text:
British Isles fixed sea link connections
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Possible Irish Sea connections
Proposals for fixed sea links to improve transportation between areas of the British Isles include undersea tunnel, bridge, causeway, or combination of these elements.
Contents
[hide]
1 Proposed fixed sea links between Great Britain & Ireland
1.1 North Channel (Kintyre) route
1.2 North Channel (Galloway) route
1.3 Irish Mail route
1.4 Tuskar route
2 Proposed & existing fixed sea links between Great Britain & France
2.1 Channel Tunnel
2.2 Second Channel Tunnel
2.3 Channel Islands Tunnel
3 Development history of Great Britain/Ireland proposed connections
4 Other proposed fixed sea links within or to the British Isles & associated areas
5 See also
6 References
Proposed fixed sea links between Great Britain & Ireland[edit]
North Channel (Kintyre) route[edit]
This is the shortest route at around 19 km (12 mi), from the Mull of Kintyre to County Antrim.[1][2]
North Channel (Galloway) route[edit]
This route has been proposed variously as either a tunnel or a bridge.[3] A 2007 report by the Centre for Cross Border Studies estimated building a bridge from Galloway to Ulster would cost just under £3.5 billion.[4] The proposal would see passengers board trains in Glasgow then cross the bridge via Stranraer and alight in Belfast or Dublin. A longer bridge already exists between Shanghai and Ningbo in east China. Some political parties in Northern Ireland have included the bridge in their manifesto for some time.[5] However, because of the Beaufort's Dyke sea trench, this route would be deeper than the southern routes. The sea trench was also used for dumping munitions after World War II and so would require an expensive clean up operation.[6] Ronnie Hunter, former chairman of the Institute of Civil Engineers Scotland, suggested that the project was a "stretch but doable". He cited the lack of "soft rock, the chalk and sandstone" as a challenge compared to the construction of the Channel Tunnel.[7] He also suggested that the change in rail gauge between Ireland and Britain might pose further concerns. It is believed[by whom?] that such a project was considered by railway engineer Luke Livingston Macassey in the 1890s as "a rail link using either a tunnel, a submerged "tubular bridge" or a solid causeway".[8]
Irish Mail route[edit]
This route (from Dublin to Holyhead in Anglesey, Wales) would be about 100 km (62 mi) long.[1]
Tuskar route[edit]
The Institute of Engineers of Ireland's 2004 Vision of Transport in Ireland in 2050 imagines a tunnel to be built between the ports of Fishguard and Rosslare[9] along with a new container port on the Shannon Estuary, linking a freight line to Europe. This report also includes ideas for a Belfast-Dublin-Cork high-speed train, and for a new freight line from Rosslare to Shannon. This route would be approximately twice the distance of the English Channel Tunnel at over 100 km (roughly 60 miles long).
Proposed & existing fixed sea links between Great Britain & France[edit]
Channel Tunnel[edit]
Existing Channel Tunnel
The Channel Tunnel operates between Great Britain & France. It is a 50.45-kilometre (31.35 mi) rail tunnel linking Folkestone, Kent, in the United Kingdom, with Coquelles, Pas-de-Calais, near Calais in northern France, beneath the English Channel at the Strait of Dover. At its lowest point, it is 75 m (250 ft) deep. At 37.9 kilometres (23.5 mi), the tunnel has the longest undersea portion of any tunnel in the world, although the Seikan Tunnel in Japan is both longer overall at 53.85 kilometres (33.46 mi) and deeper at 240 metres (790 ft) below sea level. The speed limit for trains in the tunnel is 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph).[10]
Second Channel Tunnel[edit]
A second English channel tunnel with a road was proposed in 2000 by Eurotunnel,[11] the motorway beneath the sea to link Britain and France could be built in the next 25 years under proposals. The ambitious project would involve the construction of the longest tunnel of its kind in the world, containing two 46 km-long carriageways, one on top of the other, which would allow motorists to complete the journey in about 30 minutes.
Channel Islands Tunnel[edit]
The Channel Islands Tunnel was a proposed tunnel between Jersey and Lower Normandy. In July 2009, it was revealed[by whom?] that the States of Jersey were considering the feasibility of building a 14 miles (23 km) long tunnel to connect the island with Lower Normandy in France; the tunnel would be a concrete tube sunk in the seabed and then covered over. Talks would be held[by whom?] in September 2009 to ascertain whether it would be of local benefit. The proposition included a road and rail link. The plans were not developed, and the then Assistant Minister for Planning and Environment Deputy Rob Duhamel who had suggested the idea lost his seat in the 2014 elections.[12][13][14]
Development history of Great Britain/Ireland proposed connections[edit]
A 1799 description of a failed proposal for a bridge from Howth to Holyhead is a mocking metaphor for the failure of the Union Bill 1799, which succeeded next year as the Act of Union 1800.[15]
Between 1886 and 1900, proposals for a link to Scotland were "seriously explored by engineers, industrialists, and Unionist politicians".[16] In 1885, Irish Builder and Engineer said a tunnel under the Irish Sea had been discussed "for some time back".[17] In 1890, engineer Luke Livingston Macassey outlined a Stranraer–Belfast link by tunnel, submerged "tubular bridge", or solid causeway.[18] In 1897 a British firm applied for £15,000 towards the cost of carrying out borings and soundings in the North Channel to see if a tunnel between Ireland and Scotland was viable.[19] The link would have been of immense commercial benefit, was significant strategically and would have meant faster transatlantic travel from Britain, via Galway and other Irish ports. When Hugh Arnold-Foster asked in the Commons in 1897 about a North Channel tunnel, Arthur Balfour said "the financial aspects ... are not of a very promising character".[20]
