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Kitchen stove
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"Stove Top" redirects here. For the brand of stuffing, see Stove Top stuffing.
A wood burning iron stove
A stove at Holzwarth Ranch National Historic Site in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado
A kitchen stove, often called simply a stove or a cooker, is a kitchen appliance designed for the purpose of cooking food. Kitchen stoves rely on the application of direct heat for the cooking process and may also contain an oven, used for baking. "Cookstoves" (also called "cooking stoves" or "wood stoves") are heated by burning wood or charcoal; "gas stoves" are heated by gas; and "electric stoves" by electricity. A stove with multiple cooking surfaces is also called a range.[1]
In the industrialized world, as stoves replaced open fires and braziers as a source of more efficient and reliable heating, models were developed that could also be used for cooking, and these came to be known as kitchen stoves.[2] When homes began to be heated with central heating systems, there was less need for an appliance that served as both heat source and cooker and stand-alone cookers replaced them. Cooker and stove are often used interchangeably.
The fuel-burning stove is the most basic design of kitchen stove. "Nearly half of the people in the world (mainly in the developing world), burn biomass (wood, charcoal, crop residues, and dung) and coal in rudimentary cookstoves or open fires to cook their food."[3] More fuel efficient and environmentally sound biomass cook stoves are being developed for use there.
Modern kitchen stoves may use alternative methods for heating food. Natural gas and electric stoves are the most common today in western countries. Both are equally effective and safe, and the choice between the two is largely a matter of personal preference and pre-existing utility outlets: if a house has no gas supply, adding one just to be able to run a gas stove is an expensive endeavor. In particular, professional chefs often prefer gas stovetops, for they allow them to control the heat more finely and more quickly. On the other hand, some chefs often prefer electric stoves because they tend to heat food more evenly. Today's major brands offer both gas and electric stoves, and many also offer dual-fuel stoves combining gas and electric stovetops.
Modern kitchen stoves have burners on the top (also known as the "stovetop" or "cooktop" in American English and as the "hob" in British English) as well as an oven. A stovetop can refer to the top of a stove or burners built into a countertop. Many newer stovetops are made of glass-ceramic. A "drop-in range" is a combination stovetop-and-oven unit that installs in a kitchen's lower cabinets flush with the countertop. Most modern stoves come in a unit with built-in extractor hoods.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early kitchen stoves
1.2 Origins of the modern kitchen range
1.3 Gas and electric stoves
1.4 Other technologies
2 See also
3 References
History[edit]
Early kitchen stoves[edit]
Indonesian traditional brick stove which is still used in some rural areas
The 18th-century Japanese merchant's kitchen, Kamado (Hezzui) made of copper (Fukagawa Edo Museum)
Early clay stoves that enclosed the fire completely, were known from the Chinese Qin Dynasty (221 BC–206/207 BC), and a similar design known as kamado (かまど) appeared in the Kofun period (3rd–6th century) in Japan. These stoves were fired by wood or charcoal through a hole in the front. In both designs, pots were placed over or hung into holes at the top of the knee-high construction. Raised kamados were developed in Japan during the Edo period (1603–1867).
Prior to the 18th century in Europe, people cooked over open fires fueled by wood. In the Middle Ages, waist-high brick-and-mortar hearths and the first chimneys appeared, so that cooks no longer had to kneel or sit to tend to foods on the fire. The fire was built on top of the construction; the cooking done mainly in cauldrons hung above the fire or placed on trivets. The heat was regulated by placing the cauldron higher or lower above the fire.[2]
Open fire systems had three major disadvantages that prompted an evolutionary series of improvements from the 16th century onwards: it was dangerous, it produced much smoke, and the heat efficiency was poor. Attempts were made to enclose the fire to make better use of the heat that it generated and thus reduce the wood consumption. An early step was the fire chamber: the fire was enclosed on three sides by brick-and-mortar walls and covered by an iron plate. This technique also caused a change in the kitchenware used for cooking, for it required flat-bottomed pots instead of cauldrons. The first design that completely enclosed the fire was the 1735 Castrol stove, built by the French architect François de Cuvilliés.This stove was a masonry construction with several fireholes covered by perforated iron plates and was also known as a stew stove. Near the end of the 18th century, the design was refined by hanging the pots in holes through the top iron plate, thus improving heat efficiency even more.
Origins of the modern kitchen range[edit]
The modern kitchen range was invented by Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford in the 1790s. As an active scientist and prolific inventor, he put the study of heat onto a scientific basis and developed improvements for chimneys, fireplaces and industrial furnaces, which led to his invention of the kitchen range.
Section of Rumford fireplace, invented by Sir Benjamin Thompson.
