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Seawater
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Seawater in the Strait of Malacca
Part of a series on
Water salinity
Salinity levels
Fresh water (< 0.05%)
Brackish water (0.05–3%)
Saline water (3–5%)
Brine (> 5%)
Bodies of water
Seawater • Salt lake • Hypersaline lake • Salt pan • Brine pool • Bodies by salinity
v
t
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Temperature-salinity diagram of changes in density of water
Ocean salinity at different latitudes in the Atlantic and Pacific
Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 599 mM) This means that every kilogram (roughly one litre by volume) of seawater has approximately 35 grams (1.2 oz) of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium (Na+
) and chloride (Cl−
) ions). Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/L. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0 kg/L at 4 °C (39 °F)) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about −2 °C (28 °F).[1] The coldest seawater ever recorded (in a liquid state) was in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier, and measured −2.6 °C (27.3 °F).[2] Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4.[3] However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Geochemistry
1.1 Salinity
1.2 Thermophysical properties of Seawater
2 Compositional differences from freshwater
3 Microbial components
4 Origin
5 Human impacts
6 Human consumption
7 Standard
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Geochemistry[edit]
Salinity[edit]
Further information: Salinity § Seawater
Annual mean sea surface salinity expressed in the Practical Salinity Scale for the World Ocean. Data from the World Ocean Atlas[5]
Although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 g/kg and 38 g/kg, that is 3.1-3.8%, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with fresh water runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts of precipitation (e.g. Monsoon), seawater can be substantially less saline. The most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still - about ten times higher in the case of the Dead Sea. Historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the "Practical Salinity Scale" where salinity was measured in "practical salinity units (psu)". The current standard for salinity is the "Reference Salinity" scale [6] with the salinity expressed in units of "g/kg".
Thermophysical properties of Seawater[edit]
The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m3, depending on the temperature and salinity. At a temperature of 25 °C, salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/m3.[7][8] Deep in the ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m3 or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity. Brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g/kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g/kg salinity at 25 °C and atmospheric pressure is 1088 kg/m3.[7][8] Seawater pH is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s (whereas speed of sound is usually around 330 m/s in air at roughly 1000hPa pressure, 1 atmosphere), and varies with water temperature, salinity, and pressure. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C and a salinity of 35 g/kg.[9] The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature.[10]
Compositional differences from freshwater[edit]
Seawater elemental composition
(salinity = 3.5%)
Element
Percent by mass
Oxygen 85.84
Hydrogen 10.82
Chloride 1.94
Sodium 1.08
Magnesium 0.1292
Sulphur 0.091
Calcium 0.04
Potassium 0.04
Bromide 0.0067
Carbon 0.0028
Vanadium 1.5 × 10−11 – 3.3 × 10−11
Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater.[11] However, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. For instance, although seawater contains about 2.8 times more bicarbonate than river water, the percentage of bicarbonate in seawater as a ratio of all dissolved ions is far lower than in river water. Bicarbonate ions constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0.14% for seawater.[11][12] Differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes; sodium and chloride have very long residence times, while calcium (vital for carbonate formation) tends to precipitate much more quickly.[12] The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and calcium.[13] Its osmolarity is about 1000 mOsm/l.[14]
Small amounts of other substances are found, including amino acids at concentrations of up to 2 micrograms of nitrogen atoms per liter,[15] which are thought to have played a key role in the origin of life.
Microbial components[edit]
Research in 1957 by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography sampled water in both pelagic and neritic locations in the Pacific Ocean. Direct microscopic counts and cultures were used, the direct counts in some cases showing up to 10 000 times that obtained from cultures. These differences were attributed to the occurrence of bacteria in aggregates, selective effects of the culture media, and the presence of inactive cells. A marked reduction in bacterial culture numbers was noted below the thermocline, but not by direct microscopic observation. Large numbers of spirilli-like forms were seen by microscope but not under cultivation. The disparity in numbers obtained by the two methods is well known in this and other fields.[16] In the 1990s, improved techniques of detection and identification of microbes by probing just small snippets of DNA, enabled researchers taking part in the Census of Marine Life to identify thousands of previously unknown microbes usually present only in small numbers. This revealed a far greater diversity than previously suspected, so that a litre of seawater may hold more than 20,000 species. Dr. Mitchell Sogin from the Marine Biological Laboratory feels that "the number of different kinds of bacteria in the oceans could eclipse five to 10 million."[17]
Bacteria are found at all depths in the water column, as well as in the sediments, some being aerobic, others anaerobic. Most are free-swimming, but some exist as symbionts within other organisms – examples of these being bioluminescent bacteria. Cyanobacteria played an important role in the evolution of ocean processes, enabling the development of stromatolites and oxygen in the atmosphere.
Some bacteria interact with diatoms, and form a critical link in the cycling of silicon in the ocean. One anaerobic species, Thiomargarita namibiensis, plays an important part in the breakdown of hydrogen sulphide eruptions from diatomaceous sediments off the Namibian coast, and generated by high rates of phytoplankton growth in the Benguela Current upwelling zone, eventually falling to the seafloor.
Bacteria-like Archaea surprised marine microbiologists by their survival and thriving in extreme environments, such as the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. Alkalotolerant marine bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Vibrio spp. survive in a pH range of 7.3 to 10.6, while some species will grow only at pH 10 to 10.6.[18] Archaea also exist in pelagic waters and may constitute as much as half the ocean's biomass, clearly playing an important part in oceanic processes.[19] In 2000 sediments from the ocean floor revealed a species of Archaea that breaks down methane, an important greenhouse gas and a major contributor to atmospheric warming.[20] Some bacteria break down the rocks of the sea floor, influencing seawater chemistry. Oil spills, and runoff containing human sewage and chemical pollutants have a marked effect on microbial life in the vicinity, as well as harbouring pathogens and toxins affecting all forms of marine life. The protist dinoflagellates may at certain times undergo population explosions called blooms or red tides, often after human-caused pollution. The process may produce metabolites known as biotoxins, which move along the ocean food chain, tainting higher-order animal consumers.
