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Nationalist government
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This article is about the government of the Republic of China between 1925 and 1948. For that government since 1948, see Government of the Republic of China. For Wang Jingwei's nationalist government, see Wang Jingwei regime. For the Nationalist government in Spain, see Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War). For the general concept, see Nationalism.
Republic of China
中華民國
Chunghwa Minkuo
1925–1948
Flag
National Emblem
Anthem:
《中華民國國歌》
"National Anthem of the Republic of China"
(1937–48)
Flag anthem
《中華民國國旗歌》
"National Flag Anthem of the Republic of China"
(1947-48)
Location and maximum extent of the territory claimed by the Republic of China(1945).
Capital
Nankinga · Pekingb
Chungkingc
Common languages
Chinese
Tibetan
Chagatai/Uighur
Manchu
Mongolian
and other languages
Government
Federal semi-presidential republic (1925–28)
One-party state under a military dictatorship (1928–48)
President
• 1925
Wang Jingwei (first)
(provisional)
• 1948
Chiang Kai-shek (last)
(acting)
• Established
1925
• Disestablished
1948
Currency
Chinese yuan
ISO 3166 code
CN
Preceded by Succeeded by
Army and Navy Marshal stronghold of the Republic of China
Beiyang government
Government of the Republic of China
The Nationalist government, officially the National Government of the Republic of China (Chinese: 中華民國國民政府; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Mínguó Guómín Zhèngfǔ; literally: "Chinese People's State Nation-People Government"), refers to the government of the Republic of China between 1 July 1925 to 20 May 1948, led by the Kuomintang (KMT, Chinese Nationalist Party). The name derives from the Kuomintang's translated name "Nationalist Party". The government was in place until the Government of the Republic of China under the newly promulgated Constitution of the Republic of China was established in its place.
After the outbreak of the Xinhai Revolution on 10 October 1911, revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen was elected Provisional President and founded the Provisional Government of the Republic of China. To preserve national unity, Sun ceded the presidency to military strongman Yuan Shikai, who established the Beiyang government. After a failed attempt to install himself as Emperor of China, Yuan died in 1916, leaving a power vacuum which resulted in China being divided into several warlord fiefdoms and rival governments. They were nominally reunified in 1928 by the Nanjing-based government led by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, which after the Northern Expedition, governed the country as a one-party state under the Kuomintang, and was subsequently given international recognition as the legitimate representative of China.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Founding
1.2 Nanjing Decade and War with Japan
1.3 Post-World War II
2 Government
2.1 Human Rights violations
3 Military
4 Economy
5 Former Sites
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Citations
7.2 Sources
History[edit]
Main article: History of the Republic of China
Republic of China
(Nationalist government)
"Republic of China" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters
Traditional Chinese
中華民國
Simplified Chinese
中华民国
Postal
Chunghwa Minkuo
showTranscriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
Zhōnghuá mínguó
Wade–Giles
Chung1-hua2 min2-kuo2
IPA
[ʈʂʊ́ŋxwǎ mǐn.kwǒ]
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
Jūng-wàah màhn-gwok
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ
Tiong-hoâ Bîn-kok
Tâi-lô
Tiong-huâ bîn-kok
The oldest surviving republic in East Asia, the Republic of China was formally established on 1 January 1912 in mainland China following the Xinhai Revolution, which itself began with the Wuchang Uprising on 10 October 1911, replacing the Qing Dynasty and ending over two thousand years of imperial rule in China. Central authority waxed and waned in response to warlordism (1915–28), Japanese invasion (1937–45), and the Chinese Civil War (1927–49), with central authority strongest during the Nanjing Decade (1927–37), when most of China came under the control of the Kuomintang (KMT) under an authoritarian one-party state.[1]
At the end of World War II in 1945, the Empire of Japan surrendered control of Taiwan and its island groups to the Allies, and Taiwan was placed under the Republic of China's administrative control. The legitimacy of this transfer is disputed and is another aspect of the disputed political status of Taiwan.
After World War II, the civil war between the ruling Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China resumed, despite attempts at mediation by the United States. The Nationalist Government began drafting the Constitution of the Republic of China under a National Assembly, but was boycotted by the communists. With the promulgation of the constitution, the Nationalist Government abolished itself and was replaced by the Government of the Republic of China. Following their loss of the Civil War, the Nationalist Government retreated moved their capital to Taiwan while claiming that they were the legitimate government of the mainland.
Founding[edit]
Main article: Northern Expedition
After Sun's death on 12 March 1925, four months later on 1 July 1925, the National Government of the Republic of China was established in Guangzhou.
The following year, Chiang Kai-shek became the de facto leader of the Kuomintang (KMT). Chiang led the Northern Expedition through China with the intention of defeating the warlords and unifying the country. Chiang received the help of the Soviet Union and the Chinese Communist Party; however, he soon dismissed his Soviet advisors. He was convinced, not without reason, that they wanted to get rid of the KMT (also known as the Chinese Nationalist Party) and take over.[2] Chiang decided to strike first and purged the Communists, killing thousands of them. At the same time, other violent conflicts took place in the south of China where the Communist Party fielded superior numbers and were massacring Nationalist supporters. These events eventually led to the Chinese Civil War between the Nationalist Party and the Communist Party. Chiang Kai-shek pushed the Communist Party into the interior as he sought to destroy them, and moved the Nationalist Government to Nanjing in 1927.[3] Leftists within the KMT still allied to the communists, lead by Wang Jingwei, had established a rival Nationalist Government in Wuhan two months earlier, but soon joined Chiang in Nanjing in August 1927. By the following year, Chiang's army had captured Beijing after overthrowing the Beiyang government and unified the entire nation, at least nominally, marking the beginning the Nanjing Decade.
Nanjing Decade and War with Japan[edit]
Organisational chart of the KMT regime (1934).
Further information: Nanjing decade and Second Sino-Japanese War
According to Sun Yat-sen's "Three Stages of Revolution" theory, the KMT was to rebuild China in three phases: the first stage was military unification, which was carried out with the Northern Expedition; the second was "political tutelage" which was a provisional government led by the KMT to educate people about their political and civil rights, and the third stage was constitutional government.[4] By 1928, the Nationalists, having taken over power militarily and reunified China, started the second phase, promulgating a provisional constitution and beginning the period of so-called "tutelage".[5] The KMT was criticized for instituting authoritarianism, but claimed it was attempting to establish a modern democratic society. Among others, they created at that time the Academia Sinica, the Central Bank of China, and other agencies. In 1932, China sent a team for the first time to the Olympic Games. Historians, such as Edmund Fung, argue that establishing a democracy in China at that time was not possible. The nation was at war and divided between Communists and Nationalists. Corruption within the government and lack of direction also prevented any significant reform from taking place. Chiang realized the lack of real work being done within his administration and told the State Council: "Our organization becomes worse and worse ... many staff members just sit at their desks and gaze into space, others read newspapers and still others sleep."[6] The Nationalist government wrote a draft of the constitution on 5 May 1936.[7] Mass killing under the nationalists were common with millions of people killed[citation needed]. Notable mass killings include deaths from forced army conscription[citation needed] and the White Terror.[8]
The Nationalists faced a new challenge with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, with hostilities continuing through the Second Sino-Japanese War, part of World War II, from 1937 to 1945. The government of the Republic of China retreated from Nanjing to Chongqing. In 1945, after the war of eight years, Japan surrendered and the Republic of China, under the name "China", became one of the founding members of the United Nations. The government returned to Nanjing in 1946.
