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Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea
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Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea
Frontispiece of 1871 edition
Author
Jules Verne
Original title
Vingt mille lieues sous les mers
Illustrator
Alphonse de Neuville and Édouard Riou
Country
France
Language
French
Series
Voyages Extraordinaires
Genre
Adventure
Publisher
Pierre-Jules Hetzel
Publication date
1870
Published in English
1872
Preceded by
In Search of the Castaways
Followed by
Around the Moon
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea: A Tour of the Underwater World (French: Vingt mille lieues sous les mers: Tour du monde sous-marin, "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas: A Tour of the Underwater World") is a classic science fiction adventure novel by French writer Jules Verne published in 1870.
The novel was originally serialized from March 1869 through June 1870 in Pierre-Jules Hetzel's periodical, the Magasin d'Éducation et de Récréation. The deluxe illustrated edition, published by Hetzel in November 1871, included 111 illustrations by Alphonse de Neuville and Édouard Riou.[1] The book was highly acclaimed when it was released and still is; it is regarded as one of the premiere adventure novels and one of Verne's greatest works, along with Around the World in Eighty Days and Journey to the Center of the Earth. The description of Nemo's ship, the Nautilus, was considered ahead of its time, as it accurately describes features on submarines, which at the time were very primitive vessels.
Contents
[hide]
1 The book
2 Plot
3 Themes and subtext
4 Reception
5 Recurring themes in later books
6 English translations
7 Adaptations and variations
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
The book[edit]
The title refers to the distance traveled while under the sea and not to a depth, as 20,000 leagues is over six times the diameter, and nearly twice the circumference of the Earth.[2] The greatest depth mentioned in the book is four leagues. The book uses metric leagues, which are four kilometres each.[3] A literal translation of the French title would end in the plural "seas", thus implying the "seven seas" through which the characters of the novel travel; however, the early English translations of the title used "sea", meaning the ocean in general.
Plot[edit]
During the year 1866, ships of several nations spot a mysterious sea monster, which some suggest to be a giant narwhal. The United States government assembles an expedition in New York City to find and destroy the monster. Professor Pierre Aronnax, a French marine biologist and narrator of the story, who happens to be in New York at the time, receives a last-minute invitation to join the expedition which he accepts. Canadian whaler and master harpoonist Ned Land and Aronnax's faithful servant Conseil are also brought aboard.
The expedition departs Brooklyn aboard the United States Navy frigate Abraham Lincoln and travels south around Cape Horn into the Pacific Ocean. The ship finds the monster after a long search and then attacks the beast, which damages the ship's rudder. The three protagonists are then hurled into the water and grasp hold of the "hide" of the creature, which they find, to their surprise, to be a submarine very far ahead of its era. They are quickly captured and brought inside the vessel, where they meet its enigmatic creator and commander, Captain Nemo.
The rest of the story follows the adventures of the protagonists aboard the creature—the submarine, the Nautilus—which was built in secrecy and now roams the seas free from any land-based government. Captain Nemo's motivation is implied to be both a scientific thirst for knowledge and a desire for revenge upon (and self-imposed exile from) civilization. Nemo explains that his submarine is electrically powered and can perform advanced marine biology research; he also tells his new passengers that although he appreciates conversing with such an expert as Aronnax, maintaining the secrecy of his existence requires never letting them leave. Aronnax and Conseil are enthralled by the undersea adventures, but Ned Land can only think of escape.
They visit many places under the ocean, some real-world and others fictional. The travelers witness the real corals of the Red Sea, the wrecks of the battle of Vigo Bay, the Antarctic ice shelves, the Transatlantic telegraph cable and the legendary submerged land of Atlantis. The travelers also use diving suits to hunt sharks and other marine life with air-guns and have an underwater funeral for a crew member who died when an accident occurred under mysterious conditions inside the Nautilus. When the Nautilus returns to the Atlantic Ocean, a pack of "poulpes" (usually translated as a giant squid, although in French "poulpe" means "octopus") attacks the vessel and kills a crew member.
Throughout the story Captain Nemo is suggested to have exiled himself from the world after an encounter with the forces that occupied his country that had devastating effects on his family. Not long after the incident of the poulpes, Nemo suddenly changes his behavior toward Aronnax, avoiding him. Aronnax no longer feels the same and begins to sympathize with Ned Land. Near the end of the book, the Nautilus is attacked by a warship of some nation that had made Nemo suffer. Filled with hatred and revenge, Nemo ignores Aronnax's pleas for mercy. Nemo—nicknamed "angel of hatred" by Aronnax—destroys the ship, ramming it just below the waterline, and consequently sinking it into the bottom of the sea, much to Aronnax's horror, as he watches the ship plunge into the abyss. Nemo bows before the pictures of his wife and children and is plunged into deep depression after this encounter. For several days after this, the protagonists' situation changes. No one seems to be on board any longer and the Nautilus moves about randomly. Ned Land is even more depressed, Conseil fears for Ned's life, and Aronnax, horrified at what Nemo had done to the ship, can no longer stand the situation either. One evening, Ned Land announces an opportunity to escape. Although Aronnax wants to leave Nemo, whom he now holds in horror, he still wishes to see him for the last time. But he knows that Nemo would never let him escape, so he has to avoid meeting him. Before the escape, however, he sees him one last time (although secretly), and hears him say "Almighty God! Enough! Enough!". Aronnax immediately goes to his companions and they are ready to escape. But while they loosen the dinghy, they discover that the Nautilus has wandered into the Moskenstraumen, more commonly known as the "Maelstrom". They manage to escape and find refuge on a nearby island off the coast of Norway, but the fate of the Nautilus is unknown.
Themes and subtext[edit]
Nautilus's route through the Pacific
Nautilus's route through the Atlantic
Captain Nemo's name is an allusion to Homer's Odyssey, a Greek epic poem.[citation needed] In The Odyssey, Odysseus meets the monstrous cyclops Polyphemus during the course of his wanderings. Polyphemus asks Odysseus his name, and Odysseus replies that his name is "Utis" (ουτις), which translates as "No-man" or "No-body". In the Latin translation of the Odyssey, this pseudonym is rendered as "Nemo", which in Latin also translates as "No-man" or "No-body". Similarly to Nemo, Odysseus must wander the seas in exile (though only for 10 years) and is tormented by the deaths of his ship's crew.
Jules Verne several times mentions Commander Matthew Fontaine Maury, "Captain Maury" in Verne's book, a real-life oceanographer who explored the winds, seas, currents, and collected samples of the bottom of the seas and charted all oceans. Verne would have known of Matthew Maury's international fame and perhaps Maury's French ancestry.
