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Superpower
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This article is about the geographic and political term. For the powers of superheroes, see Superpower (ability). For other uses, see Superpower (disambiguation).
This article focuses too much on specific examples without explaining their importance to its main subject. Please help improve this article by citing reliable, secondary sources that evaluate and synthesize these or similar examples within a broader context. (March 2016)
U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, then leaders of the Cold War's rival superpowers, meeting in Geneva, Switzerland in November 1985
Superpower is a term used to describe a state with a dominant position, which is characterised by its extensive ability to exert influence or project power on a global scale. This is done through the combined-means of economic, military, technological and cultural strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power influence. Traditionally, superpowers are preeminent among the great powers.
The term was first applied post World War II to the British Empire, the United States and the Soviet Union. However, after the end of World War II and the Suez Crisis in 1956, the United Kingdom's status as a superpower was greatly diminished, leaving just the United States and Soviet Union as superpowers. For the duration of the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union came to be generally regarded as the two remaining superpowers, dominating world affairs. At the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, only the United States appeared to fulfill the criteria of being a world superpower.[1][2][3]
Alice Lyman Miller defines a superpower as "a country that has the capacity to project dominating power and influence anywhere in the world, and sometimes, in more than one region of the globe at a time, and so may plausibly attain the status of global hegemony."[4]
Contents
1 Terminology and origin
2 Superpowers of the past
3 Cold War
4 Post–Cold War era
4.1 Potential superpowers
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 External links
Terminology and origin
A world map in 1945. According to William T.R. Fox, the United States (blue), the Soviet Union (red) and the British Empire (teal) were superpowers.
A world map. The United States remains the world's sole superpower.
No agreed definition of what is a 'superpower' exists, and may differ between sources.[2] However, a fundamental characteristic that is consistent with all definitions of a superpower is a nation or state that has mastered the seven dimensions of state power: geography, population, economy, resources, military, diplomacy and national identity.[5]
The term was first used to describe nations with greater than great power status as early as 1944, but only gained its specific meaning with regard to the United States, the United Kingdom and its empire and the Soviet Union after World War II. This was because the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union had proved themselves to be capable of casting great influence in global politics and military dominance. The term in its current political meaning was coined by Dutch-American geostrategist Nicholas Spykman in a series of lectures in 1943 about the potential shape of a new post-war world order. This formed the foundation for the book The Geography of the Peace, which referred primarily to the unmatched maritime global supremacy of the British Empire and United States as essential for peace and prosperity in the world.
A year later, in 1944, William T. R. Fox, an American foreign policy professor, elaborated on the concept in the book The Superpowers: The United States, Britain and the Soviet Union — Their Responsibility for Peace, which spoke of the global reach of a super-empowered nation.[6] Fox used the word Superpower to identify a new category of power able to occupy the highest status in a world in which, as the war then raging demonstrated, states could challenge and fight each other on a global scale. According to him, there were (at that moment) three states that were superpowers: the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union. The British Empire was the most extensive empire in world history and considered the foremost great power, holding sway over 25% of the world's population[7] and controlling about 25% of the Earth's total land area, while the United States and the Soviet Union grew in power before and during World War II.
According to Lyman Miller, "The basic components of superpower stature may be measured along four axes of power: military, economic, political, and cultural (or what political scientist Joseph Nye has termed “soft power”)".[4]
In the opinion of Kim Richard Nossal of Queen's University in Canada, "generally this term was used to signify a political community that occupied a continental-sized landmass, had a sizable population (relative at least to other major powers); a superordinate economic capacity, including ample indigenous supplies of food and natural resources; enjoyed a high degree of non-dependence on international intercourse; and, most importantly, had a well-developed nuclear capacity (eventually normally defined as second strike capability)."[2]
In the opinion of Professor Paul Dukes, "a superpower must be able to conduct a global strategy including the possibility of destroying the world; to command vast economic potential and influence; and to present a universal ideology". Although, "many modifications may be made to this basic definition".[8] According to Professor June Teufel Dreyer, "A superpower must be able to project its power, soft and hard, globally."[9] In his book, Superpower: Three Choices for America's Role in the World, Dr. Ian Bremmer, president of the Eurasia Group, argues that a superpower is "a country that can exert enough military, political, and economic power to persuade nations in every region of the world to take important actions they would not otherwise take."[10]
Superpowers of the past
Major economies from 1 AD to 2003 AD according to Angus Maddison's estimates[11]
There have been many attempts by historians to apply the term superpower retrospectively, and sometimes very loosely, to a variety of entities in the past. Recognition by historians of these older states as superpowers may focus on various superlative traits exhibited by them. Examples of these ancient or historical superpowers include the British Empire,[6] Ancient Egypt,[12] the Hittite Empire,[13] the Median Empire, the Achaemenid Empire,[14], the Parthian Empire[15][16], the Sassanian Empire[17][18][19], the Safavid Empire, the Afsharid Empire[20][21], the Hellenistic Empire of Alexander the Great,[22] the Roman Empire,[23] the Maurya Empire,[24][25] the Byzantine Empire, the Russian Empire, the Han Empire, the Tang Empire,[26],the Rashidun Caliphate, the Umayyad Caliphate,[27] the Abbasid Caliphate, the Mongol Empire, the Ottoman Empire,[28] the Spanish Empire,[29] and the First French Empire of Napoleon.[30]
According to historical statistics and research from the OECD, until the early modern period, Western Europe, China, and India accounted for roughly ⅔ of the world's GDP.[31]
Cold War
Main article: Cold War
This map shows two essentially global spheres during the Cold War in 1980.