Pandoravirus salinus, a species of very large virus, with a genome much larger than that of any other virus species, was discovered in 2013. Like the other very large viruses Mimivirus and Megavirus, Pandoravirus infects amoebas, but its genome, containing 1.9 to 2.5 megabases of DNA, is twice as large as that of Megavirus, and it differs greatly from the other large viruses in appearance and in genome structure.
In 2013 researchers from Aberdeen University announced that they were starting a hunt for undiscovered chemicals in organisms that have evolved in deep sea trenches, hoping to find "the next generation" of antibiotics, anticipating an "antibiotic apocalypse" with a dearth of new infection-fighting drugs. The EU-funded research will start in the Atacama Trench and then move on to search trenches off New Zealand and Antarctica.[21]
The ocean has a long history of human waste disposal on the assumption that its vast size makes it capable of absorbing and diluting all noxious material.[22] While this may be true on a small scale, the large amounts of sewage routinely dumped has damaged many coastal ecosystems, and rendered them life-threatening. Pathogenic viruses and bacteria occur in such waters, such as Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae the cause of cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis E and polio, along with protozoans causing giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. These pathogens are routinely present in the ballast water of large vessels, and are widely spread when the ballast is discharged.[23]
Origin[edit]
See also: Origin of water on Earth
Diagram showing concentrations of various salt ions in seawater. The composition of the total salt component is: Cl−
55%, Na+
30.6%, SO2−
4 7.7%, Mg2+
3.7%, Ca2+
1.2%, K+
1.1%, Other 0.7%. Note that the diagram is only correct when in units of wt/wt, not wt/vol or vol/vol.
Total Molar Composition of Seawater (Salinity = 35)[24]
Component
Concentration (mol/kg)
H
2O 53.6
Cl−
0.546
Na+
0.469
Mg2+
0.0528
SO2−
4 0.0282
Ca2+
0.0103
K+
0.0102
CT 0.00206
Br−
0.000844
BT 0.000416
Sr2+
0.000091
F−
0.000068
Scientific theories behind the origins of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 1715, who proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into the sea by rivers after rainfall washed it out of the ground. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived over time (see Hydrologic cycle). Halley noted that most lakes that don't have ocean outlets (such as the Dead Sea and the Caspian Sea, see endorheic basin), have high salt content. Halley termed this process "continental weathering".
Halley's theory was partly correct. In addition, sodium leached out of the ocean floor when the ocean formed. The presence of salt's other dominant ion, chloride, results from outgassing of chloride (as hydrochloric acid) with other gases from Earth's interior via volcanos and hydrothermal vents. The sodium and chloride ions subsequently became the most abundant constituents of sea salt.
Ocean salinity has been stable for billions of years, most likely as a consequence of a chemical/tectonic system which removes as much salt as is deposited; for instance, sodium and chloride sinks include evaporite deposits, pore-water burial, and reactions with seafloor basalts.[12]:133
Human impacts[edit]
Climate change, rising atmospheric carbon dioxide, excess nutrients, and pollution in many forms are altering global oceanic geochemistry. Rates of change for some aspects greatly exceed those in the historical and recent geological record. Major trends include an increasing acidity, reduced subsurface oxygen in both near-shore and pelagic waters, rising coastal nitrogen levels, and widespread increases in mercury and persistent organic pollutants. Most of these perturbations are tied either directly or indirectly to human fossil fuel combustion, fertilizer, and industrial activity. Concentrations are projected to grow in coming decades, with negative impacts on ocean biota and other marine resources.[25]
One of the most striking features of this is ocean acidification, resulting from increased CO2 uptake of the oceans related to higher atmospheric concentration of CO2 and higher temperatures,[26] because it severely affects coral reefs and crustaceans (see coral bleaching).
Human consumption[edit]
Main article: Sea water poisoning
See also: Desalination
Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself.[27]
The renal system actively regulates sodium chloride in the blood within a very narrow range around 9 g/L (0.9% by weight).
In most open waters concentrations vary somewhat around typical values of about 3.5%, far higher than the body can tolerate and most beyond what the kidney can process. A point frequently overlooked in claims that the kidney can excrete NaCl in Baltic concentrations of 2% (in arguments to the contrary) is that the gut cannot absorb water at such concentrations, so that there is no benefit in drinking such water. Drinking seawater temporarily increases blood's NaCl concentration. This signals the kidney to excrete sodium, but seawater's sodium concentration is above the kidney's maximum concentrating ability. Eventually the blood's sodium concentration rises to toxic levels, removing water from cells and interfering with nerve conduction, ultimately producing fatal seizure and cardiac arrhythmia.[citation needed]
Survival manuals consistently advise against drinking seawater.[28] A summary of 163 life raft voyages estimated the risk of death at 39% for those who drank seawater, compared to 3% for those who did not. The effect of seawater intake on rats confirmed the negative effects of drinking seawater when dehydrated.[29]
The temptation to drink seawater was greatest for sailors who had expended their supply of fresh water, and were unable to capture enough rainwater for drinking. This frustration was described famously by a line from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner:
"Water, water, everywhere,
And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water, everywhere,
Nor any drop to drink."