References are made to other such Frenchmen as Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse, a famous explorer who was lost while circumnavigating the globe; Dumont D'Urville, the explorer who found the remains of Lapérouse's ship; and Ferdinand Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal and the nephew of the sole survivor of Lapérouse's expedition. The Nautilus seems to follow the footsteps of these men: she visits the waters where Lapérouse was lost; she sails to Antarctic waters and becomes stranded there, just like D'Urville's ship, the Astrolabe; and she passes through an underwater tunnel from the Red Sea into the Mediterranean.
The most famous part of the novel, the battle against a school of giant squid, begins when a crewman opens the hatch of the boat and gets caught by one of the monsters. As the tentacle that has grabbed him pulls him away, he yells "Help!" in French. At the beginning of the next chapter, concerning the battle, Aronnax states, "To convey such sights, one would take the pen of our most famous poet, Victor Hugo, author of The Toilers of the Sea." The Toilers of the Sea also contains an episode where a worker fights a giant octopus, wherein the octopus symbolizes the Industrial Revolution. It is probable that Verne borrowed the symbol, but used it to allude to the Revolutions of 1848 as well, in that the first man to stand against the "monster" and the first to be defeated by it is a Frenchman.[citation needed]
In several parts of the book, Captain Nemo is depicted as a champion of the world's underdogs and downtrodden. In one passage, Captain Nemo is mentioned as providing some help to Greeks rebelling against Ottoman rule during the Cretan Revolt of 1866–1869, proving to Arronax that he had not completely severed all relations with mankind outside the Nautilus after all. In another passage, Nemo takes pity on a poor Indian pearl diver who must do his diving without the sophisticated diving suit available to the submarine's crew, and who is doomed to die young due to the cumulative effect of diving on his lungs. Nemo approaches him underwater and gives him a whole pouch full of pearls, more than he could have acquired in years of his dangerous work. Nemo remarks that the diver as an inhabitant of British Colonial India, "is an inhabitant of an oppressed country".
Model of the 1863 French Navy submarine Plongeur at the Musée de la Marine, Paris.
The Nautilus as imagined by Jules Verne.
Verne took the name "Nautilus" from one of the earliest successful submarines, built in 1800 by Robert Fulton, who later invented the first commercially successful steamboat. Fulton's submarine was named after the paper nautilus because it had a sail. Three years before writing his novel, Jules Verne also studied a model of the newly developed French Navy submarine Plongeur at the 1867 Exposition Universelle, which inspired him for his definition of the Nautilus.[4]
The breathing apparatus used by Nautilus divers is depicted as an untethered version of underwater breathing apparatus designed by Benoit Rouquayrol and Auguste Denayrouze in 1865. They designed a diving set with a backpack spherical air tank that supplied air through the first known demand regulator.[5][6][7] The diver still walked on the seabed and did not swim. This set was called an aérophore (Greek for "air-carrier"). Air pressure tanks made with the technology of the time could only hold 30 atmospheres, and the diver had to be surface supplied; the tank was for bailout.[5] The durations of 6 to 8 hours on a tankful without external supply recorded for the Rouquayrol set in the book are greatly exaggerated.[6]
No less significant, though more rarely commented on, is the very bold political vision, which was revolutionary for its time, represented by the character of Captain Nemo. As revealed in the later Verne book The Mysterious Island, Captain Nemo is a descendant of Tipu Sultan, a Muslim ruler of Mysore who resisted the expansionism of the British East India Company. Nemo took to the underwater life after the suppression of the Indian Mutiny of 1857, in which his close family members were killed by the British. This change was made at the request of Verne's publisher, Pierre-Jules Hetzel, who is known to be responsible for many serious changes in Verne's books. In the original text the mysterious captain was a Polish nobleman, avenging his family who were killed by the Russians in retaliation for the captain's taking part in the Polish January Uprising of 1863. As France was at the time allied with the Russian Empire, the target for Nemo's wrath was changed to France's old enemy, the British Empire, to avoid political trouble. Professor Pierre Aronnax does not suspect Nemo's origins, as these were explained only later, in Verne's next book. What remained in the book from the initial concept is a portrait of Tadeusz Kościuszko, a Polish national hero, leader of the uprising against Russia in 1794, with an inscription in Latin: "Finis Poloniae!" ("The end of Poland!").
Margaret Drabble argues that Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea anticipated the ecology movement and shaped the French avant-garde.[8]
Reception[edit]
Theodore L. Thomas in 1961 said that "there is not a single bit of valid speculation" in the novel and that "none of its predictions has come true". He described the depictions of the diving gear, scenes, and the Nautilus as "pretty bad, behind the times even for 1869 ... In none of these technical situation did Verne take advantage of knowledge readily available to him at the time". Thomas said, however, that despite poor science, plot, and characterization, "Put them all together with the magic of Verne's story-telling ability, and something flames up. A story emerges that sweeps incredulity before it".[6]
Recurring themes in later books[edit]
Jules Verne's wrote a sequel to this book: L'Île mystérieuse (The Mysterious Island, 1874), which concludes the stories begun by Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea and In Search of the Castaways. While The Mysterious Island seems to give more information about Nemo (or Prince Dakkar), it is muddied by the presence of several irreconcilable chronological contradictions between the two books and even within The Mysterious Island.
Verne returned to the theme of an outlaw submarine captain in his much later Facing the Flag. That book's main villain, Ker Karraje, is a completely unscrupulous pirate acting purely and simply for gain, completely devoid of all the saving graces which gave Nemo—for all that he, too, was capable of ruthless killings—some nobility of character.
Like Nemo, Ker Karraje plays "host" to unwilling French guests—but unlike Nemo, who manages to elude all pursuers, Karraje's career of outlawry is decisively ended by the combination of an international task force and the rebellion of his French captives. Though also widely published and translated, it never attained the lasting popularity of Twenty Thousand Leagues.
More similar to the original Nemo, though with a less finely worked-out character, is Robur in Robur the Conqueror—a dark and flamboyant outlaw rebel using an aircraft instead of a submarine—and its sequel Master of the World.
English translations[edit]
The novel was first translated into English in 1873 by Reverend Lewis Page Mercier. Mercier cut nearly a quarter of Verne's original text and made hundreds of translation errors, sometimes dramatically changing the meaning of Verne's original intent (including uniformly mistranslating French scaphandre — properly "diving apparatus" — as "cork-jacket", following a long-obsolete meaning as "a type of lifejacket"). Some of these mistranslations have been done for political reasons, such as Nemo's identity and the nationality of the two warships he sinks, or the portraits of freedom fighters on the wall of his cabin which originally included Daniel O'Connell.[9] Nonetheless, it became the standard English translation for more than a hundred years, while other translations continued to draw from it and its mistakes (especially the mistranslation of the title; the French title actually means Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas).
