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Mens rea
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v
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Mens rea (/ˈmɛnz ˈriːə/; Law Latin for "guilty mind"[1][2][3]) is the mental element of a person's intention to commit a crime; or knowledge that one's action or lack of action would cause a crime to be committed. It is a necessary element of many crimes.
The standard common law test of criminal liability is expressed in the Latin phrase actus reus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea, i.e. "the act is not culpable unless the mind is guilty". In jurisdictions with due process, there must be both actus reus ("guilty act") and mens rea for a defendant to be guilty of a crime (see concurrence). As a general rule, someone who acted without mental fault is not liable in criminal law. Exceptions are known as strict liability crimes.
In civil law, it is usually not necessary to prove a subjective mental element to establish liability for breach of contract or tort, for example. But if a tort is intentionally committed or a contract is intentionally breached, such intent may increase the scope of liability and the damages payable to the plaintiff.
In some jurisdictions, the terms mens rea and actus reus have been replaced by alternative terminology. In Australia, mens rea is now called "fault elements" or "mental elements" and actus reus is now called "physical elements" or "external elements". The point of the changes was to replace Latin with plain English.[4][5]
Contents
1 Levels of mens rea
2 Modes of culpability
2.1 England and Wales
2.2 Scotland
2.3 United States
2.3.1 State criminal law
2.3.1.1 Model Penal Code
2.3.2 Federal criminal law
2.4 Canada
2.5 Australia
2.6 India
3 Ignorance of the law and mens rea
4 Subjective and objective tests
5 Relevance of motive
6 Intention
7 Recklessness (United States: "willful blindness")
8 Criminal negligence
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Levels of mens rea[edit]
Under the traditional common law, the guilt or innocence of a person relied upon whether he had committed the crime (actus reus), and whether he intended to commit the crime (mens rea). However, many modern penal codes have created levels of mens rea called modes of culpability, which depend on the surrounding elements of the crime: the conduct, the circumstances, and the result, or what the Model Penal Code calls CAR (conduct, attendant circumstances, result). The definition of a crime is thus constructed using only these elements rather than the colorful language of mens rea:[6]
Murder is the unlawful killing of a human being with malice aforethought.
—  18 U.S.C. §1111 (traditional common law)
A person commits an offense if he:
(1) intentionally or knowingly causes the death of an individual
—  portion of Texas Penal Code §19.02 (modern offense element)
The traditional common law definitions and the modern definitions approach the crime from different angles.
In the traditional common law approach, the definition includes:
actus reus: unlawful killing of a human being;
mens rea: malice aforethought.
Modern law approaches the analysis somewhat differently. Homicide is a "results" crime in that it forbids any "intentional" or "knowing" conduct that results in the death of another human being. "Intentional" in this sense means the actor possessed a "purpose" or "desire" that his or her objective (i.e. death of another human being) be achieved. "Knowing" means that the actor was aware or practically certain that the death would result. Thus, the actus reus and mens rea of homicide in a modern criminal statute can be considered as follows:
actus reus: any conduct resulting in the death of another individual;
mens rea: intent or knowledge that the conduct would result in the death.
In the modern approach, the attendant circumstances tend to replace the traditional mens rea, indicating the level of culpability as well as other circumstances. For example, the crime of theft of government property would include as an attendant circumstance that the property belong to the government.[6]
Modes of culpability[edit]
The levels of mens rea and the distinction between them vary between jurisdictions. Although common law originated from England, the common law of each jurisdiction with regard to culpability varies as precedents and statutes vary.
England and Wales[edit]
Direct intention: the actor has a clear foresight of the consequences of his actions, and desires those consequences to occur. It's his aim or purpose to achieve this consequence (death).
Oblique intention: the result is a virtually certain consequence or a 'virtual certainty' of the defendant's actions, and that the defendant appreciates that such was the case.[7][8][9]
Knowingly: the actor knows, or should know, that the results of his conduct are reasonably certain to occur.
Recklessness: the actor foresees that particular consequences may occur and proceeds with the given conduct, not caring whether those consequences actually occur or not.[10][11][12]
Criminal negligence: the actor did not actually foresee that the particular consequences would flow from his actions, but a reasonable person, in the same circumstances, would have foreseen those consequences.
Scotland[edit]
Intention: the accused willingly committed a criminal act entirely aware of his actions and their consequences. Necessary for murder and for assault.
Recklessness: the accused was aware the criminal act could be potentially dangerous but did not give a second thought to its consequences, for example, involuntary culpable homicide.
United States[edit]
State criminal law[edit]
The vast majority of criminal prosecutions in the United States are carried out by the component states in accordance with the laws of the state in question. Historically, the states (with the partial exception of civil-law Louisiana) applied common law rules of mens rea similar to those extant in England, but over time American understandings of common law mens rea terms diverged from those of English law and from each other. By the late 1950s to early 1960s, the common law of mens rea was widely acknowledged to be a slippery, vague, and confused mess.[13] This was one of several factors that led to the development of the Model Penal Code.
Model Penal Code[edit]
Since its publication in 1957, the formulation of mens rea set forth in the Model Penal Code has been highly influential throughout the US in clarifying the discussion of the different modes of culpability.[13] The following levels of mens rea are found in the MPC:
Strict liability: the actor engaged in conduct and his mental state is irrelevant. Under Model Penal Code Section 2.05, this mens rea may only be applied where the forbidden conduct is a mere violation, i.e. a civil infraction.
Negligently: a "reasonable person" would be aware of a "substantial and unjustifiable risk" that his conduct is of a prohibited nature, will lead to a prohibited result, and/or is under prohibited attendant circumstances, and the actor was not so aware but should have been.
Recklessly: the actor consciously disregards a "substantial and unjustifiable risk" that his conduct is of a prohibited nature, will lead to a prohibited result, and/or is of a prohibited nature.
Knowingly: the actor is practically certain that his conduct will lead to the result, or is aware to a high probability that his conduct is of a prohibited nature, or is aware to a high probability that the attendant circumstances exist.
Purposefully: the actor has the "conscious object" of engaging in conduct and believes or hopes that the attendant circumstances exist.
Except for strict liability, these classes of mens rea are defined in Section 2.02(2) of the MPC.
Federal criminal law[edit]
Since the federal government of the United States does not have a generalized police power like that of the states, the scope of its criminal statutes is necessarily circumscribed. Ordinary prosecutions are the province of the states, and only crimes of special federal import are pursued by the federal government. Consequently, Title 18 of the United States Code does not use the aforementioned culpability scheme but relies instead on more traditional definitions of crimes taken from common law. For example, malice aforethought is used as a requirement for committing capital murder.[14]
Canada[edit]
The Supreme Court of Canada has found that the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees a minimum requirement for the mental state of various crimes. For example, the crime of murder must include a mental requirement of at least subjective foresight of death. For crimes where imprisonment is a sanction, there is a requirement of at least a defence of due diligence.
