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Tết
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This article is about the Vietnamese holiday. For the 1968 military operation that began on that holiday, see Tết Offensive. For other uses, see Tet (disambiguation). For other traditions of celebrating lunar new year, see Lunar New Year.
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Vietnamese New Year
Tết at the Saigon Tax Trade Center (2012)
Official name
Tết Nguyên Đán
Also called
Tết
Lunar New Year (as a collective term including other Asian Lunar New Year festivals, used outside of Asia.)
Observed by
Vietnamese people
Type
Religious, cultural, national
Significance
Marks the first day of the lunar new year
Celebrations
Lion dances, Dragon dances, fireworks, family gathering, family meal, visiting friends' homes on the first day of the new year (xông nhà), visiting friends and relatives, ancestor worship, giving red envelopes to children and elderly, and opening a shop.
2017 date
28 January, Rooster
2018 date
16 February, Dog
2019 date
5 February, Pig
2020 date
25 January, Rat
Frequency
Annual
Related to
Chinese New Year, Korean New Year, Japanese New Year, Mongolian New Year, Tibetan New Year
Tết ([tet˧˥] or [təːt˧˥]), or Vietnamese New Year, is the most important celebration in Vietnamese culture. The word is a shortened form of Tết Nguyên Đán, which is Sino-Vietnamese for "Feast of the First Morning of the First Day". Tết celebrates the arrival of spring based on the Vietnamese calendar, which usually has the date falling in January or February.[1]
Vietnamese people celebrate the Lunar New Year annually, which is based on a lunisolar calendar (calculating both the earth's movement around the sun and the moon around the earth). Tết is generally celebrated on the same day as Chinese New Year, except when the one-hour time difference between Vietnam and China results in new moon occurring on different days. It takes place from the first day of the first month of the Vietnamese calendar (around late January or early February) until at least the third day. Many Vietnamese prepare for Tết by cooking special holiday food and cleaning the house. These foods include bánh chưng, bánh dày, dried young bamboo soup (canh măng), giò, and sticky rice. Many customs are practiced during Tết, such as visiting a person's house on the first day of the new year (xông nhà), ancestor worship, wishing New Year's greetings, giving lucky money to children and elderly people, and opening a shop.
Tết is also an occasion for pilgrims and family reunions. They start forgetting about the troubles of the past year and hope for a better upcoming year. They consider Tết to be the first day of spring, and the festival is often called Hội xuân (spring festival).
Contents
[hide]
1 Customs
1.1 The New Year
1.2 Traditional celebrations
1.3 Decorations
2 Greetings
3 Food
4 Games and entertainment
5 Dates in Lunar Calendar
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Customs[edit]
Tất Niên offering
A family altar in Vietnam
Altar to the ancestors adorned with flowers, fruits and food offerings
Vietnamese people usually return to their families during Tết. Some return to worship at the family altar or visit the graves of their ancestors in their homeland. They also clean the graves of their family as a sign of respect. Although Tết is a national holiday among all Vietnamese, each region and religion has its own customs.
Tết in the three Vietnamese regions can be divided into three periods, known as Tất Niên (penultimate New Year's Eve), Giao Thừa (New Year's Eve), and Tân Niên (the New Year), representing the preparation before Tết, the eve of Tết, and the days of and following Tết, respectively.
The New Year[edit]
A red envelope.
The first day of Tết is reserved for the nuclear family. Children receive a red envelope containing money from their elders. This tradition is called mừng tuổi (happy new age) in the north and lì xì in the south. Usually, children wear their new clothes and give their elders the traditional Tết greetings before receiving the money. Since the Vietnamese believe that the first visitor a family receives in the year determines their fortune for the entire year, people never enter any house on the first day without being invited first. The act of being the first person to enter a house on Tết is called xông đất, xông nhà or đạp đất, which is one of the most important rituals during Tết. According to Vietnamese tradition, if good things come to the family on the first day of the lunar New Year, the entire following year will also be full of blessings. Usually, a person of good temper, morality, and success will be the lucky sign for the host family and be invited first into the house. However, just to be safe, the owner of the house will leave the house a few minutes before midnight and come back just as the clock strikes midnight to prevent anyone else entering the house first who might potentially bring any unfortunate events in the new year to the household. TET HOLIDAYS
Sweeping during Tết is taboo or xui (unlucky), since it symbolizes sweeping the luck away; that is why they clean before the new year. It is also taboo for anyone who experienced a recent loss of a family member to visit anyone else during Tết.
During subsequent days, people visit relatives and friends. Traditionally but not strictly, the second day of Tết is usually reserved for friends, while the third day is for teachers, who command respect in Vietnam. Local Buddhist temples are popular spots as people like to give donations and to get their fortunes told during Tết. Children are free to spend their new money on toys or on gambling games such as bầu cua cá cọp, which can be found in the streets. Prosperous families can pay for dragon dancers to perform at their house. Also, public performances are given for everyone to watch.
Traditional celebrations[edit]
These celebrations can last from a day up to the entire week, and the New Year is filled with people in the streets trying to make as much noise as possible using firecrackers, drums, bells, gongs, and anything they can think of to ward off evil spirits. This parade will also include different masks, and dancers hidden under the guise of what is known as the Mua Lan or Lion Dancing. The Lan is an animal between a lion and a dragon, and is the symbol of strength in the Vietnamese culture that is used to scare away evil spirits. After the parade, families and friends come together to have a feast of traditional Vietnamese dishes, and share the happiness and joy of the New Year with one another. This is also the time when the elders will hand out red envelopes with money to the children for good luck in exchange for Tết greetings.
