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History of the United States (1776–89)
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Map of the thirteen colonies in 1775
Between 1776 and 1789, the United States of America emerged as an independent country, creating and ratifying its new constitution and establishing its national government. In order to assert their traditional rights, American Patriots seized control of the colonies and launched a war for independence. The Americans declared independence on July 4, 1776, proclaiming "all men are created equal". Congress raised the Continental Army under the command of General George Washington, forged a military alliance with France and defeated the two main British invasion armies. Nationalists replaced the governing Articles of Confederation to strengthen the federal government's powers of defense and taxation with the Constitution of the United States of America in 1789, still in effect today.
Contents
1 Background
2 American Revolution
2.1 George Washington's roles
2.2 Military hostilities begin
2.3 Invasion of Canada
2.4 Declaration of Independence
2.5 Campaigns of 1776 and 1777
2.6 The British move South, 1778–1783
2.7 Peace and memory
3 Critical Period: 1783–1789
3.1 Articles of Confederation
3.2 Constitutional Convention
3.3 Struggle for ratification
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Further reading
6.1 Primary sources
7 External links
Background[edit]
See also: Colonial history of the United States
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the British colonies in America had been largely left to their own devices by the crown; it was called salutary neglect.[1] The colonies were thus largely self-governing; half the white men in America could vote, compared to one percent in Britain. They developed their own political identities and systems which were in many ways separate from those in Britain. This new ideology was a decidedly republican political viewpoint, which rejected royalty, aristocracy, and corruption and called for sovereignty of the people and emphasized civic duty. In 1763 with British victory in the French and Indian War, this period of isolation came to an end with the Stamp Act of 1765. The British government began to impose taxes in a way that deliberately provoked the Americans, who complained that they were alien to the unwritten English Constitution because Americans were not represented in parliament. Parliament said the Americans were "virtually" represented and had no grounds for complaint.[2][3] From the Stamp Act of 1765 onward, disputes with London escalated. By 1772 the colonists began the transfer of political legitimacy to their own hands and started to form shadow governments built on committees of correspondence that coordinated protest and resistance. They called the First Continental Congress in 1774 to inaugurate a trade boycott against Britain. Thirteen colonies were represented at the Congress. The other British colonies were under tight British control and did not rebel.[4][5]
When resistance in Boston culminated in the Boston Tea Party in 1773 with the dumping of taxed tea shipments into the harbor, London imposed the Intolerable Acts on the colony of Massachusetts, ended self-government, and sent in the Army to take control. The Patriots in Massachusetts and the other colonies readied their militias and prepared to fight.[6][7]
American Revolution[edit]
Main articles: American Revolution and American Revolutionary War
George Washington's roles[edit]
Main article: George Washington in the American Revolution
General Washington assumed five main roles during the war.[8]
First, he designed the overall strategy of the war, in cooperation with Congress. The goal was always independence. When France entered the war, he worked closely with the soldiers it sent--they were decisive in the great victory at Yorktown in 1781.[9]
Second, he provided leadership of troops against the main British forces in 1775–77 and again in 1781. He lost many of his battles, but he never surrendered his army during the war, and he continued to fight the British relentlessly until the war's end. Washington worked hard to develop a successful espionage system to detect British locations and plans. In 1778, he formed the Culper Ring to spy on the British movements in New York City. In 1780 it discovered Benedict Arnold was a traitor.[10]
Third, he was charged selecting and guiding the generals. In June 1776, Congress made its first attempt at running the war effort with the committee known as "Board of War and Ordnance", succeeded by the Board of War in July 1777, a committee which eventually included members of the military.[11] [12] The command structure of the armed forces was a hodgepodge of Congressional appointees (and Congress sometimes made those appointments without Washington's input) with state-appointments filling the lower ranks. The results of his general staff were mixed, as some of his favorites never mastered the art of command, such as John Sullivan. Eventually, he found capable officers such as Nathanael Greene, Daniel Morgan, Henry Knox (chief of artillery), and Alexander Hamilton (chief of staff). The American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuver, and they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes at Boston (1776), Saratoga (1777), and Yorktown (1781) came from trapping the British far from base with much larger numbers of troops.[13]
Fourth he took charge of training the army and providing supplies, from food to gunpowder to tents. . He recruited regulars and assigned Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian general staff, to train them. He transformed Washington's army into a disciplined and effective force.[14] The war effort and getting supplies to the troops were under the purview of Congress, but Washington pressured the Congress to provide the essentials. There was never nearly enough.[15]
Washington's fifth and most important role in the war effort was the embodiment of armed resistance to the Crown, serving as the representative man of the Revolution. His long-term strategy was to maintain an army in the field at all times, and eventually this strategy worked. His enormous personal and political stature and his political skills kept Congress, the army, the French, the militias, and the states all pointed toward a common goal. Furthermore, he permanently established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs by voluntarily resigning his commission and disbanding his army when the war was won, rather than declaring himself monarch. He also helped to overcome the distrust of a standing army by his constant reiteration that well-disciplined professional soldiers counted for twice as much as poorly trained and led militias.[16]
Military hostilities begin[edit]
On April 19, 1775, the royal military governor sent a detachment of troops to seize gunpowder and arrest local leaders in Concord. At Lexington, Massachusetts, shots broke out with the Lexington militia, leaving eight colonists dead. The British failed to find their targets in Concord, and as they retreated back to Boston, the British came under continuous assault by upwards of 3,800 militia who had prepared an ambush. The Battle of Lexington and Concord ignited the American Revolutionary War. As news spread, local shadow governments (called "committees of correspondence") in each of the 13 colonies drove out royal officials and sent militiamen to Boston to besiege the British there.[17][18]
The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in the aftermath of armed clashes in April. With all thirteen colonies represented, it immediately began to organize itself as a central government with control over the army and diplomacy and instructed the colonies to write constitutions for themselves as states. On June 1775, George Washington, a charismatic Virginia political leader with combat experience was unanimously appointed commander of a newly organized Continental Army. He took command in Boston and sent for artillery to barrage the British.[19] In every state, a minority professed loyalty to the King, but nowhere did they have power. These Loyalists were kept under close watch by standing Committees of Safety created by the Provincial Congresses. The unwritten rule was such people could remain silent, but vocal or financial or military support for the King would not be tolerated. The estates of outspoken Loyalists were seized; they fled to British-controlled territory, especially New York City.[20]
Invasion of Canada[edit]
During the winter of 1775–76, an attempt by the Patriots to capture Quebec failed, and the buildup of British forces at Halifax, Nova Scotia, precluded that colony from joining the 13 colonies. The Americans were able to capture a British fort at Ticonderoga, New York, and to drag its cannon over the snow to the outskirts of Boston. The appearance of troops and a cannon on Dorchester Heights outside Boston led the British Army to evacuate the city on March 17, 1776.[21]
Declaration of Independence[edit]
On July 2, 1776, the Second Continental Congress, still meeting in Philadelphia, voted unanimously to declare the independence as the "United States of America". Two days later, on July 4, Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. The drafting of the Declaration was the responsibility of a Committee of Five, which included, among others, John Adams and Benjamin Franklin; it was drafted by Thomas Jefferson and revised by the others and the Congress as a whole. It contended that "all men are created equal" with "certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness", and that "to secure these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed", as well as listing the main colonial grievances against the crown.[22] July 4 ever since has been celebrated as the birthday of the United States.