Australia[edit]
Mens rea needs to be proved by prosecution from offence to offence. If it is a common law offence, mens rea is found out by relevant precedent (DPP v Morgan [1976] AC 182). Where the offence is in legislation, the requisite mens rea is found by interpreting the intention of the legislation.[15][16] They must intend to commit the full offence.[17]
India[edit]
Mens Rea in the Indian Penal Code 1860 sets out the definition of offences, the general conditions of liability, the conditions of exemptions from liability and punishments for the respective offences. Legislatures had not used the common law doctrine of mens rea in defining these crimes. However, they preferred to import it by using different terms indicating the required evil intent or mens rea as an essence of a particular offence.[18]
Guilt in respect to almost all offences created under the IPC is fastened either on the ground of intention, knowledge or reason to believe. Almost all the offences under the IPC are qualified by one or other words such as ‘wrongful gain or loss’, ‘dishonesty’, ‘fraudulently’, ‘reason to believe’, ‘criminal knowledge or intention’, ‘intentional cooperation’, ‘voluntarily’, ‘malignantly’, ‘wantonly’, ‘maliciously’. All these words indicate the blameworthy mental condition required at the time of commission of the offence, nowhere found in the IPC, its essence is reflected in almost all the provisions of the Indian Penal Code 1860. Every offence created under the IPC virtually imports the idea of criminal intent or mens rea in some form or other.[19]
Ignorance of the law and mens rea[edit]
The general rule under common law is that "ignorance of the law or a mistake of law is no defense to criminal prosecution."[20][21] In some cases, courts have held if knowledge of a law, or the intent to break a law, is a material element of an offense a defendant may use ignorance as a defense to willfulness if his misunderstanding is in good faith:
The proliferation of statutes and regulations has sometimes made it difficult for the average citizen to know and comprehend the extent of the duties and obligations imposed by the tax laws. . . . [T]he Court almost 60 years ago interpreted the statutory term "willfully" as used in federal criminal tax statutes as carving out an exception to the traditional rule."[22]
Crimes like tax evasion are specific intent crimes and require intent to violate the law as an element of the offense.[23] In R. v. Klundert, for example, the Ontario Court of Appeal found as follows:
"[55] Section 239(1)(d) is part of an Act which is necessarily and notoriously complex. It is subject to ongoing revision. No lay person is expected to know all the complexities of the tax laws. It is accepted that people will act on the advice of professionals and that the advice will often turn on the meanings to be given to provisions in the Act that are open to various interpretations. Furthermore, it is accepted that one may legitimately structure one’s affairs so as to minimize tax liability. Considered in this legislative context, I have no difficulty in holding that a mistake or ignorance as to one’s liability to pay tax under the Act may negate the fault requirement in the provision, regardless of whether it is a factual mistake, a legal mistake, or a combination of both."
Not all offenses require specific intent, and a misreading, even in good faith, may not excuse the criminal conduct.[24] A good-faith belief that a law is unjust or unconstitutional is no excuse,[25] but "reasonable compliance upon an official statement of law, afterward determined to be invalid or erroneous" does not constitute a criminal act.[26]
However, a law must be worded as such, that it affords that a reasonable person who is not an attorney is able to comprehend the specific acts that the law prohibits. Otherwise, the statute may be struck down as unconstitutional pursuant to the Vagueness doctrine.
Subjective and objective tests[edit]
The test for the existence of mens rea may be:
(a) subjective, where the court must be satisfied that the accused actually had the requisite mental element present in his or her mind at the relevant time (for purposely, knowingly, recklessly etc) (see concurrence);
(b) objective, where the requisite mens rea element is imputed to the accused, on the basis that a reasonable person would have had the mental element in the same circumstances (for negligence); or
(c) hybrid, where the test is both subjective and objective.
The court will have little difficulty in establishing mens rea if there is actual evidence – for instance, if the accused made an admissible admission. This would satisfy a subjective test. But a significant proportion of those accused of crimes make no such admissions. Hence, some degree of objectivity must be brought to bear as the basis upon which to impute the necessary component(s). It is always reasonable to assume that people of ordinary intelligence are aware of their physical surroundings and of the ordinary laws of cause and effect (see causation). Thus, when a person plans what to do and what not to do, he will understand the range of likely outcomes from given behaviour on a sliding scale from "inevitable" to "probable" to "possible" to "improbable". The more an outcome shades towards the "inevitable" end of the scale, the more likely it is that the accused both foresaw and desired it, and, therefore, the safer it is to impute intention. If there is clear subjective evidence that the accused did not have foresight, but a reasonable person would have, the hybrid test may find criminal negligence. In terms of the burden of proof, the requirement is that a jury must have a high degree of certainty before convicting, defined as "beyond a reasonable doubt" in the United States and "sure" in the United Kingdom.[27][28][29] It is this reasoning that justifies the defenses of infancy, and of lack of mental capacity under the M'Naghten Rules, an alternate common law rule (e.g., Durham test), and one of various statutes defining mental illness as an excuse. Moreover, if there is an irrebuttable presumption of doli incapax - that is, that the accused did not have sufficient understanding of the nature and quality of his actions – then the requisite mens rea is absent no matter what degree of probability might otherwise have been present.[30] For these purposes, therefore, where the relevant statutes are silent and it is for the common law to form the basis of potential liability, the reasonable person must be endowed with the same intellectual and physical qualities as the accused, and the test must be whether an accused with these specific attributes would have had the requisite foresight and desire.
In English law, s8 Criminal Justice Act 1967 provides a statutory framework within which mens rea is assessed. It states:[31]
A court or jury, in determining whether a person has committed an offense,
(a) shall not be bound in law to infer that he intended or foresaw a result of his actions by reasons only of its being a natural and probable consequence of those actions; but
(b) shall decide whether he did intend or foresee that result by reference to all the evidence, drawing such inferences from the evidence as appear proper in the circumstances.
Under s8(b) therefore, the jury is allowed a wide latitude in applying a hybrid test to impute intention or foresight (for the purposes of recklessness) on the basis of all the evidence.
Relevance of motive[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
One of the mental components often raised in issue is that of motive. If the accused admits to having a motive consistent with the elements of foresight and desire, this will add to the level of probability that the actual outcome was intended (it makes the prosecution case more credible). But if there is clear evidence that the accused had a different motive, this may decrease the probability that he or she desired the actual outcome. In such a situation, the motive may become subjective evidence that the accused did not intend, but was reckless or willfully blind.[citation needed]
Motive cannot be a defense.[32] If, for example, a person breaks into a laboratory used for the testing of pharmaceuticals on animals, the question of guilt is determined by the presence of an actus reus, i.e. entry without consent and damage to property, and a mens rea, i.e. intention to enter and cause the damage. That the person might have had a clearly articulated political motive to protest such testing does not affect liability. If motive has any relevance, this may be addressed in the sentencing part of the trial, when the court considers what punishment, if any, is appropriate.[citation needed]
Intention[edit]
Main article: Intention (criminal law)
Recklessness (United States: "willful blindness")[edit]
Main articles: Recklessness (law) and Willful blindness
In such cases, there is clear subjective evidence that the accused foresaw but did not desire the particular outcome. When the accused failed to stop the given behavior, he took the risk of causing the given loss or damage. There is always some degree of intention subsumed within recklessness. During the course of the conduct, the accused foresees that he may be putting another at risk of injury: A choice must be made at that point in time. By deciding to proceed, the accused actually intends the other to be exposed to the risk of that injury. The greater the probability of that risk maturing into the foreseen injury, the greater the degree of recklessness and, subsequently, sentence rendered. For example, at common law, an unlawful homicide committed recklessly would ordinarily constitute the crime of voluntary manslaughter. One committed with "extreme" or "gross" recklessness as to human life would constitute murder, sometimes defined as "depraved heart" or "abandoned and malignant heart" murder.[33]
Criminal negligence[edit]
Main article: Criminal negligence
Here, the test is both subjective and objective. There is credible subjective evidence that the particular accused neither foresaw nor desired the particular outcome, thus potentially excluding both intention and recklessness. But a reasonable person with the same abilities and skills as the accused would have foreseen and taken precautions to prevent the loss and damage being sustained. Only a small percentage of offences are defined with this mens rea requirement. Most legislatures prefer to base liability on either intention or recklessness and, faced with the need to establish recklessness as the default mens rea for guilt, those practising in most legal systems rely heavily on objective tests to establish the minimum requirement of foresight for recklessness.