In 1915, a tunnel was proposed by Gershom Stewart as a defence against a German U-boat blockade of Ireland but dismissed by H. H. Asquith as "hardly practicable in the present circumstances".[21] In 1918, Stewart proposed that German prisoners of war might dig the tunnel; Bonar Law said the Select Committee on Transport could consider the matter.[22]
The Senate of Northern Ireland debated a North Channel Tunnel on 25 May 1954.[23] In 1956 Harford Hyde, Unionist Westminster MP for North Belfast, raised a motion in the UK House of Commons for a tunnel across the North Channel.[24][25] In 1980, John Biggs-Davison suggested European Economic Community involvement in a North Channel tunnel; Philip Goodhart said no tunnel was planned.[26] In 1988, John P. Wilson, the Irish Minister for Tourism and Transport said his department estimated an Irish Sea tunnel would cost twice as much as the English Channel Tunnel and generate one fifth of the revenue, thus being economically unviable.[27] In 1997–8, the Department of Public Enterprise refused to fund a feasibility study requested by Symonds engineering to build an immersed tube tunnel.[28][29] Symonds revived the plan in 2000, with an £8m feasibility study and a £14b construction cost estimate.[28] In 2005, the Minister for Transport said he had not studied A Vision of Transport in Ireland in 2050, published in September 2004 by the Irish Academy of Engineering, a report which included a Wexford–Pembroke tunnel.[30]
The proposal of building a bridge between Northern Ireland and Scotland is supported by the Democratic Unionist Party.[31][32] DUP MP Sammy Wilson compared the idea to the approved Channel Tunnel and HS2 projects. The party made a feasibility study into a tunnel or enclosed bridge a precondition to coalition support in the event of a hung parliament in the 2015 election.[33]
Other proposed fixed sea links within or to the British Isles & associated areas[edit]
A possible Orkney tunnel between Scotland and Orkney (about 9–10 miles or 15–16 km) has been publicly discussed since 2005.[34] In 2014 a consultation was undertaken by Orkney Islands Council, with a view to considering a series of fixed links involving seven of the Orkney islands. This would include a bridge between the isles of Westray and Pappa Westray, to alleviate the need for air travel - currently the shortest schedule flight in the world.[35]
A bridge from England to the Isle of Wight has been proposed a number of times, often due to the high cost of ferries to and from the island. The Isle of Wight Party - a political party active only in the Isle of Wight - was set up with the intention of campaigning for a fixed crossing. Critics have suggested that such a link may damage the ecology of the Isle of Wight, particularly the red squirrel population.[36] Campaign group Pro-Link has put forward a number of plans to the Isle of Wight Infrastructure Task Force of the Isle of Wight council, including a £1.2 billion four mile long dual-carriageway tunnel in the Solent between Whippingham on the island and Gosport, Hants.[37] The campaign group has proposed the project be initially run on a toll basis, but that it would have paid for itself after eighteen years. In 2017 Abel Connections Ltd released their plans for the project, "to create a new north-south axis through the centre of the Solent region by constructing a tunnel from the M27 east of junction 9 to the Whippingham roundabout on the Isle of Wight, with an additional access intersection ‘cut and cover’ portal near the mainland coast between Browndown and Meon." [38]
In 2008 the Liverpool Echo ran an article suggesting the construction of a 75 mile bridge to the Isle of Man from Liverpool. Despite the proposal being nothing more than an April Fools joke, the bridge was included in an engineering text book called the "Handbook of International Bridge Engineering" in its 2017 print[39].
See also[edit]
Rail transport in the United Kingdom
Rail transport in Ireland
Cross-sea traffic ways
Strait of Gibraltar crossing
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Castella, Tom de (14 August 2013). "A bridge across the Irish Sea and four other amazing plans" – via www.bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ "Could a bridge or tunnel one day link Scotland with Ireland?".
Jump up ^ "Bridge to Northern Ireland mooted". BBC News. 22 August 2007.
Jump up ^ http://www.scotsman.com/business/companies/could-a-bridge-or-tunnel-one-day-link-scotland-with-ireland-1-4130353
Jump up ^ http://www.eveningtimes.co.uk/news/13307549.Building_bridges___literally__Unionists_plan_for_link_between_Scotland_and_Ulster/
Jump up ^ http://www.scotsman.com/business/companies/could-a-bridge-or-tunnel-one-day-link-scotland-with-ireland-1-4130353
Jump up ^ http://www.eveningtimes.co.uk/news/13307549.Building_bridges___literally__Unionists_plan_for_link_between_Scotland_and_Ulster/
Jump up ^ McKenzie, Steven (9 October 2011). "Scotland-Ireland undersea rail link plan 'a surprise'". BBC News – Highlands & Islands. Retrieved 5 February 2012.
Jump up ^ A Vision of Transport in Ireland in 2050, IEI report (pdf), The Irish Academy of Engineers, 21 December 2004.
Jump up ^ http://www.eurotunnelgroup.com/uk/the-channel-tunnel/infrastructure/
Jump up ^ Millar, Stuart (6 January 2000). "Tunnel chiefs unveil road link to France" – via The Guardian.
Jump up ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/jersey/8149314.stm
Jump up ^ http://jerseyeveningpost.com/news/2008/10/18/bridge-to-france-study-next-year/
Jump up ^ http://www.ouest-france.fr/un-projet-de-tunnel-pour-relier-jersey-la-manche-524626
Jump up ^ "Plans for a Bridge from Holy-Head to the Hill of Howth" (PDF). The Anti-Union (20): 80. 9 February 1799. JSTOR 30059887.
Jump up ^ Hughes, Kyle (2013-12-01). The Scots in Victorian and Edwardian Belfast: A Study in Elite Migration. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 128, fn.39. ISBN 9780748679935. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Tunnel Under the Irish Sea". Irish Builder and Engineer. Howard MacGarvey & Sons. 27: 197. 15 July 1885.
