text:
Axial skeleton
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Axial skeleton
Diagram of the axial skeleton
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Skeleton axiale
TA
A02.0.00.009
FMA
71221
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The axial skeleton is the part of the skeleton that consists of the bones of the head and trunk of a vertebrate. In the human skeleton, it consists of 80 bones and is composed of six parts; the skull bones, the ossicles of the middle ear, the hyoid bone, the rib cage, sternum and the vertebral column. The axial skeleton together with the appendicular skeleton form the complete skeleton. Another definition of axial skeleton is the bones including the vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, ribs, and sternum.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Cranium
1.2 Rib cage
1.3 Vertebral column
2 Etymology
3 Short Summary
4 Additional images
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Structure[edit]
See also: List of bones of the human skeleton
View from both directions of a axial skeleton cut in half. Shows attachments to pelvis and does not show skull. From Sobotta's atlas of human anatomy 1909.
Flat bones house the brain and other vital organs. This article mainly deals with the axial skeletons of humans; however, it is important to understand the evolutionary lineage of the axial skeleton. The human axial skeleton consists of 80 different bones. It is the medial core of the body and connects the pelvis to the body, where the appendix skeleton attaches. As the skeleton grows older the bones get weaker with the exception of the skull. The skull remains strong to protect the brain from injury.
Cranium[edit]
The human skull consists of the cranium and the facial bones. The cranium holds and protects the brain in a large space called the cranial vault. The cranium is formed from eight plate-shaped bones which fit together at meeting points (joints) called sutures. In addition there are 14 facial bones which form the lower front part of the skull. Together the 22 bones that compose the skull form additional, smaller spaces besides the cranial vault, such as the cavities for the eyes, the internal ear, the nose, and the mouth. The most important facial bones include the jaw or mandible, the upper jaw or maxilla, the zygomatic or cheek bone, and the nasal bone.[2]
Humans are born with separate plates which later fuse to allow flexibility as the skull passes through the pelvis and birth canal during birth. During development the eight separate plates of the immature bones fuse together into one single structure known as the Skull. The only bone that remains separate from the rest of the skull is the mandible.[3]
Rib cage[edit]
The rib cage is composed of 12 pairs of ribs plus the sternum for a total of 25 separate bones. The rib cage functions as protection for the vital organs such as the heart and lungs. The ribs are shaped like crescents, with one end flattened and the other end rounded. The rounded ends are attached at joints to the thoracic vertebrae at the back and the flattened ends come together at the sternum, in the front.[4]
The upper seven pairs of ribs attach to the sternum with costal cartilage and are known as “true ribs.” The 8th through 10th ribs have non-costal cartilage which connects them to the ribs above. The last two ribs are called “floating ribs” because they do not attach to the sternum or to other ribs and simply “hang free.” The length of each rib increases from number one to seven and then decreases until rib pair number 12. The first rib is the shortest, broadest, flattest, and most curved.[5]
Vertebral column[edit]
At birth the majority of humans have 33 separate vertebrae. However, during normal development several vertebrae fuse together, leaving a total of 24, in most cases. The confusion about whether or not there are 32-34 vertebrae stems from the fact that the two lowest vertebrae, the sacrum and the coccyx, are single bones made up of several smaller bones which have fused together. This is how the vertebrae are counted: 24 separate vertebrae and the sacrum, formed from 5 fused vertebrae and the coccyx, formed from 3-5 fused vertebrae. If you count the coccyx and sacrum each as one vertebra, then there are 26 vertebrae. If the fused vertebrae are all counted separately, then the total number of vertebrae comes to between 32 and 34.
The vertebral column consists of 5 parts. The most cranial (uppermost) part is made up by the cervical vertebrae (7), followed by thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (4–5) and coccygeal vertebrae (3–4).
Cervical vertebrae make up the junction between the vertebral column and the cranium. Sacral and coccygeal vertebras are fused and thus often called "sacral bone" or "coccygeal bone" as unit. The sacral bone makes up the junction between the vertebral column and the pelvic bones.
Etymology[edit]
The word "Axial" is taken from the word "axis" and refers to the fact that the bones are located close to or along the central "axis" of the body.[6]
Short Summary[edit]
Axisl skeleton consist of 80 bones.
Skull contains 22 bones from which 8 are cranial and 14 are facial.
6 middle ear ossicles (3 in each ear).
1 hyoid bone in neck.
33 bones of vertebral column.
1 chest bone called sternum.
24 ribs (12 pairs).
Additional images[edit]
Axial skeleton (shown in red).
Illustration depicting anterior and posterior view of axial skeleton
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Appendicular skeleton
Skull
Middle ear ossicles
Hyoid bone
sternum
ribs
Bones
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Folkens, Tim D. White, Michael T. Black, Pieter A.; Pierter, Folkens; Michael, Black (2012). Human osteology (3rd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-12-374134-9.
Jump up ^ "Features of the Human Skull". Face and Emotion. Archived from the original on 14 February 2014. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Skull". Inner Body. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Postcranial Skeletal/Ribs" (PDF). Observation and Analysis Method for Human Bones. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Human Body Maps/Ribs". Healthtime. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Axial skeleton". AnatomyExpert. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Axial skeleton.
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Bones in the human skeleton
Axial skeleton
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Foot
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List of Premier League players with 100 or more goals
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 6 November 2017.
Jump to: navigation, search
See also: List of footballers in England and Scotland by number of league goals
Alan Shearer was the first player to score 200 Premier League goals, and only player to score 100 goals for two clubs.
Wayne Rooney is the second Premier League player to score 200 goals or more, behind only Shearer and the only active player as of 2017 to do so.
Frank Lampard is the Premier League's highest scoring midfielder of all time.
Thierry Henry scored 175 Premier League goals, the most by a foreign player.
Ryan Giggs is the only player to have scored in each of the first 21 Premier League seasons.
Didier Drogba is the only African player to score 100 Premier League goals.
Since the Premier League's formation at the start of the 1992–93 season, 26 players have managed to accrue 100 or more goals in the competition.