See also[edit]
Actus reus
Animus nocendi
Command responsibility
Henry de Bracton
Morissette v. United States (1952)
Flores-Figueroa v. United States (2009)
Voluntas necandi
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Elizabeth A. Martin, ed. (2003). Oxford Dictionary of Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860756-3.
Jump up ^ Black's Law Dictionary, p. 889 (5th ed. 1979).
Jump up ^ Barron's Law Dictionary, p. 289 (2d ed. 1984).
Jump up ^ Brent Fisse, "Howard's Criminal Law" (1990) 12-13.
Jump up ^ Meyers v R [1997] HCA 43, High Court (Australia).
^ Jump up to: a b Dubber (2002), p. 46.
Jump up ^ R v Nedrick [1986] 1 WLR 1025
Jump up ^ R v Woollin [1998]
Jump up ^ R v Matthews & Alleyne [2004]
Jump up ^ R v Cunningham [1957]
Jump up ^ R v G & R [2003]
Jump up ^ R v Caldwell [1982]
^ Jump up to: a b Dubber (2002), pp. 60-80.
Jump up ^ Dubber (2002), p. 55.
Jump up ^ He Kaw Teh v R [1985] HCA 43, (1985) 157 CLR 523 (11 July 1985), High Court (Australia).
Jump up ^ CTM v R [2008] HCA 25, (2008) 236 CLR 440, High Court (Australia).
Jump up ^ Knight v R [1992] HCA 56, (1992) 175 CLR 495, High Court (Australia).
Jump up ^ "INDIAN PENAL CODE" (PDF). Human Resource Development Institute.
Jump up ^ "12_CHAPTER v" (PDF). Shodhganga : a reservoir of Indian theses @ INFLIBNET.
Jump up ^ Cheek v. United States, 498 U.S. 192 (1991)
Jump up ^ Ostrowski v Palmer [2004] HCA 30
Jump up ^ Cheek, at 199-200
Jump up ^ Cheek, at 194
Jump up ^ People v. Marrero, 507 N.E.2d 1068 (N.Y. 1987)
Jump up ^ Cheek, at 205-7
Jump up ^ State v. Godwin, 31 S.E. 221 (N.C. 1898)
Jump up ^ In re Winship, 397 U.S. 358 (1970)
Jump up ^ R v Majid [2009] EWCA Crim 2563
Jump up ^ Crown Bench Book: Directing the Jury. Judicial Studies Board. 2010.
Jump up ^ In re Devon T., 584 A.2d 1287 (Md. Court App. 1991)
Jump up ^ Criminal Justice Act 1967 (c.80)
Jump up ^ Hessick, Carrisa (2006). "Motive's Role in Criminal Punishment". Southern California Law Review. Retrieved October 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ California Penal Code §§ 188-199
Further reading[edit]
Dubber, Markus D. (2002). Criminal Law: Model Penal Code. Foundation Press.
External links[edit]
Criminal Responsibility and Intent
Mens Rea: The Need for a Meaningful Intent Requirement in Federal Criminal Law: Hearing before the Over-Criminalization Task Force of 2013 of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, July 19, 2013.
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text:
1958 Lituya Bay megatsunami
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Coordinates: 58°38′35″N 137°33′54″W / 58.643°N 137.565°W / 58.643; -137.565
1958 Lituya Bay megatsunami
Anchorage
UTC time
1958-07-10 06:15:58
ISC event
884702
USGS-ANSS
ComCat
Local date
July 10, 1958 (1958-07-10)
Local time
22:15 PST
Magnitude
7.8 Mw[1][2][3]
Depth
35 km (22 mi)[2]
Epicenter
58°22′12″N 136°39′54″W / 58.370°N 136.665°W / 58.370; -136.665[2]
Type
Strike-slip[4]
Areas affected
Lituya Bay, Alaska
Max. intensity
XI (Extreme)[2]
Tsunami
525 m (1,722 ft) runup[3]
Casualties
5[5]
The 1958 Lituya Bay megatsunami occurred on July 9 at 22:15:58 following an earthquake with a moment magnitude of 7.8 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). The earthquake took place on the Fairweather Fault and triggered a rockslide of 40 million cubic yards (30 million cubic meters and about 90 million tons) into the narrow inlet of Lituya Bay, Alaska. The impact was heard 50 miles (80 km) away,[6] and the sudden displacement of water resulted in a megatsunami that washed out trees to a maximum elevation of 1,710 feet (520 m) at the entrance of Gilbert Inlet.[7] This is the largest and most significant megatsunami in modern times; it forced a re-evaluation of large-wave events and the recognition of impact events, rockfalls, and landslides as causes of very large waves.
A 2010 model examined the amount of infill on the floor of the bay, which was many times larger than that of the rockfall alone, and also the energy and height of the waves. Scientists concluded that there had been a "dual slide" involving a rockfall which also triggered a release of 5 to 10 times its volume of sediment trapped by the adjacent Lituya Glacier, a ratio comparable with other events where this "dual slide" effect is known to have happened. Lituya Bay has a history of megatsunami events, but the 1958 event was the first for which sufficient data was captured at the time.[8][9]
Contents
1 Lituya Bay
1.1 Earthquake
1.2 Rockfall
1.3 Eyewitness account
2 History of past events
3 Analysis
3.1 1999 analysis
3.2 2010 analysis
4 See also
5 References
5.1 Notes
5.2 Further reading
6 External links
Lituya Bay[edit]
Part of the south shore of Lituya Bay showing the trimline, with bare rock below
Main article: Lituya Bay
Lituya Bay is a fjord located on the Fairweather Fault in the northeastern part of the Gulf of Alaska. It is a T-shaped bay with a width of 2 miles (3 km) and a length of 7 miles (11 km).[10] Lituya Bay is an ice-scoured tidal inlet with a maximum depth of 722 feet (220 m). The narrow entrance of the bay has a depth of only 33 feet (10 m).[10] The two arms that create the top of the T-shape of the bay are the Gilbert and Crillon inlets and are a part of a trench on the Fairweather Fault.[11] In the past 150 years Lituya Bay has had three other tsunamis of over 100 ft: 1854 (395 ft or 120 m), 1899 (200 ft or 61 m) and 1936 (490 ft or 150 m).[12][13]
Near the crest of the Fairweather Mountains sit the Lituya and the North Crillon glaciers. They are each about 12 miles (19 km) long and 1 mile (1.6 km) wide with an elevation of 4,000 feet (1,200 m). The retreats of these glaciers form the present "T" shape of the bay, the Gilbert and Crillon inlets.[11]
Aerial photograph of Lituya Bay. Effects of the tsunami can be seen as the lighter colored areas on the sides of the bay, where the trees were stripped away by the megatsunami.
