a stronger claim to the throne than Lady Macbeth. It was this that incited her jealousy and hatred of Duncan.
The character's origins lie of the accounts of Kings Duff and Duncan in Holinshed's Chronicles (1587), a history of Britain familiar to Shakespeare. Shakespeare's Lady Macbeth appears to be a composite of two separate and distinct personages in Holinshed's work: Donwald's nagging, murderous wife in the account of King Duff and Macbeth's ambitious wife Gruoch of Scotland in the account of King Duncan.
Lady Macbeth is a powerful presence in the play, most notably in the first two acts. Following the murder of King Duncan, however, her role in the plot diminishes. She becomes an uninvolved spectator to Macbeth's plotting and a nervous hostess at a banquet dominated by her husband's hallucinations. Her sleepwalking scene in the fifth act is a turning point in the play, and her line "Out, damned spot!" has become a phrase familiar to many speakers of the English language. The report of her death late in the fifth act provides the inspiration for Macbeth's "Tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow" speech.
Analysts see in the character of Lady Macbeth the conflict between femininity and masculinity as they are impressed in cultural norms. Lady Macbeth suppresses her instincts toward compassion, motherhood, and fragility — associated with femininity — in favour of ambition, ruthlessness, and the singleminded pursuit of power. This conflict colours the entire drama and sheds light on gender-based preconceptions from Shakespearean England to the present.
The role has attracted countless notable actors over the centuries, including Sarah Siddons, Charlotte Melmoth, Helen Faucit, Ellen Terry, Jeanette Nolan, Vivien Leigh, Simone Signoret, Vivien Merchant, Glenda Jackson, Francesca Annis, Judith Anderson, Judi Dench, Renée O'Connor, Tabu, Keeley Hawes, Alex Kingston, Angela Bassett and Marion Cotillard and Hannah Taylor-Gordon
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Role in the play
3 Sleepwalking scene
4 Analyses of the role
4.1 Lady Macbeth as anti-mother
4.2 Lady Macbeth as witch
5 Performance history
6 In popular culture
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Origins[edit]
Shakespeare's Lady Macbeth appeared to be a composite of two personages found in the account of King Duff and in the account of King Duncan in Holinshed's Chronicles (1587). In the account of King Duff, one of his captains, Donwald, suffers the deaths of his kinsmen at the orders of the king. Donwald then considers regicide at "the setting on of his wife", who "showed him the means whereby he might soonest accomplish it." Donwald abhors such an act, but perseveres at the nagging of his wife. After plying the king's servants with food and drink and letting them fall asleep, the couple admit their confederates to the king's room, where they then commit the regicide. The murder of Duff has its motivation in revenge rather than ambition.
In Holinshed's account of King Duncan, the discussion of Lady Macbeth is confined to a single sentence:
"The words of the three Weird Sisters also (of whom before ye have heard) greatly encouraged him hereunto; but specially his wife lay sore upon him to attempt the thing, as she was very ambitious, burning with an unquenchable desire to bear the name of a queen."[1]
Not found in Holinshed are the invocation to the "spirits that tend on mortal thoughts," the sleepwalking scene, and various details found in the drama concerning the death of Macbeth.
Although Macbeth's wife can be traced to a real-world counterpart, Queen Gruoch of Scotland, Shakespeare's fictional character is tied so weakly to her that the bonds are virtually non-existent.[citation needed]
Role in the play[edit]
Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth by John Singer Sargent, 1889
Lady Macbeth makes her first appearance late in scene five of the first act, when she learns in a letter from her husband that three witches have prophesied his future as king. When King Duncan becomes her overnight guest, Lady Macbeth seizes the opportunity to effect his murder. Aware her husband's temperament is "too full o' the milk of human kindness" for committing a regicide, she plots the details of the murder; then, countering her husband's arguments and reminding him that he first broached the matter, she belittles his courage and manhood, finally winning him to her designs.
The king retires after a night of feasting. Lady Macbeth drugs his attendants and lays daggers ready for the commission of the crime. Macbeth kills the sleeping king while Lady Macbeth waits nearby. When he brings the daggers from the king's room, Lady Macbeth orders him to return them to the scene of the crime. He refuses. She carries the daggers to the room and smears the drugged attendants with blood. The couple retire to wash their hands.
Following the murder of King Duncan, Lady Macbeth's role in the plot diminishes. When Duncan's sons flee the land in fear for their own lives, Macbeth is appointed king. Without consulting his queen, Macbeth plots other murders in order to secure his throne, and, at a royal banquet, the queen is forced to dismiss her guests when Macbeth hallucinates. In her last appearance, she sleepwalks in profound torment. She dies off-stage, with suicide being suggested as its cause, when Malcolm declares that she died by "self and violent hands."[2]
In the First Folio, the only source for the play, she is never referred to as Lady Macbeth, but variously as "Macbeth's wife", "Macbeth's lady", or just "lady".