His Rumford fireplace created a sensation in London when he introduced the idea of restricting the chimney opening to increase the updraught. This was a much more efficient way to heat a room than earlier fireplaces. He and his workers modified fireplaces by inserting bricks into the hearth to make the side walls angled, and added a choke to the chimney to increase the speed of air going up the flue. The effect was to produce a streamlined air flow, so all the smoke would go up into the chimney rather than lingering and entering the room. It also had the effect of increasing the efficiency of the fire, and gave extra control of the rate of combustion of the fuel, whether wood or coal. Many fashionable London houses were modified to his instructions, and became free of smoke.[4]
Following on from this success, Thompson designed a kitchen range made of brick, with a cylindrical oven and holes in the top for the insertion of pots. When not needed, the opening could be covered over leaving the fire to smolder gently. This kitchen range was much more fuel efficient than the prevailing open hearth method and to a great degree safer. His range was widely adopted in large cooking establishments, including at the soup kitchens that Thompson built in Bavaria. However, it was too big and unwieldy to make much of an impact on domestic cooking.[5]
The first half of the nineteenth century witnessed a steady improvement in stove design. Cast iron stoves replaced those made of masonry and their size shrunk to allow them to be incorporated into the domestic kitchen. By the 1850s, the modern kitchen, equipped with a cooking range, was a fixture of middle-class homes. In 1850 Mary Evard invented the Reliance Cook Stove, which was divided in two with one half for dry baking and the other half for moist.[6] Patents issued to Mary Evard are US76315 and US76314 on April 7, 1868.[7][8] She demonstrated this stove with her husband at the St. Louis World's Fair.[9]
A 19th-century stove made in Budapest exhibited in the Međimurje County Museum, Croatia, during the Night of Museums in 2015.
In 1867 Elizabeth Hawks of New York invented and received a patent for a baking attachment for stoves, intended to spread heat thoroughly throughout loaves while keeping the top crust tender, which she called an "Auxiliary Air-chamber for Stoves." [9] This was so successful that she sold two thousand within months of its release.[10][11]
Stoves of that era commonly burned charcoal as well as wood. These stoves had flat tops and the heat was concentrated on one side of the stove top so that cooks could cook things at different temperatures based on where the pot or pan was located. This was called the "piano" system. After coal was replaced with gas, French chefs continued to prefer the smooth cooking surface and so the majority of French gas stoves had flat metal surfaces over the gas burners, which continues to be known as the "French style" today.[12]
Gas and electric stoves[edit]
Main articles: Gas stove and Electric stove
Early gas stoves produced by Windsor. From Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management, 1904.
A major improvement in fuel technology came with the advent of gas. The first gas stoves were developed as early as the 1820s, but these remained isolated experiments. James Sharp patented a gas stove in Northampton, England, in 1826 and opened a gas stove factory in 1836. His invention was marketed by the firm Smith & Philips from 1828. An important figure in the early acceptance of this new technology, was Alexis Soyer, the renowned chef at the Reform Club in London. From 1841, he converted his kitchen to consume piped gas, arguing that gas was cheaper overall because the supply could be turned off when the stove was not in use.[13]
A gas stove was shown at The Great Exhibition in London in 1851, but it was only in the 1880s that the technology became a commercial success in England. By that stage a large and reliable network for gas pipeline transport had spread over much of the country, making gas relatively cheap and efficient for domestic use. Gas stoves only became widespread on the European Continent and in the United States in the early 20th century.
Drawings submitted on 29 November 1905 when David Curle Smith obtained an Australian patent (No. 4699/05) for his "electric cooking stove", also known as "The Kalgoorlie Stove".
Once electric power was widely and economically available, electric stoves became a popular alternative to fuel-burning appliances. One of the earliest such devices was patented by Canadian inventor Thomas Ahearn in 1892.[14] Ahearn and Warren Y. Soper were owners of Ottawa's Chaudiere Electric Light and Power Company.[15] The electric stove was showcased at the Chicago World's Fair in 1893, where an electrified model kitchen was shown.
Unlike the gas stove, the electrical stove was slow to catch on, partly due to the unfamiliar technology, and the need for cities and towns to be electrified. Early electric stoves were unsatisfactory due to the cost of electricity (compared with wood, coal, or city gas), limited power available from the electrical supply company, poor temperature regulation, and short life of heating elements. The invention of nichrome alloy for resistance wires improved the cost and durability of heating elements.[16]
The first practical design was patented by the Australian David Curle Smith in 1905. His device adopted (following the design of gas stoves) what later became the configuration for most electric stoves: an oven surmounted by a hotplate with a grill tray between them. Curle Smith's stove did not have a thermostat; heat was controlled by the number of the appliance’s nine elements that were switched on.[17]
The first electric stoves used heating elements made of high-resistance metal to produce heat. The stovetop (range) surface had one or more circular heating elements, insulated with compressed magnesia and sheathed in a spiral metal tube. Heating elements for the oven are of similar construction but an elongated loop to distribute heat. Elements were made as plug-in consumer-replaceable parts and could also be easily removed for cleaning. Temperature of cooking elements was regulated by adjusting a bimetal thermostat control switch, which switched power on and off to control the average heating effect of the elements.
Other technologies[edit]
An early induction cooker patent from 1909.
