text:
Trypophobia
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This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 23 November 2017.
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Trypophobia
The holes in lotus seedheads cause discomfort or repulsion in some people.[1][2]
Trypophobia is a proposed phobia (intense, irrational fear, or anxiety) of irregular patterns or clusters of small holes or bumps.[3][4] The condition is not officially recognized as a mental disorder,[1] and is rarely referenced in scientific literature.[5][6]
Although few studies have been done on trypophobia, researchers hypothesize that it is the result of a biological revulsion that associates trypophobic shapes with danger or disease, and may therefore have an evolutionary basis.[1]
The term trypophobia is believed to have been coined by a participant in an online forum in 2005.[5] Since then, the concept of trypophobia has become popular on social media.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Classification
2 Signs and symptoms
3 Causes
4 Treatment
5 Epidemiology
6 History
7 Society and culture
8 See also
9 References
Classification[edit]
Although on blogs and in Internet forums, thousands of people say they have trypophobia,[5][6][7] it is not recognized by name as a mental disorder,[1] and subsequently is not a specific diagnosis in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth Edition (DSM-5).[5][6] Jennifer Abbasi of Popular Science said that it is rarely referenced in scientific literature, but also that "professionals who study and treat phobias tend not to use all the Latin and Greek names that get tossed around on message boards and in the press."[5] If the fear is excessive, persistent, and associated with significant distress or impairment, trypophobia could fall under the broad category of specific phobia.[1]
Author Kathleen McAuliffe suggested that trypophobia is yet to be extensively studied because researchers have not given as much attention to topics of disgust as they have to other areas of research, and because of the revulsion viewing the images could incite in researchers.[8] Psychiatrist Carol Mathews said, "There might really be people out there with phobias to holes, because people can really have a phobia to anything, but just reading what's on the Internet, that doesn't seem to be what people actually have." Mathews felt that most people writing online are likely disgusted by these types of images without meeting criteria for a real phobia.[7] By contrast, researcher Tom Kupfer said, "I wouldn't be surprised if this is actually a disorder based on disgust and disease avoidance."[9]
Signs and symptoms[edit]
Shapes that elicit a trypophobic reaction include clustered holes in innocuous contexts, such as fruit and bubbles, and in contexts associated with danger, such as holes made by insects and holes in wounds and diseased tissue such as those caused by mango worms in animals, especially dogs. Upon seeing these shapes, some people said they shuddered, felt their skin crawl, experienced panic attacks, sweated, palpitated, and felt nauseated or itchy.[1][10] Some said the holes seemed "disgusting and gross" or that "something might be living inside those holes".[6][11][12] Other reported symptoms include goose bumps, body shakes, feeling uncomfortable, and visual discomfort such as eyestrain, distortions, or illusions.[13][14]
Causes[edit]
Geoff Cole and Arnold Wilkins of the University of Essex's Centre for Brain Science were the first scientists to publish on the phenomenon. They believe the reaction is based on a biological revulsion, rather than a learned cultural fear. In a 2013 article in Psychological Science, Cole and Wilkins write that the reaction is based on "the primitive portion of the brain" that associates the shapes with danger, and that it is an "unconscious reflex reaction".[10][11] Imagery of various poisonous animals (for example, certain types of snakes, insects, and spiders) have the same visual characteristics. Because of this, Cole and Wilkins hypothesized that trypophobia has an evolutionary basis meant to alert humans of dangerous organisms.[1] They believed this to be an evolutionary advantage, although it also causes people to fear harmless objects.[2]
Cole and Wilkins analyzed videos and images containing clusters of holes, with the images presented in an arrangement that was considered to rank the likelihood they will induce fear. Early images in the series include fruits such as oranges and pomegranates. Then, clusters of holes with a possible association with danger are presented, such as honeycombs, frogs, and insects and arachnids. Finally, images feature wounds and diseases. Using this data, Cole and Wilkins analyzed example images and believe that the images had "unique characteristics".[15] In another research article, An Trong Dinh Le, Cole and Wilkins developed a symptom questionnaire that they say can be used to identify trypophobia.[3]
Cole and Wilkins also stated that "given the large number of images associated with trypophobia, some of which do not contain clusters of holes but clusters of other objects, these results suggest that holes alone are unlikely to be the only cause for this condition" and they "consider that the fear of holes does not accurately reflect the condition."[4]
Other researches have speculated that the images could be perceived as cues to infectious disease (similar to reactions to images of leprosy, smallpox and measles, which manifest as small bumps and clusters on the skin) or parasites, which could be alerts that give one a survival advantage.[9][14] That the images invoke thoughts of decay, which is why mold on bread or vegetables have certain visual cues and characteristics similar to trypophobic stimuli, has also been theorized.[9] Conversely, psychiatrist Carol Mathews believes that trypophobic responses are more likely from priming and conditioning.[7]