During the 1995–96 season, Alan Shearer became the first player to score 100 Premier League goals, and holds the record for the fewest games taken to reach 100, doing so in 124 appearances. He also holds the record for most goals scored in the Premier League.[1][2] After Shearer, Sergio Agüero is the second-fastest to 100 goals, doing so in 147 games.[3]
Players[edit]
As of 5 November 2017. Source:[4]
List of Premier League players with 100 or more goals
Rank
Player
Position
Premier League club(s)
Goals
1
Shearer, AlanAlan Shearer
S Blackburn Rovers, Newcastle United 260
2
Rooney, WayneWayne Rooney
F Everton, Manchester United 202
3
Cole, AndyAndy Cole
S Newcastle United, Manchester United, Blackburn Rovers, Fulham, Manchester City, Portsmouth 187
4
Lampard, FrankFrank Lampard
MF West Ham United, Chelsea, Manchester City 177
5
Henry, ThierryThierry Henry
S Arsenal 175
6
Fowler, RobbieRobbie Fowler
S Liverpool, Leeds United, Manchester City 163
7
Defoe, JermainJermain Defoe
S West Ham United, Portsmouth, Tottenham Hotspur, Sunderland, Bournemouth 159
8
Owen, MichaelMichael Owen
S Liverpool, Newcastle United, Manchester United, Stoke City 150
9
Ferdinand, LesLes Ferdinand
S Queens Park Rangers, Newcastle United, Tottenham Hotspur, West Ham United, Leicester City, Bolton Wanderers 149
10
Sheringham, TeddyTeddy Sheringham
S Nottingham Forest, Tottenham Hotspur, Manchester United, Portsmouth, West Ham United 146
11
van Persie, RobinRobin van Persie
F Arsenal, Manchester United 144
12
Agüero, SergioSergio Agüero
S Manchester City 130
13
Hasselbaink, Jimmy FloydJimmy Floyd Hasselbaink
S Leeds United, Chelsea, Middlesbrough, Charlton Athletic 127
14
Keane, RobbieRobbie Keane
F Coventry City, Leeds United, Tottenham Hotspur, Liverpool, West Ham United, Aston Villa 126
15
Anelka, NicolasNicolas Anelka
F Arsenal, Liverpool, Manchester City, Bolton Wanderers, Chelsea, West Bromwich Albion 125
16
Yorke, DwightDwight Yorke
S Aston Villa, Manchester United, Blackburn Rovers, Birmingham City, Sunderland 123
17
Gerrard, StevenSteven Gerrard
MF Liverpool 120
18
Wright, IanIan Wright
S Arsenal, West Ham United 113
19
Dublin, DionDion Dublin
F Manchester United, Coventry City, Aston Villa 111
20
Heskey, EmileEmile Heskey
S Leicester City, Liverpool, Birmingham City, Wigan Athletic, Aston Villa 110
21
Giggs, RyanRyan Giggs
MF Manchester United 109
22
Scholes, PaulPaul Scholes
MF Manchester United 107
23
Bent, DarrenDarren Bent
S Ipswich Town, Charlton Athletic, Tottenham Hotspur, Sunderland, Aston Villa, Fulham 106
23
Crouch, PeterPeter Crouch
S Aston Villa, Southampton, Liverpool, Portsmouth, Tottenham Hotspur, Stoke City 106
25
Drogba, DidierDidier Drogba
S Chelsea 104
26
Le Tissier, MattMatt Le Tissier
MF Southampton 100
Italics show players still playing professional football; Bold shows players still playing in the Premier League.[4]
See also[edit]
English football first tier top scorers
List of top Premier League goal scorers by season
List of Premier League players with 500 or more appearances
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Bent poised to join 100 club". PremierLeague.com. Premier League. 30 January 2012. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 2 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Bent delighted to join 100 goals club". PremierLeague.com. Premier League. 2 February 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Chick, Alex (19 April 2016). "Sergio Aguero second-fastest to 100 PL goals, but was he offside?". Eurosport. Retrieved 19 April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Premier League Player Stats: Goals". PremierLeague.com. Premier League. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
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Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad
Motto
Siddhirbhavati Karmaja
Motto in English
Success is born out of action.
Type
Public
Established
1961
Director
Dr. Rajeev Tripathi
Academic staff
257
Undergraduates
2,362
Postgraduates
817
Location
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Campus
Urban, 222 acres (0.9 km2)
Website
mnnit.ac.in
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad (MNNIT or NIT Allahabad), formerly Motilal Nehru Regional Engineering College (MNREC), is a public higher education institute located in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is one of the National Institutes of Technology, and like the rest of them, classified as an Institute of National Importance.The college has the distinction of the being first in the country to start an undergraduate programme in Computer Science & Engineering, in 1976-77.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Rankings
3 Academics
4 Departments
5 Notable alumni
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Inauguration of Main Building of MNREC Allahabad on 19 March 1965. From Left to right, cutting the ribbon are Gopal Kishore Agrawal (founder principal), Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh Chandra Bhanu Gupta.
Motilal Nehru Regional Engineering College was established in 1961. The foundation stone was laid by Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, and the institute was named after his father, lawyer and freedom fighter, Motilal Nehru. The founding principal of the college was Gopal Kishore Agrawal.
The main building of the college was inaugurated by Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri on 18 April 1965. Effective from 26 June 2002, the college became a deemed university and was renamed as Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology.
From its beginnings the institute offered bachelor's degree programmes in Civil, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering. The institute was the first in the country to offer an undergraduate program in Computer Science and Engineering, which was started in 1976. In 1982-83 undergraduate programs in Electronics Engineering, and Production and Industrial Engineering were started.
Postgraduate programs were introduced in 1970-71 with master's degree courses in all engineering departments. The institute now offers M.Tech. degree programs MCA and M.Sc Mathematics and Scientific Computing course, and registers candidates for Ph. D. degrees. The institute has been recognized by the Government of India as a center for the quality improvement program in Civil and Mechanical Engineering. The institute started a two year/four semesters postgraduate degree in Management Studies in 1996. The institute added undergraduate programs in Chemical Engineering and BioTechnology in 2006.