In the Argyle Press/Hurst and Company 1892 Arlington Edition, the translation and editing mistakes attributed to Mercier are missing. Scaphandre is correctly translated as "diving apparatus" and not as "cork-jackets". Although the book cover gives the title as Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, the title page titles the book Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas; Or, The Marvelous and Exciting Adventures of Pierre Arronax, Conseil His Servant, and Ned Land a Canadian Harpooner.
A modern translation was produced in 1966 by Walter James Miller and published by Washington Square Press.[10] Many of Mercier's changes were addressed in the translator's preface, and most of Verne's text was restored.
In the 1960s, Anthony Bonner published a translation of the novel for Bantam Classics. A specially written introduction by Ray Bradbury, comparing Captain Nemo and Captain Ahab of Moby-Dick, was also included.
Many of Mercier's errors were again corrected in a from-the-ground-up re-examination of the sources and an entirely new translation by Walter James Miller and Frederick Paul Walter, published in 1993 by Naval Institute Press in a "completely restored and annotated edition".[11] It was based on Walter's own 1991 public-domain translation, which is available from a number of sources, notably a recent edition with the title Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Seas (ISBN 978-1-904808-28-2). In 2010 Walter released a fully revised, newly researched translation with the title 20,000 Leagues Under the Seas — part of an omnibus of five of his Verne translations titled Amazing Journeys: Five Visionary Classics and published by State University of New York Press.
In 1998 William Butcher issued a new, annotated translation from the French original, published by Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-953927-8, with the title Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Seas. He includes detailed notes, an extensive bibliography, appendices and a wide-ranging introduction studying the novel from a literary perspective. In particular, his original research on the two manuscripts studies the radical changes to the plot and to the character of Nemo forced on Verne by the first publisher, Jules Hetzel.
One or more of these recent English translations[which?] uses the word "frogman" uniformly and wrongly to mean a diver in standard diving dress or similar, to translate French scaphandrier.
Adaptations and variations[edit]
Main article: Adaptations of Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2015)
The national origin of Captain Nemo was changed in most movie realizations; in nearly all picture-based works following the book Nemo was made into a European. However, he was represented as an Indian by Omar Sharif in the 1973 European miniseries The Mysterious Island. Nemo is also depicted as Indian in a silent film version of the story released in 1916 and later in both the graphic novel and the movie The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen. In Walt Disney's 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954), a live-action Technicolor film version of the novel, Captain Nemo is a European, bitter because his wife and son were tortured to death by those in power in the fictional prison camp of Rura Penthe, in an effort to get Nemo to reveal his scientific secrets. This is Nemo's motivation for sinking warships in the film. Also, Nemo's submarine is confined to a set circular section of the Pacific Ocean, unlike the original Nautilus. He is played in this version by the British actor James Mason, with an English accent. No mention is made of any Indians in the film.
Finally, Nemo was depicted as Indian in a Soviet 3-episode TV film Captain Nemo (1975), which also includes some plot details from the "Mysterious Island", Jules Verne's sequel to the novel.
See also[edit]
Novels portal
Leyden bullet (Leyden ball)
French corvette Alecton
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Dehs, Volker; Jean-Michel Margot; Zvi Har’El, "The Complete Jules Verne Bibliography: I. Voyages Extraordinaires", Jules Verne Collection, Zvi Har’El, retrieved 2012-09-06
Jump up ^ "(20000 leagues) ÷ (diameter of earth) - Wolfram|Alpha". wolframalpha.com. Retrieved 2015-09-17.
Jump up ^ Part 2, Chapter 7 "Accordingly, our speed was 25 miles (that is, twelve four–kilometer leagues) per hour. Needless to say, Ned Land had to give up his escape plans, much to his distress. Swept along at the rate of twelve to thirteen meters per second, he could hardly make use of the skiff. Leaving the Nautilus under these conditions would have been like jumping off a train racing at this speed, a rash move if there ever was one."
Jump up ^ Notice at the Musée de la Marine, Rochefort
^ Jump up to: a b Davis, RH (1955). Deep Diving and Submarine Operations (6th ed.). Tolworth, Surbiton, Surrey: Siebe Gorman & Company Ltd. p. 693.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas, Theodore L. (December 1961). "The Watery Wonders of Captain Nemo". Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 168–177.
Jump up ^ Acott, C. (1999). "A brief history of diving and decompression illness". South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal. 29 (2). ISSN 0813-1988. OCLC 16986801. Retrieved 2009-03-17.
Jump up ^ Margaret Drabble (8 May 2014). "Submarine dreams: Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas". New Statesman. Retrieved 2014-05-09.
Jump up ^ "How Lewis Mercier and Eleanor King brought you Jules Verne". Ibiblio.org. Retrieved 2013-11-15.
Jump up ^ Jules Verne (author), Walter James Miller (trans). Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, Washington Square Press, 1966. Standard book number 671-46557-0; Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 65-25245.
Jump up ^ Jules Verne (author), Walter James Miller (trans), Frederick Paul Walter (trans). Jules Verne's 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea: A Completely Restored and Annotated Edition, Naval Institute Press, 1993. ISBN 1-55750-877-1
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea
French Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Vingt mille lieues sous les mers
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea.
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas, p.d. trans. by F. P. Walter prepared in 1991.
20,000 Leagues under the Sea at Project Gutenberg, obsolete translation by Lewis Mercier, 1872
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, audio version (in French)
Manuscripts of Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea in gallica.bnf.fr
[show]
v
t
e
Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea
Characters
David Farragut
Captain Nemo
Films
Under the Seas (1907)
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1916)
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954)
Mysterious Island (1961)
Captain Nemo and the Underwater City (1969)
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1985)
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (Village Roadshow) (1997)
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (Hallmark) (1997)
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (2003)
30,000 Leagues Under the Sea (2007)
Television
Tales of Adventure (1952)
Captain Nemo (1975)
The Undersea Adventures of Captain Nemo (1975)
The Return of Captain Nemo (1978)
Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water (1990)
The Secret Adventures of Jules Verne (2000)
Other
Nautilus
The Mysterious Island