Sleepwalking scene[edit]
Main article: Sleepwalking scene (Macbeth)
The Sleepwalking Lady Macbeth by Johann Heinrich Füssli, late 18th century. (Musée du Louvre)
The sleepwalking scene[3] is one of the more celebrated scenes from Macbeth, and, indeed, in all of Shakespeare. It has no counterpart in Holinshed's Chronicles, Shakespeare's source material for the play, but is solely the bard's invention.
A.C. Bradley notes that, with the exception of the scene's few closing lines, the scene is entirely in prose with Lady Macbeth being the only major character in Shakespearean tragedy to make a last appearance "denied the dignity of verse." According to Bradley, Shakespeare generally assigned prose to characters exhibiting abnormal states of mind or abnormal conditions such as somnambulism, with the regular rhythm of verse being inappropriate to characters having lost their balance of mind or subject to images or impressions with no rational connection. Lady Macbeth's recollections – the blood on her hand, the striking of the clock, her husband's reluctance – are brought forth from her disordered mind in chance order with each image deepening her anguish. For Bradley, Lady Macbeth's "brief toneless sentences seem the only voice of truth" with the spare and simple construction of the character's diction expressing a "desolating misery."[4] Lady Macbeth's compulsive washing of her hands to rid them of blood is reminiscent of hand washing common among sufferers from Obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Analyses of the role[edit]
Lady Macbeth as anti-mother[edit]
Stephanie Chamberlain in her article "Fantasicing" Infanticide: Lady Macbeth and the Murdering Mother in Early Modern England" argues that though Lady Macbeth wants power, her power is “conditioned on maternity”, which was a “conflicted status in early modern England.” Chamberlain argues that the negative images of Lady Macbeth as a mother figure, such as when she discusses her ability to "bash the brain of the babe that sucks her breast", reflect controversies concerning the image of motherhood in early modern England. In early modern England, mothers were often accused of hurting the people that were placed in their hands. Lady Macbeth then personifies all mothers of early modern England who were condemned for Lady Macbeth’s fantasy of infanticide. Lady Macbeth’s fantasy, Chamberlain argues, is not struggling to be a man, but rather struggling with the condemnation of being a bad mother that was common during that time.[5]
A print of Lady Macbeth from Mrs. Anna Jameson's 1832 analysis of Shakespeare's Heroines, Characteristics of Women.
Jenijoy La Belle takes a slightly different view in her article, "A Strange Infirmity: Lady Macbeth’s Amenorrhea." La Belle states that Lady Macbeth does not wish for just a move away from femininity; she is asking the spirits to eliminate the basic biological characteristics of womanhood. The main biological characteristic that La Belle focuses on is menstruation. La Belle argues that by asking to be "unsex[ed]" and crying out to spirits to “make thick [her] blood / Stop up th’ access and passage to remorse,” Lady Macbeth asks for her menstrual cycle to stop. By having her menstrual cycle stop, Lady Macbeth hopes to stop any feelings of sensitivity and caring that is associated with females. She hopes to become like a man to stop any sense of remorse for the regicide. La Belle furthers her argument by connecting the stopping of the menstrual cycle with the persistent infanticide motifs in the play. La Belle gives examples of "the strangled babe" whose finger is thrown into the witches’ cauldron (4.1.30); Macduff’s babes who are "savagely slaughter’d" (4.3.235); and the suckling babe with boneless gums whose brains Lady Macbeth would dash out (1.7.57–58) to argue that Lady Macbeth represents the ultimate anti-mother: not only would she smash in a baby’s brains but she would go even further to stop her means of procreation altogether.[6]
Lady Macbeth as witch[edit]
Some literary critics and historians argue that not only does Lady Macbeth represent an anti-mother figure in general, she also embodies a specific type of anti-mother: the witch. Critic Joanna Levin defines a witch as a woman who succumbs to Satanic force, a lust for the devil, and who, either for this reason or the desire to obtain supernatural powers, invokes (evil) spirits. English physician Edward Jorden published Briefe Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother in 1603, in which he speculated that this force literally derived from the female sexual reproductive organs. Because no one else had published any other studies on the susceptibility of women, especially mothers, to becoming both the witch and the bewitched (i.e. demonically possessed), Jorden's findings helped create the foundation for the views popularized during the Renaissance about the relationship between women and witchcraft. Levin refers to Marianne Hester's Lewd Women and Wicked Witches: A Study of Male Domination, in which Hester articulates a feminist interpretation of the witch as an empowered woman. Levin summarises the claim of feminist historians like Hester: the witch should be a figure celebrated for her nonconformity, defiance, and general sense of empowerment; witches challenged patriarchal authority and hierarchy, specifically "threatening hegemonic sex/gender systems." This view associates witchcraft — and by extension, Lady Macbeth — not with villainy and evil, but with heroism.
