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Time value of money
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The present value of $1,000, 100 years into the future. Curves represent constant discount rates of 2%, 3%, 5%, and 7%.
The time value of money is a theory that suggests a greater benefit of receiving money now rather than later. It is founded on time preference.
The time value of money explains why interest is paid or earned: Interest, whether it is on a bank deposit or debt, compensates the depositor or lender for the time value of money.
It also underlies investment. Investors are willing to forgo spending their money now if they expect a favorable return on their investment in the future.
Contents
1 History
2 Calculations
3 Formula
3.1 Future value of a present sum
3.2 Present value of a future sum
3.3 Present value of an annuity for n payment periods
3.4 Present value of a growing annuity
3.5 Present value of a perpetuity
3.6 Present value of a growing perpetuity
3.7 Future value of an annuity
3.8 Future value of a growing annuity
3.9 Formula table
4 Derivations
4.1 Annuity derivation
4.2 Perpetuity derivation
5 Continuous compounding
5.1 Examples
6 Differential equations
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
The Talmud (~500 CE) recognizes the time value of money. In Tractate Makkos page 3a the Talmud discusses a case where witnesses falsely claimed that the term of a loan was 30 days when it was actually 10 years. The false witnesses must pay the difference of the value of the loan "in a situation where he would be required to give the money back (within) thirty days..., and that same sum in a situation where he would be required to give the money back (within) 10 years...The difference is the sum that the testimony of the (false) witnesses sought to have the borrower lose; therefore, it is the sum that they must pay." [1]
The notion was later described by Martín de Azpilcueta (1491–1586) of the School of Salamanca.
Calculations[edit]
Time value of money problems involve the net value of cash flows at different points in time.
In a typical case, the variables might be: a balance (the real or nominal value of a debt or a financial asset in terms of monetary units), a periodic rate of interest, the number of periods, and a series of cash flows. (In the case of a debt, cash flows are payments against principal and interest; in the case of a financial asset, these are contributions to or withdrawals from the balance.) More generally, the cash flows may not be periodic but may be specified individually. Any of these variables may be the independent variable (the sought-for answer) in a given problem. For example, one may know that: the interest is 0.5% per period (per month, say); the number of periods is 60 (months); the initial balance (of the debt, in this case) is 25,000 units; and the final balance is 0 units. The unknown variable may be the monthly payment that the borrower must pay.
For example, £100 invested for one year, earning 5% interest, will be worth £105 after one year; therefore, £100 paid now and £105 paid exactly one year later both have the same value to a recipient who expects 5% interest assuming that inflation would be zero percent. That is, £100 invested for one year at 5% interest has a future value of £105 under the assumption that inflation would be zero percent.[2]
This principle allows for the valuation of a likely stream of income in the future, in such a way that annual incomes are discounted and then added together, thus providing a lump-sum "present value" of the entire income stream; all of the standard calculations for time value of money derive from the most basic algebraic expression for the present value of a future sum, "discounted" to the present by an amount equal to the time value of money. For example, the future value sum F V {\displaystyle FV} to be received in one year is discounted at the rate of interest r {\displaystyle r} to give the present value sum P V {\displaystyle PV} :
P V = F V ( 1 + r ) {\displaystyle PV={\frac {FV}{(1+r)}}}
Some standard calculations based on the time value of money are:
Present value: The current worth of a future sum of money or stream of cash flows, given a specified rate of return. Future cash flows are "discounted" at the discount rate; the higher the discount rate, the lower the present value of the future cash flows. Determining the appropriate discount rate is the key to valuing future cash flows properly, whether they be earnings or obligations.[3]
Present value of an annuity: An annuity is a series of equal payments or receipts that occur at evenly spaced intervals. Leases and rental payments are examples. The payments or receipts occur at the end of each period for an ordinary annuity while they occur at the beginning of each period for an annuity due.[4]
Present value of a perpetuity is an infinite and constant stream of identical cash flows.[5]
Future value: The value of an asset or cash at a specified date in the future, based on the value of that asset in the present.[6]
Future value of an annuity (FVA): The future value of a stream of payments (annuity), assuming the payments are invested at a given rate of interest.
There are several basic equations that represent the equalities listed above. The solutions may be found using (in most cases) the formulas, a financial calculator or a spreadsheet. The formulas are programmed into most financial calculators and several spreadsheet functions (such as PV, FV, RATE, NPER, and PMT).[7]
For any of the equations below, the formula may also be rearranged to determine one of the other unknowns. In the case of the standard annuity formula, there is no closed-form algebraic solution for the interest rate (although financial calculators and spreadsheet programs can readily determine solutions through rapid trial and error algorithms).
These equations are frequently combined for particular uses. For example, bonds can be readily priced using these equations. A typical coupon bond is composed of two types of payments: a stream of coupon payments similar to an annuity, and a lump-sum return of capital at the end of the bond's maturity—that is, a future payment. The two formulas can be combined to determine the present value of the bond.
An important note is that the interest rate i is the interest rate for the relevant period. For an annuity that makes one payment per year, i will be the annual interest rate. For an income or payment stream with a different payment schedule, the interest rate must be converted into the relevant periodic interest rate. For example, a monthly rate for a mortgage with monthly payments requires that the interest rate be divided by 12 (see the example below). See compound interest for details on converting between different periodic interest rates.
The rate of return in the calculations can be either the variable solved for, or a predefined variable that measures a discount rate, interest, inflation, rate of return, cost of equity, cost of debt or any number of other analogous concepts. The choice of the appropriate rate is critical to the exercise, and the use of an incorrect discount rate will make the results meaningless.
For calculations involving annuities, you must decide whether the payments are made at the end of each period (known as an ordinary annuity), or at the beginning of each period (known as an annuity due). If you are using a financial calculator or a spreadsheet, you can usually set it for either calculation. The following formulas are for an ordinary annuity. If you want the answer for the present value of an annuity due, you can simply multiply the PV of an ordinary annuity by (1 + i).
Formula[edit]
The following formula use these common variables:
PV is the value at time=0 (present value)
FV is the value at time=n (future value)
A is the value of the individual payments in each compounding period
n is the number of periods (not necessarily an integer)
i is the interest rate at which the amount compounds each period
g is the growing rate of payments over each time period
Future value of a present sum[edit]
The future value (FV) formula is similar and uses the same variables.
F V = P V ⋅ ( 1 + i ) n {\displaystyle FV\ =\ PV\cdot (1+i)^{n}}
Present value of a future sum[edit]
The present value formula is the core formula for the time value of money; each of the other formulae is derived from this formula. For example, the annuity formula is the sum of a series of present value calculations.
The present value (PV) formula has four variables, each of which can be solved for:
P V = F V ( 1 + i ) n {\displaystyle PV\ =\ {\frac {FV}{(1+i)^{n}}}}
The cumulative present value of future cash flows can be calculated by summing the contributions of FVt, the value of cash flow at time t
P V = ∑ t = 1 n F V t ( 1 + i ) t {\displaystyle PV\ =\ \sum _{t=1}^{n}{\frac {FV_{t}}{(1+i)^{t}}}}
Note that this series can be summed for a given value of n, or when n is ∞.[8] This is a very general formula, which leads to several important special cases given below.
