text:
List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions
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Countries by carbon dioxide emissions in thousands of tonnes per annum, via the burning of fossil fuels (blue the highest and green the lowest).
Carbon dioxide emissions for the top 40 countries by total emissions in 2013, given as totals and per capita. Data from EU Edgar database
The cumulative CO2 emissions between 1970 and 2013 from the top 40 countries in the world, including some extra-national bodies. The data comes from the EU EDGAR database
China CO2 emission in millions of tonnes from 1980 to 2009.
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015. The following table lists the 2015 annual CO2 emissions estimates (in thousands of CO2 tonnes) along with a list of emissions per capita (in tonnes of CO2 per year) from same source. The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture, but not emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry. Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures,[1] which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports. The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6% of the world total. Other powerful, more potent greenhouse gases, including methane, are not included in this data.
Country
CO2 emissions (kt) in 2015[2]
% CO2 emissions by country
Emission per capita (t) in 2015[3]
World 36,061,710 100%
China 10,641,789 29.51% 7.7
United States 5,172,338 14.34% 16.1
European Union 3,469,671 9.62% 6.9
India 2,454,968 6.81% 1.9
Russia 1,760,895 4.88% 12.3
Japan 1,252,890 3.47% 9.9
Germany 777,905 2.16% 9.6
International Shipping 642,024 1.78% —
Iran 633,750 1.76% 8.0
South Korea 617,285 1.71% 12.3
Canada 555,401 1.54% 15.5
Saudi Arabia 505,565 1.40% 16.0
Indonesia 502,961 1.39% 2.0
International Aviation 502,936 1.39% —
Brazil 486,229 1.35% 2.3
Mexico 472,018 1.31% 3.7
Australia 446,348 1.24% 18.6
South Africa 417,161 1.16% 7.7
United Kingdom 398,524 1.11% 6.2
Turkey 357,157 0.99% 4.5
Italy 352,886 0.98% 5.9
France 327,787 0.91% 5.1
Poland 294,879 0.82% 7.6
Thailand 279,253 0.77% 4.1
Taiwan 279,174 0.77% 11.9
Kazakhstan 267,978 0.74% 15.2
Spain 262,683 0.73% 5.7
Malaysia 245,371 0.68% 8.1
Ukraine 228,688 0.63% 5.1
Egypt 226,985 0.63% 2.5
Vietnam 206,028 0.57% 2.2
United Arab Emirates 199,253 0.55% 21.8
Argentina 191,199 0.53% 4.4
Venezuela 178,568 0.50% 5.7
Pakistan 174,843 0.48% 0.9
Netherlands 165,317 0.46% 7.8
Iraq 160,623 0.45% 4.4
Algeria 147,692 0.41% 3.7
Philippines 113,035 0.31% 1.1
Czech Republic 111,092 0.31% 10.5
Uzbekistan 109,845 0.30% 3.7
Belgium 97,002 0.27% 8.6
Kuwait 95,013 0.26% 24.4
Turkmenistan 94,236 0.26% 17.5
Qatar 88,825 0.25% 39.7
Nigeria 86,896 0.24% 0.5
Romania 81,247 0.22% 4.2
Chile 81,110 0.22% 4.5
Colombia 80,967 0.22% 1.7
Oman 78,446 0.22% 17.5
Azerbaijan 38.000 0.10% 3.9
other countries
See also[edit]
Global warming portal
Ecology portal
Environment portal
Energy portal
List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita
List of countries by carbon intensity
List of countries by electricity production from renewable sources
List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions
List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita
List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions
General:
World energy consumption
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Schrooten, L; De Vlieger, Ina; Int Panis, Luc; Styns, R. Torfs, K; Torfs, R (2008). "Inventory and forecasting of maritime emissions in the Belgian sea territory, an activity based emission model". Atmospheric Environment. 42: 667–676. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.071.
Jump up ^ "CO2 time series 1990-2015 per region/country". Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. Retrieved 2017-03-07.
Jump up ^ "CO2 time series 1990-2015 per capita for world countries". Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. Retrieved 2017-03-07.
External links[edit]
The contents of this article comes from the latest figures from the millennium indicators as of 2009-07-14:
United Nation Statistics Division
GHG data from UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change GHG emissions data
Google - public data "CO2 emissions (kt)"
Google - public data "CO2 emissions (tonne per capita)"
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Japanese counter word
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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In Japanese, counter words or counters (josūshi 助数詞) are measure words used with numbers to count things, actions, and events.
In Japanese, as in Chinese and Korean, numerals cannot quantify nouns by themselves (except, in certain cases, for the numbers from one to ten; see below). For example, to express the idea "two dogs" in Japanese one could say 二匹の犬 ni-hiki no inu (literally "two small-animal-count POSSESSIVE dog"), or 犬二匹 inu ni-hiki (literally "dog two small-animal-count"), but just pasting 二 and 犬 together in either order is ungrammatical. Here 二 ni is the number "two", 匹 hiki is the counter for small animals, の no is the possessive particle (a reversed "of", similar to the "'s" in "John's dog"), and 犬 inu is the word "dog".