Wilkins and Le also considered that the discomfort from trypophobic images is due to the geometry of the holes making excessive demands on the brain; they stated that these excessive demands may cause visual discomfort, eyestrain or headache, adding that these images have mathematical properties that cannot be processed efficiently by the brain and therefore require more brain oxygenation.[14] Wilkins and researcher Paul Hibbard proposed that the discomfort occurs when people avoid looking at the images because they require excessive brain oxygenation, adding that the brain uses about 20 per cent of the body's energy, and its energy usage needs to be kept to a minimum. They stated that mold and skin diseases can provoke disgust in most people, regardless of whether or not the people have trypophobia, and that they are investigating why some people and not others experience an emotional response in these cases.[14]
Treatment[edit]
There are no documented treatments for trypophobia, but exposure therapy, which has been used to treat phobias, is likely to be effective for treating trypophobia.[1]
Epidemiology[edit]
To what extent trypophobia exists is unknown, but the available data suggests that having an aversion to trypophobic imagery is relatively common.[1][16] 16% of a sample of 286 participants in Cole and Wilkins's study reported discomfort or repulsion when presented with an image of a lotus seed pod.[1] They found that non-trypophobic individuals also reported higher discomfort ratings when viewing images with visual characteristics associated with trypophobic patterns than when viewing neutral images.[1]
History[edit]
The term trypophobia is believed to have been coined by a participant in an online forum in 2005.[5] The word is from the Greek: τρύπα, trýpa, meaning "hole" and φόβος, phóbos, meaning "fear".[5]
Society and culture[edit]
Because trypophobia is not well known to the general public, many people with the condition do not know the name for it and believe that they are alone in their trypophobic reactions and thoughts until they find an online community to share them with.[9] This has led to an increase in trypophobic images on social media; in some cases, people seek to intentionally trigger those with trypophobia by showing them trypophobic images, with the most triggering images being holes and clusters (especially the lotus seedhead) photoshopped onto human skin.[9] Cole and Wilkins also stated that the level of disgust with trypophobia increases if the holes are on human skin.[9]
In 2017, trypophobia received significant media attention when American Horror Story featured a trypophobic character[17] and trypophobic advertisements promoting the storyline; some people were disturbed by the imagery,[9][18] and criticized the show for "insensitivity towards sufferers of trypophobia."[18] Although there was sentiment that the increased media attention could lead to people trying to trigger those with trypophobia, there were also opinions that it might help people understand trypophobia and encourage more research on the matter.[9]
See also[edit]
List of phobias
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Irena Milosevic, Randi E. McCabe (2015). Phobias: The Psychology of Irrational Fear. ABC-CLIO. p. 402. ISBN 1610695763. Retrieved October 25, 2017. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Don Hockenbury, Sandra E. Hockenbury (2016). Discovering Psychology. Macmillan Higher Education. p. 32. ISBN 1464176965. Retrieved October 26, 2017. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Le, An T. D.; Cole, Geoff G.; Wilkins, Arnold J. (January 30, 2015). "Assessment of trypophobia and an analysis of its visual precipitation". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 68 (11): 2304–22. doi:10.1080/17470218.2015.1013970. PMID 25635930.
^ Jump up to: a b Welsh, Jennifer (August 7, 2015). "Science explains why this image disgusts some people". Tech Insider. Retrieved April 10, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Abbasi, Jennifer (July 25, 2011). "Is Trypophobia a Real Phobia?". Popular Science. Retrieved October 2, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Thomas, Gregory (October 1, 2012). "Phobia about holes is not officially recognized, but U.K. scientists look into it". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 2, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Doucleff, Michaeleen. "Fear Of Cantaloupes And Crumpets? A 'Phobia' Rises From The Web". NPR. Retrieved 10 Apr 2016.
Jump up ^ Kathleen McAuliffe (2016). This Is Your Brain on Parasites: How Tiny Creatures Manipulate Our Behavior. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 154. ISBN 0544193229. Retrieved October 25, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h LaMottef, Sandee (September 14, 2017). "TV show triggers little-known phobia". CNN. Retrieved October 26, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Cole, Geoff G.; Wilkins, Arnold J. (October 2013). "Fear of Holes". Psychological Science. 24 (10): 1–6. doi:10.1177/0956797613484937. PMID 23982244.
^ Jump up to: a b Elliot, Danielle (September 5, 2013). "Understanding trypophobia: Why some people fear holes". CBS News. Retrieved September 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ Eveleth, Rose (September 5, 2013). "Trypophobia Is a Fear of Holes". Smithsonian. Retrieved September 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Everything You Should Know About Trypophobia". Healthline. August 7, 2015. Retrieved October 26, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Arnold J Wilkins and An Trong Dinh Le (March 31, 2016). "Could Trypophobia Be Caused By Math Hurting Our Brains?". Popular Science. Retrieved October 26, 2017. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Palca, Joe (September 4, 2013). "The Inside Story On The Fear Of Holes". NPR. Retrieved September 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ Daniel Schacter, Daniel Gilbert, Daniel Wegner, Bruce Hood (2015). Psychology: Second European Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 1391. ISBN 1137406755. Retrieved October 25, 2017. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ King, Eric (September 6, 2017). "American Horror Story: Cult: Why is Ally afraid of small holes?". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved October 26, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Pavey, Harriet (September 5, 2017). "What is trypophobia? Bizarre fear of small holes featured in new American Horror Story series". London Evening Standard. Retrieved October 26, 2017.