Jump up ^ "Scotland-Ireland undersea rail link plan 'a surprise'". BBC News. 9 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "Tunnel Under the Sea", The Washington Post, 2 May 1897 (Archive link)
Jump up ^ "TUNNEL (IRELAND AND SCOTLAND)". Hansard. 22 March 1897. pp. HC Deb vol 47 cc1125–6. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "IRISH CHANNEL TUNNEL". Hansard. 23 February 1915. pp. HC Deb vol 70 c168. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "TUNNEL TO IRELAND". HC Deb vol 110 c594. 22 October 1918. p. Hansard. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "North Channel Tunnel". Parliamentary Debates: The Senate. Vol.38. Parliament of Northern Ireland. 1955. pp. 513–531.
Jump up ^ "An Irishman's Diary" by Wesley Boyd, (Link), The Irish Times, Feb 2004 (subscription required)
Jump up ^ "IRISH CHANNEL TUNNEL". Hansard. 23 March 1956. HC Deb vol 550 cc1641–88. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Irish Sea (Tunnel)". Hansard. 4 February 1980. pp. HC Deb vol 978 c85W. Retrieved 25 September 2015. (Link has incorrect question; correct question is on preceding page with incorrect answer)
Jump up ^ "Written Answers. - Sea Transport". Dáil Éireann debates. 16 November 1988. pp. Vol.384 No.3 p.34. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Plan to build rail tunnel under sea". 7 April 2000. Retrieved 29 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Written Answers — Ireland-UK Tunnel". Dáil debates. 29 March 2000. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Written Answers - Transport Projects". Dáil Éireann debates. 15 February 2005. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Could a bridge or tunnel one day link Scotland with Ireland?". www.scotsman.com. Retrieved 2017-03-06.
Jump up ^ "Building bridges - literally: Unionists plan for link between Scotland and Ulster". Evening Times. Retrieved 2017-03-06.
Jump up ^ "Election 2015: DUP votes 'may be vital' in forming government". BBC News. 2015-04-21. Retrieved 2017-03-06.
Jump up ^ http://www.scotsman.com/news/163-100m-tunnel-to-orkney-feasible-1-739095
Jump up ^ http://www.scotsman.com/news/transport/orkney-bridge-plan-may-end-world-s-shortest-flight-1-3443317
Jump up ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23587557
Jump up ^ https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/1887023/plans-to-build-1-2billion-tunnel-to-the-isle-of-wight-unveiled-as-an-alternative-to-slow-car-ferries/
Jump up ^ http://iwradio.co.uk/2017/05/19/latest-isle-wight-fixed-link-plan-revealed/
Jump up ^ http://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool-news/fictional-bridge-between-liverpool-isle-12894011
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New Zealand National Party
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
New Zealand National Party
Rōpū Nāhinara o Aotearoa
President
Peter Goodfellow
Leader
Bill English
Deputy Leader
Paula Bennett
Founded
14 May 1936; 81 years ago (1936-05-14)
Preceded by
United–Reform Coalition
Headquarters
41 Pipitea Street, Thorndon, Wellington 6011
Youth wing
Young Nationals
Ideology
Liberal conservatism[1][2]
Political position
Centre-right[3]
Regional affiliation
Asia Pacific Democrat Union[4]
International affiliation
International Democrat Union
Colours
Blue
Slogan
Delivering for New Zealanders
MPs in the House of Representatives
56 / 120
Website
www.national.org.nz
Politics of New Zealand
Political parties
Elections
The New Zealand National Party (Māori: Rōpū Nāhinara o Aotearoa),[5] shortened to National (Nāhinara) or the Nats,[6] is a centre-right political party in New Zealand.[3] It is one of two major parties in contemporary New Zealand politics, alongside its historic rival, the New Zealand Labour Party.
National is New Zealand's second-oldest extant political party,[7] originating in 1936 with the merger of the two main conservative parties, Reform and United. They had previously formed a coalition against the growing labour movement. National has governed for five periods in the course of the 20th and 21st centuries—it has held office in New Zealand for more years than any other party.[8][9] Historically, the party's policy platform shifted from moderate economic liberalism to increased emphasis on state interventionism under the Third National Government (1975 to 1984).[10] Following the free-market reforms of the rival Labour Government in the 1980s, National has again advocated free enterprise, reduction of taxes, and individual rights.
From 2008 to 2017, National was the largest party in a minority government with support from the centrist United Future, the classical-liberal ACT Party and the indigenous-rights-based Māori Party. Bill English has been the party leader since 12 December 2016. At the 2017 general election, the party gained 44.4% of the party vote and won 56 seats in the House of Representatives.[11] It currently comprises the largest caucus in the House of Representatives, and forms the Official Opposition.