These counters are not independent words; they must appear with a numeric prefix. The number can be imprecise: 何 nan or, less commonly, 幾 iku can be used to mean "some/several/many", and, in questions, "what/how many/how much". For example, "some guests" can be translated as 何名様 nan mei-sama (lit. "some people-count honored-ones"), and "how many guests?" as 何名様？ nan mei-sama? (lit. "what people-count honored-ones QUESTION"). Some nouns prefer 幾 iku, as in 幾晩？ iku-ban? "how many nights?" and 幾日も行っていた iku-nichi mo itte ita "I was gone for many days."
Counters are similar in function to the word "pieces" in "two pieces of paper" or "cups" in "two cups of coffee". However, they cannot take non-numerical modifiers. So while "two pieces of paper" translates fairly directly as 紙二枚 kami ni-mai (lit. "paper two flat-count"), "two green pieces of paper" must be rendered as 緑の紙二枚 midori no kami ni-mai, akin to "two pieces of green paper".
Just as in English, different counters can be used to convey different types of quantity. In English, one can say "one loaf of bread" or "one slice of bread". In Japanese, the equivalents would be パン一斤 pan ikkin (lit. "bread one-loaf") and パン一枚 pan ichimai (lit. "bread one-flat-count").
Grammatically, counter words can appear either before or after the noun they count. They generally occur after the noun (following particles), and if used before the noun, they emphasize the quantity; this is a common mistake in English learners of Japanese. For example, to say "[I] drank two bottles of beer", the order is ビールを二本飲んだ bīru o nihon nonda (lit. "beer OBJECT two-long-thin-count drank"). In contrast, 二本のビールを飲んだ nihon no bīru o nonda (lit. "two-long-thin-count POSSESSIVE beer OBJECT drank") would only be appropriate when emphasizing the number as in responding with "[I] drank two bottles of beer" to "How many beers did you drink?".
Contents
1 Substitution of counters
2 Table of traditional numerals
3 Common counters by category
4 Extended list of counters
5 Euphonic changes
6 Exceptions
7 Ordinal numbers
8 Periods of time
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Substitution of counters[edit]
In Japanese, virtually all nouns must use a counter to express number. In this sense, virtually all Japanese nouns are mass nouns. This grammatical feature can result in situations where one is unable to express the number of a particular object in a syntactically correct way because one does not know, or cannot remember, the appropriate counting word. With quantities from one to ten, this problem can often be sidestepped by using the traditional numbers (see below), which can quantify many nouns without help. For example, "four apples" is りんご四個 ringo yonko where 個 ko is the counter, but can also be expressed, using the traditional numeral four, as りんご四つ ringo yottsu. These traditional numerals cannot be used to count all nouns, however; some, including nouns for people and animals, require a proper counter (except for 1 and 2 people, which virtually always use the traditional numerals).
Some of the more common counters may substitute for less common ones. For example, 匹 hiki (see below) is often used for all animals, regardless of size. However, many speakers will prefer to use the traditionally correct counter, 頭 tō, when speaking of larger animals such as horses. This yields a range of possible counters, with differing degrees of usage and acceptability – for example, when ordering kushikatsu (fried skewers), one may order them as 二串 futa-kushi (two skewers), 二本 ni-hon (two sticks), or 二つ futa-tsu (two items), in decreasing order of precision.
Counters may be intentionally misused for humorous, stupid, or insulting effects. For example, one might say 男一匹 Otoko ippiki ("I am a man [like an animal]..."). Using 匹 hiki, the counter for animals.
Table of traditional numerals[edit]
Numeral
Japanese
Pronunciation (romaji)
Writing (hiragana)
1 一つ hitotsu ひとつ
2 二つ futatsu ふたつ
3 三つ mittsu みっつ
4 四つ yottsu よっつ
5 五つ itsutsu いつつ
6 六つ muttsu むっつ
7 七つ nanatsu ななつ
8 八つ yattsu やっつ
9 九つ kokonotsu ここのつ
10 十 tō とお
Common counters by category[edit]
This is a selective list of some of the more commonly used counting words.
Pronunciation
Japanese
Use
People and Things
ぶ bu 部 Copies of a magazine or newspaper, or other packets of papers
だい dai 台 Cars, bicycles, machines, mechanical devices, household appliances
はい hai, ぱい pai, ばい bai 杯 Cups and glasses of drink, spoonsful; cuttlefish, octopuses, crabs, squid, abalone, boats (slang)
ひき hiki, ぴき piki, びき biki 匹 Small animals, insects, fish, reptiles, amphibians, oni (demons/ogres)
ほん hon, ぽん pon, ぼん bon 本 frequently used word Long, thin objects: rivers, roads, train tracks, ties, pencils, bottles, guitars; also, metaphorically, telephone calls, train or bus routes, movies (see also: tsūwa), points or bounds in sports events. Although 本 also means "book", the counter for books is satsu.
かい kai, がい gai 階 Number of floors, stories
こ ko 個, 箇, 个, or ヶ frequently used word Implies that the item is small and/or round.[1] 個 is also used for military units.