Look up trypophobia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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British English
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
British English
Native to
United Kingdom
Language family
Indo-European
Germanic
West Germanic
Anglo-Frisian
Anglic
English
British English
Early forms
Old English
Middle English
Early Modern English
Writing system
Latin (English alphabet)
Official status
Regulated by
BBC (pronunciation&vocabulary)
no regulatory body (grammar)
Language codes
ISO 639-3
–
IETF
en-GB
Comparison of
American and
British English
American English
British English
Computing
Keyboards
Grammar
Orthography
Spelling
Speech
Accent
Pronunciation
Vocabulary
Glossary of American terms not widely
used in the United Kingdom
Glossary of British terms not widely
used in the United States
Lists of words having different meanings
in American and British English:
(A–L
M–Z)
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v
t
e
British English is the standard dialect of English language as spoken and written in the United Kingdom.[3] Variations exist in formal, written English in the United Kingdom. For example, the adjective wee is almost exclusively used in parts of Scotland and Ireland, and occasionally Yorkshire, whereas little is predominant elsewhere. Nevertheless, there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in written English within the United Kingdom, and this could be described by the term British English. The forms of spoken English, however, vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken,[4] so a uniform concept of British English is more difficult to apply to the spoken language. According to Tom McArthur in the Oxford Guide to World English, British English shares "all the ambiguities and tensions in the word 'British' and as a result can be used and interpreted in two ways, more broadly or more narrowly, within a range of blurring and ambiguity".[5]
When distinguished from American English, the term "British English" is sometimes used broadly as a synonym for the various varieties of English spoken in some member states of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Dialects
2.1 Regional
2.2 Ethnicity
3 Features
3.1 Glottal stop
3.2 R-dropping
3.3 Diphthongisation
3.3.1 In the South
3.3.2 In the North
3.4 Loss of grammatical number in collective nouns
3.5 Negative Concord
4 Standardisation
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Main article: History of the English language
English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. The resident population at this time was generally speaking Common Brittonic—the insular variety of continental Celtic, which was influenced by the Roman occupation. This group of languages (Welsh, Cornish, Cumbric) cohabited alongside English into the modern period, but due to their remoteness from the Germanic languages, influence on English was notably limited. However, the degree of influence remains debated, and it has recently been argued that its grammatical influence accounts for the substantial innovations noted between English and the other West Germanic languages.[6] Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first was by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family, who conquered and colonised parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second was the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman. These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it was never a truly mixed language in the strictest sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication).
The more idiomatic, concrete and descriptive English is, the more it is from Anglo-Saxon origins. The more intellectual and abstract English is, the more it contains Latin and French influences e.g. swine (like the Germanic schwein) is the animal in the field bred by the occupied Anglo-Saxons and pork (like the French porc) is the animal at the table eaten by the occupying Normans.[7]
Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance branch of the European languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and with a huge vocabulary.
Dialects[edit]
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Map showing phonological variation within England of the vowel in bath, grass, and dance.
'a' [ä]
'aa' [æː]
'ah' [ɑː]
anomalies
Those in the north generally pronounce such words with a short vowel whereas those in the south use a long vowel
Dialects and accents vary amongst the four countries of the United Kingdom, as well as within the countries themselves.
The major divisions are normally classified as English English (or English as spoken in England, which encompasses Southern English dialects, West Country dialects, East and West Midlands English dialects and Northern English dialects), Ulster English in Northern Ireland, Welsh English (not to be confused with the Welsh language), and Scottish English (not to be confused with the Scots language). The various British dialects also differ in the words that they have borrowed from other languages. Around the middle of the 15th century, there were points where within the 5 major dialects there were almost 500 ways to spell the word though.[8]
Following its last major survey of English Dialects (1949–1950), the University of Leeds has started work on a new project. In May 2007 the Arts and Humanities Research Council awarded a grant to Leeds to study British regional dialects.[9][10]
The team are[a] sifting through a large collection of examples of regional slang words and phrases turned up by the "Voices project" run by the BBC, in which they invited the public to send in examples of English still spoken throughout the country. The BBC Voices project also collected hundreds of news articles about how the British speak English from swearing through to items on language schools. This information will also be collated and analysed by Johnson's team both for content and for where it was reported. "Perhaps the most remarkable finding in the Voices study is that the English language is as diverse as ever, despite our increased mobility and constant exposure to other accents and dialects through TV and radio".[10] When discussing the award of the grant in 2007, Leeds University stated:
that they were "very pleased"—and indeed, "well chuffed"—at receiving their generous grant. He could, of course, have been "bostin" if he had come from the Black Country, or if he was a Scouser he would have been well "made up" over so many spondoolicks, because as a Geordie might say, £460,000 is a "canny load of chink".[11]
Regional[edit]
Most people in Britain speak with a regional accent or dialect. However, about 2% of Britons speak with an accent called Received Pronunciation[12] (also called as "the Queen's English", "Oxford English" and "BBC English"[13]), that is essentially region-less.[14][15] It derives from a mixture of the Midlands and Southern dialects spoken in London in the early modern period.[15] It is frequently used as a model for teaching English to foreign learners.[15]
In the South East there are significantly different accents; the Cockney accent spoken by some East Londoners is strikingly different from Received Pronunciation (RP). The Cockney rhyming slang can be (and was initially intended to be) difficult for outsiders to understand,[16] although the extent of its use is often somewhat exaggerated.
