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Ancient Greek medicine
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Physician treating a patient (Attic red-figure aryballos, 480–470 BC)
Ancient Greek medicine was a compilation of theories and practices that were constantly expanding through new ideologies and trials. Many components were considered in ancient Greek medicine, intertwining the spiritual with the physical. Specifically, the ancient Greeks believed health was affected by the humors, gender, geographic location, social class, diet, trauma, beliefs, and mindset. Early on the ancient Greeks believed that illnesses were "divine punishments" and that healing was a "gift from the Gods".[1] As trials continued wherein theories were tested against symptoms and results, the pure spiritual beliefs regarding "punishments" and "gifts" were replaced with a foundation based in the physical, i.e., cause and effect.[1]
Humorism (or the four humors) refers to blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm. It was also theorized that gender played a role in medicine because some diseases and treatments were different for women than for men. Moreover, geographic location and social class affected the living conditions of the people and might subject them to different environmental issues such as mosquitoes, rats, and availability of clean drinking water. Diet was thought to be an issue as well and might be affected by a lack of access to adequate nourishment. Trauma, such as that suffered by gladiators, from dog bites or other injuries, played a role in theories relating to understanding anatomy and infections. Additionally, there was significant focus on the beliefs and mind set of the patient in the diagnosis and treatment theories. It was recognized that the mind played a role in healing, or that it might also be the sole basis for the illness.[2]
Ancient Greek medicine began to revolve around the theory of humors. Humoral theory states that good health comes from perfect balance of the four humors blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Consequently, poor health resulted from improper balance of the four humors. Hippocrates, known as the "Father of Modern Medicine", established a medical school at Cos and is the most important figure in ancient Greek medicine.[3] Hippocrates and his students documented numerous illnesses in the Hippocratic Corpus, and developed the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, which is still in use today. The contributions to ancient Greek medicine of Hippocrates, Socrates and others had a lasting influence on Islamic medicine and medieval European medicine until many of their findings eventually became obsolete in the 14th century.
The earliest known Greek medical school opened in Cnidus in 700 BC.[dubious – discuss] Alcmaeon, author of the first anatomical compilation,[citation needed] worked at this school, and it was here that the practice of observing patients was established. Despite their known respect for Egyptian medicine, attempts to discern any particular influence on Greek practice at this early time have not been dramatically successful because of the lack of sources and the challenge of understanding ancient medical terminology. It is clear, however, that the Greeks imported Egyptian substances into their pharmacopoeia, and the influence became more pronounced after the establishment of a school of Greek medicine in Alexandria.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Asclepieia
2 Ancient Greek physicians
3 The Hippocratic Corpus and Humorism
4 Aristotle's influence on Greek perception
5 Herophilus and Erasistratus
6 Galen
7 Dioscorides
8 Historical legacy
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 Further reading
13 External links
Asclepieia[edit]
Rod of Asclepius
Modern depiction of the caduceus as the symbol of commerce
View of the Asklepieion of Kos, the best preserved instance of an Asclepieion.
Asclepius was espoused as the first physician, and myth placed him as the son of Apollo. Temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, known as Asclepieia (Greek: Ἀσκληπιεῖα; sing. Ἀσκληπιεῖον Asclepieion), functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing.[5] At these shrines, patients would enter a dream-like state of induced sleep known as "enkoimesis" (Greek: ἐγκοίμησις) not unlike anesthesia, in which they either received guidance from the deity in a dream or were cured by surgery.[6] Asclepeia provided carefully controlled spaces conducive to healing and fulfilled several of the requirements of institutions created for healing.[5] The Temple of Asclepius in Pergamum had a spring that flowed down into an underground room in the Temple. People would come to drink the waters and to bathe in them because they were believed to have medicinal properties. Mud baths and hot teas such as chamomile were used to calm them or peppermint tea to soothe their headaches, which is still a home remedy used by many today. The patients were encouraged to sleep in the facilities too. Their dreams were interpreted by the doctors and their symptoms were then reviewed. Dogs would occasionally be brought in to lick open wounds for assistance in their healing. In the Asclepieion of Epidaurus, three large marble boards dated to 350 BC preserve the names, case histories, complaints, and cures of about 70 patients who came to the temple with a problem and shed it there. Some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place, but with the patient in a state of enkoimesis induced with the help of soporific substances such as opium.[6]
The Rod of Asclepius is a universal symbol for medicine to this day. However, it is frequently confused with Caduceus, which was a staff wielded by the god Hermes. The Rod of Asclepius embodies one snake with no wings whereas Caduceus is represented by two snakes and a pair of wings depicting the swiftness of Hermes.
Ancient Greek physicians[edit]
Ancient Greek physicians regarded disease as being of supernatural origin, brought about from the dissatisfaction of the gods or from demonic possession.[7] The fault of the ailment was placed on the patient and the role of the physician was to conciliate with the gods or exorcise the demon with prayers, spells, and sacrifices.
The Hippocratic Corpus and Humorism[edit]
The Hippocratic Corpus opposes ancient beliefs, offering biologically based approaches to disease instead of magical intervention. The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of about seventy early medical works from ancient Greece that are associated with Hippocrates and his students. Although once thought to have been written by Hippocrates himself, many scholars today believe that these texts were written by a series of authors over several decades.[8] The Corpus contains the treatise, the Sacred Disease, which argues that if all diseases were derived from supernatural sources, biological medicines would not work. The establishment of the humoral theory of medicine focused on the balance between blood, yellow and black bile, and phlegm in the human body. Being too hot, cold, dry or wet disturbed the balance between the humors, resulting in disease and illness. Gods and demons were not believed to punish the patient, but attributed to bad air (miasma theory). Physicians who practiced humoral medicine focused on reestablishing balance between the humors. The shift from supernatural disease to biological disease did not completely abolish Greek religion, but offered a new method of how physicians interacted with patients.
Ancient Greek physicians who followed humorism emphasized the importance of environment. Physicians believed patients would be subjected to various diseases based on the environment they resided. The local water supply and the direction the wind blew influenced the health of the local populace. Patients played an important role in their treatment. Stated in the treatise "Aphorisms", "[i]t is not enough for the physician to do what is necessary, but the patient and the attendant must do their part as well".[9] Patient compliance was rooted in their respect for the physician. According to the treatise "Prognostic", a physician was able to increase their reputation and respect through "prognosis", knowing the outcome of the disease. Physicians had an active role in the lives of patients, taking into consideration their residence. Distinguishing between fatal diseases and recoverable disease was important for patient trust and respect, positively influencing patient compliance.