Contents
[hide]
1 Principles and policies
2 History
2.1 Formation
2.2 First National Government (1949–1957)
2.3 Second National Government (1960–1972)
2.4 Third National Government (1975–1984)
2.5 Fourth National Government (1990–1999)
2.6 Opposition (1999–2008)
2.7 Fifth National Government (2008–2017)
3 Organisation
4 Electoral results
5 Parliamentary leaders
6 Deputy leaders
7 Party presidents
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Principles and policies[edit]
This article is part of a series on
Conservatism in New Zealand
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Social conservatism
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Populism
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The New Zealand National Party's principles has been characterised as encompassing both conservative and liberal tendencies (with the two in tension), and outlying populist and libertarian tendencies.[1] The party's principles, last revised in 2003, seek "a safe, prosperous and successful New Zealand that creates opportunities for all New Zealanders to reach their personal goals and dreams".[1][12] It supports a limited welfare state but says that work, merit, innovation and personal initiative must be encouraged to reduce unemployment and boost economic growth. Historically, the party has supported a higher degree of protectionism and interventionism than it has in recent decades.[13]
In a 1959 speech, party leader and Prime Minister Keith Holyoake encapsulated the conservative and liberal principles of the National Party:
We believe in the maximum degree of personal freedom and the maximum degree of individual choice for our people. We believe in the least interference necessary with individual rights, and the least possible degree of state interference.[14]
The First, Second and Third National governments generally sought to preserve the economic and social stability of New Zealand, mainly keeping intact the high degree of protectionism and the strong welfare state built up by the First Labour Government.[13] The last major interventionist policy was Prime Minister Robert Muldoon's massive infrastructure projects designed to ensure New Zealand's energy independence after the 1973 oil shock, "Think Big".[12][15]
The Fourth National Government mostly carried on the sweeping free-market reforms of the Fourth Labour Government known as "Rogernomics", after Labour's finance minister Sir Roger Douglas. The corporatisation and sale of numerous state-owned enterprises, the abolishment of collective bargaining and major government spending cuts were introduced under the Fourth National Government, policies that were popularly known as "Ruthanasia" (National's finance minister at the time was Ruth Richardson).[16]
Following the moderate Fifth Labour Government, the Fifth National Government took power in 2008 under John Key. Historically, the National Party has tended to take a social conservative position on most political issues, though more recently in certain hot-button issues the party has taken a more social liberal stance. For instance, they extended free general practitioner visits to children under 13 as part of their 2014 election package, as well as extending paid parental leave by two weeks to 16 weeks.[6] The National parliamentary caucus was split on the issue of same-sex marriage in 2014, with Key publicly supporting gay rights.[17]
In the most recent general election, in 2014, the National Party ran a campaign focusing on stability.[6] They promised to limit new spending every year (to $1.5 billion), to not introduce any new taxes, and to improve the performance of public service organisations by setting performance-based 'Public Service Targets'. They also campaigned on the possibility of moderate tax cuts within the next few years and are generally in favour of free-trade agreements such as the Trans-Pacific Partnership.[18]
History[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Formation[edit]
The National Party was formed in May 1936, but its roots go considerably further back. The party came about as the result of a merger between the United Party (known as the Liberal Party until 1927, except for a short period between 1925 and 1927 when it used the name "National Party") and the Reform Party.[7] The United Party gained its main support from the cities, and drew upon businesses for money and upon middle class electors for votes,[19] while the Reform Party had a rural base and received substantial support from farmers,[20] who then formed a substantial proportion of the population.
Liberal Party (1890)
Reform Party (1909)
United Party (1927) Independents (1931)
United–Reform
coalition (1931)
National Party (1936)
Historically, the Liberal and Reform parties had competed against each other, but from 1931 until 1935 a United–Reform Coalition held power in New Zealand.[21] The coalition went into the 1935 election under the title of the "National Political Federation", a name adopted to indicate that the grouping intended to represent New Zealanders from all backgrounds (in contrast to the previous situation, where United served city-dwellers and Reform served farmers). However, because of the effects of the Great Depression and a perception that the existing coalition government had handled the situation poorly, the National Political Federation lost heavily in 1935 to the Labour Party, the rise of which had prompted the alliance. The two parties were cut down to 19 seats between them. Another factor was a third party, the Democrat Party formed by Albert Davy, a former organiser for the coalition who disapproved of the "socialist" measures that the coalition had introduced. The new party split the conservative vote and aided Labour's victory.
In hopes of countering Labour's rise, United and Reform decided to turn their alliance into a single party. This party, the New Zealand National Party, was formed at a meeting held in Wellington on 13 and 14 May 1936. Erstwhile members of the United and Reform parties made up the bulk of the new party. The United Party's last leader, George Forbes, Prime Minister from 1930 until 1935, opened the conference; he served as Leader of the Opposition from May until November, when former Reform MP Adam Hamilton was elected the first leader. Hamilton led the party into its first election in 1938. He got the top job primarily because of a compromise between Forbes and Reform leader Gordon Coates, neither of whom wished to serve under the other. Hamilton, however, failed to counter Labour's popular Prime Minister, Michael Joseph Savage effectively. Because of this, perceptions that he remained too much under the control of Coates and because he lacked real support from his party colleagues, Hamilton failed to prevent Labour's re-election in 1938. In 1940 Sidney Holland replaced Hamilton. William Polson "acted effectively as Holland's deputy" (Gustafson[not specific enough to verify]). One former Reform MP Herbert Kyle resigned in 1942 in protest at the "autocratic" behaviour of Holland and the new party organisation.
In the 1943 election Labour's majority was reduced, but it remained in power. In the 1946 election, National also failed to unseat Labour. However, in the 1949 election, thirteen years after the party's foundation, National finally won power, and Holland became Prime Minister.
First National Government (1949–1957)[edit]
Main article: First National Government of New Zealand
Sidney Holland was the first National Prime Minister, 1949–1957
In 1949 National had campaigned on "the private ownership of production, distribution and exchange". Once in power the new Holland Government proved decidedly administratively conservative, retaining, for instance, the welfare state set up by the previous Labour Government; though National gained, and has largely kept, a reputation for showing more favour to farmers and to business than did the Labour Party.
In 1951 the Waterfront Dispute broke out, lasting 151 days. The National government stepped into the conflict, acting in opposition to the maritime unions. Holland also used this opportunity to call the 1951 snap election. Campaigning on an anti-Communist platform and exploiting the Labour Opposition's apparent indecisiveness, National returned with an increased majority, gaining 54 parliamentary seats out of 80.
In the 1954 election, National was elected to a third term, though losing some of its seats. Towards the end of his third term, however, Holland became increasingly ill, and stepped down from the leadership shortly before the general election in 1957. Keith Holyoake, the party's long-standing deputy leader, took Holland's place. Holyoake, however, had insufficient time to establish himself in the public mind as Prime Minister, and lost in the election later that year to Labour, then led by Walter Nash.