Jenijoy La Belle assesses Lady Macbeth's femininity and sexuality as they relate to motherhood as well as witchhood. The fact that she conjures spirits likens her to a witch, and the act itself establishes a similarity in the way that both Lady Macbeth and the Weird Sisters from the play "use the metaphoric powers of language to call upon spiritual powers who in turn will influence physical events — in one case the workings of the state, in the other the workings of a woman's body." Like the witches, Lady Macbeth strives to make herself an instrument for bringing about the future[6] She proves herself a defiant, empowered nonconformist, and an explicit threat to a patriarchal system of governance in that, through challenging his masculinity, she manipulates Macbeth into murdering King Duncan. Despite the fact that she calls him a coward, Macbeth remains reluctant, until she asks: "What beast wasn't, then, that made you break this enterprise to me? / When you durst do it, then you were a man; / And to be more than what you were, you would / Be so much more the man." Thus Lady Macbeth enforces a masculine conception of power, yet only after pleading to be unsexed, or defeminised. The Weird Sisters are also depicted as defeminised, androgynous figures. They are bearded (1.3.46), (which may also be associated with Lady Macbeth's amenorrhea). Witches were perceived as an extreme type of anti-mother, even considered capable of cooking and eating their own children. Although Lady Macbeth may not express violence toward her child with that same degree of grotesqueness, she certainly expresses a sense of brutality when she states that she would smash the baby's head.
Performance history[edit]
John Rice, a boy actor with the King's Men, may have played Lady Macbeth in a performance of what was likely Shakespeare's tragedy at the Globe Theatre on 20 April 1611. The performance was witnessed and described by Simon Forman in his manuscript The Book of Plays and Notes thereof per Formans for Common Policy. His account, however, does not establish whether the play was Shakespeare's Macbeth or a work on the same subject by another dramatist.[7] The role may have been beyond the talents of a boy actor and may have been played by a man in early performances.[8]
In the mid-18th century, Hannah Pritchard played Lady Macbeth opposite David Garrick's Macbeth. She was, in Thomas Davies' words, "insensible to compunction and inflexibly bent on cruelty."[7]
Sarah Siddons in the sleepwalking scene
Sarah Siddons starred in John Philip Kemble's 1794 production at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and offered a psychologically intricate portrait of Lady Macbeth in the tradition of Hannah Pritchard. Siddons was especially praised for moving audiences in the sleepwalking scene with her depiction of a soul in profound torment. Siddons and Kemble furthered the view established by Pritchard and Garrick that character was the essence of Shakespearean drama.[7]
William Hazlitt commented on Siddons' performance:
In speaking of the character of Lady Macbeth, we ought not to pass over Mrs. Siddons's manner of acting that part. We can conceive of nothing grander. It was something above nature. It seemed almost as if a being of a superior order had dropped from a higher sphere to awe the world with the majesty of her appearance. Power was seated on her brow, passion emanated from her breast as from a shrine; she was tragedy personified. In coming on in the sleeping-scene, her eyes were open, but their sense was shut. She was like a person bewildered and unconscious of what she did. Her lips moved involuntarily — all her gestures were involuntary and mechanical. She glided on and off the stage like an apparition. To have seen her in that character was an event in every one's life, not to be forgotten.
Helen Faucit was critiqued by Henry Morley, a professor of English literature in University College, London, who thought the actress "too demonstrative and noisy" in the scenes before Duncan's murder with the "Come, you spirits" speech "simply spouted" and its closing "Hold! Hold!" shouted in a "most unheavenly manner." In the "I have given suck" speech, he thought Faucit "poured out" the speech in a way that recalled the "scold at the door of a gin-shop." Faucit, he believed, was "too essentially feminine, too exclusively gifted with the art of expressing all that is most beautiful and graceful in womanhood, to succeed in inspiring anything like awe and terror." He thought her talents more congenial to the second phase of the character, and found her "admirably good" in the banquet scene. Her sleepwalking scene, however, was described as having "the air of a too well-studied dramatic recitation."[9]
Photograph of Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth, an 1888 production
In 1884 at the Gaiety Theatre, Sarah Bernhardt performed the sleepwalking scene barefoot and clad in a clinging nightdress, and, in 1888, a critic noted Ellen Terry was "the stormy dominant woman of the eleventh century equipped with the capricious emotional subltety of the nineteenth century."