Asclepius (center) arrives in Kos and is greeted by Hippocrates (left) and a citizen (right), mosaic from the Asclepieion of Kos, 2nd-3rd century AD
With the growth of patient compliance in Greek medicine, consent became an important factor between the doctor and patient relationship. Presented with all the information concerning the patient's health, the patient makes the decision to accept treatment. Physician and patient responsibility is mentioned in the treatise "Epidemics", where it states, "there are three factors in the practice of medicine: the disease, the patient and the physician. The physician is the servant of science, and the patient must do what he can to fight the disease with the assistance of the physician".[10]
Aristotle's influence on Greek perception[edit]
Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was the most influential scholar of the living world from antiquity. Aristotle's biological writings demonstrate great concern for empiricism, biological causation, and the diversity of life.[11] Aristotle did not experiment, however, holding that items display their real natures in their own environments, rather than controlled artificial ones. While in modern-day physics and chemistry this assumption has been found unhelpful, in zoology and ethology it remains the dominant practice, and Aristotle's work "retains real interest".[12] He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals in the world around him, which he devoted considerable attention to categorizing. In all, Aristotle classified 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50.
Aristotle believed that formal causes guided all natural processes.[13] Such a teleological view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed data as an expression of formal design; for example suggesting that Nature, giving no animal both horns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and generally giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary. In a similar fashion, Aristotle believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to man—the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being.[14]
He held that the level of a creature's perfection was reflected in its form, but not foreordained by that form. Yet another aspect of his biology divided souls into three groups: a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth; a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation; and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection. He attributed only the first to plants, the first two to animals, and all three to humans.[15] Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, and like the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.[16] Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.[17] Aristotle's successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany—the History of Plants—which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the Middle Ages. Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as carpos for fruit, and pericarpion for seed vessel. Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of the efficient cause. Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages.[18] The biological/teleological ideas of Aristotle and Theophrastus, as well as their emphasis on a series of axioms rather than on empirical observation, cannot be easily separated from their consequent impact on Western medicine.
Herophilus and Erasistratus[edit]
Frontispiece to a 1644 version of the expanded and illustrated edition of Theophrastus's Historia Plantarum (c. 1200), which was originally written around 200 BC
Following Theophrastus (d. 286 BC), the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.[19] It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria was Herophilus of Chalcedon, who differed from Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. He did this using an experiment involving cutting certain veins and arteries in a pig's neck until the squealing stopped.[20] In the same vein (no pun intended), he developed a diagnostic technique which relied upon distinguishing different types of pulse.[21] He, and his contemporary, Erasistratus of Chios, researched the role of veins and nerves, mapping their courses across the body.
Erasistratus connected the increased complexity of the surface of the human brain compared to other animals to its superior intelligence. He sometimes employed experiments to further his research, at one time repeatedly weighing a caged bird and noting its weight loss between feeding times. Following his teacher's researches into pneumatics, he claimed that the human system of blood vessels was controlled by vacuums, drawing blood across the body. In Erasistratus' physiology, air enters the body, is then drawn by the lungs into the heart, where it is transformed into vital spirit, and is then pumped by the arteries throughout the body. Some of this vital spirit reaches the brain, where it is transformed into animal spirit, which is then distributed by the nerves.[22] Herophilus and Erasistratus performed their experiments upon criminals given to them by their Ptolemaic kings. They dissected these criminals alive, and "while they were still breathing they observed parts which nature had formerly concealed, and examined their position, colour, shape, size, arrangement, hardness, softness, smoothness, connection."[23]
Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. In the words of Ernst Mayr, "Nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."[24] Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly.[25]
Galen[edit]
Main article: Galen
Aelius Galenus was a prominent Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire.[26][27][28] Arguably the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, Galen influenced the development of various scientific disciplines, including anatomy,[29] physiology, pathology,[30] pharmacology,[31] and neurology, as well as philosophy[32] and logic.
The son of Aelius Nicon, a wealthy architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician and philosopher. Born in Pergamon (present-day Bergama, Turkey), Galen traveled extensively, exposing himself to a wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling in Rome, where he served prominent members of Roman society and eventually was given the position of personal physician to several emperors.
Galen's understanding of anatomy and medicine was principally influenced by the then-current theory of humorism, as advanced by ancient Greek physicians such as Hippocrates. His theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for more than 1,300 years. His anatomical reports, based mainly on dissection of monkeys, especially the Barbary macaque, and pigs, remained uncontested until 1543, when printed descriptions and illustrations of human dissections were published in the seminal work De humani corporis fabrica by Andreas Vesalius[33][34] where Galen's physiological theory was accommodated to these new observations.[35] Galen's theory of the physiology of the circulatory system endured until 1628, when William Harvey published his treatise entitled De motu cordis, in which he established that blood circulates, with the heart acting as a pump.[36][37] Medical students continued to study Galen's writings until well into the 19th century. Galen conducted many nerve ligation experiments that supported the theory, which is still accepted today, that the brain controls all the motions of the muscles by means of the cranial and peripheral nervous systems.[38]
Galen saw himself as both a physician and a philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise entitled That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher.[39][40][41] Galen was very interested in the debate between the rationalist and empiricist medical sects,[42] and his use of direct observation, dissection and vivisection represents a complex middle ground between the extremes of those two viewpoints.[43][44][45]
Dioscorides[edit]
The first century AD Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and Roman army surgeon Pedanius Dioscorides authored an encyclopedia of medicinal substances commonly known as De Materia Medica. This work did not delve into medical theory or explanation of pathogenesis, but described the uses and actions of some 600 substances, based on empirical observation. Unlike other works of Classical antiquity, Dioscorides' manuscript was never out of publication; it formed the basis for the Western pharmacopeia through the 19th century, a true testament to the efficacy of the medicines described ; moreover, the influence of work on European herbal medicine eclipsed that of the Hippocratic Corpes.[46]
Historical legacy[edit]
Through long contact with omans adopted a favorable view of Hippocratic medicine.[47]
This acceptance led to the spread of Greek medical theories throughout the Roman Empire, and thus a large portion of the West. The most influential Roman scholar to continue and expand on the Hippocratic tradition was Galen (d. c. 207). Study of Hippocratic and Galenic texts, however, all but disappeared in the Latin West in the Early Middle Ages, following the collapse of the Western Empire, although the Hippocratic-Galenic tradition of Greek medicine continued to be studied and practiced in the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). After AD 750, Arab, Persian and Andalusi scholars translated Galen's and Dioscorides' works in particular. Thereafter the Hippocratic-Galenic medical tradition was assimilated and eventually expanded, with the most influential Muslim doctor-scholar being (Ibn Sina). Beginning in the late eleventh century, the Hippocratic-Galenic tradition returned to the Latin West with a series of translations of the Classical texts, mainly from Arabic translations but occasionally from the original Greek. In the Renaissance, more translations of Galen and Hippocrates directly from the Greek were made from newly available Byzantine manuscripts.