Journey Through the Impossible (play)
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea: Submarine Voyage (attraction)
The Secret of the Nautilus (video game)
Captain Nemo (manga)
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (graphic novel)
The Wreck of the Titan (audio)
Legend of the Cybermen (audio)
"Captain Nemo (song)"
List of adaptations
[show]
v
t
e
Jules Verne's The Mysterious Island
Characters
Cyrus Smith
Tom Ayrton
Captain Nemo
Films
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1916)
The Mysterious Island (1929)
Mysterious Island (1941)
Mysterious Island (1951 serial)
Mysterious Island (1961)
Mysterious Island (2005)
Journey 2: The Mysterious Island (2012)
Mysterious Island (2012)
Television
La Isla misteriosa y el capitán Nemo (1973)
Captain Nemo (1975)
Mysterious Island (1995)
Games
Myst
Return to Mysterious Island
Return to Mysterious Island 2
Series
In Search of the Castaways
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea
Related
Captain Nemo: The Fantastic History of a Dark Genius
Mysterious Island (Tokyo DisneySea)
The Stolen Airship
Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water
Nautilus
[show]
v
t
e
Works by Jules Verne
Voyages
extraordinaires
Five Weeks in a Balloon (1863)
Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864)
From the Earth to the Moon (1865)
The Adventures of Captain Hatteras (1866)
In Search of the Castaways (1867–68)
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1869–70)
Around the Moon (1870)
A Floating City (1871)
The Adventures of Three Englishmen and Three Russians in South Africa (1872)
The Fur Country (1873)
Around the World in Eighty Days (1873)
The Mysterious Island (1874–75)
The Survivors of the Chancellor (1875)
Michael Strogoff (1876)
Off on a Comet (1877)
The Child of the Cavern (1877)
Dick Sand, A Captain at Fifteen (1878)
The Begum's Fortune (1879)
Tribulations of a Chinaman in China (1879)
The Steam House (1880)
Eight Hundred Leagues on the Amazon (1881)
Godfrey Morgan (1882)
The Green Ray (1882)
Kéraban the Inflexible (1883)
The Vanished Diamond (1884)
The Archipelago on Fire (1884)
Mathias Sandorf (1885)
The Lottery Ticket (1886)
Robur the Conqueror (1886)
North Against South (1887)
The Flight to France (1887)
Two Years' Vacation (1888)
Family Without a Name (1889)
The Purchase of the North Pole (1889)
César Cascabel (1890)
Mistress Branican (1891)
The Carpathian Castle (1892)
Claudius Bombarnac (1892)
Foundling Mick (1893)
Captain Antifer (1894)
Propeller Island (1895)
Facing the Flag (1896)
Clovis Dardentor (1896)
An Antarctic Mystery (1897)
The Mighty Orinoco (1898)
The Will of an Eccentric (1899)
The Castaways of the Flag (1900)
The Village in the Treetops (1901)
The Sea Serpent (1901)
The Kip Brothers (1902)
Travel Scholarships (1903)
A Drama in Livonia (1904)
Master of the World (1904)
Invasion of the Sea (1905)
Other works
Novels
The Waif of the Cynthia (1885)
The Lighthouse at the End of the World (1905)
The Golden Volcano (1906)
The Chase of the Golden Meteor (1908)
The Danube Pilot (1908)
The Survivors of the "Jonathan" (1909)
The Secret of Wilhelm Storitz (1910)
The Barsac Mission (1919)
Backwards to Britain (1989, written 1859)
Paris in the Twentieth Century (1994, written 1863)
Collections
Doctor Ox (1874)
Yesterday and Tomorrow (1910)
Short
stories
"A Drama in Mexico" (1851)
"A Drama in the Air" (1851)
"Martin Paz" (1852)
"Master Zacharius" (1854)
"A Winter amid the Ice" (1855)
"The Count of Chanteleine" (1864)
"The Blockade Runners" (1865)
"Dr. Ox's Experiment" (1872)
"An Ideal City" (1875)
"The Mutineers of the Bounty" (1879)
"Ten Hours Hunting" (1881)
"Frritt-Flacc" (1884)
"Gil Braltar" (1887)
"In the Year 2889" (1889)
"Adventures of the Rat Family" (1891)
"Mr. Ray Sharp and Miss Me Flat" (1893)
"The Eternal Adam" (1910)
Plays
The Broken Straws (1850)
Mona Lisa (1852)
Blind Man's Buff (1853)
The Adoptive Son (1853
Knights of the Daffodil (1855)
Mr. Chimpanzee (1858)
The Inn in the Ardennes (1860)
Eleven Days' Siege (1861)
A Nephew from America (1873)
Around the World in 80 Days (1874)
The Children of Captain Grant (1878)
Michael Strogoff (1880)
Journey Through the Impossible (1882)
Kéraban the Pigheaded (1883)
Related
The Thompson Travel Agency by Michel Verne (1907)
Universe
Characters
Aouda
Tom Ayrton
David Farragut
Phileas Fogg
Lord Glenarvan
Captain Nemo
Jacques Paganel
Jean Passepartout
Cyrus Smith
Universe
Leyden ball
Nautilus
HMS Sword
Book
Category
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 180410275
LCCN: no2013128368
GND: 4557824-2
SUDOC: 120478706
BNF: cb12100647x (data)
NLA: 35580385
BNE: XX2034617
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Blood sugar level
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The fluctuation of blood sugar (red) and the sugar-lowering hormone insulin (blue) in humans during the course of a day with three meals. One of the effects of a sugar-rich vs a starch-rich meal is highlighted.[1]
The blood sugar level, blood sugar concentration, or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose present in the blood of humans and other animals. Glucose is a simple sugar and approximately 4 grams of glucose are present in the blood of a 70-kilogram (150 lb) human at all times.[2] The body tightly regulates blood glucose levels as a part of metabolic homeostasis.[2] Glucose is stored in skeletal muscle and liver cells in the form of glycogen;[2] in fasted individuals, blood glucose is maintained at a constant level at the expense of glycogen stores in the liver and skeletal muscle.[2]
In humans, glucose is the primary source of energy, and is critical for normal function, in a number of tissues,[2] particularly the human brain which consumes approximately 60% of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals.[2] Glucose can be transported from the intestines or liver to other tissues in the body via the bloodstream.[2] Cellular glucose uptake is primarily regulated by insulin, a hormone produced in the pancreas.[2]
Glucose levels are usually lowest in the morning, before the first meal of the day, and rise after meals for an hour or two by a few millimoles. Blood sugar levels outside the normal range may be an indicator of a medical condition. A persistently high level is referred to as hyperglycemia; low levels are referred to as hypoglycemia. Diabetes mellitus is characterized by persistent hyperglycemia from any of several causes, and is the most prominent disease related to failure of blood sugar regulation. There are different methods of testing and measuring blood sugar levels.
The intake of alcohol causes an initial surge in blood sugar, and later tends to cause levels to fall. Also, certain drugs can increase or decrease glucose levels.[3]
Contents
1 Units
2 Normal values in humans
3 Animals
4 Regulation
5 Abnormality in blood sugar levels
5.1 High blood sugar
5.2 Low blood sugar
6 Glucose measurement
6.1 Sample source
6.2 Sample type
6.3 Measurement techniques
6.4 Clinical correlation
7 Etymology and use of term
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Units[edit]
The international standard way of measuring blood glucose levels is in terms of a molar concentration, measured in mmol/L (millimoles per litre; or millimolar, abbreviated mM). In the United States, Germany and other countries mass concentration is measured in mg/dL (milligrams per decilitre).[4]
Since the molecular weight of glucose C6H12O6 is 180, the difference between the two units is a factor of 18, so that 1 mmol/L of glucose is equivalent to 18 mg/dL.[5]
Normal values in humans[edit]
Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Many factors affect a person's blood sugar level. The body's homeostatic mechanism of blood sugar regulation (known as glucose homeostasis), when operating normally, restores the blood sugar level to a narrow range of about 4.4 to 6.1 mmol/L (79 to 110 mg/dL) (as measured by a fasting blood glucose test).[6] The normal sugar level in blood for an average person is not a single numeric number universally.