The college has been recognized by AICTE as a center for the Quality Improvement Programme. In 1972, the college established an industrial estate with 69 sheds with the objective of encouraging entrepreneurs and creating additional revenue.
Design Centre
The college is a member of the Indo-UK REC project in the area of design. Under this scheme, a Design Center was established at a cost of about Rs. six crore, which offers training and consultancy. It was given the status of a Institute of National Importance (INI) on 15 August 2007.
In 2010, the institute celebrated its Golden Jubilee year.
It is among the few technical institutions in India to house two supercomputers, PARAM 8000 and PARAM 10000.[2]
Rankings[edit]
College rankings
Engineering – India
NIRF (2017)[3]
41
MNNIT was ranked 41 among engineering colleges by the National Institutional Ranking Framework in 2017.[3]
Academics[edit]
MNNIT offers a four-year undergraduate course in various engineering disciplines. Indian students are admitted though Joint Entrance Examination (Main), while foreign student are admitted through Direct Admission of Students Abroad (DASA).
MNNIT offers 19 post-graduate programs of two-year duration leading to M.Tech. degrees.The Computer Science department offers a master's in Computer Applications (MCA). It has a master's course in Mathematics and Scientific Computing and a B-school known as the School of Management Studies. Master of Social Work (MSW) is also running in the institute since 2009.
Departments[edit]
Lecture Hall Complex
Academic Block
The departments in the institute are:
Engineering
Biotechnology
Applied Mechanics
Chemical Engineering
Computer Science and Engineering: Also known as CSED (Hindi: 'Sanganak Vigyan aivam Abhiyantriki Vibhaag'), this department hosts the classes for almost all students associated with the IT sector, whether CSE, IT or MCA. Numerous subjects such as C/C++ are taught here with a full-fledged facility.
Civil Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Electronics and Communication Engineering
Information Technology
Industrial & Production Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Product Design & Development
Science
Chemistry
Mathematics
Physics
Humanities and Social Science
School of Management Studies
Notable alumni[edit]
Sanjiv Chaturvedi, IFS officer who has exposed many corruption cases in Haryana and AIIMS; received the Presidential reference[4] a record four times.
Deep Joshi, social worker and NGO activist, recipient of the Magsaysay award in 2009[5]
Raj Senani, former Director of Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology (NSIT)[citation needed]
Bhrigu Nath Singh, engineering scientist, Chairperson of ICTACEM, Professor and Dean of Human Resources, IIT Kharagpur[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Culrav, an annual cultural festival showcasing the culture of India through competitions[6]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ MNNIT Official Website. About the Institute.
Jump up ^ "Summary of proceedings of the Review Workshop - list of premier institutes in India". CDAC website. Retrieved 5 April 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "National Institutional Ranking Framework 2017 (Engineering)". National Institutional Ranking Framework. Ministry of Human Resource Development. 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/lunch-with-bs-sanjiv-chaturvedi-115010901283_1.html
Jump up ^ "Joshi, Deep". rmaward.asia. The Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "MNNIT's 'Culrav' begins on poetic note - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 2017-02-12.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad.
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Qin dynasty
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Not to be confused with the Qing dynasty, the last dynasty of Imperial China.
"Qin Empire" redirects here. For other uses, see Qin Empire (disambiguation).
Qin
秦
221 BC–206 BC
Commanderies of the Qin Dynasty
Capital
Xianyang
Common languages
Old Chinese
Religion
Chinese folk religion
Government
Absolute monarchy
Emperor
• 221–210 BC
Qin Shi Huang
• 210–207 BC
Qin Er Shi
Chancellor
• 221–208 BC
Li Si
• 208–207 BC
Zhao Gao
Historical era
Imperial
• Unification of China
221 BC
• Death of Qin Shi Huang
210 BC
• Surrender to Liu Bang
206 BC
Population
• 210 BC
20,000,000
Currency
Ban Liang
Preceded by Succeeded by
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Qin (state)
Eighteen Kingdoms
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Qin dynasty
"Qin dynasty" in Qin-era seal script (top) and modern (bottom) Chinese characters
Chinese
秦朝
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[tɕʰǐn ʈʂʰǎu]
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Zín záu
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The Qin dynasty (Chinese: 秦朝; pinyin: Qín Cháo; Wade–Giles: Ch'in2 Ch'ao2) was the first dynasty of Imperial China, lasting from 221 to 206 BC. Named for its heartland in Qin state (modern Gansu and Shaanxi), the dynasty was founded by Qin Shi Huang, the First Emperor of Qin. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the Legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the fourth century BC, during the Warring States period. In the mid and late third century BC, the Qin state carried out a series of swift conquests, first ending the powerless Zhou dynasty, and eventually conquering the other six of the Seven Warring States. Its 15 years was the shortest major dynasty in Chinese history, consisting of only two emperors, but inaugurated an imperial system that lasted, with interruption and adaptation, until 1912.
The Qin sought to create a state unified by structured political power and a large military supported by a stable economy.[1] The central government moved to undercut aristocrats and landowners to gain direct administrative control over the peasantry, who comprised the overwhelming majority of the population and labour force. This allowed ambitious projects involving three hundred thousand peasants and convicts, such as connecting walls along the northern border, eventually developing into the Great Wall of China.[2]
The Qin introduced a range of reforms such as standardized currency, weights, measures, and a uniform system of writing, which aimed to unify the state and promote commerce. Additionally, its military used the most recent weaponry, transportation, and tactics, though the government was heavy-handedly bureaucratic. Han dynasty Confucians portrayed the dynasty as a monolithic tyranny, notably citing a purge known as the burning of books and burying of scholars although some modern scholars dispute the veracity of these accounts.