NATO member states
Other allies of the U.S. and NATO
× Anti-communist guerrillas
Warsaw Pact member states
Socialist country allied with the Warsaw Pact
Other allies of the USSR
× Communist guerrillas
Socialist country not allied with the USSR and the Warsaw Pact
Neutral nations
× Other conflicts
The 1956 Suez Crisis suggested that Britain, financially weakened by two world wars, could not then pursue its foreign policy objectives on an equal footing with the new superpowers without sacrificing convertibility of its reserve currency as a central goal of policy.[32] As the majority of World War II had been fought far from its national boundaries, the United States had not suffered the industrial destruction nor massive civilian casualties that marked the wartime situation of the countries in Europe or Asia. The war had reinforced the position of the United States as the world's largest long-term creditor nation[33] and its principal supplier of goods; moreover it had built up a strong industrial and technological infrastructure that had greatly advanced its military strength into a primary position on the global stage.[34] Despite attempts to create multinational coalitions or legislative bodies (such as the United Nations), it became increasingly clear that the superpowers had very different visions about what the post-war world ought to look like, and after the withdrawal of British aid to Greece in 1947, the United States took the lead in containing Soviet expansion in the Cold War.[35]
The two countries opposed each other ideologically, politically, militarily, and economically. The Soviet Union promoted the ideology of communism: planned economy and a one-party state, whilst the United States promoted the ideologies of liberal democracy and the free market. This was reflected in the Warsaw Pact and NATO military alliances, respectively, as most of Europe became aligned with either the United States or the Soviet Union. These alliances implied that these two nations were part of an emerging bipolar world, in contrast with a previously multipolar world.[citation needed]
The idea that the Cold War period revolved around only two blocs, or even only two nations, has been challenged by some scholars in the post–Cold War era, who have noted that the bipolar world only exists if one ignores all of the various movements and conflicts that occurred without influence from either of the two superpowers.[36] Additionally, much of the conflict between the superpowers was fought in "proxy wars", which more often than not involved issues more complex than the standard Cold War oppositions.[37]
After the Soviet Union disintegrated in the early 1990s, the term hyperpower began to be applied to the United States, as the sole remaining superpower of the Cold War era.[2] This term, popularized by French foreign minister Hubert Védrine in the late 1990s, is controversial and the validity of classifying the United States in this way is disputed. One notable opponent to this theory, Samuel P. Huntington, rejects this theory in favor of a multipolar balance of power. Other international relations theorists, such as Henry Kissinger, theorize that because the threat of the Soviet Union no longer exists to formerly American-dominated regions such as Western Europe and Japan, American influence is only declining since the end of the Cold War, because such regions no longer need protection or have necessarily similar foreign policies as the United States.[38]
The Soviet Union and the United States fulfilled the superpower criteria in the following ways:
Soviet Union
United States
Demography Had a population of 286.7 million in 1989, the third largest on Earth behind China and India.[39] Had a population of 248.7 million in 1990, at that time the fourth largest on Earth behind China, India and the Soviet Union.[40]
Geography Largest state in the world (actually a superstate), with a surface area of 22,270,000 km2 (8,600,000 sq mi).[39] Fourth largest country in the world, with an area of 9,147,593 km2 (3,531,905 sq mi).[41]
Economy GNP of $2.7 trillion in 1990 (equivalent to $5.1 trillion in 2017). Second largest economy in the world.[42] Enormous mineral energy resources and fuel supply. Generally self-sufficient using a minimal amount of imports, though suffered resource inadequacies such as in agriculture. Marxist economic theory based primarily on production: Large-scale industrial production directed by centralised state organs leading to a high degree of inefficiency. Five-year plans frequently used to accomplish economic goals. Economic benefits such as guaranteed employment, free healthcare, free education provided to all levels of society, though were frequently below Western standards such as in health care. Economy tied to Central and Eastern-European satellite states. GNP of $5.2 trillion in 1990 (equivalent to $9.7 trillion in 2017). Largest economy in the world.[42] Capitalist free market economic theory based on supply and demand: production determined by customers' demands, though it also included rising income inequality since 1979.[43] Enormous industrial base and a large and modernized farming industry. Large volume of imports and exports. Large resources of minerals, energy resources, metals, and timber. High standard of living with accessibility to many manufactured goods. Home to a multitude of the largest global corporations. U.S. Dollar served as the dominant world reserve currency under Bretton Woods Conference. Allied with G7 major economies. Supported allied countries' economies via such programmes as the Marshall Plan.
Politics Strong Communist state with extensive secret police apparatus, organized under a quasi-parliamentary system with strong Fusion of Powers, with checks and balances for both the executive and (unusually) the judiciary primarily based on commanding the legislature's confidence. The Supreme Soviet enjoyed de facto parliamentary sovereignty, despite a written constitution and nominal federalism, as no court was vested with Judicial review. No formal office of President has existed; the standing legislature also served as a collective Head of State. The only national-level popular elections were the quinquennial elections to the Supreme Soviet, which were yes-or-no votes on candidates handpicked beforehand. However, radical government reforms in 1989 introduced competitive elections, a directly-elected executive President and a Constitutional Court, both having rudimentary Separation of Powers from the existing components of the system. One-party system with the Far-left Communist Party having an institutionalized monopoly of power. Permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. Strong capitalist constitutional republic, organized under a presidential system with strong separation of powers, with a complicated system of checks and balances exercised between the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. The legislative powers of the United States Congress were limited both by the written constitution and by the federal nature of the national government. Despite the lack of a dedicated Constitutional Court, judicial review of laws has been vested in the Supreme Court by judicial precedent. The President was not only Head of State, but also Head of Government, and his Cabinet was not required to command congressional confidence. The only national popular elections were the biennial congressional elections; however the quadrennial presidential election has de facto changed from an indirect election by an Electoral College into a direct, though weighted, popular election. Two-party system between Left-wing Democrats and Right-wing Republicans. Permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council plus two allies (France and the UK) with permanent seats.