Although humans cannot survive on seawater, some people claim that up to two cups a day, mixed with fresh water in a 2:3 ratio, produces no ill effect. The French physician Alain Bombard survived an ocean crossing in a small Zodiak rubber boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40 percent water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation was not given. In his 1948 book, Kon-Tiki, Thor Heyerdahl reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in a 2:3 ratio during the 1947 expedition.[30] A few years later, another adventurer, William Willis, claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply.[31]
During the 18th century, Richard Russell advocated the practice's medical use in the UK, and René Quinton expanded the advocation of the practice other countries, notably France, in the 20th century. Currently, the practice is widely used in Nicaragua and other countries, supposedly taking advantage of the latest medical discoveries.
Most ocean-going vessels desalinate potable water from seawater using processes such as vacuum distillation or multi-stage flash distillation in an evaporator, or, more recently, reverse osmosis. These energy-intensive processes were not usually available during the Age of Sail. Larger sailing warships with large crews, such as Nelson's HMS Victory, were fitted with distilling apparatuses in their galleys.[32] Animals such as fish, whales, sea turtles, and seabirds, such as penguins and albatrosses have adapted to living in a high saline habitat. For example, sea turtles and saltwater crocodiles remove excess salt from their bodies through their tear ducts.[33]
Standard[edit]
ASTM International has an international standard for artificial seawater: ASTM D1141-98 (Original Standard ASTM D1141-52). It is used in many research testing labs as a reproducible solution for seawater such as tests on corrosion, oil contamination, and detergency evaluation.[34]
See also[edit]
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Brine
Brine mining
Brackish water
Fresh water
Saline water
Sea ice
Seawater pH
Surface tension of seawater
Thalassotherapy
Thermohaline circulation
CORA dataset global ocean salinity
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Doney, Scott C. (18 June 2010). "The Growing Human Footprint on Coastal and Open-Ocean Biogeochemistry". Science. 328 (5985): 1512–1516. doi:10.1126/science.1185198. PMID 20558706. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
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Jump up ^ "Can humans drink seawater?". National Ocean Service (NOAA).
Jump up ^ "29". Shipboard Medicine (PDF). Retrieved 17 October 2010.
Jump up ^ Etzion, Z.; Yagil, R. (1987). "Metabolic effects in rats drinking increasing concentrations of seawater". Comp Biochem Physiol A. 86 (1): 49–55. doi:10.1016/0300-9629(87)90275-1. PMID 2881655.
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External links[edit]
Tables
Tables and software for thermophysical properties of seawater, MIT
Physical properties of sea water
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Battle of Manila Bay
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This article is about the naval battle of the Spanish–American War. For other battles involving Manila, see Battle of Manila.
Battle of Manila Bay
Part of the Spanish–American War

Contemporary colored print, showing USS Olympia in the left foreground, leading the U.S. Asiatic Squadron against the Spanish fleet off Cavite. A vignette portrait of Rear Admiral George Dewey is featured in the lower left.
Date
1 May 1898
Location
Near Manila, Philippines
Result
Decisive U.S. victory
Belligerents
United States Spain
Commanders and leaders
George Dewey Patricio Montojo
Strength
Engaged Forces:[cn 1]
4 protected cruisers
2 gunboats
Unengaged Forces:
1 revenue cutter
2 transports Engaged Forces:[cn 1]
2 protected cruisers
4 unprotected cruisers
2 gunboats
Unengaged Forces:
1 cruiser
3 gunboats,
1 transport
Shore defenses
6 batteries
3 forts
Casualties and losses
1 dead (due to heatstroke),[5] and 9 wounded
1 protected cruiser damaged 77 dead and 271 wounded[6]
2 protected cruisers sunk,
5 unprotected cruisers sunk,
1 transport sunk
[show]
v
t
e
Pacific Theater: Spanish American War
Manila Bay
Santa Cruz
Guam
Baler
Manila
The Battle of Manila Bay, depicted in a lithograph by Butler, Thomas & Company, 1899
"Battle of Manila Bay", painting by W. G. Wood, circa 1898. Reina Cristina (foreground) in action against Dewey's squadron (right).
"Battle of Manila Bay, 1 May 1898", painting by Fred S. Cozzens. The U.S. battle line turning while in action, with USS Olympia leading.
USS Olympia at the Independence Seaport Museum in 2007
Commemorative plate from the Spanish–American War era honoring George Dewey and his victory.