Rather than applying direct heat to a cooking vessel, an induction cooker causes metal vessels to heat by electromagnetic induction. This leaves the cooking top cold (or rather, only heated by proximity to the cooking vessel) and increases efficiency. Induction cooking offers less waste heat, faster boiling times and the ability to set cookware anywhere on the surface of the stovetop. Although it does require cookware that’s made with some iron or is magnetic, to allow the induction to take place.[18]
The first patents date from the early 1900s.[19] Demonstration stoves were shown by the Frigidaire division of General Motors in the mid-1950s[20] on a touring GM showcase in North America. The induction cooker was shown heating a pot of water with a newspaper placed between the stove and the pot, to demonstrate the convenience and safety. This unit, however, was never put into production. Modern implementation in the USA dates from the early 1970s, with work done at the Research & Development Center of Westinghouse Electric Corporation at Churchill Borough, near Pittsburgh.[21]
Photograph of a modern 3-oven AGA cooker
A high-end gas stove called the AGA cooker was invented in 1922 by Swedish Nobel prize winner Gustaf Dalén. As a heat storage stove, it worked on the principle that a heavy frame made from cast iron components can absorb heat from a relatively low-intensity but continuously-burning source, and the accumulated heat can then be used when needed for cooking.
Dalén took his design to Britain in 1929, where it was first manufactured under licence in the early 1930s. The cast iron components were first cast at the Coalbrookdale foundry in the 1940s, where they are still made today by the Aga Rangemaster Group. Its popularity in certain parts of English society (owners of medium to large country houses) led to the coining of the term "AGA Saga" in the 1990s, referring to a genre of fiction set amongst stereotypical upper-middle-class society.
Microwave ovens were developed in the 1940s, and use microwave radiation to directly heat the water held inside food.
Flattop grills are also being installed into kitchen counters and islands, which do double-duty as a direct cooking surface as well as a platform for heating pots and pans. A hot plate is a similar device, which is mobile and can be used as an appropriate technology.
See also[edit]
Barbecue grill
Beverage-can stove
Biomass Cook Stoves
Cook stove
Electric stove
Extractor hood (range hood)
Gas stove
Hot plate
Induction stove
List of stoves
Portable stove
Potbelly stove
Pressure cooker
Red Cross stove
Rocket stove
Slow cooker
Solar cooker
Food portal
Technology portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Definition of stove - appliance, cookery and building". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Montagne, Prosper New Larousse Gastronomique Hamlin Publishing Group 1977 268,901 Quoting Eugène Viollet-le-Duc on cooking in the Middle Ages: "The division of stoves into several compartments as in our day was seldom seen. The dishes were cooked on the fire itself, and these fierce fires did not allow for dishes which required constant stirring, or to be made in frying pans".
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20130202003612/http://www.epa.gov/research/airscience/air-cleancookstove.htm
Jump up ^ "Rumford Kitchen".
Jump up ^ Suzanne Staubach (2013). Clay: The History and Evolution of Humankind's Relationship with Earth's Most Primal Element. UPNE.
Jump up ^ Google Drive Viewer
Jump up ^ Patent US76315 - evard - Google Patents
Jump up ^ Patent US76314 - Improvement in broiling-apparatus - Google Patents
^ Jump up to: a b Ency Kitchen History - Google Books
Jump up ^ Feminine Ingenuity: How Women Inventors Changed America - Anne Macdonald - Google Books
Jump up ^ Professional Pursuits: Women and the American Arts and Crafts Movement - Catherine W. Zipf - Google Books
Jump up ^ The History of Kitchen Appliances Archived 2010-06-16 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Mary Ellen Snodgrass (2004). Encyclopedia of Kitchen History. Routledge. p. 428.
Jump up ^ "Patent no. 39916". Made in Canada. Library and Archives Canada. November 22, 2005. Retrieved October 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Early Electric Cooking: 1900 to 1920". Canada Science and Technology Museum. Retrieved October 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ Ed Sobey, The Way Kitchens Work, Chicago Review Press, 2010 ISBN 1569762813, page viii
Jump up ^ Introduction by H. A. Willis, Thermo-Electrical Cooking Made Easy, Hesperian Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-85905-492-8 p. 24
Jump up ^ "Induction Cooktops". Appliance Help. Archived from the original on 2013-05-15. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
Jump up ^ for example see UK Patent Application GB190612333, entitled "Improvements in or relating to Apparatus for the Electrical Production of Heat for Cooking and other purposes", applied for by Arthur F. Berry on 26 May 1906
Jump up ^ Kitchen of the Future has Glass-Dome Oven and Automatic Food Mixer, Popular Mechanics Apr 1956, page 88
Jump up ^ W. C.Moreland, The Induction Range: Its Performance and Its Development Problems, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. TA-9, no. 1, January/February 1973 pages 81–86
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Cellular respiration
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Typical eukaryotic cell
Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.[1] The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process, as weak so-called "high-energy" bonds are replaced by stronger bonds in the products. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. Cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox reaction which releases heat. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, most of which are redox reactions themselves. Although cellular respiration is technically a combustion reaction, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a living cell because of the slow release of energy from the series of reactions.
Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and the most common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O2). The chemical energy stored in ATP (its third phosphate group is weakly bonded to the rest of the molecule and is cheaply broken allowing stronger bonds to form, thereby transferring energy for use by the cell) can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes.
Contents
[hide]
1 Aerobic respiration
1.1 Aerobic respiration summed up
1.2 Glycolysis
1.3 Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
1.4 Citric acid cycle
1.5 Oxidative phosphorylation
2 Efficiency of ATP production
3 Fermentation
4 Anaerobic respiration
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration (red arrows) is the main means by which both fungi and animals utilize chemical energy in the form of organic compounds that were previously created through photosynthesis (green arrow).
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen (O2) in order to create ATP. Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are consumed as reactants, it is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondria in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The products of this process are carbon dioxide and water, but the energy transferred is used to break bonds in ADP as the third phosphate group is added to form ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2
Simplified reaction: C6H12O6 (s) + 6 O2 (g) → 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l) + heat
ΔG = −2880 kJ per mol of C6H12O6
The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously.
The potential of NADH and FADH2 is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system).[2] However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.[2]
Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose). However some anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens are able to continue with anaerobic respiration, yielding more ATP by using other inorganic molecules (not oxygen) as final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain. They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post-glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.
Aerobic respiration summed up
1. Glycolysis:
--- 2 ATPs + Glucose → 2 Pyruvic Acid + 4 Hydrogen + 4 ATPs
2. Formation of Acetyl CoA:
--- 2 Pyruvic Acid + 2 CoA → 2 Acetyl CoA + 2 Carbon Dioxide + 2 Hydrogen
3. Krebs Cycle:
--- 2 Acetyl CoA + 3 O2 → 6 Hydrogen + 4 Carbon Dioxide + 2 ATPs
4. Electron Transport System:
--- 12 Hydrogen + 3 O2 → 6 Water + 32 ATPs
Overall Reaction:
--- Glucose + 6 O2 → 6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water + 36 ATPs
Glycolysis
Out of the cytoplasm it goes into the Krebs cycle with the acetyl CoA. It then mixes with CO2 and makes 2 ATP, NADH, and FADH. From there the NADH and FADH go into the NADH reductase, which produces the enzyme. The NADH pulls the enzyme's electrons to send through the electron transport chain. The electron transport chain pulls H+ ions through the chain. From the electron transport chain, the released hydrogen ions make ADP for an end result of 32 ATP. O2 attracts itself to the left over electron to make water. Lastly, ATP leaves through the ATP channel and out of the mitochondria.
Main article: Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms. This pathway can function with or without the presence of oxygen. In humans, aerobic conditions produce pyruvate and anaerobic conditions produce lactate. In aerobic conditions, the process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, however, two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the pyruvate are oxidized. The overall reaction can be expressed this way:
Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 Pi + 2 ADP → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H+ + 2 H2O + heat
Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate. Glycogen can be converted into glucose 6-phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase. During energy metabolism, glucose 6-phosphate becomes fructose 6-phosphate. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-disphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. Fructose 1,6-diphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate.
Glycolysis can be literally translated as "sugar splitting".[3]
Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
Main article: Pyruvate decarboxylation
Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA and CO2 by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). The PDC contains multiple copies of three enzymes and is located in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes. In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, one molecule of NADH and one molecule of CO2 is formed.
Citric acid cycle
Main article: Citric acid cycle
This is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl-CoA is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. Once acetyl-CoA is formed, aerobic or anaerobic respiration can occur.[4] When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl-CoA is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and is oxidized to CO2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H2O and CO2, are created during this cycle.
The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving 18 different enzymes and co-enzymes.[4] During the cycle, acetyl-CoA (2 carbons) + oxaloacetate (4 carbons) yields citrate (6 carbons), which is rearranged to a more reactive form called isocitrate (6 carbons). Isocitrate is modified to become α-ketoglutarate (5 carbons), succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, and, finally, oxaloacetate.
The net gain of high-energy compounds from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP; the GTP may subsequently be used to produce ATP. Thus, the total yield from 1 glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP.
Oxidative phosphorylation
Main articles: Oxidative phosphorylation, Electron transport chain, Electrochemical gradient, and ATP synthase
In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesized by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed.
Efficiency of ATP production
The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation.
Step
coenzyme yield
ATP yield
Source of ATP
Glycolysis preparatory phase −2 Phosphorylation of glucose and fructose 6-phosphate uses two ATP from the cytoplasm.
Glycolysis pay-off phase 4 Substrate-level phosphorylation
2 NADH 3 or 5 Oxidative phosphorylation : Each NADH produces net 1.5 ATP (instead of usual 2.5) due to NADH transport over the mitochondrial membrane
Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate 2 NADH 5 Oxidative phosphorylation
Krebs cycle 2 Substrate-level phosphorylation
6 NADH 15 Oxidative phosphorylation
2 FADH2 3 Oxidative phosphorylation
Total yield 30 or 32 ATP From the complete oxidation of one glucose molecule to carbon dioxide and oxidation of all the reduced coenzymes.