まい mai 枚 frequently used word Thin, flat objects: sheets of paper, photographs, plates, articles of clothing (see also: chaku)
めい mei 名 People (polite) (名 means "name")
めん men 面 Mirrors, boards for board games (chess, igo, shogi), stages of computer games, walls of a room, tennis courts
にん nin 人 People (but see table of exceptions below)
り ri り or 人 People, used in the words 一人 (ひとり) and 二人 (ふたり)
さつ satsu 冊 Books
つ tsu つ General-purpose counter, used as part of the indigenous Japanese numbers 一つ ("one thing"), 二つ ("two things"), 三つ ("three things"), etc.
わ wa 話 Stories, episodes of TV series, etc.
Time, Calendar, etc.
びょう byō 秒 Seconds
ふん fun, ぷん pun 分 Minutes
がつ gatsu, also つき tsuki 月 Months of the year. Month-long periods when read tsuki (see also: kagetsu)
はく haku, ぱく paku 泊 Nights of a stay
じ ji 時 Hours of the day
じかん jikan 時間 Hour-long periods
か ka 日 Day of the month
かげつ kagetsu ヶ月, 箇月 Month-long periods (see also: gatsu). 箇 is normally abbreviated using a small katakana ヶ in modern Japanese. Alternatively 個, hiragana か, small katakana ヵ and full-size katakana カ & ケ can also be seen, although only か is similarly frequent.
ねん nen 年 Years, school years (grades); not years of age
にち nichi 日 Days of the month (but see table of exceptions below)
さい sai 歳 (or 才) Years of age (才 is used informally as a shorthand)
しゅう shū 週 Weeks
Extent, Frequency, etc.
ばい bai 倍 Multiples, -fold as in "twofold"
ばん ban 番 Position, turn, sports matches
ど do, also たび tabi 度 Occurrences, number of times, degrees of temperature or angle (see also: kai).
じょう jō 畳 Tatami mats. The kanji 畳 is also read tatami and is the same one used for the mats. The room size of a washitsu in Japan is given as a number of mats, for example 4½ jō
かい kai 回 frequently used word Occurrences, number of times (see also: do)
Extended list of counters[edit]
This list also includes some counters and usages that are rarely used or not widely known; other words can also be used as counters more sporadically.
Pronunciation
Japanese
Use
ば ba 場 Scene of a play
ばい bai 倍 Multiples, -fold as in "twofold"
ばん ban 晩 Nights (see also: ya)
ばん ban 番 Position, platform for a train line, turn, sports matches
び bi 尾 Small fish and shrimps (used in the fish trade; most people say hiki instead)
ぶ bu 部 Copies of a magazine or newspaper, or other packets of papers
ぶん bun 文 Sentences
びょう byō 秒 Seconds
ちゃく chaku 着 Suits of clothing (see also: mai)
ちょう chō 挺 Guns, sticks of ink, palanquins, rickshaws, violins
ちょう chō 丁 Tools, scissors, saws, trousers, pistols, cakes of tofu, town blocks, servings at a restaurant
ちょう chō 町 Town blocks
だい dai 代 Generations, historical periods, reigns
だい dai 台 Cars, bicycles, machines, mechanical devices, household appliances
だん dan 段 levels, ranks, steps (of stairs).
だんらく danraku 段落 Paragraphs
ど do, also たび tabi 度 Occurrences, number of times, degrees of temperature or angle (see also: kai).
ふで fude 筆 Sequences of letters or drawings that you write or draw without removing your pen off the paper. Not to be confused with "hitsu" (筆) below.
ふく fuku, ぷく puku 服 Bowls of matcha (powdered green tea); packets or doses of powdered medicine; puffs (of, e.g., a cigarette); rests or breaks
ふく fuku, ぷく puku 幅 Hanging scrolls (kakejiku)
ふん fun, ぷん pun 分 Minutes
ふり furi 振 Swords
がっきゅう gakkyū 学級 Classes (in pre-university education)
がつ gatsu, also つき tsuki 月 Months of the year. Month-long periods when read tsuki (see also: kagetsu)
ご go 語 Words
ごう gō 合 small container (e.g. rice cup, sake cup)
ごん gon, also こと koto 言 Words
ぐ gu 具 Suits of armour, sets of furniture
ぎょう gyō 行 Lines of text
はく haku 泊 Nights of a stay
はい hai, ぱい pai, ばい bai 杯 Cups and glasses of drink, spoonfuls, cuttlefish, octopuses, crabs, squid, abalone, boats (slang)
はい hai 敗 Losses (sports bouts)
はこ hako 箱 Boxes
はり hari 張 Umbrellas, parasols, tents
はしら hashira 柱 gods, memorial tablets
はつ hatsu, ぱつ patsu 発 Gunshots, bullets, aerial fireworks; orgasms, sex acts
ひき hiki, ぴき piki 匹 Small animals, insects, fish, reptiles, amphibians, oni (ogres)
ひん hin, ぴん pin 品 Parts of a meal, courses (see also: shina)
ひつ hitsu, ぴつ pitsu 筆 pieces of land and number of people
ほ ho, ぽ po 歩 Number of (foot)steps
ほん hon, ぽん pon, ぼん bon 本 Long, thin objects: rivers, roads, train tracks, ties, pencils, bottles, guitars; also, metaphorically, telephone calls (see also: tsūwa), train or bus routes, movies, home runs, points or bounds[clarification needed] in sports events. Although 本 also means "book", the counter for books is satsu.