Battles of Manila
Battle of Manila (1258)
Battle of Manila (1365)
Battle of Manila (1500)
Battle of Manila (1570)
Battle of Manila (1574)
Battle of Manila (1762)
Battle of Manila (1896)
Battle of Manila (1898)
Battle of Manila (1899)
Battle of Manila (1945)
See also
Battle of Manila Bay (1898)
Around Manila
Battle of Bankusay Channel (1571)
La Naval de Manila (1646)
v
t
e
The Battle of Manila Bay (Spanish: Batalla de Bahía de Manila), also known as the Battle of Cavite, took place on 1 May 1898, during the Spanish–American War. The American Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George Dewey engaged and destroyed the Spanish Pacific Squadron under Contraalmirante (Rear admiral) Patricio Montojo. The battle took place in Manila Bay in the Philippines, and was the first major engagement of the Spanish–American War. The battle was one of the most decisive naval battles in history and marked the end of the Spanish colonial period in Philippine history.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Prelude
2 Battle
3 Subsequent action
4 Aftermath
5 Order of battle
5.1 United States
5.2 Spain
6 Gallery
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Additional References
11 External links
Prelude[edit]
Americans living on the West Coast of the United States feared a Spanish attack at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War. Only a few U.S. Navy warships, led by the cruiser USS Olympia, stood between them and a powerful Spanish fleet.[7]
Admiral Montojo, a career Spanish naval officer who had been dispatched rapidly to the Philippines, was equipped with a variety of obsolete vessels. Efforts to strengthen his position amounted to little. The strategy adopted by the Spanish bureaucracy suggested they could not win a war and saw resistance as little more than a face-saving exercise.[8]:59 Administration actions worked against the effort, sending explosives meant for naval mines to civilian construction companies while the Spanish fleet in Manila was seriously undermanned by inexperienced sailors who had not received any training for over a year.[9] Reinforcements promised from Madrid resulted in only two poorly-armored scout cruisers being sent while at the same time the authorities transferred a squadron from the Manila fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera to reinforce the Caribbean. Admiral Montojo had originally wanted to confront the Americans at Subic Bay, northwest of Manila Bay, but abandoned that idea when he learned the planned mines and coastal defensives were lacking and the cruiser Castilla started to leak.[8]:69 Montojo compounded his difficulties by placing his ships outside the range of Spanish coastal artillery (which might have evened the odds) and choosing a relatively shallow anchorage. His intent seems to have been to spare Manila from bombardment and to allow any survivors of his fleet to swim to safety. The harbor was protected by six shore batteries and three forts whose fire during the battle proved to be ineffective. Only Fort San Antonio Abad had guns with enough range to reach the American fleet, but Dewey never came within their range during the battle.[3][9]
The Spanish squadron consisted of seven ships: the cruisers Reina Cristina (flagship), Castilla, Don Juan de Austria, Don Antonio de Ulloa, Isla de Luzon, Isla de Cuba, and the gunboat Marques del Duero. The Spanish ships were of inferior quality to the American ships; the Castilla was unpowered and had to be towed by the transport ship Manila.[10] On April 25, the squadron left Manila Bay for the port of Subic, intending to mount a defense there. The squadron was relying on a shore battery which was to be installed on Isla Grande. On April 28, before that installation could be completed, a cablegram from the Spanish Consul in Hong Kong arrived with the information that the American squadron had left Hong Kong bound for Subic for the purpose of destroying the Spanish squadron and intending to proceed from there to Manila. The Spanish Council of Commanders, with the exception of the Commander of Subic, felt that no defense of Subic was possible with the state of things, and that the squadron should transfer back to Manila, positioning in shallow water so that the ships could be run aground to save the lives of the crews as a final resort. The squadron departed Subic at 10:30 a.m. on 29 April. Manila, towing Castilla, was last to arrive in Manila Bay, at midnight.[11]
Battle[edit]
At 7 p.m. on 30 April, Montojo was informed that Dewey's ships had been seen in Subic Bay that afternoon.[12] As Manila Bay was considered unnavigable at night by foreigners, Montojo expected an attack the following morning. However, Oscar F. Williams, the United States Consul in Manila, had provided Dewey with detailed information on the state of the Spanish defenses and the lack of preparedness of the Spanish fleet.[13] Based in part upon this intelligence, Dewey—embarked aboard USS Olympia—led his squadron into Manila Bay at midnight on 30 April.[14]
Passing the entrance, two Spanish mines exploded but were ineffective as they were well below the draft of any of the ships due to the depth of the water. Inside the bay, ships normally used the north channel between Corregidor Island and the northern coast, and this was the only channel mined. Dewey instead used the unmined south channel between El Fraile and Caballo Islands. The El Fraile battery fired a few rounds but the range was too great. The McCulloch, Nanshan and Zafiro were then detached from the line and took no further part in the fighting. At 5:15 a.m. on 1 May, the squadron was off Manila and the Cavite battery fired ranging shots. The shore batteries and Spanish fleet then opened fire but all the shells fell short as the fleet was still out of range.[9] At 5:41 with the now famous phrase, "You may fire when ready, Gridley",[15] the Olympia's captain was instructed to begin the destruction of the Spanish flotilla.[16]
The U.S. squadron swung in front of the Spanish ships and forts in line ahead, firing their port guns. They then turned and passed back, firing their starboard guns. This process was repeated five times, each time closing the range from 5,000 yards to 2,000 yards. The Spanish forces had been alerted, and most were ready for action, but they were heavily outgunned. Eight Spanish ships, the land batteries, and the forts returned fire for two and a half hours although the range was too great for the guns on shore. Five other small Spanish ships were not engaged.
Montojo accepted that his cause was hopeless and ordered his ships to ram the enemy if possible. He then slipped the Cristina's cables and charged. Much of the American fleet's fire was then directed at her and she was shot to pieces. Of the crew of 400, more than 200, including Montojo, were casualties and only two men remained who were able to man her guns. The ship managed to return to shore and Montojo ordered it to be scuttled. The Castilla, which only had guns on the port side, had her forward cable shot away, causing her to swing about, presenting her weaponless starboard side. The captain then ordered her sunk and abandoned. The Ulloa was hit by a shell at the waterline that killed her captain and disabled half the crew. The Luzon had three guns out of action but was otherwise unharmed. The Duero lost an engine and had only one gun left able to fire.[9]
At 7:45 a.m., after Captain Gridley messaged Dewey that only 15 rounds of 5" ammunition remained per gun, Dewey ordered an immediate withdrawal. To preserve morale, he informed the crews that the halt in the battle was to allow the crews to have breakfast.[16] According to an observer on the Olympia, "At least three of his (Spanish) ships had broken into flames but so had one of ours. These fires had all been put out without apparent injury to the ships. Generally speaking, nothing of great importance had occurred to show that we had seriously injured any Spanish vessel." Montojo took the opportunity to now move his remaining ships into Bacoor Bay where they were ordered to resist for as long as possible.[9]
A captains' conference on the Olympia revealed little damage and no men killed. It was discovered that the original ammunition message had been garbled—instead of only 15 rounds of ammunition per gun remaining, the message had meant to say only 15 rounds of ammunition per gun had been expended. During the conference reports arrived that sounds of exploding ammunition had been heard and fires sighted on the Cristina and Castilla. At 10:40 a.m. action was resumed but the Spanish offered little resistance and Montojo issued orders for the remaining ships to be scuttled and the breechblocks of their guns taken ashore. The Olympia, Baltimore and Boston then fired on the Sangley Point battery putting it out of action and followed up by sinking the Ulloa. The Concord fired on the transport Mindanao, whose crew immediately abandoned ship. The Petrel fired on the government offices next to the arsenal and a white flag was raised over the building after which all firing ceased.[9] The Spanish colors were struck at 12:40 p.m.
