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Containment
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This article is about the United States policy. For other uses, see Containment (disambiguation).
United States Information Service poster distributed in Asia depicting Juan dela Cruz ready to defend the Philippines under the threat of communism, 1951.
Containment is a geopolitical strategy to stop the expansion of an enemy. It is best known as a Cold War foreign policy of the United States and its allies to prevent the spread of communism. As a component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to increase communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa, Vietnam, and Latin America. Containment represented a middle-ground position between detente and rollback.
The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan during the post-World War II administration of U.S. President Harry S. Truman. As a description of U.S. foreign policy, the word originated in a report Kennan submitted to U.S. Defense Secretary James Forrestal in 1947, which was later used in a magazine article. It is a translation of the French term cordon sanitaire, which was used to describe Western policy toward the Soviet Union in the 1920s.
Contents
[hide]
1 Earlier uses of term
2 Origin (1944–1947)
3 Harry S. Truman (1945–1953)
4 Alternative strategies
5 Korea
6 Dulles
7 Cuba
8 Vietnam
9 Afghanistan
10 Reagan Doctrine
11 After Cold War
12 See also
13 References
14 Sources
15 External links
Earlier uses of term[edit]
There were major historical precedents familiar to Americans and Europeans. In the 1850s, anti-slavery forces in the United States developed a free soil strategy of containment, without using the word, to stop the expansion of slavery until it later collapsed. Historian James Oakes explains the strategy:
The Federal government would surround the south with free states, free territories, and free waters, building what they called a 'cordon of freedom' around slavery, hemming it in until the system's own internal weaknesses forced the slave states one by one to abandon slavery.[1]
Following the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, there were calls by Western leaders to isolate the Bolshevik government, which seemed intent on promoting worldwide revolution. In March 1919, French Premier Georges Clemenceau called for a cordon sanitaire, a ring of non-communist states, to isolate the Soviet Union. Translating that phrase, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson called for a "quarantine." Both phrases compare communism to a contagious disease.
The U.S. initially refused to recognize the Soviet Union, but President Franklin D. Roosevelt reversed the policy in 1933 in the hope to expand American export markets.
The Munich Agreement of 1938 was a failed attempt to contain Nazi expansion in Europe. The U.S. tried to contain Japanese expansion in Asia in 1937 to 1941, and Japan reacted with its attack on Pearl Harbor.[2]
After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 during World War II, the U.S. and the Soviet Union found themselves allied against Germany and used rollback to defeat the Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, and Japan.
Origin (1944–1947)[edit]
Key State Department personnel grew increasingly frustrated with and suspicious of the Soviets as the war drew to a close. Averell Harriman, U.S. Ambassador in Moscow, once a "confirmed optimist" regarding U.S.-Soviet relations,[3] was disillusioned by what he saw as the Soviet betrayal of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising as well as by violations of the February 1945 Yalta Agreement concerning Poland.[4] Harriman would later have a significant influence in forming Truman's views on the Soviet Union.[5]
In February 1946, the U.S. State Department asked George F. Kennan, then at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow, why the Russians opposed the creation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. He responded with a wide-ranging analysis of Russian policy now called the Long Telegram:[6]
Soviet power, unlike that of Hitlerite Germany, is neither schematic nor adventuristic. It does not work by fixed plans. It does not take unnecessary risks. Impervious to logic of reason, and it is highly sensitive to logic of force. For this reason it can easily withdraw—and usually does when strong resistance is encountered at any point.[7]
According to Kennan:
The Soviets perceived themselves to be in a state of perpetual war with capitalism;
The Soviets would use controllable Marxists in the capitalist world as allies;
Soviet aggression was not aligned with the views of the Russian people or with economic reality, but with historic Russian xenophobia and paranoia;
The Soviet government's structure prevented objective or accurate pictures of internal and external reality.
Kennan's cable was hailed in the State Department as "the appreciation of the situation that had long been needed."[8] Kennan himself attributed the enthusiastic reception to timing: "Six months earlier the message would probably have been received in the State Department with raised eyebrows and lips pursed in disapproval. Six months later, it would probably have sounded redundant."[8] Clark Clifford and George Elsey produced a report elaborating on the Long Telegram and proposing concrete policy recommendations based on its analysis. This report, which recommended "restraining and confining" Soviet influence, was presented to Truman on September 24, 1946.[9]
In January 1947, Kennan drafted an essay entitled "The Sources of Soviet Conduct."[6] Navy Secretary James V. Forrestal gave permission for the report to be published in the journal Foreign Affairs under the pseudonym "X."[10] Biographer Douglas Brinkley has dubbed Forrestal "godfather of containment" on account of his work in distributing Kennan's writing.[11] The use of the word "containment" originates from this so-called "X Article": "In these circumstances it is clear that the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."[12]
Kennan later turned against the containment policy and noted several deficiencies in his X Article. He later said that by containment he meant not the containment of Soviet Power "by military means of a military threat, but the political containment of a political threat." [13] Second, Kennan admitted a failure in the article to specify the geographical scope of "containment", and that containment was not something he believed the United States could necessarily achieve everywhere successfully.[14]
Harry S. Truman (1945–1953)[edit]
After Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1946 elections, President Truman, a Democrat, made a dramatic speech that is often considered to mark the beginning of the Cold War. In March 1947, he requested that Congress appropriate $400 million in aid to the Greek and Turkish governments, which were fighting Communist subversion.[15] Truman pledged to, "support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."[15] This pledge became known as the Truman Doctrine. Portraying the issue as a mighty clash between "totalitarian regimes" and "free peoples," the speech marks the adoption of containment as official U.S. policy. Congress appropriated the money.