Galen's influence was so great that even after Western Europeans started making dissections in the thirteenth century, scholars often assimilated findings into the Galenic model that otherwise might have thrown Galen's accuracy into doubt. Over time, however, Classical medical theory came to be superseded by increasing emphasis on scientific experimental methods in the 16th and 17th centuries. Nevertheless, the Hippocratic-Galenic practice of bloodletting was practiced into the 19th century, despite its empirical ineffectiveness and riskiness.
See also[edit]
Medical community of ancient Rome
Medicine in ancient Rome
On Ancient Medicine (Hippocratic Corpus)
Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Cartwright, Mark (2013). "Greek Medicine". Ancient History Encyclopedia Limited. UK. Retrieved November 9, 2013.
Jump up ^ Bendick, Jeanne. "Galen – And the Gateway to Medicine." Ignatius Press, San Francisco, CA, 2002. ISBN 1-883937-75-2.
Jump up ^ Atlas of Anatomy, ed. Giunti Editorial Group, Taj Books LTD 2002, p. 9
Jump up ^ Heinrich von Staden, Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 1-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Risse, G. B. Mending bodies, saving souls: a history of hospitals. Oxford University Press, 1990. p. 56 [1]
^ Jump up to: a b Askitopoulou, H., Konsolaki, E., Ramoutsaki, I., Anastassaki, E. Surgical cures by sleep induction as the Asclepieion of Epidaurus. The mistory of anesthesia: proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium, by José Carlos Diz, Avelino Franco, Douglas R. Bacon, J. Rupreht, Julián Alvarez. Elsevier Science B.V., International Congress Series 1242(2002), p.11-17. [2]
Jump up ^ Kaba, R.; Sooriakumaran, P. (2007). "The evolution of the doctor-patient relationship". International Journal of Surgery. 5 (1): 57–65. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2006.01.005.
Jump up ^ Vivian Nutton'Ancient Medicine'(Routledge 2004)
Jump up ^ Chadwick, edited with an introduction by G.E.R. Lloyd ; translated [from the Greek] by J.; al.], W.N. Mann ... [et (1983). Hippocratic writings ([New] ed., with additional material, Repr. in Penguin classics. ed.). Harmondsworth: Penguin. p. 206. ISBN 0140444513. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Chadwick. Hippocratic Writings. p. 94. ISBN 0140444513.
Jump up ^ Mason, A History of the Sciences pp 41
Jump up ^ Annas, Classical Greek Philosophy pp 247
Jump up ^ Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, pp 84-90, 135; Mason, A History of the Sciences, p 41-44
Jump up ^ Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, pp 201-202; see also: Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being
Jump up ^ Aristotle, De Anima II 3
Jump up ^ Mason, A History of the Sciences pp 45
Jump up ^ Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy Vol. 1 pp. 348
Jump up ^ Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, pp 90-91; Mason, A History of the Sciences, p 46
Jump up ^ Annas, Classical Greek Philosophy pp 252
Jump up ^ Mason, A History of the Sciences pp 56
Jump up ^ Barnes, Hellenistic Philosophy and Science pp 383
Jump up ^ Mason, A History of the Sciences, p 57
Jump up ^ Barnes, Hellenistic Philosophy and Science, pp 383-384
Jump up ^ Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, pp 90-94; quotation from p 91
Jump up ^ Annas, Classical Greek Philosophy, p 252
Jump up ^ "Life, death, and entertainment in the Roman Empire". David Stone Potter, D. J. Mattingly (1999). University of Michigan Press. p. 63. ISBN 0-472-08568-9
Jump up ^ "Galen on bloodletting: a study of the origins, development, and validity of his opinions, with a translation of the three works". Peter Brain, Galen (1986). Cambridge University Press. p.1. ISBN 0-521-32085-2
Jump up ^ Nutton Vivian (1973). "The Chronology of Galen's Early Career". Classical Quarterly. 23 (1): 158–171. doi:10.1017/S0009838800036600. PMID 11624046.
Jump up ^ "Galen on the affected parts. Translation from the Greek text with explanatory notes". Med Hist. 21 (2): 212. doi:10.1017/s0025727300037935. PMC 1081972  .
Jump up ^ Arthur John Brock (translator), Introduction. Galen. On the Natural Faculties. Edinburgh 1916
Jump up ^ Galen on pharmacology
Jump up ^ Galen on the brain
Jump up ^ Andreas Vesalius (1543). De humani corporis fabrica, Libri VII (in Latin). Basel, Switzerland: Johannes Oporinus. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
Jump up ^ O'Malley, C., Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564, Berkeley: University of California Press
Jump up ^ Siraisi, Nancy G., (1991) Girolamo Cardano and the Art of Medical Narrative, Journal of the History of Ideas. pp. 587–88.
Jump up ^ William Harvey (1628). Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (in Latin). Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Sumptibus Guilielmi Fitzeri. p. 72. ISBN 0-398-00793-4. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Furley, D, and J. Wilkie, 1984, Galen On Respiration and the Arteries, Princeton University Press, and Bylebyl, J (ed), 1979, William Harvey and His Age, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
Jump up ^ Frampton, M., 2008, Embodiments of Will: Anatomical and Physiological Theories of Voluntary Animal Motion from Greek Antiquity to the Latin Middle Ages, 400 B.C.–A.D. 1300, Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag. pp. 180 – 323
Jump up ^ Claudii Galeni Pergameni (1992). Odysseas Hatzopoulos, ed. "That the best physician is also a philosopher" with a Modern Greek Translation. Athens, Greece: Odysseas Hatzopoulos & Company: Kaktos Editions.
Jump up ^ Theodore J. Drizis (Fall 2008). "Medical ethics in a writing of Galen". Acta Med Hist Adriat. 6 (2): 333–336. PMID 20102254.
Jump up ^ Brian, P., 1977, "Galen on the ideal of the physician", South Africa Medical Journal, 52: 936–938 pdf
Jump up ^ Frede, M. and R. Walzer, 1985, Three Treatises on the Nature of Science, Indianapolis: Hacket.
Jump up ^ De Lacy P (1972). "Galen's Platonism". American Journal of Philosophy. 1972: 27–39. doi:10.2307/292898.