Present value of an annuity for n payment periods[edit]
In this case the cash flow values remain the same throughout the n periods. The present value of an annuity (PVA) formula has four variables, each of which can be solved for:
P V ( A ) = A i ⋅ [ 1 − 1 ( 1 + i ) n ] {\displaystyle PV(A)\,=\,{\frac {A}{i}}\cdot \left[{1-{\frac {1}{\left(1+i\right)^{n}}}}\right]}
To get the PV of an annuity due, multiply the above equation by (1 + i).
Present value of a growing annuity[edit]
In this case each cash flow grows by a factor of (1+g). Similar to the formula for an annuity, the present value of a growing annuity (PVGA) uses the same variables with the addition of g as the rate of growth of the annuity (A is the annuity payment in the first period). This is a calculation that is rarely provided for on financial calculators.
Where i ≠ g :
P V = A ( i − g ) [ 1 − ( 1 + g 1 + i ) n ] {\displaystyle PV\,=\,{A \over (i-g)}\left[1-\left({1+g \over 1+i}\right)^{n}\right]}
Where i = g :
P V = A × n 1 + i {\displaystyle PV\,=\,{A\times n \over 1+i}}
To get the PV of a growing annuity due, multiply the above equation by (1 + i).
Present value of a perpetuity[edit]
A perpetuity is payments of a set amount of money that occur on a routine basis and continues forever. When n → ∞, the PV of a perpetuity (a perpetual annuity) formula becomes simple division.
P V ( P ) = A i {\displaystyle PV(P)\ =\ {A \over i}}
Present Value of Int Factor Annuity
A = P ( 1 + r / n ) n t {\displaystyle A=P(1+r/n)^{nt}}
Example:
Investment P = $1000
Interest i = 6.90% Compounded Qtrly (4 Times in Year)
Tenure Years n = 5
= 1000 × ( 1 + 0.069 / 4 ) ( 5 y r s × 4 q t r s i n a y e a r ) = 1000 × ( 1 + 0.069 / 4 ) 20 ≈ 1407.84 {\displaystyle =1000\times (1+0.069/4)^{({5\ yrs}\ \times \ 4\ {qtrs\ in\ a\ year})}=1000\times (1+0.069/4)^{20}\approx 1407.84}
Present value of a growing perpetuity[edit]
When the perpetual annuity payment grows at a fixed rate (g) the value is theoretically determined according to the following formula. In practice, there are few securities with precise characteristics, and the application of this valuation approach is subject to various qualifications and modifications. Most importantly, it is rare to find a growing perpetual annuity with fixed rates of growth and true perpetual cash flow generation. Despite these qualifications, the general approach may be used in valuations of real estate, equities, and other assets.
This is the well known Gordon Growth model used for stock valuation.
Future value of an annuity[edit]
The future value of an annuity (FVA) formula has four variables, each of which can be solved for:
F V ( A ) = A ⋅ ( 1 + i ) n − 1 i {\displaystyle FV(A)\,=\,A\cdot {\frac {\left(1+i\right)^{n}-1}{i}}}
To get the FV of an annuity due, multiply the above equation by (1 + i).
Future value of a growing annuity[edit]
The future value of a growing annuity (FVA) formula has five variables, each of which can be solved for:
Where i ≠ g :
F V ( A ) = A ⋅ ( 1 + i ) n − ( 1 + g ) n i − g {\displaystyle FV(A)\,=\,A\cdot {\frac {\left(1+i\right)^{n}-\left(1+g\right)^{n}}{i-g}}}
Where i = g :
F V ( A ) = A ⋅ n ( 1 + i ) n − 1 {\displaystyle FV(A)\,=\,A\cdot n(1+i)^{n-1}}
Formula table[edit]
The following table summarizes the different formulas commonly used in calculating the time value of money.[9] These values are often displayed in tables where the interest rate and time are specified.
Find
Given
Formula
Future value (F) Present value (P) F = P ⋅ ( 1 + i ) n {\displaystyle F=P\cdot (1+i)^{n}}
Present value (P) Future value (F) P = F ⋅ ( 1 + i ) − n {\displaystyle P=F\cdot (1+i)^{-n}}
Repeating payment (A) Future value (F) A = F ⋅ i ( 1 + i ) n − 1 {\displaystyle A=F\cdot {\frac {i}{(1+i)^{n}-1}}}
Repeating payment (A) Present value (P) A = P ⋅ i ( 1 + i ) n ( 1 + i ) n − 1 {\displaystyle A=P\cdot {\frac {i(1+i)^{n}}{(1+i)^{n}-1}}}
Future value (F) Repeating payment (A) F = A ⋅ ( 1 + i ) n − 1 i {\displaystyle F=A\cdot {\frac {(1+i)^{n}-1}{i}}}
Present value (P) Repeating payment (A) P = A ⋅ ( 1 + i ) n − 1 i ( 1 + i ) n {\displaystyle P=A\cdot {\frac {(1+i)^{n}-1}{i(1+i)^{n}}}}
Future value (F) Gradient payment (G) F = G ⋅ ( 1 + i ) n − i n − 1 i 2 {\displaystyle F=G\cdot {\frac {(1+i)^{n}-in-1}{i^{2}}}}
Present value (P) Gradient payment (G) P = G ⋅ ( 1 + i ) n − i n − 1 i 2 ( 1 + i ) n {\displaystyle P=G\cdot {\frac {(1+i)^{n}-in-1}{i^{2}(1+i)^{n}}}}
Fixed payment (A) Gradient payment (G) A = G ⋅ [ 1 i − n ( 1 + i ) n − 1 ] {\displaystyle A=G\cdot \left[{\frac {1}{i}}-{\frac {n}{(1+i)^{n}-1}}\right]}
Future value (F) Exponentially increasing payment (D)
Increasing percentage (g)
F = D ⋅ ( 1 + g ) n − ( 1 + i ) n g − i {\displaystyle F=D\cdot {\frac {(1+g)^{n}-(1+i)^{n}}{g-i}}} (for i ≠ g)
F = D ⋅ n ( 1 + i ) n 1 + g {\displaystyle F=D\cdot {\frac {n(1+i)^{n}}{1+g}}} (for i = g)
Present value (P) Exponentially increasing payment (D)
Increasing percentage (g)
P = D ⋅ ( 1 + g 1 + i ) n − 1 g − i {\displaystyle P=D\cdot {\frac {\left({1+g \over 1+i}\right)^{n}-1}{g-i}}} (for i ≠ g)
P = D ⋅ n 1 + g {\displaystyle P=D\cdot {\frac {n}{1+g}}} (for i = g)
Notes:
A is a fixed payment amount, every period
G is a steadily increasing payment amount, that starts at G and increases by G for each subsequent period.
D is an exponentially or geometrically increasing payment amount, that starts at D and increases by a factor of (1+g) each subsequent period.