Truman's motives on that occasion have been the subject of considerable scholarship and several schools of interpretation. In the orthodox explanation of Herbert Feis, a series of aggressive Soviet actions in 1945–47 in Poland, Iran, Turkey, and elsewhere awakened the American public to the new danger to freedom to which Truman responded.[16] In the revisionist view of William Appleman Williams, Truman's speech was an expression of longstanding American expansionism.[16] In the realpolitik view of Lynn E. Davis, Truman was a naive idealist who unnecessarily provoked the Soviets by couching disputes in terms like democracy and freedom that were alien to the Communist vision.[17]
According to psychological analysis by Deborah Larson, Truman felt a need to prove his decisiveness and feared that aides would make unfavorable comparisons between him and his predecessor, Roosevelt.[18] "I am here to make decisions, and whether they prove right or wrong I am going to take them," he once said.[19]
The drama surrounding the announcement of the Truman Doctrine catered to president's self-image of a strong and decisive leader, but his real decision-making process was more complex and gradual. The timing of the speech was not a response to any particular Soviet action but to the fact that the Republican Party had just gained control of Congress.[20] Truman was little involved in drafting the speech and did not himself adopt the hard-line attitude that it suggested until several months later.[21]
The British, with their own position weakened by economic distress, urgently called on the U.S. to take over the traditional British role in Greece.[22] Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson took the lead in Washington, warning congressional leaders in late February 1947 that if the United States did not take over from the British, the result most probably would be a "Soviet breakthrough" that "might open three continents to Soviet penetration."[23][24] Truman was explicit about the challenge of Communism taking control of Greece. He won wide support from both parties as well as experts in foreign policy inside and outside the government. It was strongly opposed by the Left, notably by former Vice President Henry A. Wallace, who ran against Truman in the 1948 presidential campaign.[25]
Truman, under the guidance of Acheson, followed up his speech with a series of measures to contain Soviet influence in Europe, including the Marshall Plan, or European Recovery Program, and NATO, a 1949 military alliance between the U.S. and Western European nations. Because containment required detailed information about Communist moves, the government relied increasingly on the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Established by the National Security Act of 1947, the CIA conducted espionage in foreign lands, some of it visible, more of it secret. Truman approved a classified statement of containment policy called NSC 20/4 in November 1948, the first comprehensive statement of security policy ever created by the United States. The Soviet Union's first nuclear test in 1949 prompted the National Security Council to formulate a revised security doctrine. Completed in April 1950, it became known as NSC 68.[26] It concluded that a massive military buildup was necessary to deal with the Soviet threat. According to the report, drafted by Paul Nitze and others:
In the words of the Federalist (No. 28) "The means to be employed must be proportioned to the extent of the mischief." The mischief may be a global war or it may be a Soviet campaign for limited objectives. In either case we should take no avoidable initiative which would cause it to become a war of annihilation, and if we have the forces to defeat a Soviet drive for limited objectives it may well be to our interest not to let it become a global war.[27]
Alternative strategies[edit]
There were three alternative policies to containment under discussion in the late 1940s. The first was a return to isolationism, minimizing American involvement with the rest of the world, a policy that was supported by conservative Republicans, especially from the Midwest, including former President Herbert Hoover and Senator Robert A. Taft. However, many other Republicans, led by Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg, said that policy had helped cause World War II and so was too dangerous to revive.[28]
The second policy was continuation of the détente policies that aimed at friendly relationships with the Soviet Union, especially trade, Roosevelt had been the champion of détente, but he was dead, and most of his inner circle had left the government by 1946. The chief proponent of détente was Henry Wallace, a former vice president and the Secretary of Commerce under Truman. Wallace's position was supported by far left elements of the CIO, but they were purged in 1947 and 1948. Wallace ran against Truman on the Progressive Party ticket in 1948, but his campaign was increasingly dominated by Communists, which helped to discredit détente.[29]
The third policy was rollback, an aggressive effort to undercut or destroy the Soviet Union itself. Military rollback against the Soviet Union was proposed by James Burnham[30] and other conservative strategists in the late 1940s. After 1954, Burnham and like-minded strategists became editors and regular contributors to William F. Buckley, Jr.'s National Review magazine.
Truman himself adopted a rollback strategy in the Korean War after the success of the Inchon landings in September 1950, only to reverse himself after the Chinese counterattack two months later and revert to containment. General Douglas MacArthur called on Congress to continue the rollback policy, but Truman fired him for insubordination.[31]
Under President Dwight Eisenhower, a rollback strategy was considered against communism in Eastern Europe from 1953 to 1956. Eisenhower agreed to a propaganda campaign to rollback the influence of communism psychologically, but he refused to intervene in the 1956 Hungarian Uprising,[32] mainly for fear that it would cause the Third World War. Since 1950, the Soviets had been known to possess nuclear weapons.[33]
Korea[edit]
A 1962 nuclear explosion as seen through the periscope of a U.S. Navy submarine. The goal of containment was to 'contain' communism without a nuclear war.