According to American sources, Dewey won the battle[16] with seven men very slightly wounded,[17] a total of nine injured, and only a single fatality among his crew: Francis B. Randall, Chief Engineer on the McCulloch, from a heart attack.[18] On the other hand, the Spanish naval historian Agustín Ramón Rodríguez González suggests that Dewey suffered heavier losses, though still much lower than those of the Spanish squadron.[6] Rodríguez notes that Spanish officials estimated the American casualties at 13 crewmen killed and more than 30 wounded based on reliable information collected by the Spanish consulate in Hong Kong.[6] According to Rodríguez, Dewey may have concealed the deaths and injuries by including the numbers amongst the 155 men who reportedly deserted during the campaign.[6]
In this "patriotic" map of the China Seas, a large American flag is planted on the spot of the battle of Manila Bay, where on May 1st, Dewey had defeated the Spanish.
Subsequent action[edit]
A Spanish attempt to attack Dewey with the naval task force known as Camara's Flying Relief Column came to naught, and the naval war in the Philippines devolved into a series of torpedo boat hit-and-run attacks for the rest of the campaign. While the Spanish scored several hits, there were no American fatalities directly attributable to Spanish gunfire.
On 2 May, Dewey landed a force of Marines at Cavite. They completed the destruction of the Spanish fleet and batteries and established a guard for the protection of the Spanish hospitals. The resistance of the forts was weak. The Olympia turned a few guns on the Cavite arsenal, detonating its magazine, and ending the fire from the Spanish batteries.
Aftermath[edit]
In recognition of George Dewey's leadership during the Battle of Manila Bay, a special medal known as the Dewey Medal was presented to the officers and sailors under Admiral Dewey's command. Dewey was later honored with promotion to the special rank of Admiral of the Navy; a rank that no one has held before or since in the United States Navy. Building on his popularity, Dewey briefly ran for president in 1900, but withdrew and endorsed William McKinley, the incumbent, who won. The same year Dewey was appointed President of the General Board of the United States Navy, where he would play a key role in the growth of the U.S. Navy until his death in January 1917.
Dewey Square in Boston is named after Commodore Dewey. Union Square, San Francisco features a 97 ft (30 m) tall monument to Admiral George Dewey's victory at the Battle of Manila Bay.
Order of battle[edit]
United States[edit]
Engaged Vessels:
USS Olympia, flagship, protected cruiser of 5,870 tons. Twin 8-inch guns mounted in turrets fore and aft, ten 5-inch guns and six torpedo tubes. Top speed 20 knots. She is now a museum ship at the Independence Seaport Museum, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.[19]
USS Baltimore, protected cruiser of 4,600 tons. Single 8-inch guns mounted fore and aft, two 8-inch and two 6-inch guns aiming axially and three 6-inch guns aiming on each broadside. Top speed 20 knots.
USS Raleigh, protected cruiser of 3,200 tons. One 6-inch and two 5-inch guns aiming forward, four 5-inch guns aiming astern and two 5-inch guns aiming on each broadside. Top speed 19 knots.
USS Boston, protected cruiser of 3,200 tons. Single 8-inch guns mounted in barbettes fore and aft with 6-inch axial firing guns mounted beside each. Four additional 6-inch guns. Top speed 13 knots.
USS Concord, gunboat of 1,710 tons with six 6-inch guns. Top speed 17 knots.
USS Petrel, gunboat of 867 tons with four 6-inch guns. Top speed 12 knots.
Despite the superiority of the American artillery, the success rate of their guns was minimal, a total of 5,859 shells were expended during the battle. Excluding shells fired at land targets and the unengaged vessels, only 145 hit the seven Spanish engaged vessels. The Reina Cristina and Castilla suffered 81 hits between them, the Don Antonio de Ulloa was hit 33 times, the Don Juan de Austria 13, the Marques del Duero 10, the Isla de Cuba five and the Isla de Luzón was hit three times.[6]
Unengaged vessels:
The Revenue Cutter McCulloch, the collier Nanshan and the steamer Zafiro (a supply vessel) were directed to keep out of the main action because of their light armament and lack of armor. The McCulloch's chief engineer, Francis B. Randall, died of a heart attack.[18]
Spain[edit]
Engaged Vessels:
Reina Cristina, flagship, unprotected cruiser of 3,042 tons, with six 6.4-inch guns. The fastest Spanish vessel with a top speed of 16 knots.
Castilla, unprotected cruiser of 3,289 tons, with four 5.9-inch and two 4.7-inch guns. The vessel's 8-inch guns had been removed to equip the shore batteries. The ship was used as a floating battery as the temporary repair of the leaks had immobilized her propeller shaft.
Don Antonio de Ulloa, unprotected cruiser of 1,152 tons, with two 4.7-inch guns on the starboard side. Under repair with her engines ashore. Her entire port side armament had been removed to equip the shore batteries.
Don Juan de Austria, unprotected cruiser of 1,152 tons, with four 4.7-inch guns. Top speed 13 knots.