It is also tradition to pay off your debts before the Lunar New Year for some Vietnamese families.[2]
Decorations[edit]
Street decoration honouring the Year of the Dragon (2012)
New Year decoration in Ho Chi Minh City
Tết display on the streets of Ho Chi Minh City
Traditionally, each family displays cây nêu, an artificial New Year tree consisting of a bamboo pole 5 to 6 m long. The top end is usually decorated with many objects, depending on the locality, including good luck charms, origami fish, cactus branches, etc.
At Tết, every house is usually decorated by Yellow Apricot blossoms (hoa mai) in the central and southern parts of Vietnam; or peach blossoms (hoa đào) in the northern part of Vietnam; or St. John's wort (hoa ban) in the mountain areas. In the north, some people (especially the elite in the past[citation needed]) also decorate their house with a plum blossoms (also called hoa mai in Vietnamese, but referring to a totally different species from mickey-mouse blossoms[citation needed]). In the north or central, the kumquat tree is a popular decoration for the living room during Tết. Its many fruits symbolize the fertility and fruitfulness for which the family hopes in the coming year.
Vietnamese people also decorate their homes with bonsai and flowers such as chrysanthemums (hoa cúc), marigolds (vạn thọ) symbolizing longevity, cockscombs (mào gà) in southern Vietnam and paperwhites (thủy tiên) and pansies (hoa lan) in northern Vietnam. In the past was a tradition where people tried to make their paperwhites bloom on the day of the observance.
They also hung up Dong Ho paintings and thư pháp calligraphy pictures.
Fruit basket decoration made for Tết consisting of bananas, oranges, tangerines, a pomelo, and a pineapple
Peach blossoms (hoa đào)
Yellow Apricot blossoms (hoa mai)
Chúc mừng năm mới translates to "Happy New Year"
Greetings[edit]
A calligraphist writing in Hán-Nôm in preparation for Tết, at the Temple of Literature, Hanoi
Chùa Quang Minh Buddhist Temple in Chicago indicating the arrival of the New Year with a banner that reads "Chúc mừng xuân mới" (literally "Happy new spring").
The traditional greetings are "Chúc Mừng Năm Mới" (Happy New Year) and "Cung Chúc Tân Xuân", (gracious wishes of the new spring). People also wish each other prosperity and luck. Common wishes for Tết include:
Sống lâu trăm tuổi (long life of 100 years): used by children for elders. Traditionally, everyone is one year older on Tết, so children would wish their grandparents health and longevity in exchange for mừng tuổi or lì xì.
An khang thịnh vượng (安康興旺, security, good health, and prosperity)
Vạn sự như ý (萬事如意, may myriad things go according to your will)
Sức khỏe dồi dào (Plenty of health)
Tiền vô như nước (may money flow in like water): used informally
Cung hỉ phát tài (恭喜發財, Congratulations and be prosperous)
Năm mới thắng lợi mới : New year, new triumphs (often heard in political speech)
Chúc hay ăn chóng lớn : Eat more, grow rapidly (for children)
Năm mới thăng quan tiến chức : I wish that you will get promoted in the new year
Năm mới toàn gia bình an: I wish that the new year will bring health to all your family
Food[edit]
Bánh chưng
People gathering around to make these special cakes
Bánh chưng (bottom) and bánh Tét (top, still being prepared)
This sticky rice is called xôi gấc
Candied fruits and seeds
In Vietnamese language, to celebrate Tết is to ăn Tết, literally meaning "eat Tết", showing the importance of food in its celebration. Some of the food is also eaten year-round, while other dishes are only eaten during Tết. Also, some of the food is vegetarian since it is believed to be good luck to eat vegetarian on Tết. Some traditional foods on Tết are:
Bánh chưng and bánh tét: essentially tightly packed sticky rice with meat or bean fillings wrapped in dong (Phrynium placentarium) leaves. When these leaves are unavailable, banana leaves can be used as a substitute. One difference between them is their shape. Bánh chưng is the square-shaped one to represent the Earth, while bánh tét is cylindrical to represent the moon. Also, bánh chưng is more popular in the northern parts of Vietnam, so as bánh tét is more popular in the south. Preparation can take days. After moulding them into their respective shapes (the square shape is achieved using a wooden frame), they are boiled for several hours to cook. The story of their origins and their connection with Tết is often recounted to children while cooking them overnight.
Hạt dưa: roasted watermelon seeds, also eaten during Tết
Dưa hành: pickled onion and pickled cabbage
Củ kiệu: pickled small leeks
Mứt: These dried candied fruits are rarely eaten at any time besides Tết.
Kẹo dừa: coconut candy
Kẹo mè xửng: peanut brittle with sesame seeds or peanuts
Cầu sung dừa Đủ xoài: In southern Vietnam, popular fruits used for offerings at the family altar in fruit arranging art are the custard-apple/sugar-apple/soursop (mãng cầu), coconut (dừa), goolar fig (sung), papaya (đu đủ), and mango (xoài), since they sound like "cầu sung vừa đủ xài" ([We] pray for enough [money/resoures/funds/goods/etc.] to use) in the southern dialect of Vietnamese.
Thịt Kho Nước Dừa Meaning "meat stewed in coconut juice", it is a traditional dish of pork belly and medium boiled eggs stewed in a broth-like sauce made overnight of young coconut juice and nuoc mam. It is often eaten with pickled bean sprouts and chives, and white rice.
Xôi Gấc: traditionally a red sticky rice that is typically prepared by steaming and sweetened lightly, typically paired with Chả lụa (most common type of sausage in Vietnamese cuisine, made of pork and traditionally wrapped in banana leaves.)[3]
Games and entertainment[edit]
Bầu cua tôm cá is a Vietnamese gambling game that involves using three dice. It is traditionally played during Tết.