The U.S. followed containment when it entered the Korean War to defend South Korea from a communist invasion by North Korea. However, the success of the Inchon landing inspired the U.S. and the United Nations to adopt a rollback strategy to overthrow communist North Korea, thus allowing nationwide elections under U.N. auspices.[34] General Douglas MacArthur then advanced across the 38th parallel into North Korea. The Chinese then sent in a large army and defeated the U.N. forces, pushing them below the 38th parallel. Although the Chinese had been planning to intervene for months,[35] this action was interpreted by Truman's supporters as a response to U.S. forces crossing the 38th parallel. That interpretation allowed the episode to be used to confirm the wisdom of containment doctrine as opposed to rollback. The Communists were later pushed back to around the original border. Truman blamed MacArthur's focus on victory and adopted a "limited war" policy. His focus shifted to negotiating a settlement, which was finally reached in 1953. For his part, MacArthur denounced Truman's "no-win policy."[36]
Dulles[edit]
Many Republicans, including John Foster Dulles, were concerned that Truman had been too timid. In 1952, Dulles called for rollback and the eventual liberation of Eastern Europe.[37] Dulles was named secretary of state by incoming President Eisenhower, but Eisenhower's decision not to intervene during the 1956 Hungarian Uprising made containment a bipartisan doctrine. Eisenhower relied on clandestine CIA actions to undermine hostile governments and used economic and military foreign aid to strengthen governments supporting the American position in the Cold War.[38]
Cuba[edit]
In the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, the top officials in Washington debated using rollback to get rid of Soviet nuclear missiles, which were threatening the United States. There was fear of a nuclear war until a deal was reached in which the Soviets would publicly remove their nuclear weapons, the United States would secretly remove its missiles from Turkey and to avoid invading Cuba. The policy of containing Cuba was put into effect by President John F. Kennedy and continued until 2015.[39]
Vietnam[edit]
Senator Barry Goldwater, the Republican candidate for president in 1964, challenged containment and asked, "Why not victory?"[40] President Lyndon Johnson, the Democratic nominee, answered that rollback risked nuclear war. Johnson explained containment doctrine by quoting the Bible: "Hitherto shalt thou come, but not further."[41] Goldwater lost to Johnson in the 1964 election by a wide margin. Johnson adhered closely to containment during the Vietnam War. Rejecting proposals by General William Westmoreland for U.S. ground forces to advance into Laos and cut communist supply lines, Johnson gathered a group of elder statesmen called The Wise Men. The group included Kennan, Acheson and other former Truman advisors.
Rallies in support of the troops were discouraged for fear that a patriotic response would lead to demands for victory and rollback.[41] Military responsibility was divided among three generals so that no powerful theater commander could emerge to challenge Johnson as MacArthur had challenged Truman.[42]
Nixon, who replaced Johnson in 1969, referred to his foreign policy as détente, a relaxation of tension. Although it continued to aim at restraining the Soviet Union, it was based on political realism, thinking in terms of national interest, as opposed to crusades against communism or for democracy. Emphasis was placed on talks with the Soviet Union concerning nuclear weapons called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Nixon reduced U.S. military presence in Vietnam to the minimum required to contain communist advances, in a policy called Vietnamization. As the war continued, it grew less popular. A Democratic Congress forced Nixon, a Republican, to abandon the policy in 1973 by enacting the Case–Church Amendment, which ended U.S. military involvement in Vietnam and led to successful communist invasions of South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.
Afghanistan[edit]
President Jimmy Carter came to office in 1977 and was committed to a foreign policy that emphasized human rights. However, in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, containment was again made a priority. The wording of the Carter Doctrine (1980) intentionally echoeed that of the Truman Doctrine.
Reagan Doctrine[edit]
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Following the communist victory of Vietnam, Democrats began to view further communist advance as inevitable, but Republicans returned to the rollback doctrine. Ronald Reagan, a long-time advocate of rollback, was elected US President in 1980. He took a more aggressive approach to dealings with the Soviets and believed that détente was misguided and peaceful coexistence was tantamount to surrender. When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, American policy makers worried that the Soviets were making a run for control of the Persian Gulf. Throughout the 1980s, under a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine, the United States provided technical and economic assistance to the Afghan guerrillas fighting against the Soviet army (Mujahideen).[43]
By sending military aid to anti-communist insurgents in Afghanistan, Angola, Cambodia, and Nicaragua, Reagan confronted existing communist governments and went beyond the limits of containment doctrine. He deployed the Pershing II missile in Europe and promoted research on a Strategic Defense Initiative, called "Star Wars" by its critics, to shoot down missiles fired at the United States.
Reagan's aim was to defeat the Soviets through an expensive arms buildup the Soviets could not match. However, Reagan continued to follow containment in several key areas. He pursued a comprehensive nuclear disarmament initiative called START I and policy toward Europe continued to emphasize a NATO-based defensive approach.
After Cold War[edit]
The end of the Cold War in 1991 marked the official end of the containment policy, but the U.S. kept its bases in the areas around Russia, such as those in Iceland, Germany, and Turkey. Also, much of the policy helped influence U.S. foreign policy in later years, such as during the War on Terror and dealing with post-Cold War dictators, such as Iraq's Saddam Hussein.
See also[edit]
Domino theory
Détente
Marshall Plan
Rollback
Truman Doctrine
China containment policy
Dual containment (Iran-Iraq containment)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ James Oakes (2012). Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861-1865. W. W. Norton. p. 12.
Jump up ^ Sidney Pash, "Containment, Rollback and the Onset of the Pacific War, 1933-1941" in G. Kurt Piehler and Sidney Pash, eds. The United States and the Second World War: New Perspectives on Diplomacy, War, and the Home Front (2010) pp 38-67
Jump up ^ Larson, Deborah Welch, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation, p. 69.
Jump up ^ Larson, p. 116.
Jump up ^ Larson, p.68.
^ Jump up to: a b John Lewis Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (2011) pp 201-24
Jump up ^ Kennan, George, "The Long Telegram"
^ Jump up to: a b Larson, p. 28.
Jump up ^ Hechler, Ken (1996). Working with Truman: a personal memoir of the White House years. University of Missouri Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-8262-1067-8. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (2011) pp 249-75.
Jump up ^ "Driven Patriot: The Life And Times Of James Forrestal"
Jump up ^ Adrian R. Lewis (2006). The American Culture of War: A History of US Military Force from World War II to Operation Iraqi Freedom. Taylor & Francis. p. 67.