Isla de Cuba, protected cruiser of 1,030 tons, with six 4.7-inch guns. Top speed 14 knots.
Isla de Luzon, protected cruiser of 1,030 tons, with six 4.7-inch guns. Top speed 14 knots.
Marques del Duero, gunboat of 492 tons, with one 6.4-inch and two 4.7-inch guns. Top speed 10 knots.
Engaged vessels ranged in size from 5,870 tons (Olympia) to 492 tons (Marques del Duero).[2]
Unengaged Vessels:
Mindanao, transport ship of 1,900 tons, with 2 secondary rapid fire guns. 77 men.
Velasco, unprotected cruiser of 1,152 tons. Her boilers were ashore being repaired. All her guns were apparently removed to the Caballo Island Battery. 145 men.
El Coreo, gunboat of 560 tons, with three 4.7-inch guns, three secondary rapid-fire guns, and 1 torpedo tube. 115 men.
General Lezo, gunboat of 520 tons, with two 4.7-inch guns which were apparently removed to El Fraile Island, 2 secondary rapid-fire guns, and 1 torpedo tube. 115 men.
Argos, gunboat of 508 tons, with one 3.5-inch gun. 87 men.
The Spanish vessels had 19 torpedo tubes between them but no serviceable torpedoes.
Shore Defenses
Fort San Antonio Abad: Built 1584. Located in Manila. Various guns with only the 9.4-inch having enough range to reach Dewey's ships at their closest approach.
Fort San Felipe: Built 1609. A small castle built on a sandbar protected by a breakwater and separated from Cavite City by a moat.
Cavite Fort: Fortified naval base and shipyard in Cavite City located adjacent to Fort San Felipe.
Corregidor battery: Entrance to Manila Bay. Did not fire.
Caballo battery: Entrance to Manila Bay. Did not fire.
El Fraile battery: Entrance to Manila Bay. Fired three rounds before Raleigh silenced it after hitting the battery with a single shell.
Cañacao battery: Located in the town of Cañacao. Armed with a single 4.7-inch gun. Did not fire.
Sangley Point battery: Located at the Sangley Point Naval Base. Armed with three 64-lb muzzleloading cannon and two 5.9-inch guns (which were the only ones to fire.)
Malate battery: Located in the Manila district of Malate. Did not fire.
The batteries were supplemented with the guns removed from Montojo's fleet. The Corregidor, Caballo and El Fraile batteries had a combined total of 17 guns.
Gallery[edit]
The United States Navy ships:
USS Baltimore, 1891
USS Raleigh, 1900
USS Boston, 1891
USS Concord, circa 1890s
USS Petrel
USRC McCulloch, circa 1900
The destroyed Spanish ships after the battle:
Wreck of the Reina Cristina
Wreck of the Castilla
Wreck of the Don Antonio de Ulloa
Wreck of the Isla de Cuba
Wreck of the Isla de Luzon
Wreck of the Velasco
See also[edit]
Battle of Manila (disambiguation)
Battles of the Spanish–American War
Philippine–American War
List of naval battles
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Accounts of the numbers of vessels involved vary. Admiral Dewey said, "The Spanish line of battle was formed by the Reina Cristina (flag), Castilla, Don Juan de Austria, Don Antonio de Ulloa, Isla de Luzon, Isla de Cuba, and Marques del Duero."[1] Another source lists the order of battle as consisting of nine U.S. ships (two not engaged) and 13 Spanish ships (five not engaged and one not present).[2] Still another source says that the Spanish naval force consisted of seven unarmored ships.[3] Yet another source says that Dewey's squadron included four cruisers (two armored), two gunboats, and one revenue cutter; and that the Spanish fleet consisted of one modern cruiser half the size of Dewey's Olympia, one old wooden cruiser, and five gunboats.[4]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ According to an article titled "The Battle of Manila Bay", written by Admiral Dewey for the War Times Journal, his actual words were, "You may fire when you are ready, Gridley.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Battle of Manila Bay" by Patrick McSherry, from spanamwar.com. Retrieved on 10 October 2007
^ Jump up to: a b Battle of Manila Bay, 1 May 1898, Department of the Navy - Naval Historical Center. Retrieved on 10 October 2007
Jump up ^ Symonds, Craig L.; Clipson, William J. (2001). The Naval Institute historical atlas of the U.S. Navy. Naval Institute Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-55750-984-0.
Jump up ^ Brinkley, Alan (1995). American History: A Survey. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-912114-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Rodríguez González, Agustín R. (1998). El combate de Cavite: un hito decisivo en la pérdida de Filipinas en 1898. Revista de Indias, vol. LVIII, No. 213. ISSN 0034-8341
^ Jump up to: a b "Historic Ships on a Lee Shore". Sea History. National Maritime Historical Society (144): 12–13. August 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Nofi, A.A., 1996, The Spanish–American War, 1898, Pennsylvania: Combined Books, ISBN 0938289578
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Koenig, William (1975). Epic Sea Battles. Page 102–119: Peerage Books. ISBN 0-907408-43-5.
Jump up ^ Saravia & Garcia 2003, pp. 12-13, 27, 29
Jump up ^ Saravia & Garcia 2003, pp. 27-29
Jump up ^ Dewey, G. The War with Spain. Рипол Классик. p. "i+received+a+telegram" 30. ISBN 978-5-87093-531-7.
Jump up ^ Williams, Oscar F. (March 14, 1898). "United States Consul at Manila Oscar F. Williams to Commodore George Dewey, Commander, Asiatic Station, 3/14/1898". Documentary Histories: Spanish–American War: The Battle of Manila Bay. Washington, D.C.: Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 2016-12-24.