Derivations[edit]
Annuity derivation[edit]
The formula for the present value of a regular stream of future payments (an annuity) is derived from a sum of the formula for future value of a single future payment, as below, where C is the payment amount and n the period.
A single payment C at future time m has the following future value at future time n:
F V = C ( 1 + i ) n − m {\displaystyle FV\ =C(1+i)^{n-m}}
Summing over all payments from time 1 to time n, then reversing t
F V A = ∑ m = 1 n C ( 1 + i ) n − m = ∑ k = 0 n − 1 C ( 1 + i ) k {\displaystyle FVA\ =\sum _{m=1}^{n}C(1+i)^{n-m}\ =\sum _{k=0}^{n-1}C(1+i)^{k}}
Note that this is a geometric series, with the initial value being a = C, the multiplicative factor being 1 + i, with n terms. Applying the formula for geometric series, we get
F V A = C ( 1 − ( 1 + i ) n ) 1 − ( 1 + i ) = C ( 1 − ( 1 + i ) n ) − i {\displaystyle FVA\ ={\frac {C(1-(1+i)^{n})}{1-(1+i)}}\ ={\frac {C(1-(1+i)^{n})}{-i}}}
The present value of the annuity (PVA) is obtained by simply dividing by ( 1 + i ) n {\displaystyle (1+i)^{n}} :
P V A = F V A ( 1 + i ) n = C i ( 1 − 1 ( 1 + i ) n ) {\displaystyle PVA\ ={\frac {FVA}{(1+i)^{n}}}={\frac {C}{i}}\left(1-{\frac {1}{(1+i)^{n}}}\right)}
Another simple and intuitive way to derive the future value of an annuity is to consider an endowment, whose interest is paid as the annuity, and whose principal remains constant. The principal of this hypothetical endowment can be computed as that whose interest equals the annuity payment amount:
Principal × i = C {\displaystyle {\text{Principal}}\times i=C}
Principal = C / i + g o a l {\displaystyle {\text{Principal}}=C/i+{goal}}
Note that no money enters or leaves the combined system of endowment principal + accumulated annuity payments, and thus the future value of this system can be computed simply via the future value formula:
F V = P V ( 1 + i ) n {\displaystyle FV=PV(1+i)^{n}}
Initially, before any payments, the present value of the system is just the endowment principal ( P V = C / i {\displaystyle PV=C/i} ). At the end, the future value is the endowment principal (which is the same) plus the future value of the total annuity payments ( F V = C / i + F V A {\displaystyle FV=C/i+FVA} ). Plugging this back into the equation:
C i + F V A = C i ( 1 + i ) n {\displaystyle {\frac {C}{i}}+FVA={\frac {C}{i}}(1+i)^{n}}
F V A = C i [ ( 1 + i ) n − 1 ] {\displaystyle FVA={\frac {C}{i}}\left[\left(1+i\right)^{n}-1\right]}
Perpetuity derivation[edit]
Without showing the formal derivation here, the perpetuity formula is derived from the annuity formula. Specifically, the term:
( 1 − 1 ( 1 + i ) n ) {\displaystyle \left({1-{1 \over {(1+i)^{n}}}}\right)}
can be seen to approach the value of 1 as n grows larger. At infinity, it is equal to 1, leaving C i {\displaystyle {C \over i}} as the only term remaining.
Continuous compounding[edit]
Rates are sometimes converted into the continuous compound interest rate equivalent because the continuous equivalent is more convenient (for example, more easily differentiated). Each of the formulæ above may be restated in their continuous equivalents. For example, the present value at time 0 of a future payment at time t can be restated in the following way, where e is the base of the natural logarithm and r is the continuously compounded rate:
PV = FV ⋅ e − r t {\displaystyle {\text{PV}}={\text{FV}}\cdot e^{-rt}}
This can be generalized to discount rates that vary over time: instead of a constant discount rate r, one uses a function of time r(t). In that case the discount factor, and thus the present value, of a cash flow at time T is given by the integral of the continuously compounded rate r(t):
PV = FV ⋅ exp  ( − ∫ 0 T r ( t ) d t ) {\displaystyle {\text{PV}}={\text{FV}}\cdot \exp \left(-\int _{0}^{T}r(t)\,dt\right)}
Indeed, a key reason for using continuous compounding is to simplify the analysis of varying discount rates and to allow one to use the tools of calculus. Further, for interest accrued and capitalized overnight (hence compounded daily), continuous compounding is a close approximation for the actual daily compounding. More sophisticated analysis includes the use of differential equations, as detailed below.
Examples[edit]
Using continuous compounding yields the following formulas for various instruments:
Annuity
P V = A ( 1 − e − r t ) e r − 1 {\displaystyle \ PV\ =\ {A(1-e^{-rt}) \over e^{r}-1}}
Perpetuity
P V = A e r − 1 {\displaystyle \ PV\ =\ {A \over e^{r}-1}}
Growing annuity
P V = A e − g ( 1 − e − ( r − g ) t ) ( r − g ) − 1 {\displaystyle \ PV\ =\ {Ae^{-g}(1-e^{-(r-g)t}) \over ^{(r-g)}-1}}
Growing perpetuity
P V = A e − g e ( r − g ) − 1 {\displaystyle \ PV\ =\ {Ae^{-g} \over e^{(r-g)}-1}}
Annuity with continuous payments
P V = 1 − e ( − r t ) r {\displaystyle \ PV\ =\ {1-e^{(-rt)} \over r}}
These formulas assume that payment A is made in the first payment period and annuity ends at time t.[10]
Differential equations[edit]
Ordinary and partial differential equations (ODEs and PDEs) – equations involving derivatives and one (respectively, multiple) variables are ubiquitous in more advanced treatments of financial mathematics. While time value of money can be understood without using the framework of differential equations, the added sophistication sheds additional light on time value, and provides a simple introduction before considering more complicated and less familiar situations. This exposition follows (Carr & Flesaker 2006, pp. 6–7).
The fundamental change that the differential equation perspective brings is that, rather than computing a number (the present value now), one computes a function (the present value now or at any point in future). This function may then be analyzed—how does its value change over time—or compared with other functions.
Formally, the statement that "value decreases over time" is given by defining the linear differential operator L {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}} as:
L := − ∂ t + r ( t ) . {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}:=-\partial _{t}+r(t).}
This states that values decreases (−) over time (∂t) at the discount rate (r(t)). Applied to a function it yields:
L f = − ∂ t f ( t ) + r ( t ) f ( t ) . {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}f=-\partial _{t}f(t)+r(t)f(t).}
For an instrument whose payment stream is described by f(t), the value V(t) satisfies the inhomogeneous first-order ODE L V = f {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}V=f} ("inhomogeneous" is because one has f rather than 0, and "first-order" is because one has first derivatives but no higher derivatives) – this encodes the fact that when any cash flow occurs, the value of the instrument changes by the value of the cash flow (if you receive a £10 coupon, the remaining value decreases by exactly £10).