ひょう hyō, ぴょう pyō 票 Votes
ひょうし hyōshi, びょうし byōshi 拍子 Musical beats
じ ji 字 Letters, kanji, kana
じ ji 児 Children. As in "father of two (children)", etc.
じ ji 時 Hours of the day
じかん jikan 時間 Hour-long periods
じょう jō 畳 Tatami mats. The kanji 畳 is also read tatami and is the same one used for the mats. The room size of a washitsu in Japan is given as a number of mats, for example 4½ yo jō han
じょう jō 錠 Pills/capsules
じょう jō 条 Articles of law, thin objects, rays or streams of light, streaks of smoke or lightning
か ka 日 Day of the month
か ka 架 Frames
か ka 課 Lessons
かぶ kabu 株 Stocks; nursery trees
かげつ kagetsu ヶ月, 箇月 Month-long periods (see also: gatsu). 箇 is normally abbreviated using a small katakana ヶ in modern Japanese. Alternatively 個, hiragana か, small katakana ヵ and full-size katakana カ & ケ can also be seen, although only か is similarly frequent.
かい kai 回 Occurrences, number of times (see also: do)
かい kai, がい gai 階 Number of floors, storeys
かこく kakoku ヶ国, 箇国 Countries
かこくご kakokugo ヶ国語, 箇国語 (National) languages
かく kaku 画 Strokes in kanji
かん kan 貫 Pieces of nigiri-zushi
かん kan 艦 Warships
けいとう keitou 系統 Bus routes
けん ken 件 Abstract matters and cases
けん ken, げん gen 軒 Houses
き ki 機 Aircraft, machines
き ki 基 Graves, wreaths, CPUs, reactors, elevators, dams
きん kin 斤 Loaves of bread
きれ kire 切れ Slices (of bread, cake, sashimi etc.)
こ ko 個, 箇, 个, or ヶ General measure word, used when there is no specific counter. 個 is also used for military units.
こ ko 戸 Houses (戸 means "door")
こう kō 校 Schools
こう kō 稿 Drafts of a manuscript
こう kō 行 Banks
こま koma 齣, コマ Frames, panels. 齣 is virtually unused nowadays.
こん kon 献 shots (of drink)
く ku 区 Sections, city districts
く ku 句 Haiku, senryū
くち kuchi 口 (Bank) accounts, donations (口 means "opening" or "entrance")
くみ kumi 組 Groups, a pair of people (twins, a husband and a wife, dancers, etc.)
くらす kurasu クラス School classes
きゃく kyaku 脚 Desks, chairs, long-stemmed glasses
きゃく kyaku 客 Pairs of cup and saucer
きょく kyoku 曲 Pieces of music
きょく kyoku 局 Board game matches (chess, igo, shogi, mahjong); radio stations, television stations
まい mai 枚 Thin, flat objects, sheets of paper, photographs, plates, articles of clothing (see also: chaku)
まき maki or かん kan 巻 Rolls, scrolls, kan for volumes of book
まく maku 幕 Theatrical acts
めい mei 名 People (polite) (名 means "name")
めん men 面 Mirrors, boards for board games (chess, igo, shogi), stages of computer games, walls of a room, tennis courts
もん mon 門 Cannons
もん mon 問 Questions
ねん nen 年 Years, school years (grades); not years of age
にち nichi 日 Days of the month (but see table of exceptions below)
にん nin 人 People (but see table of exceptions below)
にんまえ ninmae 人前 Food portions (without exceptions, unlike nin above)
おり ori 折 Boxes made of folded paper (compare to hako above, which refers to boxes in general)
ぺーじ pēji ページ, 頁 Pages
れい rei 例 Cases, examples
れい rei 礼 Bows during worship at a shrine
り ri り or 人 People, used in the words 一人 (ひとり) and 二人 (ふたり).
りん rin 輪 Wheels, flowers
りょう ryō 両 Railway cars
さい sai 才 or 歳 Years of age
さお sao 棹 Chests of drawers, flags
さつ satsu 冊 Books
せき seki 席 Seats, rakugo shows, (drinking) parties
せき seki 隻 Ships, half of a pair (e.g., half of a folding screen), item carried in a bundle (fish, birds, arrows etc.)
