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Rules of Engagement (TV series)
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Rules of Engagement
Created by
Tom Hertz
Starring
Patrick Warburton
Megyn Price
Oliver Hudson
Bianca Kajlich
Adhir Kalyan
David Spade
Opening theme
"How Many Ways"
by Señor Happy
Composer(s)
Bert Selen
George Ritter
Country of origin
United States
No. of seasons
7
No. of episodes
100 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Cheri Tanimura
Jack Giarraputo
Tom Hertz
Barbara Stoll
Vanessa McCarthy
Doug Robinson
Adam Sandler
Camera setup
Multiple-camera setup
Running time
21 minutes
Production company(s)
Game Six Productions
Happy Madison Productions
CBS Paramount Network Television
(2007–2009)
(seasons 1-3)
CBS Television Studios
(2010–2013)
(seasons 4-7)
Sony Pictures Television
Distributor
CBS Studios International
(non-USA)
Sony Pictures Television
(USA)
Release
Original network
CBS
Picture format
1080i 16:9 (HDTV)
Audio format
Dolby Digital 5.1
Original release
February 5, 2007 (2007-02-05) – May 20, 2013 (2013-05-20)
External links
Website
Rules of Engagement is an American sitcom that ran on CBS from February 5, 2007, to May 20, 2013, originally airing as a mid-season replacement. The series was produced by Adam Sandler's Happy Madison Productions in association with CBS Television Studios and Sony Pictures Television (SPT controls the North American rights while CBS controls the international rights).
The show received negative reviews throughout its run.[1][2][3] Despite this, it always earned reasonably good ratings,[2] helping the show reach 100 episodes (typically the minimum for syndication) over seven seasons.
Contents
1 Premise
2 History
3 Cast and characters
3.1 Main characters
3.2 Major recurring characters
4 Episodes
5 U.S. ratings
6 Syndication
7 Awards and nominations
8 DVD releases
9 International broadcasters
9.1 Polish version
10 References
11 External links
Premise[edit]
Two couples and their single friend deal with the complications of dating, commitment and marriage. It looks at different relationships in various stages, starring Patrick Warburton and Megyn Price as a long-married couple, Oliver Hudson and Bianca Kajlich as newly engaged sweethearts, and David Spade and Adhir Kalyan (the latter added in season 3) as their still-single friends. They often gather to enjoy a meal and discuss their issues at "The Island Diner".
History[edit]
The show was heavily promoted by CBS during Super Bowl XLI[4] and launched the following night, the first of seven episodes in its first season. The pilot episode remains the highest rated episode of the show. The series was renewed for a second season, which began as a mid-season replacement for The New Adventures of Old Christine on Monday, September 24, 2007, with production halted after nine episodes on November 6, 2007, in the wake of a writers' strike. After the strike ended, CBS announced that the show would return April 14, 2008, with a further six episodes.[5]
Seasons three and four were both mid-season entries launched in March 2009 and March 2010.[6][7] On May 18, 2010, it was announced that CBS had renewed Rules of Engagement for a 5th season.[8] It was later announced that this season would start in September, in contrast to its usual midseason start, and received an expanded 24-episode order. (The fifth season was the first and only season to have a full-season order.) The first 15 episodes aired on Monday nights, usually in the 8:30 pm Eastern/7:30 pm Central time slot following How I Met Your Mother. Then on February 24, 2011, the series moved to Thursdays at 8:30 pm Eastern/7:30 pm Central, following The Big Bang Theory, after the cancellation of $h*! My Dad Says. On January 31, 2011, CBS ordered an additional two episodes of the series to prepare for the possibility of Two and a Half Men going into hiatus following Charlie Sheen's real-life issues, taking the episode order to 26.[9] Two of these episodes were held back and aired as part of the sixth season.
On May 17, 2011, the series was renewed for a sixth season to begin airing in fall 2011. One day later, CBS announced that Rules of Engagement would move to Saturday nights at 8:00 pm Eastern/7:00 pm Central as part of the network's new Comedytime Saturday block; the first time in six years that an original CBS program would air on that night. It also marked the fourth night on which the series would air, with it previously airing on Mondays, Wednesdays (two airings), and Thursdays.[10] On October 7, 2011, however, it was announced that Rules of Engagement would move back to its 8:30PM EST Thursday timeslot following The Big Bang Theory, replacing new sitcom How to Be a Gentleman which was moved to the new Saturday time slot.[11] The episode order was cut from the original 18, down to 13 (plus two unaired episodes from season five) on November 14, 2011.[12]
Effective January 12, 2012, CBS removed Rules of Engagement from its Thursday lineup, replacing it with the new sitcom Rob starring Rob Schneider. Rules would return to its Thursday 8:30 PM time slot on March 29, after Rob had finished airing its 8-episode order,[13] resulting in a total of 15 episodes in season 6.
On May 21, 2012, CBS renewed Rules of Engagement for a seventh season of 13 episodes to air mid-season, bringing the total number of produced episodes to 100.[14] Season 7 began airing on Mondays at 8:30, starting February 4, 2013.[15]
On May 10, 2013, Rules of Engagement was cancelled by CBS after seven seasons and 100 episodes.[16] The series finale episode aired on May 20, 2013.
Cast and characters[edit]
Main characters[edit]
Patrick Warburton as Jeff Bingham, a financial manager and husband of Audrey since August 12, 1995.[17] He has a rather deadpan, cold and sardonic personality and sense of self, particularly when dealing with Russell and Adam, but he is not sadistic or unkind, thereby rendering these traits as merely ironic and biting humor. He loves sports (NY Giants, NY Mets, NY Rangers, NY Knicks), shuns anything that might resemble sensitivity and often views his marriage as a competition, refusing to let Audrey "win" the upper hand at anything. He frequently complains about Audrey's work stories being boring, often forgets plans they have made or tasks she has asked him to complete and, on many occasions, embarrasses her publicly. He is also very frugal and extremely careful with his money – to the extent where he will buy socks in New Jersey to avoid paying additional tax on them – and tries to discourage Audrey from overspending while planning for their future. He often reminisces about his college days at Syracuse.
