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Names for India
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The geographic region containing the Indian subcontinent
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The name in Indian languages is Bharata after the emperor Bharata. At first the name Bharata referred only the western part of the Gangetic Valley in North India, but was later more broadly applied to the Indian subcontinent and the region of Greater India, as was the name India. Today it refers to the contemporary Republic of India located therein. The name India is originally derived from the name of the river Sindhu (Indus River) and has been in use in Greek since Herodotus (4th century BCE).[1][better source needed] The term appeared in Old English as early the 9th century and reemerged in Modern English in the 17th century.
The Republic of India has two principal short names in both official and popular English usage, each of which is historically significant, India and Bharat. The first article of the Constitution of India states that "India, that is Bharat, shall be a union of states," implicitly codifying India and Bharat as equally official short names for the Republic of India. A third name, Hindustan as an alternative name for the region comprising most of the modern nations of the subcontinent when Indians speak among themselves. The usage of Bharat, Hindustan or India is dependent on the context and language of conversation.
Although the Aryavarta was eventually accepted as a term for all of India, previously it was only a name of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. According to Manusmṛti[2] North India (i.e., India north of the Vindhyas) is also known as Āryāvarta (Sanskrit: आर्यावर्त, abode of the Vedic people).[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 India
2 Āryāvarta
3 Bhārata
4 Jambudvīpa
5 Nābhivarṣa
6 Hind / Hindustan
7 Tianzhu
8 Hodu
9 Historical definitions of India
10 Historical definitions of a Greater India
11 Republic of India
11.1 Official Names
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
India[edit]
The English term is from Greek Ἰνδία (Hindia), via Latin transliteration India.[4] Greek did not have a separate letter for the H sound in 500 BCE and used a sign of aspiration above the first vowel, which was eventually lost in Latin transliteration.[5] Indía in Koine Greek denoted the region beyond the Indus (Ἰνδός) river in the Pakistan, since Herodotus (5th century BC) ἡ Ἰνδική χώρη, hē Hindikē chōrē; "the Indian land", Ἰνδός, Hindos, "an Indian", from Old Persian Hinduš and listed as a conquered territory by Darius I in the Persepolis terrace inscription.[citation needed] The name is derived ultimately from Sindhu, the Sanskrit name of the river which is a part of Pakistan today, but also meaning "river" generically.[6] Latin India is used by Lucian (2nd century AD).
The name India was known in Old English language and was used in King Alfred's translation of Paulus Orosius. In Middle English, the name was, under French influence, replaced by Ynde or Inde, which entered Early Modern English as Indie. The name India then came back to English usage from the 17th century onwards, and may be due to the influence of Latin, or Spanish or Portuguese.
Sanskrit indu "drop (of Soma)", also a term for the Moon, is unrelated, but has sometimes been erroneously connected.
Āryāvarta[edit]
Āryāvarta (Sanskrit: आर्यावर्त, abode of Aryans) is a name for North India, where the culture of the Indo-Aryans was based, in classical Sanskrit literature. Manu Smriti (2.22) gives the name to "the tract between the Himalaya and the Vindhya ranges, from the Eastern (Bay of Bengal) to the Western Sea (Arabian Sea)".[7][8]
Bhārata[edit]
Statue of Bharata Chakravartin at Shravanabelagola
Bhārata was picked to be a name of the country of India in 1950.[9]
The name Bhārata (भारत) came from king Bharata, referring mainly to two figures—Bharata Chakravartin and/or Emperor Bharata.
The earliest recorded use of Bhāratavarṣa in a geographical sense is in the Hathigumpha inscription of King Kharavela (first century BCE), where it applies only to a restrained area of northern India, namely the part of the Gangetic Valley west of Magadha.[10][11] In the Sanskrit epic, the Mahabharata (200 BCE to 300 CE), a larger region of North India is encompassed by the term, but much of the Deccan and South India are still excluded.[12]
Bhārata has been used as a self-ascribed name by some people of the Indian subcontinent and the Republic of India.[13] The designation Bhārata appears in the official Sanskrit name of the country, Bhārata Gaṇarājya. The name is derived from the ancient Hindu Puranas, which refer to the land that comprises India as Bhāratavarṣa (Sanskrit: भारतवर्ष, lit. country of Bharata) and uses this term to distinguish it from other varṣas or continents.[14] For example, the Vayu Purana says "he who conquers the whole of Bhāratavarṣa is celebrated as a samrāt (Vayu Purana 45, 86)."[15]
The Sanskrit word bhārata is a vṛddhi derivation of Bharata, which was originally an epithet of Agni. The term is a verbal noun of the Sanskrit root bhr-, "to bear/to carry", with a literal meaning of to be maintained (of fire). The root bhr is cognate with the English verb to bear and Latin ferō. This term also means "one who is engaged in search for knowledge". Barato, the Esperanto name for India, is also a derivation of Bhārata
According to the Puranas, this country is known as Bharatavarsha after Bharata, the son of Rishabha. This has been mentioned in Vishnu Purana (2,1,31), Vayu Purana (33,52), Linga Purana (1,47,23), Brahmanda Purana (14,5,62), Agni Purana (107,11–12), Skanda Purana, Khanda (37,57) and Markandaya Purana (50,41), all using the designation Bharata Varsha.
Vishnu Purāna mentions:
ऋषभो मरुदेव्याश्च ऋषभात भरतो भवेत्
भरताद भारतं वर्षं, भरतात सुमतिस्त्वभूत्
Rishabha was born to Marudevi, Bharata was born to Rishabha,
Bharatavarsha (India) arose from Bharata and Sumati arose from Bharata.