Jump up ^ George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1925-1950 P. 358
Jump up ^ George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1925-1950 P. 359
^ Jump up to: a b President Harry S. Truman's Address Before a Joint Session of Congress, March 12, 1947.
^ Jump up to: a b Larsen, Deborah Welch, Origins of Containment, p. 9.
Jump up ^ Larsen, p. 15.
Jump up ^ Larson, p. 147.
Jump up ^ Larson, pp 145-46.
Jump up ^ Larson, p. 302.
Jump up ^ Larson, p. xi., p. 303
Jump up ^ Lawrence S. Wittner, American Intervention in Greece, 1943-1949 (1982)
Jump up ^ Dean Acheson (1987). Present at the creation: my years in the State Department. W W Norton. p. 219.
Jump up ^ James Chace (2008). Acheson: The Secretary Of State Who Created The American World. Simon & Schuster. pp. 166–67.
Jump up ^ John M. Schuessler, "Absorbing The First Blow: Truman And The Cold War," White House Studies (2009) 9#3 pp 215-231.
Jump up ^ Efstathios T. Fakiolas, "Kennan's Long Telegram and NSC-68: A Comparative Theoretical Analysis," East European Quarterly (1997) 31#4 pp 415-433.
Jump up ^ NSC 68: United States Objectives and Programs for National Security
Jump up ^ David McCullough (2003). Truman. Simon & Schuster. p. 631.
Jump up ^ Jerel A. Rosati; James M. Scott (2011). The Politics of United States Foreign Policy. Cengage Learning. p. 342.
Jump up ^ Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World: A Life (2002) p. 155
Jump up ^ James I. Matray, "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea." Journal of American History (1979): 314-333. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ László Borhi, "Rollback, Liberation, Containment, or Inaction? U.S. Policy and Eastern Europe in the 1950s", Journal of Cold War Studies, 1#3 (1999), pp 67–110 online
Jump up ^ Robert R. Bowie and Richard H. Immerman. eds. (1998). Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy. Oxford University Press. pp. 158–77. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ James I. Matray, "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea," Journal of American History, Sept. 1979, Vol. 66 Issue 2, pp. 314–333, in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Chinese Military Science Academy (September 2000). History of War to Resist America and Aid Korea (抗美援朝战争史) I. Beijing: Chinese Military Science Academy Publishing House. pp. 35–36. ISBN 7-80137-390-1. On 4 August 1950, with the proposed Chinese invasion of Taiwan aborted, Mao Zedong reported to the Politburo that he would intervene in Korea as soon as the Taiwan invasion force was reorganized.
Jump up ^ Safire, William, Safire's Political Dictionary, p. 531.
Jump up ^ "Kennan and Containment, 1947", Diplomacy in Action, U.S. Department of State,
Jump up ^ John Prados, Safe for Democracy: The Secret Wars of the CIA, (2009)
Jump up ^ Alice L. George, The Cuban missile crisis: The threshold of nuclear war (Routledge, 2013).
Jump up ^ Richard J. Jensen, Jon Thares Davidann, Yoneyuki Sugita, Trans-Pacific Relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the Twentieth Century, p. 178. (2003)
^ Jump up to: a b Jensen, p. 180. The quote is from Job 38:11.
Jump up ^ Jensen, p. 182.
Jump up ^ Olson, James Stuart. Historical dictionary of the 1950s. Westport, Conn: Greenwood P, 2000.
Sources[edit]
Corke, Sarah-Jane. "History, historians and the Naming of Foreign Policy: A Postmodern Reflection on American Strategic thinking during the Truman Administration," Intelligence and National Security, Autumn 2001, Vol. 16 Issue 3, pp. 146–63.
Felix, David. Kennan and the Cold War: An Unauthorized Biography. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2015.
Gaddis, John Lewis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American National Security Policy During the Cold War. 2004.
Hopkins, Michael F. "Continuing Debate And New Approaches In Cold War History," Historical Journal (2007), 50: 913-934 doi:10.1017/S0018246X07006437
Kennan, George F., American Diplomacy, The University of Chicago Press. 1984. ISBN 0-226-43147-9
Pieper, Moritz A. (2012). "Containment and the Cold War: Reexaming the Doctrine of Containment as a Grand Strategy Driving US Cold War Interventions". StudentPulse.com. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
Wright, Steven. The United States and Persian Gulf Security: The Foundations of the War on Terror, Ithaca Press, 2007.
External links[edit]
EDSITEment's Lesson Strategy of Containment 1947-1948
https://astro.temple.edu/~rimmerma/the_X_article.htm
Look up containment in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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Kennedy Center Honors
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Kennedy Center Honours
Logotype symbolizing "a spectrum of many skills within the performing arts"
Awarded for
Lifetime contributions to American culture through the performing arts.
Country
US
Presented by
Board of Trustees of the Kennedy Center
First awarded
1978
Website
Kennedy Center Honors
The 2006 honorees at the Kennedy Center on December 6, 2006, with President George W. Bush and First Lady Laura Bush. From left, Andrew Lloyd Webber, Steven Spielberg, Dolly Parton, Zubin Mehta, Smokey Robinson, Vice President Dick Cheney, and Lynne Cheney.
The Kennedy Center Honors is an annual honor given to those in the performing arts for their lifetime of contributions to American culture (although recipients do not need to be U.S. citizens). The honors have been presented annually since 1978, culminating each December in a star-studded gala celebrating the honorees in the Kennedy Center Opera House.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Selection process
2 The events
3 Recipients
3.1 1970s
3.2 1980s
3.3 1990s
3.4 2000s
3.5 2010s
4 Prospective honorees who declined, canceled, or postponed
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
George Stevens Jr. created the Kennedy Center Honors with the late Nick Vanoff, and produced the first gala in 1978. He was the producer and co-writer through the 2014 awards,[2] after which he sold the production rights to the Kennedy Center.