Although there is a theoretical yield of 38 ATP molecules per glucose during cellular respiration, such conditions are generally not realized because of losses such as the cost of moving pyruvate (from glycolysis), phosphate, and ADP (substrates for ATP synthesis) into the mitochondria. All are actively transported using carriers that utilize the stored energy in the proton electrochemical gradient.
Pyruvate is taken up by a specific, low Km transporter to bring it into the mitochondrial matrix for oxidation by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
The phosphate carrier (PiC) mediates the electroneutral exchange (antiport) of phosphate (H2PO4−; Pi) for OH− or symport of phosphate and protons (H+) across the inner membrane, and the driving force for moving phosphate ions into the mitochondria is the proton motive force.
The ATP-ADP translocase (also called adenine nucleotide translocase, ANT) is an antiporter and exchanges ADP and ATP across the inner membrane. The driving force is due to the ATP (−4) having a more negative charge than the ADP (−3), and thus it dissipates some of the electrical component of the proton electrochemical gradient.
The outcome of these transport processes using the proton electrochemical gradient is that more than 3 H+ are needed to make 1 ATP. Obviously this reduces the theoretical efficiency of the whole process and the likely maximum is closer to 28–30 ATP molecules.[2] In practice the efficiency may be even lower because the inner membrane of the mitochondria is slightly leaky to protons.[5] Other factors may also dissipate the proton gradient creating an apparently leaky mitochondria. An uncoupling protein known as thermogenin is expressed in some cell types and is a channel that can transport protons. When this protein is active in the inner membrane it short circuits the coupling between the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis. The potential energy from the proton gradient is not used to make ATP but generates heat. This is particularly important in brown fat thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating mammals.
Stoichiometry of aerobic respiration and most known fermentation types in eucaryotic cell. [6] Numbers in circles indicate counts of carbon atoms in molecules, C6 is glucose C6H12O6, C1 carbon dioxide CO2. Mitochondrial outer membrane is omitted.
According to some of newer sources the ATP yield during aerobic respiration is not 36–38, but only about 30–32 ATP molecules / 1 molecule of glucose [6], because:
ATP : NADH+H+ and ATP : FADH2 ratios during the oxidative phosphorylation appear to be not 3 and 2, but 2.5 and 1.5 respectively. Unlike in the substrate-level phosphorylation, the stoichiometry here is difficult to establish.
ATP synthase produces 1 ATP / 3 H+. However the exchange of matrix ATP for cytosolic ADP and Pi (antiport with OH− or symport with H+) mediated by ATP–ADP translocase and phosphate carrier consumes 1 H+ / 1 ATP as a result of regeneration of the transmembrane potential changed during this transfer, so the net ratio is 1 ATP : 4 H+.
The mitochondrial electron transport chain proton pump transfers across the inner membrane 10 H+ / 1 NADH+H+ (4 + 2 + 4) or 6 H+ / 1 FADH2 (2 + 4).
So the final stoichiometry is
1 NADH+H+ : 10 H+ : 10/4 ATP = 1 NADH+H+ : 2.5 ATP
1 FADH2 : 6 H+ : 6/4 ATP = 1 FADH2 : 1.5 ATP
ATP : NADH+H+ coming from glycolysis ratio during the oxidative phosphorylation is
1.5, as for FADH2, if hydrogen atoms (2H++2e−) are transferred from cytosolic NADH+H+ to mitochondrial FAD by the glycerol phosphate shuttle located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
2.5 in case of malate-aspartate shuttle transferring hydrogen atoms from cytosolic NADH+H+ to mitochondrial NAD+
So finally we have, per molecule of glucose
Substrate-level phosphorylation: 2 ATP from glycolysis + 2 ATP (directly GTP) from Krebs cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation
2 NADH+H+ from glycolysis: 2 × 1.5 ATP (if glycerol phosphate shuttle transfers hydrogen atoms) or 2 × 2.5 ATP (malate-aspartate shuttle)
2 NADH+H+ from the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate and 6 from Krebs cycle: 8 × 2.5 ATP
2 FADH2 from the Krebs cycle: 2 × 1.5 ATP
Altogether this gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose
The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactic acid fermentation is only 2 molecules coming from glycolysis, because pyruvate is not transferred to the mitochondrion and finally oxidized to the carbon dioxide (CO2), but reduced to ethanol or lactic acid in the cytoplasm.[6]
Fermentation
Main article: Fermentation
Without oxygen, pyruvate (pyruvic acid) is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD+ for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate-level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen.
Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose: only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose nominally produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the waste products of fermentation still contain chemical potential energy that can be released by oxidation. Ethanol, for example, can be burned in an internal combustion engine like gasoline. Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting.