Post-World War II[edit]
Main article: Chinese Civil war
After the defeat of Japan during World War II, Taiwan was surrendered to the Allies, with ROC troops accepting the surrender of the Japanese garrison. The government of the ROC proclaimed the "retrocession" of Taiwan to the Republic of China and established a provincial government on the island. The military administration of the ROC extended over Taiwan, which led to widespread unrest and increasing tensions between local Taiwanese and mainlanders.[9] The shooting of a civilian on 28 February 1947 triggered an island-wide unrest, which was brutally suppressed with military force in what is now known as the February 28 Incident. Mainstream estimates of casualties range from 18,000 to 30,000, mainly Taiwanese elites.[10][11] The 28 February Incident has had far-reaching effects on subsequent Taiwan history.
From 1945 to 1947, under United States mediation, especially through the Marshall Mission, the Nationalists and Communists agreed to start a series of peace talks aiming at establishing a coalition government. The two parties agreed to open multiparty talks on post-World War II political reforms via a Political Consultative Conference. This was included in the Double Tenth Agreement. This agreement was implemented by the Nationalist Government, who organized the first Political Consultative Assembly from 10–31 January 1946. Representatives of the Kuomintang, Communist Party of China, Chinese Youth Party, and China Democratic League, as well as independent delegates, attended the conference in Chongqing. However, shortly afterward, the two parties failed to reach an agreement and the civil war resumed.[12] In the context of political and military animosity[citation needed], the National Assembly was summoned by the Nationalists without the participation of the Communists and promulgated the Constitution of the Republic of China. The constitution was criticized by the Communists,[13] and led to the final break between the two sides.[14] The full-scale civil war resumed from early 1947.[15]
After the National Assembly election, the drafted Constitution was adopted by the National Assembly on 25 December 1946, promulgated by the National Government on 1 January 1947, and went into effect on 25 December 1947. The Constitution was seen as the third and final stage of Kuomintang reconstruction of China. Chiang Kai-shek was also elected as the 1st President of the Republic of China under the constitution by the National Assembly in 1948, with Li Zongren being elected as Vice-President. The Nationalist Government was abolished on 20 May 1948, after the Government of the Republic of China was established with the presidential inauguration of Chiang. The Communists, though invited to the convention that drafted it, boycotted and declared after the ratification that not only would it not recognize the ROC constitution, but all bills passed by the Nationalist administration would be disregarded as well. Zhou Enlai challenged the legitimacy of the National Assembly in 1947 by accusing KMT hand-picked the members of the National Assembly 10 years earlier and thus could not have legal representation of the Chinese people.
Government[edit]
Headquarters of the National Government in Nanjing
The National Government governed under a dual-party state apparatus under the ideology of Dang Guo, effectively making it a one-party state; however, existing parties continued to operate and new ones form. After the end of the Second World War, and particularly after the passage of the constitution in 1946, the National Government was reconstituted to include multiple parties, in preparation of full democratic government to come.
In February 1928, the Fourth Plenary Session of the 2nd Kuomintang National Congress held in Nanjing passed the Reorganization of the National Government Act. This act stipulated the National Government was to be directed and regulated under the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang, with the Committee of the Nationalist Government being elected by KMT Central Committee. Under the National Government were seven ministries – Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, Transport, Justice, Agriculture and Mines, Commerce in addition institutions such as the Supreme Court, Control Yuan and the General Academy.
With the promulgation of the Organic Law of the National Government in October 1928, the government was reorganized into five different branches or Yuan, namely the Executive Yuan, Legislative Yuan, Judicial Yuan, Examination Yuan as well as the Control Yuan. The Chairman of the National Government was to be the head-of-state and commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army. Chiang Kai-shek was appointed as the first Chairman of the National Government, a position he would retain until 1931. The Organic Law also stipulated that the Kuomintang, through its National Congress and Central Executive Committee, would exercise sovereign power during the period of political tutelage, and the KMT's Political Council would guide and superintend the National Government in the execution of important national affairs, and that the council has the power to interpret or amend the organic law.[16]
Human Rights violations[edit]
KMT troops rounding up Communist prisoners.
The Nationalist government of China has been accused of mass killings, as Rudolph Rummel estimates the Nationalist government of China is responsible for between 6 and 18.5 million deaths He attributes this death toll to a few major causes for example:[8]
1 million Chinese civilians starved or killed in order to fend off communist advance
Hundreds of thousands peasants and communist killed in political repression.
1.75 to 2.5 million Chinese starving to death due to grain being confiscated and sold to other peasants for the profit of Nationalist Government officials.
4.2 million Chinese perishing before even entering combat due starving to death or dying from disease during horrific conscription campaigns.
440,000 to 893,000 Chinese civilians perishing in a man made flood by the Nationalist to stop a Japanese advance.
Military[edit]
Main article: National Revolutionary Army
See also: Republic of China Military Academy and Whampoa Military Academy
The NRA during World War II
The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) (traditional Chinese: 國民革命軍; simplified Chinese: 国民革命军; pinyin: Guómín Gémìng Jūn; Wade–Giles: Kuo-min Ke-ming Chün), pre-1928 sometimes shortened to 革命軍 or Revolutionary Army and between 1928 and 1947 as 國軍 or National Army was the Military Arm of the Kuomintang (KMT) from 1925 until 1947, as well as the national army of the Republic of China during the KMT's period of party rule beginning in 1928.
Originally organized with Soviet aid as a means for the KMT to unify China against warlordism, the National Revolutionary Army fought major engagements in the Northern Expedition against the Chinese Beiyang Army warlords, in the Second Sino-Japanese War against the Imperial Japanese Army, and in the Chinese Civil War against the People's Liberation Army.
During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the armed forces of the Communist Party of China were nominally incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army (while retaining separate commands), but broke away to form the People's Liberation Army shortly after the end of the war. With the promulgation of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947 and the formal end of the KMT party-state, the National Revolutionary Army was renamed the Republic of China Armed Forces (中華民國國軍), with the bulk of its forces forming the Republic of China Army, which retreated to Taiwan in 1949.
The military was formed through bloody and inhumane forced conscription campaigns; these campaigns are described by Rudolph Rummel as thus:[8]
"Then there was the process of conscription. This was a deadly affair in which men were kidnapped for the army, rounded up indiscriminately by press-gangs or army units among those on the roads or in the towns and villages, or otherwise gathered together. Many men, some the very young and old, were killed resisting or trying to escape. Once collected, they would be roped or chained together and marched, with little food or water, long distances to camp. They often died or were killed along the way, sometimes less than 50 percent reaching camp alive. Then recruit camp was no better, with hospitals resembling Nazi concentration camps like Buchenwald. Probably 3,081,000 died during the Sino-Japanese War; likely another 1,131,000 during the Civil War – 4,212,000 dead in total. Just during conscription."