Earthquake[edit]
See also: List of earthquakes in the United States
The effect of the tsunami still visible in 2010. Differently-aged vegetation visible on the ridge separating Lituya Glacier from the main part of the bay – looking north from the head of the bay, Lituya Glacier to the right.
The major earthquake that struck on the Fairweather Fault had a moment magnitude of 7.8 and a maximum perceived intensity of XI (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. The epicenter of the quake was at latitude 58.37° N, longitude 136.67° W near the Fairweather Range, 7.5 miles (12.1 km) east of the surface trace of the Fairweather fault, and 13 miles (21 km) southeast of Lituya Bay. This earthquake had been the strongest in over 50 years for this region: the Cape Yakataga earthquake, with an estimated magnitude of 8.2 on the Richter scale, occurred on September 4, 1899.[5] The shock was felt in southeastern Alaskan cities over an area of 400,000 square miles (1,000,000 km2), as far south as Seattle, Washington, and as far east as Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada.[11]
Rockfall[edit]
The earthquake caused a subaerial rockfall in the Gilbert Inlet.[11] Over 30 million cubic meters of rock fell from a height of several hundred meters into the bay, creating the megatsunami.[10] Two people from a fishing boat died as a result of having been caught by a wave in the bay.[5] In Yakutat, the only permanent outpost close to the epicenter at the time, infrastructure such as bridges, docks, and oil lines all sustained damage. A water tower collapsed, and a cabin was damaged beyond repair. Sand boils and fissures occurred near the coast southeast of there, and underwater cables that supported the Alaska Communication System were cut.[5] Lighter damage was also reported in Pelican and Sitka.
After the earthquake it was observed that a subglacial lake, located northwest of the bend in the Lituya Glacier at the head of Lituya Bay, had dropped 100 ft (30 m). This proposed another possible cause to the production of the 100-foot (30 m) wave which caused destruction as high as 1,720 feet (520 m) above the surface of the bay as its momentum carried it upslope. It is possible that a good amount of water drained from the glacial lake through a glacial tunnel flowing directly in front of the glacier, though neither the rate of drainage nor the volume of water drained could produce a wave of such magnitude.[11] Even if a large enough drainage were to take place in front of the Gilbert Glacier, the run-off would have been projected to be on the opposite side in Crillon Inlet. After these considerations it was determined that glacial drainage was not the mechanism that caused the giant wave.[11]
Eyewitness account[edit]
At 22:15 hours PST on July 9, 1958, which was still daylight at that time of year, an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.9 struck the Lituya Bay area. The tide was ebbing at about plus 1.5 m and the weather was clear. Anchored in a cove near the west side of the entrance of the bay, Bill and Vivian Swanson were on their boat fishing when the earthquake hit:[10]
With the first jolt, I tumbled out of the bunk and looked toward the head of the bay where all the noise was coming from. The mountains were shaking something awful, with slide of rock and snow, but what I noticed mostly was the glacier, the north glacier, the one they call Lituya Glacier. I know you can't ordinarily see that glacier from where I was anchored. People shake their heads when I tell them I saw it that night. I can't help it if they don't believe me. I know the glacier is hidden by the point when you're in Anchorage Cove, but I know what I saw that night, too. The glacier had risen in the air and moved forward so it was in sight. It must have risen several hundred feet. I don't mean it was just hanging in the air. It seems to be solid, but it was jumping and shaking like crazy. Big chunks of ice were falling off the face of it and down into the water. That was six miles away and they still looked like big chunks. They came off the glacier like a big load of rocks spilling out of a dump truck. That went on for a little while—it's hard to tell just how long—and then suddenly the glacier dropped back out of sight and there was a big wall of water going over the point. The wave started for us right after that and I was too busy to tell what else was happening up there.[10]
The wave caused damage to the vegetation up the headlands around the area where the rockfall occurred, up to a height of 520 metres (1,710 ft), as well as along the shoreline of the bay.[10]
History of past events[edit]
Around five megatsunamis are believed to have occurred at Lituya Bay during a period of about 150 years:[9][14]
Reports by early explorers of the loss of all trees and vegetation along the shore, and cut tree-lines. One example is the log of Jean Francois de Galaup who discovered the bay in 1786.[5][9]
"At least one and possibly two waves" between 1854 and 1916, based on photographic evidence.[5][9]
A further event that erased the above evidence and uprooted trees over 150 meters up the sides of the bay, in 1936.[5][9]
The 1958 event.
Analysis[edit]
1999 analysis[edit]
The mechanism giving rise to megatsunamis was analyzed for the Lituya Bay event in a study presented at the Tsunami Society in 1999.[9]
Although the earthquake which caused the megatsunami was very energetic and involved strong ground movements, several possible mechanisms were not likely or able to have caused the resulting megatsunami. Neither water drainage from a lake, nor landslide, nor the force of the earthquake itself led to the megatsunami, although all of these may have contributed.
Instead, the megatsunami was caused by a massive and sudden impulsive impact when about 40 million cubic yards of rock several hundred meters above the bay was fractured from the side of the bay, by the earthquake, and fell "practically as a monolithic unit" down the almost vertical slope and into the bay.[9] The rockfall also caused air to be dragged along due to viscosity effects, which added to the volume of displacement, and further impacted the sediment on the floor of the bay, creating a large crater. The study concluded that:[9]
"The giant wave runup of 1,720 feet (524 m.) at the head of the Bay and the subsequent huge wave along the main body of Lituya Bay which occurred on July 9, 1958, were caused primarily by an enormous subaerial rockfall into Gilbert Inlet at the head of Lituya Bay, triggered by dynamic earthquake ground motions along the Fairweather Fault.
The large mass of rock, acted as a monolith (thus resembling high-angle asteroid impact), struck with great force the sediments at bottom of Gilbert Inlet at the head of the bay. The impact created a large crater and displaced and folded recent and Tertiary deposits and sedimentary layers to an unknown depth. The displaced water and the displacement and folding of the sediments broke and uplifted 1,300 feet of ice along the entire front of the Lituya Glacier at the north end of Gilbert Inlet. Also, the impact and the sediment displacement by the rockfall resulted in an air bubble and in water splashing action that reached the 1,720 foot (524 m.) elevation on the other side of the head of Gilbert Inlet. The same rockfall impact, in combination with the strong ground movements, the net vertical crustal uplift of about 3.5 feet, and an overall tilting seaward of the entire crustal block on which Lituya Bay was situated, generated the giant solitary gravity wave which swept the main body of the bay.
This was the most likely scenario of the event – the "PC model" that was adopted for subsequent mathematical modeling studies with source dimensions and parameters provided as input.
Play media
Computer-generated movie of Lituya Bay Tsunami generated by a rockslide
Subsequent mathematical modeling at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (Mader, 1999, Mader & Gittings, 2002) supported the proposed mechanism – as there was indeed sufficient volume of water and an adequately deep layer of sediments in the Lituya Bay inlet to account for the giant wave runup and the subsequent inundation. The modeling reproduced the documented physical observations of runup."