Estuary English has been gaining prominence in recent decades: it has some features of RP and some of Cockney. In London itself, the broad local accent is still changing, partly influenced by Caribbean speech. Immigrants to the UK in recent decades have brought many more languages to the country. Surveys started in 1979 by the Inner London Education Authority discovered over 100 languages being spoken domestically by the families of the inner city's schoolchildren. As a result, Londoners speak with a mixture of accents, depending on ethnicity, neighbourhood, class, age, upbringing, and sundry other factors.
Since the mass internal immigration to Northamptonshire in the 1940s and its position between several major accent regions, it has become a source of various accent developments. In Northampton the older accent has been influenced by overspill Londoners. There is an accent known locally as the Kettering accent, which is a transitional accent between the East Midlands and East Anglian. It is the last southern Midlands accent to use the broad "a" in words like bath/grass (i.e. barth/grarss). Conversely crass/plastic use a slender "a". A few miles northwest in Leicestershire the slender "a" becomes more widespread generally. In the town of Corby, five miles (8 km) north, one can find Corbyite, which unlike the Kettering accent, is largely influenced by the West Scottish accent.
In addition, most British people can to some degree temporarily "swing" their accent towards a more neutral form of English at will, to reduce difficulty where very different accents are involved, or when speaking to foreigners.
Ethnicity[edit]
Main article: Multicultural London English
Features[edit]
Phonological features characteristic of British English revolve around the pronunciation of the letter R, as well as the dental plosive T and some diphthongs specific to this dialect.
Glottal stop[edit]
In a number of forms of spoken British English, it is common for the phoneme /t/ to be realised as a glottal stop [ʔ] when it is in the intervocalic position, in a process called T-glottalisation. Once regarded as a Cockney feature, it has become much more widespread. It is still stigmatised when used in words like later, but becoming very widespread at the end of words such as not (as in no[ʔ] interested).[17] Other consonants subject to this usage in Cockney English are p, as in pa[ʔ]er and k as in ba[ʔ]er.[17]
R-dropping[edit]
In most areas of Britain outside Scotland and Northern Ireland, the consonant R is not pronounced if not followed by a vowel, lengthening the preceding vowel instead. This phenomenon is known as non-rhoticity. In these same areas, a tendency exists to insert an R between a word ending in a vowel and a next word beginning with a vowel. This is called the intrusive R. This could be understood as a merger, in that words that once ended in an R and words that did not are no longer treated differently.
Diphthongisation[edit]
British dialects differ on the extent of diphthongisation of long vowels, with southern varieties extensively turning them into diphthongs, and with northern dialects normally preserving many of them. As a comparison, North American varieties could be said to be in-between.
In the South[edit]
Long vowels /i:/ and /u:/ are diphthongised to [ɪi] and [ʊu] respectively (or, more technically, [ʏʉ], with a raised tongue), so that ee and oo in feed and food are pronounced with a movement. The diphthong [oʊ] is also pronounced with a greater movement, normally [əʊ], [əʉ] or [əɨ].
In the North[edit]
Long vowels /i:/ and /u:/ are usually preserved, and in several areas also /o:/ and /e:/, as in go and say (unlike other varieties of English, that change them to [oʊ] and [eɪ] respectively). Some areas go as far as not diphthongising medieval /i:/ and /u:/, that give rise to modern /aɪ/ and /aʊ/; that is, for example, in the traditional accent of Newcastle upon Tyne, 'out' will sound as 'oot', and in parts of Scotland and North-West England, 'my' will be pronounced as 'me'.
Loss of grammatical number in collective nouns[edit]
A tendency to drop grammatical number in collective nouns, stronger in British English than in North American English,[18] exists. This is namely treating them, that were once grammatically singular, as grammatically plural, that is: the perceived natural number prevails. This applies especially to nouns of institutions and groups made of many people.
The noun 'police', for example, undergoes this treatment:
Police are investigating the theft of work tools worth £500 from a van at the Sprucefield park and ride car park in Lisburn.[19]
A football team can be treated likewise:
Arsenal have lost just one of 20 home Premier League matches against Manchester City.[20]
Negative Concord[edit]
Some dialects of British English use negative concords, also known as double negatives. Rather than changing a word or using a positive, words like nobody, not, nothing, and never would be used in the same sentence.[21] While this does not occur in Standard English, it does occur in non-standard dialects. The double negation follows the idea of two different morphemes, one that causes the double negation, and one that is used for the point or the verb.[22]
Standardisation[edit]
As with English around the world, the English language as used in the United Kingdom is governed by convention rather than formal code: there is no body equivalent to the Académie française or the Real Academia Española. Dictionaries (for example, Oxford English Dictionary, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Chambers Dictionary, Collins Dictionary) record usage rather than attempting to prescribe it.[23] In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time: words are freely borrowed from other languages and other strains of English, and neologisms are frequent.
For historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the 9th century, the form of language spoken in London and the East Midlands became standard English within the Court, and ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and education in Britain. The standardisation of British English is thought to be from both dialect leveling and a thought of social superiority. Speaking in the Standard dialect created class distinctions; those who did not speak the standard English would be considered of a lesser class or social status and often discounted or considered of a low intelligence.[23] Another contribution to the standardisation of British English was the introduction of the printing press to England in the mid-15th century. In doing so, William Caxton enabled a common language and spelling to be dispersed among the entirety of England at a much faster rate.[8]
Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) was a large step in the English-language spelling reform, where the purification of language focused on standardising both speech and spelling.[24] By the early 20th century, British authors had produced numerous books intended as guides to English grammar and usage, a few of which achieved sufficient acclaim to have remained in print for long periods and to have been reissued in new editions after some decades. These include, most notably of all, Fowler's Modern English Usage and The Complete Plain Words by Sir Ernest Gowers.[25]
Detailed guidance on many aspects of writing British English for publication is included in style guides issued by various publishers including The Times newspaper, the Oxford University Press and the Cambridge University Press. The Oxford University Press guidelines were originally drafted as a single broadsheet page by Horace Henry Hart, and were at the time (1893) the first guide of their type in English; they were gradually expanded and eventually published, first as Hart's Rules, and in 2002 as part of The Oxford Manual of Style. Comparable in authority and stature to The Chicago Manual of Style for published American English, the Oxford Manual is a fairly exhaustive standard for published British English that writers can turn to in the absence of specific guidance from their publishing house.[26]
See also[edit]
Canadian English
Comparison of American and British English
Australian English
Commonwealth English
British Sign Language
Hiberno-English
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ In British English collective nouns may be either singular or plural, according to context. An example provided by Partridge is: " 'The committee of public safety is to consider the matter', but 'the committee of public safety quarrel regarding their next chairman' ...Thus...singular when...a unit is intended; plural when the idea of plurality is predominant". BBC television news and The Guardian style guide follow Partridge but other sources, such as BBC Online and The Times style guides, recommend a strict noun-verb agreement with the collective noun always governing the verb conjugated in the singular. BBC radio news, however, insists on the plural verb. Partridge, Eric (1947) Usage and Abusage: "Collective Nouns". Allen, John (2003) BBC News style guide, page 31.
Citations
Jump up ^ "British English; Hiberno-English". Oxford English Dictionary (2 ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1989.
Jump up ^ British English, Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary
Jump up ^ The Oxford English Dictionary applies the term to English as "spoken or written in the British Isles; esp[ecially] the forms of English usual in Great Britain", reserving "Hiberno-English" for the "English language as spoken and written in Ireland".[1] Others, such as the Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary, define it as the "English language as it is spoken and written in England".[2]
Jump up ^ Jeffries, Stuart (27 March 2009). "The G2 Guide to Regional English". The Guardian. section G2, p. 12.
Jump up ^ McArthur (2002), p. 45.
Jump up ^ English and Welsh, 1955 J. R. R. Tolkien, also see references in Brittonicisms in English
Jump up ^ "Linguistics 201: History of English". pandora.cii.wwu.edu.
^ Jump up to: a b "The History of English - Early Modern English (c. 1500 - c. 1800)". www.thehistoryofenglish.com.
Jump up ^ Professor Sally Johnson[permanent dead link] biography on the Leeds University website
^ Jump up to: a b Mapping the English language—from cockney to Orkney, Leeds University website, 25 May 2007.
Jump up ^ McSmith, Andy. Dialect researchers given a "canny load of chink" to sort "pikeys" from "chavs" in regional accents, The Independent, 1 June 2007. Page 20
Jump up ^ "Received Pronunciation". Retrieved 20 March 2017.
Jump up ^ BBC English because this was originally the form of English used on radio and television, although a wider variety of accents can be heard these days.
Jump up ^ Sweet, Henry (1908). The Sounds of English. Clarendon Press. p. 7.
^ Jump up to: a b c Fowler, H.W. (1996). R.W. Birchfield, ed. "Fowler's Modern English Usage". Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Franklyn, Julian (1975). A dictionary of rhyming slang. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. p. 9. ISBN 0-415-04602-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Trudgill, Peter (1984). Language in the British Isles. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 56–57. ISBN 0-521-28409-0.
Jump up ^ [1], Oxford dictionary website, 02 April 2017.
Jump up ^ [2], BBC, 8 January 2017.
Jump up ^ [3], BBC, 2 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Double negatives and usage - English Grammar Today - Cambridge Dictionary". dictionary.cambridge.org.
Jump up ^ Tubau, Susagna. "Lexical variation and Negative Concord in Traditional Dialects of British English" (PDF). The Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics. doi:10.1007/s10828-016-9079-4.pdf.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Standardisation of English". courses.nus.edu.sg.
Jump up ^ "The History of English: Spelling and Standardization (Suzanne Kemmer)". www.ruf.rice.edu.
Jump up ^ "New edition of The Complete Plain Words will delight fans of no-frills". 27 March 2014.
Jump up ^ https://www.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/oxford/media_wysiwyg/University%20of%20Oxford%20Style%20Guide.pdf
References[edit]
McArthur, Tom (2002). Oxford Guide to World English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866248-3 hardback, ISBN 0-19-860771-7 paperback.