In 1915 and 1918, Sybil Thorndike played the role at Old Vic and then at the Prince's Theatre in 1926. Flora Robson played the role in Tyrone Guthrie's Old Vic production in 1934. In 1955, Vivien Leigh played Lady Macbeth opposite Laurence Olivier at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon. In 1977 at The Other Place in Stratford, Judi Dench and Ian McKellen played the infamous husband and wife in Trevor Nunn's production. Other notable Lady Macbeths in the late 20th century included Judith Anderson, Pamela Brown, Diana Wynyard, Simone Signoret, Vivien Merchant, Jane Lapotaire, Helen Mirren and Janet Suzman.
Jeanette Nolan in the Banquet Scene from Orson Welles' Macbeth (1948)
Jeanette Nolan performed the role in Orson Welles' 1948 film adaptation and was critiqued by Bosley Crowther in the New York Times of 28 December 1950: "The Lady Macbeth of Jeanette Nolan is a pop-eyed and haggard dame whose driving determination is as vagrant as the highlights on her face. Likewise, her influence upon Macbeth, while fleetingly suggested in a few taut lines and etched in a couple of hot embraces, is not developed adequately. The passion and torment of the conflict between these two which resides in the play has been rather seriously neglected in this truncated rendering."[10] Michael Costello of Allmovie has described her performance as "uneven" and has also stated, "Her unique Lady Macbeth is either an exhibition of rank scenery-chewing or a performance of intriguingly Kabuki-like stylization."
In 2009, Pegasus Books published The Tragedy of Macbeth Part II, a play by American author and playwright Noah Lukeman, which endeavoured to offer a sequel to Macbeth and to resolve its many loose ends, particularly Lady Macbeth’s reference to her having had a child (which, historically, she did - from a previous marriage, having remarried Macbeth after being widowed.) Written in blank verse, the play was published to critical acclaim.
Alex Kingston starred as Lady Macbeth opposite Kenneth Branagh in his and Rob Ashford's adaption of Macbeth. The play was first performed at the Manchester Festival in 2013 and then transferred to New York for a limited engagement in 2014.
Marion Cotillard played the character in Justin Kurzel's 2015 film adaptation opposite Michael Fassbender.
In popular culture[edit]
During former United States President Bill Clinton's 1992 campaign for the American presidency, Daniel Wattenberg's August 1992 The American Spectator article "The Lady Macbeth of Little Rock",[11] and some twenty other articles in major publications drew comparisons between his wife and Lady Macbeth,[12] questioning Hillary Clinton's ideological and ethical record in comparison to Shakespeare's famous character and suggesting parallels.[11]
In The Simpsons twentieth episode of the twentieth season, Four Great Women and a Manicure is loosely based on Macbeth. In the third act of the episode, Marge embodies Lady Macbeth, an ambitious wife who is frustrated by everything around her. She not only has to clean the costumes worn by other actors, but is also frustrated over the fact that Homer doesn't have any interest in auditioning for lead roles and would rather play a tree. She convinces him to kill Sideshow Mel and he does to assume the lead role of Macbeth. When Marge learns that no one cares for Homer's lack of acting skills over Hibbert's and those with no lines, she forces him to kill off everyone else until he's the only actor left. The angry spirits visit her that night and she tries to pin the blame on Homer. They refuse to believe Marge by pointing out that they knew he was a victim in her devious plans and get their revenge on her by killing her in a fright induced heart attack. Even though Homer gives Marge's ghost a promising performance, he eventually frustrates her more by killing himself so he doesn't have to audition for more Shakespearean plays. This forces Marge to learn her lesson the hard way when she must spend eternity with a lazy and happy Homer.
In 2008 Three Rivers Press published Lady Macbeth by Susan Fraser King. The novel is original fiction, based on source material regarding the period and person of Lady Macbeth.[13]
On the evening of the 23rd June 2010, with the support of a posse of faceless men, Julia Gillard deposed the sitting Prime Minister of Australia Kevin Rudd. Gillard reportedly told Senator Kim Carr that we are sleepwalking to defeat.[14] With the event occurring in the evening, involving red-haired and 'deliberately barren'[15] Gillard goading Rudd into resigning from Head of Government to be replaced by herself, led Julia Gillard to be compared with Lady Macbeth,[16] labelled a witch[17] and be the recipient of misogyny.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Holinshed's Chronicles, Volume V: Scotland, page 269
Jump up ^ Macbeth, Act 5, Scene 8, Line 71.