Foreign relations Strong ties with Central and Eastern Europe, countries in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa. Also had an alliance with China up until 1961. Supported Communist and socialist countries around the world. Strong ties with Western Europe, some countries in Latin America, the Commonwealth of Nations, and several East Asian countries. Supported democracies and anti-Communist dictatorships around the world.
Military Possessed largest armed forces and air force in the world, and the second of the world's largest navies. Possessed bases around the world. Held the world's largest stockpile of nuclear weapons for the second half of the Cold War. Founder of Warsaw Pact with satellite states in Central and Eastern Europe. Global intelligence network with the GRU and the First Chief Directorate of the KGB. Ties with paramilitary and guerrilla groups in the developing world. Large arms industry production with global distribution. Highest military expenditure in the world,[44] with the world's largest navy surpassing the next 13 largest navies combined,[45][46] and an army and air force rivaled only by that of the Soviet Union. Possessed bases around the world, particularly in an incomplete "ring" bordering the Warsaw Pact to the West, South and East. Largest nuclear arsenal in the world during the first half of the Cold War. Powerful military allies in Western Europe (NATO) with their own nuclear capabilities. Global intelligence networks with the United States Intelligence Community (IC). Ties with paramilitary and guerrilla groups in the developing world. Large armament production through defense contractors along with its developed allies for the global market.
Media Constitutional guarantees for freedom of speech and freedom of the press were made conditional both for fulfilling one's citizen's duties and for conformity with the interests of the government, thereby turning them into effective dead letters. Press explicitly controlled and censored. Promoted, through the use of propaganda, its Communist and Socialist ideal that workers of all countries should unite to overthrow capitalist society and what they called the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie and replace it with a socialist society where all means of production are publicly owned. Maintained constitutional guarantees for freedom of speech and freedom of the press, though the ongoing Cold War did lead to a degree of censorship, particularly during the Vietnam War and the Second Red Scare when censorship was the heaviest.
Culture Rich tradition in literature, film, classical music, and ballet. Rich tradition and worldwide cultural influence in music, literature, film, television, cuisine, art, and fashion.
Post–Cold War era
The New York Stock Exchange trading floor. Economic power such as a large nominal GDP and a world reserve currency are important factors in projection of hard power.
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 which ended the Cold War, the post–Cold War world has in the past been considered by some to be a unipolar world,[47][48] with the United States as the world's sole remaining superpower.[49] In 1999, Samuel P. Huntington wrote, "The United States, of course, is the sole state with preeminence in every domain of power – economic, military, diplomatic, ideological, technological, and cultural – with the reach and capabilities to promote its interests in virtually every part of the world." However, he rejected the claim that the world was unipolar: "There is now only one superpower. But that does not mean that the world is unipolar," describing it instead as "a strange hybrid, a uni-multipolar system with one superpower and several major powers." He further wrote that "Washington is blind to the fact that it no longer enjoys the dominance it had at the end of the Cold War. It must relearn the game of international politics as a major power, not a superpower, and make compromises."[50]
Experts argue that this older assessment of global politics is too simplified, in part because of the difficulty in classifying the European Union at its current stage of development. Others argue that the notion of a superpower is outdated, considering complex global economic interdependencies, and propose that the world is multipolar.[51][52][53][54]
A 2012 report by the National Intelligence Council said that America's superpower status will have eroded to merely being first among equals by 2030, but that the US would remain highest among the world's most powerful countries because of its influence in many different fields and global connections that the great regional powers of the time would not match.[55] Additionally, some experts have suggested the possibility of the United States losing its superpower status completely in the future. Citing speculation of the United States relative decline in power to the rest of the world, economic hardships, a declining dollar, Cold War allies becoming less dependent on the United States and the emergence of future powers around the world.[56][57][58][59]
Some people doubt the existence of superpowers in the post–Cold War era altogether, stating that today's complex global marketplace and the rising interdependency between the world's nations has made the concept of a superpower an idea of the past and that the world is now multipolar. However, while the military dominance of the United States remains unquestioned for now and its international influence has made it an eminent world power, countries such as China, India, Brazil and Russia are inventing new ways to counter US military supremacy (namely space) and are making great strides in science, literature, soft power, and diplomacy.[51][52][53][54]
Potential superpowers
Main article: Potential superpowers
A map showing the United States as the current superpower, along with other political entities that have varying degrees of academic support as potential superpowers
Brazil
China
European Union
India
Russia
United States
The term 'potential superpowers' has been applied by scholars and other qualified commentators to the possibility of several states achieving superpower status in the 21st century. Due to their large markets, growing military strength, economic potential, and influence in international affairs, China,[60][61][62] the European Union,[63][64] India,[65] and Russia[66] are among the political entities most cited as having the potential of achieving superpower status in the 21st century. Many historians, writers, and critics have expressed doubts, however, whether any of these countries would ever emerge as a new superpower.[67][68] Some political scientists and other commentators have even suggested that such countries might simply be emerging powers, as opposed to potential superpowers.[69]
Besides those mentioned above, a limited number of observers have also discussed, though ultimately dismissed, Brazil having the potential to emerge as a superpower.[70]
The record of such predictions has admittedly not been perfect. For example, in the 1980s, some commentators thought Japan would become a superpower, due to its large GDP and high economic growth at the time.[71] However, Japan's economy crashed in 1991, creating a long period of economic slump in the country which has become known as The Lost Years. As of August 2012, Japan had yet to fully recover from the 1991 crash.[72]
See also
International relations portal
Emerging power
Great Power
Group of Two
Hegemony
International relations theory
List of modern great powers
Middle power
Monroe Doctrine
NATO
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
Second Superpower
Small power
Unipolarity
Hyperpower
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Superpowers.
