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Adrenal medulla
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Adrenal medulla
Medulla labeled at bottom right.
Details
Precursor
Neural crest
Part of
Adrenal gland
Artery
superior suprarenal artery, middle suprarenal artery, Inferior suprarenal artery
Vein
suprarenal veins
Nerve
celiac plexus, renal plexus
Lymph
lumbar glands
Identifiers
MeSH
D000313, D019439
TA
A11.5.00.008
FMA
15633
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Medullary part of the adrenal gland (on the pointer).
The adrenal medulla (Latin: medulla glandulae suprarenalis) is part of the adrenal gland. It is located at the center of the gland, being surrounded by the adrenal cortex. It is the innermost part of the adrenal gland, consisting of cells that secrete epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and a small amount of dopamine in response to stimulation by sympathetic preganglionic neurons.
Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Development
2 Function
3 Clinical significance
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Structure[edit]
The adrenal medulla consists of irregularly shaped cells grouped around blood vessels. These cells are intimately connected with the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). In fact, these adrenal medullary cells are modified postganglionic neurons, and preganglionic autonomic nerve fibers lead to them directly from the central nervous system. The adrenal medulla therefore affects available energy, heart rate, and metabolism. Recent research indicates that the adrenal medulla may receive input from higher-order cognitive centers in the prefrontal cortex as well as the sensory and motor cortices, providing credence to the idea that there are psychosomatic illnesses.[1]
Development[edit]
Medullary cells are derived from the embryonic neural crest and, as such, are simply modified neurons.
In particular, they are modified postganglionic cells of the autonomic nervous system that have lost their axons and dendrites, receiving innervation from corresponding preganglionic fibers. The cells form clusters around large blood vessels.
As a cluster of neuron cell bodies, the adrenal medulla is considered a ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system.
Function[edit]
Rather than releasing a neurotransmitter, the cells of the adrenal medulla secrete hormones.
The adrenal medulla is the principal site of the conversion of the amino acid tyrosine into the catecholamines; epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine.
Because the ANS, specifically the sympathetic division, exerts direct control over the chromaffin cells the hormone release can occur rather quickly. In response to stressors such as exercise or imminent danger, medullary cells release the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline into the blood. Adrenaline composes about 85% of the released catecholamines, and noradrenaline the other 15%.[2]
Notable effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline include increased heart rate and blood pressure, blood vessel constriction in the skin and gastrointestinal tract, smooth muscle (bronchiole and capillary) dilation, and increased metabolism, all of which are characteristic of the fight-or-flight response. Release of catecholamines is stimulated by nerve impulses, and receptors for catecholamines are widely distributed throughout the body.
Clinical significance[edit]
Neoplasms include:[3]
Pheochromocytoma (most common), a catecholamine-secreting tumor of the adrenal medulla
Neuroblastoma, a neuroendocrine tumor of any neural crest tissue of the sympathetic nervous system
Ganglioneuroma, a tumor in the nerve cells of the peripheral nervous system
The adrenal medulla may be poorly formed or absent in cases of absent adrenal gland. The deficiency in circulating catecholamines is mildly symptomatic due to compensation by the autonomous nervous system, except in episodes of hypoglycemia where glycogenolysis cannot be stimulated by circulating epinephrine .[3]
In dopamine beta hydroxylase deficiency, the entire body cannot efficiently produce epinephrine and norepinephrine from dopamine, this results in severe dysautonomia but most crucially due to autonomous nervous system failure which requires epinephrine and norepinephrine as neurotransmitters, dopamine being used in this pathology as an inadequate substitute.[3][4]
See also[edit]
Adrenal gland
Chromaffin cell
History of catecholamine research
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Dum, Richard (2016). "Motor, cognitive, and affective areas of the cerebral cortex influence the adrenal medulla". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 113: 9922–9927. doi:10.1073/pnas.1605044113. PMC 5024624  .
Jump up ^ Introduction to Autonomics, Part 2 - Page 5 of 12 anatomy module at med.umich.edu
^ Jump up to: a b c Fung, M. M.; Viveros, O. H.; O’Connor, D. T. (16 November 2007). "Diseases of the adrenal medulla". Acta Physiologica. 192 (2): 325–335. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.2007.01809.x. PMC 2576282  . PMID 18021328.
Jump up ^ Robertson, D; Haile, V; Perry, SE; Robertson, RM; Phillips JA, 3rd; Biaggioni, I (July 1991). "Dopamine beta-hydroxylase deficiency. A genetic disorder of cardiovascular regulation". Hypertension. 18 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1161/01.hyp.18.1.1. PMID 1677640.
External links[edit]
Anatomy photo:40:04-0202 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center - "Posterior Abdominal Wall: Blood Supply to the Suprarenal Glands"
Anatomy Atlases - Microscopic Anatomy, plate 15.292 - "Adrenal Gland"
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Disaster management in India
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; try the Find link tool for suggestions. (February 2017)
Disaster Management refers to how we can protect or preserve many lives and property. India has been traditionally vulnerable to the natural disasters on the account of its unique geo-climatic conditions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides would have been a recurrent phenomena. About 59% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities; over 40 million hectares is prone to floods; about 8% of the total area is prone to cyclones and 69% of the area is susceptible to drought. In the decade 1990-2000, an average of about 4344 people lost their lives and about 30 million people were affected by disasters every year.