People enjoy traditional games during Tết, including: bầu cua cá cọp, cờ tướng, ném còn, chọi trâu, and đá gà. They also participate in some competitions presenting their knowledge, strength, and aestheticism, such as the bird competition and ngâm thơ competition.
Fireworks displays have also become an traditional part of a Tết celebration in Vietnam. During the New Year's Eve, fireworks displays at major cities, such as Hà Nội, Ho Chi Minh City, and Da Nang, are broadcast through multiple national and local TV channels, accompanied by New Year wishes of the incumbent president. In 2017, fireworks display has been banned due to political and financial reasons.
Gặp nhau cuối năm (Year-end Gathering) is a national favourite comedy show broadcast during the night before the New Year's Eve.
Dates in Lunar Calendar[edit]
Main articles: Vietnamese calendar and Sexagenary cycle
From 1996 to 2067.
Zodiac
Gregorian date
Tý (Rat) 19 February 1996 7 February 2008 25 January 2020 11 February 2032 30 January 2044 15 February 2056
Sửu (Ox) 7 February 1997 26 January 2009 12 February 2021 31 January 2033 17 February 2045 4 February 2057
Dần (Tiger) 28 January 1998 14 February 2010 1 February 2022 19 February 2034 6 February 2046 24 January 2058
Mão (Rabbit/Cat) 16 February 1999 3 February 2011 22 January 2023 8 February 2035 26 January 2047 12 February 2059
Thìn (Dragon) 5 February 2000 23 January 2012 10 February 2024 28 January 2036 14 February 2048 2 February 2060
Tỵ (Snake) 24 January 2001 10 February 2013 29 January 2025 15 February 2037 2 February 2049 21 January 2061
Ngọ (Horse) 12 February 2002 31 January 2014 17 February 2026 4 February 2038 23 January 2050 9 February 2062
Mùi (Goat) 1 February 2003 19 February 2015 6 February 2027 24 January 2039 11 February 2051 29 January 2063
Thân (Monkey) 22 January 2004 8 February 2016 26 January 2028 12 February 2040 1 February 2052 17 February 2064
Dậu (Chicken) 9 February 2005 28 January 2017 13 February 2029 1 February 2041 18 February 2053 5 February 2065
Tuất(Dog) 29 January 2006 16 February 2018 2 February 2030 22 January 2042 8 February 2054 26 January 2066
Hợi (Pig) 17 February 2007 5 February 2019 23 January 2031 10 February 2043 28 January 2055 14 February 2067
See also[edit]
List of Buddhist festivals
Celebrations of Lunar New Year in other parts of Asia:
Chinese New Year (Spring Festival)
Korean New Year (Seollal)
Japanese New Year (Shōgatsu)
Mongolian New Year (Tsagaan Sar)
Tibetan New Year (Losar)
Similar Asian Lunisolar New Year celebrations that occur in April:
Burmese New Year (Thingyan)
Cambodian New Year (Chaul Chnam Thmey)
Lao New Year (Pii Mai)
Sri Lankan New Year (Aluth Avuruddu)
Thai New Year (Songkran)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "TET NGUYEN DAN The Vietnamese New Year". Archived from the original on 27 May 2013. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Do, Anh. "Vietnamese prepare for Lunar New Year by paying off debts, a tradition that can often bring stress". latimes.com. Retrieved 2017-01-28.
Jump up ^ "Xoi gac-gac sticky rice, fortunate red of Vietnam - Travel information for Vietnam from local experts". Travel information for Vietnam from local experts. Retrieved 2018-02-11.
External links[edit]
Tet Nguyen Dan: The Vietnamese New Year - Queens Botanical Garden
Vietnamese New Year customs
Vietnamese calendar rules - Hồ Ngọc Đức, Leipzig University.
Tết - Vietnamese Lunar New Year Traditions
Tet Festival Orange County Fairgrounds, Costa Mesa, CA
Tet on Phu Quoc Island on Vietnam's largest island
Tết Festival - San Francisco
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House of Burgesses
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Virginia House of Burgesses
Colony of Virginia
Patrick Henry in the House of Burgesses by Peter F. Rothermel
History
Established
1619
Succeeded by
Virginia House of Delegates in 1776
Meeting place
Reconstructed chamber in Williamsburg
Jamestown, Virginia (1619–1699)
Williamsburg, Virginia (1699–1776)
The Virginia House of Burgesses /ˈbɜːrdʒəsɪz/ was the first legislative assembly of elected representatives in North America.[1] The House was established by the Virginia Company, which created the body as part of an effort to encourage English craftsmen to settle in North America, and to make conditions in the colony more agreeable for its current inhabitants.[2]
From 1619 to 1776, the representative branch of the legislature of Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor and his council. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, when the government was moved to Williamsburg. In 1776 the colony became the independent Commonwealth of Virginia and the House of Burgesses became the House of Delegates.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 Early years
2.1 First session
2.2 Later 17th century
3 Moving toward independence
4 Meeting places
5 Legacy
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 Further reading
10 External links
Name[edit]
Main article: Burgess (title)
Originally a synonym of burgher or bourgeois, the word "burgess" came to mean a borough representative in local or parliamentary government.
Early years[edit]
The Colony of Virginia was founded by an English stock company, the Virginia Company, as a private venture, though under a royal charter. Early governors provided the stern leadership and harsh judgments required for the colony to survive its early difficulties. As early crises with famine, disease, Native American attempts to keep their good land, the need to establish cash crops, insufficient skilled or committed labor, the colony needed to attract enough new and responsible settlers if it were to grow and prosper.