"To Paris, U.S. Looks Like a 'Hyperpower'". The International Herald Tribune. February 5, 1999. Archived from the original on October 26, 2006. Retrieved August 20, 2006.
Last, Jonathan (October 21, 2005). "Rule America?". The Weekly Standard. News America Incorporated. Archived from the original on 2007-03-11. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
Védrine, Hubert. France in an Age of Globalization, Brookings Institution Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8157-0007-5
"Word Spy - hyper-power". Retrieved 2006-09-15.
Li, Bo; Zheng Yin (Chinese) (2001) 5000 years of Chinese history, Inner Mongolian People's publishing corp, ISBN 7-204-04420-7
CHAPTER FOUR. World Hegemony, 900-300 bce
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text:
Thoracic diaphragm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Diaphragm
Respiratory system
Details
Precursor
Septum transversum, pleuroperitoneal folds, body wall[1]
Artery
Pericardiacophrenic artery, musculophrenic artery, inferior phrenic arteries
Vein
Superior phrenic vein, inferior phrenic vein
Nerve
Phrenic and lower intercostal nerves
Identifiers
Latin
Diaphragma
Greek
διάφραγμα
MeSH
A02.633.567.900.300
Dorlands
/Elsevier
12293509
TA
A04.4.02.001
FMA
13295
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
In human anatomy, the thoracic diaphragm, or simply the diaphragm (Ancient Greek: διάφραγμα diáphragma "partition"), is a sheet of internal skeletal muscle[2] that extends across the bottom of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity, containing the heart and lungs, from the abdominal cavity and performs an important function in respiration: as the diaphragm contracts, the volume of the thoracic cavity increases and air is drawn into the lungs.
The term diaphragm in anatomy can refer to other flat structures such as the urogenital diaphragm or pelvic diaphragm, but "the diaphragm" generally refers to the thoracic diaphragm. In humans, the diaphragm is slightly asymmetric—its right half is higher up (superior) to the left half, since the large liver rests beneath the right half of the diaphragm. There is also a theory that the diaphragm is lower on the other side due to the presence of the heart.
Other mammals have diaphragms, and other vertebrates such as amphibians and reptiles have diaphragm-like structures, but important details of the anatomy vary, such as the position of the lungs in the abdominal cavity.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Crura and central tendon
1.2 Openings
1.3 Innervation
1.4 Blood supply
1.5 Variation
1.6 Development
2 Function
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Paralysis
3.2 Herniation
3.3 Imaging
4 Other animals
5 Additional images
6 See also
7 References
Structure[edit]
The diaphragm is a C -shaped structure of muscle and fibrous tissue that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdomen. The dome curves upwards. The superior surface of the dome forms the floor of the thoracic cavity, and the inferior surface the roof of the abdominal cavity.[3]
As a dome, the diaphragm has peripheral attachments to structures that make up the abdominal and chest walls. The muscle fibres from these attachments converge in a central tendon, which forms the crest of the dome.[3] Its peripheral part consists of muscular fibers that take origin from the circumference of the inferior thoracic aperture and converge to be inserted into a central tendon.
The muscle fibres of the diaphragm emerge from many surrounding structures. At the front, fibres insert into the xiphoid process and along the costal margin. Laterally, muscle fibers insert into ribs 6-12. In the back, muscle fibres insert into the vertebra at T12 and two appendages, the right and left crus, descend and insert into the lumbar vertebrae at L1 & L2.[3][4]
There are two lumbocostal arches, a medial and a lateral, on either side.
Crura and central tendon[edit]
The left and right crura are tendons that blend of the anterior longitudinal ligament of the vertebral column.
The central tendon of the diaphragm is a thin but strong aponeurosis near the center of the vault formed by the muscle, closer to the front than to the back of the thorax, so that the posterior muscular fibers are the longer.
Openings[edit]
There are a number of openings in the diaphragm through which structures pass between the thorax and abdomen. There are three large openings—the aortic, the esophageal, and the caval opening—plus a series of smaller ones.
Human diaphragm, frontal view from below, showing openings
The inferior vena cava passes through the caval opening, a quadrilateral opening at the junction of the right and middle leaflets of the central tendon, so that its margins are tendinous. Surrounded by tendons, the opening is stretched open every time inspiration occurs. However, there has been argument that the caval opening actually constricts during inspiration. Since thoracic pressure decreases upon inspiration and draws the caval blood upwards toward the right atrium, increasing the size of the opening allows more blood to return to the heart, maximizing the efficacy of lowered thoracic pressure returning blood to the heart. The aorta does not pierce the diaphragm but rather passes behind it in between the left and right crus.