Megyn Price as Audrey Bingham (née Curtis), formerly from Lincoln, Nebraska, an editor at Indoor Living magazine (before later resigning) and the assertive, modern wife of Jeff. She likes to do things on spur of the moment, such as when she buys furniture on the Internet or makes Jeff's shirts into a quilt. She tolerates her husband's insensitivity because she knows he is not malicious and will do whatever it takes to make the situation right once he realizes his mistake. As a couple, they both can be very condescending and manipulative towards each other, in order to gain the upper hand, and typically don't like to concede to the other that they were wrong, for example when they both repeatedly lied about their whereabouts during a weekend when Audrey's aunt was supposed to visit but fell ill. They, however, often recognize where both were wrong and apologize. Audrey does not make fun of her friends as much as her friends make fun of each other, but she will frequently save her most-biting criticisms for Russell. She often insists that she is a "people person", but her attempts to prove it usually result in embarrassment, such as having a co-worker lodge a sexual harassment complaint against her. Audrey likes to think of herself as kind, cultured and smarter than her friends. She desperately wants to be liked by persons and/or impress them, but her attempts at being charitable and sociable often end in her becoming frustrated, either as a result of her own awkwardness or due to Jeff's manners. She and Jeff had a baby, Shea, via a surrogate, Brenda, after Audrey assumed she could never get pregnant, only to discover in the series finale that she is in fact pregnant with Jeff's child.
Oliver Hudson as Adam Rhodes, a sensitive and well-meaning – but extremely naive – co-worker of Russell and Timmy, and Jennifer's fiancé throughout the series until they are married in the series finale. He is a neighbor of Jeff and Audrey, looks up to Jeff, and often acts on Jeff's relationship advice (which is hardened by years of marriage) to attempt to receive more frequent sexual relations with Jennifer. This usually results in making the situation worse for himself. As an example, he once revealed to Jennifer his strategies for avoiding her bad moods, because he was proud that Jeff considered them to be a good idea. Oftentimes because of his childlike naivete (almost borderline stupidity), people find it hard to explain things to him. He cannot keep secrets and rarely thinks before he speaks. Adam frequently exhibits feminine or flamboyant behavior and characteristics, which make him the target of many barbs from Jeff and Russell regarding his homosexual tendencies. It is to be noted that Adam, initially, was simply a smooth, charming guy who was a bit naive but over the course of the series, noticeably after Season 2, the writers opted to "dumb-down" his character turning him from naive and sweet to borderline moronic and dim-witted.[18]
Bianca Kajlich as Jennifer Morgan, the charismatic live-in fiancée and eventual wife of Adam, who endures his faults because of his good looks and underlying good nature. She is very self-conscious of his naivete, and will often try to spare him from embarrassment. She also has a need for thrills and can easily manipulate Adam into doing whatever she wants, but often feels guilty about it afterward. She was openly promiscuous in her past[19][20][21] and is often referred to by Jeff, Russell and even Adam as being "easy" and always "good to go". Her love for sex means Adam rarely has to "work for it", a fact that Adam enjoys and the guys envy. Jennifer did, however, attempt to fabricate a clichéd love story of how she and Adam met, due to being slightly embarrassed when Adam continually boasts that they slept together on their first date.[22][23][24][25] She and Adam are often naive about their relationship as they typically assume they won't end up bickering like Jeff & Audrey, who often laugh at them for being so clueless & optimistic, and they think will be able to agree on everything. However, despite their best efforts, this often backfires specifically when they tried working together, cutting back on expenses or when they got into a big fight while trying to plan their entire future during a weekend getaway.
David Spade as Russell Dunbar, an acerbic, womanizing single friend of the main characters and boss of Adam and Timmy. Russell is fast-talking, and is an eternal optimist when it comes to women, often ignoring multiple sexual harassment lawsuits leveled against him in the pursuit of sex. He is also an incompetent manager at his father's real estate and development business, Dunbar Industries. If left to his own devices and forced to fend for himself without assistance (e.g., from Timmy) he would completely destroy his office in minutes. He is often mocked because of his height (especially by Jeff), choice of wardrobe, and his penchant for prostitutes and young women with "daddy" issues. He also frequently uses his wealth to lure women and do whatever he wants. In the Season 6 episode "Audrey's Shower", Russell takes a break from women and starts to display many creative talents. It is revealed in a flashback that he was an intelligent child and a musical prodigy, until he saw his piano teacher's cleavage and wound up taking a different path in life. His favorite expression, spoken in a high-pitched voice after incredulous questions about his doing something outrageous, is: "I kinda did". In the series finale, Russell proposes to Timmy and marries him in order to help Timmy avoid deportation.
Adhir Kalyan as Timir "Timmy" Patel (recurring Season 3; regular cast from Seasons 4–7), whom Russell hires as his assistant. He is a mild-mannered man with a quick wit, often matching Russell's jabs in their verbal sparring. Although he is fluent in seven languages and holds an MBA from Oxford University, Timmy is often forced to do menial work or to solve Russell's trivial problems. While many of Russell's schemes disgust him, Timmy will often see them through so that he can enjoy Russell's come-uppance. He plays cricket and is also an avid fan of the Boston Bruins. In the series finale, Timmy's work visa expires and he faces deportation. In an uncharacteristic act of selflessness, Russell sets aside his womanizing ways to marry Timmy so he can stay in the country. This brought criticism, however, due to the fact that it had already been established in Season 5 that Timmy had been a US citizen for over 10 years which he revealed when Russell wanted to throw him a "Citizenship Party". This wasn't the first time there had been an inconsistent discrepancy with Timir's background as he tells his then-girlfriend, Allison, in the episode "Play Ball", that he was an only child yet in the following season, in the episode "The Set-Up", it is revealed that he has a sister, Simran, who is currently living in Chicago.[18][26][27]
Major recurring characters[edit]
Diane Sellers as Doreen, waitress at The Island Diner.
Wendi McLendon-Covey as Liz, an unlikeable, annoying, unattractive neighbor and friend of Audrey's who lives directly upstairs from the Binghams; for a brief story arc in Season 6 she was married to Russell, but they later separated. In Season 7, Episode 7, she admitted to Russell that she is a sex addict and that she cheated on him multiple times (with multiple partners) during their brief marriage.