Campaigns of 1776 and 1777[edit]
Further information: New York and New Jersey campaign, Saratoga campaign, and Philadelphia campaign
Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851), by Emanuel Leutze
The British returned in force in August 1776, landing in New York and defeating the fledgling Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island in one of the largest engagements of the war. They quickly seized New York City and nearly captured General Washington and his army. The British made the city their main political and military base of operations in North America, holding it until late 1783. Patriot evacuation and British military occupation made the city the destination for Loyalist refugees, and a focal point of Washington's intelligence network.[23][24][25] The British soon seized New Jersey, and American fortunes looked dim; Thomas Paine proclaimed "these are the times that try men's souls". But Washington struck back in a surprise attack, crossing the icy Delaware River into New Jersey and defeated British armies at Trenton and Princeton, thereby regaining New Jersey. The victories gave an important boost to Patriots at a time when morale was flagging, and have become iconic images of the war.[26]
In early 1777, a grand British strategic plan, the Saratoga Campaign, was drafted in London. The plan called for two British armies to converge on Albany, New York from the north and south, dividing the colonies in two and separating New England from the rest. Failed communications and poor planning resulted in the army descending from Canada, commanded by General John Burgoyne, bogging down in dense forest north of Albany. Meanwhile, the British Army that was supposed to advance up the Hudson River to meet Burgoyne went instead to Philadelphia, in a vain attempt to end the war by capturing the American capital city. Burgoyne's army was overwhelmed at Saratoga by a swarming of local militia, spearheaded by a cadre of American regulars.[27] The battle showed the British, who had until then considered the colonials a ragtag mob that could easily be dispersed, that the Americans had the strength and determination to fight on. Said one British officer:
The courage and obstinacy with which the Americans fought were the astonishment of everyone, and we now became fully convinced that they are not that contemptible enemy we had hitherto imagined them, incapable of standing a regular engagement, and that they would only fight behind strong and powerful works.[28]
The American victory at Saratoga led the French into an open military alliance with the United States through the Treaty of Alliance (1778). France was soon joined by Spain and the Netherlands, both major naval powers with an interest in undermining British strength. Britain now faced a major European war, and the involvement of the French navy neutralized their previous dominance of the war on the sea. Britain was without allies and faced the prospect of invasion across the English Channel.[29]
The British move South, 1778–1783[edit]
Further information: Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War and Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War
With the British in control of most northern coastal cities and Patriot forces in control of the hinterlands, the British attempted to force a result by a campaign to seize the southern states. With limited regular troops at their disposal, the British commanders realized that success depended on a large-scale mobilization of Loyalists.[30]
In late December 1778, the British had captured Savannah. In 1780 they launched a fresh invasion and took Charleston as well. A significant victory at the Battle of Camden meant that the invaders soon controlled most of Georgia and South Carolina. The British set up a network of forts inland, hoping the Loyalists would rally to the flag. Not enough Loyalists turned out, however, and the British had to move out. They fought their way north into North Carolina and Virginia, with a severely weakened army. Behind them, much of the territory they left dissolved into a chaotic guerrilla war, as the bands of Loyalists, one by one, were overwhelmed by the patriots.[citation needed]
The siege of Yorktown ended with the surrender of a British army, ending most of the fighting
The British army under Lord Cornwallis marched to Yorktown, Virginia where they expected to be rescued by a British fleet. When that fleet was defeated by a French fleet, however, they were trapped, and were surrounded by a much stronger force of Americans and French under Washington's command. On October 1781, Cornwallis surrendered.[31]
News of the defeat effectively ended the fighting in America, although the naval war continued. Support for the conflict had never been strong in Britain, where many sympathized with the rebels, but now it reached a new low. King George III personally wanted to fight on, but he lost control of Parliament, and had to agree to peace negotiations.
United States 1783–1803
[citation needed]
Peace and memory[edit]
Main articles: Treaty of Paris (1783) and Commemoration of the American Revolution
Long negotiations resulted in the Treaty of Paris (1783), which provided highly favorable boundaries for the United States; it included nearly all land east of the Mississippi River and south of Canada, except British West Florida, which was awarded to Spain. Encompassing a vast region nearly as large as Western Europe, the western territories contained a few thousand American pioneers and tens of thousands of Indians, most of whom had been allied to the British but were now abandoned by London.[32]
Every nation constructs and honors the memory of its founding, and following generations use it to establish its identity and define patriotism.[33] The memory of the Founding and the Revolution has long been used as a political weapon. For example, the right-wing "Tea Party movement" of the 21st century explicitly memorialized the Boston Tea Party as a protest against intrusive government.[34]
The Patriot reliance on Catholic France for military, financial and diplomatic aid led to a sharp drop in anti-Catholic rhetoric. Indeed the king replaced the pope as the demon patriots had to fight against. Anti-Catholicism remained strong among Loyalists, some of whom went to Canada after the war while 80% remained in the new nation. By the 1780s, Catholics were extended legal toleration in all of the New England states that previously had been so hostile. "In the midst of war and crisis, New Englanders gave up not only their allegiance to Britain but one of their most dearly held prejudices."[35]
Historians have portrayed the Revolution became the main source of the non-denominational "American civil religion" that has shaped patriotism, and the memory and meaning of the nation's birth ever since.[36] Key events and people were viewed as icons of fundamental virtues. Thus the Revolution produced a Moses-like leader (George Washington),[37] prophets (Thomas Jefferson, Tom Paine), disciples (Alexander Hamilton, James Madison) and martyrs (Boston Massacre, Nathan Hale), as well as devils (Benedict Arnold). There are sacred places (Valley Forge, Bunker Hill), rituals (Boston Tea Party), emblems (the new flag), sacred days (Independence Day), and sacred scriptures whose every sentence is carefully studied (The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights).[38]
Critical Period: 1783–1789[edit]
Main article: Confederation Period
During the 1780s, the nation was a loose confederation of 13 states and was beset with a wide array of foreign and domestic problems. The states engaged in small scale trade wars against each other, and they had difficulty suppressing insurrections such as Shays Rebellion in Massachusetts. The treasury was empty and there was no way to pay the war debts. There was no national executive authority. The world was at peace and the economy flourished. Some historians depict a bleak challenging time for the new nation. Merrill Jensen and others say the term “Critical Period” is exaggerated, and that it was also a time of economic growth and political maturation.[39][40]
Articles of Confederation[edit]
Main article: Articles of Confederation
The Treaty of Paris left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Second Continental Congress had drawn up Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777, to regularize its own status. These described a permanent confederation, but granted to the Congress—the only federal institution—little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president and no judiciary.
Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast-growing nation together, they do give Congress credit for resolving the conflict between the states over ownership of the western territories. The states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states, the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and provided the basis for the rest of American continental expansion through the 19th Century.[41]
By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilist policies of the European powers. Before the war the Americans had shipped food and other products to the British colonies in the Caribbean, but now these ports were closed, since only British ships could trade there. France and Spain had similar policies for their empires. The former imposed restrictions on imports of New England fish and Chesapeake tobacco. New Orleans was closed by the Spanish, hampering settlement of the West, although it didn't stop frontiersmen from pouring west in great numbers. Simultaneously, American manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. The inability of the Congress to redeem the currency or the public debts incurred during the war, or to facilitate trade and financial links among the states aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786–87, Shays's Rebellion, an uprising of farmers in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government and the Congress was powerless to help.
The Continental Congress did have power to print paper money; it printed so much that its value plunged until the expression "not worth a continental" was used for some worthless item. Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the states, which did not respond generously. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the states had been asked for two million in 1783 alone. In 1785, Alexander Hamilton issued a curt statement that the Treasury had received absolutely no taxes from New York for the year.
States handled their debts with varying levels of success. The South for the most part refused to pay its debts off, which was damaging to local banks, but Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia fared well due to their production of cash crops such as cotton and tobacco. South Carolina would have done the same except for a series of crop failures. Maryland suffered from financial chaos and political infighting. New York and Pennsylvania fared well, although the latter also suffered from political quarrels. New Jersey, New Hampshire, Delaware, and Connecticut struggled. Massachusetts was in a state of virtual civil war (see above) and suffered from high taxes and the decline of its economy. Rhode Island alone among the New England states prospered and mostly because of its notorious harboring of pirates and smugglers.
When Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the states to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the states themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each state acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.
By 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.[42]
The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like-minded nationalists, won Washington's endorsement, and convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long-term crisis.[43]
Constitutional Convention[edit]
Main article: History of the United States Constitution
For a chronological guide to this subject, see Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution.
Congress, meeting in New York, called on each state to send delegates to a Constitutional Convention, meeting in Philadelphia. While the stated purpose of the convention was to amend the Articles of Confederation, many delegates, including James Madison and George Washington, wanted to use it to craft a new constitution for the United States. The Convention convened in May 1787 and the delegates immediately selected Washington to preside over them. Madison soon proved the driving force behind the Convention, engineering the compromises necessary to create a government that was both strong and acceptable to all of the states. The Constitution, proposed by the Convention, called for a federal government—limited in scope but independent of and superior to the states—within its assigned role able to tax and equipped with both Executive and Judicial branches as well as a two house legislature. The national legislature—or Congress—envisioned by the Convention embodied the key compromise of the Convention between the small states which wanted to retain the power they had under the one state/one vote Congress of the Articles of Confederation and the large states which wanted the weight of their larger populations and wealth to have a proportionate share of power. The upper House—the Senate—would represent the states equally, while the House of Representatives would be elected from districts of approximately equal population.[44]
The Constitution itself called for ratification by state conventions specially elected for the purpose, and the Confederation Congress recommended the Constitution to the states, asking that ratification conventions be called.
Several of the smaller states, led by Delaware, embraced the Constitution with little reservation. But in the most populous two states, New York and Virginia, the matter became one of controversy. Virginia had been the first successful British colony in North America, had a large population, and its political leadership had played prominent roles in the Revolution. New York was likewise large and populous; with the best situated and sited port on the coast, the state was essential for the success of the United States. Local New York politics were tightly controlled by a parochial elite led by Governor George Clinton, and local political leaders did not want to share their power with the national politicians. The New York ratification convention became the focus for a struggle over the wisdom of adopting the Constitution.
Struggle for ratification[edit]
U.S. states in 1790
Those who advocated the Constitution took the name Federalists and quickly gained supporters throughout the nation. The most influential Federalists were Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, the anonymous authors of The Federalist Papers, a series of 85 essays published in New York newspapers, under the pen name "Publius". The papers became seminal documents for the new United States and have often been cited by jurists. These were written to sway the closely divided New York legislature.[45]
Opponents of the plan for stronger government, the Anti-Federalists, feared that a government with the power to tax would soon become as despotic and corrupt as Great Britain had been only decades earlier. The most notable Anti-federalist writers included Patrick Henry and George Mason, who demanded a Bill of Rights in the Constitution.
The Federalists gained a great deal of prestige and advantage from the approval of George Washington, who had chaired the Constitutional Convention. Thomas Jefferson, serving as Minister to France at the time, had reservations about the proposed Constitution. He resolved to remain neutral in the debate and to accept either outcome.
Promises of a Bill of Rights from Madison secured ratification in Virginia, while in New York, the Clintons, who controlled New York politics, found themselves outmaneuvered as Hamilton secured ratification by a 30–27 vote.[46] North Carolina and Rhode Island eventually signed on to make it unanimous among the 13 states.[47]
The old Confederation Congress now set elections to the new Congress as well as the first presidential election. The electoral college unanimously chose Washington as first President; John Adams became the first Vice President. New York was designated as the national capital; they were inaugurated in April 1789 at Federal Hall.
Under the leadership of Madison, the first Congress set up all the necessary government agencies, and made good on the Federalist pledge of a Bill of Rights.[48] The new government at first had no political parties. Alexander Hamilton in 1790–92 created a national network of friends of the government that became the Federalist party; it controlled the national government until 1801.
However, there continued to be a strong sentiment in favor of states' rights and a limited federal government. This became the platform of a new party, the Republican or Democratic-Republican Party, which assumed the role of opposition to the Federalists. Jefferson and Madison were its founders and leaders. The Democratic-Republicans strongly opposed Hamilton's First Bank of the United States. American foreign policy was dominated by the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars between the United Kingdom and France. The Republicans supported France, encouraging the French Revolution as a force for democracy, while the Washington administration favored continued peace and commerce with Britain, signing the Jay Treaty much to the disgust of Democratic-Republicans, who accused Hamilton and the Federalists of supporting aristocracy and tyranny. John Adams succeeded Washington as President in 1797 and continued the policies of his administration. The Jeffersonian Republicans took control of the Federal government in 1801 and the Federalists never returned to power.