The normal blood glucose level (tested while fasting) for non-diabetics, should be between 3.9 and 7.1 mmol/L (70 to 130 mg/dL). The mean normal blood glucose level in humans is about 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/dL);[5] however, this level fluctuates throughout the day. Blood sugar levels for those without diabetes and who are not fasting should be below 6.9 mmol/L (125 mg/dL).[7] The blood glucose target range for diabetics, according to the American Diabetes Association, should be 5.0–7.2 mmol/l (90–130 mg/dL) before meals, and less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) after meals (as measured by a blood glucose monitor).[8]
Despite widely variable intervals between meals or the occasional consumption of meals with a substantial carbohydrate load, human blood glucose levels tend to remain within the normal range. However, shortly after eating, the blood glucose level may rise, in non-diabetics, temporarily up to 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL) or slightly more. For people with diabetes maintaining 'tight diabetes control', the American Diabetes Association recommends a post-meal glucose level of less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) and a fasting plasma glucose of 3.9 to 7.2 mmol/L (70–130 mg/dL).[9]
The actual amount of glucose in the blood and body fluids is very small. In a healthy adult male of 75 kg with a blood volume of 5 liters, a blood glucose level of 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/dL) amounts to 5g, equivalent to about a teaspoonful of sugar.[10] Part of the reason why this amount is so small is that, to maintain an influx of glucose into cells, enzymes modify glucose by adding phosphate or other groups to it.
Animals[edit]
In general, ranges of blood sugar in common domestic ruminants are lower than in many monogastric mammals.[11] However this generalization does not extend to wild ruminants or camelids. For serum glucose in mg/dL, reference ranges of 42 to 75 for cows, 44 to 81 for sheep, and 48 to 76 for goats, but 61 to 124 for cats; 62 to 108 for dogs, 62 to 114 for horses, 66 to 116 for pigs, 75 to 155 for rabbits, and 90 to 140 for llamas have been reported.[12] A 90 percent reference interval for serum glucose of 26 to 181 mg/dL has been reported for captured mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus), where no effects of the pursuit and capture on measured levels were evident.[13] For beluga whales, the 25–75 percent range for serum glucose has been estimated to be 94 to 115 mg/dL.[14] For the white rhinoceros, one study has indicated that the 95 percent range is 28 to 140 mg/dL.[15] For harp seals, a serum glucose range of 4.9 to 12.1 mmol/L [i.e. 88 to 218 mg/dL] has been reported; for hooded seals, a range of 7.5 to 15.7 mmol/L [i.e. about 135 to 283 mg/dL] has been reported.[16]
Regulation[edit]
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Main article: Blood sugar regulation
The body's homeostatic mechanism keeps blood glucose levels within a narrow range. It is composed of several interacting systems, of which hormone regulation is the most important.
There are two types of mutually antagonistic metabolic hormones affecting blood glucose levels:
catabolic hormones (such as glucagon, cortisol and catecholamines) which increase blood glucose;[17]
and one anabolic hormone (insulin), which decreases blood glucose.
These hormones are secreted from pancreatic islets which are bundles of endocrine tissues. There are four types of pancreatic islets, alpha (A) cells, beta (B) cells, Delta (D) cells and F cells. Glucagon is secreted from alpha cells, while insulin is secreted by beta cells. Together they regulate the blood-glucose levels through negative feedback, a process where the end product of one reaction stimulates the beginning of another reaction. In blood-glucose levels, insulin lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood. The lower blood-glucose level (a product of the insulin secretion) triggers glucagon to be secreted, and repeats the cycle.[18]
In order for blood glucose to be kept stable, modifications to insulin, glucagon, epinephrine and cortisol are made. Each of these hormones has a different responsibility to keep blood glucose regulated; when blood sugar is too high, insulin tells muscles to take up excess glucose for storage. Glucagon responds to too low of a blood glucose level; it informs the tissue to produce more glucose. Epinephrine prepares the muscles and respiratory system for activity in the case of a "fight and flight" response. Lastly, cortisol supplies the body with fuel in times of heavy stress.[19]
Abnormality in blood sugar levels[edit]
High blood sugar[edit]
Main article: hyperglycemia
If blood sugar levels remain too high the body suppresses appetite over the short term. Long-term hyperglycemia causes many long-term health problems including heart disease, cancer,[20] eye, kidney, and nerve damage.[21]
Blood sugar levels above 300 can cause fatal reactions. Ketones will be very high (a magnitude higher than when eating a very low carbohydrate diet) initiating ketoacidosis. Mayo clinic recommends emergency room treatment above 300 mg/dL blood glucose.
The most common cause of hyperglycemia is diabetes. When diabetes is the cause, physicians typically recommend an anti-diabetic medication as treatment. From the perspective the majority of patients, treatment with an old, well-understood diabetes drug such as metformin will be the safest, most effective, least expensive, most comfortable route to managing the condition.[22] Diet changes and exercise implementation may also be part of a treatment plan for diabetes.
Fasting blood glucose levels may be higher than the post meal blood glucose in many of the healthy subjects. Such individuals may be said to have physiological insulin resistance and may develop diabetes mellitus as long term complication. In clinical and laboratory practices, many of the time a healthy normal subject will present a fasting blood glucose value higher than the post meal blood glucose value. This creates confusion since there is a common perception that in blood, postprandial (PP) glucose level should be higher than fasting (F) glucose level. The repeated investigation subsequently yields somewhat similar type of result.[23]
Low blood sugar[edit]
Main article: hypoglycemia
If blood sugar levels drop too low, a potentially fatal condition called hypoglycemia develops. Symptoms may include lethargy, impaired mental functioning; irritability; shaking, twitching, weakness in arm and leg muscles; pale complexion; sweating; loss of consciousness.
Mechanisms that restore satisfactory blood glucose levels after extreme hypoglycemia (below 40 mg/dL) must be quick and effective to prevent extremely serious consequences of insufficient glucose: confusion or unsteadiness and, in the extreme (below 15 mg/dL) loss of consciousness and seizures. Without discounting the potentially quite serious conditions and risks due to or oftentimes accompanying hyperglycemia, especially in the long-term (diabetes or pre-diabetes, obesity or overweight, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, etc.), it is still generally more dangerous to have too little glucose – especially if levels are very low – in the blood than too much, at least temporarily, because glucose is so important for metabolism and nutrition and the proper functioning of the body's organs. This is especially the case for those organs that are metabolically active or that require a constant, regulated supply of blood sugar (the liver and brain are examples). In healthy individuals, blood glucose-regulating mechanisms are generally quite effective, and symptomatic hypoglycemia is generally found only in diabetics using insulin or other pharmacological treatment, and in starvation or severe malnutrition or malabsorption (of various causes), and conditions such as anorexia[dubious – discuss]. Hypoglycemic episodes can vary greatly between persons and from time to time, both in severity and swiftness of onset. For severe cases, prompt medical assistance is essential, as damage to brain and other tissues and even death will result from sufficiently low blood-glucose levels.