2010 analysis[edit]
A subsequent analysis that examined the wider impact of the event found that the rockfall itself was inadequate to explain the resulting accounts and evidence.[15] In particular, the amount of sediment apparently added to the bay, judging by the sea-floor shape, was much greater than could be explained by the rockfall alone, or even the rockfall and sediment disturbed by it, and the energy of the resulting waves from the rockfall and stirred-up sediment would not have been sufficient. The study concluded that instead, a "dual slide" event was more likely – the rockfall, impacting very close to the head of the Lituya Glacier, caused around 400 meters of ice from the glacial toe to break off (as shown in photographs from the time), and possibly injected considerable water under the glacier. The glacier, lightened, rose before stabilizing in the water, and a large amount of trapped infill (subglacial and proglacial sediment) which was trapped under the glacier and had already been loosened by the earthquake, was released as an almost immediate and many times larger second slide. The debris released was estimated by the study as being between 5 and 10 times the volume of the initial rockfall, a bulking ratio comparable with other events such as the September 2002 Kolka-Karmadon rock ice slide (estimated ratio between 5 and 10), the November 1987 Parraguirre landslide (est. ratio 2.5) and the May 1970 Huascarán landslide (est. ratio 4). This additional volume would explain the large changes in the underwater shape of the sea floor in the bay, and the additional energy of waves, especially at the western end of the bay. The paper's authors suggest that core samples may show a 70m deep layer of reworked sediment if this model is correct.
See also[edit]
List of earthquakes in 1958
List of earthquakes in Alaska
List of historical tsunamis
Lituya Mountain
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ ISC (2014), ISC-GEM Global Instrumental Earthquake Catalogue (1900–2009), Version 1.05, International Seismological Centre
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Significant Earthquake". Natural Hazards. National Centers for Environmental Information. Retrieved April 23, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b USGS (September 4, 2009), PAGER-CAT Earthquake Catalog, Version 2008_06.1, United States Geological Survey, archived from the original on October 4, 2016
Jump up ^ Yeats, R. (2012), Active Faults of the World, Cambridge University Press, p. 32, ISBN 978-0521190855
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Coffman, Jerry L; von Hake, Carl A., eds. (1970). Earthquake History of the United States. United States Department of Commerce/Department of the Interior. p. 108. Publication 41-1.
Jump up ^ Kiffer, Dave (July 8, 2008). "Surviving the Biggest Wave Ever". Stories in the News. Ketchikan, Alaska. Retrieved April 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ Mader, Charles L.; Gittings, Michael L., MODELING THE 1958 LITUYA BAY MEGA-TSUNAMI, II (PDF), The International Journal of The Tsunami Society
Jump up ^ Griggs, Gary (April 9, 2011). "Tsunami rocked Alaska's Lituya Bay in 1958". Santa Cruz Sentinel. Retrieved April 22, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Mader, Charles L., 1999, "Modeling the 1958 Lituya Bay Mega-Tsunami", Science of Tsunami Hazards, Volume 17, Number 1, pages 57–67 (1999). (Also presented under the title "The Mega-Tsunami of July 9, 1958, in Lituya Bay, Alaska: Analysis of Mechanism", by George Pararas-Carayannis, Excerpts from Presentation at the Tsunami Symposium of Tsunami Society of May 25–27, 1999, in Honolulu, Hawaii, USA)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Mader, C.L.; Gittings, M.L. (2002). "Modeling the 1958 Lituya Bay mega-tsunami, II" (PDF). The International Journal of the Tsunami Society. Tsunami Society. 20 (5): 241–245.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Pararas-Carayannis, George (1999). "The Mega-Tsunami of July 9, 1958, in Lituya Bay, Alaska". Retrieved February 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ Miller, Don J. (1960). "Giant Waves in Lituya Bay, Alaska". Geological Survey Professional Papers. University of Wisconsin Green Bay. 354-C. Archived from the original on November 23, 2004. Retrieved April 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ Casey, Susan (2010). The Wave. Doubleday. pp. 153–58. ISBN 978-0767928847.
Jump up ^ Miller, Don J., 1954, "Cataclysmic Flood Waves in Lituya Bay, Alaska", Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 65, 1346
Jump up ^ Ward, Steven N.; Day, Simon (2010). "The 1958 Lituya Bay Landslide and Tsunami – A Tsunami Ball Approach" (PDF). Journal of Earthquake and Tsunami. 04 (4): 285–319. doi:10.1142/S1793431110000893. ISSN 1793-4311.
Further reading[edit]
Miller, D. J. (1960), "The Alaska earthquake of July 10, 1958: Giant wave in Lituya Bay", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Seismological Society of America, 50 (2): 253–266
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lituya Bay megatsunami.
Gary Griggs, "Our Ocean Backyard: Tsunami rocked Alaska's Lituya Bay in 1958", Santa Cruz Sentinel, April 9, 2011
Dave Kiffer, "Surviving the Biggest Wave Ever 50 Years Ago, 1,700 Foot Wave Devastated Lituya Bay", SitNews, July 8, 2008.
Sonny and Howard Ulrich, Video retelling of their surviving the event & simulated megatsunami
Horizon, BBC, first broadcast October 12, 2000. (Mega-tsunami: Wave of Destruction)
The International Seismological Centre has a bibliography and/or authoritative data for this event.
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Earthquakes in Alaska
1906 Aleutian Islands (8.35)
1946 Aleutian Islands (8.6)
1957 Andreanof Islands (8.6)
1958 Lituya Bay (7.8)
1964 Alaska (9.2)
1965 Rat Islands (8.7)
1975 Near Islands (7.6)
2002 Denali (7.9)
2014 Aleutian Islands (7.9)
2014 Palma Bay (6.0)
2016 Old Iliamna (7.1)
2018 Kodiak (7.9)
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List of best-selling Nintendo 64 video games
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Nintendo 64 with controller
The list of best-selling Nintendo 64 games consists of 45 titles which have yielded 1 million or more unit sales each. The best-selling video game on the Nintendo 64 is Super Mario 64. First released in Japan on June 23, 1996, it was a launch title for the system and the first Super Mario game to use three-dimensional graphics. The game went on to sell 11.91 million units worldwide.[1] Mario Kart 64, the second in the Mario Kart series, is the second best-selling game on the platform, with sales of over 9.8 million copies.[1] The console's top five is rounded out by Rare's GoldenEye 007 at third, with sales of just over 8 million units,[2] The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time in fourth, with 7.6 million units sold worldwide,[3] and Super Smash Bros. in fifth, with sales of over 5.5 million units.[4]
Of these top 45 games, 12 were developed by internal Nintendo development divisions. Aside from these, the developer with the most million-selling games is Rare, with seven titles in the top 45. Nintendo published 31 of these 45 games. Other publishers with multiple million-selling entries in the list include THQ with four games, Rare with three games, and Acclaim Entertainment with two games. The most popular franchises on Nintendo 64 include Pokémon with 13.46 million combined units, The Legend of Zelda with 10.96 million combined units, Donkey Kong with 10.15 million combined units, and Star Wars with 7.87 million combined units.
Contents
[hide]
1 Video games
2 See also
3 Footnotes
4 References
5 External links
Video games[edit]
Key
Game was bundled with Nintendo 64 consoles during its lifetime
List of best-selling Nintendo 64 video games
No.