Jump up ^ Hendrickson, Kenneth E. (2003). The Spanish–American War. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 44. ISBN 978-0-313-31662-3.
Jump up ^ According to an article titled The Battle of Manila Bay, written by Admiral Dewey, his actual words were, "You may fire when you are ready, Gridley."
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Battle of Manila Bay" by Admiral George Dewey, The War Times Journal. Retrieved on 10 October 2007
Jump up ^ "Admiral Dewey's Report on the Battle of Manila Bay", spanamwar.com, Retrieved on 9 February 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Patrick McSherry, "The Battle of Manila Bay" (Cavite), May 1, 1898, spanamwar.com, Retrieved on 9 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "Cruiser Olympia". Independence Seaport Museum. Retrieved 22 February 2011.
Additional References[edit]
Nofi, Albert A., The Spanish American War, 1898, 1997.
Carrasco García, Antonio, En Guerra con Los Estados Unidos: Cuba, 1898, Madrid: 1998.
Freidel, Frank Burt. The Splendid Little War. Boston: Little, Brown, 1958.
Blow, Michael. A Ship to Remember: The Maine and the Spanish–American War. New York : Morrow, 1992. ISBN 0-688-09714-6.
Saravia, José Roca de Togores y; Garcia, Remigio (2003), Blockade and Siege of Manila in 1898, National Historical Institute, ISBN 978-971-538-167-3
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Manila Bay (1898).
Spanish–American War Centennial Website
1898 Battle of Manila Bay (archived from the original on 2009-10-26)
Alejandro Anca Alamillo, Investigador Naval, Batalla de Cavite (1 de mayo de 1898) (in Spanish), Revista Naval (Naval review), retrieved 10 October 2007

Coordinates: 14°30′N 120°45′E / 14.500°N 120.750°E / 14.500; 120.750
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Brandon Mull
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Brandon Mull
Mull at Mountain-Con in 2008
Born
(1974-11-08) November 8, 1974 (age 43)[1]
Occupation
Writer
Language
English
Nationality
American
Alma mater
Brigham Young University
Period
2006 – current
Genre
Young adult fiction, fantasy
Notable works
Fablehaven series, the Beyonders series, and the Five Kingdoms series
Children
5
Website
brandonmull.com
Brandon Mull is an American author who wrote the children's fantasy series, Fablehaven, as well as The Candy Shop War, the Beyonders trilogy, and the Five Kingdoms series.[2][3]
He was inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien, C. S. Lewis, and J. K. Rowling.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Education and early work
2 Writer
3 Published works
3.1 Fablehaven
3.2 Beyonders
3.3 Dragonwatch
3.4 Five Kingdoms
3.5 Candy Shop War
3.6 Pingo
3.7 Spirit Animals
4 Personal life
5 References
6 External links
Education and early work[edit]
Brandon Mull went to Mt. Diablo Elementary School in Clayton, California, United States. Mull then attended Pine Hollow Middle School as a student, and then attended Clayton Valley. He currently lives in Alpine, Utah and graduated from BYU (Brigham Young University) in Utah.[5] While at BYU Mull led the sketch comedy group Divine Comedy (BYU).[6] Mull served a two-year mission for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Chile. Brandon Mull has worked as a comedian, a filing clerk, a patio installer, a movie promoter, a copywriter, and briefly as a chicken stacker.[7]
Writer[edit]
Brandon Mull spearheaded a seven-book series called Spirit Animals. Each book is written by a different author, but he was given the charge to create the fantasy world where the characters will live, and all the books will be based. The first installment, written by Brandon, called Wild Born was released in September 2013.[8]
Brandon Mull authored the Five Kingdoms series. The first book is titled Sky Raiders and was released March 11, 2014. The second installment, Rogue Knight, arrived November 18, 2014. The third, Crystal Keepers, arrived on March 17, 2015. The fourth, Death Weavers, was released on March 1, 2016. Of this series, Brandon Mull says, "It'll be for the kind of readers who liked Fablehaven. A Halloween spook alley turns out to be a front for slave traders taking kids into another world. It'll be cool, promise."[9]
On Mull's Facebook page he mentioned that he is planning a second Fablehaven series, but wouldn't get serious about it until some of his other projects are finished, like Spirit Animals, possibly not until 2015. Brandon announced at the launching of Spirit Animals that there is a very good plan for the Fablehaven sequel series to be published in 2016.[10]
Fablehaven is currently optioned by Schaffer Studios.[11]
Published works[edit]
Fablehaven[edit]
Fablehaven is about siblings Seth and Kendra Sorenson who find out their grandfather and grandmother run Fablehaven, one of the last places mythical creatures can live in peace.
(ages 8–13)
Fablehaven, Shadow Mountain, 14 June 2006, ISBN 978-1-59038-581-4
Fablehaven: Rise of the Evening Star, Shadow Mountain, 1 May 2007, ISBN 978-1-59038-742-9
Fablehaven: Grip of the Shadow Plague, Shadow Mountain, 12 April 2008, ISBN 978-1-59038-898-3
Fablehaven: Secrets of the Dragon Sanctuary, Shadow Mountain, 24 March 2009, ISBN 978-1-60641-042-4
Fablehaven: Keys to the Demon Prison, Shadow Mountain, 23 March 2010, ISBN 978-1-60641-238-1
The Caretaker's Guide to Fablehaven, Shadow Mountain, 13 October 2015, ISBN 978-1629720913
Beyonders[edit]
Beyonders is a series about a teenage boy named Jason who gets summoned as the last chance to save Lyrian, a doomed realm ruled by the wizard Maldor.