The loss in terms of private, community and public assets has been astronomical.At the global level, there has been considerable concern over natural disasters. Even as substantial scientific and material progress is made, the loss of lives and property due to disasters has not decreased. In fact, the human toll and economic losses have mounted up. It was in this background that the United Nations General Assembly, in 1989, declared the decade 1990-2000 as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction with the objective to reduce loss of lives and property and restrict socio-economic damage through concerted international action, was specially certified in developing countries.
The super cyclone in Orissa in October, 1999 and the Bhuj earthquake in Gujarat in January, 2001 underscored the need to adopt a multi-dimensional endeavour involving diverse scientific, engineering, financial and social processes; the need to adopt multi disciplinary and multi-sectoral approach and incorporation of risk reduction in the developmental plans and strategies.
Over the past 2 years, the Government of India have brought about a paradigm shift in the approach to disaster management. The new approach proceeds from the conviction that development cannot be sustainable unless disaster mitigation is built into the development process. Another corner stone of the approach is that mitigation has to be multi-disciplinary spanning across all sectors of development. The new policy also emanates from the belief that investments in mitigation are much more cost effective than expenditure on relief and rehabilitation.
Disaster management occupies an important place in this country’s policy framework as it is the poor and the under-privileged who are worst affected on account of calamities/disasters.
The steps being taken by the Government emanate from the approach outlined above. The approach has been translated into a National Disaster Framework [a roadmap] covering institutional mechanisms, disaster prevention strategy, early warning system, disaster mitigation, preparedness and response and human resource development. The expected inputs, areas of intervention and agencies to be involved at the National, State and district levels have been identified and listed in the roadmap. This roadmap has been shared with all the State Governments and Union Territory Administrations. Ministries and Departments of Government of India, and the State Governments/UT Administrations have been advised to develop their respective roadmaps taking the national roadmap as a broad guideline. There is, therefore, now a common strategy underpinning the action being taken by all the participating organisations/stakeholders.
Contents
1 Institutional and Policy Framework
2 Plan
3 Act
4 Authority
5 References
Institutional and Policy Framework[edit]
The institutional and policy mechanisms for carrying out response, relief and rehabilitation have been well-established since Independence. These mechanisms have proved to be robust and effective insofar as response, relief and rehabilitation are concerned.
At the national level, the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal Ministry for all matters concerning disaster management. The Central Relief Commissioner (CRC) in the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal officer to coordinate relief operations for natural disasters. The CRC receives information relating to forecasting/warning of a natural calamity from India Meteorological Department (IMD) or from Central Water Commission of Ministry of Water Resources on acontinuing basis. The Ministries/Departments/Organizations concerned with the primary and secondary functions relating to the management of disasters include:
India Meteorological Department, Central Water Commission, Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of Urban Development, Department of Communications,
Ministry of Health, Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of Petroleum,
Department of Agriculture & Cooperation. Ministry of Power,
Civil Supplies, Ministry of Railways, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,
Planning Commission, Cabinet Secretariat, Department of Surface Transport,
Ministry of Social Justice, Department of Women and Child Development,
Ministry of Environment and Forest, Department of Food,
Ministry/Department/Organization nominate their nodal officer to the Crisis,
Management Group chaired by Central Relief Commissioner.
The Nodal officer is responsible for preparing sectoral Action Plan/Emergency Support Function Plan for managing disasters.
National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)
Cabinet Secretary, who is the highest executive officer, heads the NCMC. Secretaries of all the concerned Ministries /Departments as well as organizations are the members of the Committee The NCMC gives direction to the Crisis Management Group as deemed necessary. The Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs is responsible for ensuring that all developments are brought to the notice of the NCMC promptly.
The NCMC can give directions to any Ministry/Department/Organization for specific action needed for meeting the crisis situation.
Crisisnt Group
The Central Relief Commissioner in the Ministry of Home Affairs is the Chairman of the CMG, consisting of senior officers (called nodal officers) from various concerned Ministries. The CMG’s
functions are to review every year contingency plans formulated by various Ministries/Departments/Organizations in their respective sectors, measures required for dealing with a natural disasters, coordinate the activities of the Central Ministries and the State Governments in relation to disaster preparedness and relief and to obtain information from the nodal officers on measures relating to above. The CMG, in the event of a natural disaster, meets frequently to review the relief operations and extend all possible assistance required by the affected States to overcome the situation effectively. The Resident Commissioner of the affected State is also associated with such meetings.
Control Room (Emergency Operation Room)
An Emergency Operations Center (Control Room) exists in the nodal Ministry of Home Affairs,which functions round the clock, to assist the Central Relief Commissioner in the discharge of his duties. The activities of the Control Room include collection and transmission of information concerning natural calamity and relief, keeping close contact with governments of the affected States, interaction with other Central Ministries/Departments/Organizations in connection with relief, maintaining records containing all relevant information relating to action points and contact points in Central Ministries etc., keeping up-to-date details of all concerned officers at the Central and State levels.
Contingency Action Plan
A National Contingency Action Plan (CAP) for dealing with contingencies arising in the wake of natural disasters has been formulated by the Government of India and it had been periodically updated. It facilitates the launching of relief operations without delay. The CAP identifies the initiatives required to be taken by various Central Ministries/Departments in the wake of natural calamities, sets down the procedure and determines the focal points in the administrative machinery.
State Relief Manuals
Each State Government has relief manuals/codes which identify that role of each officer in the State for managing the natural disasters. These are reviewed and updated periodically based on the experience of managing the disasters and the need of the State.