The standard technique tool in the analysis of ODEs is Green's functions, from which other solutions can be built. In terms of time value of money, the Green's function (for the time value ODE) is the value of a bond paying £1 at a single point in time u – the value of any other stream of cash flows can then be obtained by taking combinations of this basic cash flow. In mathematical terms, this instantaneous cash flow is modeled as a Dirac delta function δ u ( t ) := δ ( t − u ) . {\displaystyle \delta _{u}(t):=\delta (t-u).}
The Green's function for the value at time t of a £1 cash flow at time u is
b ( t ; u ) := H ( u − t ) ⋅ exp  ( − ∫ t u r ( v ) d v ) {\displaystyle b(t;u):=H(u-t)\cdot \exp \left(-\int _{t}^{u}r(v)\,dv\right)}
where H is the Heaviside step function – the notation " ; u {\displaystyle ;u} " is to emphasize that u is a parameter (fixed in any instance—the time when the cash flow will occur), while t is a variable (time). In other words, future cash flows are exponentially discounted (exp) by the sum (integral, ∫ {\displaystyle \textstyle {\int }} ) of the future discount rates ( ∫ t u {\displaystyle \textstyle {\int _{t}^{u}}} for future, r(v) for discount rates), while past cash flows are worth 0 ( H ( u − t ) = 1 if t < u , 0 if t > u {\displaystyle H(u-t)=1{\text{ if }}t<u,0{\text{ if }}t>u} ), because they have already occurred. Note that the value at the moment of a cash flow is not well-defined – there is a discontinuity at that point, and one can use a convention (assume cash flows have already occurred, or not already occurred), or simply not define the value at that point.
In case the discount rate is constant, r ( v ) ≡ r , {\displaystyle r(v)\equiv r,} this simplifies to
b ( t ; u ) = H ( u − t ) ⋅ e − ( u − t ) r = { e − ( u − t ) r t < u 0 t > u , {\displaystyle b(t;u)=H(u-t)\cdot e^{-(u-t)r}={\begin{cases}e^{-(u-t)r}&t<u\\0&t>u,\end{cases}}}
where ( u − t ) {\displaystyle (u-t)} is "time remaining until cash flow".
Thus for a stream of cash flows f(u) ending by time T (which can be set to T = + ∞ {\displaystyle T=+\infty } for no time horizon) the value at time t, V ( t ; T ) {\displaystyle V(t;T)} is given by combining the values of these individual cash flows:
V ( t ; T ) = ∫ t T f ( u ) b ( t ; u ) d u . {\displaystyle V(t;T)=\int _{t}^{T}f(u)b(t;u)\,du.}
This formalizes time value of money to future values of cash flows with varying discount rates, and is the basis of many formulas in financial mathematics, such as the Black–Scholes formula with varying interest rates.
See also[edit]
Actuarial science
Discounted cash flow
Earnings growth
Exponential growth
Finance
Hyperbolic discounting
Internal rate of return
Net present value
Option time value
Real versus nominal value (economics)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Makkot 3a William Davidson Talmud online".
Jump up ^ Carther, Shauna (3 December 2003). "Understanding the Time Value of Money".
Jump up ^ Staff, Investopedia (25 November 2003). "Present Value - PV".
Jump up ^ "Present Value of an Annuity".
Jump up ^ Staff, Investopedia (24 November 2003). "Perpetuity".
Jump up ^ Staff, Investopedia (23 November 2003). "Future Value - FV".
Jump up ^ Hovey, M. (2005). Spreadsheet Modelling for Finance. Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Education Australia.
Jump up ^ http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GeometricSeries.html Geometric Series
Jump up ^ "NCEES FE exam".
Jump up ^ "Annuities and perpetuities with continuous compounding".
References[edit]
Carr, Peter; Flesaker, Bjorn (2006), Robust Replication of Default Contingent Claims (presentation slides) (PDF), Bloomberg LP, archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-27. See also Audio Presentation and paper.
Crosson, S.V., and Needles, B.E.(2008). Managerial Accounting (8th Ed). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
External links[edit]
Time Value of Money hosted by the University of Arizona
Time Value of Money ebook
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Baseball stirrups
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A U.S. Naval Academy pitcher wearing stirrups
Stirrups are uniform socks commonly worn by baseball players up until the mid-1990s, when major-league players began wearing their pants down to the ankles, setting a trend soon picked up by players in minor and amateur leagues. Until then, stirrup socks had been an integral part of the traditional baseball uniform, giving them a distinctive look. A high sock was needed because baseball players wore knickerbockers ("knickers"), worn by many boys in the late 19th century and into the 20th century. The stirrup socks served to display team colors, stripes or team logos. For example, for several years the Minnesota Twins wore navy-blue stirrups with "TC" on the side, for "Twin Cities", and in 1987 an "m" was placed on side. The Houston Astros wore navy blue stirrup socks with a white star on the side. The stirrup sock colors were also the basis of team names, including the Cincinnati Red Stockings, Boston Red Sox, and Chicago White Sox. For these reasons, traditionalists lament the recent "sockless" look in baseball uniforms.
Stirrup socks are worn on top of long socks called "sanitaries," usually white in color.[1] This is because early color dyes in the outer stirrup sock were thought to pose health issues,[1] as well as the fact that the inner, less expensive white sock could be changed more frequently. The stirrup sock lacked a foot, instead having a loop ("stirrup") which fits within the arch of the foot. Over the years, the stirrup loop tended to get longer, exposing more of the white undersock, thus creating a look unique to baseball.
However, by the 1980s many players were pulling the loop so high that only the white undersock and the loop itself showed - the rest of the game sock being hidden by their pants. For many years teams had enforced rules so that uniforms were worn "uniformly", including team socks. For example, Leo Durocher, longtime manager of the Chicago Cubs, had a measuring stick in the clubhouse. Players were required to match the length of their stirrup loops to this stick at about 4 inches, exposing only a small part of the white sanitary. Increasingly lax regulation of uniform codes by Major League Baseball eventually contributed to players ignoring the traditional look.
The Official Baseball Rules are silent on stirrups, but the fact that some players on a team wear them while others do not seems to be in violation of Rule 1.11(a)(1) which states that “all players on a team shall wear uniforms identical in color, trim and style,” as well as Rule 1.11(a)(3) that states “no player whose uniform does not conform to that of his teammates shall be permitted to participate in a game.”[2]The freedom to wear high stirrups or not is remarkable considering how nowadays uniformity is otherwise enforced by MLB. For example, during a 2007 game against the Yankees, with the Yankees threatening to score, Red Sox manager Terry Francona was suddenly called away from the game and questioned by a league executive as to whether he was wearing the required uniform jersey beneath his blue pullover. He wasn’t pleased.[3]
Although some teams — particularly college teams — continue to wear traditional baseball stirrup socks, another option has been to replace the stirrup/undersock with a "2 in 1" combination sock[1] that mimics the real thing, or simply to wear a single solid knee-high sock with knickers. The trend back to knickers and high socks is particularly evident among youth and high-school teams. A few pro players, such as Taijuan Walker of the Arizona Diamondbacks, Derek Holland of the Texas Rangers, Melvin Upton, Jr. of the San Diego Padres, Bryce Harper & Casey Janssen of the Washington Nationals, Daniel Descalso of the St. Louis Cardinals, Josh Outman of the Cleveland Indians and Steve Cishek & Juan Pierre of the Miami Marlins, Chris Archer of the Tampa Bay Rays, J.R. Graham of the Minnesota Twins, Chris Taylor of the Los Angeles Dodgers, and Francisco Lindor of the Cleveland Indians have been spotted wearing genuine stirrups recently to much fanfare. Several players on the Philadelphia Phillies will either wear stirrups over white sanitary socks, or over red socks, as the Phillies stirrups sport their Liberty Bell logo. The minor-league Springfield Cardinals wear a 2-in-1 version of the traditional St. Louis Cardinals' game sock that looks very much like the real thing.