Title
Developer(s)[a]
Publisher(s)[a]
Release date
Sales
Ref.
1
Super Mario 64 Nintendo EAD Nintendo 000000001996-06-23-0000June 23, 1996 11,910,000 [1]
2
Mario Kart 64 Nintendo EAD Nintendo 000000001996-12-14-0000December 14, 1996 9,870,000 [1]
3
GoldenEye 007 Rare Nintendo 000000001997-08-25-0000August 25, 1997 8,090,000 [2]
4
The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time Nintendo EAD Nintendo 000000001998-11-21-0000November 21, 1998 7,600,000 [3]
5
Super Smash Bros. HAL Laboratory Nintendo 000000001999-01-21-0000January 21, 1999 5,550,000 [4]
6
Pokémon Stadium Nintendo EAD Nintendo 000000001999-04-30-0000April 30, 1999 5,460,000 [5]
7
Donkey Kong 64 Rare Nintendo 000000001999-11-22-0000November 22, 1999 5,270,000 [5]
8
Diddy Kong Racing Rare Rare 000000001997-11-14-0000November 14, 1997 4,880,000 [5]
9
Star Fox 64 Nintendo EAD Nintendo 000000001997-04-27-0000April 27, 1997 4,000,000 [5]
10
Banjo-Kazooie Rare Nintendo 000000001998-06-29-0000June 29, 1998 3,650,000 [5]
11
Pokémon Snap HAL Laboratory
Pax Softonica Nintendo 000000001999-03-21-0000March 21, 1999 3,630,000 [5]
12
The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask Nintendo EAD Nintendo 000000002000-04-27-0000April 27, 2000 3,360,000 [3]
13
Star Wars Episode I: Racer LucasArts LucasArts 000000001999-04-30-0000April 30, 1999 3,100,000 [5]
14
Wave Race 64 Nintendo EAD Nintendo 000000001996-09-27-0000September 27, 1996 2,940,000 [5]
15
Yoshi's Story Nintendo EAD Nintendo 000000001997-12-21-0000December 21, 1997 2,850,000 [5]
16
Mario Party Hudson Soft Nintendo 000000001998-12-18-0000December 18, 1998 2,700,000 [5]
17
Star Wars: Shadows of the Empire LucasArts Nintendo 000000001996-12-03-0000December 3, 1996 2,600,000 [5]
18
Pokémon Stadium 2 Nintendo EAD Nintendo 000000002000-12-14-0000December 14, 2000 2,540,000 [5]
19
Perfect Dark Rare Rare 000000002000-05-22-0000May 22, 2000 2,520,000 [5]
20
Mario Party 2 Hudson Soft Nintendo 000000001999-12-17-0000December 17, 1999 2,480,000 [5]
21
Mario Tennis Camelot Software Planning Nintendo 000000002000-07-21-0000July 21, 2000 2,320,000 [5]
22
Star Wars: Rogue Squadron Factor 5
LucasArts Nintendo 000000001998-12-07-0000December 7, 1998 2,170,000 [5]
23
1080° Snowboarding Nintendo EAD Nintendo 000000001998-02-28-0000February 28, 1998 2,030,000 [5]
24
Excitebike 64 Left Field Productions Nintendo 000000002000-04-30-0000April 30, 2000 2,000,000 [6]
25
Mario Party 3 Hudson Soft Nintendo 000000002000-12-07-0000December 7, 2000 1,910,000 [5]
26
WCW/nWo Revenge AKI Corporation
Asmik Ace Entertainment THQ 000000001998-10-26-0000October 26, 1998 1,880,000 [7]
27
Hey You, Pikachu! Ambrella Nintendo 000000001998-12-12-0000December 12, 1998 1,830,000 [5]
28
Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards HAL Laboratory Nintendo 000000002000-03-24-0000March 24, 2000 1,770,000 [5]
29
Cruis'n USA Williams Nintendo 000000001996-12-03-0000December 3, 1996 1,720,000 [5]
30
Tony Hawk's Pro Skater Edge of Reality Activision 000000002000-02-29-0000February 29, 2000 1,610,000 [7]
31
F-1 World Grand Prix Paradigm Entertainment Video System 000000001998-07-31-0000July 31, 1998 1,600,000 [5]
32
Turok: Dinosaur Hunter Iguana Entertainment Acclaim Entertainment 000000001997-03-04-0000March 4, 1997 1,500,000 [8]
33
Banjo-Tooie Rare Nintendo 000000002000-11-20-0000November 20, 2000 1,490,000 [5]
34
Mario Golf Camelot Software Planning Nintendo 000000001999-06-11-0000June 11, 1999 1,470,000 [5]
35
Turok 2: Seeds of Evil Iguana Entertainment Acclaim Entertainment 000000001998-10-21-0000October 21, 1998 1,400,000 [9]
36
Paper Mario Intelligent Systems Nintendo 000000002000-08-11-0000August 11, 2000 1,370,000 [5]
37
WCW vs. nWo: World Tour AKI Corporation
Asmik Ace Entertainment THQ 000000001997-11-30-0000November 30, 1997 1,300,000 [7]
38
Kobe Bryant in NBA Courtside Left Field Productions Nintendo 000000001998-04-27-0000April 27, 1998 1,190,000 [5]
39
WWF No Mercy AKI Corporation
Asmik Ace Entertainment THQ 000000002000-11-17-0000November 17, 2000 1,190,000 [7]
40
Jet Force Gemini Rare Rare 000000001999-10-11-0000October 11, 1999 1,160,000 [5]
41
WWF WrestleMania 2000 AKI Corporation
Asmik Ace Entertainment THQ 000000001999-10-12-0000October 12, 1999 1,140,000 [7]
42
Pilotwings 64 Nintendo R&D3
Paradigm Entertainment Nintendo 000000001996-06-23-0000June 23, 1996 1,120,000 [5]
43
F-Zero X Nintendo EAD Nintendo 000000001998-07-14-0000July 14, 1998 1,100,000 [5]
44
007: The World Is Not Enough Eurocom Electronic Arts 000000002000-10-17-0000October 17, 2000 1,080,000 [7]
45
Namco Museum 64 Mass Media Games Namco 000000001999-10-31-0000October 31, 1999 1,040,000 [7]

See also[edit]
List of best-selling video games
Footnotes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Only developers and publishers for the original release of each game are listed.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d O'Malley, James (September 11, 2015). "30 Best-Selling Super Mario Games of All Time on the Plumber's 30th Birthday". Gizmodo. Univision Communications. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Serafino, Jay (September 26, 2016). "10 Game-Changing Facts About the Nintendo 64". Mental Floss. Dennis Publishing. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "March 25, 2004". The Magic Box. Archived from the original on November 26, 2005. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Hansen, Steven (October 26, 2016). "More like Mario Kart 8 million: Here are the Wii U and 3DS best-sellers". Destructoid. ModernMethod. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac CESA Games White Papers. Computer Entertainment Supplier's Association.