Economy[edit]
Further information: Economic history of China (1912–49)
A currency bill from 1930, early ROC
Boat traffic and development along Suzhou Creek, Shanghai, around 1920
After the Kuomintang reunified the country in 1928, China entered a period of relative prosperity despite civil war and Japanese aggression. In 1937, the Japanese invaded and laid China to waste in eight years of war. The era also saw additional boycott of Japanese products.
Chinese industries continue to develop in the 1930s with the advent of the Nanjing decade in the 1930s, when Chiang Kai-shek unified most of the country and brought political stability. China's industries developed and grew from 1927 to 1931. Though badly hit by the Great Depression from 1931 to 1935 and Japan's occupation of Manchuria in 1931, industrial output recovered by 1936. By 1936, industrial output had recovered and surpassed its previous peak in 1931 prior to the Great Depression's effects on China. This is best shown by the trends in Chinese GDP. In 1932, China's GDP peaked at 28.8 billion, before falling to 21.3 billion by 1934 and recovering to 23.7 billion by 1935.[17] By 1930, foreign investment in China totaled 3.5 billion, with Japan leading (1.4 billion) and the United Kingdom at 1 billion. By 1948, however, the capital stock had halted with investment dropping to only 3 billion, with the US and Britain leading.[18]
However, the rural economy was hit hard by the Great Depression of the 1930s, in which an overproduction of agricultural goods lead to massive falling prices for China as well as an increase in foreign imports (as agricultural goods produced in western countries were "dumped" in China). In 1931, imports of rice in China amounted to 21 million bushels compared with 12 million in 1928. Other goods saw even more staggering increases. In 1932, 15 million bushels of grain were imported compared with 900,000 in 1928. This increased competition lead to a massive decline in Chinese agricultural prices (which were cheaper) and thus the income of rural farmers. In 1932, agricultural prices were 41 percent of 1921 levels.[19] Rural incomes had fallen to 57 percent of 1931 levels by 1934 in some areas.[19]
In 1937, Japan invaded China and the resulting warfare laid waste to China. Most of the prosperous east China coast was occupied by the Japanese, who carried out various atrocities such as the Rape of Nanjing in 1937 and random massacres of whole villages. In one anti-guerilla sweep in 1942, the Japanese killed up to 200,000 civilians in a month. The war was estimated to have killed between 20 and 25 million Chinese, and destroyed all that Chiang had built up in the preceding decade.[20] Development of industries was severely hampered after the war by devastating conflict as well as the inflow of cheap American goods. By 1946, Chinese industries operated at 20 percent capacity and had 25 percent of the output of pre-war China.[21]
One effect of the war was a massive increase in government control of industries. In 1936, government-owned industries were only 15% of GDP. However, the ROC government took control of many industries in order to fight the war. In 1938, the ROC established a commission for industries and mines to control and supervise firms, as well as instilling price controls. By 1942, 70 percent of the capital of Chinese industry were owned by the government.[22]
Following the war with Japan, Chiang acquired Taiwan from Japan and renewed his struggle with the communists. However, the corruption of the KMT, as well as hyperinflation as a result of trying to fight the civil war, resulted in mass unrest throughout the Republic[23] and sympathy for the communists. In addition, the communists' promise to redistribute land gained them support among the massive rural population. In 1949, the communists captured Beijing and later Nanjing as well. The People's Republic of China was proclaimed in Beijing on 1 October 1949. The Republic of China central government relocated in Taipei on 7 December 1949, to Taiwan where Japan had laid an educational groundwork.[24]
Former Sites[edit]
Almost all of the former sites of the nationalist government are headquartered in the city of Nanking, the capital at the time, with only one exception.
Name
Image
Location
Construction Date
Description
Headquarters of the Nationalist Government No.292 Changjiang Road, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 1870-1930s The complex were served as Viceroy of Liangjiang's Office in Qing dynasty, and as the Presidential Palace in 1948.
Executive Yuan (1928) No.19 Dongjian Road, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 1920s The building, serving as the Executive Yuan from 1928 to 1937, is now a part of the Presidential Palace complex.
Executive Yuan (1946) No.252-254 Zhongshan North Road, Gulou District, Nanjing 1930 The building was the headquarter of the Ministry of Railways at first, then the site of Executive Yuan from 1946-1949. After the communists took over Nanjing, it became a building of PLA Nanjing Political College.
Executive Yuan (1949) Zhongshan East Road, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 1929 It was the site of Lizhi She in 1930s. In 1949, the Nationalist Government decided to move the Exevetive Yuan into this building. The building now served as a part of Zhongshan Hotel.
Legislative Yuan (1928) No.273 Baixia Road, Qinhuai District, Nanjing It was the site of the "Mistress House". The Nationalist Government chose the house to become the seat of Legislative Yuan in 1928.
Legislative Yuan (1946) & Control Yuan No.105 Zhongshan North Road, Gulou District, Nanjing 1935 The building was Nanjing City Hall during the Japanese occupation. After the Second World War, it became the offices of Legislative Yuan and Control Yuan. Now it is Nanjing Soldiers' Club.
Judicial Yuan's Entrance No.251 Zhongshan Road, Gulou District, Nanjing 1935 The building was destroyed by fire in April, 1949. Only the gate remains.
Examination Yuan No.41-43 Beijing East Road, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 1930s The building is now served as Nanjing City Government Offices and the Committee of Nanjing, CPPCC.
Supreme Court No.101 Zhongshan North Road, Gulou District, Nanjing 1933 The building was also served as the Supreme Prosecutor Office
Military Affairs Commission No.292 Changjiang Road, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 1870s This house was built in 1870s, after Taiping Rebellion. In 1930s, Chiang Kai-shek chose it to be one of the headquarters of the Military Affairs Commission. The house is located in the Presidential Palace complex and becoming a popular tourist attraction now.
National Resource Commission No.200 Zhongshan North Road, Gulou District, Nanjing 1947 The building is now an office building of Nanjing Tech University
Ministry of Economic Affairs No.145 Zhongshan East Road, Xuanwu District, Nanjing The building is now served as the office of Nanjing Sports Bureau.
Central Bank No.15 East-1 Zhongshan Rd, Huangpu District, Shanghai 1899-1902 This was the only institution not headquartered in the city of Nanking. Once being the Shanghai branch of Russo-Chinese Bank, this building now becomes Shanghai Foreign Exchange Trading Center.
Ministry of Health No.305 Zhongshan East Road, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 1931 The building was in the site of National Central Hospital complex. It is Nanjing General Hospital of Nanjing Military Command now.
Ministry of Education Chengxian Street, Xuanwu District, Nanjing The building is now occpied by some governmental officials.
Ministry of Transportation & Communications No.303-305 Zhongshan North Road, Gulou District, Nanjing 1932-1934 Opposite was the site of the Executive Yuan. After the communists took over Nanjing, it became a building of PLA Nanjing Political College.
National Assembly Hall (1936) No.2 Sipailou, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 1930s Before the National Theatre of Drama and Music was completed, the National Assembly was held in the Auditorium of National Central University.