Other sports also use, or have used, stirrup socks, but traditionally wore a white sweat sock over, instead of under, the colored stirrup game sock (e.g. basketball, football, hockey). For many years American football officials commonly wore black baseball-style stirrups as part of their uniform, although this was done away with in the 2010s as full-length pants replaced the traditional knickers. There are still some sock companies manufacturing stirrup socks for baseball and other sports, including Twin City Knitting Company in Conover, North Carolina.
See also[edit]
Baseball portal
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Baseball clothing and equipment
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c At Baseball and socks appeal. Vitez, Michael (August 29, 2011). Philly.com. The Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved 2011-09-02. "This led to the invention of the two-in-one, a white sock with a colored stripe down the side, an innovation that all but ensured the demise of the stirrup."
Jump up ^ Baseball Explained by Phillip Mahony, McFarland Books, 2014. See www.baseballexplained.com Archived 2014-08-13 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Baseball Explained by Phillip Mahony, McFarland Books, 2014. See www.baseballexplained.com Archived 2014-08-13 at the Wayback Machine.
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Magnesium chloride
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Magnesium chloride
Names
Other names
Magnesium dichloride
Identifiers
CAS Number
7786-30-3 Y
7791-18-6 (hexahydrate) N
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
ChEBI
CHEBI:6636 Y
ChemSpider
22987 Y
ECHA InfoCard 100.029.176
E number E511 (acidity regulators, ...)
Gmelin Reference
9305
PubChem CID
24584
RTECS number OM2975000
InChI[show]
InChI=1S/2ClH.Mg/h2*1H;/q;;+2/p-2 Y
Key: TWRXJAOTZQYOKJ-UHFFFAOYSA-L Y
InChI=1S/2ClH.Mg/h2*1H;/q;;+2/p-2
SMILES[show]
[Mg+2].[Cl-].[Cl-]
Properties
Chemical formula
MgCl2
Molar mass 95.211 g/mol (anhydrous)
203.31 g/mol (hexahydrate)
Appearance white or colourless crystalline solid
Density 2.32 g/cm3 (anhydrous)
1.569 g/cm3 (hexahydrate)
Melting point 714 °C (1,317 °F; 987 K) 117 °C (243 °F; 390 K) (hexahydrate)
on rapid heating: slow heating leads to decomposition from 300 °C (572 °F; 573 K)
Boiling point 1,412 °C (2,574 °F; 1,685 K)
Solubility in water
anhydrous 52.9 g/100 mL (0 °C)

54.3 g/100 mL (20 °C)
72.6 g/100 mL (100 °C)
hexahydrate
167 g/100 mL (20 °C)
Solubility slightly soluble in acetone, pyridine
Solubility in ethanol 7.4 g/100 mL (30 °C)
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)
−47.4·10−6 cm3/mol
Refractive index (nD)
1.675 (anhydrous)
1.569 (hexahydrate)
Structure
Crystal structure
CdCl2
Coordination geometry
(octahedral, 6-coordinate)
Thermochemistry
Specific
heat capacity (C)
71.09 J/mol K
Std molar
entropy (So298)
89.88 J/mol K
Std enthalpy of
formation (ΔfHo298)
-641.1 kJ/mol
Gibbs free energy (ΔfG˚)
-591.6 kJ/mol
Pharmacology
ATC code
A12CC01 (WHO) B05XA11 (WHO)
Hazards
Main hazards Irritant
Safety data sheet ICSC 0764
R-phrases (outdated) R36, R37, R38
S-phrases (outdated) S26, S37, S39
NFPA 704
0
1
0
Flash point Non-flammable
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
LD50 (median dose)
2800 mg/kg (oral, rat)
Related compounds
Other anions
Magnesium fluoride
Magnesium bromide
Magnesium iodide
Other cations
Beryllium chloride
Calcium chloride
Strontium chloride
Barium chloride
Radium chloride
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
N verify (what is Y N ?)
Infobox references
Magnesium chloride is the name for the chemical compound with the formula MgCl2 and its various hydrates MgCl2(H2O)x. These salts are typical ionic halides, being highly soluble in water. The hydrated magnesium chloride can be extracted from brine or sea water. In North America, magnesium chloride is produced primarily from Great Salt Lake brine. It is extracted in a similar process from the Dead Sea in the Jordan valley. Magnesium chloride, as the natural mineral bischofite, is also extracted (via solution mining) out of ancient seabeds; for example, the Zechstein seabed in northwest Europe. Some magnesium chloride is made from solar evaporation of seawater. Anhydrous magnesium chloride is the principal precursor to magnesium metal, which is produced on a large scale. Hydrated magnesium chloride is the form most readily available.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure, preparation, and general properties
2 Applications
2.1 Dust and erosion control
2.2 Ice control
2.3 Nutrition and medicine
2.4 Hydrogen storage
2.5 Cuisine
2.6 Gardening and horticulture
2.7 Niche uses
3 Toxicology
3.1 Plant Toxicity
4 Locomotive boiler problem
5 See also
6 Notes and references
7 External links
Structure, preparation, and general properties[edit]
MgCl2 crystallizes in the cadmium chloride motif, which features octahedral Mg. A variety of hydrates are known with the formula MgCl2(H2O)x, and each loses water with increasing temperature: x = 12 (−16.4 °C), 8 (−3.4 °C), 6 (116.7 °C), 4 (181 °C), 2 (ca. 300 °C).[1] In the hexahydrate, the Mg2+ remains octahedral, but is coordinated to six water ligands.[2] The thermal dehydration of the hydrates MgCl2(H2O)x (x = 6, 12) does not occur straightforwardly.[3]
As suggested by the existence of some hydrates, anhydrous MgCl2 is a Lewis acid, although a very weak one.
In the Dow process, magnesium chloride is regenerated from magnesium hydroxide using hydrochloric acid:
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2 HCl → MgCl2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
It can also be prepared from magnesium carbonate by a similar reaction.