しな shina 品 Parts of a meal, courses (see also: hin)
しゃ sha 社 used for businesses, i.e. 会社
しき shiki 式 Sets of things, such as documents or furniture
しょう shō 勝 Wins (sports bouts)
しゅ shu 首 Tanka
しゅう shū 週 Weeks
しゅるい shurui or しゅ shu 種類 or 種 Kinds, species
そく soku 足 Pairs of footwear, pairs of socks, stockings, tabi
そう sou 双 Pairs
たば taba 束 bundles (of banknotes), bunches (of flowers, vegetables), sheaves
たい tai 体 Images, statues, person's remains, dolls, androids, humanoid robots
たわら tawara 俵 Bags of rice
てき teki 滴 Drops of liquid
てん ten 点 Points, dots, pieces of a set
とう tō 頭 Large animals, cattle, elephants, whales, dolphins, butterflies (頭 means "head")
とき toki 時 Time periods, a sixth of either day or night (in the traditional, obsolete way of telling time). See also: jikan
とおり tōri 通り Combinations, puzzle solutions
つ tsu つ Used as part of the indigenous Japanese numbers 一つ, 二つ, 三つ etc.
つう tsū 通 Letters
つぼ tsubo 坪 Commonly used unit of area equal to 3.3 square metres.
つぶ tsubu 粒 Almonds, grain
つうわ tsūwa 通話 Telephone calls (see also: hon)
わ wa, ば ba, ぱ pa 羽 Birds, rabbits. 羽 means "feather" or "wing."
わ wa 把 Bundles
わ wa 話 Stories, episodes of TV series, etc.
や ya 夜 Nights (see also: ban)
ぜん zen 膳 Pairs of chopsticks; bowls of rice
Euphonic changes[edit]
Systematic changes occur when particular numbers precede counters that begin with certain phonemes. For example, 一 ichi + 回 kai → 一回 ikkai, 六 roku + 匹 hiki → 六匹 roppiki. The details are listed in the table below.
These changes are followed fairly consistently but exceptions and variations between speakers do exist. Where variations are common, more than one alternative is listed.
Jū is replaced by either ju- or ji- (じゅっ/じっ) followed by a doubled consonant before the voiceless consonants as shown in the table. Ji- is the older form, but it has been replaced by ju- in the speech of recent generations.
Numeral
k- (か きゃ etc.)
s/sh- (さ しゃ etc.)
t/ch- (た ちゃ etc.)
h- (は ひ へ ほ ひゃ ひゅ ひょ)
f- (ふ)
p- (ぱ etc.)
w- (わ)
1 ichi ikk- いっか iss- いっさ itt- いった ipp- いっぱ ipp- いっぷ ipp- いっぱ
3 san sanb- さんば sanp- さんぷ sanb- さんば
4 yon yonh- よんは
yonp- よんぱ
yonf- よんふ
yonp- よんぷ
yow- よわ
yonw- よんわ yonb- よんば
6 roku rokk- ろっか ropp- ろっぱ ropp- ろっぷ ropp- ろっぱ rokuw- ろくわ
ropp- ろっぱ
8 hachi hakk- はっか hass- はっさ hatt- はった happ- はっぱ happ- はっぷ happ- はっぱ happ- はっぱ
hachiw- はちわ
10 jū jikk- じっか
jukk- じゅっか
jiss- じっさ
juss- じゅっさ
jitt- じった
jutt- じゅった
jipp- じっぱ
jupp- じゅっぱ
jipp- じっぷ
jupp- じゅっぷ
jipp- じっぱ
jupp- じゅっぱ
jipp- じっぱ
100 hyaku hyakk- ひゃっか hyapp- ひゃっぱ hyapp- ひゃっぷ hyapp- ひゃっぱ
1000 sen senb- せんば senp- せんぷ
10000 man manb- まんば manp- まんぷ
何 nan nanb- なんば nanp- なんぷ
Exceptions[edit]
The traditional numbers are used by and for young children to give their ages, instead of using the age counter 歳 (or 才) sai.
Some counters, notably 日 nichi and 人 nin, use the traditional numerals for some numbers as shown in the table below. Other uses of traditional numbers are usually restricted to certain phrases, such as 一月 hitotsuki and 二月 futatsuki (one and two months respectively), 一言 hitokoto (a single word) and 一度 hitotabi (once).
Sometimes common numbers that have a derived meaning are written using different kanji. For example, hitori (alone) is written 独り, and futatabi (once more, another time) is normally written 再び instead of 二度. The counter for months kagetsu (derived from kanji 箇月) is commonly written ヶ月.
Nana and shichi are alternatives for 7, yon and shi are alternatives for 4, and kyū and ku are alternatives for 9. In those three pairs of options, nana, yon and kyū respectively are more commonly used. Some counters, however, notably 人 nin (people), 月 gatsu (month of the year), 日 ka/nichi (day of the month, days), 時 ji (time of day) and 時間 jikan (hours) take certain alternatives only. These are shown in the table below.
While 回 kai (occurrences) and 銭 sen (0.01 yen, now rarely used) follow the euphonic changes listed above, homophones 階 kai (stories/floors of a building) and 千 sen (1000) are slightly different as shown below, although these differences are not followed by all speakers. Thus 三階 ("third floor") can be read either sankai or sangai, while 三回 ("three times") can only be read sankai.