Sara Rue as Brenda, Jeff’s lesbian softball teammate who agrees to be a surrogate mother for Audrey and Jeff.
Nazneen Contractor as Suneetha, Timmy’s fiancée in an arranged marriage, who becomes an object of Russell’s affections.
Susan Yeagley as Tracy, a man-hungry co-worker of Audrey’s.
Beth Littleford as Laura, another man-hungry co-worker of Audrey’s.
Taryn Southern as Allison, the object of Timmy's affections, which blossoms into an intra-office romance, then ends when she moves away and breaks up with Timmy.
Geoff Pierson as Franklin Dunbar, Russell's wealthy, lecherous father.
Orlando Jones as Brad, Jeff's gay friend from his gym who eventually makes friends with the rest of the gang.
Jaime Pressly as Pam, the Bingham's initial surrogate who they soon soured on due to her sleeping with Russell.
Heather Locklear as Barbara, Audrey's sister, on whom Russell has a crush.
Joan Collins as Bunny Dunbar, Russell's wealthy, superficial mother.
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of Rules of Engagement episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 7 February 5, 2007 (2007-02-05) March 19, 2007 (2007-03-19)
2 15 September 24, 2007 (2007-09-24) May 19, 2008 (2008-05-19)
3 13 March 2, 2009 (2009-03-02) May 18, 2009 (2009-05-18)
4 13 March 1, 2010 (2010-03-01) May 24, 2010 (2010-05-24)
5 24 September 20, 2010 (2010-09-20) May 19, 2011 (2011-05-19)
6 15 October 20, 2011 (2011-10-20) May 17, 2012 (2012-05-17)
7 13 February 4, 2013 (2013-02-04) May 20, 2013 (2013-05-20)
U.S. ratings[edit]
Season
Time slot (EST)
Number of episodes
Premiere
Finale
TV season
Overall rank
Viewers
(in millions)
Date
Viewers
(in millions)
Date
Viewers
(in millions)
1
Monday 9:30 p.m.
7
February 5, 2007
14.83[28]
March 19, 2007
9.26[29]
2006–07
25th[30]
12.38[31]
2
15
September 24, 2007
12.23[32]
May 19, 2008
12.29[33]
2007–08
33rd[34]
10.89[31]
3
13
March 2, 2009
11.82[35]
May 18, 2009
12.87[36]
2008–09
24th[37]
11.37[31]
4
Monday 8:30 p.m.
13
March 1, 2010
9.73[38]
May 24, 2010
8.23[39]
2009–10
50th[40]
7.91[40]
5
Monday 8:30 p.m.
(2010–11)
Thursday 8:30 p.m.
(2011)
24
September 20, 2010
8.35[41]
May 19, 2011
8.80[42]
2010–11
49th[43]
8.77[44]
6
Thursday 8:30 p.m.
15
October 20, 2011
11.45[45]
May 17, 2012
7.17[46]
2011–12
42nd[47]
10.10[40]
7
Monday 8:30 p.m.
13
February 4, 2013
9.40[48]
May 20, 2013
6.25[49]
2012–13
52nd[50]
7.69[50]
Syndication[edit]
In June 2011, the series was picked up for syndication by local affiliates, The CW Plus, and WGN America, making its debut on September 10, 2012.[51] On Wednesday, January 2, 2013, the series began airing weekdays on TBS at 2/1c. Shortly thereafter, it moved to the early morning hour of 6 A.M. throughout the week. As of May 2016, the series has left the line-up entirely. All 7 seasons are available for streaming on Netflix.[52]
In Canada, the series is syndicated on CMT.[53]
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Recipient(s)
Result
2007 Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Cinematography for a Multi-Camera Series Wayne Kennan Nominated
Teen Choice Award Choice TV Actor: Comedy David Spade Nominated
2008 Art Directors Guild Award Excellence in Production Design Bernard Vyzga and Lynn Griffin Nominated
BMI Film and TV Award Best TV Music David Schwartz Won
2009 Evan Frankfort, Bert Selen, and George Ritter Won
Art Directors Guild Award Excellence in Production Design Bernard Vyzga, Joe Pew, and Jerie Kelter Nominated
ASCAP Film and Television Music Award Top Television Series Steve Mazur, Tom Polce, and Derek Schanche Won
2010 Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Art Direction for a Multi-Camera Series Bernard Vyzga an Jerie Kelter Nominated
2011 Nominated
Outstanding Cinematography for a Multi-Camera Series Wayne Kennan Nominated
2012 BMI Film and TV Award Best TV Music Bert Selen and George Ritter Won
Image Award Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series Leonard R. Garner, Jr. Won
2013 BMI Film and TV Award Best TV Music Bert Selen and George Ritter Won
DVD releases[edit]
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment owns the rights to release DVDs in Region 1. The fifth season of the series was made available beginning February 7, 2012, exclusively as a made-on-demand release from Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, in conjunction with amazon.com.[54] Similarly, the sixth season received a MOD release from online retailers, on October 2, 2012.[55] The seventh and final season has not yet been released on DVD and it is unknown whether the series will see completion on DVD. However, the entire series is available to purchase and download from amazon.com and the iTunes Store.
Paramount Pictures, in conjunction with CBS Home Entertainment, began releasing the series on DVD internationally in 2011. Season One was released in the UK (Region 2 DVD) on April 4, 2011.[56] In region 4, the entire series has been released, as individual season sets.
DVD name
Release date
Ep #
The Complete First Season September 4, 2007 7
The Complete Second Season October 14, 2008 15
The Complete Third Season September 14, 2010 13
The Complete Fourth Season January 11, 2011 13
The Complete Fifth Season February 7, 2012 26
The Complete Sixth Season October 2, 2012 13
The Complete Seventh Season February 18, 2016 13
Note: Following the events of Charlie Sheen’s departure from Two and a Half Men, CBS ordered an additional two episodes for Rules of Engagement’s fifth season, bringing the total number of episodes to 26 from the initial 24 ordered. Despite the episodes, "Scavenger Hunt" and "Cheating," airing during the sixth season, they were originally produced for the fifth season, and are included in the fifth season collection. Therefore, the sixth season’s DVD release features the 13 episodes produced over that time period, versus the 15 that were broadcast by CBS.