See also[edit]
America's Critical Period
American Revolution
American Revolutionary War
Commemoration of the American Revolution
First Party System
History of the United States (1789–1849)
History of the United States
Timeline of the American Revolution (1760–1789)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Edwin J. Perkins, "Forty Years of Salutary Neglect: A Retrospective." Reviews in American History 40#3 (2012): 370–375 online.
Jump up ^ Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole, eds. A Companion to the American Revolution (2003) ch 15–17
Jump up ^ Richard Alan Ryerson, The Revolution is Now Begun: The Radical Committees of Philadelphia, 1765–1776 (2012).
Jump up ^ Greene and Pole, eds. A Companion to the American Revolution (2003) ch 23
Jump up ^ Jerrilyn Greene Marston, King and Congress: The transfer of political legitimacy, 1774–1776 (2014).
Jump up ^ Greene and Pole, eds. A Companion to the American Revolution (2003) ch 24
Jump up ^ Krull, Kathleen (2013). What was the Boston Tea Party?. Grosset & Dunlap. ISBN 9780448462882.
Jump up ^ R. Don Higginbotham, George Washington and the American Military Tradition (1985) ch 3
Jump up ^ Robert Selig, March to victory: Washington, Rochambeau, and the Yorktown Campaign of 1781 (2005) online.
Jump up ^ Alexander Rose, Washington's Spies (2006). pp 258–61.
Jump up ^ William Gardner Bell (2005). Commanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff, 1775-2005: Portraits & Biographical Sketches of the United States Army's Senior Officer. pp. 3–4.
Jump up ^ Douglas S. Freeman, and Richard Harwell, Washington (1968) p 42.
Jump up ^ Higginbotham, George Washington and the American Military Tradition (1985) ch 3
Jump up ^ Arnold Whitridge, "Baron von Steuben, Washington's Drillmaster." History Today (July 1976) 26#7 pp 429-36.
Jump up ^ E. Wayne Carp, To Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775-1783 (1990) p 220.
Jump up ^ Edward G. Lengel, General George Washington: A Military Life (2005) pp 365-71.
Jump up ^ Robert A. Gross, The minutemen"(1976).
Jump up ^ David Hackett Fischer, Paul Revere's ride (1994).
Jump up ^ Ron Chernow , Washington: A Life (2011) pp 186–94
Jump up ^ Greene and Pole, eds. A Companion to the American Revolution (2003) ch 29
Jump up ^ McCullough, 1776
Jump up ^ Greene and Pole, eds. A Companion to the American Revolution (2003) ch 32
Jump up ^ Barnet Schecter, The Battle for New York: The City at the Heart of the American Revolution (2002)
Jump up ^ McCullough, 1776.
Jump up ^ Andrew J. O'Shaughnessy, "Military Genius?: The Generalship of George Washington." Reviews in American History 42.3 (2014): 405–410. online
Jump up ^ David Hackett Fischer, Washington's Crossing (2005)
Jump up ^ Michael O. Logusz, With Musket And Tomahawk: The Saratoga Campaign and the Wilderness War of 1777 (2010)
Jump up ^ Victor Brooks; Robert Hohwald (1999). How America Fought Its Wars: Military Strategy from the American Revolution to the Civil War. Da Capo Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-1-58097-002-0.
Jump up ^ Howard Jones, Crucible of power: a history of American foreign relations to 1913 (2002) p. 12
Jump up ^ Henry Lumpkin, From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South (2000)
Jump up ^ Richard M. Ketchum, Victory at Yorktown: The Campaign That Won the Revolution (2004)
Jump up ^ Ronald Hoffman, and Peter J. Albert, eds. Peace and the Peacemakers: The Treaty of 1783 (1986).
Jump up ^ Barry Schwartz, "The social context of commemoration: A study in collective memory." Social forces 61.2 (1982): 374–402. online
Jump up ^ Jill Lepore, The Whites Of Their Eyes: The Tea Party’s Revolution and the Battle Over American History (Princeton University Press, 2010).
Jump up ^ Francis Cogliano, No King, No Popery: Anti-Catholicism in Revolutionary New England (1995) pp 154-55, quote p 155. online
Jump up ^ Barry Schwartz, "The social context of commemoration: A study in collective memory." Social forces 61.2 (1982): 374–402. online
Jump up ^ Robert P. Hay, "George Washington: American Moses," American Quarterly (1969) 21#4 pp 780–91 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Catherine L. Albanese, Sons of the Fathers: The Civil Religion of the American Revolution (1977)
Jump up ^ Merrill Jensen, The New Nation: A History of the United States During the Confederation, 1781–1789 (1968).
Jump up ^ Bouton, Terry (2012). "The Trials of the Confederation". In Gray, Edward G.; Kamensky, Jane. The Oxford Handbook of the American Revolution. pp. 370–87.
Jump up ^ Richard Morris, The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789 (1988), is the standard scholarly history
Jump up ^ Jack N. Rakove, "The Collapse of the Articles of Confederation," in The American Founding: Essays on the Formation of the Constitution ed. by J. Jackson Barlow, Leonard W. Levy and Ken Masugi (1988) pp 225–45
Jump up ^ Ron Chernow, Alexander Hamilton (2004)
Jump up ^ David O. Stewart, The Summer of 1787: The Men Who Invented the Constitution (2008)
Jump up ^ Pauline Maier, Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788 (2010) p 84
Jump up ^ Maier, Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788 (2010) p 396
Jump up ^ Leonard W. Levy and Dennis J. Mahoney, The Framing and Ratification of the Constitution (1987)
Jump up ^ The Akhil Reed Amar The Bill of Rights: Creation and Reconstruction (2000)
Further reading[edit]
Chernow, Ron. Washington: A Life (2010), Pulitzer Prize
Chernow, Ron. Alexander Hamilton (2004)
Cogliano, Francis D. Revolutionary America, 1763–1815; A Political History (2008), British textbook
Ellis, Joseph J. Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation (2000)
Ellis, Joseph J. Revolutionary Summer: The Birth of American Independence (2013) on 1776
Ferling, John. A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic (2003) online edition
Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Richard A. Ryerson, eds. The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History (5 vol. 2006) 1000 entries by 150 experts, covering all topics
Graebner, Norman A., Richard Dean Burns, and Joseph M. Siracusa. Foreign Affairs and the Founding Fathers: From Confederation to Constitution, 1776–1787 (Praeger, 2011) 199 pp.