In most of its derivatives, MgCl2 forms octahedral complexes. Derivatives with tetrahedral Mg2+ are less common. Examples include salts of (tetraethylammonium)2MgCl4 and adducts such as MgCl(TMEDA).[4]
Applications[edit]
Magnesium chloride serves as precursor to other magnesium compounds, for example by precipitation:
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2]]
It can be electrolysed to give magnesium metal:[5]
MgCl2 → Mg + Cl2
This process is practiced on a substantial scale.
Magnesium chloride is most commonly used for dust control and road stabilization. Its second-most common use is ice control. In addition to the production of magnesium metal, magnesium chloride also is used for a variety of other applications: fertilizer, mineral supplement for animals, wastewater treatment, wallboard, artificial seawater, feed supplement, textiles, paper, fireproofing agents, cements and refrigeration brine. Mixed with hydrated magnesium oxide, magnesium chloride forms a hard material called Sorel cement.
This compound is also used in fire extinguishers: obtained by the reaction of magnesium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid (HCl) in liquid form along with water in gaseous state.[6][7] Magnesium chloride also is used in several medical and topical (skin related) applications. It has been used in pills as supplemental sources of magnesium, where it serves as a soluble compound that is not as laxative as magnesium sulfate, and more bioavailable than magnesium hydroxide and magnesium oxide, since it does not require stomach acid to produce soluble Mg2+ ion. It can also be used as an effective anesthetic for cephalopods,[8] some species of crustaceans,[9] and several species of bivalve, including oysters.[10]
MgCl2 is also commonly utilized in the polymerase chain reaction(PCR). The magnesium ion is necessary for both in vivo/vitro DNA synthesis.
Dust and erosion control[edit]
Magnesium chloride is one of many substances used for dust control, soil stabilization and wind erosion mitigation.[11] When magnesium chloride is applied to roads and bare soil areas, both positive and negative performance issues occur which are related to many application factors.[12] Water absorbing magnesium chloride (deliquescent) attributes include
it starts to absorb water from the air at 32% relative humidity, almost independent of temperature,
treated roads can be regraded and re-compacted with less concern for losing moisture and density.
However, limitations include
a minimum humidity level is required to absorb moisture from the air,
it is more suitable in drier climates,
in concentrated solutions it is very corrosive,
it attracts moisture thereby prolonging the active period for corrosion,
rainwater tends to leach out highly soluble chlorides,
if there is a high fines content in treated material then the surface may become slippery when wet,
when less than 20% solution it has performance effectiveness similar to water.[11][12]
The use of magnesium chloride on roads remains controversial. Advocates claim (1) Cleaner air, which leads to better health as fugitive dust can cause health problems in the young, elderly and people with respiratory conditions;[13] and (2) Greater safety through improved road conditions,[14][15] including increased driver visibility and decreased risks caused by loose gravel, soft spots, road roughness and flying rocks.[16] It reduces foreign sediment in nearby surface waters [17] (dust that settles in creeks and streams), helps prevent stunted crop growth caused by clogged pores in plants, and keeps vehicles and property cleaner.[18] Other studies show the use of salts for road deicing or dust suppressing can contribute substantial amounts of chloride ions to runoff from surface of roads treated with the compounds. The salts MgCl2 (and CaCl2) are very soluble in water and will dissociate.[19] The salts, when used on road surfaces, will dissolve during wet weather and be transported into the groundwater through infiltration and/or runoff into surface water bodies.[15] Groundwater infiltration can be a problem and the chloride ion in drinking water is considered a problem when concentrations exceed 250 mg/l. It is therefore regulated by the EPA’s drinking water standards. The chloride concentration in the groundwater or surface water depends on several factors including:
application rate,
composition and type of soil,
type, intensity, and amount of precipitation,
the drainage of the road system.[20]
In addition, the chloride concentration in the surface water also depends on the size or flow rate of the water body and the resulting dilution achieved. In chloride concentration studies carried out in Wisconsin during a winter deicing period, runoff from roadside drainages were analyzed. All studies indicated that the chloride concentration increased as a result of deicing activities but the levels were still below the MCL of 250 mg/L set by the EPA.[21][22][23][24][25] Nevertheless, the long-term effect of this exposure is not known.
Although the EPA has set the maximum chloride concentration in water for domestic use at 250 mg/l animals can tolerate higher levels. At excessively high levels, chloride is said to affect the health of animals.[26] As stated by the National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of Interior (1968), “Salinity may have a two-fold effect on wildlife; a direct one affecting the body processes of the species involved and an indirect one altering the environment making living species perpetuation difficult or impossible.” One major problem associated with the use of deicing salt as far as wildlife is concerned is that wildlife are known to have “salt craving” and therefore are attracted to salted highways which can be a traffic hazard to both the animals and motorists.
Regarding the accumulation of chloride salts in roadside soils including the adverse effects on roadside plants and vegetation physiology and morphology, documentation dates back to World War II era times [27] and consistently continues forward to present times.[28] As far as plants and vegetation are concerned, the accumulation of salts in the soil adversely affects their physiology and morphology by: increasing the osmotic pressure of the soil solution, by altering the plant’s mineral nutrition, and by accumulating specific ions to toxic concentrations in the plants. Regarding the intentional application of excessive salts: see Salting the Earth.
Road departments and private industry may apply liquid or powdered magnesium chloride to control dust and erosion on unimproved (dirt or gravel) roads and dusty job sites such as quarries because it is relatively inexpensive to purchase and apply. Its hygroscopy makes it absorb moisture from the air, limiting the number of smaller particles (silts and clays) that become airborne. The most significant benefit of applying dust control products is the reduction in gravel road maintenance costs.[29] However, recent research and updates indicate biological toxicity in the environment in plants as an ongoing problem.[28] Since 2001, truckers have complained about "Killer Chemicals" on roads and now some states are backing away from using salt products.[30][31]
Also a small percentage of owners of indoor arenas (e.g. for horse riding) may apply magnesium chloride to sand or other "footing" materials to control dust. Although magnesium chloride use in an equestrian (horse) arena environment is generally referred to as a dust suppressant it is technically more accurate to consider it as a water augmentation activity since its performance is based on absorbing moisture from the air and from whatever else comes in contact with it.
To control or mitigate dust, chlorides need moisture to work effectively so it works better in humid than arid climates. As the humidity increases the chloride draw moisture out of the air to keep the surface damp and as humidity decreases it diffuses and releases moisture. These naturally occurring equilibrium changes also allow chlorides to also be used as a dehydrating agent including the drying out of and curing and preservation of hides.[32]
As a road stabilizer, magnesium chloride binds gravel and clay particles to keep them from leaving the road. The water-absorbing (hygroscopic) characteristics of magnesium chloride prevent the road from drying out, which keeps gravel on the ground. The road remains continually "wet" as if a water truck had just sprayed the road.[33]
Ice control[edit]
Picture of truck applying liquid de-icer (magnesium chloride) to city streets.
Picture of solid form of rock salt used for ice removal on streets.
Magnesium chloride is used for low-temperature de-icing of highways, sidewalks, and parking lots. When highways are treacherous due to icy conditions, magnesium chloride helps to prevent the ice bond, allowing snow plows to clear the roads more efficiently.