Jump up ^ Cosans C (1997). "Galen's Critique of Rationalist and Empiricist Anatomy". Journal of the History of Biology. 30: 35–54. doi:10.1023/a:1004266427468. PMID 11618979.
Jump up ^ Cosans C (1998). "The Experimental Foundations of Galen's Teleology". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science. 29: 63–80. doi:10.1016/s0039-3681(96)00005-2.
Jump up ^ De Vos (2010). "European Materia Medica in Historical Texts: Longevity of a Tradition and Implications for Future Use". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 132 (1): 28–47. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.05.035.
Jump up ^ Heinrich von Staden, "Liminal Perils: Early Roman Receptions of Greek Medicine", in Tradition, Transmission, Transformation, ed. F. Jamil Ragep and Sally P. Ragep with Steven Livesey (Leiden: Brill, 1996), pp. 369-418.
Bibliography[edit]
Connor, J. T. H. An English Language Bibliography of Classical Greek Medicine
Further reading[edit]
Annas, Julia. Classical Greek Philosophy. In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (ed.) The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford University Press: New York, 1986. ISBN 0-19-872112-9
Barnes, Jonathan. Hellenistic Philosophy and Science. In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (ed.) The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford University Press: New York, 1986. ISBN 0-19-872112-9
Cohn-Haft, Louis. The Public Physicians of Ancient Greece, Northampton, Massachusetts, 1956.
Guido, Majno. The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient World, Harvard University Press, 1975.
Guthrie, W. K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy. Volume I: The earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans. Cambridge University Press: New York, 1962. ISBN 0-521-29420-7
Jones, W. H. S. Philosophy and Medicine in Ancient Greece, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1946.
Lennox, James (2006-02-15). Aristotle's Biology. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Longrigg, James. Greek Rational Medicine: Philosophy and Medicine from Alcmæon to the Alexandrians, Routledge, 1993.
Lovejoy, Arthur O. The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea. Harvard University Press, 1936. Reprinted by Harper & Row, ISBN 0-674-36150-4, 2005 paperback: ISBN 0-674-36153-9
Mason, Stephen F. A History of the Sciences. Collier Books: New York, 1956.
Mayr, Ernst. The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1982. ISBN 0-674-36445-7
Nutton, Vivian. The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient World. Routledge, 2004
Heinrich von Staden (ed. trans.). Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria. Cambridge University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-521-23646-0, ISBN 978-0-521-23646-1]
Longrigg, James. Greek Medicine From the Heroic to the Hellenistic Age. New York, NY, 1998. ISBN 0-415-92087-6
External links[edit]
Ancient Greek Medicine in medicinenet.com
Greek Medicine by the History of Medicine Division of the National Library of Medicine.
(in French) (in English) Medicine in Antiquity
greekmedicine.net
Greek and Roman Medicine: An Introductory Bibliography for Graduate Students in Classics at Ancient Medicine compiled by Lee T. Pearcy
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Kopi Luwak
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Sumatran kopi luwak farmer gathers up the droppings of civet cats which eat coffee cherries, digest them, then egest them in their feces.
Kopi luwak (Indonesian pronunciation: [ˈkopi ˈlu.aʔ]), or civet coffee, is coffee that includes part-digested coffee cherries eaten and defecated by the Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus).[1] Fermentation occurs as the cherries pass through a civet's intestines, and after being defecated with other fecal matter, they are collected.
Producers of the coffee beans argue that the process may improve coffee through two mechanisms, selection – civets choosing to eat only certain cherries – and digestion – biological or chemical mechanisms in the animal's digestive tract altering the composition of the coffee cherries.
The traditional method of collecting feces from wild civets has given way to intensive farming methods in which civets in battery cage systems are force-fed the cherries. This method of production has raised ethical concerns about the treatment of civets due to "horrific conditions" including isolation, poor diet, small cages and a high mortality rate.[2][3][4]
Although kopi luwak is a form of processing rather than a variety of coffee, it has been called one of the most expensive coffees in the world, with retail prices reaching €550 / US$700 per kilogram.[5]
Kopi luwak is produced mainly on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali and Sulawesi in the Indonesian Archipelago. It is also widely gathered in the forest or produced in the farms in the islands of the Philippines (where the product is called kape motit in the Cordillera region, kapé alamíd in Tagalog areas, and kapé melô or kapé musang in Mindanao island), and in East Timor (where it is called kafé-laku). Weasel coffee is a loose English translation of its Vietnamese name cà phê Chồn, where popular, chemically simulated versions are also produced.
Contents
1 History
2 Production
3 Taste
4 Imitation
5 Animal welfare
6 Price and availability
7 Authenticity and fraud
8 Variations
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
History[edit]
The origin of kopi luwak is closely connected with the history of coffee production in Indonesia. In the early 18th century the Dutch established the cash-crop coffee plantations in their colony in the Dutch East Indies islands of Java and Sumatra, including Arabica coffee introduced from Yemen. During the era of Cultuurstelsel (1830–70), the Dutch prohibited the native farmers and plantation workers from picking coffee fruits for their own use. Still, the native farmers wanted to have a taste of the famed coffee beverage. Soon, the natives learned that certain species of musang or luwak (Asian palm civet) consumed the coffee fruits, yet they left the coffee seeds undigested in their droppings. The natives collected these luwaks' coffee seed droppings, then cleaned, roasted and ground them to make their own coffee beverage.[6] The fame of aromatic civet coffee spread from locals to Dutch plantation owners and soon became their favourite, yet because of its rarity and unusual process, the civet coffee was expensive even during the colonial era.[citation needed]
Production[edit]
An Asian palm civet
The luak, that's a small catlike animal, gorges after dark on the most ripe, the best of our crop. It digests the fruit and expels the beans, which our farm people collect, wash, and roast, a real delicacy. Something about the natural fermentation that occurs in the luak's stomach seems to make the difference. For Javanese, this is the best of all coffees—our Kopi luak.
—  Doyo Soeyono Kertosastro, Indonesian Coffee Farmer, March 1981 National Geographic[7]
Kopi is the Indonesian word for coffee. Luwak is a local name of the Asian palm civet in Sumatra.[1][8] Palm civets are primarily frugivorous, feeding on berries and pulpy fruits such as figs and palms. Civets also eat small vertebrates, insects, ripe fruits and seeds.[9]
Producers of the coffee beans argue that the process may improve coffee through two mechanisms, selection and digestion. Selection occurs as the civets choose which cherries to eat – i.e. those that are most ripe and flawless. Digestive mechanisms may improve the flavor profile of the coffee beans that have been eaten. The civet eats the cherries for the fleshy pulp, then in the digestive tract, fermentation occurs. The civet's protease enzymes seep into the beans, making shorter peptides and more free amino acids.[10]
Early production began when beans were gathered in the wild from where a civet would defecate as a means to mark its territory. On farms, civets are either caged or allowed to roam within defined boundaries.[1]
Coffee berries are eaten by a civet for their fruit pulp. After spending about a day and a half in the civet's digestive tract the beans are then defecated in clumps, having kept their shape and still covered with some of the fleshy berry's inner layers.