Gray, Edward G., and Jane Kamensky, eds. The Oxford Handbook of the American Revolution (2013) 672 pp; 33 topical essays by scholars
Greene, Jack P. and J.R. Pole, eds. A Companion to the American Revolution (2nd ed, 2003), excerpt and text search, 90 essays by leading scholars; strong on all political, social and international themes; thin on military
Higginbotham, Don. The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789. Massachusetts:Northeastern University Press, 1983. ISBN 978-0-93035-043-7. Online in ACLS History E-book Project. Comprehensive coverage of military and other aspects of the war.
Jensen, Merrill. "The Idea of a National Government During the American Revolution," Political Science Quarterly (1943) 58#3 pp: 356–379 in JSTOR
Jensen, Merrill. The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781 (1959)
Jensen, Merrill. The New Nation: A History of the United States During the Confederation, 1781–1789 (1981)
Kerber, Linda K. Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (1979)
McCullough, David. 1776 (2005)
Middlekauff, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789. (2nd ed. 2005). ISBN 0-19-516247-1. 696pp online edition
Miller, John C. Triumph of Freedom, 1775–1783 (1948) online edition
Morris, Richard B. The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789 (The New American Nation series) (ISBN 006015733X) (1987)
Nevins, Allan; The American States during and after the Revolution, 1775–1789 (1927) online edition.
Taylor, Alan. American Revolutions: A Continental History, 1750–1804 (2016) 704pp; recent survey by leading scholar
Wood, Gordon S. The American Revolution: A History (2003), short survey by leading scholar
Primary sources[edit]
Commager, Henry Steele and Morris, Richard B., eds. The Spirit of 'Seventy-Six: The Story of the American Revolution As Told by Participants (1975) (ISBN 0060108347)
Humphrey; Carol Sue, ed. The Revolutionary Era: Primary Documents on Events from 1776 to 1800 Greenwood Press, 2003
Morison, S. E. ed. Sources and Documents Illustrating the American Revolution, 1764–1788, and the Formation of the Federal Constitution (1923)
External links[edit]
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: US History
Interactive Google Map of the American Revolution Zoom in on the actual forts and battlefields of the American Revolution, complete with Wikipedia linked descriptions of each battle
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text:
Sign of the Times (Harry Styles song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Sign of the Times"
Single by Harry Styles
from the album Harry Styles
Released
7 April 2017 (2017-04-07)
Format
Digital download
streaming
Genre
Pop rock[1]
soft rock[2]
glam rock[3]
Length
5:40 (album version)
4:06 (radio edit)
Label
Erskine
Columbia[4]
Songwriter(s)
Harry Styles
Jeff Bhasker
Mitch Rowland
Ryan Nasci
Alex Salibian
Tyler Johnson
Producer(s)
Bhasker
Salibian
Johnson
Harry Styles singles chronology
"Sign of the Times"
(2017) "Two Ghosts"
(2017)
"Sign of the Times"
(2017) "Two Ghosts"
(2017)
Music video
"Sign of the Times" on YouTube
"Sign of the Times" is the debut solo single by English singer and songwriter Harry Styles for his self-titled debut studio album. It is his first single outside of the boy band One Direction. Released on 7 April 2017, by Erskine and Columbia Records, it was written by Styles, Ryan Nasci, Mitch Rowland and its producers Jeff Bhasker, Tyler Johnson, and Alex Salibian.[1] Musically, it was defined by critics as a multi-genre ballad, including pop rock, soft rock and glam rock. Its music video was released on 8 May.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background and release
2 Composition
3 Music video
4 Critical reception
5 Chart performance
6 Live performances
7 Charts
7.1 Weekly charts
7.2 Year-end charts
8 Certifications
9 References
10 External links
Background and release[edit]
Early rumours about Styles going on a solo career sparkled in 2015, when it was reported that Sony Music wanted Styles to release a solo album during One Direction's hiatus.[5] By the end of 2015, four new songs written and performed by Styles were registered on the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) online database, which was believed to be for his potential debut solo album at the time.[6] Shortly after, Styles signed up with American agent Jeffrey Azoff and moved to Columbia Records.[7] In September 2016, Styles was on the cover of Another Man, which led the media to expect a new album in the future.[7]
In February 2017, chairman and CEO of Columbia Records, Rob Stringer, admitted that the album was close to finish and called it "authentic".[8] A month later, it was reported that the album sounded like David Bowie and Queen, while also being revealed that he worked on the album with only one producer, Jeff Bhasker. It was also hinted that the lead single would be released in late April or early May and it sounded "like it would be a smash in any decade".[9] In the same month, US radio host Elvis Duran accidentally revealed during his show that Styles' debut single would be released on 7 April 2017.[10] On 25 March, Styles teased the new single with a television ad during The Voice UK.[11] On 31 March, the singer revealed through social media that his single is titled "Sign of the Times".[12] On 7 April, the song premiered during Nick Grimshaw's breakfast show on BBC Radio 1.[13]
Composition[edit]
The song is a pop rock, soft rock, piano ballad.[1][14] According to a Billboard writer, it "folds in psychedelic soul, indie rock and spacey pop".[15] The "apocalyptic"[16] power ballad shows influences from 1970s British rock.[17] In an interview with Rolling Stone, Styles stated, "The song is written from a point of view as if a mother was giving birth to a child and there's a complication. The mother is told, 'The child is fine, but you're not going to make it.' The mother has five minutes to tell the child, 'Go forth and conquer.'"[18]
According to the song credits provided by Styles' label, the track was co-written by the song's producer, Jeff Bhasker, as well as his frequent collaborators and track co-producers Alex Salibian and Tyler Johnson. Songwriters also include Mitch Rowland, Ryan Nasci and Styles himself. Rowland played guitar and drums, Nasci the bass and Bhasker the piano, keyboard and lap steel parts. The track was recorded at Village Studios in Los Angeles and Geejam Hotel Recording Studio in Port Antonio, Jamaica. The song was mixed by Mark "Spike" Stent.[19]
Music video[edit]
Directed by Woodkid, the song's music video was released on 8 May.[20] It features Styles singing in a meadow, and soaring in the skies, walking on water. A writer from USA Today described Styles to be "auditioning to be Marvel Comics next superhero or in a new biblical epic".[21] It was filmed on the Isle of Skye in Scotland.[22] The video's stunt pilot, Will Banks, stated that Styles flew more than 1,550 feet high during the shoot. Banks also claimed that no green screen or CGI effects were employed during filming.[23] A stunt double was used for some scenes.[24]