—Vishnu Purana (2,1,31)
ततश्च भारतं वर्षमेतल्लोकेषुगीयते
भरताय यत: पित्रा दत्तं प्रतिष्ठिता वनम (विष्णु पुराण, २,१,३२)
This country is known as Bharatavarsha since the times the father entrusted the kingdom to the son Bharata and he himself went to the forest for ascetic practices.[16]
—Vishnu Purana (2,1,32)
uttaraṃ yatsamudrasya himādreścaiva dakṣiṇam
varṣaṃ tadbhārataṃ nāma bhāratī yatra santatiḥ
उत्तरं यत्समुद्रस्य हिमाद्रेश्चैव दक्षिणम् ।
वर्षं तद् भारतं नाम भारती यत्र संततिः ।।
"The country (varṣam) that lies north of the ocean and south of the snowy mountains is called Bhāratam; there dwell the descendants of Bharata."
—Vishnu Purana
The Srimad Bhagavat Purana mentions(Canto 5, Chapter 4)[17] - "He (Rishabha) begot a hundred sons that were exactly like him... He (Bharata) had the best qualities and it was because of him that this land by the people is called Bhârata-varsha"
The Bhāratas were also a Vedic tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, notably participating in the Battle of the Ten Kings.
The realm of Bharata is known as Bharātavarṣa in the Mahabhārata (the core portion of which is itself known as Bhārata) and later texts. According to the text, the term Bharata is from the king Bharata, who was the son of Dushyanta and Shakuntala and the term varsa means a division of the earth or a continent.
Bharata Khanda (or Bharata Ksetra[18]) is a term used in Hindu texts, including the Vedas, Mahabharata, Ramayana and the Puranic, to describe the geographic region that encompassed the modern countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Myanmar—that is, South Asia at the term's furthest extent.
Jambudvīpa[edit]
Jambudvipa (Sanskrit: जम्बुद्वीप Jambu-dvīpa, lit. "berry island") was used in ancient scriptures for the name of India before Bhārata became the official name. The derivative Jambu Dwipa was the historical term for India in many Southeast Asian countries before the colonial introduction of the English word "India". This alternate name is still used occasionally in Thailand, Malaysia, Java and Bali to describe the Indian Subcontinent. However, it also can refer to the continent of Asia.
Nābhivarṣa[edit]
According to Texts, before India was called Bhāratavarṣa, it was known as Nābhivarṣa (Sanskrit: नाभिवर्ष, lit. land of Nabhi). King Nabhi was a Chakravartin (Universal Sovereign of India) and father of Arihant Rishabha (Jainism).
Hind / Hindustan[edit]
Main article: Hindustan
The words Hindū (Persian: هندو) and Hind (Persian: هند) came from Old Persian hindūš from Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit Sindhu (the Indus river or its region) while -stān (Persian: ستان) means "country" or "land" (cognate with Sanskrit sthāna "place, region"). The land which had originally been called Hindūstān (Persian: هندوستان) lay to the east of the Indus river and south of the Himalayas. Emperor Babur said, "On the East, the South, and the West it is bounded by the Great Ocean."[19] Hind was notably adapted in the Arabic language as the definitive form Al-Hind (الهند) for India, e.g. in the 11th century Tarikh Al-Hind "History of India"). It occurs intermittently in usage within India, such as in the phrase Jai Hind (Hindi: जय हिन्द) or in Hind Mahāsāgar (Hindi: हिन्द महासागर), the Standard Hindi name for the Indian Ocean but otherwise is deemed archaic.
Both the names were current in Persian and Arabic from the 11th century Islamic conquests: the rulers in the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal periods called their Indian dominion, centered around Delhi, 'Hindustan' (ہندوستان; हिन्दुस्तान). In contemporary Persian and Urdu language, the term Hindustan has recently come to mean the Republic of India. The same is the case with Arabic, where al-Hind is the name for the Republic of India.
Hindustan, as the term Hindu itself, entered the English language in the 17th century. In the 19th century, the term as used in English referred to the Subcontinent. Hindustan was in use simultaneously with India during the British Raj. Today, Hindustan is no longer in use as the official name for India.
Tianzhu[edit]
Main article: Tenjiku
Tianzhu or Tenjiku (Chinese and Japanese: 天竺) (originally pronounced xien-t'juk) is the historical East Asian name for India that comes from the Chinese transliteration of the Persian Hindu, which itself is derived from the Sanskrit Sindhu, the native name of the Indus River.[6] Tianzhu is one of several Chinese transliterations of Sindhu. Shendu (身毒) appears in Sima Qian's Shiji and Tiandu (天篤) is used in the Hou Hanshu (Book of the Later Han).[20] Yintejia (印特伽) comes from the Kuchean Indaka, another transliteration of Hindu.[6] A detailed account of Tianzhu is given in the "Xiyu Zhuan" (Record of the Western Regions) in the Hou Hanshu compiled by Fan Ye (398–445):
"The state of Tianzhu: Also, named Shendu, it lies several thousand li southeast of Yuezhi. Its customs are the same as those of Yuezhi, and it is low, damp, and very hot. It borders a large river. The inhabitants ride on elephants in warfare; they are weaker than the Yuezhi. They practise the way of Futu the Buddha and therefore it has become a custom among them not to kill or attack [others]. From west of the states Yuezhi and Gaofu, and south until the Western Sea, and east until the state of Panqi, all is the territory of Shendu. Shendu has several hundred separate towns, with a governor, and separate states which can be numbered in the tens, each with its own king. Although there are small differences among them, they all come under the general name of Shendu, and at this time all are subject to Yuezhi. Yuezhi have killed their kings and established a general in order to rule over their people. The land produces elephants, rhinoceros, tortoise shell, gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and tin. It communicates to the west with Da Qin (the Roman Empire) and so has the exotica of Da Qin."[20]
Tianzhu was also referred to as Wutianzhu (五天竺, literally "Five Indias"), because there were five geographical regions in India known to the Chinese: Central, Eastern, Western, Northern, and Southern India. The monk Xuanzang also referred to India as Wu Yin or "Five Inds".[6]
The term is also used in Japan, where it is pronounced as Tenjiku (天竺). The foreign loanwords Indo (インド) and India (インディア) are also used in some cases. The current Japanese name for modern India is the foreign loanword Indo (インド).