The thoracic spinal levels at which the three major structures pass through the diaphragm can be remembered by the number of letters contained in each structure:
Vena Cava (8 letters) – Passes through the diaphragm at T8.
Oesophagus (10 letters) – Passes through the diaphragm at T10.
Aortic Hiatus (12 letters) – Passes through the diaphragm at T12.
Table documenting openings through the diaphragm and their contents.[3]
Description Vertebral level Contents
caval opening T8 The caval opening passes through the central tendon of the diaphragm. It contains the inferior vena cava,[3] and some branches of the right phrenic nerve[citation needed].
esophageal hiatus T10 The esophageal hiatus is situated in the posterior part of the diaphragm, located slightly left of the central tendon through the muscular sling of the right crus of the diaphragm.
It contains the esophagus, and anterior and posterior vagal trunks.[3]
aortic hiatus T12 The aortic hiatus is in the posterior part of the diaphragm, between the left and right crus.
It contains the aorta, the azygos vein, and the thoracic duct.
two lesser apertures of right crus greater and lesser right splanchnic nerves
two lesser apertures of left crus greater and lesser left splanchnic nerves and the hemiazygos vein
behind the diaphragm, under the medial lumbocostal arch sympathetic trunk
areolar tissue between the sternal and costal parts (see also foramina of Morgagni) the superior epigastric branch of the internal thoracic artery and some lymphatics from the abdominal wall and convex surface of the liver
areolar tissue between the fibers springing from the medial and lateral lumbocostal arches This interval is less constant; when this interval exists, the upper and back part of the kidney is separated from the pleura by areolar tissue only.
Innervation[edit]
The diaphragm is primarily innervated by the phrenic nerve which is formed from the cervical nerves C3, C4 and C5.[3] While the central portion of the diaphragm sends sensory afferents via the phrenic nerve, the peripheral portions of the diaphragm send sensory afferents via the intercostal (T5–T11) and subcostal nerves (T12).
Blood supply[edit]
Arteries and veins above and below the diaphragm supply and drain blood.
From above, the diaphragm receives blood from branches of the internal thoracic arteries, namely the pericardiophrenic artery and musculophrenic artery; from the superior phrenic arteries, which arise directly from the thoracic aorta; and from the lower internal intercostal arteries. From below, the inferior phrenic arteries supply the diaphragm.[3]
The diaphragm drains blood into the brachiocephalic veins, azygos veins, and veins that drain into the inferior vena cava and left suprarenal vein.[3]
Variation[edit]
The sternal portion of the muscle is sometimes wanting and more rarely defects occur in the lateral part of the central tendon or adjoining muscle fibers.
Development[edit]
The thoracic diaphragm develops during embryogenesis, beginning in the third week after fertilization with two processes known as transverse folding and longitudinal folding. The septum transversum, the primitive central tendon of the diaphragm, originates at the rostral pole of the embryo and is relocated during longitudinal folding to the ventral thoracic region. Transverse folding brings the body wall anteriorly to enclose the gut and body cavities. The pleuroperitoneal membrane and body wall myoblasts, from somatic lateral plate mesoderm, meet the septum transversum to close off the pericardio-peritoneal canals on either side of the presumptive esophagus, forming a barrier that separates the peritoneal and pleuropericardial cavities. Furthermore, dorsal mesenchyme surrounding the presumptive esophagus form the muscular crura of the diaphragm.
Because the earliest element of the embryological diaphragm, the septum transversum, forms in the cervical region, the phrenic nerve that innervates the diaphragm originates from the cervical spinal cord (C3,4, and 5). As the septum transversum descends inferiorly, the phrenic nerve follows, accounting for its circuitous route from the upper cervical vertebrae, around the pericardium, finally to innervate the diaphragm.
Function[edit]
Play media
Real-time magnetic resonance imaging showing effects of diaphragm movement during breathing
The diaphragm is the main muscle of respiration and functions in breathing. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves in the inferior direction, enlarging the volume of the thoracic cavity and reducing intra-thoracic pressure (the external intercostal muscles also participate in this enlargement), forcing the lungs to expand. In other words, the diaphragm's movement downwards creates a partial vacuum in the thoracic cavity, which forces the lungs to expand to fill the void, drawing air in the process.
Cavity expansion happens in two extremes, along with intermediary forms. When the lower ribs are stabilized and the central tendon of the diaphragm is mobile, a contraction brings the insertion (central tendon) towards the origins and pushes the lower cavity towards the pelvis, allowing the thoracic cavity to expand downward. This is often called belly breathing. When the central tendon is stabilized and the lower ribs are mobile, a contraction lifts the origins (ribs) up towards the insertion (central tendon) which works in conjunction with other muscles to allow the ribs to slide and the thoracic cavity to expand laterally and upwards.
When the diaphragm relaxes, air is exhaled by elastic recoil process of the lung and the tissues lining the thoracic cavity. Assisting this function with muscular effort (called forced exhalation) involves the internal intercostal muscles used in conjunction with the abdominal muscles, which act as an antagonist paired with the diaphragm's contraction.