To encourage settlers to come to Virginia, in 1618–1619, the Virginia Company's leaders drew up a great charter.[4] Emigrants who paid their own way to Virginia would receive fifty acres of land. They would not be mere tenants. Civil authority would control the military. A council of burgesses, representatives chosen by the inhabitants of the colony for their government, would be convened as the House of Burgesses. The governor could veto their actions and the company still had overall control of the venture, but the settlers would have a say in their own government, including the right of the House of Burgesses to introduce money bills.[5] The House of Assembly was created at the same time in Bermuda (which had also been settled by the Virginia Company, and was by then managed by its offshoot, the Somers Isles Company) and held its first session in 1620.[citation needed]
A handful of Polish craftsmen, brought to the colony to supply skill in the manufacture of pitch, tar, potash, and soap ash, were initially denied the political rights of English settlers. They downed tools in protest, but returned to work after being declared free (probably in the sense of civil liberty) and enfranchised, apparently by agreement with the Virginia Company.[6]
First session[edit]
On July 30, 1619, the first European-style legislative assembly in the Americas convened for a six-day meeting at the new brick church on Jamestown Island, Virginia. A council chosen by the Virginia Company as advisers to the governor, the Virginia Governor's Council, met as a sort of "upper house," while 22 locally elected representatives met as the House of Burgesses. Together, the House of Burgesses and the Council would become the Virginia General Assembly.[5]
The House's first session of July 30, 1619, accomplished little, being cut short by an outbreak of malaria. The assembly had 22 members from the following constituencies: James City (Captain William Powell, Ensign William Spense), Charles City (Sergeant Samuel Sharpe, Samuel Jordan), the City of Henricus (Thomas Dowse, John Polentine or Plentine), Kicoughtan (Captain William Tucker, William Capps), Martin-Brandon (Captain John Martin's Plantation) (Thomas Davis, Robert Stacy), Smythe's Hundred (Captain Thomas Graves, Walter Shelley), Martin's Hundred (John Boys, John Jackson), Argall's Gift Plantation (Thomas Pawlett, Edward Gourgainy), Flowerdew (or Flowerdieu) Hundred Plantation (Ensign Edmund Rossingham, John Jefferson), Captain Lawne's Plantation (Captain Christopher Lawne, Ensign Washer), and Captain Ward's Plantation (Captain John Warde or Ward, Lieutenant John Gibbs or Gibbes).[7]
Later 17th century[edit]
Especially after the massacre of about 400 colonists on March 22, 1622 by Native Americans, and epidemics in the winters before and after the massacre, the governor and council ruled arbitrarily and allowed no dissent. By 1624, the royal government in London had heard enough about the problems of the colony and revoked the charter of the Virginia Company. Virginia became a crown colony and the governor and council would be chosen by the king. Nonetheless, the basic form of government of the colony was retained, although the right of the General Assembly to exist was not officially confirmed until 1639.[5]
In 1634, the General Assembly divided the colony into eight shires (later redesignated as counties) for purposes of government, administration, and the judicial system. By 1643, the expanding colony had 15 counties. All of the county offices, including a board of commissioners, judges, sheriff, constable and clerks, were appointed positions. Only the members of the House of Burgesses were elected by a vote of the people. Women had no right to vote. Only free and white men originally were given the right to vote, by 1670 only property owners were allowed to vote.[5]
In 1652, the parliamentary forces of Oliver Cromwell forced the colony to submit to being taken over by the English government. Again, the colonists were able to retain the General Assembly as their governing body. Only taxes agreed to by the assembly were to be levied. Still, most Virginia colonists were loyal to Prince Charles, and were pleased at his restoration as King Charles II in 1660. He went on directly or indirectly to restrict some of the liberties of the colonists, such as requiring tobacco to be shipped only to England, only on English ships, with the price set by the English merchant buyers;[8] but the General Assembly remained.[5]
A majority of the members of the General Assembly of 1676 were supporters of Nathaniel Bacon. They enacted legislation designed to further popular sovereignty and representative government and to equalize opportunities.[9] Bacon took little part in the deliberations since he was busy fighting the Native Americans.[10]
The statehouse in Jamestown burned down for the fourth time on October 20, 1698. The House of Burgesses met temporarily in Middle Plantation, 11 miles (18 km) inland from Jamestown, and then in 1699 permanently moved the capital of the colony to Middle Plantation, which they renamed Williamsburg.[11]
Moving toward independence[edit]
Second Capitol at Williamsburg (viewed from Duke of Gloucester Street)
Though not a unique occurrence on the frontier, colonists remained loyal to the British crown during the French and Indian War in North America from 1754 to 1763. The conflict, which somewhat uniquely began in the Ohio Valley and spread to Europe, resulted in local colonial losses and economic disruption. Higher taxes were to follow, and adverse local reactions to these and how they were determined would drive events well into the next decade.[12]
In 1764, desiring revenue from its North American colonies, Parliament passed the first law specifically aimed at raising colonial money for the Crown. The Sugar Act increased duties on non-British goods shipped to the colonies.[13] The same year, the Currency Act prohibited American colonies from issuing their own currency.[14] These angered many American colonists and began colonial opposition with protests. By the end of the year, many colonies were practicing non-importation, a refusal to use imported English goods.[13] In 1765 the British Quartering Act, which required the colonies to provide barracks and supplies to British troops, further angered American colonists; and to raise more money for Britain, Parliament enacted the Stamp Act on the American colonies, to tax newspapers, almanacs, pamphlets, broadsides, legal documents, dice, and playing cards.[15] American colonists responded to Parliament's acts with organized protest throughout the colonies. A network of secret organizations known as the Sons of Liberty was created to intimidate the stamp agents collecting the taxes, and before the Stamp Act could take effect, all the appointed stamp agents in the colonies had resigned.[16] The Massachusetts Assembly suggested a meeting of all colonies to work for the repeal of the Stamp Act, and all but four colonies were represented.[17] The colonists also increased their non-importation efforts,[18][better source needed] and sought to increase in local production.