Plan[edit]
PM Narendra Modi released the first Disaster Management Plan of India on 1 June 2016 that seeks to provide a framework and direction to government agencies for prevention, mitigation and management of disasters. This is the first national plan since enactment of the Disaster Management Act in 2005.[1]
Act[edit]
Main article: Disaster Management Act, 2005
The Disaster Management Act, 2005 (23 December 2005), was passed by the Rajya Sabha on 28 November, and by the Lok Sabha, on 12 December 2005. It received the assent of The President of India on 9 January 2006.
Authority[edit]
Main article: National Disaster Management Authority (India)
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is an agency of the Ministry of Home Affairs whose primary purpose is to coordinate response to natural or man-made disasters and for capacity-building in disaster resiliency and crisis response.[2] NDMA was established through the Disaster Management Act enacted by the Government of India in December 2005.[3] The Prime Minister is the ex-officio chairperson of NDMA. The agency is responsible for framing policies, laying down guidelines and best-practices and coordinating with the State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) to ensure a holistic and distributed approach to disaster management.[4]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Prime Minister Narendra Modi releases country's first-ever National Disaster Management Plan", The Times of India, 1 June 2016
Jump up ^ "NDMA Vision", National Disaster Management Authority (India)
Jump up ^ "Evolution of NDMA", National Disaster Management Authority (India)
Jump up ^ "Functions and Responsibilities", National Disaster Management Authority (India)
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List of United States community college records in track and field
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This is a list of records in the sport of Track and Field at the Community College level in the United States. The national governing body of athletics at that level is the National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA). However, the California Community College system, the largest in the country with over 100 institutions, is not a member of the NJCAA, instead governing its sports through the unaffiliated California Community College Athletic Association (CCCAA). Merging the records between these organizations has been left to the independent publication Track and Field News (T&FN) primarily in the person of Robert Hersh, who also supervises records for USA Track and Field (USATF).
Starting in the 1970s, many community colleges began recruiting foreign born athletes. With some of the best athletes in the world competing against American college freshmen and sophomores, an additional set of records for the best American born athletes was also included. T&FN was not 100% accurate when assessing which athletes are not Americans. They were not given assistance by the colleges, who tended not to discuss the foreign roots of some of their recruits. Additionally, with the less restrictive eligibility regulations (as compared to the very strict NCAA regulations), foreign born athletes could be older than the 18- to 20-year-old Americans who entered community college immediately following high school.
All of these records appear to be exclusively from Community College level competition, as opposed to the means T&FN uses in calculating High School records, where they allow all attempts by a high school affiliated athlete made against Open level competitors.
Contents
[hide]
1 Men
2 Women
3 See also
4 References
Men[edit]
Key: Awaiting ratification Record by American-born athlete
' after name = non-U.S. citizen (A) = altitude-aided mark--over 1000m of altitude (in affected events only) i = made indoors (banked-track marks not acceptable)
Event
Record
Athlete
School
Place
Date
Ref
Video
100 m
9.93 Kemarley Brown' Merritt College Walnut, California 5/17/14 [1]
10.05 Ryan Bailey Rend Lake College Hutchinson, Kansas 5/22/09
200 m 20.08 Aaron Armstrong' Barton Community College Norman, Oklahoma 4/10/99
400 m 44.52 Tyree Washington San Bernardino Valley College Bakersfield, California 5/03/97
800 m 1:45.15 Boaz Lalang' Rend Lake College Eugene, Oregon 5/09/08
1:46.60 George Kersh Taft College Walnut, California 4/23/89
1500 m 3:37.62 Boaz Lalang' Rend Lake College Hillsdale, Michigan 4/25/08
(unknown)
Mile 4:00.0 Reggie McAfee Brevard Community College Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 4/16/71
3000 m steeplechase 8:29.4 Julius Kariuki' Riverside City College Walnut, California 4/23/88
8:49.7 Nathan Morris Lane Community College Eugene, Oregon 5/14/83
5000 m 13:25.20 Noureddine Morceli' Riverside City College Walnut, California 4/21/90
13:59.20 Mark Ruelas Citrus College Bakersfield, California 5/15/82
10000 m 28:35.0 Mark Roberts' Central Arizona College Walnut, California 4/25/87
29:03.0 Kirk Pfeffer Grossmont College Irvine, California 3/28/76