The diaphragm is also involved in non-respiratory functions, helping to expel vomit, feces, and urine from the body by increasing intra-abdominal pressure, aiding in childbirth,[5] and preventing acid reflux by exerting pressure on the esophagus as it passes through the esophageal hiatus.
In some non-human animals, the diaphragm is not crucial for breathing; a cow, for instance, can survive fairly asymptomatically with diaphragmatic paralysis as long as no massive aerobic metabolic demands are made of it.
Clinical significance[edit]
Paralysis[edit]
If either the phrenic nerve, cervical spine or brainstem is damaged, this will sever the nervous supply to the diaphragm. The most common damage to the phrenic nerve is by bronchial cancer, which usually only affects one side of the diaphragm. Other causes include Guillain–Barré syndrome and systemic lupus erythematosis.[6]
Herniation[edit]
Main articles: Hiatus hernia and Congenital diaphragmatic hernia
A hiatus hernia is a hernia common in adults in which parts of the lower esophagus or stomach that are normally in the abdomen pass bulge abnormally through the diaphragm and are present in the thorax. Hernias are described as rolling, in which the hernia is beside the oesophagus, or sliding, in which the hernia directly involves the esophagus. These hernias are implicated in the development of reflux, as the different pressures between the thorax and abdomen normally act to keep pressure on the esophageal hiatus. With herniation, this pressure is no longer present, and the angle between the cardia of the stomach and the oesophagus disappear. Not all hiatus hernias cause symptoms however, although almost all people with Barrett's oesophagus or oesophagitis have a hiatus hernia.[6]
Hernias may also occur as a result of congenital malformation, a congenital diaphragmatic hernia. When the pleuroperitoneal membranes fail to fuse, the diaphragm does not act as an effective barrier between the abdomen and thorax. Herniation is usually of the left, and commonly through the posterior lumbocostal triangle, although rarely through the anterior foramen of Morgagni. The contents of the abdomen, including the intestines, may be present in the thorax, which may impact development of the growing lungs and lead to hypoplasia.[7] This condition is present in 1 out of 2,000 births. A large herniation has a mortality rate of three out of four, and requires immediate surgical repair.[citation needed]
Imaging[edit]
X-ray of chest, showing top of diaphragm.
Due to its position separating the thorax and abdomen, fluid abnormally present in the thorax, or air abnormally present in the abdomen, may collect on one side of the diaphragm. An X-ray may reveal this. Pleural effusion, in which there is fluid abnormally present between the two pleurae of the lungs, is detected by an X-ray of the chest, showing fluid collecting in the angle between the ribs and diaphragm.[6] An X-ray may also be used to reveal a pneumoperitoneum, in which there is gas in the abdomen.
An X-ray may also be used to check for herniation.[7]
Other animals[edit]
Diaphragm and pleural cavities in amphibian (left), bird (center), mammal (right). a, mandible; b, genio-hyoid; c, hyoid; d, sterno-hyoid; e, sternum; f, pericardium; g, septum transversum; h, rectus abdominis; i, abdominal cavity; j, pubis; k, esophagus; l, trachea; m, cervical limiting membrane of abdominal cavity; n, dorsal wall of body; o, lung; o', air-sac.[8]
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Thoracic diaphragm. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The existence of a membrane separating the pharynx from the stomach can be traced widely among the chordates. Thus the model organism, the marine chordate lancelet, possesses an atriopore by which water exits the pharynx, which has been claimed (and disputed) to be homologous to structures in ascidians and hagfishes.[9] The tunicate epicardium separates digestive organs from the pharynx and heart, but the anus returns to the upper compartment to discharge wastes through an outgoing siphon.
Thus the diaphragm emerges in the context of a body plan that separated an upper feeding compartment from a lower digestive tract, but the point at which it originates is a matter of definition. Structures in fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds have been called diaphragms, but it has been argued that these structures are not homologous. For instance, the alligator diaphragmaticus muscle does not insert on the esophagus and does not affect pressure of the lower esophageal sphincter.[10] The lungs are located in the abdominal compartment of amphibians and reptiles, so that contraction of the diaphragm expels air from the lungs rather than drawing it into them. In birds and mammals, lungs are located above the diaphragm. The presence of an exceptionally well-preserved fossil of Sinosauropteryx, with lungs located beneath the diaphragm as in crocodiles, has been used to argue that dinosaurs could not have sustained an active warm-blooded physiology, or that birds could not have evolved from dinosaurs.[citation needed] An explanation for this (put forward in 1905), is that lungs originated beneath the diaphragm, but as the demands for respiration increased in warm-blooded birds and mammals, natural selection came to favor the parallel evolution of the herniation of the lungs from the abdominal cavity in both lineages.[8] However, birds do not have diaphragms. They do not breathe in the same way as mammals, and do not rely on creating a negative pressure in the thoracic cavity, at least not to the same extent. They rely on a rocking motion of the keel of the sternum to create local areas of reduced pressure to supply thin, membranous airsacs cranially and caudally to the fixed-volume, non-expansive lungs. A complicated system of valves and air sacs cycles air constantly over the absorption surfaces of the lungs so allowing maximal efficiency of gaseous exchange. Thus, birds do not have the reciprocal tidal breathing flow of mammals. On careful dissection, around eight air sacs can be clearly seen. They extend quite far caudally into the abdomen.[11]
Additional images[edit]
Peritoneopericardial diaphragmatic hernia in a cat.