Anaerobic respiration
Main article: Anaerobic respiration
Cellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidised in the presence of an inorganic electron acceptor (such as oxygen) to produce large amounts of energy, to drive the bulk production of ATP.
Anaerobic respiration is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the final electron acceptor. Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate or nitrate is used. Such organisms are typically found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean.
See also
Maintenance respiration: maintenance as a functional component of cellular respiration
Pasteur point
Respirometry: research tool to explore cellular respiration
Tetrazolium chloride: cellular respiration indicator
Complex 1: NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductes
References
Jump up ^ Bailey, Regina. "Cellular Respiration". Archived from the original on 2012-05-05.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rich, P. R. (2003). "The molecular machinery of Keilin's respiratory chain". Biochemical Society Transactions. 31 (Pt 6): 1095–1105. doi:10.1042/BST0311095. PMID 14641005.
Jump up ^ Reece1 Urry2 Cain3 Wasserman4 Minorsky5 Jackson6, Jane1 Lisa2 Michael3 Steven4 Peter5 Robert6 (2010). Campbell Biology Ninth Edition. Pearson Education, Inc. p. 168.
^ Jump up to: a b "Cellular Respiration" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-05-10.
Jump up ^ Porter, R.; Brand, M. (1 September 1995). "Mitochondrial proton conductance and H+/O ratio are independent of electron transport rate in isolated hepatocytes". The Biochemical Journal (Free full text). 310 (Pt 2): 379–382. doi:10.1042/bj3100379. ISSN 0264-6021. PMC 1135905  . PMID 7654171.
^ Jump up to: a b c Stryer, Lubert (1995). Biochemistry (fourth ed.). New York – Basingstoke: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 978-0716720096.
External links
A detailed description of respiration vs. fermentation
Kimball's online resource for cellular respiration
Cellular Respiration and Fermentation at Clermont College
Library resources about
Cellular respiration
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Letting the cat out of the bag
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Look up let the cat out of the bag in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiversity uses let the cat out of the bag in an essay.
Letting the cat out of the bag or out of the box is a colloquialism meaning to reveal facts previously hidden. The facts were usually hidden from a specific target audience or theatrical audience. Examples include:
revealing a conspiracy (friendly or not) to its target
in a movie or play, the revelation of a plot twist
letting an outsider into an inner circle of knowledge (e.g., explaining an in-joke)
Etymology[edit]
The derivation of the phrase is not clear. One suggestion is that the phrase refers to the whip-like "cat o'nine tails", an instrument of punishment once used on Royal Navy vessels. The instrument was purportedly stored in a red sack, and a sailor who revealed the transgressions of another would be "letting the cat out of the bag".[1] Another suggested derivation is from the "pig in a poke" scam, where a customer buying a suckling pig in a sack would actually be sold a (less valuable) cat, and would not realise the deception until the bag was opened.[1] Johannes Agricola made reference to the expression "let the cat out of the bag" in a letter to Martin Luther on 4 May 1530 as referenced in Lyndal Roper's 2016 biography about Martín Luther.
Both of these suggestions are rejected by Snopes.com, who find no evidence of it originating in naval slang, nor of whips being stored in sacks, and consider it "nigh on impossible to mistake a cat for a pig".[1]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Let the Cat out of the Bag, at Snopes.com; by Barbara Mikkelsen; published 16 July 2012; retrieved 31 May, 2013
This vocabulary-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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text:
The Breakfast Club (radio show)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Not to be confused with Don McNeill's Breakfast Club.
The Breakfast Club
Genre
Talk, Hip hop, Politics
Running time
4 hours
Country of origin
United States
Home station
Power 105.1
(New York City)
Syndicates
Premiere Networks
TV adaptations
Simulcast on Revolt
Starring
DJ Envy
Angela Yee
Charlamagne tha God
Produced by
Eddie F.
Original release
2010 (at WWPR-FM)
since 2013 (Syndication) – present
Opening theme
"Smells Like Teen Spirit" performed by Nirvana
Website
Official website
The Breakfast Club is an American syndicated radio show based in New York City hosted by DJ Envy, Angela Yee and Charlamagne tha God.[1] It currently airs in 50 plus markets around the country and on REVOLT every morning. Common topics of discussion on the show are celebrity gossip (especially in the hip hop industry), progressive politics, sexual and dating issues.