The Kennedy Center Honors started in 1977, after that year's 10th-anniversary White House reception and Kennedy Center program for the American Film Institute (AFI). Roger L. Stevens, the founding chairman of the Kennedy Center, asked George Stevens, Jr., (no relation), the founding director of the AFI, to hold an event for the Center. George Stevens asked Isaac Stern to become involved, and then "pitched" the idea to the television network CBS, who "bought it." With the announcement of the first honors event and honorees, CBS vice president for specials Bernie Sofronski stated:[3][4]
George [Stevens] came to us with this. What turned us on is that this is the only show of its kind. In Europe and most countries, they have ways of honoring their actors and their athletes. England has its command performances for the queen. We see this as a national honoring of people who have contributed to society, not someone who happens to have a pop record hit at the moment...Our intention is not to do just another award show. We're going to make an effort in terms of a real special.
The first host was Leonard Bernstein in 1978, followed by Eric Sevareid in 1979 and Beverly Sills in 1980. Walter Cronkite hosted from 1981 to 2002 and Caroline Kennedy hosted from 2003 until 2012. Glenn Close was host in 2013 and Stephen Colbert hosted from 2014 to 2016.[5][6] There was no formal host in 2017, though Caroline Kennedy delivered an introduction.
Ricky Kirshner and Glenn Weiss of White Cherry Entertainment were selected as Executive Producers of the 38th annual Kennedy Center Honors (2015) after George Stevens, Jr. stepped down.[7]
This is one of the few awards shows that does not air live (with the exception of closed-circuit venues), but a re-edited version lasting approximately two hours is normally televised on CBS after Christmas.[8][9]
Selection process[edit]
Honoree recommendations are accepted from the general public,[10] and the Kennedy Center initiated a Special Honors Advisory Committee, which comprises two members of the Board of Trustees as well as past Honorees and distinguished artists. The Executive Committee of the Board of Trustees selects the Honoree recipients based on excellence in music, dance, theater, opera, motion pictures or television.[11] The selections are typically announced sometime between July and September.
The events[edit]
The invitation-only weekend-long ceremony includes the Chairman's Luncheon, State Department dinner, White House reception, and the Honors gala performances and supper.
Surrounded by the Honorees, the luncheon is held on Saturday at the Kennedy Center, with a welcoming speech by the Chairman of the Board of Trustees. At that evening's reception and dinner at the State Department, presided over by the Secretary of State, the Honorees are introduced and the Honors medallions are presented by the Chairman of the Board.[11] The wide rainbow-colored ribbon then hung around the necks of the recipients, and prominently noticeable when the events are televised, symbolizes "a spectrum of many skills within the performing arts" according to creator Ivan Chermayeff.[12]
On Sunday, there is an early-evening White House reception[13] hosted by the President of the United States and the First Lady, followed by the Honors gala performance at the Kennedy Center and supper.
For the 2015 gala performance, President Barack Obama did attend, after addressing the nation in a live telecast.[14] There have been four occasions where the President did not attend the gala performances: President Jimmy Carter did not attend the December 1979 gala performance during the hostage crisis,[15] President George H.W. Bush did not attend in December 1989 and President Bill Clinton did not attend in 1994.[16][17]
On August 19, 2017, the White House announced that President Donald Trump and the first lady, Melania Trump, have decided not to participate in events honoring recipients of the 2017 Kennedy Center Honors awards to “allow the honorees to celebrate without any political distraction.”[18] At the 2017 ceremony, held on December 3, 2017, President and Mrs. Trump did not attend. Caroline Kennedy was the hostess and presented the honorees. The traditional dinner at the State Department on the Saturday evening before the ceremony was hosted by Secretary of State Rex Tillerson and the White House reception was canceled.[19]
Recipients[edit]
2005 Kennedy Center Honorees Julie Harris, Robert Redford, Tina Turner, Suzanne Farrell, and Tony Bennett, with President George W. Bush and First Lady Laura Bush, in the Blue Room at the White House, December 4, 2005.
The surviving members of Led Zeppelin were honored in 2012 and are pictured here with President Barack Obama.
There have been 213 recipients to date of the Kennedy Center Honors Awards during the Honor's 40 years (as of 2017). The vast majority have been bestowed on individuals. On ten occasions since 1985, awards have been presented to duos or groups, including three married couples who were actors: Hume Cronyn and Jessica Tandy, Paul Newman and Joanne Woodward, and Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee. The dancers Fayard Nicholas and Harold Nicholas of the Nicholas Brothers were honored, along with three musical theater songwriting duos: Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe, Betty Comden and Adolph Green, and John Kander and Fred Ebb. The musicians of three rock groups were also awarded: Pete Townshend and Roger Daltrey of The Who, John Paul Jones, Jimmy Page and Robert Plant of Led Zeppelin, and Don Henley, Timothy B. Schmit, Joe Walsh and (posthumously) Glenn Frey of the Eagles.