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Diaphragmatic breathing
List of medical mnemonics
Rapping (Which includes essential use of the diaphragm)
References[edit]
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)
Jump up ^ mslimb-012—Embryo Images at University of North Carolina
Jump up ^ Campbell, Neil A. (2009). Biology: Australian Version (8th ed.). Sydney: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. p. 334. ISBN 978-1-4425-0221-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Drake, Richard L.; Vogl, Wayne; Tibbitts, Adam W.M. Mitchell; illustrations by Richard; Richardson, Paul (2005). Gray's anatomy for students. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone. pp. 134–135. ISBN 978-0-8089-2306-0.
Jump up ^ Moore, Keith (2014). Clinically Oriented Anatomy (7 ed.). Baltimore: Walters Kluwer. p. 306.
Jump up ^ http://gynaeonline.com/second_stage_of_labor.htm. Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b c Nicki R. Colledge, Brian R. Walker, Stuart H. Ralston, eds. (2010). Davidson's principles and practice of medicine (21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. pp. 644, 658–659, 864. ISBN 978-0-7020-3085-7. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Hay, William W., ed. (2011). Current diagnosis & treatment : pediatrics (20th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 602. ISBN 978-0-07-166444-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Arthur Keith, M.D. (1905). The nature of the mammalian diaphragm and pleural cavities. Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.
Jump up ^ Zbynek Kozmik (1999). "Characterization of an amphioxus paired box gene, AmphiPax2/5/8" (PDF). Development. 126 (6): 1295–1304. PMID 10021347.
Jump up ^ T. J. Uriona (2005). "Structure and function of the esophagus of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)". Journal of Experimental Biology. 208 (Pt 16): 3047–3053. PMID 16081603. doi:10.1242/jeb.01746.
Jump up ^ Dyce, Sack and Wensing in Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy; 2002 (3rd Edn); Saunders, Philiadelphia
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "article name needed". Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (first ed.). James and John Knapton, et al.

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minor:
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text:
Mind Your Own Business (song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Mind Your Own Business"
Single by Hank Williams
B-side
"There'll Be No Teardrops Tonight"
Released
July 1949
Recorded
March 1, 1949
Studio
Castle Studio, Nashville
Genre
Country, blues, rock and roll
Length
2:47
Label
MGM
Songwriter(s)
Hank Williams
Producer(s)
Fred Rose
Hank Williams singles chronology
"Wedding Bells"
(1949) "Mind Your Own Business"
(1949) "You're Gonna Change (Or I'm Gonna Leave)"
(1949)
"Wedding Bells"
(1949) "Mind Your Own Business"
(1949) "You're Gonna Change (Or I'm Gonna Leave)"
(1949)
"Mind Your Own Business" is a 1949 song written and originally performed by Hank Williams.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Content
3 Cover versions
4 References
Background[edit]
"Mind Your Own Business" was recorded on March 2, 1949, at Castle Studio in Nashville. During the same session, Williams also recorded "You're Gonna Change (Or I'm Gonna Leave)", "My Son Calls Another Man Daddy", and "Honky Tonk Blues". He is backed by Dale Potter (fiddle), Don Davis (steel guitar), Zeke Turner (lead guitar), Clyde Baum (mandolin), Jack Shook (rhythm guitar), and probably Ernie Newton (bass).[1]
Content[edit]
In the song, the narrator admonishes a local busybody for snooping and gossiping. While the delivery is light and breezy, the song's lyrics were likely inspired by the singer's own tempestuous relationship with wife Audrey Williams and the buzz it created. The opening lines seem to reference this: "If the wife and I are fussin', brother that's our right/'Cause me and that sweet woman's got a licence to fight..." His delivery is measured, laconic, and dry.[2] The day before, Hank had cut several duets with his wife Audrey, who by all accounts had limited singing talent. Introducing it in October 1949, he told his radio audience that it was a "little prophecy in song", and indeed it would prove to be.[2]
The song is similar in tone and structure to Williams' first Billboard hit "Move It on Over", with the singer couching his moral indignation in humor, allowing the subject matter to resonate with the public. "Mind Your Own Business" went to #6 on the C&W Best Seller list where it stayed for two weeks.[3]
Cover versions[edit]
In 1964, Jimmy Dean hit the country charts with his version of the song. His version spent six weeks on the charts and peaked at #35.
Ernest Tubb included it on his 1968 LP Ernest Tubb Sings Hank Williams.
In 1971, Steve Goodman recorded it on his debut album.
In 1975, Henry McCullough recorded the song, and used it as the title track of his solo album on Dark Horse Records.
Moe Bandy recorded it for his 1975 LP Here I Am Drunk Again.
Charley Pride recorded it for his 1980 album There's a Little Bit of Hank in Me.
Moe Bandy recorded the song for his 1983 tribute Sings the Songs of Hank Williams.
In late 1986, Hank Williams, Jr. recorded the song along with Reba McEntire, Tom Petty, Reverend Ike, and Willie Nelson. This version was the most successful, going to #1 on the country chart for two weeks.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Escott, Colin & 2004 332.
^ Jump up to: a b Escott, Colin & 2004 106.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). The Billboard Book of Top 40 Country Hits: 1944–2006, Second edition. Record Research. p. 387.