Bragg, Melvyn (2004). The Adventure of English, London: Sceptre. ISBN 0-340-82993-1
Peters, Pam (2004). The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62181-X.
Simpson, John (ed.) (1989). Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
External links[edit]
Sounds Familiar? – Examples of regional accents and dialects across the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website
Accents and dialects from the British Library Sound Archive
Accents of English from Around the World Hear and compare how the same 110 words are pronounced in 50 English accents from around the world – instantaneous playback online
The Septic's Companion: A British Slang Dictionary – an online dictionary of British slang, viewable alphabetically or by category
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Countries and territories where the Spanish language holds official status.
The following is a list of countries where Spanish is an official language, plus a number of countries where Spanish, or any language closely related to it, is an important or significant language.
Contents
[hide]
1 Official or national language
2 Significant minority language
2.1 Andorra
2.2 Belize
2.3 Gibraltar
2.4 United States
3 Historical language
3.1 Philippines
3.2 Western Sahara
4 Creole languages
5 Judeo-Spanish
6 International organizations
7 References
Official or national language[edit]
Spanish is the majority language in 20 sovereign states and several dependent territories, totaling around 440 million people.[1] It is additionally the main official language in Equatorial Guinea.
In these countries and territories, Spanish is the main or mostly used language of communication of the vast majority of the population; official documents are written chiefly or solely in that language; and it is taught in schools and utilized as the primary medium of instruction as part of the official curriculum.
Country/Territory
Status
Population
(2014)[2]
Regulatory body
More information
Mexico De facto[3] 120,286,655 Academia Mexicana de la Lengua Mexican Spanish
Colombia De jure[4] 48,400,388 Academia Colombiana de la Lengua Colombian Spanish
Spaina De jure[5] 47,737,941 Real Academia Española Peninsular Spanish
Argentina De facto[6] 43,024,374 Academia Argentina de Letras Rioplatense Spanish
Perub De jure[7] 30,147,935 Academia Peruana de la Lengua Peruvian Coast Spanish
Venezuela De jure[8] 28,868,486 Academia Venezolana de la Lengua Venezuelan Spanish
Chile De facto[9] 17,363,894 Academia Chilena de la Lengua Chilean Spanish
Ecuadorc De jure[10] 15,654,411 Academia Ecuatoriana de la Lengua Ecuadorian Spanish
Guatemala De jure[11] 14,647,083 Academia Guatemalteca de la Lengua Guatemalan Spanish
Cuba De jure[12] 11,047,251 Academia Cubana de la Lengua Cuban Spanish
Boliviad De jure[13] 10,631,486 Academia Boliviana de la Lengua Bolivian Spanish
Dominican Republic De jure[14] 10,349,741 Academia Dominicana de la Lengua Dominican Spanish
Honduras De jure[15] 8,598,561 Academia Hondureña de la Lengua Honduran Spanish
Paraguaye De jure[16] 6,703,860 Academia Paraguaya de la Lengua Española Paraguayan Spanish
El Salvador De jure[17] 6,125,512 Academia Salvadoreña de la Lengua Salvadoran Spanish
Nicaragua De facto[18] 5,848,641 Academia Nicaragüense de la Lengua Nicaraguan Spanish
Costa Rica De jure[19] 4,755,234 Academia Costarricense de la Lengua Costa Rican Spanish
Puerto Ricof De jure[20] 3,620,897 Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española Puerto Rican Spanish
Panama De jure[21] 3,608,431 Academia Panameña de la Lengua Panamanian Spanish
Uruguay De facto[22] 3,332,972 Academia Nacional de Letras Uruguayan Spanish
Equatorial Guineag De jure[23] 1,722,254 Academia Ecuatoguineana de la Lengua Española Equatoguinean Spanish
Total 442,476,007 Association of Spanish Language Academies
a In Spain, Spanish is the sole official language at the national level, while the languages of Basque, Catalan/Valencian, and Galician are co-official alongside Spanish in certain regions.
b In Peru, Spanish is the sole official language at the national level while Quechua and Aymara hold co-official status in selected regions.
c In Ecuador, Spanish is the sole official language at the national level while the Kichwa (Northern Quechua) and Shuar languages hold co-official status in selected regions.
d In Bolivia, the national constitution recognizes Spanish and various indigenous languages of Bolivia as official at the national level, though Spanish is predominant nationwide.
e In Paraguay, Spanish and the indigenous Guaraní are recognized as co-official at the national level and both are widely used in society.
f Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory of the U.S. where Spanish and English are the official languages and Spanish is the primary language.[20]
g In Equatorial Guinea, the Spanish, French, and Portuguese languages all hold official status at the national level, though Spanish is the primary language in the public sphere while Fang, Bube, Kombe, and other Bantu languages, as well as an English-based creole, are used at home and family settings. See Equatorial Guinea#Languages.
Population of the Spanish speaking countries (+ Puerto Rico) in 2011
Significant minority language[edit]
Though not an official language at the national level, Spanish is regularly spoken by significant minority populations in each of the nations and territories noted below. In each, public services and information are widely available in Spanish, as are various forms of printed and broadcast media.