Despite being in contact with faeces and pathogenic organisms, the beans contain negligible amounts of the enteric (pathogenic) organisms associated with feces. Moreover, the "cherry" or endocarp surrounding the bean is not completely digested by the luwak, and after being collected, the farmer performs thorough washing and removes the endocarp.[11] The final roasting of the beans would, additionally, eliminate any remaining bacteria.
Sumatra is the world's largest regional producer of kopi luwak. Sumatran civet coffee beans are mostly an early arabica variety cultivated in the Indonesian archipelago since the 17th century. The major Sumatran kopi luwak production area is in Lampung, Bengkulu and Aceh especially the Gayo region, Takengon. Tagalog kape alamid comes from civets fed on a mixture of coffee beans and is sold in the Batangas region along with gift shops near airports in the Philippines.
Vietnam has two farms with 300 wild civets in Dak Lak, while in Mindanao island of the Philippines, has two farms with 200 (in Davao City) and 100 (Iligan City) wild civets. But the archipelago of Indonesia where the famous kopi luwak was first discovered and produced is leading in supplying the world market for almost three centuries, where many small-scale civet farms are proliferating in the countryside.
Defecated luwak coffee berries, East Java
Several studies have examined the process in which the animal's stomach acids and enzymes digest the beans' covering and ferment the beans.[11][12][13] Research by food scientist Massimo Marcone at the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada showed that the civet's endogenous digestive secretions seep into the beans. These secretions carry proteolytic enzymes which break down the beans' proteins, yielding shorter peptides and more free amino acids. The proteins also undergo non-enzymatic Maillard browning reactions in the later roasting process. Moreover, while inside a civet the beans begin to germinate by malting which also lowers their bitterness.[10][14] Marcone also conducted an analysis on the volatile compounds which are responsible for the coffee's flavour and aroma, showing that there are significant differences from regular coffee. He concluded that:[11]
Protein structure had been altered, reducing bitterness and potentially impacting flavour.
Volatile compounds had significant differences compared to regular coffee, indicating there are changes in flavour.
According to Dr. Davila Cortes, the altered protein structure degrades the effectiveness of the coffee as a diuretic.[15]
Taste[edit]
A cup of Kopi Luwak from Gayo, Takengon, Aceh.
Few objective assessments of taste are available. Kopi luwak is a name for any beans collected from the excrement of civets, hence the taste may vary with the type and origin of beans ingested, processing subsequent to collection, roasting, aging and brewing. The ability of the civet to select its berries, and other aspects of the civet's diet and health (e.g. stress levels) may also influence the processing and hence taste.[1]
In the coffee industry, kopi luwak is widely regarded as a gimmick or novelty item.[16] The Specialty Coffee Association of America (SCAA) states that there is a "general consensus within the industry ... it just tastes bad". A coffee professional cited in the SCAA article was able to compare the same beans with and without the kopi luwak process using a rigorous coffee cupping evaluation. He concluded: "it was apparent that Luwak coffee sold for the story, not superior quality...Using the SCAA cupping scale, the Luwak scored two points below the lowest of the other three coffees. It would appear that the Luwak processing diminishes good acidity and flavor and adds smoothness to the body, which is what many people seem to note as a positive to the coffee.”
Tim Carman, food writer for the Washington Post reviewed kopi luwak available to US consumers and concluded "It tasted just like...Folgers. Stale. Lifeless. Petrified dinosaur droppings steeped in bathtub water. I couldn't finish it."[17]
Some critics claim more generally that kopi luwak is simply bad coffee, purchased for novelty rather than taste.[16][17][18][19] Massimo Marcone, who performed extensive chemical tests on the beans, was unable to conclude if anything about their properties made them superior for purposes of making coffee. He employed several professional coffee tasters (called "cuppers") in a blind taste test. While the cuppers were able to distinguish the kopi luwak as distinct from the other samples, they had nothing remarkable to appraise about it other than it was less acidic and had less body, tasting "thin". Marcone remarked "It's not that people are after that distinct flavor. They are after the rarity of the coffee".[20]
Imitation[edit]
Several commercial processes attempt to replicate the digestive process of the civets without animal involvement.
Researchers with the University of Florida have been issued with a patent for one such process.[13][21] Brooklyn-based food startup Afineur has also developed a patented fermentation technology that reproduces some of the taste aspects of Kopi Luwak while improving coffee bean taste and nutritional profile.[22][23][24]
Vietnamese companies sell an imitation kopi luwak, made using an enzyme soak which they claim replicates the civet's digestive process.[12]
Imitation has several motivations. The high price of kopi luwak drives the search for a way to produce kopi luwak in large quantities. Kopi luwak production involves a great deal of labour, whether farmed or wild-gathered. The small production quantity and the labor involved in production contribute to the coffee's high cost.[25] Imitation may be a response to the decrease in the civet population.[26]
Animal welfare[edit]
Civet in a cage
Initially, civet coffee beans were picked from wild civet excrement found around coffee plantations. This unusual process contributed to its rarity and subsequently, its high price. More recently, growing numbers of intensive civet "farms" have been established and operated across Southeast Asia, confining tens of thousands of animals to live in battery cages and be force-fed.[27][28][29] Concerns were raised over the safety of civet coffee after evidence suggested that the SARS virus originated from palm civets.[30][31]
'"The conditions are awful, much like battery chickens", said Chris Shepherd, deputy regional director of the conservation NGO, TRAFFIC south-east Asia. "The civets are taken from the wild and have to endure horrific conditions. They fight to stay together but they are separated and have to bear a very poor diet in very small cages. There is a high mortality rate and for some species of civet, there's a real conservation risk. It's spiralling out of control. But there's not much public awareness of how it's actually made. People need to be aware that tens of thousands of civets are being kept in these conditions. It would put people off their coffee if they knew"'.[2]
A 2013 investigation by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) Asia found wild-caught civets on farms in Indonesia and the Philippines. The animals were deprived of exercise, a proper diet, and space. Video footage from the investigation shows abnormal behaviours such as repeated pacing, circling, or biting the bars of their cages. The animals often lose their fur.[32] A BBC investigation revealed similar findings.[4]
Tony Wild, the coffee executive responsible for bringing kopi luwak to the Western world, has stated he no longer supports using kopi luwak due to animal cruelty and launched a campaign called "Cut the Crap" to halt the use of kopi luwak.[33]
Farmers using caged civets in Takengon, north Sumatra, confirmed to the BBC that they supplied kopi luwak beans to exporters whose produce ends up in Europe and Asia.[4]
Intensive farming is also criticised by traditional farmers because the civets do not select what they eat, so the cherries which are fed to them in order to flavor the coffee are of poor quality compared to those beans collected from the wild.[34] According to an officer from the TRAFFIC conservation programme, the trade in civets to make kopi luwak may constitute a significant threat to wild civet populations.[35]
Price and availability[edit]
A window display in an upscale coffee shop showing Luwak Coffee in forms of defecated clumps (bottom), unroasted beans (left) and roasted beans (right)
Kopi luwak is one of the most expensive coffees in the world, selling for between US$100 and $500 per pound in 2010.[1] The specialty Vietnamese weasel coffee, which is made by collecting coffee beans eaten by wild civets, is sold at US$500 per kilogram.[36] Most customers are Asian, especially those originating from Japan, China and South Korea.[37] Sources vary widely as to annual worldwide production.