1970s[edit]
1978 – Marian Anderson, Fred Astaire, George Balanchine, Richard Rodgers, and Arthur Rubinstein
1979 – Aaron Copland, Ella Fitzgerald, Henry Fonda, Martha Graham, and Tennessee Williams
1980s[edit]
1980 – Leonard Bernstein, James Cagney, Agnes de Mille, Lynn Fontanne, and Leontyne Price
1981 – Count Basie, Cary Grant, Helen Hayes, Jerome Robbins, and Rudolf Serkin
1982 – George Abbott, Lillian Gish, Benny Goodman, Gene Kelly, and Eugene Ormandy
1983 – Katherine Dunham, Elia Kazan, Frank Sinatra, James Stewart, and Virgil Thomson
1984 – Lena Horne, Danny Kaye, Gian Carlo Menotti, Arthur Miller, and Isaac Stern
1985 – Merce Cunningham, Irene Dunne, Bob Hope, Alan Jay Lerner & Frederick Loewe, and Beverly Sills
1986 – Lucille Ball, Ray Charles, Hume Cronyn & Jessica Tandy, Yehudi Menuhin, and Antony Tudor
1987 – Perry Como, Bette Davis, Sammy Davis Jr., Nathan Milstein, and Alwin Nikolais
1988 – Alvin Ailey, George Burns, Myrna Loy, Alexander Schneider, and Roger L. Stevens
1989 – Harry Belafonte, Claudette Colbert, Alexandra Danilova, Mary Martin, and William Schuman
1990s[edit]
1990 – Dizzy Gillespie, Katharine Hepburn, Risë Stevens, Jule Styne, and Billy Wilder
1991 – Roy Acuff, Betty Comden & Adolph Green, Fayard & Harold Nicholas, Gregory Peck, and Robert Shaw
1992 – Lionel Hampton, Paul Newman & Joanne Woodward, Ginger Rogers, Mstislav Rostropovich, and Paul Taylor
1993 – Johnny Carson, Arthur Mitchell, Georg Solti, Stephen Sondheim, and Marion Williams
1994 – Kirk Douglas, Aretha Franklin, Morton Gould, Harold Prince, and Pete Seeger
1995 – Jacques d'Amboise, Marilyn Horne, B.B. King, Sidney Poitier, and Neil Simon
1996 – Edward Albee, Benny Carter, Johnny Cash, Jack Lemmon, and Maria Tallchief
1997 – Lauren Bacall, Bob Dylan, Charlton Heston, Jessye Norman, and Edward Villella
1998 – Bill Cosby, Fred Ebb & John Kander, Willie Nelson, André Previn, and Shirley Temple Black
1999 – Victor Borge, Sean Connery, Judith Jamison, Jason Robards, and Stevie Wonder
2000s[edit]
Kennedy Center honorees 2009 Mel Brooks, Dave Brubeck, Grace Bumbry, Robert De Niro, and Bruce Springsteen, with President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama in the Blue Room, White House, Dec. 6, 2009.
2000 – Mikhail Baryshnikov, Chuck Berry, Plácido Domingo, Clint Eastwood, and Angela Lansbury
2001 – Julie Andrews, Van Cliburn, Quincy Jones, Jack Nicholson, and Luciano Pavarotti
2002 – James Earl Jones, James Levine, Chita Rivera, Paul Simon, and Elizabeth Taylor
2003 – James Brown, Carol Burnett, Loretta Lynn, Mike Nichols, and Itzhak Perlman
2004 – Warren Beatty, Ossie Davis & Ruby Dee, Elton John, Joan Sutherland, and John Williams
2005 – Tony Bennett, Suzanne Farrell, Julie Harris, Robert Redford, and Tina Turner
2006 – Zubin Mehta, Dolly Parton, Smokey Robinson, Steven Spielberg, and Andrew Lloyd Webber
2007 – Leon Fleisher, Steve Martin, Diana Ross, Martin Scorsese, and Brian Wilson
2008 – Morgan Freeman, George Jones, Barbra Streisand, Twyla Tharp, and The Who (Pete Townshend and Roger Daltrey)
2009 – Mel Brooks, Dave Brubeck, Grace Bumbry, Robert De Niro, and Bruce Springsteen
2010s[edit]
2010 – Merle Haggard, Jerry Herman, Bill T. Jones, Paul McCartney, and Oprah Winfrey
2011 – Barbara Cook, Neil Diamond, Yo-Yo Ma, Sonny Rollins, and Meryl Streep[20]
2012 – Buddy Guy, Dustin Hoffman, Led Zeppelin (John Paul Jones, Jimmy Page and Robert Plant), David Letterman, and Natalia Makarova[21]
2013 – Martina Arroyo, Herbie Hancock, Billy Joel, Shirley MacLaine, and Carlos Santana[22]
2014 – Al Green, Tom Hanks, Patricia McBride, Sting, and Lily Tomlin[23]
2015 – Carole King, George Lucas, Rita Moreno, Seiji Ozawa, and Cicely Tyson[24]
2016 – Martha Argerich, Eagles (Don Henley, Timothy B. Schmit and Joe Walsh, with Glenn Frey[25]), Al Pacino, Mavis Staples, and James Taylor[26][27]
2017 – Carmen de Lavallade, Gloria Estefan, LL Cool J, Norman Lear, and Lionel Richie
Prospective honorees who declined, canceled, or postponed[edit]
Pianist Vladimir Horowitz was to be an honoree, but the selection committee withdrew the offer when Horowitz conditioned his acceptance on being honored alone and at 4 in the afternoon.[28]
Actress Katharine Hepburn declined the committee's first offer, though she relented in 1990.[28]
Doris Day repeatedly turned down the honors because her fear of flying prevented her from attending the ceremony.[29]
When considering Irving Berlin for the 1987 awards because of criticism for overlooking him, the Center was informed that Berlin wanted to be honored only if he surpassed his 100th birthday (which would not be until May 1988). Also, he was in failing health, used a wheelchair following a series of strokes, and could not attend a public event. The Center instead chose to pay special tribute to him at the 1987 Gala. He died in 1989.[30]