Contents
1 History
2 Segments
3 Past/Recurring segments
4 Affiliates
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
The Breakfast Club was established December 2010 on Power 105.1 as a local morning show.[2] In April 2013, Premiere Networks (WWPR-FM's corporate cousin through owner Clear Channel Communications, now iHeartMedia) launched a weekend version of the show, Weekends with the Breakfast Club, which is a Top 20 Countdown. Four months later, The Breakfast Club was rolled out into syndication.[3] Since March 2014, The Breakfast Club has been simulcast on REVOLT.[4]
In July 2017, comedian Lil Duval joked on the show about killing a sex partner if she turned out to be a transgender woman. Host Charlamagne Tha God, while noting that killing a trans person was a hate crime, stated that women not disclosing their trans status were "taking away a person's power of choice" and "should go to jail or something". In response, trans activists, including Raquel Willis and Elle Hearns, called for the show to be boycotted or cancelled.[5][6][7]
Segments[edit]
Front Page News
Get It Off Your Chest
The Rumor Report
Ask Yee (Wednesday and Thursdays)
Donkey of the Day
Freaky Friday (Friday)
Positive note of the day
Call in and Weigh in
Interview
Goon Toons (Friday)
People's Choice Mix
Shoot Your Shot (Tuesday)
Past/Recurring segments[edit]
The Freezer
Slander the Breakfast Club
After the Club
New Song of the day
The Decision (Mondays)
Hoe Appreciation Day
Affiliates[edit]
There are currently 38 affiliated stations currently airing The Breakfast Club radio show.
REVOLT TV
KATZ / St. Louis, Missouri
KBBT / San Antonio, Texas
KHBT / Waco, Texas
KOHT / Tucson, Arizona
KKMY / Beaumont, Texas
KQBT / Houston, Texas
KVEG / Las Vegas, Nevada
KKRZ / Portland, Oregon
WCZQ / Champaign, Illinois
WDHT / Dayton, Ohio
WEBN / Cincinnati, Ohio
WFBC / Greenville, South Carolina
WFXE / Columbus, Georgia
WGOV / Valdosta, Georgia
WHXT / Columbia, South Carolina
WJBT / Jacksonville, Florida
WJLB / Detroit, Michigan
WJMN / Boston, Massachusetts
WOWI / Norfolk, Virginia
WJZD / Gulfport, Mississippi
WKKV / Milwaukee, Wisconsin
WMIB / Miami, Florida
WQBT / Savannah, Georgia
WQHH / Lansing, Michigan
WQUE / New Orleans, Louisiana
WRDG / Atlanta, Georgia
WRSV / Raleigh, North Carolina, (simulcast on WDUR)
WRVZ / Charleston, West Virginia
WTFX / Louisville, Kentucky
WTKS / Orlando, Florida
WUSL / Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
WWPR / New York City, New York (flagship station)
WZCB / Columbus, Ohio
WZHT / Montgomery, Alabama
WZRL / Indianapolis, Indiana
W257BQ / Charleston, South Carolina
W280DO / Lexington, Kentucky
W281AB / Birmingham, Alabama
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Premiere Radio Networks". Premiere Radio.
Jump up ^ "New York's Power 105.1 Introduces New Morning Show".
Jump up ^ "Clear Channel Begins Breakfast Club Syndication Rollout".
Jump up ^ "The Breakfast Club is coming to REVOLT!".
Jump up ^ "Lil Duval Jokes About Murdering Transgender Women, Leads To 'The Breakfast Club' Boycott". Essence. July 31, 2017. Retrieved October 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Eligon, John (August 6, 2017). "Transgender African-Americans' Open Wound: 'We're Considered a Joke'". The New York Times. Retrieved October 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Starr, Terrell Jermaine (August 1, 2017). "Trans Black Women Are Petitioning Charlamagne tha God Over Transphobic Comments on Show". The Root. Retrieved October 3, 2017.
External links[edit]
Official website
show
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Morning drive-time radio programs in New York City
Morning Edition (WNYC-93.9)
Ty Bentli, Kelly Ford and Chuck Wicks (WNSH-94.7)
The Todd Show (WPLJ-95.5)
El Vacilón de la Mañana (WSKQ-97.9)
Golic and Wingo (WEPN-98.7)
Elvis Duran and the Morning Show (WHTZ-100.3)
Shannon in the Morning (WCBS-101.1)
Cubby Bryant and Carolina Bermudez (WKTU-103.5)
The Breakfast Club (WWPR-105.1)
The Steve Harvey Morning Show (WBLS-107.5)
The Morning Show with Boomer (WFAN-660/101.9)
Len Berman (WOR-710)
Bernie and Sid (WABC-770)
The Takeaway (WNYC-820)
Joe Piscopo (WNYM-970)
Mark Riley (WWRL-1600)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Breakfast_Club_(radio_show)&oldid=856823226"
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Sherlock Holmes: The Devil's Daughter
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Sherlock Holmes: The Devil's Daughter
Developer(s)
Frogwares
Publisher(s)
Bigben Interactive
Series
Sherlock Holmes
Engine
Unreal Engine 3
Platform(s)
Microsoft Windows
PlayStation 4
Xbox One
Release
Windows
WW: June 10, 2016
PlayStation 4, Xbox One
WW: October 25, 2016
Genre(s)
Adventure
Mode(s)
Single-player
Sherlock Holmes: The Devil's Daughter is an adventure mystery video game in the Sherlock Holmes series developed by Frogwares and published by Bigben Interactive for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in 2016. It was released for the Xbox One and PlayStation 4 on 25 October 2016. Though it was originally scheduled for release on 10 June 2016, the console versions were delayed. However, the PC version was released on schedule.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Gameplay
2 Premise
3 Development
4 Reception
5 References
6 External links
Gameplay[edit]
Like its predecessor Sherlock Holmes: Crimes & Punishments, the majority of the game involves exploring crime scenes and examining clues. Once discovered, clues are added to a "deduction board", a gameplay mechanic which involves linking pieces of information together, leading to possibilities for different deductions. Once deductions are connected together, the player will have a full tree of deductions in the player's memory called mind palace. Depending on how players interpret the clues, they will arrive at different conclusions. Thus, the player can fail or succeed in finding the culprit.