Jump up ^ "Behind the scenes of Excitebike 64". GamesTM. Future plc. December 17, 2015. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "US Platinum Game Chart". The Magic Box. Archived from the original on April 21, 2007. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ Watts, Martin (August 3, 2013). "Turok: Dinosaur Hunter Review - N64". Nintendo Life. Gamer Network. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Acclaim Ships Over 1.4 Million Units of Turok 2: Seeds of Evil". Spectrum. Motion Blur Media. January 11, 1999. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
External links[edit]
Nintendo official website
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Crisis intervention
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Crisis intervention is an immediate and short-term psychological care aimed at assisting individuals in a crisis situation to restore equilibrium to their biopsychosocial functioning and to minimize the potential for long-term psychological trauma.[1][2] Crisis can be defined as one's perception or experiencing of an event or situation as an intolerable difficulty that exceeds the person's current resources and coping mechanisms.
The priority of crisis intervention and counseling is to increase stabilization. Crisis interventions occur at the spur of the moment and in a variety of settings, as trauma can arise instantaneously. Crises are temporary, usually with short span, no longer than a month, although the effects may become long-lasting.[3]
Crisis Intervention is the emergency and temporary care given an individual who, because of unusual stress in his or her life that renders them unable to function as they normally would, in order to interrupt the downward spiral of maladaptive behavior and return the individual to their usual level of pre-crisis functioning.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Crisis
2 Signs of crisis
3 Universal principles of crisis intervention
4 General approach
5 Non-violent approach
6 Criticisms
7 References
8 External links
Crisis[edit]
An example of a crisis situation
Crises can occur on a personal or societal level. Personal Trauma is defined as an individual's experience of a situation or event in which he/she perceives to have exhausted his/her coping skill, self-esteem, social support, and power. These can be situations where a person is making suicidal threats, experiencing threat, witnessing homicide or suicide, or experiencing personal loss. While a person is experiencing a crisis on the individual level it is important for counselors to primarily assess safety. Counselors are encouraged to ask questions pertaining to social supports and networks, as well as give referrals for long term care.
Societal or mass trauma can occur in a number of settings and typically affects a large group or society. These are instances such as school shootings, terrorist attacks, and natural disaster. A counselor's primary concern when called to these types of crises is to assess people's awareness of resources. Individuals experiencing trauma in large scales need to be aware of shelters that offer food and water; places that meet their basic necessities for survival.[5]
Signs of crisis[edit]
Counselors are encouraged to be aware of the typical responses of those who have experienced a crisis or currently struggling with the trauma. On the cognitive level they may blame themselves or others for the trauma. Often the person appears disoriented, becomes hypersensitive or confused, has poor concentration, uncertainty, and poor troubleshooting. Physical responses to trauma include: increased heart rate, tremors, dizziness, weakness, chills, headaches, vomiting, shock, fainting, sweating, and fatigue. Some emotional responses the person may experiences consist of apathy, depression, irritability, anxiety, panic, helplessness, hopelessness, anger, fear, guilt, and denial. When assessing behavior some typical responses to crisis are difficulty eating and/or sleeping, conflicts with others, withdrawal from social situations, and lack of interest in social activities.[1]
Universal principles of crisis intervention[edit]
While dealing with crisis, both personal and societal, there are five basic principles outlined for intervention. Victims are initially at high risk for maladaptive coping or immobilization. Intervening as quickly as possible is imperative. Resource mobilization should be immediately enacted in order to provide victims with the tools they need to return to some sort of order and normalcy, in addition to enable eventual independent functioning. The next step is to facilitate understanding of the event by processing the situation or trauma. This is done in order to help the victim gain a better understanding of what has occurred and allowing him or her to express feeling about the experience. Additionally, the counselor should assist the victim(s) in problem solving within the context of their situation and feelings. This is necessary for developing self-efficacy and self-reliance. Helping the victim get back to being able to function independently by actively facilitating problem solving, assisting in developing appropriate strategies for addressing those concerns, and in helping putting those strategies into action. This is done in hopes of assisting the victim to become self-reliant.[6]
General approach[edit]
A general approach of crisis intervention integrates numerous assessment tools and triage procedures; Roberts 7 Stage Crisis Intervention Model, SAFER-R Model and Lerner and Shelton's 10 step acute stress & trauma management protocol creates one comprehensive model for responding to crisis that can be utilized in most all crisis situations.
The ACT model of crisis intervention developed by Roberts as a response to the September 11, 2001 tragedy outlines a three-stage framework: Assessment Crisis Intervention Trauma Treatment (ACT).[7] It is important to note that this should be followed as a guide not to be followed rigidly (A.R. Roberts, Crisis Intervention Handbook 2005 p. 157).
The first step is the assessment stage; this is done by determining the needs of victims, other involved persons, survivors, their families, and grieving family members of possible victim(s) and making appropriate referrals when needed.
Three types of assessments need to be conducted.[8]
The first is triage assessment, which is an immediate assessment to determine lethality and determine appropriate referral to one of the following: emergency inpatient hospitalization, outpatient treatment facility or private therapist, or if no referral is needed.
A crisis assessment also needs to be completed which consists of gathering information regarding the individual's crisis state, environment, and interpersonal relationships in order to work towards resolving the current crisis. This step helps facilitate development of an effective and appropriate treatment plan.
The last area of assessment includes a biosocial and cultural assessment. This would be completed by using systematic assessment tools to ascertain the client's current level of stress, situation, present problem, and severe crisis episode.[9]
The goal of the crisis intervention stage of Robert's ACT model is to resolve the client's presenting problems, stress, psychological trauma, and emotional conflicts. This is to be done with a minimum number of contacts, as crisis intervention is intended to be time limited and goal directed.
1. Intake and Assessing the person who is in Crisis/Suffering from the aftereffects of Crisis
Stage one of the seven step approach focuses on assessing lethality. The clinician is to plan and conduct a thorough biopsychosocial and lethality/imminent danger assessment; this should be done promptly at the time of arrival. Once lethality is determined one should establish rapport with the victim(s) whom the clinician will be working with.
2. Exploring the Crisis Situation of the person
The next phase is to identify major problem(s), including what in their life has led to the crisis at hand. During this stage it is important that the client is given the control and power to discuss their story in his or her own words.
3. Understanding the Coping Style employed by the person
While he or she is describing the situation, the intervention specialist should develop a conceptualization of the client's "modal coping style", which will most likely need adjusting as more information unfolds. This is referred to as stage three.
4. Confronting Feelings, Exploring Emotions and Challenging the Maladaptive Coping Style
As a transition is made to stage four, feelings will become prevalent at this time, so dealing with those feelings will be an important aspect of the intervention. While managing the feelings, the counselor must allow the client(s) to express his or her story, and explore feelings and emotions through active listening and validation. Eventually, the counselor will have to work carefully to respond to the client using challenging responses in order to help him or her work past maladaptive beliefs and thoughts, and to think about other options.
5. Exploring Solutions and Educating the client in best practices of Coping
At step five, the victim and counselor should begin to collaboratively generate and explore alternatives for coping. Although this situation will be unlike any other experience before, the counselor should assist the individual in looking at what has worked in the past for other situations; this is typically the most difficult to achieve in crisis counseling.
6. Developing a concrete treatment plan/structure of activities and Reassuring the clients newly gained healthy perspective
Once a list has been generated, a shift can be made to step six: development of a treatment plan that serves to empower the client. The goal at this stage it to make the treatment plan as concrete as possible which could be followed by the client and implemented as an attempt to make meaning out of the crisis event. Having meaning of the situation is also an important part of this stage because it allows for gaining mastery.