110 m hurdles 13.32 Ryan Brathwaite' Barton Community College Austin, Texas 4/04/09
400 m hurdles 49.29 Eric Thomas Blinn College Odessa, Texas 5/21/94
4 × 100 m relay 38.86 Odessa College
(Jon Drummond, James Law, Rodney Eleby, Pat Drake) Odessa, Texas 5/16/87
4 × 200 m relay 1:20.79 Central Arizona College
(Richard Butler, Garfield Campbell' , Patrick O'Connor' , Howard Davis' ) Walnut, California 4/24/88
4 × 400 m relay 3:01.89 Blinn College
(Wayne Whyte' 46.2, Duane Hill 45.0, Kempa Busby 45.1, Eric Thomas 45.6) Odessa, Texas 5/21/92
3:01.32p South Plains College
(Alistair Moona' , Daniel Harper' , Vernon Norwood, Bralon Taplin) Lubbock, Texas 5/05/12
4 × 800 m relay 7:19.24 Blinn College
(Jimmy Pierre-Louis 1:51.5, Jean Destine' 1:50.7, Cliff Beckford 1:51.3, Savieri Ngidhi' 1:45.7) Austin, Texas 4/03/92
4 × 1500 m relay 15:41.66 Blinn College
(Junior Mitchell 3:55.1, Godfrey Siamusiye' 3:52.5, Richie Dikstall 3:54.8, Herbert Habyarimana' 3:59.3) Brenham, Texas 4/20/94
4×Mile relay 16:31.0 Allegheny College
(Tarald Lindvigsmoen' 4:08.6, Malcolm East' 4:06.4, Amos Korir' 4:00.2, James Rotich' 4:15.8) Knoxville, Tennessee 4/14/78
Sprint medley relay 3:12.67 Blinn College
(James Dibble, Jason Hendrix, Lamont Smith 45.7, Savieri Ngidhi' 1:45.9) Austin, Texas 4/02/93
Distance medley relay 9:41.65 Ranger College
(Ricky Roberts, George Bullard, Zak Gwandu' , Pat Chester') Austin, Texas 4/05/85
4x110 Hurdles 56.52 Blinn College
(Henrik Dagård' , Rory Norris, Brian Richardson, Kevin White) Lafayette, Louisiana 3/27/93
High jump 2.34 m (7 ft 8 in) Dennis Lewis Long Beach City College Los Angeles, California 3/30/85
Pole vault 5.49 m (18 ft 0 in) Dason Phelps Paradise Valley Community College Glendale, Arizona 3/18/00
Long jump 8.20 m (26 ft 103⁄4 in) Vernon George Odessa College Odessa, Texas 5/17/85
Triple jump 17.92 m (58 ft 91⁄2 in) James Beckford' Jamaica Blinn College Odessa, Texas 5/20/95
56-0 Walter Davis Barton Community College Baton Rouge, Louisiana 5/19/00
Shot put 21.35 m (70 ft 01⁄2 in) Ron Semkiw Mesa Community College Mesa, Arizona 3/05/74
Discus throw 64.22 m (210 ft 81⁄4 in) Andrey Kokhanovskiy' Blinn College Pasadena, Texas 4/26/95
204-11 Mike Gravelle Skyline College San Bruno, California 4/26/86
Hammer throw 66.61 m (218 ft 61⁄4 in) Branislav Daniš' Central Arizona College Mesa, Arizona 5/08/07
212-1 Dave Loshonkohl San Diego Mesa College Walnut, California 4/16/93
Javelin throw 75.72 m (248 ft 5 in) Tom Pukstys College of DuPage Tallahassee, Florida 3/18/88
Decathlon 7532 David Lemen Clackamas Community College Spokane, Washington 5/1-2/00
100m (wind)
Long jump (wind)
Shot put
High jump
400m
110H (wind)
Discus
Pole vault
Javelin
1500m
11.46 7.26m
23'10" 12.31m
40'4¾" 1.99m
6'6¼" 50.95
[3827] 15.09 36.40m
119'5" 5.05m
16'6¾" 59.90m
196'6" 4:51.16
[3705])
Women[edit]
Event
Record
Athlete
School
Place
Date
Ref
Video
100 m 11.12 Natasha Mayers' LA Southwest College Walnut, California 5/12/01
11.23 Zelda Johnson Mt. San Antonio College Bakersfield, California 5/26/84
200 m 22.39 Veronica Campbell' Barton Community College Odessa, Texas 5/18/02
23.12 Zelda Johnson Mt. San Antonio College Bakersfield, California 5/26/84
22.86p Ashton Purvis Laney College Norwalk, California 5/19/12
400 m 50.92 Sandie Richards' San Jacinto College Odessa, Texas 5/16/87
52.68 Gwen Gardner West Los Angeles College Westwood, California 5/16/82
800 m 2:01.92 Claudine Williams' Barton Community College Edwardsville, Illinois 5/16/98
2:03.9 Ruth Wysocki Citrus College Fresno, California 5/06/78
1500 m 4:17.82 Sylvia Mosqueda East Los Angeles College Stanford, California 3/29/86
3000 m 9:13.0 Trina Painter Phoenix College Walnut, California 4/26/86
3000 m steeplechase
5000 m 15:52.5 Sylvia Mosqueda East Los Angeles College Walnut, California 5/16/86
10000 m 34:34.61 Rose Tanui' Central Arizona College Tucson, Arizona 5/15/08
35:20.88 Erika Colin Community Colleges of Spokane Walnut, California 4/17/98
100 hurdles 13.13 Nichole Belcher Essex County College Odessa, Texas 5/20/95
400 hurdles 56.92 Tanya Jarrett' Central Arizona College Walnut, California 4/20/97
58.96 Margaret Hemmans El Camino College Bakersfield, California 5/26/84
4 × 100 m relay 43.83 Barton Community College
(Dionne Rose' , Juliet Campbell' , Beverly McDonald' , Cheryl Ann Phillips' ) Austin, Texas 4/05/91
4 × 200 m relay 1:33.63 Barton Community College
(Natalee Sterling' ,[2] Sonia Williams' , Mikessis Triplett', Aleen Bailey' ) Lawrence, Kansas 4/21/00
4 × 400 m relay 3:30.66 San Jacinto College
(Jackie Gayle' 52.0, Karlene Haughton' 52.2, Avia Morgan' 53.3, Lorieann Adams' 53.2) Austin, Texas 5/08/92
4 × 800 m relay 8:37.75 Barton Community College
(Nancy Torres 2:15.0, Karen Bennett' Jamaica 2:08.5, Mardrea Hyman' Jamaica 2:09.5, Inez Turner' Jamaica 2:04.8) Austin, Texas 4/03/93
Sprint Medley Relay
(1-1-2-4) 1:38.93 San Jacinto College
(Karlene Haughton' , Avia Morgan' , Merlene Frazer' 22.6, Lorieann Adams' 51.5) Austin, Texas 4/03/93
Sprint Medley Relay
(2-2-4-8) 3:46.37 San Jacinto College
(Andrea Giscombe' 24.0, Avia Morgan' 23.5, Ellen Grant' 52.3, Lorrieann Adams' 2:06.6) Austin, Texas 4/09/94