International broadcasters[edit]
Country
Network
Series Premiere
Timeslot
Australia Network Ten
Eleven
TV1 February 13, 2008
May 15, 2012
2010 Sunday 7:00 PM
Tuesday 8:00 PM
Wednesdays 7:30 PM
Austria ORF eins
Puls 4 May 21, 2012
December 19, 2012 Monday – Friday, 12:05 PM
Wednesday – Friday, 10:55 AM
Belgium ZES Monday – Friday
Bosnia and Herzegovina RTRS, Comedy Central Extra
Brazil Sony
Bulgaria Fox Life Wednesday 21:00 PM
Canada City February 5, 2007 Thursday 8:30 PM
Croatia Fox Life,
RTL 2.
Comedy Central Extra Monday-Friday 12:00 PM
Cyprus FOX Greece / Sigma TV October 12, 2012 / September 2016 Monday – Friday, 11:00 PM / Monday - Friday 01:00 AM
Denmark 3+ Week days, 06:00 AM
Estonia Fox Life Weekdays, 05:05 PM (replay) and 07.55 AM, 09.30 AM
France M6 April 1, 2011 Monday – Friday 10:15 AM
Germany kabel eins
Fox Channel
Comedy Central November 12, 2009
January 2, 2012
November 12, 2012 between seasons
Monday – Friday, 11:00 PM
Monday – Friday, 11:05 PM
Greece FOX Greece October 12, 2012 Monday – Friday, 11:00 PM
Hungary Viasat3 12 May 2010 Weekdays, 07:25 (replay) and 07.55 PM
India Big CBS Love
Comedy Central Monday – Thursday, 8.00 PM
Monday – Thursday, 11:00 PM
Ireland RTÉ Two Saturdays, 00:30
Israel Xtra HOT
HOT family/yes stars Base 2007
January 4, 2009 Unknown
Sundays, 8:15 PM, 11:45 PM
Italy Comedy Central, Italia 1 June 21, 2009 Saturdays & Sundays, 1:00 PM
Latin America Sony Entertainment Television1 Mondays, 10:30 PM
Latvia SET Weekdays, 05.35 PM (replay) 07.30 PM, 03.00 AM and 06.15 AM
Macedonia Fox Life
Montenegro VIJESTI TV 2012 Monday – Friday
Netherlands Veronica Monday – Friday, 7:30 PM
New Zealand FOUR Sundays, 7:00PM
Norway TV 2 bliss Off,
Pakistan Star World Monday-Friday, 7:30 PM
Peru Sony Entertainment Television Mondays, 12.00 AM
Poland Polsat, Comedy Central Polska January 6, 2008 Fridays, 9:00 PM
Portugal AXN White Mondays, 10:25pm (Mainland and Madeira)/9:25pm (in Azores)
Romania Comedy Central Extra Monday – Friday, 8:00 AM and 7:00 PM
Russia Sony Entertainment Television 2009 Weekdays
Serbia Fox Life, Comedy Central Extra July 7, 2009 Weekends
Slovenia POP TV 2008 Weekends
South Africa SABC 3 Mondays, 9:40 PM
Spain Paramount Comedy, FDF Thursdays, 11:15 PM
Sweden Kanal 5 Tuesdays, 10:00 PM
Switzerland SF zwei September 9, 2011 Tuesday – Friday, 7:30 PM
Taiwan Star World Weekdays, 07:35 PM
Thailand True Series Tuesdays, 9:00 PM
United Kingdom Comedy Central
E4 Weekdays, 12:30 PM and 3:30 PM (Re-runs)
Tuesdays 9:00 PM (Season 7), Weekdays 4:00 PM – 5:00 PM (Re-runs)
United States CBS (orig. network)
Broadcast syndication (reruns)
WGN America (reruns)
TBS February 5, 2007
September 10, 2012
September 10, 2012
January 2, 2013 Mondays 8:30 PM
Various
Sunday-Friday 12:00 AM and Wednesdays 10:00 PM
Weekdays 6:00 AM, 11:00 AM
1 Rights in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
Polish version[edit]
Main article: Reguły Gry
Polish channel TVN started filming its own version of the show, called Reguły Gry (literally meaning Rules of the Game in Polish). It premiered on 16 February 2012 on TVN sister channel TVN 7 as its first original production.[57][58][59]
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Jump up ^ "2010–11 Season Broadcast Primetime Show Viewership Averages – Ratings | TVbytheNumbers". Tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com. 2011-06-01. Retrieved 2012-05-11.
Jump up ^ "Thursday Final Ratings: World Series + 'Big Bang,' 'Grey's,' 'Vampire Diaries' Adjusted Up; 'Rules,' 'Private Practice' Adjusted Down – Ratings | TVbytheNumbers". Tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com. Retrieved 2012-11-27.
Jump up ^ "Thursday Final Ratings: 'American Idol', 'Grey's Anatomy', '30 Rock' Adjusted Up; 'Touch', 'Scandal' Adjusted Down – Ratings | TVbytheNumbers". Tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com. Retrieved 2012-11-27.
Jump up ^ "Complete List Of 2011-12 Season TV Show Viewership: 'Sunday Night Football' Tops, Followed By 'American Idol,' 'NCIS' & 'Dancing With The Stars'". TVbytheNumbers. 2010-06-16. Retrieved 2012-05-11.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (February 5, 2013). "Monday Final Ratings: 'The Biggest Loser', 'Bones', '2 Broke Girls', & 'Mike & Molly' Adjusted Up; 'Deception' Adjusted Down". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (May 21, 2013). "Monday Final Ratings: 'The Voice' & 'Dancing With the Stars' Adjusted Up; 'The Goodwin Games' & 'Motive' Adjusted Down". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 21, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Patten, Dominic (May 24, 2013). "Full 2012–2013 TV Season Series Rankings". Dateline. Retrieved 24 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Sony Clears 'Rules of Engagement' in Nearly Half the Country – 2011-06-17 20:18:08 | Broadcasting & Cable". Broadcastingcable.com. Retrieved 2012-11-27.
Jump up ^ "Rules of Engagement".
