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Human skin
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This article is about skin in humans. For other animals, see skin.
Skin
Epidermis, dermis, and subcutis, showing a hair follicle, gland, and sebaceous gland
Details
Identifiers
Latin
cutis
MeSH
D020405, D012867
Code
TH H3.12.00.1.00001
TA
A16.0.00.002
TH
H3.12.00.1.00001
FMA
7163
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The human skin is the outer covering of the body. In humans, it is the largest organ of the integumentary system. The skin has up to seven layers of ectodermal tissue and guards the underlying muscles, bones, ligaments and internal organs.[1] Human skin is similar to that of most other mammals, and human skin is very similar to pig skin.[2][3] Though nearly all human skin is covered with hair follicles, it can appear hairless. There are two general types of skin, hairy and glabrous skin (hairless).[4] The adjective cutaneous literally means "of the skin" (from Latin cutis, skin).
Because it interfaces with the environment, skin plays an important immunity role in protecting the body against pathogens[5] and excessive water loss.[6] Its other functions are insulation, temperature regulation, sensation, synthesis of vitamin D, and the protection of vitamin B folates. Severely damaged skin will try to heal by forming scar tissue. This is often discolored and depigmented.
In humans, skin pigmentation varies among populations, and skin type can range from dry to oily. Such skin variety provides a rich and diverse habitat for bacteria that number roughly 1000 species from 19 phyla, present on the human skin.[7][8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Epidermis
1.1.1 Components
1.1.2 Layers
1.1.3 Sublayers
1.1.4 Genes and proteins expressed in the epidermis
1.2 Dermis
1.2.1 Papillary region
1.2.2 Reticular region
1.3 Subcutaneous tissue
1.4 Cross-section
2 Development
2.1 Skin color
2.2 Aging
2.2.1 Photoaging
3 Functions
3.1 Skin flora
4 Clinical significance
5 Society and culture
5.1 Hygiene and skin care
5.1.1 Oily skin
6 Permeability
6.1 Nanoparticles
6.2 Increasing permeability
6.3 Applications
6.4 Sunblock and sunscreen
6.5 Diet
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Structure[edit]
Skin has mesodermal cells, pigmentation, such as melanin provided by melanocytes, which absorb some of the potentially dangerous ultraviolet radiation (UV) in sunlight. It also contains DNA repair enzymes that help reverse UV damage, such that people lacking the genes for these enzymes suffer high rates of skin cancer. One form predominantly produced by UV light, malignant melanoma, is particularly invasive, causing it to spread quickly, and can often be deadly. Human skin pigmentation varies among populations in a striking manner. This has led to the classification of people(s) on the basis of skin color.[9]
The skin is the largest organ in the human body. For the average adult human, the skin has a surface area of between 1.5-2.0 square meters (16.1-21.5 sq ft.). The thickness of the skin varies considerably over all parts of the body, and between men and women and the young and the old. An example is the skin on the forearm which is on average 1.3 mm in the male and 1.26 mm in the female.[10] The average square inch (6.5 cm²) of skin holds 650 sweat glands, 20 blood vessels, 60,000 melanocytes, and more than 1,000 nerve endings.[11][better source needed] The average human skin cell is about 30 micrometers in diameter, but there are variants. A skin cell usually ranges from 25-40 micrometers (squared), depending on a variety of factors.
Skin is composed of three primary layers: the epidermis, the dermis and the hypodermis.[10]
Layers, Receptors, and Appendages of Human Skin
Epidermis[edit]
Main article: Epidermis
Epidermis, "epi" coming from the Greek meaning "over" or "upon", is the outermost layer of the skin. It forms the waterproof, protective wrap over the body's surface which also serves as a barrier to infection and is made up of stratified squamous epithelium with an underlying basal lamina.
The epidermis contains no blood vessels, and cells in the deepest layers are nourished almost exclusively by diffused oxygen from the surrounding air[12] and to a far lesser degree by blood capillaries extending to the outer layers of the dermis. The main type of cells which make up the epidermis are Merkel cells, keratinocytes, with melanocytes and Langerhans cells also present. The epidermis can be further subdivided into the following strata (beginning with the outermost layer): corneum, lucidum (only in palms of hands and bottoms of feet), granulosum, spinosum, basale. Cells are formed through mitosis at the basale layer. The daughter cells (see cell division) move up the strata changing shape and composition as they die due to isolation from their blood source. The cytoplasm is released and the protein keratin is inserted. They eventually reach the corneum and slough off (desquamation). This process is called "keratinization". This keratinized layer of skin is responsible for keeping water in the body and keeping other harmful chemicals and pathogens out, making skin a natural barrier to infection.
2D projection of a 3D OCT-tomogram of the skin at the fingertip, depicting the stratum corneum (~500 µm thick) with the stratum disjunctum on top and the stratum lucidum in the middle. At the bottom are the superficial parts of the dermis. The sweatducts are clearly visible. (See also: Rotating 3D Version)
Components[edit]
The epidermis contains no blood vessels, and is nourished by diffusion from the dermis. The main type of cells which make up the epidermis are keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells and Merkel cells. The epidermis helps the skin to regulate body temperature.
Layers[edit]
Epidermis is divided into several layers where cells are formed through mitosis at the innermost layers. They move up the strata changing shape and composition as they differentiate and become filled with keratin. They eventually reach the top layer called stratum corneum and are sloughed off, or desquamated. This process is called keratinization and takes place within weeks. The outermost layer of the epidermis consists of 25 to 30 layers of dead cells.
Sublayers[edit]
Epidermis is divided into the following 5 sublayers or strata:
Stratum corneum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum germinativum (also called "stratum basale").
Blood capillaries are found beneath the epidermis, and are linked to an arteriole and a venule. Arterial shunt vessels may bypass the network in ears, the nose and fingertips.
Genes and proteins expressed in the epidermis[edit]
About 70% of all human protein-coding genes are expressed in the skin.[13][14] Almost 500 genes have an elevated pattern of expression in the skin. There are less than 100 genes that are specific for the skin and these are expressed in the epidermis.[15] An analysis of the corresponding proteins show that these are mainly expressed in keratinocytes and have functions related to squamous differentiation and cornification.
Dermis[edit]
Main article: Dermis
The dermis is the layer of skin beneath the epidermis that consists of connective tissue and cushions the body from stress and strain. The dermis is tightly connected to the epidermis by a basement membrane. It also harbors many nerve endings that provide the sense of touch and heat. It contains the hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, apocrine glands, lymphatic vessels and blood vessels. The blood vessels in the dermis provide nourishment and waste removal from its own cells as well as from the Stratum basale of the epidermis.
The dermis is structurally divided into two areas: a superficial area adjacent to the epidermis, called the papillary region, and a deep thicker area known as the reticular region.
Papillary region[edit]
The papillary region is composed of loose areolar connective tissue. It is named for its fingerlike projections called papillae, that extend toward the epidermis. The papillae provide the dermis with a "bumpy" surface that interdigitates with the epidermis, strengthening the connection between the two layers of skin.
In the palms, fingers, soles, and toes, the influence of the papillae projecting into the epidermis forms contours in the skin's surface. These epidermal ridges occur in patterns (see: fingerprint) that are genetically and epigenetically determined and are therefore unique to the individual, making it possible to use fingerprints or footprints as a means of identification.
Reticular region[edit]
The reticular region lies deep in the papillary region and is usually much thicker. It is composed of dense irregular connective tissue, and receives its name from the dense concentration of collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers that weave throughout it. These protein fibers give the dermis its properties of strength, extensibility, and elasticity.
Also located within the reticular region are the roots of the hairs, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, receptors, nails, and blood vessels.