Magnesium chloride is used in three ways for pavement ice control: Anti-icing, when maintenance professionals spread it onto roads before a snow storm to prevent snow from sticking and ice from forming; pre-wetting, which means a liquid formulation of magnesium chloride is sprayed directly onto salt as it is being spread onto roadway pavement, wetting the salt so that it sticks to the road; and pre-treating, when magnesium chloride and salt are mixed together before they are loaded onto trucks and spread onto paved roads.
While it is generally accepted that ongoing use of any de-icer (ice melter) will eventually contribute to some degradation of the concrete surface to which it is applied, some de-icers are gentler on concrete than others. Past studies have often utilized high temperatures to accelerate the impact to concrete. By setting parameters that more closely represent real-world de-icing conditions, Purdue University researchers measured the impact of magnesium chloride and calcium chloride on concrete. Their study concluded that calcium chloride damages concrete twice as fast as magnesium chloride.[34]
Nutrition and medicine[edit]
Magnesium chloride is used in nutraceutical and pharmaceutical preparations.
Hydrogen storage[edit]
Magnesium chloride has shown promise as a storage material for hydrogen. Ammonia, which is rich in hydrogen atoms, is used as an intermediate storage material. Ammonia can be effectively absorbed onto solid magnesium chloride, forming Mg(NH3)6Cl2. Ammonia is released by mild heat, and is then passed through a catalyst to give hydrogen gas.[35]
Cuisine[edit]
Magnesium chloride (E511[36]) is an important coagulant used in the preparation of tofu from soy milk. In Japan it is sold as nigari (にがり, derived from the Japanese word for "bitter"), a white powder produced from seawater after the sodium chloride has been removed, and the water evaporated. In China, it is called lushui (卤水). Nigari or lushui consists mostly of magnesium chloride, with some magnesium sulfate and other trace elements. It is also an ingredient in baby formula milk.[37]
Gardening and horticulture[edit]
Because magnesium is a mobile nutrient, magnesium chloride can be effectively used as a substitute for magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt) to help correct magnesium deficiency in plants via foliar feeding. The recommended dose of magnesium chloride is smaller than the recommended dose of magnesium sulfate (20 g/L).[38] This is due primarily to the chlorine present in magnesium chloride, which can easily reach toxic levels if over-applied or applied too often.[39]
It has been found that higher concentrations of magnesium in tomato and some pepper plants can make them more susceptible to disease caused by infection of the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris, since magnesium is essential for bacterial growth.[40]
Niche uses[edit]
Diagram showing concentrations of various salt ions in seawater (correct only in units of wt/wt, not wt/vol or vol/vol)
Magnesium in natural seawater values are between 1250 mg/L and 1350 mg/L, approximately 3.7% of the total seawater mineral content. Dead Sea minerals contain a significantly higher magnesium chloride ratio, 50.8%. Carbonates and calcium are essential for all growth of corals, coralline algae, clams, and invertebrates. Magnesium can be depleted by mangrove plants and the use of excessive limewater or by going beyond natural calcium, alkalinity, and pH values.[41]
Toxicology[edit]
Magnesium ions are bitter-tasting, and magnesium chloride solutions are bitter in varying degrees, depending on the concentration of magnesium.
Magnesium toxicity from magnesium salts is rare in healthy individuals with a normal diet, because excess magnesium is readily excreted in urine by the kidneys. A few cases of oral magnesium toxicity have been described in persons with normal renal function ingesting large amounts of magnesium salts, but it is rare. If a large amount of magnesium chloride is eaten, it will have effects similar to magnesium sulfate, causing diarrhea, although the sulfate also contributes to the laxative effect in magnesium sulfate, so the effect from the chloride is not as severe.
Plant Toxicity[edit]
Chloride (Cl−) and magnesium (Mg2+) are both essential nutrients important for normal plant growth. Too much of either nutrient may harm a plant, although foliar chloride concentrations are more strongly related with foliar damage than magnesium. High concentrations of MgCl2 ions in the soil may be toxic or change water relationships such that the plant cannot easily accumulate water and nutrients. Once inside the plant, chloride moves through the water-conducting system and accumulates at the margins of leaves or needles, where dieback occurs first. Leaves are weakened or killed, which can lead to the death of the tree.[28][42]
Ecotoxicity levels related to terrestrial and aquatic organisms for magnesium chloride are listed in the Pesticide Action Network Pesticide Database.[43][44]
Locomotive boiler problem[edit]
The presence of dissolved magnesium chloride in the well water (bore water) used in locomotive boilers on the Trans-Australian Railway caused serious and expensive maintenance problems during the steam era. At no point along its route does the line cross a permanent fresh water watercourse, so bore water had to be relied on. No inexpensive treatment for the highly mineralised water was available and locomotive boilers were lasting less than a quarter of the time normally expected.[45] In the days of steam locomotion, about half the total train load was water for the engine. The line's operator, Commonwealth Railways was an early adopter of the diesel-electric locomotive.
See also[edit]
Acceptable daily intake
Magnesium oil
Notes and references[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. Inorganic Chemistry Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
Jump up ^ Wells, A. F. (1984) Structural Inorganic Chemistry, Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-855370-6.
Jump up ^ see notes in Rieke, R. D.; Bales, S. E.; Hudnall, P. M.; Burns, T. P.; Poindexter, G. S. "Highly Reactive Magnesium for the Preparation of Grignard Reagents: 1-Norbornane Acid", Organic Syntheses, Collected Volume 6, p. 845 (1988). http://www.orgsyn.org/orgsyn/pdfs/CV6P0845.pdf
Jump up ^ N. N. Greenwood, A. Earnshaw, Chemistry of the Elements, Pergamon Press, 1984.
Jump up ^ Hill, Petrucci, McCreary, Perry, General Chemistry, 4th ed., Pearson/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA.
Jump up ^ [1][dead link]
Jump up ^ [2][dead link]
Jump up ^ Messenger JB, Nixon M, Ryan KP. (1985 ). Magnesium chloride as an anaesthetic for cephalopods. Comp Biochem Physiol C. 82(1):203-5.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on October 10, 2009. Retrieved 2009-10-28. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ Culloty, S. C. & Mukahy, M. F. 1992. An evaluation of anaesthetics for Ostrea edulis (L.). Aquaculture. 107: 249–252.
^ Jump up to: a b "Dust Palliative Selection and Application Guide". Fs.fed.us. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1043546.pdf
Jump up ^ Schwendeman, T., Dust Control Study, Dust Palliative Evaluation, Gallatin National Forest”, USDA Forest Service, 1981
Jump up ^ [3][dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b "Road Dust Suppression: Effect on Maintenance Stability, Safety and the Environment Phases 1-3 (MPC-04-156)" (PDF). Retrieved 2017-10-18.