National Assembly Hall (1946) No.264 Changjiang Road, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 1935 The building was served as the National Theatre of Drama and Music. After the World War II, it became the meeting place of the National Assembly. It was the site of 1948 presidential election and the birthplace of the Constitution. So this building played an important role in modern history of China.
Residence of the Chairman (1946) Purple Mountain, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 1931-1934 Also known as "the Red Hill Mansion" and "Mei-ling Villa", the building was one of the main residences of Chiang & Soong in Nanking after the WWII. And it became one of the official residences of the President of the ROC from 1948 to 1949.
When the city of Nanking was not captured by the Nationalist Government, they chose the following buildings as their headquarters.
Name
Image
Location
Construction Date
Description
Nationalist Government in Canton (1925) No.118 Yuehua rd, Yuexiu District, Guangzhou In 1925, the Nationalist Government was established here. Today, all the buildings inside were demolished except the gate.
Nationalist Government in Wuhan (1926) No.708, Zhongshan Avenue, Wuhan 1917-1921 It was also called Nanyang Tobacco Building. In 1926, the National Revolutionary Army took control of Wuhan. Then, the officials of KMT chose Nanyang Tobacco Building to become the seat of the Nationalist Government.
Nationalist Government in Chungking (1939) Yuzhong District, Chongqing In the period of Second Sino-Japanese War, this building was served as the headquarters of the Nationalist Government until they moved back to Nanking. The building was demolished in the 1980s.
See also[edit]
China portal
Taiwan portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nationalist Government (China).
Government of the Republic of China
Kuomintang
Republic of China (1912–49)
Beiyang government (1912–28)
Communist-controlled China (1927–49)
Sino-German cooperation until 1941
Diplomatic history of World War II
Nanjing Decade
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Roy, Denny (2003). Taiwan: A Political History. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 55, 56. ISBN 0-8014-8805-2.
Jump up ^ Fenby 2009
Jump up ^ "南京市". 重編囯語辭典修訂本. Ministry of Education, ROC. 民國十六年，國民政府宣言定為首都，今以臺北市為我國中央政府所在地。(In the 16th Year of the Republic of China [1927], the National Government established [Nanking] as the capital. At present, Taipei is the seat of the central government.)
Jump up ^ (Fung 2000, p. 30)
Jump up ^ Chen, Lifu; Ramon Hawley Myers (1994). Hsu-hsin Chang, Ramon Hawley Myers, ed. The storm clouds clear over China: the memoir of Chʻen Li-fu, 1900–1993. Hoover Press. p. 102. ISBN 0-8179-9272-3. After the 1930 mutiny ended, Chiang accepted the suggestion of Wang Ching-wei, Yen Hsi-shan, and Feng Yü-hsiang that a provisional constitution for the political tutelage period be drafted.
Jump up ^ (Fung 2000, p. 5) "Nationalist disunity, political instability, civil strife, the communist challenge, the autocracy of Chiang Kai-shek, the ascendancy of the military, the escalating Japanese threat, and the "crisis of democracy" in Italy, Germany, Poland, and Spain, all contributed to a freezing of democracy by the Nationalist leadership."
Jump up ^ 荆, 知仁. 中华民国立宪史 (in Chinese). 联经出版公司.
^ Jump up to: a b c R.J.Rummel. "CHINA'S BLOODY CENTURY".
Jump up ^ "This Is the Shame". Time Magazine. 1946-06-10.
Jump up ^ "Snow Red & Moon Angel". Time Magazine. 1947-04-07.
Jump up ^ "Taiwan Timeline – Civil War". BBC News. 2000. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
Jump up ^ Inc, Time (1956). LIFE, Truman, China and History. 40. Time Inc.
Jump up ^ 评马歇尔离华声明，周恩来选集上卷，1947-1-10
Jump up ^ 首都卫戍司令部，淞沪重庆警备司令，分别致电函京沪渝中共代表，所有中共人员限期全部撤退，重庆:大公报,1947-3-1
Jump up ^ Westad, Odd Arne (2003). Decisive encounters: the Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950. ISBN 0-8047-4478-5.
Jump up ^ Wilbur, Clarence Martin. The Nationalist Revolution in China, 1923–1928. Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 190.
Jump up ^ Sun Jian, pg 1059–1071
Jump up ^ Sun Jian, pg 1353
^ Jump up to: a b Sun Jian, page 1089
Jump up ^ Sun Jian, page 615-616
Jump up ^ Sun Jian, page 1319
Jump up ^ Sun Jian, pg 1237–1240
Jump up ^ Sun Jian, page 617-618
Jump up ^ Davison, Gary Marvin. A short history of Taiwan: the case for independence. Praeger Publishers. p. 64. ISBN 0-275-98131-2. Basic literacy came to most of the school-aged populace by the end of the Japanese tenure on Taiwan. School attendance for Taiwanese children rose steadily throughout the Japanese era, from 3.8 percent in 1904 to 13.1 percent in 1917; 25.1 percent in 1920; 41.5 percent in 1935; 57.6 percent in 1940; and 71.3 percent in 1943.
Sources[edit]
Bergere, Marie-Claire. Sun Yat-Sen (1998), 480 pages, the standard biography
Boorman, Howard L., ed. Biographical Dictionary of Republican China. (Vol. I-IV and Index. 1967–1979). 600 short scholarly biographies excerpt and text search
Boorman, Howard L. "Sun Yat-sen" in Boorman, ed. Biographical Dictionary of Republican China (1970) 3: 170–89, complete text online
Dreyer, Edward L. China at War, 1901–1949. (1995). 422 pp.
Eastman Lloyd. Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937– 1945. (1984)
Eastman Lloyd et al. The Nationalist Era in China, 1927–1949 (1991)
Fairbank, John K., ed. The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 12, Republican China 1912–1949. Part 1. (1983). 1001 pp.
Fairbank, John K. and Feuerwerker, Albert, eds. The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 13: Republican China, 1912–1949, Part 2. (1986). 1092 pp.
Fogel, Joshua A. The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography (2000)
Gordon, David M. "The China-Japan War, 1931–1945," The Journal of Military History v70#1 (2006) 137–182; major historiographical overview of all important books and interpretations; online
Hsiung, James C. and Steven I. Levine, eds. China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945 (1992), essays by scholars; online from Questia;
Hsi-sheng, Ch'i. Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–1945 (1982)
Hung, Chang-tai. War and Popular Culture: Resistance in Modern China, 1937–1945 (1994) complete text online free
Lara, Diana. The Chinese People at War: Human Suffering and Social Transformation, 1937–1945 (2010)
Rubinstein, Murray A., ed. Taiwan: A New History (2006), 560pp
Shiroyama, Tomoko. China during the Great Depression: Market, State, and the World Economy, 1929–1937 (2008)
Shuyun, Sun. The Long March: The True History of Communist China's Founding Myth (2007)
Taylor, Jay. The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China. (2009) ISBN 978-0-674-03338-2
Westad, Odd Arne. Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950. (2003). 413 pages.