The current Chinese word for India is Yindu (印度). Similar to Hindu and Sindhu, the term yin was used in classical Chinese much like the English Ind.
Hodu[edit]
Hodu Hebrew: הֹדּוּ Hoddû) is the Biblical Hebrew name for India mentioned in the Book of Esther part of the Jewish Tanakh (Bible) and Christian Old Testament. In Esther 1:1, Ahasuerus (Xerxes) had been described as King ruling 127 provinces from Hodu (India) to Ethiopia.[21]
Historical definitions of India[edit]
Some historical definitions prior to 1500 are presented below.[22]
Year
Name
Source
Definition
Between first century BCE[23] and Ninth century CE[24][25] Bhāratavarṣa (realm of Bhārata)[26][27][28] Vishnu Purana "उत्तरं यत्समुद्रस्य हिमाद्रेश्चैव दक्षिणम् ।
वर्षं तद् भारतं नाम भारती यत्र संततिः ।।"
i.e. "The country (varṣam) that lies north of the ocean and south of the snowy mountains is called Bhāratam; there dwell the descendants of Bharata."
c.400-300 BC Hodu Book of Esther (Bible) "Now it took place in the days of Ahasuerus, the Ahasuerus who reigned from Hodu (India) to Cush (Ethiopia) over 127 provinces"[29][30][31]
c. 440 BCE India Herodotus "Eastward of India lies a tract which is entirely sand. Indeed, of all the inhabitants of Asia, concerning whom anything is known, the Indians dwell nearest to the east and the rising of the Sun."
300 BCE Aryavarta Vashistha, Vashistha Dharmasutra "In the west [for Aryavarta]_ the boundary-river (Indus), in the east the region where the sun rises (Himalayas),—as far as the black antelopes wander (between these two limits.)"
c. 300 BC India/Indikē Megasthenes "India then being four-sided in plan, the side which looks to the Orient and that to the South, the Great Sea compasseth; that towards the Arctic is divided by the mountain chain of Hēmōdus from Scythia, inhabited by that tribe of Scythians who are called Sakai; and on the fourth side, turned towards the West, the Indus marks the boundary, the biggest or nearly so of all rivers after the Nile."
200 BCE Jambudvipa Chanakya
Arthashastra "This (Brahmaputra) is the eastern boundary of Jambudvipa, its western boundary being the mouths of the Indus and its southern boundary being the Indian Ocean or Rama Sethu."[32]
100 CE or later Bhāratam Vishnu Purana "उत्तरं यत्समुद्रस्य हिमाद्रेश्चैव दक्षिणम् ।
वर्षं तद् भारतं नाम भारती यत्र संततिः ।।"
i.e. "The country (varṣam) that lies north of the ocean and south of the snowy mountains is called Bhāratam; there dwell the descendants of Bharata."
c. 140. Indoi, Indou Arrian "The boundary of the land of India towards the north is Mount Taurus. It is not still called Taurus in this land; but Taurus begins from the sea over against Pamphylia and Lycia and Cilicia; and reaches as far as the Eastern Ocean, running right across Asia. But the mountain has different names in different places; in one, Parapamisus, in another Hemodus; elsewhere it is called Imaon and perhaps has all sorts of other names; but the Macedonians who fought with Alexander called it Caucasus; another Caucasus, that is, not the Scythian; so that the story ran that Alexander came even to the far side of the Caucasus. The western part of India is bounded by the river Indus right down to the ocean, where the river runs out by two mouths, not joined together as are the five mouths of the Ister; but like those of the Nile, by which the Egyptian delta is formed; thus also the Indian delta is formed by the river Indus, not less than the Egyptian; and this in the Indian tongue is called Pattala. Towards the south this ocean bounds the land of India, and eastward the sea itself is the boundary. The southern part near Pattala and the mouths of the Indus were surveyed by Alexander and Macedonians and many Greeks; as for the eastern part, Alexander did not traverse this beyond the river Hyphasis. A few historians have described the parts which are this side of the Ganges and where are the mouths of the Ganges and the city of Palimbothra, the greatest Indian city on the Ganges.(...) The Indian rivers are greater than any others in Asia; greatest are the Ganges and the Indus, whence the land gets its name; each of these is greater than the Nile of Egypt and the Scythian Ister, even were these put together; my own idea is that even the Acesines is greater than the Ister and the Nile, where the Acesines having taken in the Hydaspes, Hydraotes, and Hyphasis, runs into the Indus, so that its breadth there becomes thirty stades. Possibly also other greater rivers run through the land of India."
c. 590. Hind Istakhri "As for the land of the Hind it is bounded on the East by the Persian Sea (i.e. the Indian Ocean), on the W. and S. by the countries of Islām and on the N. by the Chinese Empire... The length of the land of the Hind from the government of Mokrān, the country of Mansūra and Bodha and the rest of Sind, till thou comest to Kannauj and thence passest on to Tibet, is about 4 months and its breadth from the Indian Ocean to the country of Kannūj about three months."
c. 650 Five Indies Xuanzang "The circumference of 五印 (Modern Chinese: Wǔ Yìn, the Five Indies) is about 90,000 li; on three sides it is bounded by a great sea; on the north it is backed by snowy mountains. It is wide at the north and narrow at the south; its figure is that of a half-moon."
c. 1020 Hind Al-Birūnī "Hind is surrounded on the East by Chín and Máchín, on the West by Sind (Baluchistan) and Kábul and on the South by the Sea."