When the first emperor died in 210 BC, two of his advisers placed an heir on the throne in an attempt to influence and control the administration of the dynasty. These advisors squabbled among themselves, resulting in both of their deaths and that of the second Qin Emperor. Popular revolt broke out and the weakened empire soon fell to a Chu general, Xiang Yu, who was proclaimed Hegemon-King of Western Chu, and Liu Bang, who later founded the Han dynasty. Despite its short reign, the dynasty greatly influenced the future of China, particularly the Han, and its name is thought to be the origin of the European name for China.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Origins and early development
1.2 Growth of power
1.3 Conquest of the Warring States
1.4 Southward expansion
1.5 Campaigns against the Xiongnu
1.6 Fall from power
2 Culture and society
2.1 Domestic life
2.2 Architecture
2.3 Philosophy and literature
2.4 Government and military
2.5 Religion
2.6 Etymology of China
3 Sovereigns of Qin dynasty
4 Imperial family tree
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
7.1 Citations
7.2 Sources
8 Further reading
9 External links
History[edit]
See also: Qin (state) and Timeline of the Warring States and the Qin dynasty
Origins and early development[edit]
Map showing major states of Eastern Zhou
In the 9th century BC, Feizi, a supposed descendant of the ancient political advisor Gao Yao, was granted rule over Qin City. The modern city of Tianshui stands where this city once was. During the rule of King Xiao of Zhou, the eighth king of the Zhou dynasty, this area became known as the state of Qin. In 897 BC, under the Gonghe Regency, the area became a dependency allotted for the purpose of raising and breeding horses.[3] One of Feizi's descendants, Duke Zhuang, became favoured by King Ping of Zhou, the thirteenth king in that line. As a reward, Zhuang's son, Duke Xiang, was sent eastward as the leader of a war expedition, during which he formally established the Qin.[4]
The state of Qin first began a military expedition into central China in 672 BC, though it did not engage in any serious incursions due to the threat from neighbouring tribesmen. By the dawn of the fourth century BC, however, the neighbouring tribes had all been either subdued or conquered, and the stage was set for the rise of Qin expansionism.[5]
Growth of power[edit]
Map of the Warring States. Qin is shown in pink
Map of the Growth of Qin
Lord Shang Yang, a Qin statesman of the Warring States period, advocated a philosophy of Legalism, introducing a number of militarily advantageous reforms from 361 BC until his death in 338 BC. Yang also helped construct the Qin capital, commencing in the mid-fourth century BC Xianyang. The resulting city greatly resembled the capitals of other Warring States.[6]
Notably, Qin Legalism encouraged practical and ruthless warfare.[7] During the Spring and Autumn period,[8] the prevalent philosophy had dictated war as a gentleman's activity; military commanders were instructed to respect what they perceived to be Heaven's laws in battle.[9] For example, when Duke Xiang of Song[note 1] was at war with the state of Chu during the Warring States period, he declined an opportunity to attack the enemy force, commanded by Zhu, while they were crossing a river. After allowing them to cross and marshal their forces, he was decisively defeated in the ensuing battle. When his advisors later admonished him for such excessive courtesy to the enemy, he retorted, "The sage does not crush the feeble, nor give the order for attack until the enemy have formed their ranks."[10]
The Qin disregarded this military tradition, taking advantage of their enemy's weaknesses. A nobleman in the state of Wei accused the Qin state of being "avaricious, perverse, eager for profit, and without sincerity. It knows nothing about etiquette, proper relationships, and virtuous conduct, and if there be an opportunity for material gain, it will disregard its relatives as if they were animals."[11] It was this Legalist thought combined with strong leadership from long-lived rulers, openness to employ talented men from other states, and little internal opposition that gave the Qin such a strong political base.[12]
Another advantage of the Qin was that they had a large, efficient army[note 2] and capable generals. They utilised the newest developments in weaponry and transportation as well, which many of their enemies lacked. These latter developments allowed greater mobility over several different terrain types which were most common in many regions of China. Thus, in both ideology and practice, the Qin were militarily superior.[7]
Finally, the Qin Empire had a geographical advantage due to its fertility and strategic position, protected by mountains that made the state a natural stronghold.[note 3] Its expanded agricultural output helped sustain Qin's large army with food and natural resources;[12] the Wei River canal built in 246 BC was particularly significant in this respect.[13]
Conquest of the Warring States[edit]
Main article: Qin's wars of unification
Map showing the unification of Qin during 230–211 BC
During the Warring States period preceding the Qin dynasty, the major states vying for dominance were Yan, Zhao, Qi, Chu, Han, Wei and Qin. The rulers of these states styled themselves as kings, rather than using the titles of lower nobility they had previously held. However, none elevated himself to believe that he had the "Mandate of Heaven", as the Zhou kings had claimed, nor that he had the right to offer sacrifices—they left this to the Zhou rulers.[14]
Before their conquest in the fourth and third centuries BC, the Qin suffered several setbacks. Shang Yang was executed in 338 BC by King Huiwen due to a personal grudge harboured from his youth. There was also internal strife over the Qin succession in 307 BC, which decentralised Qin authority somewhat. Qin was defeated by an alliance of the other states in 295 BC, and shortly after suffered another defeat by the state of Zhao, because the majority of their army was then defending against the Qi. The aggressive statesman Fan Sui (范雎), however, soon came to power as prime minister even as the problem of the succession was resolved, and he began an expansionist policy that had originated in Jin and Qi, which prompted the Qin to attempt to conquer the other states.[15]
The Qin were swift in their assault on the other states. They first attacked the Han, directly east, and took their capital city of Xinzheng in 230 BC. They then struck northward; the state of Zhao surrendered in 228 BC, and the northernmost state of Yan followed, falling in 226 BC. Next, Qin armies launched assaults to the east, and later the south as well; they took the Wei city of Daliang (now called Kaifeng) in 225 BC and forced the Chu to surrender by 223 BC. Lastly, they deposed the Zhou dynasty's remnants in Luoyang and conquered the Qi, taking the city of Linzi in 221 BC.[16]
When the conquests were complete in 221 BC, King Zheng – who had first assumed the throne of the Qin state at age 9[17] – became the effective ruler of China.[18] The subjugation of the six states was done by King Zheng who had used efficient persuasion and exemplary stratagem. He solidified his position as sole ruler with the abdication of his prime minister, Lü Buwei. The states made by the emperor were assigned to officials dedicated to the task rather than place the burden on people from the royal family.[18] He then combined the titles of the earlier Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors into his new name: Shi Huangdi (始皇帝) or "First Emperor".[19][note 4] The newly declared emperor ordered all weapons not in the possession of the Qin to be confiscated and melted down. The resulting metal was sufficient to build twelve large ornamental statues at the Qin's newly declared capital, Xianyang.[20]