Tattoo ink is held in the dermis. Stretch marks often from pregnancy and obesity, are also located in the dermis.
Subcutaneous tissue[edit]
The subcutaneous tissue (also hypodermis and subcutis) is not part of the skin, and lies below the dermis of the cutis. Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying bone and muscle as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It consists of loose connective tissue, adipose tissue and elastin. The main cell types are fibroblasts, macrophages and adipocytes (subcutaneous tissue contains 50% of body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the body.
Cross-section[edit]
Skin layers, of both hairy and hairless skin
Development[edit]
Skin color[edit]
Main article: Human skin color
Human skin shows high skin color variety from the darkest brown to the lightest pinkish-white hues. Human skin shows higher variation in color than any other single mammalian species and is the result of natural selection. Skin pigmentation in humans evolved to primarily regulate the amount of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) penetrating the skin, controlling its biochemical effects.[16]
The actual skin color of different humans is affected by many substances, although the single most important substance determining human skin color is the pigment melanin. Melanin is produced within the skin in cells called melanocytes and it is the main determinant of the skin color of darker-skinned humans. The skin color of people with light skin is determined mainly by the bluish-white connective tissue under the dermis and by the hemoglobin circulating in the veins of the dermis. The red color underlying the skin becomes more visible, especially in the face, when, as consequence of physical exercise or the stimulation of the nervous system (anger, fear), arterioles dilate.[17]
There are at least five different pigments that determine the color of the skin.[18][19] These pigments are present at different levels and places.
Melanin: It is brown in color and present in the basal layer of the epidermis.
Melanoid: It resembles melanin but is present diffusely throughout the epidermis.
Carotene: This pigment is yellow to orange in color. It is present in the stratum corneum and fat cells of dermis and superficial fascia.
Hemoglobin (also spelled haemoglobin): It is found in blood and is not a pigment of the skin but develops a purple color.
Oxyhemoglobin: It is also found in blood and is not a pigment of the skin. It develops a red color.
There is a correlation between the geographic distribution of UV radiation (UVR) and the distribution of indigenous skin pigmentation around the world. Areas that highlight higher amounts of UVR reflect darker-skinned populations, generally located nearer towards the equator. Areas that are far from the tropics and closer to the poles have lower concentration of UVR, which is reflected in lighter-skinned populations.[20]
In the same population it has been observed that adult human females are considerably lighter in skin pigmentation than males. Females need more calcium during pregnancy and lactation, and vitamin D which is synthesized from sunlight helps in absorbing calcium. For this reason it is thought that females may have evolved to have lighter skin in order to help their bodies absorb more calcium.[21]
The Fitzpatrick scale[22][23] is a numerical classification schema for human skin color developed in 1975 as a way to classify the typical response of different types of skin to ultraviolet (UV) light:
I Always burns, never tans Pale, Fair, Freckles
II Usually burns, sometimes tans Fair
III May burn, usually tans Light Brown
IV Rarely burns, always tans Olive brown
V Moderate constitutional pigmentation Brown
VI Marked constitutional pigmentation Black
Aging[edit]
Further information: senescence
Further information: Intrinsic and extrinsic aging
A typical rash
Skin infected with scabies
As skin ages, it becomes thinner and more easily damaged. Intensifying this effect is the decreasing ability of skin to heal itself as a person ages.
Among other things, skin aging is noted by a decrease in volume and elasticity. There are many internal and external causes to skin aging. For example, aging skin receives less blood flow and lower glandular activity.
A validated comprehensive grading scale has categorized the clinical findings of skin aging as laxity (sagging), rhytids (wrinkles), and the various facets of photoaging, including erythema (redness), and telangiectasia, dyspigmentation (brown discoloration), solar elastosis (yellowing), keratoses (abnormal growths) and poor texture.[24]
Cortisol causes degradation of collagen,[25] accelerating skin aging.[26]
Anti-aging supplements are used to treat skin aging.
Photoaging[edit]
Main article: Photoaging
Photoaging has two main concerns: an increased risk for skin cancer and the appearance of damaged skin. In younger skin, sun damage will heal faster since the cells in the epidermis have a faster turnover rate, while in the older population the skin becomes thinner and the epidermis turnover rate for cell repair is lower which may result in the dermis layer being damaged.[27]
Functions[edit]
Skin performs the following functions:
Protection: an anatomical barrier from pathogens and damage between the internal and external environment in bodily defense; Langerhans cells in the skin are part of the adaptive immune system.[5][6] Perspiration contains lysozyme that break the bonds within the cell walls of bacteria.[28]
Sensation: contains a variety of nerve endings that react to heat and cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury; see somatosensory system and haptics.
Heat regulation: the skin contains a blood supply far greater than its requirements which allows precise control of energy loss by radiation, convection and conduction. Dilated blood vessels increase perfusion and heatloss, while constricted vessels greatly reduce cutaneous blood flow and conserve heat.
Control of evaporation: the skin provides a relatively dry and semi-impermeable barrier to fluid loss.[6] Loss of this function contributes to the massive fluid loss in burns.
Aesthetics and communication: others see our skin and can assess our mood, physical state and attractiveness.
Storage and synthesis: acts as a storage center for lipids and water, as well as a means of synthesis of vitamin D by action of UV on certain parts of the skin.
Excretion: sweat contains urea, however its concentration is 1/130th that of urine, hence excretion by sweating is at most a secondary function to temperature regulation.
Absorption: the cells comprising the outermost 0.25–0.40 mm of the skin are "almost exclusively supplied by external oxygen", although the "contribution to total respiration is negligible".[12] In addition, medicine can be administered through the skin, by ointments or by means of adhesive patch, such as the nicotine patch or iontophoresis. The skin is an important site of transport in many other organisms.
Water resistance: The skin acts as a water-resistant barrier so essential nutrients are not washed out of the body.
Skin flora[edit]
Main article: Skin flora
The human skin is a rich environment for microbes.[7][8] Around 1000 species of bacteria from 19 bacterial phyla have been found. Most come from only four phyla: Actinobacteria (51.8%), Firmicutes (24.4%), Proteobacteria (16.5%), and Bacteroidetes (6.3%). Propionibacteria and Staphylococci species were the main species in sebaceous areas. There are three main ecological areas: moist, dry and sebaceous. In moist places on the body Corynebacteria together with Staphylococci dominate. In dry areas, there is a mixture of species but dominated by b-Proteobacteria and Flavobacteriales. Ecologically, sebaceous areas had greater species richness than moist and dry ones. The areas with least similarity between people in species were the spaces between fingers, the spaces between toes, axillae, and umbilical cord stump. Most similarly were beside the nostril, nares (inside the nostril), and on the back.
Reflecting upon the diversity of the human skin researchers on the human skin microbiome have observed: "hairy, moist underarms lie a short distance from smooth dry forearms, but these two niches are likely as ecologically dissimilar as rainforests are to deserts."[7]
The NIH has launched the Human Microbiome Project to characterize the human microbiota which includes that on the skin and the role of this microbiome in health and disease.[29]
Microorganisms like Staphylococcus epidermidis colonize the skin surface. The density of skin flora depends on region of the skin. The disinfected skin surface gets recolonized from bacteria residing in the deeper areas of the hair follicle, gut and urogenital openings.
Clinical significance[edit]
Further information: skin disease
Diseases of the skin include skin infections and skin neoplasms (including skin cancer).
Dermatology is the branch of medicine that deals with conditions of the skin.[4]