Preceded by
"Too Much Is Not Enough"
by The Bellamy Brothers with The Forester Sisters Billboard Hot Country Singles
number-one single
December 27, 1986 – January 3, 1987 Succeeded by
"Give Me Wings"
by Michael Johnson
Preceded by
"Love's Gonna Get You Someday"
by Ricky Skaggs RPM Country Tracks
number-one single
January 17, 1987 Succeeded by
"What Am I Gonna Do About You"
by Reba McEntire
[show]
v
t
e
Hank Williams
Discography
Songs
Albums
Hank Williams Sings
Hank Williams on Stage
Three Hanks: Men with Broken Hearts
The Complete Hank Williams
Memorial Album
Songs
"Move It On Over"
"Honky Tonkin'"
"I Saw the Light"
"Lovesick Blues"
"Mind Your Own Business"
"Lost Highway"
"My Bucket's Got a Hole in It"
"I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry"
"Long Gone Lonesome Blues"
"Why Don't You Love Me"
"Cold, Cold Heart"
"Hey, Good Lookin'"
"Honky Tonk Blues"
"Half as Much"
"Jambalaya (On the Bayou)"
"You Win Again"
"I'll Never Get Out of This World Alive"
"Kaw-Liga"
"Your Cheatin' Heart"
"Take These Chains from My Heart"
"The Blues Come Around"
"Six More Miles (To the Graveyard)"
"I'm Satisfied with You"
"The Pale Horse and His Rider"
Family
Hank Williams Jr.
Jett Williams
Hank Williams III
Holly Williams
Related articles
Death of Hank Williams
List of tributes to Hank Williams
Drifting Cowboys
Sterling Records
MGM Records
Grand Ole Opry
The Lost Notebooks of Hank Williams
The Garden Spot Programs, 1950
Rufus Payne
[show]
v
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Jimmy Dean
Studio albums
Everybody's Favourite (1967)
Country Boy and Country Girl (1970)
Songs
"Big Bad John"
"PT-109"
"Mind Your Own Business"
"The First Thing Ev'ry Morning (And the Last Thing Ev'ry Night)"
"A Thing Called Love"
"I.O.U."
Television
The Jimmy Dean Show
Business ventures
Jimmy Dean sausage
Related
Discography
[show]
v
t
e
Hank Williams Jr.
Studio albums
Your Cheatin' Heart
Connie Francis and Hank Williams Jr. Sing Great Country Favorites
Ballads of the Hills and Plains
Blues My Name
A Time to Sing
Songs My Father Left Me
Luke the Drifter Jr. Vol. 2
Live at Cobo Hall
After You, Pride's Not Hard to Swallow
Hank Williams Jr. and Friends
Family Tradition
Whiskey Bent and Hell Bound
Habits Old and New
Rowdy
The Pressure Is On
High Notes
Strong Stuff
Man of Steel
Major Moves
Five-O
Montana Cafe
Hank Live
Born to Boogie
Wild Streak
Lone Wolf
Pure Hank
Maverick
Out of Left Field
Hog Wild
A.K.A. Wham Bam Sam
Three Hanks: Men with Broken Hearts
Stormy
The Almeria Club Recordings
I'm One of You
127 Rose Avenue
It's About Time
Compilation albums
Greatest Hits
Greatest Hits Vol. 2
Fourteen Greatest Hits
Hank Williams Jr.'s Greatest Hits
Hank Williams Jr.'s Greatest Hits, Vol. 2
Greatest Hits, Vol. 3
America (The Way I See It)
The Best of Hank Williams Jr. Volume One: Roots and Branches
Tribute to My Father
20 Hits Special Collection, Vol. 1
Early Years, Vol. 1
Early Years, Vol. 2
The Bocephus Box
That's How They Do It in Dixie: The Essential Collection
Notable singles
"Long Gone Lonesome Blues"
"Nobody's Child"
"All for the Love of Sunshine"
"So Sad (To Watch Good Love Go Bad)" (with Lois Johnson)
"Eleven Roses"
"Rainy Night in Georgia"
"I'll Think of Something"
"I Fought the Law"
"To Love Somebody"
"Family Tradition"
"Whiskey Bent and Hell Bound"
"Women I've Never Had"
"Kaw-Liga"
"Old Habits"
"Texas Women"
"Dixie on My Mind"
"All My Rowdy Friends (Have Settled Down)"
"A Country Boy Can Survive"
"Honky Tonkin'"
"The American Dream"
"Gonna Go Huntin' Tonight"
"Leave Them Boys Alone" (with Ernest Tubb and Waylon Jennings)
"Queen of My Heart"
"Man of Steel"
"Attitude Adjustment"
"All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight"
"Major Moves"
"I'm for Love"
"This Ain't Dallas"
"Ain't Misbehavin'"
"Country State of Mind"
"Mind Your Own Business" (with Reba McEntire, Tom Petty, Reverend Ike and Willie Nelson)
"Born to Boogie"
"Heaven Can't Be Found"
"Young Country"
"If the South Woulda Won"
"Early in the Morning and Late at Night"
"There's a Tear in My Beer" (with Hank Williams Sr.)
"Finders Are Keepers"
"Ain't Nobody's Business"
"Good Friends, Good Whiskey, Good Lovin'"
"I Mean I Love You"
"If It Will, It Will"
"Devil in the Bottle"
"Are You Ready for the Country?" (with Eric Church)
Guest singles
"The Conversation" (with Waylon Jennings)
"Bartender Song (Sittin' at a Bar)" (with Rehab)
Family
Hank Williams
Audrey Williams
Jett Williams
Hank Williams III
Holly Williams
Related articles
Discography
Living Proof: The Hank Williams Jr. Story
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