Southward expansion[edit]
Main article: Qin's campaign against the southern tribes
In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang secured his boundaries to the north with a fraction (100,000 men) of his large army, and sent the majority (500,000 men) of his army south to conquer the territory of the southern tribes. Prior to the events leading to Qin dominance over China, they had gained possession of much of Sichuan to the southwest. The Qin army was unfamiliar with the jungle terrain, and it was defeated by the southern tribes' guerrilla warfare tactics with over 100,000 men lost. However, in the defeat Qin was successful in building a canal to the south, which they used heavily for supplying and reinforcing their troops during their second attack to the south. Building on these gains, the Qin armies conquered the coastal lands surrounding Guangzhou,[note 5] and took the provinces of Fuzhou and Guilin. They struck as far south as Hanoi. After these victories in the south, Qin Shi Huang moved over 100,000 prisoners and exiles to colonize the newly conquered area. In terms of extending the boundaries of his empire, the First Emperor was extremely successful in the south.[20]
Campaigns against the Xiongnu[edit]
Main article: Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu
However, while the empire at times was extended to the north, the Qin could rarely hold on to the land for long. The tribes of these locations, collectively called the Hu by the Qin, were free from Chinese rule during the majority of the dynasty.[21] Prohibited from trading with Qin dynasty peasants, the Xiongnu tribe living in the Ordos region in northwest China often raided them instead, prompting the Qin to retaliate. After a military campaign led by General Meng Tian, the region was conquered in 215 BC and agriculture was established; the peasants, however, were discontented and later revolted. The succeeding Han dynasty also expanded into the Ordos due to overpopulation, but depleted their resources in the process. Indeed, this was true of the dynasty's borders in multiple directions; modern Xinjiang, Tibet, Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and regions to the southeast were foreign to the Qin, and even areas over which they had military control were culturally distinct.[22]
Fall from power[edit]
A stone rubbing of a carved relief from the Han dynasty depicting Jin Ke's assassination attempt on Qin Shi Huang; Jing Ke (left) is held by one of Qin Shi Huang's physicians (left, background). The dagger used in the assassination attempt is seen stuck in the pillar. Qin Shi Huang (right) is seen holding an imperial jade disc. One of his soldiers (far right) rushes to save his emperor.
Three assassination attempts were made on Qin Shi Huang's life,[23] leading him to become paranoid and obsessed with immortality. He died in 210 BC, while on a trip to the far eastern reaches of his empire in an attempt to procure an elixir of immortality from Taoist magicians, who claimed the elixir was stuck on an island guarded by a sea monster. The chief eunuch, Zhao Gao, and the prime minister, Li Si, hid the news of his death upon their return until they were able to alter his will to place on the throne the dead emperor's most pliable son, Huhai, who took the name of Qin Er Shi.[17] They believed that they would be able to manipulate him to their own ends, and thus effectively control the empire. Qin Er Shi was, indeed, inept and pliable. He executed many ministers and imperial princes, continued massive building projects (one of his most extravagant projects was lacquering the city walls), enlarged the army, increased taxes, and arrested messengers who brought him bad news. As a result, men from all over China revolted, attacking officials, raising armies, and declaring themselves kings of seized territories.[24]
During this time, Li Si and Zhao Gao fell out, and Li Si was executed. Zhao Gao decided to force Qin Er Shi to commit suicide due to Qin Er Shi's incompetence. Upon this, Ziying, a nephew of Qin Er Shi, ascended the throne, and immediately executed Zhao Gao.[24] Ziying, seeing that increasing unrest was growing among the people[note 6] and that many local officials had declared themselves kings, attempted to cling to his throne by declaring himself one king among all the others.[13] He was undermined by his ineptitude, however, and popular revolt broke out in 209 BC. When Chu rebels under the lieutenant Liu Bang attacked, a state in such turmoil could not hold for long. Ziying was defeated near the Wei River in 207 BC and surrendered shortly after; he was executed by the Chu leader Xiang Yu. The Qin capital was destroyed the next year, and this is considered by historians to be the end of the Qin Empire.[25][note 7] Liu Bang then betrayed and defeated Xiang Yu, declaring himself Emperor Gaozu[note 8] of the new Han dynasty on 28 February 202 BC.[26] Despite the short duration of the Qin dynasty, it was very influential on the structure of future dynasties.
Culture and society[edit]
Domestic life[edit]
The aristocracy of the Qin were largely similar in their culture and daily life. Regional variations in culture were considered a symbol of the lower classes. This stemmed from the Zhou and was seized upon by the Qin, as such variations were seen as contrary to the unification that the government strove to achieve.[27]
Commoners and rural villagers, who made up over 90% of the population,[28] very rarely left the villages or farmsteads where they were born. Common forms of employment differed by region, though farming was almost universally common. Professions were hereditary; a father's employment was passed to his eldest son after he died.[29] The Lüshi Chunqiu[note 9] gave examples of how, when commoners are obsessed with material wealth, instead of the idealism of a man who "makes things serve him", they were "reduced to the service of things".[30]
Peasants were rarely figured in literature during the Qin dynasty and afterwards; scholars and others of more elite status preferred the excitement of cities and the lure of politics. One notable exception to this was Shen Nong, the so-called "Divine Father", who taught that households should grow their own food. "If in one's prime he does not plow, someone in the world will grow hungry. If in one's prime she does not weave, someone in the world will be cold." The Qin encouraged this; a ritual was performed once every few years that consisted of important government officials taking turns with the plow on a special field, to create a simulation of government interest and activity within agriculture.[29]
Architecture[edit]
Dujiangyan, an irrigation project completed in 256 BC during the Warring States period of China by the State of Qin. It is located on the Min River in Sichuan, near the provincial capital of Chengdu. Although a reinforced concrete weir has replaced Li Bing's original weighted bamboo baskets, the layout of the infrastructure remains the same and is still in use today to irrigate over 5,300 square kilometers of land in the region.