Numeral
日 nichi
人 nin
月 gatsu
時 ji
時間 jikan
階 kai
百 hyaku
千 sen
歳 sai
1 tsuitachi* hitori ikkai issai
2 futsuka futari
3 mikka sangai sanbyaku sanzen
4 yokka yonin*** shigatsu yoji yojikan
5 itsuka
6 muika rokkai roppyaku
7 nanoka shichinin shichigatsu shichiji shichijikan
8 yōka hakkai happyaku hassen hassai
9 kokonoka kugatsu kuji kujikan
10 tōka jukkai jussai
14 jūyokka jūyonin jūyoji jūyojikan
20 hatsuka hatachi
24 nijūyokka nijūyonin nijūyojikan
何 nan ** nangai nanbyaku nanzen
* But when counting number of days rather than days of the month, ichinichi is used. Ippi is also heard.
** Both 幾人 ikunin and 何人 nannin are used to mean "how many people".
*** In remote rural areas (e.g. Northern Honshu and Eastern Hokkaido) older speakers might use yottari.[2]
Ordinal numbers[edit]
In general, the counter words mentioned above are cardinal numbers, in that they indicate quantity. To transform a counter word into an ordinal number that denotes position in a sequence, 目 me is added to the end of the counter. Thus "one time" would be translated as 一回 ikkai, whereas "the first time" would be translated as 一回目 ikkaime. This rule is inconsistent, however, as counters without the me suffix are often used interchangeably with cardinal and ordinal meanings. For example, 三階 sangai can mean both "three floors" and "third floor."
Periods of time[edit]
To express a period of time one may add 間 kan to the following words: 秒 byō, 分 fun, 時 ji, 日 nichi (and its irregular readings aside from tsuitachi), 週 shū, ヶ月 kagetsu and 年 nen. Usage varies depending on the word, though. For example, omitting kan in the case of 時間 jikan would be a mistake, whereas shūkan and shū are both in frequent use. In addition, kagetsukan is rarely heard due to essentially being superfluous, the ka already functioning to express the length.
See also[edit]
Japanese numerals
Japanese units of measurement
Measure words
Chinese classifier
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.punipunijapan.com/japanese-counter-ko/
Jump up ^ "Language Contact and Lexical Innovation" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-02-14. Table 1. Native Counting in Japanese
External links[edit]
About.com - Counters
A list of numeral counters with ichi/hito set indicated.
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History of the steel industry (1850–1970)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the history of earlier processes, see History of ferrous metallurgy. For recent history, see History of the steel industry (1970–present).
The history of the modern steel industry began in the late 1850s, but since then, steel has been basic to the world's industrial economy. This article is intended only to address the business, economic and social dimensions of the industry, since the bulk production of steel began as a result of Henry Bessemer's development of the Bessemer converter in 1857. Previously steel was very expensive to produce and only used in small expensive items such as knives, swords and armour.
Contents
[hide]
1 Technology
2 Britain
2.1 19th century
2.2 20th century
3 Australia
4 Germany
5 France
6 Italy
7 United States
7.1 Carnegie
7.2 US Steel
7.3 Bethlehem Steel
7.4 Republic Steel
7.5 Unions
7.6 Apogee and decline
7.7 Legacy
8 Asia
8.1 Japan
8.2 India
8.3 China
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
11.1 Britain
11.2 United States
11.2.1 U.S. Labor
11.3 Primary sources
Technology[edit]
Steel is an alloy composed of between 0.2% and 2.0% carbon, and the balance of iron. From prehistory through the creation of the blast furnace, iron was produced from iron ore as wrought iron, 99.82% - 100% Fe, and the process of making steel involved adding carbon to the iron, usually via serendipity in the forge or via the cementation process. The introduction of the blast furnace reversed the problem. A blast furnace produces pig iron, which is an alloy of approximately 90% iron and 10% carbon. If the process of steelmaking begins with pig iron instead of wrought iron, the challenge is to remove a sufficient amount of carbon to get it to the 0.2 to 2 percent for steel.
Before about 1860 steel was an expensive product, made in small quantities and used mostly for swords, tools and cutlery; all large metal structures were made of wrought or cast iron. Steelmaking was centered in Sheffield, Britain, which supplied the European and the American markets. The introduction of cheap steel was due to the Bessemer and the open hearth processes, two technological advances made in England. In the Bessemer process, molten pig iron is converted to steel by blowing air through it after it was removed from the furnace. The air blast burned the carbon and silicon out of the pig iron, releasing heat and causing the temperature of the molten metal to rise. Henry Bessemer demonstrated the process in 1856 and had a successful operation going by 1864. By 1870 Bessemer steel was widely used for ship plate. By the 1850s, the speed, weight, and quantity of railway traffic was limited by the strength of the wrought iron rails in use. The solution was to turn to steel rails, which the Bessemer process made competitive in price. Experience quickly proved steel had much greater strength and durability and could handle the increasingly heavy and faster engines and cars.[1]
After 1890 the Bessemer process was gradually supplanted by open-hearth steelmaking and by the middle of the 20th century was no longer in use.[2] The open-hearth process originated in the 1860s in Germany and France. The usual open-hearth process used pig iron, ore, and scrap, and became known as the Siemens-Martin process. Its process allowed closer control over the composition of the steel; also, a substantial quantity of scrap could be included in the charge. The crucible process remained important for making high-quality alloy steel into the 20th century.[3] By 1900 the electric arc furnace was adapted to steelmaking and by the 1920s, the falling cost of electricity allowed it to largely supplant the crucible process for specialty steels.[4]
Britain[edit]
19th century[edit]
Britain led the world's Industrial Revolution with its early commitment to coal mining, steam power, textile mills, machinery, railways, and shipbuilding. Britain's demand for iron and steel, combined with ample capital and energetic entrepreneurs, made it the world leader in the first half of the 19th century.