In May 1765, Patrick Henry presented a series of resolves that became known as the Virginia Resolves, denouncing the Stamp Act and denying the authority of the British parliament to tax the colonies, since they were not represented by elected members of parliament. Newspapers around the colonies published all his resolves, even the most radical ones which had not been passed by the assembly.[19] The assembly also sent a 1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance to Parliament.
From 1769 -1775 Thomas Jefferson represented Albemarle County as a delegate in the Virginia House of Burgesses.[20] He pursued reforms to slavery and introduced legislation allowing masters to take control over the emancipation of slaves in 1769, taking discretion away from the royal Governor and General Court. Jefferson persuaded his cousin Richard Bland to spearhead the legislation's passage, but reaction was strongly negative.[21]
In 1769 the Virginia House of Burgesses passed several resolutions condemning Britain's stationing troops in Boston following the Massachusetts Circular Letter of the previous year; these resolutions stated that only Virginia's governor and legislature could tax its citizens.[22] The members also drafted a formal letter to the King, completing it just before the legislature was dissolved by Virginia's royal governor.[23]
In 1774, after Parliament passed the Boston Port Act to close Boston Harbor, the House of Burgesses adopted resolutions in support of the Boston colonists which resulted in Virginia's royal governor, John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, dissolving the assembly. The burgesses then reassembled on their own and issued calls for the first of five Virginia Conventions. These conventions were essentially meetings of the House of Burgesses without the governor and Council, Peyton Randolph the Speaker of the House would serve as the President of the Convention, and they would elect delegates to the Continental Congress.[3] The First Continental Congress passed their Declaration and Resolves, which inter alia claimed that American colonists were equal to all other British citizens, protested against taxation without representation, and stated that Britain could not tax the colonists since they were not represented in Parliament.[24]
In 1775 the burgesses, meeting in conventions, listened to Patrick Henry deliver his "give me liberty or give me death" speech and raised regiments. The House of Burgesses was called back by Lord Dunmore one last time in June 1775 to address British Prime Minister Lord North's Conciliatory Resolution. Randolph, who was a delegate to the Continental Congress, returned to Williamsburg to take his place as Speaker. Randolph indicated that the resolution had not been sent to the Congress (it had instead been sent to each colony individually in an attempt to divide them and bypass the Continental Congress). The House of Burgesses rejected the proposal, which was also later rejected by the Continental Congress.[25] The burgesses formed a Committee of Safety to take over governance in the absence of the royal governor, Dunmore, who had organized loyalists forces but after defeats he took refuge on a British warship.[26]
In 1776 the House of Burgesses ended. The final entry in the Journals of the House of Burgesses is "6th of May. 16 Geo. III. 1776 … FINIS."[27] Edmund Pendleton, a member of the House of Burgesses (and President of the Committee of Safety) who was present at the final meeting, wrote in a letter to Richard Henry Lee on the following day, "We met in assembly yesterday, and determined not to adjourn, but let that body die." Later on the same morning, the members of the fifth and final Virginia Revolutionary Convention met in the chamber of the House of Burgesses in Williamsburg and elected Pendleton its president. The convention voted for independence from Britain.[28] The former colony had become the independent Commonwealth of Virginia and the convention created the Constitution of Virginia with a new General Assembly, composed of an elected Senate and an elected House of Delegates. The House of Delegates acceded to the role of the former House of Burgesses.[3]
Meeting places[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. (January 2015)
In 1619, the House of Burgesses first met in the church in Jamestown. Subsequent meetings continued to take place in Jamestown.[1]
In 1700, the seat of the House of Burgesses was moved from Jamestown to Middle Plantation, soon renamed Williamsburg.[29] The Burgesses met there, first (1700 to 1704) in the Great Hall of what is now called the Wren Building at the College of William and Mary, while the Capitol was under construction. When the Capitol burned in 1747, the legislature moved back into the College until the second Capitol was completed in 1754. The present Capitol building at Colonial Williamsburg is a reconstruction of the earlier of the two lost buildings.
In 1779, and effective in April 1780, the House of Delegates moved the capital city to Richmond during the American Revolutionary War for safety reasons.[30]
Legacy[edit]
The House of Burgesses became the House of Delegates in 1776, forming the lower house of the General Assembly, the legislative branch of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Through the House of Burgesses, the Virginia House of Delegates is considered the oldest continuous legislative body in the New World.[31]
In honor of the original House of Burgesses, every four years, the Virginia General Assembly traditionally leaves the current Capitol in Richmond, and meets for one day in the restored Capitol building at Colonial Williamsburg. The most recent commemorative session (the 26th) was held in January 2016.[32][33]
In January 2007, the Assembly held a special session at Jamestown to mark the 400th anniversary of its founding as part of the Jamestown 2007 celebration, including an address by then-Vice-President Dick Cheney.[34]
See also[edit]
List of members of the Virginia House of Burgesses
List of Speakers of the Virginia House of Burgesses
Virginia Slave Codes of 1705
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Hatch, Charles (1956). America's Oldest Legislative Assembly & Its Jamestown Statehouses, Appendix II. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service.