Warring States-era architecture had several definitive aspects. City walls, used for defense, were made longer, and indeed several secondary walls were also sometimes built to separate the different districts. Versatility in federal structures was emphasized, to create a sense of authority and absolute power. Architectural elements such as high towers, pillar gates, terraces, and high buildings amply conveyed this.[31]
Philosophy and literature[edit]
Stone slab with twelve small seal characters. Qin Dynasty (221 – 207 BC). The 12 characters on this slab of floor brick affirm that it is an auspicious moment for the First Emperor to ascend the throne, as the country is united and no men will be dying along the road. Small seal scripts were standardized by the First Emperor of China after he gained control of the country, and evolved from the larger seal scripts of previous dynasties. The text on it is "海内皆臣，歲登成熟，道毋飢人".
The written language of the Qin was logographic, as that of the Zhou had been.[32] As one of his most influential achievements in life, prime minister Li Si standardized the writing system to be of uniform size and shape across the whole country. This would have a unification effect on the Chinese culture for thousands of years. He is also credited with creating the "lesser-seal" (Chinese: 小篆,; pinyin: xiǎozhuàn) style of calligraphy, which serves as a basis for modern Chinese and is still used in cards, posters, and advertising.[33]
During the Warring States period, the Hundred Schools of Thought comprised many different philosophies proposed by Chinese scholars. In 221 BC, however, the First Emperor conquered all of the states and governed with a single philosophy, Legalism. At least one school of thought, Mohism, was eradicated, though the reason is not known. Despite the Qin's state ideology and Mohism being similar in certain regards, it is possible that Mohists were sought and killed by the state's armies due to paramilitary activities.[34]
Confucius's school of thought, called Confucianism, was also influential during the Warring States period, as well as throughout much of the later Zhou dynasty and early imperial periods.[note 10] This school of thought had a so-called Confucian canon of literature, known as the "six classics": the Odes, Documents, Ritual, Music, Spring and Autumn Annals, and Changes, which embodied Chinese literature at the time.[35]
During the Qin dynasty, Confucianism—along with all other non-Legalist philosophies—was suppressed by the First Emperor; early Han dynasty emperors did the same. Legalism denounced the feudal system and encouraged severe punishments, particularly when the emperor was disobeyed. Individuals' rights were devalued when they conflicted with the government's or the ruler's wishes, and merchants and scholars were considered unproductive, fit for elimination.[36]
One of the more drastic allegations, however the infamous burning of books and burying of scholars incident, does not appear to be true, as it was not mentioned until many years later.[37] The Han dynasty historian, Sima Qian wrote that First Emperor, in an attempt to consolidate power, in 213 BC ordered the burning of all books advocating viewpoints that challenged Legalism or the state, and also stipulated that all scholars who refused to submit their books to be burned would be executed by premature burial.[20] Only texts considered productive were to be preserved, mostly those that discussed pragmatic subjects, such as agriculture, divination, and medicine.[38] However, Sinologists now argue that the "burying of scholars" is not literally true, as the term probably meant simply "put to death".[39]
Government and military[edit]
The Qin government was highly bureaucratic, and was administered by a hierarchy of officials, all serving the First Emperor. The Qin put into practice the teachings of Han Feizi, allowing the First Emperor to control all of his territories, including those recently conquered. All aspects of life were standardized, from measurements and language to more practical details, such as the length of chariot axles.[19]
Terracotta Army, museum of the grave of Qin Shi Huang.
Qin warriors of the Terracotta Army.
The states made by the emperor were assigned to officials dedicated to the task rather than place the burden on people from the royal family. Zheng and his advisers also introduced new laws and practices that ended feudalism in China, replacing it with a centralized, bureaucratic government. The form of government created by the first emperor and his advisors was used by later dynasties to structure their own government.[18] Under this system, both the military and government thrived, as talented individuals could be more easily identified in the transformed society. Later Chinese dynasties emulated the Qin government for its efficiency, despite its being condemned by Confucian philosophy.[19][40] There were incidences of abuse, however, with one example having been recorded in the "Records of Officialdom". A commander named Hu ordered his men to attack peasants in an attempt to increase the number of "bandits" he had killed; his superiors, likely eager to inflate their records as well, allowed this.[41]
Terracotta Army General (Left), Mid-rank officer of the terracotta army in Xi'an (Right)
Qin Shi Huang also improved the strong military, despite the fact that it had already undergone extensive reforms.[42] The military used the most advanced weaponry of the time. The invention of the sword during the Warring States period was a great advance. It was first used mostly in bronze form, but by the third century BC, the Qin were using stronger iron swords. The demand for this metal resulted in improved bellows. The crossbow had been introduced in the fifth century BC and was more powerful and accurate than the composite bows used earlier. It could also be rendered ineffective by removing two pins, which prevented enemies from capturing a working crossbow.[9]
Qin dynasty composite bow arrows (top) and crossbow bolts (bottom)
Credit: Liang Jieming
The Qin also used improved methods of transportation and tactics. The state of Zhao had first replaced chariots with cavalry in 307 BC, but the change was swiftly adopted by the other states because cavalry had greater mobility over the terrain of China.[43]
The First Emperor developed plans to fortify his northern border, to protect against nomadic invasions. The result was the initial construction of what later became the Great Wall of China, which was built by joining and strengthening the walls made by the feudal lords, which would be expanded and rebuilt multiple times by later dynasties, also in response to threats from the north. Another project built during Qin Shi Huang's rule was the Terracotta Army, intended to protect the emperor after his death.[42] The Terracotta Army was inconspicuous due to its underground location, and was not discovered until 1974.[44]
Religion[edit]
Floating on high in every direction,
Music fills the hall and court.