Distance Medley Relay 11:37.17y Barton Community College
(Inez Turner' , Karen Bennett' , Janice Turner' , Mardrea Hyman' ) Lawrence, Kansas 4/17/93
High Jump 1.86 m (6 ft 1 in) Shaunette Davidson' Barton Community College Levelland, Texas 5/08/04
1.83 m (6 ft 0 in) Phyllis Bluntson El Camino College Bakersfield, California 5/16/79
Kathy Raugust Hartnell College Porterville, California 5/10/81
Shenell Searcy Odessa College Odessa, Texas 5/18/91
Hyleas Fountain Barton Community College Odessa, Texas 5/16/02
Pole Vault 14-4 Becky Holliday Clackamas Community College Spokane, Washington 5/24/01
Long Jump 22-6¼ Elva Goulbourne' Central Arizona College Tucson, Arizona 5/03/01
21-3½ Sheila Nicks College of the Sequoias Modesto, California 5/21/83
Triple Jump 46-3½ Yuliana Perez Pima Community College Odessa, Texas 5/18/02
Shot Put 55-3¾ Grace Apiafi' Mt. San Antonio College Santa Barbara, California 5/19/90
52-5 Amber Crumbo Garden City Community College Garden City, Kansas 4/30/99
Discus 183-2 Ilona Rutges' Central Arizona College Tucson, Arizona 3/16/02
181-2 Stacy Ainlay Glendale Community College Odessa, Texas 5/16/91
Hammer 197-6 Kate Burton Clark College Vancouver, Washington 5/07/05
Javelin 169-5 Trina Rogers Clackamas Community College Eugene, Oregon 5/27/99
Heptathlon 5687 Lisa Wright' Barton Community College Odessa, Texas 5/15-16/96
100m H wind
High jump
Shot put
200m wind
Long jump wind
Javelin
800m
14.44 1.77m
5'9 ¾" 10.80m
35'5¼" 24.73
[3352] 6.27m
20'7" 41.08
134'9" 2:28.41
[2335]
5673 Hyleas Fountain Barton Community College Odessa, Texas 5/16-17/02
100m H wind
High jump
Shot put
200m wind
Long jump wind
Javelin
800m
13.78w 1.83m
6'0" 10.30m
33'9½" 23.54w
[3591] 6.15m
20'2¼"w 33.90
111'3" 2:34.74
[2082]
See also[edit]
List of CCCAA Championship records in track and field
References[edit]
T&FN Men's Junior College Records
T&FN Women's Junior College Records
Jump up ^ http://www.runblogrun.com/2014/05/merritts-kemarley-browns-993-cracks-into-northern-californias-historic-center-of-speed-by-fred-baer.html
Jump up ^ http://www.talawah.com/TRKWNBST.HTM
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Assembly line
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
For the video game company, see The Assembly Line.
An Airbus A321 on final assembly line 3 in the Airbus plant at Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport
Hyundai's car assembly line
An assembly line is a manufacturing process (often called a progressive assembly) in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are added as the semi-finished assembly moves from workstation to workstation where the parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced. By mechanically moving the parts to the assembly work and moving the semi-finished assembly from work station to work station, a finished product can be assembled faster and with less labor than by having workers carry parts to a stationary piece for assembly.
Assembly lines are common methods of assembling complex items such as automobiles and other transportation equipment, household appliances and electronic goods.
Contents
1 Concepts
2 Simple example
3 History
3.1 Industrial revolution
3.2 Interchangeable parts
3.3 Late 19th century steam and electric conveyors
3.4 20th century
4 Improved working conditions
5 Sociological problems
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Footnotes
7.2 Works cited
8 External links
Concepts[edit]
Lotus Cars assembly line as of 2008
Assembly lines are designed for the sequential organization of workers, tools or machines, and parts. The motion of workers is minimized to the extent possible. All parts or assemblies are handled either by conveyors or motorized vehicles such as fork lifts, or gravity, with no manual trucking. Heavy lifting is done by machines such as overhead cranes or fork lifts. Each worker typically performs one simple operation.
According to Henry Ford:
The principles of assembly are these:
(1) Place the tools and the men in the sequence of the operation so that each component part shall travel the least possible distance while in the process of finishing.
(2) Use work slides or some other form of carrier so that when a workman completes his operation, he drops the part always in the same place—which place must always be the most convenient place to his hand—and if possible have gravity carry the part to the next workman for his own.
(3) Use sliding assembling lines by which the parts to be assembled are delivered at convenient distances.[1]
Simple example[edit]
Consider the assembly of a car: assume that certain steps in the assembly line are to install the engine, install the hood, and install the wheels (in that order, with arbitrary interstitial steps); only one of these steps can be done at a time. In traditional production, only one car would be assembled at a time. If engine installation takes 20 minutes, hood installation takes five minutes, and wheels installation takes 10 minutes, then a car can be produced every 35 minutes.