Glucose measurement[edit]
Further information: Blood glucose monitoring and Glucose meter
Sample source[edit]
Glucose testing in a fasting individual, show comparable levels of glucose in arterial, venous, and capillary blood. But following meals, capillary and arterial blood glucose levels can be significantly higher than venous levels. Although these differences vary widely, one study found that following the consumption of 50 grams of glucose, "the mean capillary blood glucose concentration is higher than the mean venous blood glucose concentration by 35%."[24][25][26]
Sample type[edit]
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Glucose is measured in whole blood, plasma or serum. Historically, blood glucose values were given in terms of whole blood, but most laboratories now measure and report plasma or serum glucose levels. Because red blood cells (erythrocytes) have a higher concentration of protein (e.g., hemoglobin) than serum, serum has a higher water content and consequently more dissolved glucose than does whole blood. To convert from whole-blood glucose, multiplication by 1.14[27] has been shown to generally give the serum/plasma level.
Collection of blood in clot tubes for serum chemistry analysis permits the metabolism of glucose in the sample by blood cells until separated by centrifugation.[27] Red blood cells, for instance, do not require insulin to intake glucose from the blood. Higher than normal amounts of white or red blood cell counts can lead to excessive glycolysis in the sample, with substantial reduction of glucose level if the sample is not processed quickly. Ambient temperature at which the blood sample is kept prior to centrifuging and separation of plasma/serum also affects glucose levels. At refrigerator temperatures, glucose remains relatively stable for several hours in a blood sample. Loss of glucose can be prevented by using Fluoride tubes (i.e., gray-top) since fluoride inhibits glycolysis. However, these should only be used when blood will be transported from one hospital laboratory to another for glucose measurement. Red-top serum separator tubes also preserve glucose in samples after being centrifuged isolating the serum from cells.
To prevent contamination of the sample with intravenous fluids, particular care should be given to drawing blood samples from the arm opposite the one in which an intravenous line is inserted. Alternatively, blood can be drawn from the same arm with an IV line after the IV has been turned off for at least 5 minutes, and the arm has been elevated to drain infused fluids away from the vein. Inattention can lead to large errors, since as little as 10% contamination with a 5% glucose solution (D5W) will elevate glucose in a sample by 500 mg/dL or more. The actual concentration of glucose in blood is very low, even in the hyperglycemic.
Measurement techniques[edit]
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Two major methods have been used to measure glucose. The first, still in use in some places, is a chemical method exploiting the nonspecific reducing property of glucose in a reaction with an indicator substance that changes color when reduced. Since other blood compounds also have reducing properties (e.g., urea, which can be abnormally high in uremic patients), this technique can produce erroneous readings in some situations (5–15 mg/dL has been reported). The more recent technique, using enzymes specific to glucose, is less susceptible to this kind of error. The two most common employed enzymes are glucose oxidase and hexokinase.[28] Average blood glucose concentrations can also be measured. This method measures the level of glycated hemoglobin, which is representative of the average blood glucose levels over the last, approximately, 120 days.[28]
In either case, the chemical system is commonly contained on a test strip which is inserted into a meter, and then has a blood sample applied. Test-strip shapes and their exact chemical composition vary between meter systems and cannot be interchanged. Formerly, some test strips were read (after timing and wiping away the blood sample) by visual comparison against a color chart printed on the vial label. Strips of this type are still used for urine glucose readings, but for blood glucose levels they are obsolete. Their error rates were, in any case, much higher. Errors when using test strips were often caused by the age of the strip or exposure to high temperatures or humidity.[29] More precise blood glucose measurements are performed in a medical laboratory, using hexokinase, glucose oxidase, or glucose dehydrogenase enzymes.
Urine glucose readings, however taken, are much less useful. In properly functioning kidneys, glucose does not appear in urine until the renal threshold for glucose has been exceeded. This is substantially above any normal glucose level, and is evidence of an existing severe hyperglycemic condition. However, as urine is stored in the bladder, any glucose in it might have been produced at any time since the last time the bladder was emptied. Since metabolic conditions change rapidly, as a result of any of several factors, this is delayed news and gives no warning of a developing condition. Blood glucose monitoring is far preferable, both clinically and for home monitoring by patients. Healthy urine glucose levels were first standardized and published in 1965[30] by Hans Renschler.
I. CHEMICAL METHODS
A. Oxidation-reduction reaction
G l u c o s e + A l k a l i n e c o p p e r t a r t a r a t e → R e d u c t i o n C u p r o u s o x i d e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {Alkaline\ copper\ tartarate} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Reduction} }}\mathrm {Cuprous\ oxide} }
1. Alkaline copper reduction
Folin-Wu method
C u 2 + + P h o s p h o m o l y b d i c a c i d → O x i d a t i o n P h o s p h o m o l y b d e n u m o x i d e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{2+}+\mathrm {Phosphomolybdic\ acid} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Phosphomolybdenum\ oxide} } Blue end-product
Benedict's method
Modification of Folin–Wu method for qualitative urine glucose
Nelson–Somogyi method
C u 2 + + A r s e n o m o l y b d i c a c i d → O x i d a t i o n A r s e n o m o l y b d e n u m o x i d e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{2+}+\mathrm {Arsenomolybdic\ acid} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Arsenomolybdenum\ oxide} } Blue end-product
Neocuproine method
C u 2 + + N e o c u p r o i n e → O x i d a t i o n C u 2 + n e o c u p r o i n e c o m p l e x {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{2+}+\mathrm {Neocuproine} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Cu} ^{2+}\mathrm {neocuproine\ complex} } * Yellow-orange color neocuproine[31]
Shaeffer–Hartmann–Somogyi
Uses the principle of iodine reaction with cuprous byproduct.
Excess I2 is then titrated with thiosulfate.
2. Alkaline Ferricyanide Reduction
Hagedorn–Jensen
G l u c o s e + A l k a l i n e f e r r i c y a n i d e ⟶ F e r r o c y a n i d e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {Alkaline\ ferricyanide} \longrightarrow \mathrm {Ferrocyanide} } Colorless end product; other reducing substances interfere with reaction
B. Condensation
Ortho-toluidine method
Uses aromatic amines and hot acetic acid