Jump up ^ "Rules of Engagement". CMT.ca – Country Music Television Canada. Archived from the original on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Rules of Engagement DVD news: Box Art and Date Change for Rules of Engagement – The Complete 5th Season". TVShowsOnDVD.com. 2007-05-25. Archived from the original on 2012-05-28. Retrieved 2012-11-27.
Jump up ^ "Rules of Engagement DVD news: Release Date for Rules of Engagement – The Complete 6th Season". TVShowsOnDVD.com. Archived from the original on 2012-11-26. Retrieved 2012-11-27.
Jump up ^ "Rules Of Engagement Season 1 (2011): DVD". hmv.com. Archived from the original on 2012-05-15. Retrieved 2012-11-27. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ "Paweł Wilczak i Maciej Zakościelny w polskiej wersji "Sposobu użycia" – Filmweb" (in Polish). Filmweb.pl. Retrieved 2012-11-27.
Jump up ^ DODAJ OGŁOSZENIE Ogłoszenie już od 200zł! (2011-08-24). "TVN wyprodukuje polski sitcom dla TVN 7". Wirtualnemedia.pl. Retrieved 2012-11-27.
Jump up ^ ""Reguły gry": Pierwszy serial TVN7 – Galerie – Film w INTERIA.PL – premiery filmowe, repertuar kin, recenzje filmów (kino, dvd)". Film.interia.pl. Retrieved 2012-11-27.
External links[edit]
Rules of Engagement – Official Site
Rules of Engagement on IMDb
Rules of Engagement at TV.com
Rules of Engagement – bridestelevision.com
THRFeed
Rules of Engagement on Comedy Central UK
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Films
Deuce Bigalow: Male Gigolo (1999)
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Pixels (2015)
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Sandy Wexler (2017)
The Week Of (2018)
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Rules of Engagement (2007–13)
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The Goldbergs (2013–present)
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Environmental issues with coral reefs
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Island with fringing reef off Yap, Micronesia. Coral reefs are dying around the world.[1]
Human impact on coral reefs is significant. Coral reefs are dying around the world.[1] Damaging activities include coral mining, pollution (organic and non-organic), overfishing, blast fishing, the digging of canals and access into islands and bays. Other dangers include disease, destructive fishing practices and warming oceans.[2] Factors that affect coral reefs include the ocean's role as a carbon dioxide sink, atmospheric changes, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, viruses, impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs, pollutants, algal blooms and others. Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas. Warming causes coral bleaching, which if severe kills the coral.
In 2008, a worldwide study estimated that 19% of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost, and that a further 17% is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10–20 years.[3] Only 46% of the world's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health.[3] About 60% of the world's reefs may be at risk due to destructive, human-related activities. The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia, where 80% of reefs are endangered. By the 2030s, 90% of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change; by 2050, it is predicted that all coral reefs will be in danger.[4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Issues
1.1 Competition
1.2 Predation
1.3 Fishing practices
1.4 Marine pollution
1.4.1 Nutrient pollution
1.4.2 Air pollution
1.5 Marine debris
1.6 Dredging
1.7 Sunscreen
1.8 Climate change
1.9 Ocean acidification
1.10 Disease
1.11 Other issues
2 Threatened species
3 Issues by region
3.1 Australia
3.2 Southeast Asia
3.2.1 Indonesia
3.2.2 Philippines
3.2.3 Taiwan
3.3 Caribbean
3.3.1 Jamaica
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
Issues[edit]
Competition[edit]
In the Caribbean Sea and tropical Pacific ocean, direct contact between coral and 40–70% of common seaweeds cause bleaching and death of coral tissue via allelopathic competition. The lipid-soluble extracts of seaweeds that harmed coral tissues also produced rapid bleaching. At these sites bleaching and mortality was limited to areas of direct contact with seaweed or their extracts. The seaweed then expanded to occupy the dead coral's habitat.[6] However, as of 2009, only 4% of coral reefs worldwide had more than 50% algal coverage. Further, there is no recent global trend towards algal dominance.[2]
Competitive seaweed and other algae thrive in nutrient-rich waters in the absence of sufficient herbivorous predators. Herbivores include fish such as parrotfishs, surgeonfishes, tangs and unicornfishes.[6]
Predation[edit]
Main articles: Overfishing and Environmental effects of fishing
Overfishing, particularly selective overfishing, can unbalance coral ecosystems by encouraging the excessive growth of coral predators. Predators that eat living coral, such as the crown-of-thorns starfish, are called corallivores. Coral reefs are built from stony coral, which evolved with large amounts of the wax cetyl palmitate in their tissues. Most predators find this wax indigestible.[7] The crown-of-thorns starfish is a large (up to one meter) starfish protected by long, venomous spines. Its enzyme system dissolves the wax in stony corals, and allows the starfish to feed on the living animal. Starfish face predators of their own, such as the giant triton sea snail. However, the giant triton is valued for its shell and has been over fished. As a result, crown-of-thorns starfish populations can periodically grow unchecked, devastating reefs.[8][9][10]
The overfished giant triton eats the crown-of-thorns starfish.
The crown-of-thorns starfish eats coral.
Fishing practices[edit]
Although some marine aquarium fish species can reproduce in aquaria (such as Pomacentridae), most (95%) are collected from coral reefs.[citation needed] Intense harvesting, especially in maritime Southeast Asia (including Indonesia and the Philippines), damages the reefs. This is aggravated by destructive fishing practices, such as cyanide and blast fishing. Most (80–90%) aquarium fish from the Philippines are captured with sodium cyanide. This toxic chemical is dissolved in sea water and released into areas where fish shelter. It narcotizes the fish, which are then easily captured. However, most fish collected with cyanide die a few months later from liver damage.[citation needed] Moreover, many non-marketable specimens die in the process.[11] It is estimated that 4,000 or more Filipino fish collectors have used over 1,000,000 kilograms (2,200,000 lb) of cyanide on Philippine reefs alone, about 150,000 kg per year.[12] A major catalyst of cyanide fishing is poverty within fishing communities. In countries like the Philippines that regularly employ cyanide, more than thirty percent of the population lives below the poverty line.[13]
Dynamite fishing is another destructive method for gathering fish. Sticks of dynamite, grenades, or home-made explosives are detonated in the water. This method of fishing kills the fish within the main blast area, along with many unwanted reef animals. The blast also kills the corals in the area, eliminating the reef's structure, destroying habitat for the remaining fish and other animals important for reef health.[12] Muroami is the destructive practice of covering reefs with nets and dropping large stones onto the reef to produce a flight response among the fish. The stones break and kill the coral. Muroami was generally outlawed in the 1980s.[12]
Fishing gear damages reefs via direct physical contact with the reef structure and substrate. Gill nets, fish traps, and anchors break branching coral and cause coral death through entanglement. When fishermen drop lines by coral reefs, the lines entangle the coral. The fisher cuts the line and abandons it, leaving it attached to the reef. The discarded lines abrade coral polyps and upper tissue layers. Corals are able to recover from small lesions, but larger and recurrent damage complicates recovery.