In an assembly line, car assembly is split between several stations, all working simultaneously. When one station is finished with a car, it passes it on to the next. By having three stations, a total of three different cars can be operated on at the same time, each one at a different stage of its assembly.
After finishing its work on the first car, the engine installation crew can begin working on the second car. While the engine installation crew works on the second car, the first car can be moved to the hood station and fitted with a hood, then to the wheels station and be fitted with wheels. After the engine has been installed on the second car, the second car moves to the hood assembly. At the same time, the third car moves to the engine assembly. When the third car’s engine has been mounted, it then can be moved to the hood station; meanwhile, subsequent cars (if any) can be moved to the engine installation station.
Assuming no loss of time when moving a car from one station to another, the longest stage on the assembly line determines the throughput (20 minutes for the engine installation) so a car can be produced every 20 minutes, once the first car taking 35 minutes has been produced.
History[edit]
Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufactured products were made individually by hand. A single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product. They would use their skills and tools such as files and knives to create the individual parts. They would then assemble them into the final product, making cut-and-try changes in the parts until they fit and could work together (craft production).
Division of labor was practiced in China where state run monopolies mass-produced metal agricultural implements, china, armor, and weapons centuries before it appeared in Europe on the eve of the Industrial Revolution.[2] Adam Smith discussed the division of labour in the manufacture of pins at length in his book The Wealth of Nations (published in 1776).
The Venetian Arsenal, dating to about 1104, operated similar to a production line. Ships moved down a canal and were fitted by the various shops they passed. At the peak of its efficiency in the early 16th century, the Venetian Arsenal employed some 16,000 people who could apparently produce nearly one ship each day, and could fit out, arm, and provision a newly built galley with standardized parts on an assembly-line basis. Although the Venice Arsenal lasted until the early Industrial Revolution, production line methods did not become common even then.
Industrial revolution[edit]
The Industrial Revolution led to a proliferation of manufacturing and invention. Many industries, notably textiles, firearms, clocks and watches,[3] horse-drawn vehicles, railway locomotives, sewing machines, and bicycles, saw expeditious improvement in materials handling, machining, and assembly during the 19th century, although modern concepts such as industrial engineering and logistics had not yet been named.
The pulley block was the first manufacture to become fully automated at the Portsmouth Block Mills in the early 19th century.
The automatic flour mill built by Oliver Evans in 1785 was called the beginning of modern bulk material handling by Roe (1916). Evans's mill used a leather belt bucket elevator, screw conveyors, canvas belt conveyors, and other mechanical devices to completely automate the process of making flour. The innovation spread to other mills and breweries.[4][5]
Probably the earliest industrial example of a linear and continuous assembly process is the Portsmouth Block Mills, built between 1801 and 1803. Marc Isambard Brunel (father of Isambard Kingdom Brunel), with the help of Henry Maudslay and others, designed 22 types of machine tools to make the parts for the rigging blocks used by the Royal Navy. This factory was so successful that it remained in use until the 1960s, with the workshop still visible at HM Dockyard in Portsmouth, and still containing some of the original machinery.
One of the earliest examples of an almost modern factory layout, designed for easy material handling, was the Bridgewater Foundry. The factory grounds were bordered by the Bridgewater Canal and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The buildings were arranged in a line with a railway for carrying the work going through the buildings. Cranes were used for lifting the heavy work, which sometimes weighed in the tens of tons. The work passed sequentially through to erection of framework and final assembly.[6]
The Bridgewater Foundry, pictured in 1839, one of the earliest factories to use an almost modern layout, workflow, and material-handling system
The first flow assembly line was initiated at the factory of Richard Garrett & Sons, Leiston Works in Leiston in the English county of Suffolk for the manufacture of portable steam engines. The assembly line area was called 'The Long Shop' on account of its length and was fully operational by early 1853. The boiler was brought up from the foundry and put at the start of the line, and as it progressed through the building it would stop at various stages where new parts would be added. From the upper level, where other parts were made, the lighter parts would be lowered over a balcony and then fixed onto the machine on the ground level. When the machine reached the end of the shop, it would be completed. [7]
Interchangeable parts[edit]
During the early 19th century, the development of machine tools such as the screw-cutting lathe, metal planer, and milling machine, and of toolpath control via jigs and fixtures, provided the prerequisites for the modern assembly line by making interchangeable parts a practical reality.
Late 19th century steam and electric conveyors[edit]
Steam powered conveyor lifts began being used for loading and unloading ships some time in the last quarter of the 19th century.[8] Hounshell (1984) shows a c. 1885 sketch of an electric powered conveyor moving cans through a filling line in a canning factory.
The meatpacking industry of Chicago is believed to be one of the first industrial assembly lines (or dis-assembly lines) to be utilized in the United States starting in 1867. Workers would stand at fixed stations and a pulley system would bring the meat to each worker and they would complete one task. Henry Ford and others have written about the influence of this slaughterhouse practice on the later developments at Ford Motor Company.
20th century[edit]
Ford assembly line, 1913. The magneto assembly line was the first.[9][10]
1913 Experimenting with mounting body on Model T chassis. Ford tested various assembly methods to optimize the procedures before permanently installing the equipment. The actual assembly line used an overhead crane to mount the body.