Hindustan John Richardson, A Smaller Manual of Modern Geography. Physical and Political "The boundaries of Hindustan are marked on every side by natural features; e.g., the Himalayas, on the N.; the Patkoi Mountains, Tippera Hills, &c., on the N.E.; the Sea, on the E., S., and W.; and the Hala, and Sulaiman Mountains, on the N.W."[33]
Historical definitions of a Greater India[edit]
Writers throughout history, both Indian and of other nationalities have written about a 'Greater India', which Indians have called either Akhand Bharat or Mahabharata.[34]
Year
Name
Source
Definition
944 Al-Hind El-Mas'udi
Muruj adh-dhahab wa ma'adin al-jawhar "The Hindu nation (Al-Hind) extends from the mountains of Khorasan (Afghanistan) and of es-Sind (Baluchistan) as far as et-Tubbet (Tibetan Plateau.)"[35]
1205 Hind Hasan Nizāmī "The whole country of Hind, from Peshawar in the north, to the Indian Ocean in the south; from Sehwan (on the west bank of the Indus) to the mountains on the east dividing from China."
1298 India the Greater
India the Minor
Middle India Marco Polo "India the Greater is that which extends from Maabar to Kesmacoran (i.e. from Coromandel to Mekran) and it contains 13 great kingdoms... India the Lesser extends from the Province of Champa to Mutfili (i.e. from Cochin-China to the Kistna Delta) and contains 8 great Kingdoms... Abash (Abyssinia) is a very great province and you must know that it constitutes the Middle India."
c. 1328. India Friar Jordanus Catalani "What shall I say? The greatness of this India is beyond description. But let this much suffice concerning India the Greater and the Less. Of India Tertia I will say this, that I have not indeed seen its many marvels, not having been there..."
1404 India Minor Ruy González de Clavijo "And this same Thursday that the said Ambassadors arrived at this great River (the Oxus) they crossed to the other side. And the same day... came in the evening to a great city which is called Tenmit (Termez) and this used to belong to India Minor, but now belongs to the empire of Samarkand, having been conquered by Tamurbec."
16th century Indostān Ignazio Danti "The part of India beyond the Ganges extends in length as far as Cathay (China) and contains many provinces in which are found many notable things. As in the Kingdom of Kamul near Campichu (Cambodia)...And in Erguiul...In the Ava Mountains (Burma)..., and in the Salgatgu mountains...In Caindu...In the territory of Carajan..."[36]
982-983 Hindistān Author Unknown
Hudud al-'Alam "East of it (Hindistān) are the countries of China and Tibet; South of it, the Great Sea; west of it, the river Mihran (Indus); north of it, the country of Shaknan belonging to Vakhan and some parts of Tibet."[37]
1590 Hindustān Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak
Ain-i-Akbari "Hindustan is described as enclosed on the east, west and south by the ocean, but Sarandip (Sri Lanka), Achin (Indonesia), Maluk (Indonesia) and Malagha (Malaysia) and a considerable number of islands are accounted for within its extent."[38]
Republic of India[edit]
See also: Names of the Republic of India in its official languages
Official Names[edit]
Main article: Official names of India
The official names as set down in article 1 of the Indian constitution are:
Sanskrit: भारत (Bhārata)
English: India; Bharat
See also[edit]
Official names of India
History of India
Origin of the names of Indian states
List of regions of India
Sindhu
Indosphere
Bharata Khanda
Greater India
Sapta Sindhu
Bharat Mata
Bharata Chakravartin
Akhand Bharat
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Rocher 1986, p. 249.
Jump up ^ Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 111. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
Jump up ^ A History of Civilization in Ancient India, Based on Sanskrit Literature. In Three Volumes. Volume 3. Buddhist and Pauranik Ages, Romesh Chunder Dutt, Publisher Elibron.com, ISBN 0-543-92939-6, ISBN 978-0-543-92939-6
Jump up ^ A Text Book of Social Sciences, Dr. N.N. Kher & Jaideep Aggarwal, Pitambar Publishing, ISBN 81-209-1466-X, ISBN 978-81-209-1466-7
Jump up ^ VISHŃU PURÁŃA, BOOK II, CHAP. I, The Vishnu Purana, translated by Horace Hayman Wilson, [1840], at sacred-texts.com
Jump up ^ "Esther 1:1 This is what happened during the time of Xerxes, the Xerxes who ruled over 127 provinces stretching from India to Cush:". Biblehub.com. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ "TARNEGOL HODU, A BIRD CALLED TURKEY". Hodu is the biblical name for India (Esther 1:1), which is derived from the Persian word Hindu, a name for the region around the Indus River
Jump up ^ P. 247 Chanakya and Chandragupta By A. S. Panchapakesa Ayyar
Jump up ^ P. 146 A smaller manual of modern geography. Physical and political By John Richardson (Vicar of St. Mary's Hospital, Ilford.)