Second National Government (1960–1972)[edit]
Main article: Second National Government of New Zealand
Keith Holyoake, Prime Minister 1957 and 1960–1972
Nash's government became very unpopular as Labour acquired a reputation for poor economic management, and much of the public saw its 1958 Budget, known since as the "Black Budget", as miserly.[22] After only one term in office, Labour suffered defeat at the hands of Holyoake and the National Party in the elections of 1960.
Holyoake's government lasted twelve years, the party gaining re-election three times (in 1963, 1966, and 1969). However, this period Social Credit arose, which broke the National/Labour duopoly in parliament, winning former National seats from 1966. Holyoake retired from the premiership and from the party leadership at the beginning of 1972, and his deputy, Jack Marshall, replaced him.
Marshall suffered the same fate as Holyoake. Having succeeded an experienced leader in an election-year, he failed to establish himself in time. Marshall had an added disadvantage; he had to compete against the much more popular and charismatic Norman Kirk, then leader of the Labour Party, and lost the ensuing election. Unpopular policies, including initiating clear felling of parts of the Warawara kauri forest, also needlessly alienated voters.{Adams 1980}
Third National Government (1975–1984)[edit]
Main article: Third National Government of New Zealand
Sir Robert Muldoon, Prime Minister 1975–1984
Within two years the National Party removed Marshall as its parliamentary leader and replaced him with Robert Muldoon, who had previously served as Minister of Finance. An intense contest between Kirk and Muldoon followed. Kirk became ill and died in office (1974); his successor, Bill Rowling, proved no match for Muldoon, and in the 1975 election, National under Muldoon returned comfortably to power.
The Muldoon administration, which favoured interventionist economic policies, arouses mixed opinions amongst the free-market adherents of the modern National. Bill Birch's "Think Big" initiatives, designed to invest public money in energy self-sufficiency, stand in contrast to the party's contemporary[update] views.[10] Muldoon's autocratic leadership style became increasingly unpopular with both the public and the party, and together with disgruntlement over economic policy led to an attempted leadership change in 1980. Led by ministers Derek Quigley, Jim McLay, and Jim Bolger, the challenge (dubbed the "colonels' coup") against Muldoon aimed to replace him with Brian Talboys, his deputy. However, the plan collapsed as the result of Talboys' unwillingness, and Muldoon kept his position.[23]
A former National Party logo
Under Muldoon, National won three consecutive general elections in 1975, 1978 and 1981. However, public dissatisfaction grew, and Muldoon's controlling and belligerent style of leadership became less and less appealing. In both the 1978 and 1981 elections, National gained fewer votes than the Labour opposition, but could command a small majority in Parliament because of the then-used First Past the Post electoral system.
Dissent within the National Party continued to grow, however, with rebel National MPs Marilyn Waring and Mike Minogue causing particular concern to the leadership, threatening National's thin majority in parliament. When, in 1984, Marilyn Waring refused to support Muldoon's policies on visits by nuclear-powered and nuclear-armed ships, Muldoon called a snap election. Muldoon made the television announcement of this election while visibly inebriated, and some believe[citation needed] that he later regretted the decision to "go to the country". National lost the election to Labour under David Lange.
Fourth National Government (1990–1999)[edit]
Jim Bolger, Prime Minister 1990–1997
Main article: Fourth National Government of New Zealand
Shortly after this loss, the National Party removed Muldoon from the leadership. Jim McLay, who had replaced Brian Talboys as deputy leader shortly before the election, became the new leader. McLay, an urban liberal with right wing views on economics, however, failed to restore the party's fortunes. In 1986 Jim Bolger took over the leadership with the support of centrists within the party.
In the 1990 election National defeated Labour in an electoral landslide and formed a new government under Jim Bolger. However, the party lost some support from Muldoon era policy based conservatives when it continued the economic reforms which had ultimately led to the defeat of the previous Labour government—these policies, started by Labour Party Finance Minister Roger Douglas and popularly known as Rogernomics, centred on the privatization of state assets and on the removal of tariffs and subsidies. These policies alienated traditional Labour supporters, who saw them as a betrayal of the party's social service based character, but did not appear to appease the membership base of the non-parliamentary party either, which still had a significant supporter base for the statist intervention style policies of the Muldoon Government.
Many more conservative and centrist National supporters preferred Muldoon's more authoritarian and interventionist policies over the free-market liberalism promoted by Douglas. However, the new National Party Finance Minister, Ruth Richardson, strongly supported Rogernomics, believing that Douglas had not gone far enough. Her policies—dubbed "Ruthanasia"— encouraged two MPs to leave the National Party and form the New Zealand Liberal Party (1992). Richardson's views also met with considerable opposition within the National Party Parliamentary Caucus and for a time caused damage to the party's membership base.
At the 1993 election, National was narrowly able to secure its position in government due partly to a strongly recovering economy, after its large majority disappeared and the country faced an election night hung parliament—National one seat short of the required 50 seats to govern. With special votes counted in the following days, National won Waitaki, allowing it to form a government but requiring the election of a Speaker from the opposition benches (Peter Tapsell of the Labour Party) to hold a working majority in the House. At the same time as the election, however, a referendum took place which established the MMP electoral system for future use in New Zealand general elections. This would have a significant impact on New Zealand politics. Some National Party MPs defected to a new grouping, United New Zealand in mid-1995. And as a result of the new electoral mechanics, the New Zealand First party, led by former National MP and former Cabinet minister Winston Peters, held the balance of power after the 1996 election. After a prolonged period of negotiation lasting nearly two months, in which New Zealand First played National and Labour off against each other (both parties negotiated complete coalition agreements), New Zealand First entered into a coalition with National.