Jump up ^ Bosher, Kate (1907). "The First House of Burgesses". The North American Review. 184 (612): 733–39.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gottlieb, Matthew S. "House of Burgesses". Virginia Foundation of the Humanities. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Virginia Company of London (1957). Instructions to George Yeardley, 18 November 1618 (Sometimes called "The Great Charter"). Jamestown 350th Anniversary Historical Booklet Number 4. Introduction by Samuel M. Bemiss. Williamsburg, Virginia: Virginia 350th Anniversary Celebration Corporation. pp. 95–108. Retrieved 5 July 2013. Fn. 4: There is no authority in these Instructions for the Governor to establish a General Assembly. There is, however, evidence in the Instructions to Wyatt (p. 123) that a "Commission" was given to Yeardley which granted this authority.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Rubin, Jr. Louis D. Virginia: A History.New York W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1977. ISBN 0-393-05630-9. pp. 3–27.
Jump up ^ Pula, James S. (2008). "Fact vs. Fiction: What Do We Really Know About The Polish Presence In Early Jamestown?". The Polish Review. 53 (4): 490–91. JSTOR 25779776.
Jump up ^ Stanard, William G. and Mary Newton Stanard. The Virginia Colonial Register. Albany, NY: Joel Munsell's Sons Publishers, 1902. OCLC 253261475, Retrieved July 15, 2011. p. 52.
Jump up ^ Rubin, 1977, p. 19.
Jump up ^ Rubin, 1977, p. 25.
Jump up ^ Rubin, 1977, p. 26.
Jump up ^ Rubin, 1977. p. 29.
Jump up ^ Anderson, Fred (2005). "The Real First World War and the Making of America". American Heritage. 6. 56 (75).
^ Jump up to: a b Johnson, Allen. "The Passage of the Sugar Act". The William and Mary Quarterly. 16 (4): 507–14.
Jump up ^ Greene, Jack; Richard Jellison (1961). "The Currency Act of 1764 in Imperial-Colonial Relations, 1764–1776". The William and Mary Quarterly. 3. 18 (4): 485–518.
Jump up ^ "America During the Age of Revolution, 1764–1775". Library of Congress. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Sons of Liberty".
Jump up ^ Rothbard, Murray (1975). The Stamp Act Congress. NY: Arlington House.
Jump up ^ America During the Age of Revolution, 1764–1765, Library of Congress
Jump up ^ Wood, 2002, p.14
Jump up ^ "Timeline of Jefferson's Life | Thomas Jefferson's Monticello". www.monticello.org. Retrieved 2018-01-03.
Jump up ^ Meacham, 2012, pp. 47–49
Jump up ^ MacDonald, William (1914). Select Charters and Other Documents Illustrative of American History, 1606–1775. NY: Macmillan.
Jump up ^ America During the Age of Revolution, 1768–1769, Library of Congress
Jump up ^ Macdonald, William (1916). Documentary Source Book of American History, 1606–1913. NY: Macmillan.
Jump up ^ "Virginia Resolutions on Lord North's Conciliatory Proposal, 10 June 1775". Founders Online, National Archives. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John, eds. (1900). "Dunmore, John Murray". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.
Jump up ^ "Final Meeting of the House of Burgesses ("Finis" Document), May 6, 1776". Encyclopedia of Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. Retrieved January 31, 2014.
Jump up ^ "The General Assembly Adjourns (1776)". Shaping the Constitution. Library of Virginia. Retrieved 22 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Olmert, Michael (1985). Official Guide to Colonial Williamsburg. Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
Jump up ^ "April dates in Virginia history". Virginia Historical Society. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "This Day in History". Retrieved 23 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Hodges, Ty (27 January 2016). "Colonial Williamsburg's Capitol Building to Host General Assembly on Saturday". Williamsburg Yorktown Daily. Retrieved 29 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Capitol of Colonial Williamsburg". www.history.org. Retrieved 2018-01-03.
Jump up ^ "Vice President's Remarks to a Joint Session of the Virginia General Assembly". Retrieved 6 May 2012.
Bibliography[edit]
Meacham, Jon (2012). Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power. Random House LLC. ISBN 978-0-679-64536-8.
"Timeline of Jefferson's Life". Thomas Jefferson Foundation. Retrieved February 18, 2016.
Wood,, Gordon S. (2002). The American Revolution, A History. New York, Modern Library. ISBN 0-8129-7041-1.
Further reading[edit]
Hatch, Charles E., Jr., (1956 rev). America's Oldest Legislative Assembly & Its Jamestown Statehouses, Appendix II. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service.
Mayer, Henry (1986). A Son of Thunder, Patrick Henry and the American Republic. New York: Franklin Watts.
Rubin, Jr. Louis D. Virginia: A History.New York W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1977. ISBN 0-393-05630-9.
Salmon, Emily J. and Campbell, Jr., Edward D. C., editors, The Hornbook of Virginia History. Richmond, Virginia: The Library of Virginia, 1994.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to House of Burgesses.
Craftsmen 1608 Historical Marker (Route 31, Jamestown, Virginia)
Generall Historie of Virginia by Captaine John Smith
Historic Jamestowne
Library of Congress: Evolution of the Virginia Colony, 1610–1630
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Judgment as a matter of law
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This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Civil procedure
in the United States
Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
Doctrines of civil procedure
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Subject-matter
(Federal-question
Diversity

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Removal)
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defendant
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A motion for judgment as a matter of law (JMOL) is a motion made by a party, during trial, claiming the opposing party has insufficient evidence to reasonably support its case. JMOL is also known as a directed verdict, which it has replaced in American federal courts.