Jump up ^ Lohnes, R.A. and Coree, B.J., Determination and Evaluation of Alternate Methods for Managing and Controlling Highway-related Dust, Dept of Civil and Construction Engineering, Iowa State University, 2002
Jump up ^ Hass, R.A., “Dustproofing Unsurfaced Tank Trails Grafenwohr Training Area, Federal Republic of Germany. June 15–29, 1985.” U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Paper GL-86-40, 1986; the appendix of this report summarized the environmental effects of the use of magnesium chloride, saying: "A comprehensive literature search (Toxline, Medline, Chemline, Hazard Lie, Biological Abstracts, Toxic Data Bank and other available sources) was made. There appears to be no reported evidence that MgCl2 has had or will produce any effects on the groundwater, the water table, or vegetation following single or repeated applications to soil."
Jump up ^ Han, C. Dust Control on Unpaved Roads, Minnesota Local Road Research Board, 1992
Jump up ^ Snoeyink, V.L. and D. Jenkins. Water Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 1980
Jump up ^ Pollock, S.J., and L.G. Toler. Effects of Highway Deicing Salts on Groundwater and Water Supplies in Massachusetts. Highway Research Board, No. 425 17-21. 1973
Jump up ^ Schraufnagel, F.H. Chlorides. Commission on Water Pollution, Madison, Wisconsin. 1965.
Jump up ^ Hutchinson, F.E. The Influences of Salts Applied to Highways on the Levels of Sodium and Chloride Ions Present in Water and Soil Samples – Progress Report I. Project No. R1084-8. 1966.
Jump up ^ Pollock, S.J., and L.G. Toler. Effects of Highway Deicing Salts on Groundwater and Water Supplies in Massachusetts. Highway Research Board, No. 425 17-21. 1973.
Jump up ^ Hutchinson, F.E. The Influences of Salts Applied to Highways on the Levels of Sodium and Chloride Ions Present in Water and Soil Samples – Progress Report I. Project No.R1084-8. 1966.
Jump up ^ Schraufnagel, F.H. Chlorides. Commission on Water Pollution, Madison, Wisconsin. 1965
Jump up ^ Heller, V.G. “Saline and Alkaline Drinking Waters.” Journal of Nutrition, 5:421-429 1932
Jump up ^ Strong, F.C. A Study of Calcium Chloride Injury to Roadside Trees. Michigan Agr. Exp. Station, Quarterly Bulletin, 27:209-224. 1944
^ Jump up to: a b c "Publications - ExtensionExtension". Ext.colostate.edu. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
Jump up ^ "About the Office of Water | About EPA | US EPA" (PDF). Epa.gov. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
Jump up ^ Lockridge, Deborah (2011-12-13). "Some states are backing away from 'killer chemical' de-icers - All That's Trucking". TruckingInfo.com. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
Jump up ^ "September 2001 Issue - TruckingInfo.com Magazine". Truckinginfo.com. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
Jump up ^ http://wyndmoor.arserrc.gov/Page/1999%5C6706.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.soilworks.com/docs/soilworks-army-dust-control-field-handbook-2006.pdf
Jump up ^ *Jain, J., Olek, J., Janusz, A., and Jozwiak-Niedzwiedzka, D., "Effects of Deicing Salt Solutions on Physical Properties of Pavement Concretes", Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 2290, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., 2012, pp. 69-75. DOI: 10.3141/2290-09
Jump up ^ *Christensen, C. H., Sorensen, R. Z., Johannessen, T., Quaade,U. J.,Honkala, K., Elmøe, T. D., Køhler, R., and Nørskov, J. K., "Metal ammine complexes for hydrogen storage, " J. Mater. Chem. 15(2005) 4106–4108
Jump up ^ Food Standard Agency. "Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers". Retrieved 22 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "Listed under ingredients for Similac Hypoallergenic Infant Formula with Iron (Abbott Nutrition)". abbottnutrition.com. Retrieved 2013-07-22.
Jump up ^ "Comparison of Magnesium Sulfate and THIS Mg Chelate Foliar Sprays". Pubs.aic.ca. 1970-01-01. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
Jump up ^ "Magnesium Chloride Toxicity in Trees". Ext.colostate.edu. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
Jump up ^ "Effect of Foliar and Soil Magnesium Application on Bacterial Leaf Spot of Peppers" (PDF). Retrieved 2017-10-18.
Jump up ^ "Aquarium Chemistry: Magnesium In Reef Aquaria — Advanced Aquarist | Aquarist Magazine and Blog". Advancedaquarist.com. 2003-10-15. Retrieved 2013-01-17.
Jump up ^ Pesticide Action Network Database, http://www.pesticideinfo.org/Detail_Chemical.jsp?Rec_Id=PC32916
Jump up ^ "Magnesium chloride - toxicity, ecological toxicity and regulatory information". Pesticideinfo.org. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
Jump up ^ "PAN Pesticides Database: Ecotoxicity definitions". Pesticideinfo.org. 2000-06-19. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
Jump up ^ "Overland Locomotive:Feed Water Problems". The Argus. 1927-03-21. Retrieved 2014-03-11.
References
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 71st edition, CRC Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1990.
External links[edit]
Magnesium Chloride as a De-Icing Agent
MSDS file for Magnesium Chloride Hexahydrate
[show]
v
t
e
Magnesium compounds
MgB2
MgBr2
MgCO3
MgC2O4
MgC6H6O7
MgC14H10O4
MgCl2
Mg(ClO4)2
MgF2
MgH2
Mg(HCO3)2
MgI2
Mg(NO3)2
MgO
MgO2
Mg(OH)2
MgPo
MgS
MgSO3
MgSO4
MgU2O7
Mg2Al3
Mg2Si
Mg2SiO4
Mg2Si3O8
Mg3N2
Mg3(PO4)2
Mg2(CrO4)2
[show]
v
t
e
Mineral supplements (A12)
Major
Calcium
β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate
carbonate
chloride
+cholecalciferol
citrate
glubionate
glucoheptonate
gluconate#
glycerylphosphate
hydroxyapatite
lactate gluconate
lactate
pangamate
phosphate
Magnesium
aspartate
chloride
citrate
gluconate
glycinate
lactate
levulinate
malate
orotate
oxide
pidolate
sulfate
taurate
Phosphorus
adenosine triphosphate disodium
hydroxyapatite
monosodium phosphate
Potassium
bicarbonate
bitartrate
chloride
citrate
gluconate
Sodium
chloride
sulfate
Sulfur
L-cysteine
L-cystine
L-glutathione
L-methionine
methylsulfonylmethane
N-acetyl-L-cysteine
R-α-lipoic acid
S-adenosyl methionine
taurine
Trace
Copper
gluconate
Iodine
potassium iodide
Iron
(II) fumarate
(II) sulfate
Selenium
selenate
selenite
Zinc
acetate
L-aspartate
L-carnosine
gluconate
oxide
proteinate
sulfate
Ultratrace
Chromium
(III) picolinate
(III) chloride
Fluorine
fluoride#
monofluorophosphate
Lithium
aspartate
carbonate
orotate
Vanadium
(IV) sulfate
#WHO-EM
‡Withdrawn from market
Clinical trials:
†Phase III
§Never to phase III
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