Society and culture[edit]
Hygiene and skin care[edit]
See also: Exfoliation (cosmetology)
The skin supports its own ecosystems of microorganisms, including yeasts and bacteria, which cannot be removed by any amount of cleaning. Estimates place the number of individual bacteria on the surface of one square inch (6.5 square cm) of human skin at 50 million, though this figure varies greatly over the average 20 square feet (1.9 m2) of human skin. Oily surfaces, such as the face, may contain over 500 million bacteria per square inch (6.5 cm²). Despite these vast quantities, all of the bacteria found on the skin's surface would fit into a volume the size of a pea.[30] In general, the microorganisms keep one another in check and are part of a healthy skin. When the balance is disturbed, there may be an overgrowth and infection, such as when antibiotics kill microbes, resulting in an overgrowth of yeast. The skin is continuous with the inner epithelial lining of the body at the orifices, each of which supports its own complement of microbes.
Cosmetics should be used carefully on the skin because these may cause allergic reactions. Each season requires suitable clothing in order to facilitate the evaporation of the sweat. Sunlight, water and air play an important role in keeping the skin healthy.
Oily skin[edit]
Oily skin is caused by over-active sebaceous glands, that produce a substance called sebum, a naturally healthy skin lubricant.[1] When the skin produces excessive sebum, it becomes heavy and thick in texture. Oily skin is typified by shininess, blemishes and pimples.[1] The oily-skin type is not necessarily bad, since such skin is less prone to wrinkling, or other signs of aging,[1] because the oil helps to keep needed moisture locked into the epidermis (outermost layer of skin).
The negative aspect of the oily-skin type is that oily complexions are especially susceptible to clogged pores, blackheads, and buildup of dead skin cells on the surface of the skin.[1] Oily skin can be sallow and rough in texture and tends to have large, clearly visible pores everywhere, except around the eyes and neck.[1]
Permeability[edit]
Human skin has a low permeability; that is, most foreign substances are unable to penetrate and diffuse through the skin. Skin's outermost layer, the stratum corneum, is an effective barrier to most inorganic nanosized particles.[31][32] This protects the body from external particles such as toxins by not allowing them to come into contact with internal tissues. However, in some cases it is desirable to allow particles entry to the body through the skin. Potential medical applications of such particle transfer has prompted developments in nanomedicine and biology to increase skin permeability. One application of transcutaneous particle delivery could be to locate and treat cancer. Nanomedical researchers seek to target the epidermis and other layers of active cell division where nanoparticles can interact directly with cells that have lost their growth-control mechanisms (cancer cells). Such direct interaction could be used to more accurately diagnose properties of specific tumors or to treat them by delivering drugs with cellular specificity.
Nanoparticles[edit]
Nanoparticles 40 nm in diameter and smaller have been successful in penetrating the skin.[33][34][35] Research confirms that nanoparticles larger than 40 nm do not penetrate the skin past the stratum corneum.[33] Most particles that do penetrate will diffuse through skin cells, but some will travel down hair follicles and reach the dermis layer.
The permeability of skin relative to different shapes of nanoparticles has also been studied. Research has shown that spherical particles have a better ability to penetrate the skin compared to oblong (ellipsoidal) particles because spheres are symmetric in all three spatial dimensions.[35] One study compared the two shapes and recorded data that showed spherical particles located deep in the epidermis and dermis whereas ellipsoidal particles were mainly found in the stratum corneum and epidermal layers.[36] Nanorods are used in experiments because of their unique fluorescent properties but have shown mediocre penetration.
Nanoparticles of different materials have shown skin’s permeability limitations. In many experiments, gold nanoparticles 40 nm in diameter or smaller are used and have shown to penetrate to the epidermis. Titanium oxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and silver nanoparticles are ineffective in penetrating the skin past the stratum corneum.[37][38] Cadmium selenide (CdSe) quantum dots have proven to penetrate very effectively when they have certain properties. Because CdSe is toxic to living organisms, the particle must be covered in a surface group. An experiment comparing the permeability of quantum dots coated in polyethylene glycol (PEG), PEG-amine, and carboxylic acid concluded the PEG and PEG-amine surface groups allowed for the greatest penetration of particles. The carboxylic acid coated particles did not penetrate past the stratum corneum.[36]
Increasing permeability[edit]
Scientists previously believed that the skin was an effective barrier to inorganic particles. Damage from mechanical stressors was believed to be the only way to increase its permeability.[39] Recently, however, simpler and more effective methods for increasing skin permeability have been developed. For example, ultraviolet radiation (UVR) has been used to slightly damage the surface of skin, causing a time-dependent defect allowing easier penetration of nanoparticles.[40] The UVR’s high energy causes a restructuring of cells, weakening the boundary between the stratum corneum and the epidermal layer.[40][41] The damage of the skin is typically measured by the transepidermal water loss (TEWL), though it may take 3–5 days for the TEWL to reach its peak value. When the TEWL reaches its highest value, the maximum density of nanoparticles is able to permeate the skin. Studies confirm that UVR damaged skin significantly increases the permeability.[40][41] The effects of increased permeability after UVR exposure can lead to an increase in the number of particles that permeate the skin. However, the specific permeability of skin after UVR exposure relative to particles of different sizes and materials has not been determined.[40]
Other skin damaging methods used to increase nanoparticle penetration include tape stripping, skin abrasion, and chemical enhancement. Tape stripping is the process in which tape is applied to skin then lifted to remove the top layer of skin. Skin abrasion is done by shaving the top 5-10 micrometers off the surface of the skin. Chemical enhancement is the process in which chemicals such as polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and oleic acid are applied to the surface of the skin to increase permeability.[42][43]
Electroporation is the application of short pulses of electric fields on skin and has proven to increase skin permeability. The pulses are high voltage and on the order of milliseconds when applied. Charged molecules penetrate the skin more frequently than neutral molecules after the skin has been exposed to electric field pulses. Results have shown molecules on the order of 100 micrometers to easily permeate electroporated skin.[43]
Applications[edit]
A large area of interest in nanomedicine is the transdermal patch because of the possibility of a painless application of therapeutic agents with very few side effects. Transdermal patches have been limited to administer a small number of drugs, such as nicotine, because of the limitations in permeability of the skin. Development of techniques that increase skin permeability has led to more drugs that can be applied via transdermal patches and more options for patients.[43]
Increasing the permeability of skin allows nanoparticles to penetrate and target cancer cells. Nanoparticles along with multi-modal imaging techniques have been used as a way to diagnose cancer non-invasively. Skin with high permeability allowed quantum dots with an antibody attached to the surface for active targeting to successfully penetrate and identify cancerous tumors in mice. Tumor targeting is beneficial because the particles can be excited using fluorescence microscopy and emit light energy and heat that will destroy cancer cells.[44]
Sunblock and sunscreen[edit]
Sunblock and sunscreen are different important skin-care products though both offer full protection from the sun.[45][46]
Sunblock—Sunblock is opaque and stronger than sunscreen, since it is able to block most of the UVA/UVB rays and radiation from the sun, and does not need to be reapplied several times in a day. Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are two of the important ingredients in sunblock.[47]
Sunscreen—Sunscreen is more transparent once applied to the skin and also has the ability to protect against UVA/UVB rays, although the sunscreen's ingredients have the ability to break down at a faster rate once exposed to sunlight, and some of the radiation is able to penetrate to the skin. In order for sunscreen to be more effective it is necessary to consistently reapply and use one with a higher sun protection factor.