JMOL is similar to judgment on the pleadings and summary judgment, all of which test the factual sufficiency of a claim. Judgment on the pleadings is a motion made after pleading and before discovery; summary judgment happens after discovery and before trial; JMOL occurs during trial.
In United States federal courts, JMOL is a creation of Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Rule 50. JMOL is decided by the standard of whether a reasonable jury could find in favor of the party opposing the JMOL motion. If there is no evidence to support a reasonable conclusion for the opposing party, judgment is entered by the court and the case is over. If there is sufficient evidence to make a reasonable conclusion in favor of the opposing party, but there is equally strong evidence to support an opposite conclusion, the party with the burden of persuasion fails.
Timing is very important in making a motion for JMOL; the motion can be made only after the opposing party has presented its case. In civil cases, the plaintiff presents its case, then the defendant presents its case, and then the plaintiff may present a rebuttal. So once the plaintiff has presented its case, the defendant can move for JMOL, but the plaintiff cannot. But once the defendant has finished presenting its case, the plaintiff can then move for JMOL, and so can the defendant.
JMOL motions may also be made after the verdict is returned, where they are called "renewed" motions for judgment as a matter of law (RJMOL), but the motion is still commonly known by its former name, judgment notwithstanding the verdict, or JNOV (from the English judgment and the Latin non obstante veredicto). However, in order to move for JNOV, the movant must have moved for a JMOL before the verdict as well. This procedural quirk is necessary because it is considered a violation of the 7th Amendment for a judge to overturn a jury verdict. Instead, the judge is said in a JNOV to be reexamining not the verdict, but his previous rejection of JMOL.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Judgment notwithstanding the verdict
New trial
No case to answer
Renewed judgment as a matter of law
Summary judgment
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Fray Bentos
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the port city in Uruguay. For the tinned meat food brand, see Fray Bentos (food brand). For other uses, see Fray Bentos (disambiguation).
Capital city in Río Negro Department, Uruguay
Fray Bentos
Capital city
Fray Bentos
Coordinates: 33°08′0″S 58°18′0″W / 33.13333°S 58.30000°W / -33.13333; -58.30000Coordinates: 33°08′0″S 58°18′0″W / 33.13333°S 58.30000°W / -33.13333; -58.30000
Country
Uruguay
Department
Río Negro Department
Founded
1859
Elevation
23 m (75 ft)
Population (2011 Census)
• Total
24,406
• Demonym
fraybentino
Time zone
UTC–3/–2
Postal code
65000
Dial plan
+598 456 (+5 digits)
Climate
Cfa
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name
Fray Bentos Industrial Landscape
Criteria
Cultural: (ii), (iv)
Reference
1464
Inscription
2015 (39th Session)
Area
273.8 ha (677 acres)
Buffer zone
2,127.7 ha (5,258 acres)
Website
https://www.rionegro.gub.uy/paisaje-industrial-fray-bentos/
Fray Bentos (Spanish pronunciation: [fɾai̯ ˈbentos]) is the capital city of the Río Negro Department, in south-western Uruguay. Its port on the Uruguay River is one of the nation's most important harbours.[1] The city hosts the first campus of the Technological University,[2] beside the historically relevant industrial complex Anglo, a World Heritage site. One of the biggest pulp mills in the world is situated close to Fray Bentos and the Libertador General San Martín Bridge; it was the center of the largest political dispute between Uruguay and Argentina during the 21st century.
Contents
[hide]
1 Location
2 History
3 Population
4 Economy
4.1 Pulp mill dispute
5 Museums and culture
6 Sports
7 In popular culture
8 Notable people
9 Transportation
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Location[edit]
The city is close to the border with Argentina and about 160 kilometres (99 mi) due north of Buenos Aires, and 309 kilometres (192 mi) north-west from Montevideo, Uruguay's capital.
History[edit]
The town was founded as 'Villa Independencia' by Decree of 16 April 1859. It became capital of the Department of Río Negro on 7 July 1860 by the Act of Ley Nº 1.475 and its status was elevated to "Ciudad" (city) on 16 July 1900 by the Act of Ley Nº 2.656.[3] Its current name, meaning "Friar Benedict", is derived from a reclusive priest.[4]
Historically, Fray Bentos' main industry has been meat processing. An industrial plant owned by the Societe de Fray Bentos Giebert & Cie., the Liebig Extract of Meat Company (LEMCO}, was founded there in 1863. It was closed in 1979, after 117 years in operation. A local history museum opened on the site in March 2005.
Fray Bentos was the location of the crash of Austral Flight 2553, in which 74 people were killed (69 passengers and 5 crew) on October 10, 1997.[5][6]
In 2015, the city's Barrio Anglo, the location of the industrial plant, was declared a World Heritage Site as the "Fray Bentos Cultural-Industrial Landscape"[7].
Population[edit]
In 2011 Fray Bentos had a population of 24,406.[8][9]
Year
Population
1908 7,359
1963 17,094
1975 19,407
1985 19,862
1996 21,959
2004 23,122
2011 24,406
Source: Instituto Nacional de Estadística de Uruguay[3]
Economy[edit]
A meat packing plant in Fray Bentos
See also: Fray Bentos (food brand)
In 1899 a company called "Frigorífico Anglo del Uruguay" (often referred to as "Anglo") which originated from Lemco, began making corned beef there, which was sold as "Fray Bentos Corned Beef" in the UK. Fifty years later, the company diversified into soups, meatballs and tinned fruit.[10] During the 1990s the focus shifted to pies and puddings, and the company was taken over by the Campbell Soup Company. In 2006 'Campbells UK' was acquired by Premier Foods.[11] The "Fray Bentos" brand is now owned in the UK by Baxters, which manufactures the product range in Scotland. The Campbell Soup Company manufactures and sells Fray Bentos-branded steak and kidney pies in Australia.