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Beiyang government
(1912–1928) Nationalist government
1927–1948 Succeeded by
Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China
(on Mainland China 1949–1954)
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Unix architecture
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A Unix architecture is a computer operating system system architecture that embodies the Unix philosophy. It may adhere to standards such as the Single UNIX Specification (SUS) or similar POSIX IEEE standard. No single published standard describes all Unix architecture computer operating systems - this is in part a legacy of the Unix wars.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Kernel
3 Features
4 Criticism
5 See also
6 References
Description[edit]
There are many systems which are Unix-like in their architecture. Notable among these are the GNU/Linux distributions. The distinctions between Unix and Unix-like systems have been the subject of heated legal battles, and the holders of the UNIX brand, The Open Group, object to "Unix-like" and similar terms.
For distinctions between SUS branded UNIX architectures and other similar architectures, see Unix-like.
Kernel[edit]
A Unix kernel — the core or key components of the operating system — consists of many kernel subsystems like process management, scheduling, file management, device management and network management, memory management, dealing with interrupts from hardware devices.
Each of the subsystems has some features:
Concurrency: As Unix is a multiprocessing OS, many processes run concurrently to improve the performance of the system.[disputed – discuss]
Virtual memory (VM): Memory management subsystem implements the virtual memory concept and users need not worry about the executable program size and the RAM size.[disputed – discuss]
Paging: It is a technique to minimize the internal as well as the external fragmentation in the physical memory.
Virtual file system (VFS): A VFS is a file system used to help the user to hide the different file systems complexities. A user can use the same standard file system related calls to access different file systems.
The kernel provides these and other basic services: interrupt and trap handling, separation between user and system space, system calls, scheduling, timer and clock handling, file descriptor management.
Features[edit]
Some key features of the Unix architecture concept are:
Unix systems use a centralized operating system kernel which manages system and process activities.
All non-kernel software is organized into separate, kernel-managed processes.
Unix systems are preemptively multitasking: multiple processes can run at the same time, or within small time slices and nearly at the same time, and any process can be interrupted and moved out of execution by the kernel. This is known as thread management.
Files are stored on disk in a hierarchical file system, with a single top location throughout the system (root, or "/"), with both files and directories, subdirectories, sub-subdirectories, and so on below it.
With few exceptions, devices and some types of communications between processes are managed and visible as files or pseudo-files within the file system hierarchy. This is known as everything is a file. However, Linus Torvalds states that this is inaccurate and may be better rephrased as "everything is a stream of bytes".[1]
The UNIX operating system supports the following features and capabilities:
Multitasking and multiuser
Programming interface
Use of files as abstractions of devices and other objects
Built-in networking (TCP/IP is standard)
Persistent system service processes called "daemons" and managed by init or inet
Criticism[edit]
The UNIX-HATERS Handbook covers some of these design features as failures from the user point of view. However, although some information is quite dated and cannot be applied to modern Unixes such as Linux, Eric S. Raymond discovered that several issues are still prevailing, while others were resolved. Raymond concludes that not all concepts behind Unix can be deemed as non-functional even though the book's intention may have been to portray Unix as inferior without encouraging discussions with developers to actually fix the issues.[2]
See also[edit]
Architecture of Windows NT
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Torvalds, Linus. "signalfd v2 - signalfd core".
Jump up ^ Raymond, Eric S. "The Unix Hater’s Handbook, Reconsidered".
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unix_architecture&oldid=791293364"
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Ireland's Got Talent
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Ireland's Got Talent
Genre
Reality talent show
Created by
Simon Cowell
Presented by
Lucy Kennedy
Judges
Louis Walsh
Michelle Visage
Jason Byrne
Denise van Outen
Voices of
Peter Dickson
Country of origin
Ireland
Original language(s)
English
No. of series
1
No. of episodes
13 (as of 7th April 2018)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Darren Smith
Stephen Stewart
Producer(s)
Shane Byrne
Location(s)
TLT Concert Hall & Theatre, Drogheda (auditions)
The Helix, Dublin (live shows)
Running time
60-120 minutes
Production company(s)
Kite Productions
Green Inc
Release
Original network
TV3
Original release
3 February 2018 (2018-02-03) – present
Chronology
Related shows
Got Talent
Britain's Got Talent
The All Ireland Talent Show
External links
Official Website
Ireland's Got Talent is the Irish version of the international Got Talent series.[1] The series launched on 3 February 2018 on TV3 and is hosted by Lucy Kennedy, accompanied by a sister show entitled Ireland's Got Mór Talent presented by Glenda Gilson and James Kavanagh. Cork dance troupe RDC won the competition on 24 March 2018.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Format
2 Development
3 Semi-finalists
4 Semi-finals
4.1 Semi-final 1 (19 March)
4.2 Semi-final 2 (21 March)
4.3 Semi-final 3 (22 March)
4.4 Final (24 March)
5 References
Format[edit]
The winner of Ireland's Got Talent will receive a €50,000 cash prize as well as their own primetime Christmas television special.[3]
Development[edit]
In May 2015, it was announced that current The X Factor judge, Louis Walsh, would be launching a new Irish talent show, produced by Simon Cowell as a judge. The show was expected to be premiered in 2017 or 2018.[4] Walsh later stated that he would like to broadcast an Irish edition of Got Talent, though he stated that the untitled talent show was only in early development.[4] RTÉ One and TV3 showed interest in ordering the programme, however TV3 originally turned down the show in 2016.[5] Simon Cowell announced that he will be a special guest judge on the programme during the series' launch.[6]
In February 2016, RTÉ One denied that The Voice of Ireland would be cancelled in order to broadcast the new talent show.[7] However, the show was later replaced by Dancing with the Stars.[8] In August 2017, it was reported that Lucy Kennedy would host the show,[9] with Walsh later confirming himself and Michelle Visage on ITV's This Morning as two of the judges on the show which will launch in January 2018.[10] The series was announced during a press conference at the National Concert Hall in Dublin on 30 August 2017, with Denise van Outen and comedian Jason Byrne confirmed as the other two judges.[11]