Jump up ^ P. 45 Calcutta Review By University of Calcutta, 1950
Jump up ^ P. 177 Kitab Muruj Al-dahab Al-Masudi. El-Masudis Historical Encyclopaedia By 'Abu-l-Hasan 'Ali ibn al-Husain al-Masudi
Jump up ^ P. 3 The Mapping of Power in Renaissance Italy By Mark Rosen
Jump up ^ P. 187 Journal of Ancient Indian History, Volume 9 By D.C. Sircar
Jump up ^ The Ain i Akbari, Volume 3 By Abū al-Faz̤l ibn Mubārak
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The dictionary definition of India at Wiktionary
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Crispin: The Cross of Lead
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Crispin: The Cross of Lead
First edition cover
Author
Avi (or Edward Irving Wortis)
Country
United States
Genre
Young adult novel, Historical novel
Publisher
Hyperion Books
Publication date
June 2002
Media type
Print (Hardback & Paperback)
Pages
307 pp
ISBN
0-7868-0828-4 (first edition, hardback)
OCLC
48559447
LC Class
PZ7.A953 Cr 2002
Followed by
(Crispin: At the Edge of the World)
Crispin: The Cross of Lead is a 2003 children's novel written by Avi. It was the winner of the 2003 Newbery Medal.[1] Its sequel, Crispin: At the Edge of the World, was released in 2006. The final book that completes the trilogy, Crispin: The End of Time, was released in 2010.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Characters
3 Reception
4 References
Plot[edit]
In 1377 A.D. England, a 13-year-old boy, known only as Asta's Son, lives as a peasant in the small village of Stromford. His village is part of the territory of the feudal Lord Furnival, which, in Furnival’s absence, is under the control of the steward, John Aycliffe. When his mother dies, Asta's Son is left alone, as he has no other known relatives. Shortly afterwards, John Aycliffe falsely accuses him of theft, and declares him a Wolf's Head (one who may be killed on sight).
Asta's Son turns to the village priest, Father Quinel, his only friend, who gives to him a cross of lead that belonged to his mother, and reveals that his true name is Crispin. Father Quinel promises to reveal to Crispin the truth of who his father was, but before he can, Aycliffe's men murder him, forcing Crispin to flee the village by himself. While fleeing from Aycliffe and his men, Crispin comes across an abandoned village where he meets Orson Hrothgar but people call him Bear for short. Bear learns of Crispin's lead cross and notices the writing on the cross. While Bear does not tell Crispin what the words say, Crispin realizes that the cross and its words are important. Bear is rough with Crispin, but during their travels together, a true bond of friendship develops between them. Bear eventually asks Crispin if he would like to become his apprentice, and Crispin happily agrees. Posing as father and son, the two travel towards the city of Great Wexly, the capital city of Lord Furnival's lands. Bear insists that he has important business to complete there. When they arrive, they find troubles waiting for them. Lord Furnival has died and John Aycliffe has arrived. Bear and Crispin stay at The Green Man tavern. In the room, there is a false-wall, which Bear tells Crispin will be his hiding place if things go badly. Bear meets with John Ball. Soldiers come and raid the tavern, taking Bear with them. John Aycliffe had been looking for Crispin, who is hiding. Depressed, Crispin discovers that he is Lord Furnival's son. Crispin tries to get the help of "The Brotherhood", an organization Bear is a member of, and headed by John Ball. When they refuse to aid Crispin in trying to find Bear, Crispin takes it upon himself to break into Furnival Palace and find Bear himself. He finds a dagger in one of the hallways and keeps it under his cloak. He goes into a great room and sees a picture of Lord Furnival, who looks a lot like him. Crispin finds Aycliffe, pins him to the ground and puts the dagger to his neck; but instead of killing him, makes him vow under oath that he (Crispin) and Bear will be able to leave Great Wexly unharmed (never to return) in exchange for Crispin's cross of lead. Crispin is led to Bear, who is being kept in the palace's cellar. Bear has been tortured and is weak, but manages to walk out of the palace on his own. Aycliffe and a band of soldiers escort them to the city gates. At the city gates, Aycliffe reneges on his oath and is intent on killing Crispin. A fight ensues between Aycliffe and Bear. Crispin gives Bear the dagger he found in the palace. The soldiers have their swords drawn and encircle Aycliffe and Bear. During a back and forth battle Bear eventually squeezes Aycliffe from behind, causing him to drop his sword and dagger. Bear then hurls Aycliffe into the line of soldiers. Aycliffe is punctured multiple times by the soldiers' swords and dies. Crispin leaves the cross of lead on Aycliffe's bleeding chest as he and Bear exit the Great Wexly gates. Outside the gate, Bear and Crispin play music and sing and for the first time he feels like Crispin instead of Asta's Son.
Characters[edit]
Crispin - A 13 year old serf and a peasant boy, living in a rural English village called Stromford in 1377. The book is written from his point of view. Son of "Asta" and "Lord Furnival"
Asta - Crispin's mother and the youngest daughter of Lord Douglas. Forced to live as a serf when Crispin was born out of wedlock by Lord Furnival. Her death initiated the main plot of this story.
Lord Douglas - Asta's father
Lord Furnival - Lord of a large English territory which includes Stromford. Father of Crispin born out of wedlock. Died while Crispin and Bear were en route to Great Wexly.
Lady Furnival - The wife of Lord Furnival
Bear - A spy for a secret brotherhood uprising. Disguises as a traveling jester. Came across Crispin shortly after his escape from Stromford. Bear forced Crispin into an othed-servitude which led to genuine friendship and Crispin to be his loyal apprentice.
Father Quinel - Friend to Crispin and his mother and a priest, murdered by John Aycliffe to hide that Crispin's father is Lord Furnival.
Goodwife Peregrine - Elderly woman in the village, appears to be a very wise and mysterious person. Upon Father Quinel's instruction, she gives Crispin provisions a pouch for his lead cross as he flees Stromford.
Widow Daventry - Barmaid at the Green Man Tavern and friend of Bear, had many children and 2 husbands, but they died from the plague or "The Black Death". Tells Crispin who his real father is.
John Aycliffe - Steward of Stromford and kin of Lady Furnival, attempts to kill Crispin to make sure he keeps his power.