Bottom dragging gear such as beach seines can damage corals by abrasion and fracturing. A beach seine is a long net about 150 meters (490 ft) with a mesh size of 3 centimeters (1.2 in) and a weighted line to hold the net down while it is dragged across the substrate and is one of the most destructive types of fishing gear on Kenya’s reefs.[12]
Bottom trawling in deep oceans destroys cold–water and deep–sea corals. Historically, industrial fishers avoided coral because their nets would get caught on the reefs. In the 1980s, "rock–hopper" trawls attached large tires and rollers to allow the nets to roll over rough surfaces. Fifty-five percent of Alaskan cold–water coral that was damaged by one pass from a bottom trawl had not recovered a year later. Northeast Atlantic reefs bear scars up to 4 kilometers (2.5 mi) long. In Southern Australia, 90 percent of the surfaces on coral seamounts are now bare rock. Even in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, seafloor trawling for prawns and scallops is causing localized extinction of some coral species.[12]
"With increased human population and improved storage and transport systems, the scale of human impacts on reefs has grown exponentially. For example, markets for fish and other natural resources have become global, supplying demand for reef resources."[14]
Marine pollution[edit]
Main article: Marine pollution
This image of an algae bloom off the southern coast of England, though not in a coral region, shows what a bloom can look like from a satellite remote sensing system.
Reefs in close proximity to human populations are subject to poor water quality from land- and marine-based sources. In 2006 studies suggested that approximately 80 percent of ocean pollution originates from activities on land.[15] Pollution arrives from land via runoff, the wind and "injection" (deliberate introduction, e.g., drainpipes). Runoff brings with it sediment from erosion and land-clearing, nutrients and pesticides from agriculture, wastewater, industrial effluent and miscellaneous material such as petroleum residue and trash that storms wash away. Some pollutants consume oxygen and lead to eutrophication, killing coral and other reef inhabitants.[16]
An increasing fraction of the global population lives in coastal areas. Without appropriate precautions, development (e.g., buildings and paved roads) increases the fraction of rainfall and other water sources that enter the ocean as runoff by decreasing the land's ability to absorb it.[16]
Pollution can introduce pathogens. For example, Aspergillus sydowii has been associated with a disease in sea fans, and Serratia marcescens, has been linked to the coral disease white pox.[16]
Reefs in close proximity to human populations can be faced with local stresses, including poor water quality from land-based sources of pollution.[16] Copper, a common industrial pollutant has been shown to interfere with the life history and development of coral polyps.[17]
Barbados dust graph.
In addition to runoff, wind blows material into the ocean. This material may be local or from other regions. For example, dust from the Sahara moves to the Caribbean and Florida. Dust also blows from the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts across Korea, Japan, and the Northern Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands.[18] Since 1970, dust deposits have grown due to drought periods in Africa. Dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida varies from year to year[19] with greater flux during positive phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation.[20] The USGS links dust events to reduced health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.[21] Dust from the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa in Indonesia appeared in the annular bands of the reef-building coral Montastraea annularis from the Florida Reeftract.[22]
Sediment smothers corals and interferes with their ability to feed and reproduce. Pesticides can interfere with coral reproduction and growth.[16] There is evidence that chemicals in sunscreens contribute to coral bleaching by lowering the resistance of zooxanthellae to viruses.[23][24]
Nutrient pollution[edit]
Main article: Nutrient pollution
Nutrient pollution, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus can cause eutrophication, upsetting the balance of the reef by enhancing algal growth and crowding out corals. This nutrient–rich water can enable blooms of fleshy algae and phytoplankton to thrive off coasts. These blooms can create hypoxic conditions by using all available oxygen. Biologically available nitrogen (nitrate plus ammonia) needs to be below 1.0 micromole per liter (less than 0.014 parts per million of nitrogen), and biologically available phosphorus (orthophosphate plus dissolved organic phosphorus) needs to be below 0.1 micromole per liter (less than 0.003 parts per million of phosphorus). In addition concentrations of chlorophyll (in the microscopic plants called phytoplankton) needs to be below 0.5 parts per billion.[25] Both plants also obscure sunlight, killing both fish and coral. High nitrate levels are specifically toxic to corals, while phosphates slow down skeletal growth.
Excess nutrients can intensify existing disease, including potentially doubling the spread of Aspergillosis, a fungal infection that kills soft corals such as sea fans, and increasing yellow band disease, a bacterial infection that kills reef-building hard corals by fifty percent.[26]
Air pollution[edit]
Main article: Air pollution
A study released in April 2013 has shown that air pollution can also stunt the growth of coral reefs; researchers from Australia, Panama and the UK used coral records (between 1880 and 2000) from the western Caribbean to show the threat of factors such as coal-burning coal and volcanic eruptions. The researchers state that the study signifies the first time that the relationship between air pollution and coral reefs has been elucidated, while former chair of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Ian McPhail referred to the report as "fascinating" upon the public release of its findings.[27]
Marine debris[edit]
Main article: Marine debris
Marine debris is any solid object that enters coastal and ocean waters. Debris may arrive directly from a ship or indirectly when washed out to sea via rivers, streams, and storm drains. Human-made items tend to be the most harmful such as plastics (from bags to balloons, hard hats to fishing line), glass, metal, rubber (millions of waste tires), and even entire vessels.[16]
Plastic debris kills several reef species. Derelict (abandoned) fishing nets and other gear—often called "ghost nets" because they still catch fish and other marine life despite being abandoned—can entangle and kill reef organisms and break or damage reefs. Even remote reef systems suffer the effects of marine debris. Reefs in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are particularly prone to the accumulation of marine debris because of their central location in the North Pacific Gyre. From 2000 to 2006, NOAA and partners removed over 500 tons of marine debris there.[16]
Dredging[edit]
Main article: Dredging
Dredging operations are sometimes completed by cutting a path through a coral reef, directly destroying the reef structure and killing any organisms that live on it.[28] Operations that directly destroy coral are often intended to deepen or otherwise enlarge shipping channels or canals, due to the fact that in many areas, removal of coral requires a permit, making it more cost-effective and simple to avoid coral reefs if possible.