The price of farmed (considered low-grade by connoisseurs) kopi luwak in large Indonesian supermarkets is from US$100 per kilogram (five times the price of a high quality local arabica coffee).
The price paid to collectors in the Philippines is closer to US$20 per kilogram.[1]
Some specialty coffee shops sell cups of brewed kopi luwak for US$35–80.[38][39]
Authenticity and fraud[edit]
Investigations by PETA and the BBC found fraud to be rife in the kopi luwak industry, with producers willing to label coffee from caged civets with a "wild sourced" or similar label.[32][4]
Genuine kopi luwak from wild civets is difficult to purchase in Indonesia and proving it is not fake is very difficult – there is little enforcement regarding use of the name "kopi luwak", and there's even a local cheap coffee brand named "Luwak", which costs under US$3 per kilogram but is occasionally sold online under the guise of real kopi luwak.
Variations[edit]
There are reports of a kopi luwak type process occurring naturally with muntjac and birds. Bat coffee is another variation that is in demand. Bats feed on the ripest coffee and fruits and spit out the seeds. These seeds are dried and processed to make coffee with a slight fruity flavor.[40][41]
See also[edit]
Coffee portal
Asian palm civet
Black Ivory coffee
Indonesian cuisine
List of Indonesian beverages
Balinese cuisine
Panda tea from panda dung
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Onishi, Norimitsu (17 April 2010). "From dung to coffee brew with no aftertaste". The New York Times.
^ Jump up to: a b Milman, Oliver (November 11, 2012). "World's most expensive coffee tainted by 'horrific' civet abuse". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 25 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Penha, James (August 4, 2012). "Excreted by imprisoned civets, kopi luwak no longer a personal favorite". The Jakarta Globe. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lynn, Guy; Rogers, Chris (September 13, 2013). "Civet cat coffee's animal cruelty secrets". BBC News. Retrieved 2013-09-16.
Jump up ^ Lee, Hyon Jung (19 July 2006). "Most expensive coffee". Forbes. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
Jump up ^ National Geographic Travelers Indonesia, November 2010, page 44
Jump up ^ Starbird, Ethel A. "The bonanza bean: Coffee". National Geographic.
Jump up ^ "Tasting is Believing!". Cluwak. Retrieved September 9, 2013.
Jump up ^ Ismail, Ahmad. "Common palm civet". Retrieved 18 February 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Marcone, Massimo (2007), In Bad Taste: The Adventures And Science Behind Food Delicacies
^ Jump up to: a b c "Kopi luwak coffee safe, U of G study finds". University of Guelph. 26 November 2002.
^ Jump up to: a b "Legendee: The Legend of the Weasel". trung-nguyen-online.com. Retrieved 18 February 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Quality enhancement of coffee beans by acid and enzyme treatment". Reeis.usda.gov. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Marcone, Massimo (2004). "Composition and properties of Indonesian palm civet coffee (Kopi Luwak) and Ethiopian civet coffee". Food Research International. 37 (9): 901–912. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2004.05.008.
Jump up ^ Davila Cortes, Glenda "The International Guide to Coffee" 2008
^ Jump up to: a b Kubota, Lily (November 2, 2011). "The value of a good story, or: How to turn poop into gold". Specialty Coffee Association of America. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Carman, Tim (4 January 2012). "This Sumatran civet coffee is cra...really terrible". The Washington Post.
Jump up ^ Hetzel, Andrew (December 7, 2011). "Kopi Luwak: curiosity kills the civet cat". Coffee Quality Strategies. Retrieved 25 August 2012. Kopi Luwak is, in more than one way, the coffee of assholes
Jump up ^ Sinclair, Llewellyn (December 7, 2011). "Just say no to kopi luwak". Sprudge.com. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Kleiner, Kurt (16 Oct 2004). "Bean there, dung that". New Scientist. 184 (2469): 44–45. Retrieved 2012-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Quality Enhancement of Coffee Beans by Acid and Enzyme Treatment". Faqs.org. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Andrey Smith, Peter. "Better Coffee Through Bacterial Chemistry". Bloomberg. Bloomberg. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Zimberoff, Larissa. "How a New Startup Is Refining the Flavor of Coffee via Microbial Fermentation". Eater. Eater. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
Jump up ^ WURGAFT, BEN. "Vegan Kopi Luwak? Biotech's Cruelty Free Coffee Fermentation". Sprudge. Sprudge. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Feature by WBAL Channel 11 television news team". Youtube.com. 11 January 2010. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
Jump up ^ "Vietnam species 'risk extinction'". BBC News. 13 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "Civet cat coffee: can world's most expensive brew be made sustainably?". The Guardian. 19 Sep 2014.
Jump up ^ "Civet cat coffee: A delicious beverage or a case of animal cruelty?". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 12 Apr 2015.
Jump up ^ "Coffee, civets and conservation". The Sunday Times Sri Lanka. 28 Feb 2015.
Jump up ^ "WHO: More evidence of civet cat-SARs link". CNN. January 17, 2004. Archived from the original on December 1, 2004. Retrieved 2007-08-16.
Jump up ^ "China scientists say SARS-civet cat link proved". Reuters. 23 November 2006. Retrieved 2007-08-16.