Forms Glycosylamine and Schiff's base which is emerald green in color
This is the most specific method, but the reagent used is toxic
Anthrone (phenols) method
Forms hydroxymethyl furfural in hot acetic acid
II. ENZYMATIC METHODS
A. Glucose oxidase
G l u c o s e + O 2 → O x i d a t i o n g l u c o s e o x i d a s e D-glucono-1,5-lactone + H 2 O 2 {\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {O} _{2}{\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\mathrm {glucose\ oxidase} }}{\textrm {D-glucono-1,5-lactone}}+\mathrm {H_{2}O_{2}} }
Saifer–Gerstenfeld method
H 2 O 2 + O -dianisidine → O x i d a t i o n p e r o x i d a s e H 2 O + o x i d i z e d c h r o m o g e n {\displaystyle \mathrm {H_{2}O_{2}} +{\textit {O}}{\text{-dianisidine}}{\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\mathrm {peroxidase} }}\mathrm {H_{2}O} +\mathrm {oxidized\ chromogen} } Inhibited by reducing substances like BUA, bilirubin, glutathione, ascorbic acid
Trinder method
uses 4-aminophenazone oxidatively coupled with phenol
Subject to less interference by increases serum levels of creatinine, uric acid or hemoglobin
Inhibited by catalase
Kodak Ektachem
A dry chemistry method
Uses spectrophotometry to measure the intensity of color through a lower transparent film
Glucometer
Home monitoring blood glucose assay method
Uses a strip impregnated with a glucose oxidase reagent
B. Hexokinase
G l u c o s e + A T P → P h o s p h o r y l a t i o n H e x o k i n a s e + M g 2 + G-6PO 4 + A D P G-6PO 4 + N A D P → O x i d a t i o n G-6PD 6-Phosphogluconate + N A D P H + H + {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{2}&\mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {ATP} {\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Phosphorylation} }]{\mathrm {Hexokinase} +\mathrm {Mg} ^{2+}}}{\textrm {G-6PO}}_{4}+\mathrm {ADP} \\&{\textrm {G-6PO}}_{4}+\mathrm {NADP} {\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\textrm {G-6PD}}}{\textrm {6-Phosphogluconate}}+\mathrm {NADPH} +\mathrm {H} ^{+}\\\end{alignedat}}}
NADP as cofactor
NADPH (reduced product) is measured in 340 nm
More specific than glucose oxidase method due to G-6PO4, which inhibits interfering substances except when sample is hemolyzed
Clinical correlation[edit]
The fasting blood glucose level, which is measured after a fast of 8 hours, is the most commonly used indication of overall glucose homeostasis, largely because disturbing events such as food intake are avoided. Conditions affecting glucose levels are shown in the table below. Abnormalities in these test results are due to problems in the multiple control mechanism of glucose regulation.
The metabolic response to a carbohydrate challenge is conveniently assessed by a postprandial glucose level drawn 2 hours after a meal or a glucose load. In addition, the glucose tolerance test, consisting of several timed measurements after a standardized amount of oral glucose intake, is used to aid in the diagnosis of diabetes.
Error rates for blood glucose measurements systems vary, depending on laboratories, and on the methods used. Colorimetry techniques can be biased by color changes in test strips (from airborne or finger borne contamination, perhaps) or interference (e.g., tinting contaminants) with light source or the light sensor. Electrical techniques are less susceptible to these errors, though not to others. In home use, the most important issue is not accuracy, but trend. Thus if a meter / test strip system is consistently wrong by 10%, there will be little consequence, as long as changes (e.g., due to exercise or medication adjustments) are properly tracked. In the US, home use blood test meters must be approved by the federal Food and Drug Administration before they can be sold.
Finally, there are several influences on blood glucose level aside from food intake. Infection, for instance, tends to change blood glucose levels, as does stress either physical or psychological. Exercise, especially if prolonged or long after the most recent meal, will have an effect as well. In the typical person, maintenance of blood glucose at near constant levels will nevertheless be quite effective.[clarification needed]
Causes of abnormal glucose levels
Persistent hyperglycemia
Transient hyperglycemia
Persistent hypoglycemia
Transient hypoglycemia
Reference range, FBG: 70–110 mg/dL
Diabetes mellitus Pheochromocytoma Insulinoma Acute alcohol ingestion
Adrenal cortical hyperactivity Cushing's syndrome Severe liver disease Adrenal cortical insufficiency Addison's disease Drugs: salicylates, antituberculosis agents
Hyperthyroidism Acute stress reaction Hypopituitarism Severe liver disease
Acromegaly Shock Galactosemia Several glycogen storage diseases
Obesity Convulsions Ectopic insulin production from tumors Hereditary fructose intolerance
Etymology and use of term[edit]
This section has no medical references for verification or relies exclusively on non-medical sources. Please review the contents of the section and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In a physiological context, the term is a misnomer because it refers to glucose, yet other sugars besides glucose are always present. Food contains several different types (e.g., fructose (largely from fruits/table sugar/industrial sweeteners), galactose (milk and dairy products), as well as several food additives such as sorbitol, xylose, maltose, etc.). But because these other sugars are largely inert with regard to the metabolic control system (i.e., that controlled by insulin secretion), since glucose is the dominant controlling signal for metabolic regulation, the term has gained currency, and is used by medical staff and lay folk alike. The table above reflects some of the more technical and closely defined terms used in the medical field.
See also[edit]
Blood glucose monitoring
Saccharide recognition by boronic acids
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Daly, Mark E; Vale, C; Walker, M; Littlefield, A; Alberti, KG; Mathers, JC (1998). "Acute effects on insulin sensitivity and diurnal metabolic profiles of a high-sucrose compared with a high starch diet" (PDF). Am J Clin Nutr. American Society for Clinical Nutrition. 67 (6): 1186–96. doi:10.1093/ajcn/67.6.1186. PMID 9625092. Retrieved 19 February 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Wasserman DH (January 2009). "Four grams of glucose". American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism. 296 (1): E11–21. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.90563.2008. PMC 2636990  . PMID 18840763.
Jump up ^ Walker, Rosemary and Rodgers, Jill (2006) Type 2 Diabetes – Your Questions Answered. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 1-74033-550-3.
Jump up ^ Diabetes FAQs – Blood Glucose Measurement Units – Abbott Diabetes Care
^ Jump up to: a b What are mg/dl and mmol/l? How to convert? Glucose? Cholesterol? Advameg, Inc.
Jump up ^ "Screening for Type 2 Diabetes". Clinical Diabetes. 18 (2). 2000.
Jump up ^ Glucose test – blood. NIH – National Institutes of Health.
Jump up ^ Davidson, Nancy Klobassa and Moreland, Peggy (26 July 2011) Living with diabetes blog. mayoclinic.com.
Jump up ^ American Diabetes Association (2006). "January 2006 Diabetes Care". Diabetes Care. 29 (Supplement 1): S4–42. PMID 16373931. Standards of Medical Care – Table 6 and Table 7, Correlation between A1C level and Mean Plasma Glucose Levels on Multiple Testing over 2–3 months
Jump up ^ USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 22 (2009)
Jump up ^ Eiler, H. (2004). "Endocrine glands". In Reese, W. O. Dukes' Physiology of Domestic Animals (12th ed.). Ithaca, NY: Comstock. pp. 621–69. ISBN 0801442389.
Jump up ^ Kahn, C. M., ed. (2005). Merck Veterinary Manual (9th ed.). Whitehouse Station: Merck & Co. ISBN 0911910506.
Jump up ^ Rice, C. G.; Hall, B. (2007). "Hematologic and biochemical reference intervals for mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus): effects of capture conditions". Northwest Science. 81 (3): 206. doi:10.3955/0029-344X-81.3.206.