(ages 8–13)
Beyonders: A World Without Heroes, Aladdin, 15 March 2011, ISBN 978-1-41699-792-4
Beyonders: Seeds of Rebellion, Aladdin, 13 March 2012, ISBN 978-1-41699-794-8
Beyonders: Chasing the Prophecy, Aladdin, 12 March 2013, ISBN 978-1-41699-796-2
Dragonwatch[edit]
Dragonwatch is a sequel series to Fablehaven that will span 5 books. Book One was released in March 2017. Book Two is predicted to come in 2018. In the story the dragons will seek to escape the sanctuaries they've been placed in, seeing them as prisons. The only thing that can keep them under control is the order of the Dragonwatch, but most of the Dragonwatch members have died of old age. A wizard named Agad decides to seek out Grandpa Sorensen for help, and in the process Kendra and Seth. Kendra and Seth will have to unite forces to become dragon tamers and caretakers of Wyrmroost to keep the dragons from escaping.
(ages 8–14)
Dragonwatch: A Fablehaven Adventure, Shadow Mountain, 14 March 2017, ISBN 978-1-6297-2256-6
Five Kingdoms[edit]
Five Kingdoms is a series about an 11-year-old boy named Cole who gets stolen by slave traders and gets sucked away to another world called the Outskirts.
(ages 8–13)
Five Kingdoms: Sky Raiders, Aladdin, 11 March 2014, ISBN 978-1-4424-9700-9
Five Kingdoms: Rogue Knight,[12] Aladdin, 18 November 2014, ISBN 978-1-4424-9703-0
Five Kingdoms: Crystal Keepers, Aladdin, 17 March 2015, ISBN 978-1-4424-9706-1
Five Kingdoms: Death Weavers, Aladdin, 15 March 2016, ISBN 978-1-4424-9709-2
Five Kingdoms: Time Jumpers, Aladdin, 13 March 2018, ISBN 978-1-4424-9712-2
Candy Shop War[edit]
Candy Shop War follows Nate in a strange town full of magical candies and crazy arcades.
(ages 8–13)
The Candy Shop War, Shadow Mountain, 11 September 2007, ISBN 978-1-59038-783-2
Arcade Catastrophe, Shadow Mountain, 23 October 2012, ISBN 978-1-60907-179-0
Pingo[edit]
Pingo, illustrated by Brandon Dorman, Shadow Mountain, 5 August 2009, ISBN 978-1-60641-109-4, for ages 4–8
Pingo and the Playground Bully – Prequel to Pingo, illustrated by Brandon Dorman, Shadow Mountain, 9 October 2012, ISBN 978-1-60907-178-3
Spirit Animals[edit]
Mull has written one full book in the series: Wild Born (Book 1), and select stories in Special Edition: Tales of the Great Beasts (21 October 2014) and Special Edition: Tales of the Fallen Beasts (23 February 2016). Wild Born tells the story of four 11-year-old kids (Conor from Eura, Meilin from Zhong, Rollan from Amaya, and Abeke from Nilo) who summon the legendary Four Fallen (Briggan with Connor, Jhi with Meilin, Essix with Rollan, and Uraza with Abeke). The kids must work together to find the first talisman with the Greencloaks, leading to a heroic battle against the Ravens and the Conquerors. The first Special Edition covers the story of the four great beasts: Briggan the Wolf, Uraza the Leopard, Jhi the Panda, and Essix the Falcon before they sacrifice themselves to protect the land and become the legendary Four Fallen Spirit Animals. The second special edition features the story of the betrayal of the great beast Gerathon.
Personal life[edit]
Mull has a wife and five children.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Library of Congress Authority Record, n2006002424, "Mull, Brandon, 1989–" authorities.loc.gov
Jump up ^ Hilliard, Juli Cragg (2007-02-05). Will the Next Harry Potter Be a Mormon?. Publishersweekly.com. Retrieved on 2013-05-05.
Jump up ^ Howard, Chris (2008-03-07) Interview With Brandon Mull Archived 2008-10-13 at the Wayback Machine.. Stuffasdreamsaremadeon.com. Retrieved on 2013-05-05.
Jump up ^ Interview with Brandon Mull. Teens Read Too (2013-04-05). Retrieved on 2013-05-05.
Jump up ^ Cordova, Randy (2008-06-06) 'Fablehaven' author Brandon Mull. AZ Central. Retrieved on 2013-05-05.
Jump up ^ Lefrandt, Diane (2011-08-01). Making No. 1 on the New York Times bestseller list. Universe.byu.edu. Retrieved on 2013-05-05.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived 2008-05-28 at the Wayback Machine. Deseret News – Mull converted daydreaming into dream job
Jump up ^ [2] Archived 2008-05-28 at the Wayback Machine. Publisher Weekly – New Spirit Animals Book Series
Jump up ^ [3] New Book Series - Five Kingdoms
Jump up ^ [4] The Daily Universe - Fablehaven author launches new series
Jump up ^ [5] Utah Weekly Forum radio broadcast 26 June 2013
Jump up ^ Tweet from Brandon Mull's Official Twitter (2014-04-14) [6]. Retrieved on 2014-04-24.
External links[edit]
Official website
Blog
Fablehaven series (official)
Candy Shop War Vol. 2: The Arcade Catasrophe (official)
Interview by Glenn Beck (2008), CNN Headline News (YouTube)
Interview by the Dr. Pat Show, Seattle-based talk[dead link]
Brandon Mull at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
Brandon Mull at Library of Congress Authorities, with 17 catalog records
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BNF: cb16181051z (data)
ISNI: 0000 0001 2025 6060
LCCN: n2006002424
MusicBrainz: 32c77ecf-2db0-4aa6-9b2b-286e6a6eb033
SELIBR: 382522
VIAF: 51107982
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brandon_Mull&oldid=847557592"
Categories:
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