The incense sticks are a forest of feathers,
The cloudy scene an obscure darkness.
Metal stalks with elegant blossoms,
A host of flags and kingfisher banners.
The music of the "Seven Origins" and "Blossoming Origins"
Are intoned as harmonious sounds.
Thus one can almost hear
The spirits coming to feast and frolic.
The spirits are seen off to the zhu zhu of the musics,
Which purifies and refines human feelings.
Suddenly the spirits ride off on the darkness,
And the brilliant event finishes.
Purified thoughts grow hidden and still,
And the warp and weft of the world fall dark.
Han shu, p. 1046
The dominant religious belief in China during the reign of the Qin, and, in fact, during much of early imperial China, was focused on the shen (roughly translating to "spirits" or "gods"), yin ("shadows"), and the realm they were said to live in. The Chinese offered animal sacrifices in an attempt to contact this other world, which they believed to be parallel to the earthly one. The dead were said to simply have moved from one world to the other. The rituals mentioned, as well as others, served two purposes: to ensure that the dead journeyed and stayed in the other realm, and to receive blessings from the spirit realm.[note 11][45][46]
Religious practices were usually held in local shrines and sacred areas, which contained sacrificial altars. During a sacrifice or other ritual, the senses of all participants and witnesses would be dulled and blurred with smoke, incense, and music. The lead sacrificer would fast and meditate before a sacrifice to further blur his senses and increase the likelihood of perceiving otherworldly phenomena. Other participants were similarly prepared, though not as rigorously.
Such blurring of the senses was also a factor in the practice of spirit intermediaries, or mediumship. Practitioners of the art would fall into trances or dance to perform supernatural tasks. These people would often rise to power as a result of their art—Luan Da, a Han dynasty medium, was granted rule over 2,000 households. Noted Han historian Sima Qian was scornful of such practices, dismissing them as foolish trickery.[47]
Divination—to predict and/or influence the future—was yet another form of religious practice. An ancient practice that was common during the Qin dynasty was cracking bones or turtle shells to gain knowledge of the future. The forms of divination which sprang up during early imperial China were diverse, though observing natural phenomena was a common method. Comets, eclipses, and droughts were considered omens of things to come.[48]
Etymology of China[edit]
The name 'Qin' (pronounced as 'Chin') is believed to be the etymological ancestor of the modern-day European name of the country, China. The word probably made its way into the Indo-Aryan languages first as 'Cina' or 'Sina' and then into Greek and Latin as 'Sinai' or 'Thinai'. It was then transliterated into English and French as 'China' and 'Chine'. This etymology is dismissed by some scholars, who suggest that 'Sina' in Sanskrit evolved much earlier before the Qin dynasty. 'Jin' (pronounced as 'Zhin'), a state controlled by the Zhou dynasty in seventh century BC, is another possible origin.[49] Others argued for the state of Jing (荆, another name for Chu), as well other polities in the early period as the source of the name.[50]
Sovereigns of Qin dynasty[edit]
An edict in bronze from the reign of the second Qin Emperor
Note: King Zhaoxiang of Qin (秦昭襄王) had already been ruling Qin for 51 years when Qin annihilated the Zhou dynasty; however the other six warring states were still independent regimes. Some Chinese historiographers thus used the next year (the 52nd year of King Zhaoxiang of Qin) as the official succession from the Zhou dynasty.
Qin Shi Huang was the first Chinese sovereign to proclaim himself "Emperor", after unifying China in 221 BC. That year is therefore generally taken by Western historians to be the start of the "Qin dynasty" which lasted for fifteen years until 207 when it was cut short by civil wars.[51]
Posthumous names / title
Chinese family names and given names
Period of Reigns
Convention: "Qin" + posthumous name
Zhaoxiang (昭襄 Zhāoxiāng) Ying Ze (嬴則 yíng zé) or Ying Ji (嬴稷 yíng jì) 306 – 250 BC
Xiaowen (孝文 Xiàowén) Ying Zhu (嬴柱 yíng zhù) 250 BC
Zhuangxiang (莊襄 Zhuāngxiāng) Ying Zichu (嬴子楚 yíng zǐ chǔ) 249 – 247 BC
Qin dynasty (221 – 207 BC)
Shi Huangdi (始皇帝 Shǐ Huángdì) Ying Zheng (嬴政 yíng zhèng) 246 – 210 BC
Er Shi Huangdi (二世皇帝 Èr Shì Huángdì) Ying Huhai (嬴胡亥 yíng hú hài) 210 – 207 BC
Ziying was often referred using personal name or
Ziying, King of Qin (秦王子嬰 qín wáng zi yīng)
Did not exist Ying Ziying (嬴子嬰 yíng zi yīng) 207 BC
Imperial family tree[edit]
showQin Dynasty
See: family tree of
the Kings of Qin
Zheng 政 259–210 BC
King of Qin 秦王 247–221 BC
Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇
221–210 BC
1 18 or 25 (disputed)
Fusu 扶蘇
d. 210 BC Huhai 胡亥 229–207 BC
Qin Er Shi 秦二世
210–207 BC
Ziying 子嬰 d. 206 BC
Qin San Shi 秦三世
207 BC
See also[edit]
Chinese sovereign
Emperor of China
Hata clan
The Legend of Qin
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Not to be confused with any Duke of the Song dynasty of a later period.
Jump up ^ This was due to the large workforce available as a result of their landowning policies (implemented by Shang Yang), described in the culture and society section.