Jump up ^ Cornell, LH; Duffield, DS; Joseph, BE; Stark, B (1988). "Hematology and serum chemistry values in the beluga (Delphinapterus leucas)". Journal of wildlife diseases. 24 (2): 220–24. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-24.2.220. PMID 3373628.
Jump up ^ Seal, U. S.; Barton, R.; Mather, L.; Gray, C. W. (1976). "Baseline Laboratory Data for the White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum)" (PDF). The Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine. 7 (1): 11–17. JSTOR 20094341.
Jump up ^ Boily, F; Beaudoin, S; Measures, LN (2006). "Hematology and serum chemistry of harp (Phoca groenlandica) and hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) during the breeding season, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada". Journal of wildlife diseases. 42 (1): 115–32. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-42.1.115. PMID 16699154.
Jump up ^ Lehninger, Albert; Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2017). Lehininger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freedom. p. 934. ISBN 9781319117689.
Jump up ^ Tortora, Gerard (December 2016). Principles Anatomy and Physiology (15 ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. Chapter 18. ISBN 9781119343738.
Jump up ^ Lehninger, Albert; Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2017). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (7th ed.). New York: W.H.Freeman. p. 930. ISBN 9781319117689.
Jump up ^ "Excess sugar linked to cancer". Science Daily.
Jump up ^ "Diabetic ketoacidosis - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2018-01-30.
Jump up ^ Consumer Reports Health Best Buy Drugs. "The Oral Diabetes Drugs: Treating Type 2 Diabetes" (PDF). Best Buy Drugs. Consumer Reports: 2. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Warade, Jayesh Prabhakar (2014). "Fasting blood glucose level higher than post-meal in healthy subjects: a study of 738 subjects" (PDF). World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 3 (4). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Yang, Chiaohsin (2012). "A Comparison between Venous and Finger-Prick Blood Sampling on Values of Blood Glucose" (PDF). International Proceedings of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering. 39: 236.
Jump up ^ Somogyi, Michael (1948). "Studies of Arteriovenous Differences in Blood Sugar" (PDF). J. Biol. Chem. 174 (1): 189–200. PMID 18914074.
Jump up ^ Roe, Jeffrey. "Glucose Concentration Difference Between Arterial, Capillary, and Venous Blood."
^ Jump up to: a b Cox, David L. Nelson, Michael M. (2013). Lehninger principles of biochemistry (6th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. p. 950. ISBN 9781429234146.
^ Jump up to: a b Cox, Michael M.; Lehninger, Albert L.; Nelson, David L. (2017). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freeman. pp. 248–49. ISBN 9781319117689.
Jump up ^ Ginsberg, Barry H. (1 July 2009). "Factors Affecting Blood Glucose Monitoring: Sources of Errors in Measurement". Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology. 3: 903–13. doi:10.1177/193229680900300438. PMC 2769960  . Retrieved 21 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Renschler, HE; Weicker, H; Von Baeyer, H (1965). "The upper limit of glucose concentration in the urine of healthy subjects". Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift. 90 (53): 2349–53. PMID 5851934.
Jump up ^ Neocuproine MSDS. hazard.com
Further reading[edit]
Henry, John Bernard (2001). Clinical diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods (20th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. ISBN 0721688640.
Levine R (1986). "Monosaccharides in Health and Disease". Annu. Rev. Nutr. 6: 211–24. doi:10.1146/annurev.nu.06.070186.001235.
Röder PV, Wu B, Liu Y, Han W (2016). "Pancreatic Regulation of Glucose Homeostasis". Exp. Mol. Med. 48 (3, March): e219–. doi:10.1038/emm.2016.6. PMC 4892884  . PMID 26964835.
External links[edit]
Glucose (blood, serum, plasma): analyte monograph – The Association for Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine
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values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

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values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
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Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
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values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

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Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
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values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

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values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

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values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

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values: سكر الدم – Arabic

values:
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values:
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values: Кръвна захар – Bulgarian

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values:
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values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykemie
Glykemie – Czech
cs
cs
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values:
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values:
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values: Γλυκαιμία – Greek

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https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucemia
Glucemia – Spanish
es
es
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values: قند خون – Persian

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https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicemia
Glicemia – Galician
gl
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values:
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicemia
Glicemia – Italian
it
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values:
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values: ರಕ್ತದಲ್ಲಿನ ಸಕ್ಕರೆ – Kannada

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values: Гликемија – Macedonian

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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
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values:
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values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicemia
Glicemia – Occitan
oc
oc
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values:
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values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikemia
Glikemia – Polish
pl
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values:
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values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicemia
Glicemia – Portuguese
pt
pt
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values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicemie
Glicemie – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
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values: Гликемия – Russian

values:
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values:
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values: இரத்தச் சர்க்கரை – Tamil

values:
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values: బ్లడ్ షుగర్ – Telugu

values:
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values: น้ำตาลในเลือด – Thai

values: Глікемія – Ukrainian

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