Dredging also releases plumes of suspended sediment, which can settle on coral reefs, damaging them by starving them of food and sunlight. Continued exposure to dredging spoil has been shown to increase rates of diseases such as white syndrome, bleaching and sediment necrosis among others.[29] A study conducted in the Montebello and Barrow Islands showed that the number of coral colonies with signs of poor health more than doubled in transects with high exposure to dredging sediment plumes.[30]
Sunscreen[edit]
Sunscreen enters the wastewater system when it is washed off and eventually reaches the ocean. Some 14,000 tons of sunscreen ends up in the ocean each year. Certain formulations of sunscreen are a serious danger to coral health. The common sunscreen ingredient oxybenzone causes coral bleaching and has an impact on other marine fauna.[31]
In Akumal, Mexico, visitors are warned not to use sunscreen and are kept out of some areas to prevent damage to the coral. In several other tourist destinations, authorities recommend the use of sunscreens prepared with the naturally occurring chemicals titanium dioxide or zinc oxide, or suggest the use of clothing rather than chemicals to screen the skin from the sun.[31]
Climate change[edit]
Main articles: Climate change and Coral bleaching
Unbleached and bleached coral.
Rising sea levels due to climate change requires coral to grow to stay close enough to the surface to continue photosynthesis. Also, water temperature changes or disease of the coral[32] can induce coral bleaching, as happened during the 1998 and 2004 El Niño years, in which sea surface temperatures rose well above normal, bleaching and killing many reefs. Bleaching may be caused by different triggers, including High sea surface temperature (SST), pollution, or other diseases.[33] SST coupled with high irradiance (light intensity), triggers the loss of zooxanthellae, a symbiotic single cell algae that gives the coral its color and the coral's dinoflagellate pigmentation, which turns the coral white when it is expelled, which can kill the coral. Zooxanthellae provide up to 90% of their hosts' energy supply.[32] Healthy reefs can often recover from bleaching if water temperatures cool. However, recovery may not be possible if CO
2 levels rise to 500 ppm because concentrations of carbonate ions may then be too low.[34][35]
Warming seawater may also encourage an emerging problem: coral disease. Weakened by warm water, coral is much more prone to diseases including black band disease, white band disease and skeletal eroding band. If global temperatures increase by 2 °C during the twenty-first century, coral may not be able to adapt quickly enough.[36]
Warming seawater is also expected to cause migrations in fish populations to compensate for the change. This puts coral reefs and their associated species at risk of invasion and may cause their extinction if they are unable to compete with the invading populations.[37]
A 2010 report by the Institute of Physics predicts that unless the national targets set by the Copenhagen Accord are amended to eliminate loopholes, then by 2100 global temperatures could rise by 4.2 °C and result in an end to coral reefs.[38][39]
Ocean acidification[edit]
Main article: Ocean acidification
Bamboo coral is an early harbinger of ocean acidification
Ocean acidification results from increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide. Oceans absorb around one–third of the increase.[5] The dissolved gas reacts with the water to form carbonic acid, and thus acidifies the ocean. This decreasing pH is another issue for coral reefs.[5]
Ocean surface pH is estimated to have decreased from about 8.25 to 8.14 since the beginning of the industrial era,[40] and a further drop of 0.3–0.4 units is expected.[41] This drop has made it so the amount of hydrogen ions have increased by 30%.[42] Before the industrial age the conditions for calcium carbonate production were typically stable in surface waters since the carbonate ion is at supersaturated concentrations. However, as the ionic concentration falls, carbonate becomes under-saturated, making calcium carbonate structures vulnerable to dissolution.[42] Corals experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated CO
2.[43] This causes the skeletons of the corals to weaken, or even not be made at all.[42]
Bamboo coral is a deep water coral which produces growth rings similar to trees. The growth rings illustrate growth rate changes as deep sea conditions change, including changes due to ocean acidification. Specimens as old as 4,000 years have given scientists "4,000 years worth of information about what has been going on in the deep ocean interior".[44]
Higher levels of carbon dioxide in the water harms the ability of young clown and damsel fishes to smell and hear
Rising carbon dioxide levels could confuse brain signaling in fish. In 2012, researchers reported on their results after studying the behaviour of baby clown and damselfishes for several years in water with elevated levels of dissolved carbon dioxide, in line with what may exist by the end of the century. They found that the higher carbon dioxide disrupted a key brain receptor in the fish, interfering with neurotransmitter functions. The damaged central nervous systems affected fish behaviour and diminishing their sensory capacity to a point "likely to impair their chances of survival". The fishes were less able to locate reefs by smell or "detect the warning smell of a predator fish". Nor could they hear the sounds made by other reef fish, compromising their ability to locate safe reefs and avoid dangerous ones. They also lost their usual tendencies to turn to the left or right, damaging their ability to school with other fish.[45][46][47]
Disease[edit]
Disease is a serious threat to many coral species. The diseases of coral may consist of bacterial, viral, fungal, or parasitic infections. Due to many of the dramatic changes in climate and stress caused by pollution, coral become more vulnerable to diseases. Some examples of coral disease are vibrio, white syndrome, white band, rapid wasting disease, and many more.[48] These diseases have different effects on the corals, ranging from damaging individual corals, killing individual coral, or even wiping out entire reefs.[48] In the Caribbean, white band disease is one of the primary causes for the death of over eighty percent of Staghorn and Elkhorn coral (Reef Resilience). It is a disease that can destroy miles of coral reef fast. A disease such as white plague can spread over a coral colony by a half an inch a day. By the time the disease has fully taken over the colony, it leaves behind a dead skeleton. Dead standing coral structures are what most people see after disease has taken over a reef.