Diet[edit]
Vitamin A, also known as retinoids, benefits the skin by normalizing keratinization, downregulating sebum production which contributes to acne, and reversing and treating photodamage, striae, and cellulite.
Vitamin D and analogs are used to downregulate the cutaneous immune system and epithelial proliferation while promoting differentiation.
Vitamin C is an antioxidant that regulates collagen synthesis, forms barrier lipids, regenerates vitamin E, and provides photoprotection.
Vitamin E is a membrane antioxidant that protects against oxidative damage and also provides protection against harmful UV rays. [48]
Several scientific studies confirmed that changes in baseline nutritional status affects skin condition. [49]
The Mayo Clinic lists foods they state help the skin: fruits and vegetables, whole-grains, dark leafy greens, nuts, and seeds.[50]
See also[edit]
Acid mantle
Anthropodermic bibliopegy
Artificial skin
Callus, thick area of skin
List of cutaneous conditions
Cutaneous structure development
Fingerprint, skin on fingertips
Hyperpigmentation, about excess skin color
Intertriginous
Meissner's corpuscle
Pacinian corpuscle
Polyphenol antioxidant
Skin lesion
Skin repair
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Jump up ^ Oikarinen, A. (2004). "Connective tissue and aging". International Journal of Cosmetic Science. 26 (2): 107–107. doi:10.1111/j.1467-2494.2004.213_6.x. ISSN 0142-5463. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Gilchrest, BA (1990). "Skin aging and photoaging". Dermatology nursing / Dermatology Nurses' Association. 2 (2): 79–82. PMID 2141531.
Jump up ^ WI, Kenneth Todar, Madison,. "Immune Defense against Bacterial Pathogens: Innate Immunity". textbookofbacteriology.net. Retrieved 2017-04-19.
Jump up ^ NIH Human Microbiome Project.
Jump up ^ Theodor Rosebury. Life on Man: Secker & Warburg, 1969 ISBN 0-670-42793-4
Jump up ^ Baroli, Biancamaria (2010). "Penetration of nanoparticles and nanomaterials in the skin: Fiction or reality?". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 99 (1): 21–50. doi:10.1002/jps.21817. ISSN 0022-3549.
Jump up ^ Filipe, P.; J.N. Silva; R. Silva; J.L. Cirne de Castro; M. Marques Gomes; L.C. Alves; R. Santus; T. Pinheiro (2009). "Stratum Corneum Is an Effective Barrier to TiO2 and ZnO Nanoparticle Percutaneous Absorption". Skin Pharmacology and Physiology. 22 (5): 266–275. doi:10.1159/000235554. ISSN 1660-5535. PMID 19690452.
^ Jump up to: a b Vogt, A.; Combadiere, B.; Hadam, S.; Stieler, K.; Lademann, J.; Schaefer, H.; et al. (June 2006). "40 nm, but not 750 or 1,500 nm, nanoparticles enter epidermal CD1a+ cells after transcutaneous application on human skin". Journal of Investigative Dermatology. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. 126 (6): 1316–22. doi:10.1038/sj.jid.5700226. PMID 16614727.
Jump up ^ Sonavane, Ganeshchandra; Keishiro Tomoda; Akira Sano; Hiroyuki Ohshima; Hiroshi Terada; Kimiko Makino (2008). "In vitro permeation of gold nanoparticles through rat skin and rat intestine: Effect of particle size". Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 65 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.colsurfb.2008.02.013. ISSN 0927-7765. PMID 18499408.
^ Jump up to: a b Ryman-Rasmussen, J. P. (2006). "Penetration of Intact Skin by Quantum Dots with Diverse Physicochemical Properties". Toxicological Sciences. Cary, North Carolina: Oxford University Press. 91 (1): 159–165. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfj122. ISSN 1096-6080. PMID 16443688.
^ Jump up to: a b Ryman-Rasmussen, J.P., Riviere, J.E. and Monteiro-Riviere, N.A. Penetration of Intact Skin by Quantum Dots with Diverse Physicochemical Properties. Toxicological Sciences 2006;91(1):159-165
Jump up ^ Felipe, P.; Silva, J.N.; Silva, R.; Cirne de Castro, J.L.; Gomes, M.; Alves, L.C.; et al. (2009). "Stratum Corneum Is an Effective Carrier to TiO2 and ZnO Nanoparticle Percutaneous Absorption". Skin Pharmacology and Physiology. 22: 266–275. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Larese, Francesca Filon; Flavia D’Agostin; Matteo Crosera; Gianpiero Adami; Nadia Renzi; Massimo Bovenzi; Giovanni Maina (2009). "Human skin penetration of silver nanoparticles through intact and damaged skin". Toxicology. Limerick: Elsevier. 255 (1–2): 33–37. doi:10.1016/j.tox.2008.09.025. ISSN 0300-483X. PMID 18973786.
Jump up ^ Mortensen, Luke J.; Gunter Oberdörster; Alice P. Pentland; Lisa A. DeLouise (2008). "In Vivo Skin Penetration of Quantum Dot Nanoparticles in the Murine Model: The Effect of UVR". Nano Letters. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society. 8 (9): 2779–2787. doi:10.1021/nl801323y. ISSN 1530-6984. PMC 4111258  . PMID 18687009.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Osinski, Marek; Luke Mortensen; Hong Zheng; Renea Faulknor; Anna De Benedetto; Lisa Beck; Lisa A. DeLouise; Thomas M. Jovin; Kenji Yamamoto (2009). "Increased in vivo skin penetration of quantum dots with UVR and in vitro quantum dot cytotoxicity". Colloidal Quantum Dots for Biomedical Applications IV. 7189: 718919–718919–12. doi:10.1117/12.809215. ISSN 0277-786X.
^ Jump up to: a b Mortensen, L.; Oberdorster, G.; Pentland, A.; DeLoiuse, L. (2008). "In Vivo Skin Penetration of Quantum Dot Nanoparticles in the Murine Model: The Effects of UVR". Nano Letters. 8 (9): 2779–2787. doi:10.1021/nl801323y. PMC 4111258  . PMID 18687009.
Jump up ^ Sokolov, K.; Follen, M.; Aaron, J.; Pavlova, I.; Malpica, A.; Lotan, R.; et al. (May 2003). "Real-Time Vital Optical Imaging of Precancer Using Anti-Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Antibodies Conjugated to Gold Nanoparticles". Cancer Research. 63: 199.
^ Jump up to: a b c Prausnitz, M.; Mitragotri, S.; Langer, R. (February 2004). "Current Status and Future Potential of Transdermal Drug Delivery". Drug Discovery. 3: 115–124. doi:10.1038/nrd1304.
Jump up ^ Gao, X.; Cui, Y.; Levenson, R.; Chung, L.; Nie, S. (2005). "In vivo cancer targeting and imaging with semiconductor quantum dots". Nature Biotechnology. 22 (8): 969–976. doi:10.1038/nbt994. PMID 15258594.
Jump up ^ "Sunscreen or sunblock". Retrieved July 2015. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ An update on Suncreens; 2007; P 23- 29. Available at www.aocd.org/resource/resmgr/jaocd/2007aug.pdf
Jump up ^ "Nanotechnology Information Center: Properties, Applications, Research, and Safety Guidelines". American Elements.
Jump up ^ Shapiro SS, Saliou C (2001). "Role of vitamins in skin care". Nutrition. 17 (10): 839–844. doi:10.1016/S0899-9007(01)00660-8. PMID 11684391.
Jump up ^ Esther Boelsma, Lucy PL van de Vijver, R Alexandra Goldbohm; et al. (February 2003). "Role of vitamins in skin care". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 77 (2): 348–355. PMID 12540393. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) [1]
Jump up ^ http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/expert-answers/healthy-skin/faq-20058184
External links[edit]
Look up human skin in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
MedlinePlus Skin Conditions National Library of Medicine retrieved November 12, 2013.
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Skin and related structures
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text:
Arecaceae
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the palm family. For the heather family, see Ericaceae. For the arum family, see Araceae. For the ivy family, see Araliaceae.
Arecaceae
Temporal range: 80–0 Ma
PreЄ
Є
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
Late Cretaceous- Recent
Coconut palm tree Cocos nucifera in Martinique.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Arecales
Family: Arecaceae
Bercht. & J.Presl, nom. cons.[1]
Type genus
Areca
Subfamilies
Arecoideae
Calamoideae
Ceroxyloideae
Coryphoideae
Nypoideae [2]
Diversity
Well over 2600 species in some 202 genera
The Arecaceae are a botanical family of perennial climbers, shrubs, acaules and trees commonly known as palm trees (owing to historical usage, the family is alternatively called Palmae).[3] They are flowering plants, a family in the monocot order Arecales. Currently 181 genera with around 2600 species are known,[4] most of them restricted to tropical and subtropical climates. Most palms are distinguished by their large, compound, evergreen leaves, known as fronds, arranged at the top of an unbranched stem. However, palms exhibit an enormous diversity in physical characteristics and inhabit nearly every type of habitat within their range, from rainforests to deserts.
Palms are among the best known and most extensively cultivated plant families. They have been important to humans throughout much of history. Many common products and foods are derived from palms, and palms are also widely used in landscaping, making them one of the most economically important plants. In many historical cultures, palms were symbols for such ideas as victory, peace, and fertility. For inhabitants of cooler climates today, palms symbolize the tropics and vacations.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Morphology