Glenda Gilson and James Kavanagh present the sister show, Ireland’s Got Mór Talent.[12]
Semi-finalists[edit]
Winner
Runners-up
Finalist
Semi-finalist (lost judges' or public vote)
Golden buzzer
Name of act
Age(s)
Genre
Act
Semi-final
Result
Aaron J. Hart 24 Music Rapper 3 Finalist (Won Judges' Vote)
Affia Ni Fhaolin 18 Singing Singer/Pianist 3 Eliminated
Atlantic Rhythm Unknown Dance Musicians Group/Dance Group 3 Eliminated (Lost Judges' Vote)
Christopher King 29 Singing Singer 1 Eliminated
Deaftones 13-22 Singing Choir 2 Eliminated (Lost Judges' Vote)
Double Impact 9 & 12 Dance Dance Duo 2 Finalist (Won Judges' Vote)
Evelyn Williams 81 Singing Singer 3 Eliminated
FKFT Unknown Dance Hip-Hop Dance Troupe 1 Runners-up
Grim Squeaker 33 Danger Sideshow Act 3 Eliminated
Keeva Air Candy 32 Acrobatics Aerialist 1 Eliminated
Linda McLoughlin 38 Singing Singer 1 Finalist (Won Judges' Vote)
Martin McGuinness 51 Singing Drag Act 2 Eliminated
Matt Dodd 68 Singing Singer 1 Finalist (Wildcard)
Mini Puppet Popstars Unknown Comedy Puppeteer Group 1 Eliminated
Paul Ryder 30 Singing Drag Act 1 Eliminated (Lost Judges' Vote)
Philip Murphy 72 Singing Singer 3 Eliminated
RDC 12-22 Dance Dance Troupe 2 Winner
Ronan Brady 31 Acrobatics Cyr Wheel Acrobat 3 Eliminated
Sean Hegarty 34 Comedy Comedian 2 Eliminated
Shania Rollo 13 Singing Singer 2 Eliminated
Steve Barry 31 Singing Opera Singer 2 Eliminated
Tamara Operi 28 Music Singer/Rapper 1 Eliminated
Xquisite 8-11 Dance Ballroom Dance Group 3 Runners-up
Zacc Milne 19 Dance Dancer 2 Finalist (Wildcard)
Semi-finals[edit]
Semi-finals Summary
Buzzed out
Judges' vote
Won the public vote
Won the judges' vote (or public vote if split decision)
Lost the judges' vote (or public vote if split decision)
Wildcard (previously eliminated act reinstated to the final)
Semi-final 1 (19 March)[edit]
Guest performer: Tokio Myers
Contestant
Order
Act
Buzzes and judges' votes
Result
0 ! Walsh
0 ! Visage
0 ! Byrne
0 ! Outen
FKFT
1 Hip-Hop Dance Troupe 1st (Won Public Vote)
Matt Dodd
2 Singer Wildcard - 5th
Tamara Operi
3 Singer/Rapper Eliminated - 8th
Keeva Air Candy
4 Aerialist Eliminated - 7th
Christopher King
5 Singer Eliminated - 4th
Mini Puppet Popstars
6 Puppeteer Group Eliminated - 6th
Linda McLoughlin
7 Singer 2nd (Won Judges' Choice)
Paul Ryder
8 Singer/Drag Act 3rd (Lost Judges' Choice)
Semi-final 2 (21 March)[edit]
Contestant
Order
Act
Buzzes and judges' votes
Result
0 ! Walsh
0 ! Visage
0 ! Byrne
0 ! Outen
RDC
1 Dance Troupe 1st (Won Public Vote)
Steve Barry
2 Opera Singer Eliminated - 7th
Double Impact
3 Dance Duo 2nd (Won Judges' Choice)
Martin McGuinness
4 Singer/Drag Act Eliminated - 5th
Shania Rollo
5 Singer Eliminated - 6th
Sean Hegarty
6 Comedian Eliminated - 8th
Deaftones
7 Choir 3rd (Lost Judges' Choice)
Zacc Milne
8 Dancer Wildcard - 4th
Semi-final 3 (22 March)[edit]
Contestant
Order
Act
Buzzes and judges' votes
Result
0 ! Walsh
0 ! Visage
0 ! Byrne
0 ! Outen
Atlantic Rhythm
1 Dance Group 3rd (Lost Judges' Choice)
Affia Ni Fhaolin
2 Singer/Pianist Eliminated - 6th
Xquisite
3 Dance Group 1st (Won Public Vote)
Ronan Brady
4 Cyr Wheel Acrobat Eliminated - 5th
Evelyn Williams
5 Singer Eliminated - 4th
Grim Squeaker
6 Sideshow Act Eliminated - 8th
Aaron J Hart
7 Rapper 2nd (Won Judges' Choice)
Philip Murphy
8 Singer Eliminated - 7th
Final (24 March)[edit]
Contestant
Order
Act
Finished
Double Impact
1 Dance Duo 8th
Linda McLoughlin
2 Singer 5th
RDC
3 Dance Troupe 1st
FKFT
4 Hip-Hop Dance Troupe 2nd/3rd
Aaron J. Hart
5 Rapper 6th
Matt Dodd
6 Singer 7th
Xquisite
7 Dance Group 2nd/3rd
Zacc Milne
8 Dancer 4th
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Louis Walsh confirmed for Ireland's Got Talent". RTE. 30 August 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2017.
Jump up ^ https://www.rte.ie/entertainment/2018/0324/949872-corks-rdc-win-irelands-got-talent/
Jump up ^ "TV3 - Ireland's Got Talent". Retrieved 30 August 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Louis Walsh: 'Ireland's Got Talent' could hit our screens soon - Independent.ie". Retrieved 30 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Sean. "Louis Walsh 'not happy' as TV3 REJECTS Ireland's Got Talent - Goss". Retrieved 30 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Sean. "Simon Cowell lined up for Ireland's Got Talent promo - Goss". Retrieved 30 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "RTE denies The Voice of Ireland will be axed in favour of Ireland's Got Talent". The Independent. 21 February 2016. Retrieved 30 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "RTÉ drops The Voice for Dancing with the Stars". RTÉ. Retrieved 3 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Revealed: The television star who will host Ireland's Got Talent on TV3 - Independent.ie". Retrieved 30 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Louis Walsh to be judge on Ireland's Got Talent". 30 August 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Ireland's Got Talent is COMING To TV3". TV3. Retrieved 30 August 2017.
Jump up ^ https://www.independent.ie/entertainment/television/tv-news/irelands-got-talent-gets-broadcast-date-and-6-nations-kicks-off-in-tv3s-new-spring-schedule-36471849.html
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The Public (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The Public
Directed by
Emilio Estevez
Produced by
Emilio Estevez
Lisa Niedenthal Alex Lebovici Steve Ponce
Written by
Emilio Estevez
Starring
Emilio Estevez
Jena Malone
Christian Slater
Alec Baldwin
Gabrielle Union
Jacob Vargas
Music by
Tyler Bates
Cinematography
Juan Miguel Azpiroz
Edited by
Richard Chew
Yang Hua Hu
Release date
January 31, 2018 (2018-01-31) (SBIFF)
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
N/A
The Public is a 2018 American drama film directed and written by Emilio Estevez, who also stars in the film alongside an ensemble cast including Alec Baldwin, Jena Malone, Christian Slater, Gabrielle Union, Taylor Schilling, Jacob Vargas, Michael Kenneth Williams, and Jeffrey Wright.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Casting
3.2 Music
4 Release
4.1 Marketing
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
After learning that emergency shelters are at full capacity when a brutal Midwestern cold front makes its way to Cincinnati, Ohio, a large group of homeless library patrons led by Jackson (Michael Kenneth Williams) refuse to leave the downtown public library at closing time. What begins as a nonviolent Occupy sit-in and ragtag act of civil disobedience quickly escalates into a standoff with local riot police, led by a no-nonsense crisis negotiator (Alec Baldwin) and a savvy district attorney (Christian Slater) with lofty political ambitions, all as two librarians (Emilio Estevez and Jena Malone) are caught up in the middle of it.