In 2008, the Brazilian-owned Marfrig Group announced the re-opening of the Liebig factory and the resumption of export of meat products, though at a lower volume than at the original factory.[12]
Pulp mill dispute[edit]
Main article: Pulp mill conflict between Argentina and Uruguay
Botnia S.A., a subsidiary of Finnish corporation Metsä-Botnia, built a large cellulose factory (pulp mill) in Fray Bentos to produce bleached eucalyptus pulp; production started in November 2007, and the first shipments were made in December 2007 from the port of Nueva Palmira. Investment in the project was about 1 billion USD, and the factory directly or indirectly employs about 8,000 people. The project, however, is not without its opponents. On 30 April 2005 about 40,000 Argentines from Entre Ríos, along with environmental groups from both countries, demonstrated at the bridge linking both countries; afterwards ten to fifteen Argentines set up a roadblock at the international bridge to put pressure on the Uruguayan government to stop production at the factory, claiming it would gravely pollute the Uruguay River.[13] On 20 December 2005 a World Bank study concluded that the factory would not have a negative impact on the environment or tourism in either country. The paper mill started operating in November 2007.[14]
Museums and culture[edit]
Fray Bentos has an Industrial Revolution Museum in the former meat processing factory of the Liebig Extract of Meat Company, where thousands of people worked[15]. When it was shut down, the opportunity was taken to create a museum, with the original machinery, and social and cultural artefacts of the technological revolution in Fray Bentos. The museum exhibits the machinery used in the meat and extract of meat process, the buildings, an 1893 Merryweather water-pumping machine, a complete canning plant, a plant where the meat was cooked, a laboratory, etc.
It also has a museum for the artist Luis Alberto Solari, who was born in the city.
The Miguel Young Theatre is an important cultural landmark.
Sports[edit]
Fray Bentos has its own football league, the Liga Departamental de Fútbol de Río Negro, established in 1912, made up of 14 teams. Among the most notable are Fray Bentos Fútbol Club, Club Atlético Anglo and Laureles Fútbol Club.
In popular culture[edit]
The title character of Borges' short story "Funes el Memorioso" was from Fray Bentos.
Notable people[edit]
Gastón Ramírez (2 December 1990), footballer
Lucas Torreira, (11 February 1996), footballer
Federico Elduayen June 25, 1977, footballer
Walter Pelletti (born 31 May 1966), former footballer
Luis Alberto Solari (October 17, 1918 - October 13, 1993), was a painter and engraver
Juan Manuel Tenuta (1924-2013), was an actor
Juan José Timón (18 November 1937 – 13 July 2001), cyclist
Transportation[edit]
Villa Independencia Airport serves Fray Bentos, but has no commercial air service.
See also[edit]
Aberdeen typhoid outbreak 1964
List of diplomatic missions in Uruguay#Consulate in Fray Bentos
References[edit]
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ [2]
^ Jump up to: a b "Statistics of urban localities (1908–2004) (see also "Independencia")" (PDF). INE. 2012. Retrieved 4 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Fray Bentos", Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names. John Everett-Heath. Oxford University Press 2005. Oxford Reference Online, retrieved 21 June 2008
Jump up ^ Accident description at the Aviation Safety Network. Retrieved on 26 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "Catástrofe aérea: hubo 73 muertos" [Air disaster: 73 dead]. La Nación (in Spanish). 12 October 1997. Retrieved 7 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "Fray Bentos Industrial Landscape". UNESCO. Retrieved July 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ [3]
Jump up ^ "Censos 2011 Cuadros Río Negro". INE. 2012. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Anon. "Fray Bentos". Premier Foods our range. Premier Foods. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
Jump up ^ Attwood, Karen (2007-01-20). "Premier Foods to close two factories with loss of 450 jobs". London: The Independent. Retrieved January 20, 2007.
Jump up ^ BBC. October 28, 2008 "Uruguay serves up slice of history "
Jump up ^ "Multitudinaria protesta en Entre Ríos contra la instalación de papeleras (in Spanish)". Clarín. 2005. Retrieved April 20, 2005.
Jump up ^ Bloomberg. November 9, 2007 "Metsae-Botnia Gets Permit From Uruguay to Start Pulp Production"
Jump up ^ Descalzi, Fabio (1986). Liebig-Fray Bentos: dos nombres que se unen en la historia. Montevideo: Ediciones del Concurso Humboldt. (in Spanish)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fray Bentos.
Botnia Pulp Products
Weather Forecast Fray Bentos
INE map of Fray Bentos and Barrio Anglo
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Río Negro Department of Uruguay
Capital: Fray Bentos
Towns and
villages
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World Heritage Sites in Uruguay
Fray Bentos Cultural-Industrial Landscape
Historic quarter of the City of Colonia del Sacramento
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Marfrig Group

values: Liga Departamental de Fútbol de Río Negro (page does not exist)

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Fray Bentos Fútbol Club

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/wiki/Laureles_F%C3%BAtbol_Club
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Laureles Fútbol Club

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/wiki/Aberdeen_typhoid_outbreak_1964
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Aberdeen typhoid outbreak 1964

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http://www.anp.com.uy/inicio/
external autonumber

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https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1464Z

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Río Negro Department of Uruguay

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values: Esteros de Farrapos National Park (page does not exist)

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values: Template:World Heritage Sites in Uruguay

values: Template talk:World Heritage Sites in Uruguay

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Flag of Uruguay

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values: Category:Populated places in the Río Negro Department

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