Under the coalition agreement, Peters became Deputy Prime Minister and had the post of Treasurer especially created by the Crown for him. New Zealand First extracted a number of other concessions from National in exchange for its support. The influence of New Zealand First angered many National MPs, particularly Jenny Shipley.
Jenny Shipley, Prime Minister 1997–1999
When, in 1997, Shipley toppled Bolger to become National's new leader, relations between National and its coalition partner deteriorated. After Shipley sacked Peters from Cabinet in 1998, New Zealand First split into two groups and half the MPs followed Peters out of the coalition but the remainder broke away, establishing themselves as independents or as members of new parties of which none survived the 1999 election. From the latter group National gained enough support to continue in government with additional confidence support of Alamein Kopu a defect Alliance List MP. The visibly damaged National Government managed to survive the parliamentary term, but lost the election to Labour's Helen Clark and the Alliance's Jim Anderton, who formed a coalition government.
Opposition (1999–2008)[edit]
Shipley continued to lead the National Party until 2001, when Bill English replaced her. English, however, proved unable to gain traction against Clark, and National suffered its worst-ever electoral defeat in the 2002 election, gaining only 27 of 120 seats.[24] Many hoped that English would succeed in rebuilding the party, given time, but a year later polling showed the party performing only slightly better than in the election. In October 2003 English gave way as leader to Don Brash, a former governor of the Reserve Bank who had joined the National Parliamentary caucus in the 2002 election.
Under Brash, the National Party's overall popularity with voters improved markedly. Mostly, however, the party achieved this by "reclaiming" support from electors who voted for other centre-right parties in 2002. National's campaigning on race relations, amid claims of preferential treatment of Māori, and amid their opposition to Labour Party policy during the foreshore-and-seabed controversy, generated considerable publicity and much controversy. Strong campaigning on a tax-cuts theme in the lead-up to the 2005 election, together with a consolidation of centre-right support, may have contributed to the National Party's winning 48 out of 121 seats in Parliament. National, however, remained the second-largest party in Parliament (marginally behind Labour, which gained 50 seats), and had fewer options for forming a coalition government. With the formation of a new Labour-dominated Government, National remained the major Opposition party. During 2004-2005, the National Party had made renewed efforts to attract social conservative voters, through adoption of pro-life and anti-same-sex marriage voting records
After the 2005 election defeat Don Brash's leadership of National came under scrutiny from the media, and political watchers speculated on the prospect of a leadership-challenge before the next general election due in 2008. Don Brash resigned on 23 November 2006, immediately before the release of Nicky Hager's book The Hollow Men, which contained damaging revelations obtained from private emails. John Key became the leader of the National caucus on 27 November 2006. Key fostered a more "centrist" image, discussing issues such as child poverty.
Fifth National Government (2008–2017)[edit]
Main article: Fifth National Government of New Zealand
John Key, Prime Minister 2008–2016
On 8 November 2008 the National Party won 58 seats in the general election. The Labour Party, which had spent three terms in power, conceded the election and Prime Minister Helen Clark stepped down. National formed a minority government under John Key with confidence-and-supply support from the ACT Party (5 seats), the Māori Party (5 seats) and United Future (1 seat). On 19 November the Governor-General swore in the new National-led government.[25] In Key's first Cabinet he gave the ACT Party's Rodney Hide and Heather Roy ministerial portfolios outside Cabinet, and the Māori Party's Tariana Turia and Pita Sharples the same. United Future leader Peter Dunne retained his ministerial post outside Cabinet which he had held within the immediately preceding Labour Government.
The government cut taxes on all income; the top personal tax rate was lowered from 39% to 38% and then 33% in 2010.[26]
National Party logo, 2002–2017
At the 26 November 2011 general election, National gained 47.31% of the party vote, the highest percentage gained by any political party since MMP was introduced, helped by a lower voter turnout and the misfortunes of its traditional support parties. A reduced wasted vote enabled the party to gain 59 seats in Parliament, one more than in 2008. National re-entered confidence-and-supply agreements with ACT (one seat) and United Future (one seat) on 5 December 2011, enabling it to form a minority government with the support of 61 seats in the new 121-seat Parliament. National also re-entered a confidence-and-supply agreement with the Māori Party on 11 December 2011 for extra insurance, despite the parties differing on National's contentious plans to partially sell (or "extend the mixed ownership model to") four state-owned enterprises. This nearly led to a cancellation of the agreement in February 2012 over Treaty of Waitangi obligations for the mixed ownership companies, and again in July 2012 over water rights.
The government introduced the "mixed ownership model" plan, in which the Government planned to reduce its share in Genesis Energy, Meridian Energy, Mighty River Power and Solid Energy from 100% to 51% and Air New Zealand from 74% to 51%, and sell off the remainder. The plans to sell down Solid Energy were later axed due to the company's poor financial position. A citizens-initiated referendum on the sell-downs returned a 67.3% vote in opposition (on a turnout of 45.1%).
The National Government won a third term at the 2014 general election. The National Party won 47.04% of the party vote, and increased its seats to 60. National resumed its confidence and supply agreements with ACT and United Future.
Leader Bill English with his deputy, Paula Bennett on the steps of Parliament
After serving Prime Minister for eight years, Key announced his resignation as the party leader on 5 December 2016. He stepped down as Prime Minister on 12 December.[27] Key's deputy Bill English was acclaimed as the party's new leader on 12 December 2016 after Health Minister Jonathan Coleman and Minister of Police Judith Collins withdrew from the leadership election.[28][29]
In the 2017 general election, National's share of the party vote dropped to 44.4 percent. It lost four seats, dropping to 56, but remained the largest party in Parliament.[11] New Zealand First, led by Winston Peters, held the balance of power, and formed a coalition with Labour, who also gained Green party support, marking an end to the 9-year National government.