Premise[edit]
Across five linked cases, Holmes confronts dark family secrets, both in his cases and personally, when a visiting woman begins interfering in his personal life, especially with his adopted daughter.
Development[edit]
On 8 May 2015, an eighth installment in the series was announced.[2] Kerry Shale was originally expected to reprise his role as Sherlock.[3] However, it was later confirmed by Frogwares that the game would focus on a different incarnation of Sherlock Holmes featuring Alex Jordan in the titular role.
The Devil's Daughter was the first game since 2007 not to be published by Focus Home Interactive; instead the publishing was managed by Bigben Interactive. No reasons were given for the change of publisher.[4]
Reception[edit]
GameSpot awarded it a score of 6.0 out of 10, saying "It’s a fantastic detective game; it’s just a shame that it's bogged down by myriad technical issues, and a mediocre attempt to inject some action into proceedings."[5] IGN awarded it a score of 5.0 out of 10, saying "Sherlock Holmes: The Devil's Daughter has good mysteries, but the way you interact with them is rigid and limiting."[6]
The Devil's Daughter received mostly positive reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 65/100 based on 19 reviews,[7] the PlayStation 4 version 71/100 based on 28 reviews,[8] and the Xbox One version 66/100 based on 12 reviews.[9]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Bigben Interactive and Frogwares Reveal the New Sherlock Holmes Game". 22 October 2015. Retrieved 30 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Sherlock Holmes: The Devil's Daughter Launching on May 27 for PS4, XB1 & PC". PlayStationLifeStyle.net. 9 February 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Kerry Shale [@kerryshale] (24 October 2015). "Watch this space, Mark. I'm expecting a call, but the voices are added towards the end of the production" (Tweet). Retrieved 25 October 2015 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ "New Sherlock Holmes Game Airs in 2016". 8 May 2015. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Wakeling, Richard, June 7, 2016 "Sherlock Holmes: The Devil's Daughter Review" (http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/sherlock-holmes-the-devils-daughter-review/1900-6416449/). GameSpot. Accessed 14 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Robertson, John, 17 June 2016, "SHERLOCK HOLMES: THE DEVIL'S DAUGHTER REVIEW" (http://uk.ign.com/articles/2016/06/17/sherlock-holmes-the-devils-daughter-review). IGN. Accessed 17 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sherlock Holmes: The Devil's Daughter Metacritic Listing" (http://www.metacritic.com/game/pc/sherlock-holmes-the-devils-daughter). Metacritic. Accessed 16 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sherlock Holmes: The Devil's Daughter Metacritic Listing" (http://www.metacritic.com/game/playstation-4/sherlock-holmes-the-devils-daughter). Metacritic. Accessed 16 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sherlock Holmes: The Devil's Daughter Metacritic Listing" (http://www.metacritic.com/game/xbox-one/sherlock-holmes-the-devils-daughter). Metacritic. Accessed 16 May 2017.
External links[edit]
Official website
[hide]
v
t
e
Video game adaptations of Sherlock Holmes
Individual games
Sherlock
Robin of Sherlock
Sherlock Holmes: Hakushaku Reijō Yūkai Jiken
Young Sherlock: The Legacy of Doyle
221B Baker Street
Sherlock: The Riddle of the Crown Jewels
Meitantei Holmes: M-Kara no Chousenjou
Consulting Detective
series
Consulting Detective
Consulting Detective Vol. II
Consulting Detective Vol. III
Sherlock Holmes
series
The Mystery of the Mummy
The Case of the Silver Earring
The Awakened
Sherlock Holmes Versus Arsène Lupin
Sherlock Holmes Versus Jack the Ripper
The Testament of Sherlock Holmes
Crimes & Punishments
The Devil's Daughter
Casual games Frogwares
The Mystery of Osborne House
The Hound of the Baskervilles
Other games
The Lost Files of Sherlock Holmes series
Dai Gyakuten Saiban series
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sherlock_Holmes:_The_Devil%27s_Daughter&oldid=825993629"
Categories:
2016 video games
Action-adventure games
Sherlock Holmes (video game series)
Detective video games
PlayStation 4 games
Video games based on Sherlock Holmes
Video games featuring female antagonists
Video games developed in Ukraine
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Windows games
Xbox One games
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This page was last edited on 16 February 2018, at 16:13.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
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