Jump up ^ Macbeth, Act 5, Scene 1.
Jump up ^ A.C. Bradley. Shakespearean Tragedy. Palgrave Macmillan; 4th edition, 2007.
Jump up ^ Chamberlain, Stephanie. "Fantasizing Infanticide: Lady Macbeth and the Murdering Mother in Early Modern England." College Literature. Vol. 32.2. West Chester University, 2005. pp. 72–91.
^ Jump up to: a b La Belle, Jenijoy. "A Strange Infirmity: Lady Macbeth's Amenorrhea." Shakespeare Quarterly, Vol. 31.3. Folger Shakespeare Library, 1980. pp. 381–386.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bevington, David. Four Tragedies. Bantam, 1988.
Jump up ^ Braunmiller, A. R. Macbeth. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Jump up ^ Morley, Henry. The Journal of a London Playgoer from 1851 to 1866. London: George Routledge & Sons, 1866. pp. 350–354
Jump up ^ Crowther, Bosley. "Orson Welles' Interpretation of Shakespeare's 'Macbeth' at the Trans-Lux 60th St." New York Times, 28 December 1950.
^ Jump up to: a b Wattenberg, Daniel (August 1992). "The Lady Macbeth of Little Rock". The American Spectator.
Jump up ^ Burns, Lisa M. (2008). First Ladies and the Fourth Estate: Press Framing of Presidential Wives. DeKalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 0-87580-391-1. - p. 142
Jump up ^ Fraser King, Susan (2008). Lady Macbeth. New York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 978-0-307-34175-4.
Jump up ^ Massola, James (13 June 2013). PM white-anted Rudd before leader's challenge. Fairfax Media.
Jump up ^ "Heffernan's 'deliberately barren' the most sexist remark of 2007". Fairfax Media. 13 November 2007.
Jump up ^ Koziol, Michael (23 September 2014). "'Lady-in-waiting to Lady Macbeth': Julia Gillard opens up on mistakes". Sydney Morning Herald. Fairfax Media.
Jump up ^ Massola, James (23 June 2015). "Julia Gillard on the moment that should have killed Tony Abbott's career". Sydney Morning Herald. Fairfax Media.
Further reading[edit]
Lady MacBeth and the Daemonologie of Hysteria
Some Character-Types Met with in Psycho-Analytic Work
Women's Fantasy of Manhood: A Shakespearian Theme
Chamberlain, Stephanie (Summer 2005). "Lady Macbeth and the Murdering Mother in Early Modern England" (PDF). 32 (3). College Literature: 72–91. JSTOR 25115288. - Posted on the website of the Wallingford-Swarthmore School District
External links[edit]
Macbeth: Folio Version
Macbeth: Full-text online
List of all appearances and all mentions of Lady Macbeth in the play.
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William Shakespeare's Macbeth
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Macbeth (Verdi opera) (1987)
Men of Respect (1990)
Scotland, PA (2001)
Makibefo (2001)
Maqbool (2003)
Shakespeare Must Die (2012)
Veeram (2016)
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Voodoo Macbeth (1936)
MacBird! (1967)
uMabatha (1970)
Macbett (1972)
Cahoot's Macbeth (1979)
MacHomer (1995)
Sleep No More (2003)
Sleep No More (2009)
Dunsinane (2010)
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Just Macbeth!
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Literary adaptations
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The Last King of Scotland (1998)
The Tragedy of Macbeth Part II (2008)
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Macbeth (1990)
Thane to the Throne (2000)
Shakespeare's Macbeth – A Tragedy in Steel (2003)
Lady Macbeth (2005)
Art
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The Night of Enitharmon's Joy (1795)
Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth (1889)
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"On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth" (1823)
Sleepwalking Scene (5.1)
"Tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow"
Words and phrases
"What's done is done"
"Crack of doom"
"Strange but true"
The Scottish Play
Thane of Cawdor
Story within a story
We Work Again
Light Thickens
The Deadly Affair
"The Movies"
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"The Shower Principle"
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Episodes
"A Witch's Tangled Hare" (1959, Looney Tunes)
"The Bellero Shield" (1964, The Outer Limits)
"Sense and Senility" (1987, Blackadder the Third)
"The Coup" (2006, The Office)
"Dial "N" for Nerder" (2008, The Simpsons)
"Four Great Women and a Manicure" (2009, The Simpsons)
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House of Cards (UK, 1990)
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