In 1875, Britain accounted for 47% of world production of pig iron and almost 40% of steel. 40% of British output was exported to the U.S., which was rapidly building its rail and industrial infrastructure. Two decades later in 1896, however, the British share of world production had plunged to 29% for pig iron and 22.5% for steel, and little was sent to the U.S. The U.S. was now the world leader and Germany was catching up to Britain. Britain had lost its American market, and was losing its role elsewhere; indeed American products were now underselling British steel in Britain.[5]
The growth of pig iron output was dramatic. Britain went from 1.3 million tons in 1840 to 6.7 million in 1870 and 10.4 in 1913. The US started from a lower base, but grew faster; from 0.3 million tons in 1840, to 1.7 million in 1870, and 31.5 million in 1913. Germany went from 0.2 million tons in 1859 to 1.6 in 1871 and 19.3 in 1913. France, Belgium, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, combined, went from 2.2 million tons in 1870 to 14.1 million tons in 1913, on the eve of the World War. During the war the demand for artillery shells and other supplies caused a spurt in output and a diversion to military uses.
20th century[edit]
Abé (1996) explores the record of iron and steel firms in Victorian England by analyzing Bolckow Vaughan & Company. It was wedded for too long to obsolescent technology and was a very late adopter of the open hearth furnace method. Abé concludes that the firm—and the British steel industry—suffered from a failure of entrepreneurship and planning.[6]
Blair (1997) explores the history of the British Steel industry since the Second World War to evaluate the impact of government intervention in a market economy. Entrepreneurship was lacking in the 1940s; the government could not persuade the industry to upgrade its plants. For generations the industry had followed a patchwork growth pattern which proved inefficient in the face of world competition. In 1946 the first steel development plan was put into practice with the aim of increasing capacity; the "Iron and Steel Act of 1949" meant nationalization of the industry. However, the reforms were dismantled by the Conservative governments in the 1950s. In 1967, under Labour Party control again, the industry was again nationalized. But by then twenty years of political manipulation had left companies such as British Steel with serious problems: a complacency with existing equipment, plants operating under capacity (low efficiency), poor quality assets, outdated technology, government price controls, higher coal and oil costs, lack of funds for capital improvement, and increasing world market competition. By the 1970s the Labour government had its main goal to keep employment high in the declining industry. Since British Steel was a main employer in depressed regions, it had kept many mills and facilities that were operating at a loss. In the 1980s, Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher re-privatized BSC as British Steel.
Australia[edit]
In Australia, the Minister for Public Works, Arthur Hill Griffith, had consistently advocated for the greater industrialization of Newcastle, then, under William Holman, personally negotiated the establishment of a steelworks with G. D. Delprat of the Broken Hill Proprietary Co. Ltd. Griffith was also the architect of the Walsh Island establishment.[7][8]
In 1915, Broken Hill Proprietary Company ventured into steel manufacturing with its operation in Newcastle, which was closed in 1999.[9] The 'long products' side of the steel business was spun off to form OneSteel in 2000.[10] BHP's decision to move from mining ore to open a steelworks at Newcastle was precipitated by the technical limitations in recovering value from mining the 'lower-lying sulphide ores'.[11] The discovery of Iron Knob and Iron Monarch near the western shore of the Spencer Gulf in South Australia combined with the development by the BHP metallurgist, A. D. Carmichael, of a technique for 'separating zinc sulphides from the accompanying earth and rock' led BHP 'to implement the startlingly simple and cheap process for liberating vast amounts of valuable metals out of sulphide ores, including huge heaps of tailings and slimes up to' 40 ft (12 m) high.[12]
Germany[edit]
The Ruhr Valley provided an excellent location for the German iron and steel industry because of the availability of raw materials, coal, transport, a skilled labor force, nearby markets, and an entrepreneurial spirit that led to the creation of many firms, often in close conjunction with coal mines. By 1850 the Ruhr had 50 iron works with 2,813 full-time employees. The first modern furnace was built in 1849. The creation of the German Empire in 1870 gave further impetus to rapid growth, as Germany started to catch up with Britain. From 1880 to World War I, the industry of the Ruhr area consisted of numerous enterprises, each working on a separate level of production. Mixed enterprises could unite all levels of production through vertical integration, thus lowering production costs. Technological progress brought new advantages as well. These developments set the stage for the creation of combined business concerns.[13]
The leading firm was Friedrich Krupp AG run by the Krupp family.[14][15] Many diverse, large-scale family firms such as Krupp's reorganized in order to adapt to the changing conditions and meet the economic depression of the 1870s, which reduced the earnings in the German iron and steel industry. Krupp reformed his accounting system to better manage his growing empire, adding a specialized bureau of calculation as well as a bureau for the control of times and wages. The rival firm GHH quickly followed,[16] as did Thyssen AG, which had been founded by August Thyssen in 1867. Germany became Europe's leading steel-producing nation in the late 19th century, thanks in large part to the protection from American and British competition afforded by tariffs and cartels.[17]