Cerdic - A boy that tricks Crispin into a trap, nothing else is really known about him.
John Ball - The only historical figure who plays a small role — he and his group prepare for their Peasants' Revolt
Reception[edit]
According to Kirkus Reviews, "The characters are somewhat less well-developed [than the setting]; although the revolutionary and frequently profane Bear is a fascinating treasure, Crispin himself lurches along, progressing from milquetoast to restless rebel to boy of courage and conviction in fits and starts, driven by plot needs rather than organic character growth... despite its flaws, this offering is nevertheless a solid adventure and could serve as the jumping-off point for an exploration into a time of great political upheaval."[2] Anita L. Burkam wrote in The Horn Book Magazine, "Avi writes a fast-paced, action-packed adventure comfortably submerged in its fourteenth-century setting, giving Crispin a realistic medieval worldview even while subverting it with Bear's revolutionary arguments."[3]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Newbery Medal and Honor Books, 1922–Present
Jump up ^ "CRISPIN by Avi". Kirkus Reviews. May 15, 2002. Retrieved January 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Anita L. Burkam, The Horn Book Magazine, cited in Association for Library Service to Children; The Horn Book (2011). In the Words of the Winners: The Newbery and Caldecott Medals, 2001-2010. Chicago: American Library Association. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-8389-3586-6.
Awards
Preceded by
A Single Shard Newbery Medal recipient
2003 Succeeded by
The Tale of Despereaux
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Welsh orthography
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This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Welsh orthography uses 29 letters (including eight digraphs) of the Latin script to write native Welsh words as well as established loanwords.[1][2]
Majuscule forms (also called uppercase or capital letters)
A B C Ch D Dd E F Ff G Ng H I J L Ll M N O P Ph R Rh S T Th U W Y
Minuscule forms (also called lowercase or small letters)
a b c ch d dd e f ff g ng h i j l ll m n o p ph r rh s t th u w y
The acute accent (Welsh: acen ddyrchafedig), the grave accent (Welsh: acen ddisgynedig), the circumflex (Welsh: acen grom, to bach or hirnod) and the diaeresis mark (Welsh: didolnod) are also used on vowels, but accented letters are not regarded as part of the alphabet.
The letter j was only relatively recently accepted into Welsh orthography for those words borrowed from English in which the /dʒ/ sound is retained in Welsh, even where that sound is not represented by j in English spelling, as in garej ("garage") and ffrij ("fridge"). Older borrowings of English words containing /dʒ/ resulted in the sound being pronounced and spelt in various other ways, resulting in occasional doublets such as Siapan and Japan ("Japan").
The letters k, q, v, x and z are sometimes used in technical terms, like kilogram, volt and zero, but in all cases can be, and often are, replaced by Welsh letters: cilogram, folt and sero.[3] Nevertheless, in Y Wladfa, the Welsh settlement in Patagonia, v is used generally to represent the sound /v/.[4]
Contents
1 History
2 Letter names and sound values
2.1 Diphthongs
3 Diacritics
4 Predicting vowel length from orthography
5 Digraphs
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
A 19th century Welsh alphabet printed in Welsh
The earliest samples of written Welsh date from the 6th century and are in the Latin alphabet (see Old Welsh). The orthography differs from that of modern Welsh, particularly in the use of p, t and c to represent the voiced plosives /b, d, ɡ/ in the middle and at the end of words. Similarly, the voiced fricatives /v, ð/ were written with b and d.[4]
By the Middle Welsh period, this had given way to much variability: although b, d and g were now used to represent /b, d, ɡ/, these sounds were also often written as in Old Welsh, while /v/ could be denoted by u, v, f or w. In earlier manuscripts, moreover, fricatives were often not distinguished from plosives (e.g. t for /θ/, the sound now written with th).[5] The grapheme k was also used more commonly than in the modern alphabet, particularly before front vowels.[4] The disuse of this letter is at least partly due to the publication of William Morgan's Welsh Bible, whose English printers, with type letter frequencies set for English and Latin, did not have enough k letters in their type cases to spell every /k/ sound as k, so the order went "C for K, because the printers have not so many as the Welsh requireth";[6] this was not liked at the time, but has become standard usage.
In 1928 a committee chaired by Sir John Morris-Jones standardised the orthography of modern Welsh.
In 1987, a committee chaired by Professor Stephen J. Williams made further small changes. The conventions established by these committees are not adhered to by all modern writers.[7]
Letter names and sound values[edit]
"N" and "S" indicate variants specific to the northern and southern dialects of Welsh. Throughout Wales an alternative system is also in use in which all consonant letters are named using the corresponding consonant sound plus a schwa (e.g. cy /kə/ for èc). In this system the vowels are named as below.
Letter
Name
Corresponding sounds
English approximation
a a /a, aː/ cat (short) / father (long)
b bi /b/ bat
c ec /k/ case
ch èch /χ/ loch (Scottish)
d[* 1] di /d/ day
dd èdd /ð/ this
e e /ɛ, eː/ bed (short) / closest to hey (long)
f èf /v/ vat
ff èff /f/ four
g èg /ɡ/ gate
ng èng /ŋ/ thing
h[* 2] aets /h/ hat
i i, i dot (S) /ɪ, iː, j/ bit (short) / machine (long) / yes (as consonant; before vowels)
j je /d͡ʒ/ jump
l el /l/ lad
ll èll /ɬ/ not present in English; a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative. A bit like what the consonant cluster "hl" would sound like.