Organisation[edit]
National features both regional and electorate-level organisational structures. National traditionally had a strongly decentralised organisation, designed to allow electorates and the five regions to appeal to the unique voter base in their area. However, in light of the 2002 election result, a review of the party organisation resulted in decisions to weaken the regional structure and to implement a more centralised structure in order to make the structure more 'appropriate' for the new mixed member proportional electoral system.[30] The Party President (currently[update] Peter Goodfellow) heads the administration outside of National's current sitting MPs.
The party's youth wing, the Young Nationals, commonly known as the Young Nats, has provided much political impetus as a ginger group.
The Bluegreens are a group within National who help formulate green environmental policy.[31]
Electoral results[edit]
A National Party billboard endorsing John Key for the 2008 general election
Election
# of party votes
% of party vote
# of seats
won
Government/opposition?
1938[32]
381,081 40.30
25 / 80
Opposition
1943[32]
402,887 42.78
34 / 80
1946
507,139 48.43
38 / 80
1949
556,805 51.88
46 / 80
Government
1951
577,630 53.99
50 / 80
1954
485,630 44.27
45 / 80
1957
511,699 44.21
39 / 80
Opposition
1960
557,046 47.59
46 / 80
Government
1963
563,875 47.12
45 / 80
1966
525,945 43.64
44 / 80
1969
605,960 45.22
45 / 84
1972
581,422 41.50
32 / 87
Opposition
1975
763,136 47.59
55 / 87
Government
1978
680,991 39.82
51 / 92
1981
698,508 38.77
47 / 92
1984
692,494 35.89
37 / 95
Opposition
1987
806,305 44.02
40 / 97
1990
872,358 47.82
67 / 97
Government
1993
673,892 35.05
50 / 99
Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) electoral system since 1996
1996
701,315 33.87
44 / 120
Government (coalition)
1999
629,932 30.50
39 / 120
Opposition
2002[24]
425,310 20.93
27 / 120
2005
889,813 39.10
48 / 121
2008
1,053,398 44.93
58 / 122
Government (minority)
2011
1,058,638 47.31
59 / 121
2014
1,131,501 47.04
60 / 121
2017
1,152,075 44.45
56 / 120
Opposition
Parliamentary leaders[edit]
Key:
National Labour
PM: Prime Minister
LO: Leader of the Opposition
No.
Leader
Portrait
Term of Office
Position
Prime Minister
1
Adam Hamilton 2 November 1936 26 November 1940 LO 1936–1940 Savage
2
Sidney Holland 26 November 1940 20 September 1957 LO 1940–1949 Fraser
PM 1949–1957 Holland
3
Keith Holyoake 20 September 1957 7 February 1972 PM 1957 Holyoake
LO 1957–1960 Nash
PM 1960–1972 Holyoake
4
Jack Marshall 7 February 1972 4 July 1974 PM 1972 Marshall
LO 1972–1974 Kirk
5
Robert Muldoon 4 July 1974 29 November 1984 LO 1974–1975 Rowling
PM 1975–1984 Muldoon
LO 1984 Lange
6
Jim McLay 29 November 1984 26 March 1986 LO 1984–1986
7
Jim Bolger 26 March 1986 8 December 1997 LO 1986–1990
Palmer
Moore
PM 1990–1997 Bolger
8
Jenny Shipley 8 December 1997 8 October 2001 PM 1997–1999 Shipley
LO 1999–2001 Clark
9
Bill English 8 October 2001 28 October 2003 LO 2001–2003
10
Don Brash 28 October 2003 27 November 2006 LO 2003–2006
11
John Key 27 November 2006 12 December 2016 LO 2006–2008
PM 2008–2016 Key
(9)
Bill English 12 December 2016 Incumbent PM 2016–2017 English
LO 2017- Ardern
Deputy leaders[edit]
Name
Term
William Polson 1940–1946
Keith Holyoake 1946–1957
Jack Marshall 1957–1972
Robert Muldoon 1972–1974
Brian Talboys 1974–1981
Duncan MacIntyre 1981–1984
Jim McLay 1984
Jim Bolger 1984–1986
George Gair 1986–1987
Don McKinnon 1987–1997
Wyatt Creech 1997–2001
Bill English 2001
Roger Sowry 2001–2003
Nick Smith 2003
Gerry Brownlee 2003–2006
Bill English 2006–2016
Paula Bennett 2016–present
Party presidents[edit]
Name
Term
Sir George Wilson 1936
Colonel Claude Weston 1936–1940
Alex Gordon 1940–1944
Sir Wilfred Sim 1944–1951
Sir Alex McKenzie 1951–1962
John S. Meadowcroft 1962–1966
Edward Durning (Ned) Holt 1966–1973
Sir George Chapman 1973–1982
Sue Wood 1982–1986
Neville Young 1986–1989
John Collinge 1989–1994
Lindsay Tisch 1994
Geoff Thompson 1994–1998
John Slater 1998–2001
Michelle Boag 2001–2002
Judy Kirk 2002–2009
Peter Goodfellow 2009–present
Short biographies of all presidents up to Sue Wood appear in Barry Gustafson's The First Fifty Years.
See also[edit]
Conservatism portal
New Zealand portal
Conservative Party (UK)
Governments of New Zealand
Liberal Party of Australia
Conservative Party of Canada
Second Shadow Cabinet of Bill English
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c James, Colin (13 December 2016). "National Party: Party principles". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 9 September 2017. Usually the conservative and liberal tendencies have been central
Jump up ^ New Zealand Investment and Business Guide Volume 1 Strategic and Practical Information. Lulu. 2015. p. 32. ISBN 9781312942288.