^ Jump up to: a b "Kopi Luwak Investigation". PETA Asia. Retrieved October 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ Wild, Tony (2013-09-13). "Civet coffee: Why it's time to cut the crap". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ AnimalCoffee. "The process of making kopi luwak". AnimalCoffee.com. Retrieved 3 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Shepherd, Chris R. (December 2012). "Observations of small carnivores in Jakarta wildlife markets, Indonesia, with notes on trade in Javan Ferret Badger Melogale orientalis and on the increasing demand for Common Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus for civet coffee production" (PDF). Small Carnivore Conservation. 47: 38–41. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.4290  . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Thout, Buon Me (January 15, 2012). "Coffee in Vietnam: It's the shit". The Economist. Retrieved November 10, 2013.
Jump up ^ McGeown, Kate (1 May 2011). "Civet passes on secret to luxury coffee". News. BBC.
Jump up ^ "Kopi Luwak". AU: Heritage tea rooms. 5 September 2007. Retrieved 18 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "The £50 espresso". The Guardian. London. 11 April 2008. Retrieved 18 February 2010.
Jump up ^ https://otterscreek.in/coorg-home-stay/wild-bat-coffee/
Jump up ^ Abrams, Lindsay (2013-10-22). "Are you fancy enough for bird poop coffee?". Salon.com.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kopi Luwak.
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (January 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Sumatra – Extreme Coffee (television), AU: ABC, 2007
"Story and photo report", News, AU: ABC, 12 March 2010
Civet coffee selling well despite SARS, BBC
Report in the Philippines, BBC
Cat poop coffee (article), CA: CBC, 13 September 2002
"World's most expensive coffee tainted by 'horrific' civet abuse", The Guardian, UK, 19 November 2012
Kopi Luwak: Most bizzare coffee in the world, Lataza Coffee
The effects of the digestive system on coffee beans (article), CA: University of Guelph
"Civet coffee", USA Today (article), 20 January 2004
Lam Dong has first farm producing weasel coffee in VietNam, VN: Vietnam+
"Lam Dong's 1st weasel coffee farm opens in VietNam", Tuoitre news, VN
$2 million weasel coffee farm in Da Lat, VN: Vietnam net .
Bat Coffee The Healthier Coffee in Demand, Coorg India: Otterscreek .
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She's So Mean
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"She's So Mean"
Single by Matchbox Twenty
from the album North
Released
June 12, 2012 (2012-06-12)
Format
Digital download
Recorded
2011
Genre
Power pop,[1] pop rock
Length
3:50
Label
Atlantic
Songwriter(s)
Rob Thomas
Kyle Cook
Paul Doucette
Matchbox Twenty singles chronology
"These Hard Times"
(2008) "She's So Mean"
(2012) "Overjoyed"
(2012)
"These Hard Times"
(2008) "She's So Mean"
(2012) "Overjoyed"
(2012)
Music video
"She's So Mean" on YouTube
"She's So Mean" is a song by American alternative rock band Matchbox Twenty. It was released on June 12, 2012 as the first single from their fourth studio album North. The song received generally favorable reviews from music critics, who complimented its fun content and catchiness. The song performed moderately well on the charts, peaking inside the top 20 in Austria and New Zealand, and the top 40 in Australia, United States and Canada. A music video was released for the song on July 30, 2012.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background and release
2 Composition
3 Critical reception
4 Chart performance
5 Music video
6 Charts and certifications
6.1 Peak positions
6.2 Certifications
7 References
8 External links
Background and release[edit]
After a decade without releasing a new studio album, the band gathered to work on a full-length studio album, since their compilation Exile on Mainstream, released in 2007, featured seven new songs.[2] Its vocalist, Rob Thomas, stated that, "It could sound like the Kinks, it could sound like Maroon 5, but follow that thread, follow it all the way through."[2] The two-year writing and recording sessions (started in 2010 and ended in 2012) led to over 60 ideas that longtime producer Matt Serletic helped the group chop down to the 12 songs that made North.[2] Among the 12 tracks, "She's so Mean" was included. Speaking to Artist Direct, Matchbox Twenty drummer Paul Doucette commented,
"This one came out of a simple chord progression. We had to write an entire song over this chord progression. Everyone would come up with a section. The basic melodic structure was written in a few minutes. We were fairly drunk at the time [Laughs]. We were recording everything we were doing. We traded off singing different melodies over it. It's pretty funny to listen to, I have to say."[3]
Thomas says the song's about "the wrong kind of girls that we've probably all dated," though as a band of mostly married men for the last decade, they turned to other sources of inspiration. "Luckily, you have single friends who are making really bad decisions, so you can draw on their experiences," he laughed.[2]
"She's So Mean" was released as "North" lead-single on June 12, 2012,[4] while an EP featuring 3 remixes was released on August 1, 2012.[5]
Composition[edit]
"She's So Mean" was written by Matchbox Twenty members, Rob Thomas, Kyle Cook and Paul Doucette, while production was handled by Matt Serletic.[6] It is a power pop song, with handclap intro and catchy guitar refrain.[1] David Greenwald of Billboard Magazine commented that the song "recalls the band's late '90s early days," and that "With lyrics about a bad girl who "drinks Bacardi in the morning," it's ready to soundtrack a future 'Jersey Shore' episode, or at least a summer at the beach."[2] For Melinda Newman of HitFix opined, "The song is redolent of ‘70s power pop—that territory that Fountains of Wayne has mined so successfully — yet it never sounds overly retro."[1]
Lyrically, it talks about wanting something that's not good for you. According to the band, it can be interpreted in two ways; a guy wanting a girl who's not nice to him or wanting things that are bad for you, not knowing they're bad for you, and saying, 'I still want it'."[3] “Every now and then she makes you a little bit crazy/she’ll insert a knife in your back and then she’s calling you baby," Thomas sings.[1] For Paul Doucette, "'She's So Mean' is more lighthearted and tongue-in-cheek than we usually do because we haven't done that yet."[3]
Critical reception[edit]
"She's So Mean" received generally favorable reviews from music critics. Melinda Newman of HitFix was positive, calling it "an ear worm waiting to invade your brain and not let go for the rest of the year." She also complimented the production, calling it "deceptively simple, but each drumbeat, every little yelp by Rob Thomas, only makes the song more seductive."[1] Glenn Gamboa of Newsday wrote that the song "works, picking up the pace, adding some snark and turning up the drums in the mix so they're almost dueling with Thomas' vocals."[7] James Hunter of Rolling Stone named it "a droll look at addiction and a master class in snappiness."[8]
While reviewing the album, Steve Lapore of PopMatters was mixed, writing that the song "sounds like Matchbox Twenty are trying to teach young whippersnappers like Adam Levine a thing or two about this hit-makin’ business. The problem is, sadly, that they can’t and don’t. They sound uncomfortable and too old to be singing about an 'uptown/downtown/anything-goes-girl'."[9]
Chart performance[edit]