m em /m/ mat
n en /n/ net
o o /ɔ, oː/ Short, like "bog" in RP; long like stove in Scottish English, North Central American English and Standard Canadian English
p pi /p/ pet
ph ffi /f/ phone
r er /r/ rat (trilled)
rh rhi /r̥/ pray (trilled): an unvoiced [r]
s[* 1] ès /s/ sat
t[* 1] ti /t/ tan
th èth /θ/ thin
u u (N), u bedol (S) /ɨ̞, ɨː/ (N),[* 3]
/ɪ, iː/ (S) for Southern variants: bit (short) / machine (long); in Northern dialects /ɨ̞, ɨː/ not found in English. Identical to "î" and "â" in Romanian, and similar to the "e" in English roses.
w w /ʊ, uː, w/ book (short) / pool (long) / wet (as consonant)
y[* 4] ỳ /ɨ̞, ɨː, ə/ (N),[* 3]
/ɪ, iː, ə, əː/ (S) for Southern variants: bit (final syllable, short) / machine (final syllable, long)
above (other places, short) / roses /ɨ̞, ɨː/, found in certain dialects of English that differentiate "Rosa's" and "roses", for example, General American.
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b c The sequence si indicates /ʃ/ when followed by a vowel; similarly, di and ti sometimes indicate /dʒ/ and /tʃ/ respectively when followed by a vowel, although these sounds are spelled j and ts in loanwords like jẁg "jug" and wats "watch".
Jump up ^ In addition to representing the phoneme /h/, h indicates voicelessness in the graphemes mh, nh, ngh and rh. The digraph ph – which indicates the aspirate mutation of p (e.g. ei phen-ôl) – may also be found very occasionally in words derived from Greek (e.g. phenol), although most words of Greek origin are spelt with ff (e.g. ffotograff).
^ Jump up to: a b In the North, the letters u and y are occasionally pronounced /ɪ, iː/, the same as in the South, rather than /ɨ̞, ɨː/. This is usually the case when the preceding vowel is /ɪ/ or when y is preceded or followed by g /g/ or followed by w /u/, forming a diphthong. "Morffoleg y Gymraeg". Geiriadur yr Academi. Bangor University. Retrieved 25 July 2014.
Jump up ^ The vowel letter y indicates /ə/ in unstressed monosyllabic words (e.g. y "the", fy "my") or non-final syllables (regardless of whether these are stressed or not), but /ɨ̞, ɨː/ (N) or /ɪ, iː/ (S) in word-final syllables (again, regardless of stress).
Diphthongs[edit]
Orthography
Northern dialects
Southern dialects
English (approximation only)
ae /ɑːɨ/ /ai/ eye
ai /ai/ /ai/ eye
au /aɨ/ /ai/ eye / bet (plural ending)
aw /au, ɑːu/ /au/ how
ei /əi/ /əi/ As in eight
eu /əɨ/ /əi/ As in eight
ew /ɛu, eːu/ /ɛu/ Roughly like Edward with the d removed: E'ward
ey /əɨ/ /əi/ As in eight
iw /ɪu/ /ɪu/ not present in English except in the interjection Ew!; closest to 'i-oo' (short i)
oe /ɔɨ, ɔːɨ/ /ɔi/ boy
oi /ɔi/ /ɔi/ boy
ou /ɔɨ, ɔːɨ/ /ɔi/ boy
ow /ɔu/ /ɔu/ oh
uw /ɨu/ /ɪu/ not present in English; closest to 'i-oo' (short i)
wy /ʊɨ, uːɨ/ /ʊi/ not present in English; closest to gooey
yw /ɨu, əu/ /ɪu, əu/ /ɪu/ not present in English; closest to 'i-oo' (short i)
/əu/ like "goat" in Received Pronunciation or like "house" in Canadian English
Diacritics[edit]
Welsh makes use of a number of diacritics.
The circumflex (ˆ) is used to mark long vowels, so â, ê, î, ô, û, ŵ, ŷ are always long. However, not all long vowels are marked with a circumflex, so the letters a, e, i, o, u, w, y with no circumflex do not necessarily represent short vowels; see "Predicting vowel length from orthography" below.
The grave accent (`) is sometimes used, usually in words borrowed from another language, to mark vowels that are short when a long vowel would normally be expected, e.g. pas /pɑːs/ (a cough), pàs /pas/ (a pass/permit or a lift in a car); mwg /muːɡ/ (smoke), mẁg /mʊɡ/ (a mug).
The acute accent (´) is sometimes used to mark a stressed final syllable in a polysyllabic word. Thus the words gwacáu (to empty) and dicléin (decline) have final stress. However, not all polysyllabic words with final stress are marked with the acute accent (Cymraeg "Welsh", for example, is written with none). The acute may also be used to indicate that a letter w represents a vowel where a glide might otherwise be expected, e.g. gẃraidd /ˈɡʊ.raið/ (two syllables) "manly", as opposed to gwraidd /ˈɡʷraið/ (one syllable) "root". Similarly, the diaeresis (¨) is used to indicate that two adjoining vowels are to be pronounced separately, e.g. copïo (to copy) pronounced /kɔˈpiːɔ/, not */ˈkɔpjɔ/.
The grave and acute accents in particular are very often omitted in casual writing, and the same is true to a lesser extent of the diaeresis. The circumflex, however, is usually included. Accented vowels are not considered distinct letters for the purpose of collation.
Predicting vowel length from orthography[edit]
As mentioned above, vowels marked with the circumflex are always long, and those marked with the grave accent are always short. If a vowel is not marked with a diacritic, its length must be determined by its environment; the rules vary a bit according to dialect.[8][9]
In all dialects, only stressed vowels may be long; unstressed vowels are always short.
An unmarked (stressed) vowel is long:
in the last syllable of a word when no consonant follows: da /dɑː/ (good).
before b, ch, d, dd, g, f, ff, th: mab /mɑːb/ (son), hoff /hoːf/ (favourite), peth /peːθ/ (thing).
before word-final s: nos /noːs/ (night).