Play media
Ford Model T assembly line circa 1919
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Ford Model T assembly line circa 1924
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Ford assembly line circa 1930
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Ford assembly line circa 1947
According to Domm, the implementation of mass production of an automobile via an assembly line may be credited to Ransom Olds, who used it to build the first mass-produced automobile, the Oldsmobile Curved Dash.[11] Olds patented the assembly line concept, which he put to work in his Olds Motor Vehicle Company factory in 1901.[12]
At Ford Motor Company, the assembly line was introduced by William "Pa" Klann upon his return from visiting Swift & Company's slaughterhouse in Chicago and viewing what was referred to as the "disassembly line", where carcasses were butchered as they moved along a conveyor. The efficiency of one person removing the same piece over and over without himself moving caught his attention. He reported the idea to Peter E. Martin, soon to be head of Ford production, who was doubtful at the time but encouraged him to proceed. Others at Ford have claimed to have put the idea forth to Henry Ford, but Pa Klann's slaughterhouse revelation is well documented in the archives at the Henry Ford Museum[13] and elsewhere, making him an important contributor to the modern automated assembly line concept. Ford was appreciative, having visited the highly automated 40-acre Sears mail order handling facility around 1906. At Ford, the process was an evolution by trial and error[10] of a team consisting primarily of Peter E. Martin, the factory superintendent; Charles E. Sorensen, Martin's assistant; Clarence W. Avery; C. Harold Wills, draftsman and toolmaker; Charles Ebender; and József Galamb. Some of the groundwork for such development had recently been laid by the intelligent layout of machine tool placement that Walter Flanders had been doing at Ford up to 1908.
The moving assembly line was developed for the Ford Model T and began operation on October 7, 1913, at the Highland Park Ford Plant,[14][15] and continued to evolve after that, using time and motion study.[10] The assembly line, driven by conveyor belts, reduced production time for a Model T to just 93 minutes[11] by dividing the process into 45 steps.[16] Producing cars quicker than paint of the day could dry, it had an immense influence on the world.
In 1922 Ford (through his ghostwriter Crowther) said of his 1913 assembly line:
I believe that this was the first moving line ever installed. The idea came in a general way from the overhead trolley that the Chicago packers use in dressing beef.[17]
Charles E. Sorensen, in his 1956 memoir My Forty Years with Ford, presented a different version of development that was not so much about individual "inventors" as a gradual, logical development of industrial engineering:
What was worked out at Ford was the practice of moving the work from one worker to another until it became a complete unit, then arranging the flow of these units at the right time and the right place to a moving final assembly line from which came a finished product. Regardless of earlier uses of some of these principles, the direct line of succession of mass production and its intensification into automation stems directly from what we worked out at Ford Motor Company between 1908 and 1913. Henry Ford is generally regarded as the father of mass production. He was not. He was the sponsor of it.[18]
As a result of these developments in method, Ford's cars came off the line in three-minute intervals, or six feet per minute.[19] This was much faster than previous methods, increasing production by eight to one (requiring 12.5 man-hours before, 1 hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower.[3] It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colors available before 1914, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926.[3]
The assembly line technique was an integral part of the diffusion of the automobile into American society. Decreased costs of production allowed the cost of the Model T to fall within the budget of the American middle class. In 1908, the price of a Model T was around $825, and by 1912 it had decreased to around $575. This price reduction is comparable to a reduction from $15,000 to $10,000 in dollar terms from the year 2000. In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.[3]
Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called "Fordism", and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the take-off of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods.
In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide. Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany and Ford Japan 1925; in 1919, Vulcan (Southport, Lancashire) was the first native European manufacturer to adopt it. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke by not being able to compete; by 1930, 250 companies which did not had disappeared.[3]
The massive demand for military hardware in World War II prompted assembly-line techniques in shipbuilding and aircraft production. Thousands of Liberty Ships were built making extensive use of prefabrication, enabling ship assembly to be completed in weeks or even days. After having produced fewer than 3,000 planes for the United States Military in 1939, American aircraft manufacturers built over 300,000 planes in World War II. Vultee pioneered the use of the powered assembly line for aircraft manufacturing. Other companies quickly followed. As William S. Knudsen (having worked at Ford,[10] GM and the National Defense Advisory Commission) observed, "We won because we smothered the enemy in an avalanche of production, the like of which he had never seen, nor dreamed possible."[20][21]
Improved working conditions[edit]
In his 1922 autobiography,[1] Henry Ford mentions several benefits of the assembly line including:
Workers do no heavy lifting.
No stooping or bending over.
No special training required.
There are jobs that almost anyone can do.
Provided employment to immigrants.
The gains in productivity allowed Ford to increase worker pay from $1.50 per day to $5.00 per day once employees reached three years of service on the assembly line. Ford continued on to reduce the hourly work week while continuously lowering the Model T price. These goals appear altruistic; however, it has been argued that they were implemented by Ford in order to reduce high employee turnover: when the assembly line was introduced in 1913, it was discovered that “every time the company wanted to add 100 men to its factory personnel, it was necessary to hire 963” in order to counteract the natural distaste the assembly line seems to have inspired.[22]
Sociological problems[edit]
Sociological work has explored the social alienation and boredom that many workers feel because of the repetition of doing the same specialized task all day long.[23]
One of capitalism's most famous critics, Karl Marx, expressed in his Entfremdung theory the belief that in order to achieve job satisfaction workers need to see themselves in the objects they have created, that products should be "mirrors in which workers see their reflected essential nature." Marx viewed labour as a chance for us to externalize facets of our personality. Marxists argue that specialization makes it very difficult for any worker to feel they may be contributing to the real needs of humanity. The repetitive nature of specialized tasks causes, they say, a feeling of disconnection between what a worker does all day, who they really are, and what they would ideally be able to contribute to society. Marx also argued that specialised jobs are insecure, since the worker is expendable as soon as costs rise and technology can replace more expensive human labour.[24]
Since workers have to stand in the same place for hours and repeat the same motion hundreds of times per day repetitive stress injuries are a possible pathology of occupational safety. Industrial noise also proved dangerous. When it was not too high, workers were often prohibited from talking. Charles Piaget, a skilled worker at the LIP factory, recalled that beside being prohibited from speaking, the semi-skilled workers had only 25 centimeters in which to move.[25] Industrial ergonomics later tried to minimize physical trauma.