Paul McCartney was selected as an honoree in 2002, but was unable to attend because of an "inescapable personal obligation," his cousin's previously planned wedding. After initially saying that McCartney's award would be postponed until the following year, the Kennedy Center announced in August 2003 that "Paul McCartney will not be receiving a Kennedy Center Honor."[31] McCartney later became a 2010 honoree.[32]
Mel Brooks has stated that he refused the honor when George W. Bush was in office, due to his distaste for Bush's Iraq policy, but Brooks was an honoree in 2009, the first year Barack Obama was President.[33] [34]
In November 2015, one month before the actual ceremony, the Eagles postponed their honors until the following year because Glenn Frey had intestinal problems that required major surgery and a long recovery period.[26] Despite their absence, they were still honored in 2015 via a performance of "Desperado" by country singer Miranda Lambert. Glenn Frey died on January 18, 2016,[35] though the Center made him and the three surviving members 2016 honorees.[25]
In 2017 Norman Lear announced that he would accept the honors, but would boycott the White House ceremony because of his opposition to President Donald Trump, citing Trump's proposal to end the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts.[36] Lear did attend the 2017 events and ceremony, but Donald and Melania Trump were not present, becoming the first US presidential couple to skip the event, in order "to allow the honorees to celebrate without any political distraction".[19]
See also[edit]
Mark Twain Prize for American Humor, the Kennedy Center's award for contributions to American humor
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "About the Honors" Archived 2008-05-16 at the Wayback Machine. Kennedy Center. Accessed October 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Harris, Paul. "George Stevens Jr. to End 37-Year Run as Kennedy Center Honors Producer" Variety, December 7, 2014
Jump up ^ Crews, Chip. "The Honors, Take 2" Washington Post, December 27, 2005
Jump up ^ Shales, Tom. "Crowning America's Culture Superstars", The Washington Post, September 28, 1978, p. B1
Jump up ^ McGlone, Peggy. "Stephen Colbert will host 37th annual Kennedy Center Honors" Washington Post, November 19, 2014
Jump up ^ Park, Andrea. "Kennedy Center Honors 2016" cbsnews.com, December 27, 2016
Jump up ^ "Tony Awards Team Chosen" Washington Post, May 5, 2015
Jump up ^ "Kennedy Center Honors 2017: How to watch online and on TV, start time and pre-show" cbsnews.com, December 26, 2017
Jump up ^ "2017 Honors" kennedy-center.org, December 3, 2017
Jump up ^ Honors kennedy-center.org
^ Jump up to: a b Press Release" kennedy-center.org
Jump up ^ Interview in The Washington Post 2008-12-07
Jump up ^ "A Vision in Blue". Mrs. O. 2011-12-04. Retrieved 2015-12-30.
Jump up ^ McGlone, Peggy. "President Obama will be late to Kennedy Center Honors performance" Washington Post, December 6, 2015
Jump up ^ Gamarekian, Barbara. "Kennedy Center Honors Five For Life]Achievements in Arts: Audience of Over 2,000 'She Led a Revolt' White House Reception", The New York Times, December 3, 1979, p. C14. "Mrs. Carter: 'As you know President Carter has had to cancel his public appearances.'"
Jump up ^ McGlone, Peggy. "President Obama to skip Kennedy Center Honors performance" Washington Post, December 6, 2015
Jump up ^ Pareles, John. "Performers Receive Kennedy Center Awards" Sun Sentinel, December 25, 1994
Jump up ^ "Trump to skip Kennedy Center arts award." Washington Post, August 19, 2017
^ Jump up to: a b McGlone, Peggy. "At the Kennedy Center Honors, plenty of politics make up for Trump’s playing hooky" Washington Post, December 3, 2017
Jump up ^ "Barbara Cook, Neil Diamond, Yo-Yo Ma, Sonny Rollins & Meryl Streep to Receive 34th Annual Kennedy Center Honors" kennedy-center.org, accessed September 6, 2011
Jump up ^ Gans, Andrew. "Dustin Hoffman, David Letterman, Natalia Makarova, Buddy Guy, Led Zeppelin Are Kennedy Center Honorees" Archived 2012-11-09 at the Wayback Machine. playbill.com, September 12, 2012
Jump up ^ Gans, Andrew. "Martina Arroyo, Herbie Hancock, Billy Joel, Shirley MacLaine and Carlos Santana Are 2013 Kennedy Center Honorees" Archived 2013-10-21 at the Wayback Machine. playbill.com, September 12, 2013
Jump up ^ Harris, Paul (2014-09-04). "Tom Hanks, Lily Tomlin, Sting to Receive Kennedy Center Honors". Variety. Retrieved 2014-09-04.