Country
Population
(2014)[2]
Total speakers
Percentage Spanish-speaking
Andorra 85,458 29,907 35%
Belize 340,844 106,795 30%
Gibraltar 29,185 23,857 81%
United States 318,892,103 52,000,000 23%
Andorra[edit]
See also: Languages of Andorra
The Spanish language is not official but also holds a special status (in the education system, the media, and some official documents) in the Principality of Andorra which share land borders with Spain.[24]
Belize[edit]
See also: Languages of Belize
Spanish has no official recognition in the Central American nation of Belize, a Commonwealth realm where English is the official national language. However, the country shares land borders with Spanish-speaking Mexico and Guatemala and, per the 2010 Belizean census, Spanish is spoken by a sizable portion of the population; 30% claim Spanish as a mother tongue and about 50% of the population has working knowledge of the language.[25]
Gibraltar[edit]
See also: Languages of Gibraltar
The Spanish language is not official but also holds a special status (in the education system, the media, and some official documents) in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar, which share land borders with Spain.[26]
United States[edit]
Main article: Spanish language in the United States
Spanish has been spoken in the United States for several centuries in the Southwest and Florida, which were all once part of New Spain. However, today only a tiny minority of Spanish speakers in the US trace their language back to those times; the overwhelming majority of speakers come from recent immigration. Only in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado has Spanish maintained speaking communities uninterruptedly since colonial times. [27] Spanish is the most studied foreign language in United States schools and is spoken as a native tongue by 41 million people, plus an additional 11 million fluent second-language speakers.[28] Though not official, Spanish has a special status for education in the U.S. state of New Mexico. [29] With over 50 million native speakers and second language speakers, the United States now has the second largest Spanish-speaking population in the world after Mexico.[30] Spanish is increasingly used alongside English nationwide in business and politics. In the United States, the language is regulated by the North American Academy of the Spanish Language.
Historical language[edit]
Philippines[edit]
Main article: Spanish language in the Philippines
See also: Philippine Spanish
Spanish was an official language of the Philippines from the beginning of the Hispanic period in 1565 and through independence until a constitutional change in 1973. However, President Ferdinand Marcos had Spanish redesigned as an official language under Presidential Decree No. 156, dated 15 March 1973 and Spanish remained official until 1987, when it was re-designated as a voluntary and optional auxiliary language.[31]
On 8 August 2007, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo announced that the Philippine government asked help from the Spanish Government in her plan to reintroduce Spanish as a required subject in the Philippine school system.[32] By 2012, the language was a compulsory subject at only a very select number of secondary schools.[33] In spite of government promotion of Spanish, less than 0.5% of the population are able to speak Spanish at least proficiently.[34]
While Spanish is designated as an optional government language in the Philippines, its usage is very limited and not present in everyday life.[35] In the country, Spanish is regulated by the Philippine Academy of the Spanish Language.
Western Sahara[edit]
Spanish is a secondary official language, alongside Arabic, in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, a former Spanish colony and now a partially recognized state, most of whose territory is occupied by Morocco. Spanish is not a native language in that country.[36][37]
Creole languages[edit]
Main article: Spanish-based creole languages
There are a number of Spanish-based creole languages. Chavacano is spoken in Zamboanga City in the Philippines and is a regional language.[38] Papiamento is the official language in Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao; it has been classified as either a Spanish-based or a Portuguese-based creole.[39][40]
Chamorro is an Austronesian language with many Spanish loanwords; some scholars have considered it a creole, but the most authoritative sources deny this. [41]
Country
Creole language
Estimated speakers[42]
Year
Status
Aruba Papiamento ~100,000[43] N/A Official.[44]
Caribbean Netherlands Papiamento – – Official.[45]
Curaçao Papiamento 185,155[46] 1981 Official.[47]
Philippines Chavacano 689,000[46] 1992 Regional.[38]
Judeo-Spanish[edit]
Main article: Judaeo-Spanish
Judaeo-Spanish (sometimes known as Ladino or other names) is a language derived from medieval Spanish; it is still spoken by some Sephardi Jews, mainly in Israel.[48]
International organizations[edit]
United Nations (UN)
European Union (EU)
Union of South American Nations (UNASUR)
African Union (AU)
Central American Integration System (SICA)
Latin American Parliament (Parlatino)
United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
Organization of American States (OAS)
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI)
World Trade Organization (WTO)
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Mercosur
Andean Community of Nations (CAN)
Caribbean Community (CARICOM)
Latin American Integration Association (ALADI)
Antarctic Treaty Secretariat (ATS)
International Labour Organization (ILO)
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
Latin Union
Pacific Alliance
Interpol
Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "The World Factbook". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2009-08-11.
Jump up ^ Mexico does not have an official language at the federal level [1]; however, Spanish is spoken by the majority.
Jump up ^ Constitution of Colombia, Art. 10
Jump up ^ Spanish Constitution, Art. 3-1
Jump up ^ The Argentine Constitution does not establish Spanish as an official language.