2 Range and habitat
3 Selected genera
4 Evolution
5 Uses
6 Endangered species
7 Arthropod pests
8 Symbolism
9 Other plants
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Morphology[edit]
Various Arecaceae
This grove of the native species Washingtonia filifera in Palm Canyon, California is growing alongside a stream running through the desert.
Whether as shrubs, trees, or vines, palms have two methods of growth: solitary or clustered. The common representation is that of a solitary shoot ending in a crown of leaves. This monopodial character may be exhibited by prostrate, trunkless, and trunk-forming members. Some common palms restricted to solitary growth include Washingtonia and Roystonea. Palms may instead grow in sparse though dense clusters. The trunk develops an axillary bud at a leaf node, usually near the base, from which a new shoot emerges. The new shoot, in turn, produces an axillary bud and a clustering habit results. Exclusively sympodial genera include many of the rattans, Guihaia, and Rhapis. Several palm genera have both solitary and clustering members. Palms which are usually solitary may grow in clusters, and vice versa. These aberrations suggest the habit operates on a single gene.[6]
Sawn palm tree trunk: Palms do not form annual tree rings.
Palms have large, evergreen leaves that are either palmately ('fan-leaved') or pinnately ('feather-leaved') compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. The leaves have a tubular sheath at the base that usually splits open on one side at maturity.[7] The inflorescence is a spadix or spike surrounded by one or more bracts or spathes that become woody at maturity. The flowers are generally small and white, radially symmetric, and can be either uni- or bisexual. The sepals and petals usually number three each, and may be distinct or joined at the base. The stamens generally number six, with filaments that may be separate, attached to each other, or attached to the pistil at the base. The fruit is usually a single-seeded drupe (sometimes berry-like)[8] but some genera (e.g. Salacca) may contain two or more seeds in each fruit.
Coconut palm trees in Boracay, the Philippines
Palmyra palm fruit at Guntur, India
Like all monocots, palms do not have the ability to increase the width of a stem (secondary growth) via the same kind of vascular cambium found in non-monocot woody plants.[9] This explains the cylindrical shape of the trunk (almost constant diameter) that is often seen in palms, unlike in true trees. However, many palms, like some other monocots, do have secondary growth, although because it does not arise from a single vascular cambium producing xylem inwards and phloem outwards, it is often called "anomalous secondary growth".[10]
The Arecaceae are notable among monocots for their height and for the size of their seeds, leaves, and inflorescences. Ceroxylon quindiuense, Colombia's national tree, is the tallest monocot in the world, reaching up to 60 m tall.[11] The coco de mer (Lodoicea maldivica) has the largest seeds of any plant, 40–50 cm in diameter and weighing 15–30 kg each. Raffia palms (Raphia spp.) have the largest leaves of any plant, up to 25 m long and 3 m wide. The Corypha species have the largest inflorescence of any plant, up to 7.5 m tall and containing millions of small flowers. Calamus stems can reach 200 m in length.
Range and habitat[edit]
Coconut palm trees in Mumbai, India
Palm and sunset in Minoo Island (Persian Gulf)
Most palms are native to tropical and subtropical climates. Palms thrive in moist and hot climates, however, they can be found in many different habitats. Their diversity is highest in wet, lowland forests. South America, the Caribbean, and areas of the south Pacific and southern Asia are regions of concentration. Colombia may have the highest number of palm species in one country. There are some palms that are also native to desert areas such as the Arabian peninsula and parts of northwest Mexico. Only about 130 palm species naturally grow entirely beyond the tropics, mostly in humid lowland subtropical climates, in highlands in southern Asia, and along the rim lands of the Mediterranean Sea. The northernmost native palm is Chamaerops humilis, which reaches 44°N latitude in along the coast of southern France.[12] In the southern hemisphere, the southernmost palm is the Rhopalostylis sapida, which reaches 44°S on the Chatham Islands where an oceanic climate prevails.[12] Cultivation of palms is possible north of subtropical climates, and some higher latitude locals such as Ireland, Scotland, England, and the Pacific Northwest feature a few palms in protected locations.
Palms inhabit a variety of ecosystems. More than two-thirds of palm species live in humid moist forests, where some species grow tall enough to form part of the canopy and shorter ones form part of the understory.[13] Some species form pure stands in areas with poor drainage or regular flooding, including Raphia hookeri which is common in coastal freshwater swamps in West Africa. Other palms live in tropical mountain habitats above 1000 m, such as those in the genus Ceroxylon native to the Andes. Palms may also live in grasslands and scrublands, usually associated with a water source, and in desert oases such as the date palm. A few palms are adapted to extremely basic lime soils, while others are similarly adapted to extreme potassium deficiency and toxicity of heavy metals in serpentine soils.[12]
A queen palm
A young Beccariophoenix madagascariensis palm
Two Roystonea regia specimens in Kolkata, India, note the characteristic crownshaft and apex shoot or 'spear'
Palms are a monophyletic group of plants, meaning the group consists of a common ancestor and all its descendants.[13] Extensive taxonomic research on palms began with botanist H.E. Moore, who organized palms into 15 major groups based mostly on general morphological characteristics. The following classification, proposed by N.W. Uhl and J. Dransfield in 1987, is a revision of Moore's classification that organizes palms into six subfamilies.[14]
Coryphoideae
Calamoideae
Nypoideae
Ceroxyloideae
Arecoideae
Phytelephantoideae
A few general traits of each subfamily are listed below.
The Coryphoideae are the most diverse subfamily, and are a paraphyletic group, meaning all members of the group share a common ancestor, but the group does not include all the ancestor's descendants. Most palms in this subfamily have palmately lobed leaves and solitary flowers with three, or sometimes four carpels. The fruit normally develops from only one carpel.
Subfamily Calamoideae includes the climbing palms, such as rattans. The leaves are usually pinnate; derived characters (synapomorphies) include spines on various organs, organs specialized for climbing, an extension of the main stem of the leaf-bearing reflexed spines, and overlapping scales covering the fruit and ovary.
Subfamily Nypoideae contains only one species, Nypa fruticans,[15] which has large, pinnate leaves. The fruit is unusual in that it floats, and the stem is dichotomously branched, also unusual in palms.
Subfamily Ceroxyloideae has small to medium-sized flowers, spirally arranged, with a gynoecium of three joined carpels.
The Arecoideae are the largest subfamily, with six diverse tribes (Areceae, Caryoteae, Cocoeae, Geonomeae, Iriarteeae, and Podococceae) containing over 100 genera. All tribes have pinnate or bipinnate leaves and flowers arranged in groups of three, with a central pistillate and two staminate flowers.
The Phytelephantoideae are a monoecious subfamily. Members of this group have distinct monopodial flower clusters. Other distinct features include a gynoecium with five to 10 joined carpels, and flowers with more than three parts per whorl. Fruits are multiple-seeded and have multiple parts.[16]
Currently, few extensive phylogenetic studies of the Arecaceae exist. In 1997, Baker et al. explored subfamily and tribe relationships using chloroplast DNA from 60 genera from all subfamilies and tribes. The results strongly showed the Calamoideae are monophyletic, and Ceroxyloideae and Coryphoideae are paraphyletic. The relationships of Arecoideae are uncertain, but they are possibly related to the Ceroxyloideae and Phytelephantoideae. Studies have suggested the lack of a fully resolved hypothesis for the relationships within the family is due to a variety of factors, including difficulties in selecting appropriate outgroups, homoplasy in morphological character states, slow rates of molecular evolution important for the use of standard DNA markers, and character polarization.[17] However, hybridization has been observed among Orbignya and Phoenix species, and using chloroplast DNA in cladistic studies may produce inaccurate results due to maternal inheritance of the chloroplast DNA. Chemical and molecular data from non-organelle DNA, for example, could be more effective for studying palm phylogeny.[16]
Selected genera[edit]