7. Follow-Up
Step seven is for the intervention specialist to arrange for follow-up contact with the client to evaluate his or her post crisis condition in order to make certain resolution towards progressing. The follow-up plan may include "booster" sessions to explore treatment gains and potential problems.[7]
SAFER-R Model
The SAFER-R Model is a much used model of intervention[10] with Roberts 7 Stage Crisis Intervention Model. The model approaches crisis intervention as an instrument to help the client to achieve his or her baseline level of functioning from the state of crisis. This intervention model for responding to individuals in crisis consists of 5+1 stages.
They are:[11]
Stabilize
Acknowledge
Facilitate understanding
Encourage adaptive coping
Restore functioning or,
Refer
Lerner and Shelton's 10 step acute stress & trauma management protocol[12]
A comprehensive view of how to treat the trauma consists of ten stages outlined by Lerner and Shelton (2001). These 10 steps relate similar to the crisis intervention steps.
The first step is to assess for danger/safety for self and others, this means for the victim, counselor, and others who may have been affected by the trauma.
Then consider the physical and perceptual mechanisms of injury.
Once injury is assessed the victim's level of responsiveness should be evaluated.
If any medical needs are there, it should be addressed.
The individual who witnessed or is experiencing a crisis, should be observed to identify his or her signs of traumatic stress.
After the assessment of the situation is completed the counselor should introduce his or her self, state their title and role, and connect with the individual by building rapport.
A good rapport building allows for a more fluid approach in grounding the individual, this can be done by allowing the client/person to tell their story.
The interventionist provides support through active and empathetic listening,
Normalize, validate, and educate the individuals emotions, stress and adaptive coping styles.
Finally, the intervention specialist is to bring the person to the present, describe future events, and provide referrals as needed.
After the crisis situation has been assessed and crisis interventions have been applied, the aim is at eliminating stress symptoms, thus treating the traumatic experience.
Non-violent approach[edit]
Non-violent approach in crisis intervention for agitation management involves better understanding of Proxemics (Personal space of a person) and Kinesics (Nonverbal communication through postures).[13] It helps to reduce anxiety, escalations and disruptions in agitated incidents and reduces use of restraints is decreased by 25%.[14]
Criticisms[edit]
When using crisis intervention methods for the disabled individual, every effort should first be made to first find other, preventative methods, such as giving adequate physical, occupational and speech therapy, and communication aides including sign language and Augmentative Communication systems, behavior and other plans, in order to first help the handicapped individual to be able to express their needs and function better. Too often, crisis intervention methods including restraining holds are used without first giving the disabled more and better therapies or educational assistance. Often school districts, for example, may use crisis prevention holds and "Interventions" against disabled children without first giving services and supports (at least 75% of cases of restraint and seclusion reported to the Department of Education involved disabled children in the 2011-12 school year.) Also, school districts fail to inform parents about their disabled child's "intervention" with restraint or seclusion, thereby providing little, if any, opportunity for the family to help the disabled child recover. Congress is trying to curtail the use of restraint and seclusion by school districts, having proposed legislation "Keeping All Students Safe Act" which had bi-partisan support but the bill has repeatedly died in committee. It will be re-introduced in 2015 by Senator Chris Murphy (CT). Critical incident debriefing is a widespread approach to counseling those in a state of crisis. This technique is done in a group setting 24–72 hours after the event occurred, and is typically a one-time meeting that lasts 3–4 hours, but can be done over numerous sessions if needed. Debriefing is a process by which facilitators describe various symptoms related PTSD and other anxiety disorders that individuals are likely to experience due to exposure to a trauma. As a group they process negative emotions surrounding the traumatic event. Each member is encouraged continued participation in treatment so that symptoms do not become exacerbated.[15]
Critical incident debriefing has been criticized by many for its effectiveness on reducing harm in crisis situations. Some studies show that those exposed to debriefing are actually more likely to show symptoms of PTSD at a 13-month follow-up than those who are not exposed to the debriefing. Most recipients of debriefing reported that they found the intervention helpful. Based on symptoms found in those who received no treatment at all, some critics state that reported improvement is considered a misattribution, and that the progress would naturally occur without any treatment.[16]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Jackson-Cherry, L.R., & Erford, B.T. (2010). Crisis intervention and prevention. NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Jump up ^ Aguilera, D.C. (1998). Crisis Intervention. Theory and Methodology. Mosby, St Louis.
Jump up ^ Forde, S., & Devaney, C. (2006). "Postilion: a community-based family support initiative and model of responding to tragic events, including suicide". Child Care in Practice, 12(1), 53-61.
Jump up ^ Greenstone and Leviton, 1993, 2002, 2011
Jump up ^ Landau, J., Mittal, M., & Wieling, E. (2008). Linking human systems: strengthening individuals, families, and communities in the wake of mass trauma. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(2), 193-209
Jump up ^ Flannery, R.B., & Everly, G.S. (2000). Crisis intervention: a review. Internal Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 2(2), 119-125.
^ Jump up to: a b Roberts, A. (2006). Assessment, crisis intervention, and trauma treatment: the integrative act intervention model. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 2(1), 1-22.
Jump up ^ Everly & Mitchell, 2008
Jump up ^ Waters, J.A. (2002). Moving forward from September 11: a stress/crisis/trauma response model. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 2, 55-74.
Jump up ^ "International Police Association (IPA)". .ipa-usa.org.
Jump up ^ https://www.ncemsf.org/about/conf2010/presentations/polk_crisis_response.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.aaets.org/ten%20stages%20atsm.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.crisisprevention.com/CPI/media/Media/Resources/webinar/eRefresher2012/eRefresher-2012-Part2/Key-Point-Refresher-SAMPLE.pdf
Jump up ^ Restraint and Seclusion, Joint Commission Resources, 2002
Jump up ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2007). Psychological treatments that cause harm. perspectives on psychological science, 2(1), 53-71.
Jump up ^ Regehr, C. (2001). Crisis debriefing groups for emergency responders: reviewing the evidence. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 1, 87-100.
Greenstone, J.L. & Leviton, Sharon. (1993, 2002,2011). Elements of crisis intervention: Crises and how to respond to them, Third Edition. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Thomson Learning.
Greenstone, J.L. (2005). The elements of police hostage and crisis negotiations: Critical incidents and how to respond to them. Binghamton, New York: The Haworth Press, Inc.
Greenstone, J.L.(2008). The Elements of disaster Psychology: Managing psychosocial trauma – An integrated approach to force protection and acute care. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Publishers.
Greenstone, J.L. & Leviton, Sharon (1981). Hotline: Crisis intervention directory. New York: Facts on File.
Greenstone, J.L. & Leviton, Sharon (1982). Crisis intervention: Handbook for interveners. Dubuque: Kendall-Hunt.
Greenstone, J.L.& Leviton, Sharon. (1983). Crisis intervention. In Raymond Corsini (ED) Encyclopedia of Psychology. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
External links[edit]
Responding to persons with mental illness can screening checklists aid law enforcement
Crisis internvetion teams responding to mental illness crisis calls
Journals of crisis intervention research:
Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crisis_intervention&oldid=831054764"
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