Cast[edit]
Emilio Estevez as Stuart Goodson, a librarian at the Cincinnati Public Library
Alec Baldwin as Detective Bill Ramstead, a crisis negotiator for the Cincinnati police department
Christian Slater as Josh Davis, the local district attorney for the City of Cincinnati
Jena Malone as Myra, a librarian at the Cincinnati Public Library
Taylor Schilling as Angela, Stuart's neighbor and love interest
Michael K. Williams as Jackson, the homeless man who leads the Occupy sit-in at the library
Jeffrey Wright as Mr. Anderson, the head librarian of the Cincinnati Public Library
Gabrielle Union as Rebecca Parks, a local reporter
Jacob Vargas as Ernesto, head of security for the library
Richard T. Jones as Chief Edwards
Ted J. Weil as Disturbed Male Patron
Production[edit]
Filming began in January 2017 in Cincinnati, Ohio.[1]
Casting[edit]
In December 2016, it was announced that Alec Baldwin, Jena Malone, Taylor Schilling and Rhymefest would be joining Emilio Estevez in the film.[2] A few days later, it was announced that Gabrielle Union had been cast in the film.[3] In January 2017, it was announced that Christian Slater, Jeffrey Wright and Michael Kenneth Williams had also joined the cast of the film.[4]
Music[edit]
Composer Tyler Bates will be writing the score for the film.[5]
Release[edit]
The Public held its world premiere as the opening night selection at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival on January 31, 2018.[6]
Marketing[edit]
The first trailer for The Public debuted on YouTube on December 7, 2017.[7] The trailer featured the song "Facing the State" by Rattle Box.[8]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Lincoln, Ross (December 8, 2016). "Alec Baldwin, Taylor Schilling, Jena Malone and Che 'Rhymefest' Smith Join Emilio Estevez-Directed 'The Public'". Deadline. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, Ross (December 8, 2016). "Alec Baldwin, Taylor Schilling, Jena Malone and Che 'Rhymefest' Smith Join Emilio Estevez-Directed 'The Public'". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (December 16, 2016). "Gabrielle Union Joins Emilio Estevez Movie 'The Public'". Variety. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Busch, Anita (January 26, 2017). "Christian Slater, Jeffrey Wright & Michael Kenneth Williams Join Emilio Estevez's 'The Public'". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Burlingame, Jon (21 July 2017). "Tyler Bates Balances Careers as Guitarist and In-Demand Film Composer". Variety. Retrieved 18 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Haring, Bruce (6 December 2017). "Santa Barbara Film Festival to open with Emilio Estevez's 'The Public'". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved 18 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Sullivan, Mallorie (8 December 2017). "Here's your first look at the trailer for Cincinnati-shot 'The Public'". The Cincinnati Enquirer. Retrieved 18 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Rattle Box - Facing the State". SoundCloud.com. SoundCloud. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Public (film)
The Public on IMDb
Official trailer
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The Public (2018)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Public_(film)&oldid=846237619"
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text:
Bloody Mary (cocktail)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Bloody Mary
IBA Official Cocktail
A Bloody Mary garnished with celery served with ice cubes in an Highball glass
Type
Mixed drink
Primary alcohol by volume
Vodka
Served
On the rocks; poured over ice
Standard garnish
Celery stalk and lemon wedge (optional)
Standard drinkware
Highball glass
IBA specified
ingredients
4.5 cl (3 parts) Vodka
9 cl (6 parts) Tomato juice
1.5 cl (1 part) Lemon juice
2 to 3 dashes of Worcestershire Sauce
Tabasco
Celery salt
Pepper
Preparation
Stirring gently, pour all ingredients into highball glass. Garnish.
Bloody Mary recipe at International Bartenders Association
Bloody Mary
A Bloody Mary is a cocktail containing vodka, tomato juice, and combinations of other spices and flavorings including Worcestershire sauce, Hot Sauce, piri piri sauce, garlic and herb sauce, beef consommé or bouillon, horseradish, celery, olives, salt, black pepper, lemon juice, lime juice and/or celery salt. In the United States, it is usually consumed in the morning or early afternoon, and is popular as a hangover cure.
The Bloody Mary was invented in the 1920s or 1930s; there are various theories as to the origin of the drink, as well as the origin of its name. It has many variants, most notably the Red Snapper, the Virgin Mary, the Caesar and the michelada.
Seafood Bloody Mary.
Surf and Turf Bloody Mary
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Origin of the name
3 Preparation and serving
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Fernand Petiot claimed to have invented the Bloody Mary in 1921, well before any of the later claims, according to his grand-daughter.[1] He was working at the New York Bar in Paris at the time, which later became Harry's New York Bar, a frequent Paris hangout for Ernest Hemingway and other American expatriates.[2] The original cocktail is said to have been created on the spur-of-the-moment, according to the bar's own traditions, consisting only of vodka and tomato juice.[3] Harry's Bar also claims to have created numerous other classic cocktails, including the White Lady and the Side Car.[4]
New York's 21 Club has two claims associated with it. One is that it was invented in the 1930s by a bartender named Henry Zbikiewicz, who was charged with mixing Bloody Marys. Another attributes its invention to the comedian George Jessel, who frequented the 21 Club.[5] In 1939, Lucius Beebe printed in his gossip column This New York one of the earliest U.S. references to this drink, along with the original recipe: "George Jessel's newest pick-me-up which is receiving attention from the town's paragraphers is called a Bloody Mary: half tomato juice, half vodka".[6][verification needed]
Fernand Petiot later claimed to have invented the modern Bloody Mary in 1934 as a refinement to Jessel's drink, at the King Cole Room in New York's St. Regis Hotel, according to the hotel's own history.[7] When Petiot spoke to The New Yorker magazine in July 1964, he said:
"I initiated the Bloody Mary of today," he told us. "Jessel said he created it, but it was really nothing but vodka and tomato juice when I took it over. I cover the bottom of the shaker with four large dashes of salt, two dashes of black pepper, two dashes of cayenne pepper, and a layer of Worcestershire sauce; I then add a dash of lemon juice and some cracked ice, put in two ounces of vodka and two ounces of thick tomato juice, shake, strain, and pour. We serve a hundred to a hundred and fifty Bloody Marys a day here in the King Cole Room and in the other restaurants and the banquet rooms."[8]
The cocktail was claimed as a new cocktail under the name "Red Hammer" in Life magazine in 1942, consisting of tomato juice, vodka, and lemon juice.[9] Less than a month later in the same magazine, an advertisement for French's Worcestershire Sauce suggested that it be added to a virgin "Tomato Juice Cocktail" along with tomato juice, salt, and pepper.[10] The addition of salt to the alcoholic beverage was suggested that same year in a story in Hearst's International Combined with Cosmopolitan.[11]
Origin of the name[edit]
The name "Bloody Mary" is associated with a number of historical figures—particularly Queen Mary I of England, who was nicknamed as such in Foxe's Book of Martyrs for attempting to re-establish the Catholic Church in England—and fictional women from folklore.