Other issues[edit]
Coral sand from a beach on Aruba, Caribbean Sea.
Within the last 20 years, once-prolific seagrass meadows and mangrove forests, which absorb massive amounts of nutrients and sediment, have been destroyed. Both the loss of wetlands, mangrove habitats and seagrass meadows affect the water quality of inshore reefs.[49]
Coral mining is another threat. Both small scale harvesting by villagers and industrial scale mining by companies are serious threats. Mining is usually done to produce construction material which is valued as much as 50% cheaper than other rocks, such as from quarries.[50] The rocks are ground and mixed with other materials, like cement to make concrete. Ancient coral used for construction is known as coral rag. Building directly on the reef also takes its toll, altering water circulation and the tides which bring the nutrients to the reef. The pressing reason for building on reefs is simply lack of space.
Eroded coral[51]
Boats and ships require access points into bays and islands to load and unload cargo and people. For this, parts of reefs are often chopped away to clear a path. Negative consequences can include altered water circulation and altered tidal patterns which can disrupt the reef's nutrient supply; sometimes destroying a great part of the reef. Fishing vessels and other large boats occasionally run aground on a reef. Two types of damage can result. Collision damage occurs when a coral reef is crushed and split by a vessel's hull into multiple fragments. Scarring occurs when boat propellers tear off the live coral and expose the skeleton. The physical damage can be noticed as striations. Mooring causes damage which can be reduced by using mooring buoys. Buoys can attach to the seafloor using concrete blocks as weights or by penetrating the seafloor, which further reduces damage.[52]
Coral in Taiwan is being threatened by the influx of human population growth. Since 2007, several local environmental groups conducted research and found that much of the coral populations are being affected by untreated sewage, an influx of tourists taking corals for souvenirs, without fully understanding the destructive impact on the coral's ecological system. Researchers reported to the Taiwanese government that many coral populations have turned black in the southeast coast of Taiwan. Potentially, this could lead to loss of food supply, medicinal sources and tourism due to the breakdown of the food chain.[53]
Threatened species[edit]
The global standard for recording threatened marine species is the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[54] This list is the foundation for marine conservation priorities worldwide. A species is listed in the threatened category if it is considered to be critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable. Other categories are near threatened and data deficient. By 2008, the IUCN had assessed all 845 known reef-building corals species, marking 27% as Threatened 20% as near threatened and 17% as data deficient.[55]
The coral triangle (Indo-Malay-Philippine archipelago) region has the highest number of reef-building coral species in threatened category as well as the highest coral species diversity. The loss of coral reef ecosystems will have devastating effects on many marine species, as well as on people that depend on reef resources for their livelihoods.[55]
Issues by region[edit]
A NOAA (AOML) in situ pCO
2 sensor (SAMI-CO2), attached to a Coral Reef Early Warning System station in Discovery Bay, Jamaica, utilized in conducting ocean acidification studies near coral reef areas
Australia[edit]
Main article: Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef
The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system.[56][57][58][59] The reef is located in the Coral Sea and a large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Particular environmental pressures include surface runoff, salinity fluctuations, climate change, cyclic crown-of-thorns outbreaks, overfishing, and spills or improper ballast discharge. According to the 2014 report of the Government of Australia's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA), climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef.[60]
Southeast Asia[edit]
See also: Southeast Asia coral reefs
Southeast Asian coral reefs are at risk from damaging fishing practices (such as cyanide and blast fishing), overfishing, sedimentation, pollution and bleaching. Activities including education, regulation and the establishment of marine protected areas help protect these reefs.
Indonesia[edit]
Indonesia is home to one-third of the world's coral reefs, with coral that covers nearly 85,000 square kilometres (33,000 sq mi) and is home to one-quarter of its fish species. Indonesia's coral reefs are located in the heart of the Coral Triangle and have fallen victim to destructive fishing, tourism and bleaching. Data from LIPI in 1998 found that only 7 percent is in excellent condition, 24 percent is in good condition and approximately 69 percent is in poor-to-fair condition. According to one source, Indonesia will lose 70 percent of its coral reef by 2050 if restoration action does not occur.[61]
Philippines[edit]
In 2007, Reef Check, the world's largest reef conservation organization, stated that only 5% of Philippines 27,000 square kilometres (10,000 sq mi) of coral reef are in "excellent condition": Tubbataha Reef, Marine Park in Palawan, Apo Island in Negros Oriental, Apo Reef in Puerto Galera, Mindoro, and Verde Island Passage off Batangas. Philippine coral reefs is Asia's second largest.[62]
Taiwan[edit]
Coral reefs in Taiwan are being threatened by human population growth. Many corals are affected by untreated sewage and souvenir-hunting tourists, not knowing that this practice destroys habitat and causes disease. Many corals have turned black from disease off Taiwan's southeast coast.[63]
Caribbean[edit]
It has been estimated that 50% of the Caribbean sea coral cover has disappeared since the 1960s. According to a United Nations Environment Program report, the Caribbean coral reefs might face extirpation in next 20 years due to population expansion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas, global warming, and invasive species.[64]
Jamaica[edit]
Jamaica is the third largest Caribbean island. The Caribbean's coral reefs will cease to exist in 20 years if a conservation effort is not made[65]. In 2005, 34 percent of Jamaica's coral reefs were bleached due to rising sea temperatures. [66] Jamaica's coral reefs are also threatened by overfishing, pollution, natural disasters, and reef mining [67]. In 2009, researchers concluded that many of the corals are recovering very slowly [68].
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Further reading[edit]
Barber, Charles V. and Vaughan R. Pratt. 1998. Poison and Profit: Cyanide Fishing in the Indo-Pacific. Environment, Heldref Publications.
Martin, Glen. 2002. "The depths of destruction Dynamite fishing ravages Philippines' precious coral reefs". San Francisco Chronicle, 30 May 2002
External links[edit]
Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove (1999). "Climate Change: Coral Reefs on the Edge". Global Change Institute, University of Queensland. Archived from the original on 2010-06-14.
NOAA Report: The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2008
A special report on the plight of the planet's coral reefs—and how you can help—from Mother Jones magazine
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