See list of Arecaceae genera arranged by taxonomic groups or by alphabetical order for a complete listing of genera.
Silhouette of palm trees in Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa
Palm trees in Multan, Pakistan
Archontophoenix—Bangalow palm
Areca—Betel palm
Astrocaryum
Attalea
Bactris—Pupunha
Beccariophoenix—Beccariophoenix alfredii
Bismarckia—Bismarck palm
Borassus—Palmyra palm, sugar palm, toddy palm
Calamus—Rattan palm
Ceroxylon
Cocos—Coconut
Coccothrinax
Copernicia—Carnauba wax palm
Corypha—Gebang palm, Buri palm or Talipot palm
Elaeis—Oil palm
Euterpe—Cabbage heart palm, açaí palm
Hyphaene—Doum palm
Jubaea—Chilean wine palm, Coquito palm
Latania—Latan palm
Licuala
Livistona—Cabbage palm
Mauritia—Moriche palm
Metroxylon—Sago palm
Nypa—Nipa palm
Parajubaea—Bolivian coconut palms
Phoenix—Date palm
Phoenix sylvestris—Wild date palm
Pritchardia
Raphia—Raffia palm
Rhapidophyllum
Rhapis
Roystonea—Royal palm
Sabal—Palmettos
Salacca—Salak
Syagrus—Queen palm
Thrinax
Trachycarpus—Windmill palm, Kumaon palm
Trithrinax
Veitchia—Manila palm, Joannis palm
Washingtonia—Fan palm
Cuban Royal palm
Evolution[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Arecaceae are the first modern family of monocots appearing in the fossil record[citation needed] around 80 million years ago (Mya), during the late Cretaceous period. The first modern species, such as Nypa fruticans and Acrocomia aculeata, appeared 94 Mya, confirmed by fossil Nypa pollen dated to 94 Mya.[clarification needed] Palms appear to have undergone an early period of adaptive radiation.[citation needed] By 60 Mya, many of the modern, specialized genera of palms appeared and became widespread and common, much more widespread than their range today.[citation needed] Because palms separated from the monocots earlier than other families,[when?] they developed more intrafamilial specialization and diversity.[citation needed][clarification needed] By tracing back these diverse characteristics of palms to the basic structures of monocots, palms may be valuable in studying monocot evolution.[18] Several species of palms have been identified from flowers preserved in amber, including Palaeoraphe dominicana and Roystonea palaea.[19] Evidence can also be found in samples of petrified palmwood.
Uses[edit]
Human use of palms is as old or older than human civilization itself, starting with the cultivation of the date palm by Mesopotamians and other Middle Eastern peoples 5000 years or more ago.[20] Date wood, pits for storing dates, and other remains of the date palm have been found in Mesopotamian sites.[21] The date palm had a tremendous effect on the history of the Middle East. W.H. Barreveld wrote:
One could go as far as to say that, had the date palm not existed, the expansion of the human race into the hot and barren parts of the "old" world would have been much more restricted. The date palm not only provided a concentrated energy food, which could be easily stored and carried along on long journeys across the deserts, it also created a more amenable habitat for the people to live in by providing shade and protection from the desert winds (Fig. 1). In addition, the date palm also yielded a variety of products for use in agricultural production and for domestic utensils, and practically all parts of the palm had a useful purpose.[20]
An indication of the importance of palms in ancient times is that they are mentioned more than 30 times in the Bible,[22] and at least 22 times in the Quran.[23]
Fruit of the date palm Phoenix dactylifera
Arecaceae have great economic importance, including coconut products, oils, dates, palm syrup, ivory nuts, carnauba wax, rattan cane, raffia, and palm wood.
Along with dates mentioned above, members of the palm family with human uses are numerous.
The type member of Arecaceae is the areca palm, the fruit of which, the areca nut, is chewed with the betel leaf for intoxicating effects (Areca catechu).
Carnauba wax is harvested from the leaves of a Brazilian palm (Copernicia).
Rattans, whose stems are used extensively in furniture and baskets, are in the genus Calamus.
Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil produced by the oil palms in the genus Elaeis.
Several species are harvested for heart of palm, a vegetable eaten in salads.
Sap of the nipa palm Nypa is used to make vinegar.
Palm sap is sometimes fermented to produce palm wine or toddy, an alcoholic beverage common in parts of Africa, India, and the Philippines. It is also drunk, fresh, as neera, and is a refreshing drink that is consumed until sundown, after which it starts to ferment.
Palmyra and date palm sap is harvested in Bengal, India, to process into gur and jaggery.
Dragon's blood, a red resin used traditionally in medicine, varnish, and dyes, may be obtained from the fruit of Daemonorops species.
Coconut is the partially edible seed of the fruit of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera).
Coir is a coarse, water-resistant fiber extracted from the outer shell of coconuts, used in doormats, brushes, mattresses, and ropes. In India, beekeepers use coir in their bee smokers.
Some indigenous groups living in palm-rich areas use palms to make many of their necessary items and food. Sago, for example, a starch made from the pith of the trunk of the sago palm Metroxylon sagu, is a major staple food for lowland peoples of New Guinea and the Moluccas. This is not the same plant commonly used as a house plant and called "sago palm".
Palm wine is made from Jubaea also called Chilean wine palm, or coquito palm
Recently, the fruit of the açaí palm Euterpe has been used for its reputed health benefits.
Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) is under investigation as a drug for treating enlarged prostates.
Palm leaves are also valuable to some peoples as a material for thatching, basketry, clothing, and in religious ceremonies (see "Symbolism" below).[12]
Washingtonia robusta trees line Ocean Avenue in Santa Monica, California.
Sabal palm tree in the Canaveral National Seashore
Ornamental uses: Today, palms are valuable as ornamental plants and are often grown along streets in tropical and subtropical cities. Farther north, palms are a common feature in botanical gardens or as indoor plants. Few palms tolerate severe cold and the majority of the species are tropical or subtropical. The three most cold-tolerant species are Trachycarpus fortunei, native to eastern Asia, and Rhapidophyllum hystrix and Sabal minor, both native to the southeastern United States.
The southeastern U.S. state of South Carolina is nicknamed the Palmetto State after the sabal palmetto (cabbage palmetto), logs from which were used to build the fort at Fort Moultrie. During the American Revolutionary War, they were invaluable to those defending the fort, because their spongy wood absorbed or deflected the British cannonballs.[24]
Coconut flowers
Endangered species[edit]
Pritchardia affinis, a critically endangered species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands
Like many other plants, palms have been threatened by human intervention and exploitation. The greatest risk to palms is destruction of habitat, especially in the tropical forests, due to urbanization, wood-chipping, mining, and conversion to farmland. Palms rarely reproduce after such great changes in the habitat, and those with small habitat ranges are most vulnerable to them. The harvesting of heart of palm, a delicacy in salads, also poses a threat because it is derived from the palm's apical meristem, a vital part of the palm that cannot be regrown (except in domesticated varieties, e.g. of peach palm).[25] The use of rattan palms in furniture has caused a major population decrease in these species that has negatively affected local and international markets, as well as biodiversity in the area.[26] The sale of seeds to nurseries and collectors is another threat, as the seeds of popular palms are sometimes harvested directly from the wild. At least 100 palm species are currently endangered, and nine species have reportedly recently become extinct.[13]
However, several factors make palm conservation more difficult. Palms live in almost every type of warm habitat and have tremendous morphological diversity. Most palm seeds lose viability quickly, and they cannot be preserved in low temperatures because the cold kills the embryo. Using botanical gardens for conservation also presents problems, since they can only house a few plants of any species or truly imitate the natural setting.[27] Also, the risk of cross-pollination can lead to hybrid species.
The Palm Specialist Group of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) began in 1984, and has performed a series of three studies to find basic information on the status of palms in the wild, use of wild palms, and palms under cultivation. Two projects on palm conservation and use supported by the World Wildlife Fund took place from 1985 to 1990 and 1986–1991, in the American tropics and southeast Asia, respectively. Both studies produced copious new data and publications on palms. Preparation of a global action plan for palm conservation began in 1991, supported by the IUCN, and was published in 1996.[27]