^ Jump up to: a b "New Zealand's center-right National Party wins election". CNN. 20 September 2014. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "International Democrat Union » Asia Pacific Democrat Union (APDU)". International Democrat Union. 2016. Retrieved 12 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Ngā Rōpū Pāremata" (in Maori). New Zealand Parliament Pāremata Aotearoa. Retrieved 5 May 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Election 2014: Nats' promises to you". New Zealand Herald. 2014-09-21. ISSN 1170-0777. Retrieved 2015-11-05.
^ Jump up to: a b Raymond, Miller (2005). Party Politics in New Zealand. Australia: Oxford University Press. p. 32.
Jump up ^ Hossain, Akhand Akhtar (2015). The Evolution of Central Banking and Monetary Policy in the Asia-Pacific. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 317. ISBN 9780857937810.
Jump up ^ James, Colin (20 June 2012). "National Party". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Scharpf, Fritz Wilhelm; Schmidt, Vivien Ann (2000). Welfare and Work in the Open Economy: From vulnerability to competitiveness. Oxford University Press. p. 246. ISBN 9780199240876.
^ Jump up to: a b "2017 General Election - Official Result". New Zealand Electoral Commission. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Palffy, Georgina (2008). New Zealand. New Holland Publishers. p. 65. ISBN 9781860114052. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Gustafson, Barry (1 October 2013). "His Way: a Biography of Robert Muldoon". Auckland University Press. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Keith Holyoake, New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 14 July 1959, vol. 319, p. 406.
Jump up ^ Hembry, Owen (31 January 2011). "In the shadow of Think Big". New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand as it might have been: From Ruthanasia to President Bolger". New Zealand Herald. 12 January 2007. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Plumb, Alison (2014). "How do MPs in Westminster democracies vote when unconstrained by party discipline? A comparison of free vote patterns on marriage equality legislation" (PDF). Australian National University. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "PM reinforces TPP benefits in New York". The Beehive. 20 September 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Miller, Raymond (2005). Party Politics in New Zealand. Australia: Oxford University Press. pp. 28–31.
Jump up ^ Miller, Raymond (2005). Party Politics in New Zealand. Australia: Oxford University Press. p. 29.
Jump up ^ Miller, Raymond (2005). Party Politics in New Zealand. Australia: Oxford University Press. pp. 31–32.
Jump up ^ Brian Roper (1993). State and economy in New Zealand. Oxford U.P. p. 204.
Jump up ^ Gustafson, Barry (2013). His Way: a Biography of Robert Muldoon. Auckland University Press. p. 109. ISBN 9781869405175.
^ Jump up to: a b "Official Count Results – Overall Status". Electoral Commission. Retrieved 7 August 2013.
Jump up ^ "Key and ministers sworn in". guide2.co.nz. 19 November 2008. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Questions and Answers - 25 May 2010 | Scoop News". scoop.co.nz. 25 May 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand Prime Minister John Key announces resignation". Stuff.co.nz. 5 December 2016. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Live: Prime Minister John Key has resigned. What happens next?". Stuff. Retrieved 2016-12-06.
Jump up ^ "The race for Prime Minister gets crowded - It's Bill English, Jonathan Coleman and now Judith Collins". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Stephens, Gregory R. Electoral Reform and the Centralisation of the New Zealand National Party, MA thesis, Victoria University of Wellington
Jump up ^ "Bluegreens". bluegreens.org.nz. 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "General elections 1853–2005 – dates & turnout". Elections New Zealand. Retrieved 12 January 2011.
Further reading[edit]
Boston, Jonathan. Left Turn: The New Zealand general election of 1999 (Victoria U.P, 2000)
Boston, Jonathan; et al. (2004). New Zealand Votes: The 2002 General Election. Victoria University Press.
Chapman, George (1980). The Years of Lightning. Wellington: AH & AW Reed. ISBN 0-589-01346-7.
Easton, Brian. Making of Rogernomics (1989) on late 1980s
Gustafson, Barry, His Way, a biography of Robert Muldoon Auckland University Press, 2000, ISBN 1-86940-236-7 online, National prime minister 1975–84
Gustafson, Barry. Kiwi Keith: A Biography of Keith Holyoake (2009), National Prime Minister, 1957, 1960–72
Gustafson, Barry. The First 50 Years: A History of the New Zealand National Party by (1986, Reed Methuen, Auckland) ISBN 0-474-00177-6 (includes short biographies of all National MPs from 1936 to 1986, and of a selection of organisational figures)
Levine, Stephen and Nigel S. Roberts, eds. The Baubles of Office: The New Zealand General Election of 2005 (Victoria U.P, 2007)
Levine, Stephen and Nigel S. Roberts, eds. Key to Victory: The New Zealand General Election of 2008 (Victoria U.P, 2010)
Russell, Marcia. Revolution: New Zealand From Fortress to Free Market (1996) on Rogernomics in 1980s
External links[edit]
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New Zealand National Party
Party leaders
Names in bold served as Prime Minister
Adam Hamilton (1936–1940)
Sidney Holland (1940–1957)
Keith Holyoake (1957–1972)
Jack Marshall (1972–1974)
Robert Muldoon (1974–1984)
Jim McLay (1984–1986)
Jim Bolger (1986–1997)
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Bill English (2001–2003)
Don Brash (2003–2006)
John Key (2006–2016)
Bill English (2016–present)
Party presidents
Sir George Wilson
Claude Weston
Alex Gordon
Sir Wilfred Sim
Sir Alex McKenzie
John S. Meadowcroft
Ned Holt
Sir George Chapman
Sue Wood
Neville Young
John Collinge
Lindsay Tisch
Geoff Thompson
John Slater
Michelle Boag
Judy Kirk
Peter Goodfellow
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Names without electorates are list MPs
Leader
Bill English
Deputy Leader
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Amy Adams (Selwyn)
Kanwaljit Singh Bakshi
Maggie Barry (North Shore)
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