See also[edit]
Companies portal
Business and economics portal
Production line
Industrial engineering
Fordism
Modern Times (film)
References[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Ford & Crowther 1922, p. 45 (on line version), p. 80 (print version)
Jump up ^ Merson 1990[page needed]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e G.N. Georgano 1985.[full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Roe 1916[page needed]
Jump up ^ Hounshell 1984[page needed]
Jump up ^ Musson & Robinson 1969, pp. 491–5
Jump up ^ "Long Shop Museum". Retrieved 2012-12-17. [full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Wells 1890[page needed]
Jump up ^ Swan, Tony (April 2013). "Ford's Assembly Line Turns 100: How It Really Put the World on Wheels". Car and driver. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Weber, Austin (2013-10-01). "The Moving Assembly Line Turns 100". Assembly Magazine. Archived from the original on 2016-08-26. Retrieved 2017-03-26. The assembly line ... was the result of a long period of trial and error. The assembly line wasn't a planned development; rather, it emerged in 1913 from a dynamic situation. People such as Carl Emde, William Klann and William Knudsen all played key roles in early automation efforts at Ford's Highland Park factory. Two individuals were essential to the success of the moving assembly line: Clarence Avery and Charles Sorensen. constant redesign of the Model T. Many components were tweaked regularly to make the vehicle easier to assemble. In 1913 alone, Ford made more than 100 design changes every month. Continuous experimentation was the rule rather than the exception at Ford's Highland Park plant. Ford engineers were constantly redesigning and tweaking jigs and fixtures, and planning new machine tools or fixing old ones, to achieve higher production.
^ Jump up to: a b Domm 2009, p. 29
Jump up ^ Ament, Phil. "Assembly Line History: Invention of the Assembly Line". Ideafinder.com. Retrieved 2011-10-15.
Jump up ^ Klann, W. C. (n.d.). "Reminiscences". Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village Archives. Accession 65.
Jump up ^ "Ford's Assembly Line Turns 100: How It Changed Manufacturing and Society". New York Daily News. October 7, 2013. Archived from the original on November 30, 2013. Retrieved August 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Moving Assembly Line at Ford". This Day in History. The History Channel. Retrieved September 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ Weber, Austin (2008-09-02). "How the Model T Was Assembled". Assembly Magazine. Archived from the original on 2016-03-06. Retrieved 2017-03-26.
Jump up ^ Ford & Crowther 1922, p. 81
Jump up ^ Sorensen 1956, p. 116.
Jump up ^ Ford et al.[page needed]
Jump up ^ Herman 2012, pp. 176–91
Jump up ^ Parker 2012, pp. 5–12
Jump up ^ Crawford, Matthew. "Shop Class as Soulcraft". The New Atlantis. Archived from the original on 2013-06-01.
Jump up ^ Blauner, Robert (Summer 1965). "Alienation and Freedom: The Factory Worker and His Industry". Technology and Culture. 6 (3): 518–519. JSTOR 4105309.
Jump up ^ Marx, Karl. "Comment on James Mill," Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844: 1844.
Jump up ^ "Leçons d'autogestion" [Autogestion Lessons] (Interview) (in French). Archived from the original on 7 July 2007.
Works cited[edit]
Borth, Christy (1945). Masters of Mass Production. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company.
Domm, Robert W. (2009). Michigan Yesterday & Today. Voyageur Press. ISBN 9780760333853.
Ford, Henry & Crowther, Samuel (1922). My Life and Work. Garden City, NY: Garden City Publishing. ISBN 0-405-05088-7.
Herman, Arthur (2012). Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6964-4.
Merson, John (1990). The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World. Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press. ISBN 0-87951-397-7. A companion to the PBS Series The Genius That Was China.
Musson & Robinson (1969). Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. [full citation needed]
Nye, David E. (2013). America's Assembly Line. MIT Press.
Hounshell, David A. (1984). From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-2975-8. LCCN 83016269.
Parker, Dana T. (2013). Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II. Cypress, CA. ISBN 978-0-9897906-0-4. [full citation needed]
Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American Tool Builders, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, LCCN 16011753 . Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (LCCN 27-24075); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (ISBN 978-0-917914-73-7).
Wells, David A. (1890). Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society. New York: D. Appleton and Co. ISBN 0-543-72474-3.
We-Min Chow (1990). Assembly Line Design. [full citation needed]
Sorensen, Charles E. & Williamson, Samuel T. (1956). My Forty Years with Ford. New York: Norton. LCCN 56010854.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Assembly lines.
Homepage for assembly line optimization research
Assembly line optimization problems
History of the assembly line and its widespread effects
Cars Assembly Line
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//www.jstor.org/stable/4105309

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//lccn.loc.gov/83016269

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//lccn.loc.gov/16011753

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https://lccn.loc.gov/27024075

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//lccn.loc.gov/56010854

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http://www.assembly-line-balancing.de

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