The rarest palm known is Hyophorbe amaricaulis. The only living individual remains at the Botanic Gardens of Curepipe in Mauritius.
Arthropod pests[edit]
Pests that attack a variety of species of palm trees include:
Raoiella indica, the red palm mite[28]
Caryobruchus gleditsiae, the palm seed beetle or palm seed weevil[29]
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, the red palm weevil, recently introduced to Europe[30][31]
Symbolism[edit]
Main article: Palm branch (symbol)
The palm branch was a symbol of triumph and victory in pre-Christian times. The Romans rewarded champions of the games and celebrated military successes with palm branches. Early Christians used the palm branch to symbolize the victory of the faithful over enemies of the soul, as in the Palm Sunday festival celebrating the triumphal entry of Jesus into Jerusalem. In Judaism, the palm represents peace and plenty, and is one of the Four Species of Sukkot; the palm may also symbolize the Tree of Life in Kabbalah.
Panaiveriyamman was an ancient Tamil tree deity related to fertility. Named after panai, the Tamil name for the Palmyra palm, she was also known as Taalavaasini, a name that further related her to all types of palms.[32]
Today, the palm, especially the coconut palm, remains a symbol of the tropical island paradise.[13] Palms appear on the flags and seals of several places where they are native, including those of Haiti, Guam, Saudi Arabia, Florida, and South Carolina.
Other plants[edit]
Some species commonly called palms, though they are not true palms, include:
Cordyline australis[33] (Torbay palm, Ti palm,[33] Palm lily[33]) (family Asparagaceae) and other representatives in the genus Cordyline and perhaps also in Dracaena with which Cordyline may be confused.
Cycas revoluta (Sago palm[33]) and the rest of the order Cycadales
Ravenala (Traveller's palm[33]) (family Strelitziaceae)
Pandanus spiralis, Screw palm.,[33] and perhaps other Pandanus spp.
Cyathea cunninghamii (Palm Fern[33]) and other Tree ferns (families Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae) that may be confused with palms.
Setaria palmifolia (Palm grass[33]), a Poaceae.
Carludovica palmata (Panama Hat Palm[33]) and perhaps other members in the family Cyclanthaceae.
See also[edit]
Coconut
Fan palm — genera with palmate leaves
List of Arecaceae genera
List of foliage plant diseases (Palmae)
List of hardy palms — palms able to withstand colder temperatures
Palm wine — palm tree wine-making process
Postelsia — called the "sea palm" (a brown alga)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (2009), "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III", Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 161 (2): 105–121, doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x, retrieved 2010-12-10
Jump up ^ "Arecaceae Bercht. & J. Presl, nom. cons.". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2007-04-13. Retrieved 2009-07-18.
Jump up ^ The name "Palmaceae" is not accepted because the name Arecaceae (and its acceptable alternative Palmae, ICBN Art. 18.5) are conserved over other names for the palm family.
Jump up ^ Christenhusz, M. J. M. & Byng, J. W. (2016). "The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase". Phytotaxa. Magnolia Press. 261 (3): 201–217. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1.
Jump up ^ Landscaping with Palms in the Mediterranean Archived June 21, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Uhl, Natalie W. and Dransfield, John (1987) Genera Palmarum – A classification of palms based on the work of Harold E. Moore. Lawrence, Kansas: Allen Press. ISBN 0-935868-30-5 / ISBN 978-0-935868-30-2
Jump up ^ Arecaceae – University of Hawaii Botany
Jump up ^ Arecaceae in Flora of North America
Jump up ^ Chase, Mark W. (2004). "Monocot relationships: an overview". American Journal of Botany. 91 (10): 1645–1655. PMID 21652314. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1645.
Jump up ^ Donoghue, Michael J. (2005). "Key innovations, convergence, and success: macroevolutionary lessons from plant phylogeny" (PDF). Paleobiology. 31: 77–93. doi:10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0077:KICASM]2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ :: Presidencia de la República de Colombia ::
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tropical Palms by Food and Agriculture Organization Archived May 6, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Virtual Palm Encyclopedia – Introduction
Jump up ^ N. W. Uhl, J. Dransfield (1987). Genera palmarum: a classification of palms based on the work of Harold E. Moore, Jr. (Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas).
Jump up ^ John Leslie Dowe. Australian Palms: Biogeography, Ecology and Systematics. p. 83. Retrieved April 20, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Palms on the University of Arizona Campus Archived June 21, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Hahn, W.J. (2002). A Molecular Phylogenetic Study of the Palmae (Arecaceae) Based on atpB, rbcL, and 18S nrDNA Sequences (Systematic Botany 51(1): 92–112).
Jump up ^ Virtual Palm Encyclopedia – Evolution and the fossil record
Jump up ^ Poinar, G. (2002). "Fossil palm flowers in Dominican and Baltic amber". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 139 (4): 361–367. doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339.2002.00052.x.
^ Jump up to: a b W.H. Barreveld. "Date Palm Products – Introduction". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 19 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-12.
Jump up ^ Date Sex @ University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology
Jump up ^ Bible search for "palm"
Jump up ^ Koran search for "palm"
Jump up ^ Revolutionary War Exhibit Text – November 2002 Archived November 10, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Rose Kahele (August–September 2007). "Big Island Hearts". Hana Hou! Vol. 10, No. 4. Retrieved 2016-08-14.
Jump up ^ Dennis Johnson, ed. (1996). Palms: Their Conservation and Sustained Utilization (PDF). International Union for Conservation of Nature. ISBN 2-8317-0352-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Palm Conservation: Its Atecedents, Status, and Needs
Jump up ^ "Pest Alerts - Red palm mite, DPI - FDACS". Doacs.state.fl.us. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
Jump up ^ Robert E. Woodruff (1968). "The palm seed "weevil," Caryobruchus gleditsiae (L.) in Florida (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)" (PDF). Entomology Circular. Florida Department of Agriculture. 73: 1–2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-24.
Jump up ^ Rhynchophorus ferrugineus at North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO)
Jump up ^ Ferry & Gómez. 2002. The red palm weevil in the Mediterranean. Vol. 46, No 4, Palms (formerly Principes), Journal of the International Palm Society. link http://www.palms.org/palmsjournal/2002/redweevil.htm link
Jump up ^ Symbolism of trees
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i (c) FAO 1995. Tropical Palms.. Introduction. http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0451E/X0451e03.htm NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS 10. FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 92-5-104213-6
C. H. Schultz-Schultzenstein (1832). Natürliches System des Pflanzenreichs..., 317. Berlin, Germany.
Dransfield J., Uhl N.W., Asmussen C.B., Baker W.J., Harley M.M., Lewis C.E. (2005). "A new phylogenetic classification of the palm family, Arecaceae". Kew Bulletin 60: 559–569. [latest Arecaceae or Palmae classification]
Hahn, W.J. 2002. A Molecular Phylogenetic Study of the Palmae (Arecaceae) Based on atpB, rbcL, and 18S nrDNA Sequences. Systematic Botany 51(1): 92–112.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Arecaceae.
Wikispecies has information related to: Arecaceae
Palmpedia A wiki based site dedicated to high quality images and information on palm trees.
Guide to Palms A collection of palm images, scientific data, and horticultural information hosted by Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, Miami.
Kew Botanic Garden's Palm Genera list A list of the currently acknowledged genera by Kew Royal Botanic Gardens in London, England.
PACSOA Palm and Cycad Societies of Australia palm species listing with images.
Palm & Cycad Societies of Florida, Inc. (PACSOF), which includes pages on Arecaceae taxonomy and a photo index.
Palm stability
Palmaceae in BoDD – Botanical Dermatology Database
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Orders of Monocotyledons
Alismatid monocots
Acorales
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Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q14080
EoL: 8193
FloraBase: 22753
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GBIF: 7681
GRIN: 95
IPNI: 30000211-2
ITIS: 500043
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Lime (mineral)