Some drink aficionados believe the inspiration for the name was Hollywood star Mary Pickford.[12] Others trace the name to a waitress named Mary who worked at a Chicago bar called the Bucket of Blood.[13] The tradition at Harry's New York Bar in Paris, according to manager Alain Da Silva in a 2011 interview, is that one of the patrons for whom the cocktail was first mixed in 1920 or 1921 declared, "It looks like my girlfriend who I met in a cabaret"; the cabaret's name was the Bucket of Blood and the girlfriend's name was Mary, so the patrons and bartender "Pete" Petiot agreed to call it a "Bloody Mary".[3]
Yet another suggested origin of "Bloody Mary" is that the name in English simply arose from "a failure to pronounce the Slav syllables of a drink called Vladimir",[14] which gains some credibility from the anecdotal observation[verification needed] that the customer at The New York Bar for whom Fernand Petiot prepared the drink in 1920/21 was Vladimir Smirnov, of the Smirnoff vodka family.[15]{{broken ref}}
Preparation and serving[edit]
In the United States, the Bloody Mary is a common "Hair of the dog" drink, reputed to cure hangovers with its combination of a heavy vegetable base (to settle the stomach), salt (to replenish lost electrolytes) and alcohol (to relieve head and body aches). Most medical advice suggests that the alcohol only numbs the discomfort: only rest, water, and electrolyte replacement can cure a hangover. Nonetheless, Bloody Mary enthusiasts enjoy some relief from the numbing effects of the alcohol, as well as the placebo effect.[16][17][18][19][20] Its reputation as a restorative beverage contributes to the popularity of the Bloody Mary in the morning and early afternoon, especially with brunch.[21]
The drink is traditionally served over ice in a tall glass, such as a highball, flared pint or hurricane glass. The two critical ingredients, vodka and tomato juice, are relatively simple; however, the drink almost never consists of these two ingredients alone. Among the more common additions to the juice base are salt or celery salt (either mixed in or as a salted rim), cracked pepper, hot sauce (such as Tabasco), citrus juices (especially lemon or lime), Worcestershire sauce, celery seed, horseradish, clam juice or olive brine, brown sugar or molasses and bitters. Some or all of these ingredients can come pre-mixed with the tomato juice as a single "Bloody Mary mix" to which the vodka is added, or the drink may be hand-constructed by the bartender from raw ingredients according to the patron's preference. A common garnish is a celery stalk when served in a tall glass; other common garnishes include olives, cheese cubes, a dill pickle spear, lemon wedges, dried sausage, and shrimp (as the taste of the drink is often reminiscent of shrimp cocktail sauce).
There is a considerable amount of variation available in the drink's construction and presentation including the use of different base spirits like bourbon, rye, tequila and gin. Gin is often preferred in the UK, sometimes called a Red Snapper (although this name is also used for other variants), or Ruddy Mary.[22][23] In addition to the aforementioned more traditional ingredients, practically anything can be added to the drink itself or as a garnish according to the drinker's wishes or the bartender's or establishment's traditions. Some variations of the Bloody Mary served by restaurants are designed to be a meal as well as a drink, coming with massive "garnishes" on skewers inserted into the glass, including ribs, miniature hamburger "sliders", grilled or fried shrimp, kebabs, sandwich wedges, fruit slices, and even sashimi. The drink itself can be served in any of a variety of glasses, from wine glasses to schooners or beer steins, according to tradition or availability. It is a tradition in the upper Midwest, particularly in Wisconsin, to serve a Bloody Mary with a small beer chaser.[24]
A Virgin Mary, also known as a "Bloody Virgin" or "Bloody Shame" (the latter especially in Australia) is a non-alcoholic cocktail, generally using the same ingredients and garnish as a Bloody Mary (according to local custom), but with the spirits replaced by additional tomato juice or prepared mix.[25][23]
See also[edit]
Caesar (or Bloody Caesar)
Michelada
List of cocktails
Liquor portal
Drink portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Sutcliffe, Theodora. "Fernand Petiot". Difford's Guide. Odd Firm of Sin Ltd. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
Jump up ^ MacElhone, Andrew & MacElhone, Duncan (1996) [1986]. Harry's ABC of Mixing Cocktails. Souvenir Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-285-63358-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Chazan, David (25 November 2011). "A century of Harry's Bar in Paris". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 9 November 2017. The story is that there were a few customers, a few friends, and the bartender, Pete [sic] Petiot, made a cocktail for them with tomato juice and vodka.
Jump up ^ The History of Harry's New York Bar - Book and Bar's Website article
Jump up ^ Smith, Andrew F. (2007). The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 55.
Jump up ^ Lucius Beebe (December 2, 1939). "George Jessel's newest pick-me-up which is receiving attention from the town's paragraphers is called Bloody Mary". New York Herald Tribune. p. 9.
Jump up ^ "King Cole Bar: The History Of The Red Snapper". The St. Regis New York. Marriott International, Inc. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Park, Michael Y. (1 December 2008). "Happy Birthday, Bloody Mary!". Epicurious. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Hollywood goes Russian". Life magazine. 13 (8): 38. 1942. 'Red Hammer' is a new Hollywood cocktail. Helene Reynolds mixes one for Bob Turner at her party. It is part tomato juice and part vodka, with a dash of lemon.
Jump up ^ LIFE. Time Inc. 5 October 1942. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Dodge, David (July 1942), "Shear the Black Sheep", Hearst's international combined with Cosmopolitan, Volume 113 (Issue 1), p. 144, retrieved 15 April 2014, 'A couple of Bloody Marys.' The bartender shook his head. 'You got me, friend.' 'A glass of tomato juice, ice, a slug of vodka and some salt.'
Jump up ^ "Potent pick-me-up". Chicago Tribune. 24 July 2002. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Bloody Marys at 1933 prices just the tonic for NYC Reuters, 2 December 2008
Jump up ^ Leigh Fermor, Patrick (November 1, 1976). "Auberon Herbert". In Joliffe, John. Auberon Herbert: A Composite Portrait. Michael Russell. ISBN 978-0859550482. Cited in Leigh Fermor, Patrick (2003). Cooper, Artemis, ed. Words of Mercury. John Murray. p. 160. ISBN 978-0719561061.
Jump up ^ Samuels, Brian (March 18, 2013). "The History of the Bloody Mary". The Boys Club. Retrieved November 30, 2013. Page no longer exists
Jump up ^ Shoffner, Robert (2008-07-01). "Here's to the Bloody Mary". The Washingtonian. Retrieved 2009-06-09.
Jump up ^ "9 Myths About Your Hangover" by Dana Dudepohl, Marie Claire, at WebMD.com
Jump up ^ But Does It Actually Cure Hangovers? Cracked.com
Jump up ^ Mud in Your Eye; a Sheep's Eye in Your Drink Los Angeles Times, 30 December 2001
Jump up ^ Hangovers: There Is A Cure Huffington Post, 29 November 2011
Jump up ^ Garbarino, Steve (21 May 2011). "The Bloody Mary Makeover". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Cloake, Felicity. "How to make the perfect bloody mary". theguardian. The Guardian. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Emen, Jake (Feb 16, 2016). "A Guide to the Bloody Mary and its Many Variations". Eater. Vox Media. Retrieved 9 November 2017. This article lists many variations.
Jump up ^ "Ask OMC: Why do Bloodys come with beer chasers?". OnMilwaukee.com. Retrieved 2016-05-01.
Jump up ^ "Bartending/Cocktails/Bloody Mary". WikiBooks. WikiMedia. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
External links[edit]
Media related to Bloody Mary at Wikimedia Commons
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