Critical reception[edit]
Billboard's Gil Kaufman wrote, "Every artist is an accumulation of their influences, and in [this song] they come fast and furious, as Styles appears to be both showing his range and making a clear effort to step boldly away from the manufactured, plastic pop of his past". Kaufman opined it "rakes in influences from Pink Floyd and David Bowie to Queen, Spacehog, Suede, Coldplay, The Beatles, Eric Carmen and Prince".[15] Also for Billboard, Jason Lipshutz wrote it is "resolute, determined, wholly committed to its messaging and sound, radio trends be damned. Although it wears its influences on its sleeve (Bowie) nothing about this single bends toward someone else’s expectations". He concluded saying the song "sounds effortless, but to arrive without any incomplete features is an accomplishment in a music industry where pop artists are expected to produce new music at an unsustainable rate".[25]
Tim Jonze of The Guardian described it as "a ballad, but not so much in the boyband style" and compared the song to the music of American indie rock band The Walkmen.[26] Jonze also addressed early rumors that the song would be influenced by the music of David Bowie, noting "If it is indeed Bowie-esque, then it’s the Bowie of Hunky Dory".[26] Jamieson Cox in Pitchfork felt the "skyscraping Bowie ballad" manages to sound like both fun.'s "We Are Young" and Coldplay's "The Scientist".[27] NPR's Ann Powers argued the song mirrors more closely "Britpop anthems" like Blur's "Tender" or The Verve's "Bittersweet Symphony" "than anything Bowie released in his prime".[28]
Writing for Rolling Stone, Brittany Spanos thought it "aligns much more with the Seventies-inspired pop-rock of One Direction's more recent albums like Made in the A.M.".[29] Anjali Raguraman from The Straits Times considered it the "strongest" track on the album, saying "the conviction of his delivery is beyond his years".[30]
In The Atlantic, Spencer Kornhaber opined that the song "continues with One Direction's po-mo project of recycling classic-rock sounds as bubblegum. But he’s now embracing such sounds with more abandon, less chirpiness, some trend bucking, and the kind of uplifting lyrics that nod to planetary anxiety". Kornhaber described the song opens with ballad piano, "encroaching" violins, and Styles "crooning in pain", "but then there’s the bwang of a guitar and the song rockets into an arena-rock reverie that feels so, so familiar to anyone who remembers the '90s but also so, so foreign to today’s landscape".[31]
In The Telegraph, Alice Vincent described it as a "swooning piano ballad with somewhat overdone production" and opined, "it is also... a little boring. A big, blousy singalong which shows off Styles's vocal prowess – especially with an unexpected, slightly yelping falsetto bridge – but isn't enormously fun".[14] Roising O'Connor of The Independent gave it three out of five stars, and concluded, "it’s going to take something bigger than this one track to assert Styles as a serious artist."[32] Since it was released on the 30th anniversary of Prince's Sign o' the Times, Spin's Andy Cush commented, "it’s clear that this is Styles’s attempt to distinguish himself as an artist with real depth. But the music itself has almost nothing to do with Prince–instead, think Oasis, Elton John at his most bombastic, '70s John Lennon". Cush noted it "has only those three chords, and it goes straight for cruising altitude with an onslaught of cymbals and guitar on the first chorus, expecting you to be moved without pausing to consider why".[33]
Rolling Stone ranked it as the best song released in 2017.[34] Billboard staff considered it the 8th best song of the year.[35] Spin staff ranked it as the 13th best boy-band solo debut single.[36]
Chart performance[edit]
"Sign of the Times" reached number one on the UK Singles Chart with a combined sales of 62,900 units.[37] In its first week, it sold 39,000 downloads together with 3.5 million streams that give 23,472 equivalent units, pausing Ed Sheeran's run of 13 weeks at the top of the chart with "Shape of You".[38]
In the United States, the song debuted at number four on the Billboard Hot 100. In its first week, it sold 142,000 copies (topping Digital Songs), earned 16.5 million streams and 23 million airplay impressions.[39]
Live performances[edit]
Styles performed the song on 15 April 2017 episode of Saturday Night Live's 42nd season.[40] On 21 April, Styles appeared on the BBC's The Graham Norton Show, for his first solo performance in his native UK.[41] He also performed the song on The Late Late Show with James Corden.[16] Styles performed the song on The Today Show on May 9.[42] He also performed it at The Garage in London, England on 13 May and at the Troubadour in West Hollywood, California on 19 May.[43] He performed it live on a French talk show, Quotidien, on 26 April 2017.[44]
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (2017)
Peak
position
Argentina (Monitor Latino)[45]
10
Australia (ARIA)[46]
1
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[47]
2
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[48]
8
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)[49]
4
Brazil Hot 100 (Billboard)[50]
4
Brazil Hot Pop Songs (Billboard)[51]
20
Canada (Canadian Hot 100)[52]
6
Canada AC (Billboard)[53]
7
Canada CHR/Top 40 (Billboard)[54]
14
Canada Hot AC (Billboard)[55]
6
Colombia (National-Report)[56]
83
Croatia (HRT)[57]
1
Czech Republic (Rádio Top 100)[58]
9
Czech Republic (Singles Digitál Top 100)[59]
5
Denmark (Tracklisten)[60]
20
Finland Download (Latauslista)[61]
1
France (SNEP)[62]
3
Germany (Official German Charts)[63]
20
Hungary (Rádiós Top 40)[64]
31
Hungary (Single Top 40)[65]
5
Iceland (RÚV)[66]
2
Ireland (IRMA)[67]
6
Italy (FIMI)[68]
9
Latvia (Latvijas Top 40)[69]
1
Lebanon (Lebanese Top 20)[70]
8
Malaysia (RIM)[71]
14
Mexico (Billboard Ingles Airplay)[72]
1
Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)[73]
16
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[74]
26
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[75]
6
Norway (VG-lista)[76]
20
Paraguay (Monitor Latino)[77]
13
Philippines (Philippine Hot 100)[78]
52
Poland (Polish Airplay Top 100)[79]
1
Portugal (AFP)[80]
6
Scotland (Official Charts Company)[81]
1
Slovakia (Rádio Top 100)[82]
5
Slovakia (Singles Digitál Top 100)[83]
2
Slovenia (SloTop50)[84]
15
Spain (PROMUSICAE)[85]
4
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[86]
15
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[87]
4
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[88]
1
US Billboard Hot 100[89]
4
US Adult Alternative Songs (Billboard)[90]
25
US Adult Contemporary (Billboard)[91]
21
US Adult Top 40 (Billboard)[92]
12
US Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard)[93]
12
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (2017)
Position
Argentina (Monitor Latino)[94]
31
Canada (Canadian Hot 100)[95]
48
US Billboard Hot 100[96]
87
US Billboard Digital Song Sales[97]
56