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Kwa-Zulu Natal

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Moriche palm

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Veitchia merrillii

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Phoenix dactylifera

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Sap (plant)

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Fermentation (food)

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Alcoholic beverage

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Açaí Palm

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Botanical gardens

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Hardy palms

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Rhapidophyllum hystrix

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Fort Moultrie National Monument

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Conversion to farmland

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Apical meristem

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Rattan palm

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World Conservation Union

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WWF (conservation organization)

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Raoiella indica

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Tree of Life

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Palmyra palm

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Arecaceae – Afrikaans
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Mbokajaty – Guarani
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gn
interlanguage-link-target

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Waelpam – Bislama
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bi
interlanguage-link-target

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Palma – Bosnian
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Palmera – Cebuano
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interlanguage-link-target

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Arecaceae – Spanish
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interlanguage-link-target

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https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arekacoj
Arekacoj – Esperanto
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eo
interlanguage-link-target

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Palmondo – Basque
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eu
interlanguage-link-target

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Arecaceae – French
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fr
interlanguage-link-target

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Pailm – Irish
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ga
interlanguage-link-target

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Palmovke – Croatian
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hr
interlanguage-link-target

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Palmiero – Ido
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io
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Arecaceae – Indonesian
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id
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Arecaceae – Italian
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Arecaceae – Javanese
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Arecaceae – Latin
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Zotolin – Nāhuatl
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Palmer – Norwegian
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Arecaceae – Portuguese
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Palmiye – Turkish
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