Jump up ^ Viagas, Robert. "Carole King, Cicely Tyson, Rita Moreno and More Named 2015 Kennedy Center Honorees" playbill.com, July 15, 2015
^ Jump up to: a b "Martha Argerich, Eagles, Al Pacino, Mavis Staples, James Taylor To Receive 39th Annual Kennedy Center Honors" (PDF) (Press release). Kennedy Center Honors. June 23, 2016. Retrieved July 25, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Clark, Cindy. "Kennedy Center postpones Honors to Eagles" USAToday, November 4, 2015
Jump up ^ Hipes, Patrick. "Kennedy Center Honors: Al Pacino, Eagles, James Taylor & More" Deadline, June 23, 2016
^ Jump up to: a b Crews, Chip. "The Honors, Take 2" The Washington Post, December 27, 2005
Jump up ^ Pollock, Allen."About Doris" www.dorisday.com
Jump up ^ Molotsky, Irvin."Five Receive Kennedy Center Honors for Artistic Contributions" The New York Times , December 7, 1987
Jump up ^ "The Kennedy Center Honors: This Year's Bid for Glamour" The New York Times, August 6, 2003
Jump up ^ Trescott, Jacqueline."Oprah Winfrey among five recipients of 2010 Kennedy Center Honors" The Washington Post, September 7, 2010
Jump up ^ [1] vulture
Jump up ^ [2] npr.org
Jump up ^ Morton, Victor (January 18, 2016). "Glenn Frey, Eagles guitarist, dies at 67". The Washington Times. Retrieved January 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Protest" npr.com, August 5, 2017
External links[edit]
Official website
"Collection Kennedy Center Honors" The Paley Center for Media
[show]
v
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Kennedy Center Honorees
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
[show]
v
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Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Series
1951–1975
The Alan Young Show (1951)
Your Show of Shows (1952)
Your Show of Shows (1953)
Omnibus (1954)
Disneyland (1955)
The Ed Sullivan Show / Your Hit Parade (1956)
Caesar's Hour (1957)
The Dinah Shore Chevy Show (1958)
The Dinah Shore Chevy Show (1959)
The Fabulous Fifties (1960)
Astaire Time (1961)
The Garry Moore Show (1962)
The Andy Williams Show (1963)
The Danny Kaye Show (1964)
The Andy Williams Show (1966)
The Andy Williams Show (1967)
Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In (1968)
Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In (1969)
The David Frost Show (1970)
The Flip Wilson Show / The David Frost Show (1971)
The Carol Burnett Show / The Dick Cavett Show (1972)
The Julie Andrews Hour (1973)
The Carol Burnett Show (1974)
The Carol Burnett Show (1975)
1976–2000
Saturday Night Live (1976)
Van Dyke and Company (1977)
The Muppet Show (1978)
Steve & Eydie Celebrate Irving Berlin (1979)
Baryshnikov on Broadway (1980)
Lily: Sold Out (1981)
Night of 100 Stars (1982)
Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever (1983)
A Celebration of the Performing Arts (1984)
Motown Returns to the Apollo (1985)
A Celebration of the Performing Arts (1986)
41st Tony Awards (1987)
Irving Berlin's 100th Birthday Celebration (1988)
The Tracey Ullman Show (1989)
In Living Color (1990)
63rd Academy Awards (1991)
The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1992)
Saturday Night Live (1993)
Late Show with David Letterman (1994)
The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (1995)
Dennis Miller Live (1996)
Tracey Takes On... (1997)
Late Show with David Letterman (1998)
Late Show with David Letterman (1999)
Late Show with David Letterman (2000)
2001–2014
Late Show with David Letterman (2001)
Late Show with David Letterman (2002)
The Daily Show with Jon Stewart (2003)
The Daily Show with Jon Stewart (2004)
The Daily Show with Jon Stewart (2005)
The Daily Show with Jon Stewart (2006)
The Daily Show with Jon Stewart (2007)
The Daily Show with Jon Stewart (2008)
The Daily Show with Jon Stewart (2009)
The Daily Show with Jon Stewart (2010)
The Daily Show with Jon Stewart (2011)
The Daily Show with Jon Stewart (2012)
The Colbert Report (2013)
The Colbert Report (2014)
[show]
v
t
e
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Pre-Recorded)
1959–1975
An Evening with Fred Astaire (1959)
Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic (1960)
Not awarded (1961)
Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic in Japan (1962)
Julie and Carol at Carnegie Hall (1963)
The Bell Telephone Hour (1964)
Not awarded (1965)
Chrysler Presents the Bob Hope Christmas Special / Frank Sinatra: A Man and His Music (1966)
The Sid Caesar, Imogene Coca, Carl Reiner, Morris Special (1967)
Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In (1968)
The Bill Cosby Special (1969)
Annie, the Women in the Life of a Man / Cinderella, National Ballet of Canada (1970)
Singer Presents Burt Bacharach / Leopold Stokowski, N.E.T. Festival (1971)
Jack Lemmon in 'S Wonderful, 'S Marvelous, 'S Gershwin / Beethoven's Birthday: A Celebration in Vienna with Leonard Bernstein (1972)
Singer Presents Liza with a Z (1973)
Lily (1974)
An Evening with John Denver (1975)
1976–2000
Gypsy in My Soul (1976)
The Barry Manilow Special (1977)
Bette Midler: Ol' Red Hair is Back (1978)
Not awarded (1979-1989)
Sammy Davis, Jr.'s 60th Anniversary Celebration (1990)
Not awarded (1991)
Cirque Du Soleil: Nouvelle Expérience (1992)
Bob Hope: The First 90 Years (1993)
Kennedy Center Honors (1994)
Barbra Streisand: The Concert (1995)
Kennedy Center Honors (1996)
Chris Rock: Bring the Pain (1997)
52nd Tony Awards (1998)
53rd Tony Awards (1999)
Saturday Night Live: The 25th Anniversary Special (2000)
2001–present
Cirque Du Soleil's Dralion (2001)
America: A Tribute to Heroes (2002)
Cher: The Farewell Tour (2003)
Elaine Stritch: At Liberty (2004)
58th Tony Awards (2005)
The XX Olympic Winter Games: Opening Ceremony (2006)
Tony Bennett: An American Classic (2007)
Mr. Warmth: The Don Rickles Project (2008)
Kennedy Center Honors (2009)
Kennedy Center Honors (2010)
Kennedy Center Honors (2011)
Kennedy Center Honors (2012)
Kennedy Center Honors (2013)
AFI Life Achievement Award: A Tribute to Mel Brooks (2014)
Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special (2015)
The Late Late Show Carpool Karaoke Primetime Special (2016)
Carpool Karaoke Primetime Special 2017 (2017)
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