Jump up ^ Constitution of Peru, Art. 48
Jump up ^ Constitution of Venezuela, Art. 9
Jump up ^ The Constitution of Chile does not establish Spanish as an official language. However, Chilean legislation establishes that schools must teach students to communicate in the "Castilian language" (General Law on Education (Articles 29 and 30), Chile Library of Congress.)
Jump up ^ Constitution of Ecuador, Art. 2
Jump up ^ Constitution of Guatemala, Art. 143
Jump up ^ Constitution of Cuba Archived 2 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine., Art. 2
Jump up ^ Constitution of Bolivia, Art. 5
Jump up ^ The Constitution of the Dominican Republic establish Spanish as it official language.
Jump up ^ Constitution of Honduras, Art. 6
Jump up ^ Constitution of Paraguay, Art. 140
Jump up ^ Constitution of El Salvador, Art. 62
Jump up ^ The Constitution of Nicaragua does not establish Spanish as an official language.
Jump up ^ Constitution of Costa Rica, Art. 76
^ Jump up to: a b Constitution of Puerto Rico Archived 19 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine., Art. 3, Section 5: It is mandatory to be able to read and write in either English or Spanish in order to be a member of the Legislative Assembly.
Jump up ^ Constitution of Panama, Art. 7
Jump up ^ The Constitution of Uruguay does not establish Spanish as an official language.
Jump up ^ Constitution of Equatorial Guinea Archived 1 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine., Art. 4
Jump up ^ "Observatori de l'Institut d'Estudis Andorrans" (in Catalan). Archived from the original on 17 July 2007. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Statistical Institute of Belize: Belize Population and Housing Census 2010. Country Report. Belmopan 2013.
Jump up ^ <Constitution of Gibraltar Archived 21 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Canfield, Delos Lincoln (1981). Spanish Pronunciation in the Americas. The University of Chicago Press. p. 80. The main nuclei of Spanish speech in the United States are northern New Mexico / southern Colorado, the border territories from California through Texas, the Florida peninsula, New York City, and other large cities of the Northeast and Midwest. Only one of these, the New Mexico / Colorado dialect area, has maintained linguistic continuity since colonial days, and its speech goes back to about 1600.
Jump up ^ "US now has more Spanish speakers than Spain". theguardian.com. Retrieved 2016-05-09.
Jump up ^ Language Rights and New Mexico Statehood By the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
Jump up ^ "Más 'speak spanish' que en España". Retrieved 2007-10-06. (Spanish)
Jump up ^ Article XIV, Sec 7: For purposes of communication and instruction, the official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and, until otherwise provided by law, English. The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.
Jump up ^ "La presidenta filipina pedirá ayuda a España para oficializar el español" (in Spanish). MSN Noticias. Archived from the original on 26 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
Jump up ^ Legaspi, Amita O. (3 July 2012). "PNoy (President Benigno Aquino III) and Spain's Queen Sofia welcome return of Spanish language in Philippine schools". GMA News.
Jump up ^ Medium projection, Philippine Statistics Authority, 2010, archived from the original on 11 August 2011
Jump up ^ Constitution of the Philippines, Art. 14
Jump up ^ "Como saharauis queremos conservar el español". Lavozdegalicia.es. 2008-03-13. Retrieved 2015-01-28.
Jump up ^ "EL ESPAñOL EN LOS CAMPAMENTOS DE REFUGIADOS SAHARAUIS (TINDUF, ARGELIA)" (PDF). Cvc.cervantes.es. Retrieved 2015-05-20.
^ Jump up to: a b DepEd adds 7 languages to mother tongue-based education for Kinder to Grade 3. GMA News. July 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ Attila Narin (June 1998). "Papiamentu Facts". Retrieved 2008-06-13.
Jump up ^ Dalby, Andrew (1998). Dictionary of Languages. Bloomsbury Publishing plc. p. 489. ISBN 0-7475-3117-X.
Jump up ^ Topping, Donald (1973). Chamorro Reference Grammar. University Press of Hawaii. pp. 6 and 7. ISBN 978-0-8248-0269-1.
Jump up ^ "Ethnologue". Retrieved 2008-06-13.
Jump up ^ "Language" - Government of Aruba (official site) - 2010
Jump up ^ Migge, Bettina; Léglise, Isabelle; Bartens, Angela (2010). Creoles in Education: An Appraisal of Current Programs and Projects. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 268. ISBN 978-90-272-5258-6.
Jump up ^ "Tijdelijke wet officiële talen BES" (in Dutch). wetten.nl. Retrieved 2010-10-24. Artikel 2: De officiële talen zijn het Engels, het Nederlands en het Papiamento. (English: Article 2: The official languages are English, Dutch and Papiamento)
^ Jump up to: a b Número de hispanohablantes en países y territorios donde el español no es lengua oficial Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine., Instituto Cervantes.
Jump up ^ "Nieuwsbrief 070313 – Papiaments officieel erkend". Nieuws.leidenuniv.nl. Retrieved 2011-11-21.
Jump up ^ EJP | News | Western Europe | Judaeo-Spanish language revived Archived 29 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine.. Ejpress.org (19 September 2005). Retrieved on 19 October 2011.
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values: قائمة الدول المتخذة الإسبانية لغة رسمية – Arabic

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