Jump up ^ This was the heart of the Guanzhong region, as opposed to the region of the Yangtze River drainage basin, known as Guandong. The warlike nature of the Qin in Guanzhong evolved into a Han dynasty adage: "Guanzhong produces generals, while Guandong produces ministers." (Lewis 2007, p. 17)
Jump up ^ As the modern Chinese habit is to include dynasty names as a surname, this became Qin Shi Huangdi. Later, this was abridged to Qin Shi Huang, because it is uncommon for Chinese names to have four characters.
Jump up ^ Formerly known as Canton.
Jump up ^ This was largely caused by regional differences which survived despite the Qin's attempt to impose uniformity.
Jump up ^ The first emperor of the Qin had boasted that the dynasty would last 10,000 generations; it lasted only about 15 years. (Morton 1995, p. 49)
Jump up ^ Meaning "High Progenitor".
Jump up ^ A text named for its sponsor Lü Buwei; the prime minister of the Qin directly preceding the conquest of the other states.
Jump up ^ The term "Confucian" is rather ill-defined in this context—many self-dubbed Confucians in fact rejected tenets of what was known as "the Way of Confucius", and were disorganized, unlike the later Confucians of the Song and Yuan dynasties.
Jump up ^ Mystics from the state of Qi, however, saw sacrifices differently—as a way to become immortal.
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Tanner 2010, p. 85-89
Jump up ^ Beck, B, Black L, Krager, S; et al. (2003). Ancient World History-Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: Mc Dougal Little. p. 187. ISBN 0-618-18393-0. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 17
Jump up ^ "Chinese surname history: Qin". People's Daily. Archived from the original on 10 May 2008. Retrieved 28 June 2008.
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, pp. 17–18
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 88
^ Jump up to: a b Morton 1995, p. 45
Jump up ^ Origins of Statecraft in China
^ Jump up to: a b Morton 1995, p. 26
Jump up ^ Morton 1995, pg. 26
Jump up ^ Time-Life Books 1993, p. 86
^ Jump up to: a b Kinney and Clark 2005, p. 10
^ Jump up to: a b Lewis 2007, pp. 18–19
Jump up ^ Morton 1995, p. 25
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, pp. 38–39
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 10
^ Jump up to: a b Bai Yang. Records of the Genealogy of Chinese Emperors, Empresses, and Their Descendants (中国帝王皇后亲王公主世系录) (in Chinese). 1. Friendship Publishing Corporation of China (中国友谊出版公司). pp. 134–135.
^ Jump up to: a b c "China's First Empire | History Today". www.historytoday.com. Archived from the original on 17 April 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, p. 36
^ Jump up to: a b c Morton 1995, p. 47
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 129
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 5
Jump up ^ Borthwick, p. 10
^ Jump up to: a b Kinney and Hardy 2005, p. 13-15
Jump up ^ Bodde 1986, p. 84
Jump up ^ Morton 1995, pp. 49–50
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 11
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 102
^ Jump up to: a b Lewis 2007, p. 15
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 16
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 75–78
Jump up ^ World and its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, p. 34
Jump up ^ Bedini 1994, p. 83
Jump up ^ Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy, p. 61
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 206
Jump up ^ Borthwick, p. 17
Jump up ^ Nylan, Michael (2001), The five "Confucian" classics (PDF), Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-08185-5, archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2014. pp. 29-30.
Jump up ^ Borthwick, p. 11
Jump up ^ Bodde (1986), p. 72.
Jump up ^ Borthwick 2006, pp. 9–10
Jump up ^ Chen, pp. 180–81
^ Jump up to: a b Borthwick 2006, p. 10
Jump up ^ Morton 1995, p. 27
Jump up ^ "Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 7 August 2008. Retrieved 3 July 2008.
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 178
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 186
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 180
Jump up ^ Lewis 2007, p. 181
Jump up ^ Keay 2009, p. 98.
Jump up ^ Wade, Geoff (May 2009). "The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China'" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 188. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 September 2011. Retrieved 4 October 2011. "This thesis also helps explain the existence of Cīna in the Indic Laws of Manu and the Mahabharata, likely dating well before Qin Shihuangdi."
Jump up ^ Bodde 1986, p. 20
Sources[edit]
World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia. Marshall Cavendish. 2007. ISBN 978-0-7614-7631-3.
Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. Edited by Philip J. Ivanhoe and Bryan W. Van Norden. Hackett Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-87220-780-3.
Breslin, Thomas A. (2001). Beyond Pain: The Role of Pleasure and Culture in the Making of Foreign Affairs. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-97430-8.
Bedini, Silvio (1994). The Trail of Time: Shih-chien Ti Tsu-chi : Time Measurement with Incense in East Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37482-0.
Bodde, Derk (1986). "The State and Empire of Ch'in". In Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael. The Cambridge History of China, Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0.
Borthwick, Mark (2006). Pacific Century: The Emergence of Modern Pacific Asia. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-4355-0.
Kinney, Anne Behnke; Hardy, Grant (2005). The Establishment of the Han Empire and Imperial China. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-32588-X.
Keay, John (2009). China A History. Harper Press. ISBN 9780007221783.
Lewis, Mark Edward (2007). The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. London: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02477-9.
Chen Guidi; Wu Chuntao (2007). Will the Boat Sink the Water?: The Life of China's Peasants. Translated by Zhu Hong. PublicAffairs. ISBN 1-58648-441-9.
Morton, W. Scott (1995). China: Its History and Culture (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-043424-7.
Tanner (2010). China: A History=Harold. Hackett. ISBN 978-1-60384-203-7.
Further reading[edit]
Cotterell, Arthur. (2007). The Imperial Capitals of China – An Inside View of the Celestial Empire. London: Pimlico. pp. 304 pages. ISBN 978-1-84595-009-5.
Fong, Wen, ed. (1980). The great bronze age of China: an exhibition from the People's Republic of China. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-226-1.
Paludan, Ann. (1998). Chronicle of the China Emperors. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 224 pages. ISBN 0-500-05090-2.
Yap, Joseph P. (2009). Wars with the Xiongnu, A Translation from Zizhi tongjian. AuthorHouse, Bloomington, Indiana, U.S.A. ISBN 978-1-4490-0604-4.
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