In the United States, the song debuted at number 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart week of June 30, 2012.[10] It fell off the chart the following week, but re-entered at number 90 on the week of July 21, 2012.[11] After climbing for weeks, the song peaked at number 40, in its tenth week, on the chart issue dated September 15, 2012.[12] In Canada, the single proved to be even more successful, debuting at number 61 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart week of June 30, 2012,[13] and peaking at number 31, on the week of September 15, 2012.[12] In Austria, the single debuted at number 65 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart, on the week of August 31, 2012, and peaked at number 19, on the week of September 21, 2012.[14]
"She's So Mean" debuted on the Australian ARIA Charts at number 48, on the week of July 1, 2012. Later, the song climbed to number 36. After weeks of rises and falls, the song peaked at number 26, on the week of August 12, 2012, remaining at the peak position for another week. After two weeks of falling, the song climbed again to number 26.[15] The song spent 20 weeks on the Aria Charts and was certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for selling more than 70,000 units of the song.[16] The song performed well on the New Zealand Singles Chart, debuting at number 39, on the week of July 16, 2012. It re-entered at number 35 on the week of July 30, 2012, while in its third week, it jumped to number 29, remaining for two further weeks at the same position. The song kept climbing for two weeks, before peaking at number 19, on the week of September 10, 2012.[17]
Music video[edit]
The official music video was uploaded to YouTube on July 30, 2012. It features the band singing. While this is going on, a girl (Danish model Stephanie Corneliussen) walks in and causes mayhem, such as by destroying Brian Yale's bass, throwing vinyl records at the band, crashing a bicycle into Paul Doucette's Drum kit, ripping wires out of the wall, pouring coffee on the Mixing console, setting the drums on fire, and spraying the band with a fire extinguisher. As of January 26, 2018, it has 17,831,461 views.
Charts and certifications[edit]
Peak positions[edit]
Chart (2012)
Peak
position
Australia (ARIA)[15] 26
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[14] 19
Belgium (Ultratip Flanders)[18] 38
Brazil (ABPD)[19] 69
Canada (Canadian Hot 100)[20] 31
Japan (Japan Hot 100)[21] 42
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[17] 19
South Korea (Gaon International Chart)[22] 35
US Billboard Hot 100[23] 40
US Adult Alternative Songs (Billboard)[24] 21
US Adult Top 40 (Billboard)[25] 6
US Adult Contemporary (Billboard)[26] 11
US Dance Club Songs (Billboard)[27] 5
US Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard)[28] 21
Certifications[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
Australia (ARIA)[16]
Platinum 70,000^
Canada (Music Canada)[29]
Gold 40,000^
United States (RIAA)[30]
Gold 500,000^
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Newman, Melinda (June 11, 2012). "Matchbox 20's new single 'She's So Mean' hits a pop bullseye". HitFix. Retrieved January 20, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Greenwald, David (June 5, 2012). "Exclusive: Matchbox Twenty Set 'North' Tracklist, Talk New Songs". Billboard. Retrieved January 19, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Florino, Rick (July 30, 2012). "Matchbox Twenty Talks "She's So Mean", "North", and More". Artist Direct. Retrieved January 19, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Amazon.com: She's So Mean: Matchbox Twenty: Music". Amazon.com. Retrieved January 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "She's So Mean (Remixes) - Single by Matchbox Twenty". iTunes. Retrieved January 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ North (CD liner). Matchbox Twenty. Atlantic Records.
Jump up ^ Gamboa, Glenn (August 31, 2012). "Matchbox Twenty's 'North' review". Newsday. Retrieved September 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ Hunter, James (September 3, 2012). "North | Album Reviews". Rolling Stone. Retrieved September 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ Lepore, Steve (September 19, 2012). "Matchbox Twenty: North | PopMatters". Popmatters.com. Retrieved December 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ "US Singles Top 100 (June 30, 2012) - Music Charts". Music Charts. June 30, 2012. Retrieved February 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "US Singles Top 100 (July 21, 2012) - Music Charts". Music Charts. June 30, 2012. Retrieved February 20, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "US Singles Top 100 (September 15, 2012) - Music Charts". Music Charts. June 30, 2012. Retrieved February 20, 2013. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "achartsus3" defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
Jump up ^ "Canadian Hot 100 (June 30, 2012) - Music Charts". Music Charts. June 30, 2012. Retrieved February 20, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Austriancharts.at – Matchbox Twenty – She's So Mean" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40.
^ Jump up to: a b "Australian-charts.com – Matchbox Twenty – She's So Mean". ARIA Top 50 Singles.
^ Jump up to: a b "ARIA Singles Chart - 10/09/2012". Australian Recording Industry Association. Archived from the original on September 9, 2012. Retrieved September 9, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Charts.org.nz – Matchbox Twenty – She's So Mean". Top 40 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Matchbox Twenty – She's So Mean" (in Dutch). Ultratip.
Jump up ^ "Brazil" (PDF). ABPD. October 6, 2001. Retrieved April 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Matchbox Twenty Chart History (Canadian Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Matchbox Twenty Chart History (Japan Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Search: Gaon International Download Chart – Issue date: 2012.09.09 – 2012.09.15". Gaon Chart. Archived from the original on September 20, 2012. Retrieved September 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Matchbox Twenty Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Matchbox Twenty Chart History (Adult Alternative Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Matchbox Twenty Chart History (Adult Pop Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Matchbox Twenty Chart History (Adult Contemporary)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Matchbox Twenty Chart History (Dance Club Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Matchbox Twenty Chart History (Pop Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Canadian single certifications – Matchbox 20 – She's So Mean". Music Canada.
Jump up ^ "American single certifications – Matchbox 20 – She's So Mean". Recording Industry Association of America. If necessary, click Advanced, then click Format, then select Single, then click SEARCH
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
She's So Mean official video on YouTube
[hide]
v
t
e
Matchbox Twenty
Rob Thomas
Brian Yale
Paul Doucette
Kyle Cook
Adam Gaynor
Joey Huffman
Matt Beck
Ryan MacMillan
Stacy Jones
Studio albums
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Mad Season
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North
Compilation albums
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"Last Beautiful Girl"
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"She's So Mean"
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Related articles
Discography
North Tour
2013 Summer Tour
The Break and Repair Method
Bloopididoo
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