Certifications[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
Australia (ARIA)[98]
2× Platinum 140,000^
Austria (IFPI Austria)[99]
Gold 15,000*
Belgium (BEA)[100]
Platinum 30,000*
Canada (Music Canada)[101]
2× Platinum 160,000^
Denmark (IFPI Denmark)[102]
Gold 30,000^
France (SNEP)[103]
Gold 75,000*
Germany (BVMI)[104]
Gold 200,000^
Italy (FIMI)[105]
2× Platinum 100,000
Mexico (AMPROFON)[106]
Gold 30,000*
New Zealand (RMNZ)[107]
Gold 15,000*
Poland (ZPAV)[108]
Platinum 20,000*
Spain (PROMUSICAE)[109]
Gold 20,000^
Sweden (GLF)[110]
Platinum 40,000^
United Kingdom (BPI)[111]
Gold 400,000
United States (RIAA)[112]
Platinum 1,000,000
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
sales+streaming figures based on certification alone
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Here Are The Lyrics To Harry Style's 'Sign Of The Times'". Billboard. 7 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Wass, Mike (7 April 2017). "Harry Styles Takes Flight With "Sign Of The Times"". Idolator.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles channels glam rock in post-One Direction debut". CTV News. 7 April 2017. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sign of the Times - Single by Harry Styles on Apple Music". iTunes Store. United States: Apple Music. 10 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Menyes, Carolyn (25 August 2015). "Harry Styles Solo Album: Sony Wants One Direction Star During Band's Hiatus". Music Times. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Stutz, Colin (30 December 2015). "Harry Styles' 4 New Solo Song Titles: What to Make of His Copyright Registrations". Billboard. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Corner, Lewis (28 November 2016). "Harry Styles new album: 2017 release date, new songs, movie career and everything else you need to know". Digital Spy. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Halperin, Shirley (9 February 2017). "Incoming Sony Music Head Rob Stringer on Harry Styles' 'Authentic' Solo Debut: 'We're Close'". Billboard. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Levine, Nick (22 March 2017). "Harry Styles' solo album 'sounds like David Bowie and Queen', say insiders". NME. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Britton, Luke Morgan (24 March 2017). "Harry Styles' debut solo single release date revealed?". NME. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Iasimone, Ashley (25 March 2017). "Harry Styles to Release a Single on April 7". Billboard.
Jump up ^ Tom, Lauren (31 March 2017). "Harry Styles Debuts Cover Art for First Solo Single, 'Sign of the Times'". Billboard.
Jump up ^ Savage, Mark (7 April 2017). "Harry Styles' Sign Of The Times: Everything you need to know about Harry's solo debut". BBC Music.
^ Jump up to: a b Vincent, Alice (7 April 2017). "Harry Styles's solo single Sign of the Times is mournful, sensitive and a little boring - review". The Telegraph.
^ Jump up to: a b Kaufman, Gil (7 April 2017). "Harry Styles' Biggest 'Sign of the Times' Influences: From Bowie to Pink Floyd & Coldplay". Billboard.
^ Jump up to: a b "Watch Harry Styles Crush 'Sign Of The Times' on 'The Late Late Show'". Variety. 16 May 2017. Retrieved 27 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles goes '70s glam: Hear his new solo single 'Sign of the Times'". Los Angeles Times. 7 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Crowe, Cameron (18 April 2017). "Harry Styles' New Direction". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Gil (14 April 2017). "Check out full credits for Harry Styles' Sign of the Times". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles - Sign of the Times". YouTube. 8 May 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2017.
Jump up ^ McDermott, Maeve (May 8, 2017). "Harry Styles drops Jesus-like music video for 'Sign of the Times'". USA Today. Retrieved December 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles drops Jesus-like music video for 'Sign of the Times'". usatoday.com. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Watch Harry Styles Take Flight in Epic 'Sign of the Times' Video". billboard.com. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Dangles from helicopter as he shoots for music video". dailymail.co.uk. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Lipshutz, Jason (7 March 2017). "Harry Styles' 'Sign of the Times' & The Virtue of Patience". Billboard.
^ Jump up to: a b Jonze, Tim. "Harry Styles debuts Sign of the Times. Is he really the new Bowie?". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Cox, Jamieson (16 May 2017). "Harry Styles: Harry Styles Album Review". Pitchfork. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Powers, Ann (16 May 2017). "Styles Of The Times". NPR. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Spanos, Brittany (7 April 2017). "Hear Harry Styles' Sweeping Debut Solo Song 'Sign of the Times'". Rolling Stone.
Jump up ^ "Soft rock with an edge". The Straits Times. 17 May 2017. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Kornhaber, Spencer (7 April 2017). "Even Former Boy-Banders Are Making Music About the End Times". The Atlantic.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, Roisin (7 April 2017). "Harry Styles new song 'Sign of the Times' review: Bowie nods aren't enough to move him out of One Direction territory". The Independent. Retrieved 9 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Cush, Andy (7 April 2017). "Harry Styles' "Sign of the Times" Is Pompous, Overblown, and Too Long, and His Fans Are Gonna Love It". Spin.
Jump up ^ Weingarten, Christopher R.; Spanos, Brittany; Aaron, Charles; Vozick-Levinson, Simon; Sheffield, Rob (29 November 2017). "50 Best Songs of 2017". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 30 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Billboard's 100 Best Songs of 2017: Critics' Picks". Billboard. 13 December 2017. Retrieved 14 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Best Boy Band Solo Debut Singles, Ranked". Spin. 20 April 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Jones, Alan (14 April 2017). "Official Charts Analysis: Harry Styles ends Ed Sheeran's reign as No.1 single". Music Week.
Jump up ^ Jonze, Tim (14 April 2017). "Harry Styles's solo debut single ends Ed Sheeran's 13 weeks at top of charts". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Trust, Gary (17 April 2017). "Ed Sheeran Tops Hot 100 for 12th Week, as Harry Styles Starts at No. 4". Billboard. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Lipshutz, Jason (7 April 2017). "Harry Styles Will Perform a Second New Song on 'Saturday Night Live'". Billboard. Retrieved 7 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles is making his solo UK debut on The Graham Norton Show". Digital Spy. 5 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Performs Hit 'Sign Of The Times' On The Today Plaza - Today". 9 May 2017 – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Emulates Folk-Rock Heroes at Intimate Los Angeles Gig".