An unmarked vowel is short:
in an unstressed (proclitic) word: a /a/.
before p, t, c, ng: iet /jɛt/ (gate), lloc /ɬɔk/ (sheepfold), llong /ɬɔŋ/ (ship)
before most consonant clusters: sant /sant/ (saint), perth /pɛrθ/ (hedge), Ebrill /ˈɛbrɪɬ/ (April).
The vowel y, when it is pronounced /ə/, is always short[contradictory] even when it appears in an environment where other vowels would be long: cyfan (whole) /ˈkəvan/. When pronounced as a close or near-close vowel (/ɨ/ or /ɨ̞/ in the North, /i/ or /ɪ/ in the South), y follows the same rules as other vowels: dydd (day) /ˈdɨːð/ (North) ~ /ˈdiːð/ (South), gwynt (wind) /ˈɡwɨ̞nt/ (North) ~ /ˈɡwɪnt/ (South).
Before l, m, n, and r, unmarked vowels are long in some words and short in others: gwin /ɡwiːn/ (wine), prin /prɪn/ (scarcely); hen /heːn/ (old), pen /pɛn/ (head); dyn /dɨːn/ ~ /diːn/ (man), gwyn /ɡwɨ̞n/ ~ /ɡwɪn/ (white); stwmo /ˈstuːmo/ (bank up a fire), amal /ˈamal/ (often); celyn /ˈkeːlɪn/ (holly), calon /ˈkalɔn/ (heart). (The last four examples are given in South Welsh pronunciation only since vowels in nonfinal syllables are always short in North Welsh.) Before nn and rr, vowels are always short: onn /ˈɔn/ (ash trees), ennill /ˈɛnɪɬ/ (to win), carreg /ˈkarɛɡ/ (stone).
In Northern dialects, long vowels are stressed and appear in the final syllable of the word. Vowels in non-final syllables are always short. In addition to the rules above, a vowel is long in the North before a consonant cluster beginning with s: tyst /tɨːst/ (witness). Before ll, a vowel is short when no consonant follows the ll: gwell (better) /ɡwɛɬ/ It is long when another consonant does follow the ll: gwallt /ɡwɑːɬt/ (hair).
In Southern dialects, long vowels may appear in a stressed penultimate syllable as well as in a stressed word-final syllable. Before ll, a stressed vowel in the last syllable can be either long (e.g. gwell "better" /ɡweːɬ/) or short (e.g. twll "hole" /tʊɬ/). However, a stressed vowel in the penult before ll is always short: dillad /ˈdɪɬad/ (clothes).[citation needed] Before s, a stressed vowel in the last syllable is long, as mentioned above, but a stressed vowel in the penult is short: mesur (measure) /ˈmɛsir/. Vowels are always short before consonant clusters: sant /sant/ (saint), gwallt /ɡwaɬt/ (hair), tyst /tɪst/ (witness).
Digraphs[edit]
While the digraphs ch, dd, ff, ng, ll, ph, rh, th are each written with two symbols, they are all considered to be single letters. This means, for example that Llanelli (a town in South Wales) is considered to have only six letters in Welsh, compared to eight letters in English. Consequently, they each take up only a single space in Welsh crosswords.
Sorting is done in correspondence with the alphabet. For example, la comes before ly, which comes before lla, which comes before ma. Automated sorting may occasionally be complicated by the fact that additional information may be needed to distinguish a genuine digraph from a juxtaposition of letters; for example llom comes after llong (in which the ng stands for /ŋ/) but before llongyfarch (in which n and g are pronounced separately as /ŋɡ/).
Although the digraphs above are considered to be single letters, only their first component letter is capitalised when a word in lower case requires an initial capital letter. Thus:
Llandudno, Ffestiniog, Rhuthun, etc. (place names)
Llŷr, Rhian, etc. (personal names)
Rhedeg busnes dw i. Llyfrgellydd ydy hi. (other sentences starting with a digraph)
The two letters in a digraph are both capitalised only when the whole word is in uppercase:
LLANDUDNO, LLANELLI, Y RHYL (as on a poster or sign)
The status of the digraphs as single letters is reflected in the stylised forms used in the logos of the National Library of Wales (logo) and Cardiff University (logo).
See also[edit]
Bardic Alphabet
Welsh Braille
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Yr Wyddor Gymraeg/The Welsh Alphabet". Retrieved 4 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Alphabets". Retrieved 30 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Peter Wynn (1996) Gramadeg y Gymraeg. Cardiff: University of Wales Press: 757.
^ Jump up to: a b c Watkins, T. Arwyn (1993) "Welsh" in Ball, Martin J. with Fife, James (Eds) The Celtic Languages. London/New York: Routledge: 289-348.
Jump up ^ Evans, Simon D. (1964) A Grammar of Middle Welsh. Dublin: ColourBooks Ltd.
Jump up ^ English and Welsh, an essay by J. R. R. Tolkien
Jump up ^ Thomas, Peter Wynn (1996) Gramadeg y Gymraeg. Cardiff: University of Wales Press: 749.
Jump up ^ Awbery, Gwenllian M. (1984). "Phonotactic constraints in Welsh". In Ball, Martin J.; Jones, Glyn E. Welsh Phonology: Selected Readings. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. pp. 65–104. ISBN 0-7083-0861-9.
Jump up ^ Morris Jones, J. (1913). A Welsh Grammar, Historical and Comparative. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 11–18, 65–74.
External links[edit]
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Welsh/Pronunciation
Type Welsh characters online
Type Welsh accents in Word
Welsh pronunciation course with audio
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