Jump up ^ "Harry styles - sign of the times (french tv show - quotidien) #Quotidien". especialmusica.tv.
Jump up ^ "Top 20 Argentina – Del 19 al 25 de Junio, 2017" (in Spanish). Monitor Latino. 19 June 2017. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Australian-charts.com – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times". ARIA Top 50 Singles. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Austriancharts.at – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times" (in French). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Rankings - Billboard Hot 100". Billboard Brasil. Internet Group. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Pop Brasil: Finalmente, "Despacito" assume a liderança do ranking". Billboard Brasil (in Portuguese). May 29, 2017. Retrieved May 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Chart History (Canadian Hot 100)" Billboard. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Chart History (Canada AC)" Billboard. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Chart History (Canada CHR/Top 40)" Billboard. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Chart History (Canada Hot AC)" Billboard. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Colombia - Semana 22 del 2017 - Del 26/05/2017 al 1/06/2017" (in Spanish). National-Report. 2 June 2017. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "STRANA - Top do topa (17.6.2017.)". HRT. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "ČNS IFPI" (in Czech). Hitparáda – Radio Top 100 Oficiální. IFPI Czech Republic. Note: insert 201731 into search. Retrieved 7 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "ČNS IFPI" (in Czech). Hitparáda – Digital Top 100 Oficiální. IFPI Czech Republic. Note: insert 201715 into search. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Danishcharts.com – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times". Tracklisten. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles: Sign of the Times" (in Finnish). Musiikkituottajat – IFPI Finland. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Lescharts.com – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times" (in French). Les classement single. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times". GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Archívum – Slágerlisták – MAHASZ" (in Hungarian). Rádiós Top 40 játszási lista. Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Archívum – Slágerlisták – MAHASZ" (in Hungarian). Single (track) Top 40 lista. Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Chart History". RÚV. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "IRMA - Irish Charts". Irish Recorded Music Association. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Italiancharts.com – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times". Top Digital Download. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Latvijas Top 40". Latvijas Radio. 29 May 2017. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Lebanese Chart Top 20 History". The Official Lebanese Top 20. 12 June 2017. Retrieved 12 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Top 20 Most Streamed International & Domestic Singles in Malaysia" (PDF). Recording Industry Association of Malaysia. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mexico Ingles Airplay". Billboard. 6 May 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2017. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ "Nederlandse Top 40 – week 19, 2017" (in Dutch). Dutch Top 40 Retrieved 12 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times" (in Dutch). Single Top 100. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Norwegiancharts.com – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times". VG-lista. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Monitor Latino – Top 20 General – Paraguay – Del 26 de Junio al 2 de Julio, 2017" (in Spanish). monitorlatino.com. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "BillboardPH Hot 100". Billboard Philippines. 12 June 2017. Retrieved 12 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Listy bestsellerów, wyróżnienia :: Związek Producentów Audio-Video". Polish Airplay Top 100. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Portuguesecharts.com – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times". AFP Top 100 Singles. Retrieved 9 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Official Scottish Singles Sales Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "SNS IFPI" (in Slovak). Hitparáda – Radio Top 100 Oficiálna. IFPI Czech Republic. Note: insert 201729 into search. Retrieved 25 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "SNS IFPI" (in Slovak). Hitparáda – Singles Digital Top 100 Oficiálna. IFPI Czech Republic. Note: insert 201715 into search. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "SloTop50: Slovenian official singles weekly chart" (in Slovenian). SloTop50. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Spanishcharts.com – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times" Canciones Top 50. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Swedishcharts.com – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times". Singles Top 100. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times". Swiss Singles Chart. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Official Singles Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Chart History (Hot 100)" Billboard. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Chart History (Adult Alternative Songs)" Billboard. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Chart History (Adult Contemporary)" Billboard. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Chart History (Adult Pop Songs)" Billboard. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles Chart History (Pop Songs)" Billboard. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Anual Argentina". Monitor Latino. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Canadian Hot 100 – Year-End 2017". Billboard. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Hot 100 Songs – Year-End 2017". Billboard. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Digital Song Sales – Year-End 2017". Billboard. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2017 Singles". Australian Recording Industry Association. 29 July 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Austrian single certifications – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times" (in German). IFPI Austria. Retrieved 9 August 2017. Enter Harry Styles in the field Interpret. Enter Sign of the Times in the field Titel. Select single in the field Format. Click Suchen
Jump up ^ "Ultratop − Goud en Platina – 2017". Ultratop. Hung Medien. 18 August 2017. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Canadian single certifications – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times". Music Canada. 19 September 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Harry Styles "Sign Of The Times"". IFPI Denmark. September 5, 2017. Retrieved September 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "French single certifications – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times" (in French). Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique. 11 August 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Gold-/Platin-Datenbank (Harry Styles; 'Sign of the Times')" (in German). Bundesverband Musikindustrie. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Italian single certifications – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times" (in Italian). Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Certificaciones – Harry Styles" (in Spanish). Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand single certifications – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times". Recorded Music NZ. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Polish single certifications – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times" (in Polish). Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Spanish single certifications – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times" (PDF) (in Spanish). Productores de Música de España. Retrieved 13 July 2017. Select single under "Chart", enter 2017 in the field "Year". Select '' in the field "Semana". Click on "Search Charts"
Jump up ^ "Guld- och Platinacertifikat" (in Swedish). IFPI Sweden. Retrieved 13 September 2017. Type Harry Styles in the top right search bar. Click on "Sok" and select Sign of the Times and see certification.
Jump up ^ "British single certifications – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times". British Phonographic Industry. Retrieved 23 June 2017. Enter Sign of the Times in the search field and then press Enter.
Jump up ^ "American single certifications – Harry Styles – Sign of the Times". Recording Industry Association of America. 22 August 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2017. If necessary, click Advanced, then click Format, then select Single, then click SEARCH
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
"Sign of the Times" (audio) on YouTube
[hide]
v
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Harry Styles
Discography
Studio albums
Harry Styles
Singles
"Sign of the Times"
"Two Ghosts"
"Kiwi"
Promotional singles
"Sweet Creature"
Concert tours
Harry Styles: Live on Tour
Related articles
One Direction
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Times_(Harry_Styles_song)&oldid=815925488"
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values: نشانه زمان (ترانه) – Persian

values: Sign of the Times (երգ, Հարրի Սթայլս) – Armenian

values: Sign of the Times (lagu Harry Styles) – Indonesian

values: Sign of the Times (Harry Styles) – Italian

values: Sign of the Times (Harry Styles) – Dutch

values: Sign of the Times (песня Гарри Стайлза) – Russian

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