By 1913 American and German exports dominated the world steel market, and Britain slipped to third place.[18] German steel production grew explosively from 1 million metric tons in 1885 to 10 million in 1905 and peaked at 19 million in 1918. In the 1920s Germany produced about 15 million tons, but output plunged to 6 million in 1933. Under the Nazis, steel output peaked at 22 million tons in 1940, then dipped to 18 million in 1944 under Allied bombing.[19] The merger of four major firms into the German Steel Trust (Vereinigte Stahlwerke) in 1926 was modeled on the U.S. Steel corporation in the U.S. The goal was to move beyond the limitations of the old cartel system by incorporating advances simultaneously inside a single corporation. The new company emphasized rationalization of management structures and modernization of the technology; it employed a multi-divisional structure and used return on investment as its measure of success.[20] It represented the "Americanization" of the German steel industry because its internal structure, management methods, use of technology, and emphasis on mass production. The chief difference was that consumer capitalism as an industrial strategy did not seem plausible to German steel industrialists.[21]
In iron and steel and other industries, German firms avoided cut-throat competition and instead relied on trade associations. Germany was a world leader because of its prevailing "corporatist mentality", its strong bureaucratic tradition, and the encouragement of the government. These associations regulated competition and allowed small firms to function in the shadow of much larger companies.[22]
With the need to rebuild the bombed-out infrastructure after the Second World War, Marshall Plan (1948–51) enabled West Germany to rebuild and modernize its mills. It produced 3 million of steel in 1947, 12 million in 1950, 34 million in 1960 and 46 million in 1970. East Germany produced about a 10th as much.[23]
France[edit]
The French iron industry lagged behind the United Kingdom and Belgium in the early 19th century, and after 1850 also lagged behind Germany and Luxembourg. Its industry comprised too many small, inefficient firms.[24] 20th century growth was not robust, due more to traditional social and economic attitudes than to inherent geographic, population, or resource factors. Despite a high national income level, the French steel industry remained laggard.[25] The industry was based on large supplies of coal and iron ore, and was dispersed across the country. The greatest output came in 1929, at 10.4 million metric tons.[26] The industry suffered sharply during the Great Depression and the World War II. Prosperity returned by mid-1950s, but profits came largely from strong domestic demand rather than competitive capacity. Late modernization delayed the development of powerful unions and collective bargaining.[27]
Italy[edit]
Stassano furnace exhibited at the Museo della Scienza e della Tecnologia "Leonardo da Vinci", Milan
In Italy a shortage of coal led the steel industry to specialize in the use of hydro-electrical energy, exploiting ideas pioneered by Ernesto Stassano from 1898 (Stassano furnace). Despite periods of innovation (1907–14), growth (1915–18), and consolidation (1918–22), early expectations were only partly realized. Steel output in the 1920s and 1930s averaged about 2.1 million metric tons. Per capita consumption was much lower than the average of Western Europe.[28] Electrical processes were an important substitute, yet did not improve competitiveness or reduce prices. Instead, they reinforced the dualism of the sector and initiated a vicious circle that prevented market expansion.[29] Italy modernized its industry in the 1950s and 1960s and it grew rapidly, becoming second only to West Germany in the 1970s. Strong labour unions kept employment levels high. Troubles multiplied after 1980, however, as foreign competition became stiffer. In 1980 the largest producer Nuova Italsider lost 746 billion lira in its inefficient operations.[30]
United States[edit]
Bethlehem Steel in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania was the #2 American producer but after 1970 ignored new technology and imports; it went bankrupt in 2001.
From 1875 to 1920 American steel production grew from 380,000 tons to 60 million tons annually, making the U.S. the world leader. The annual growth rates in steel 1870–1913 were 7.0% for the US; 1.0% for Britain; 6.0% for Germany; and 4.3% for France, Belgium and Russia, the other major producers.[31] This explosive American growth rested on solid technological foundations, assisted by the protective tariff and the continuous rapid expansion of urban infrastructures, office buildings, factories, railroads, bridges and other sectors that increasingly demanded steel. The use of steel in automobiles and household appliances came in the 20th century.
Some key elements in the growth of steel production included the easy availability of iron ore, coal, and underpaid labor. Iron ore of fair quality was abundant in the eastern states, but the Lake Superior region contained huge deposits of exceedingly rich ore; the Marquette Iron Range was discovered in 1844; operations began in 1846. Other ranges were opened by 1910, including the Menominee, Gogebic, Vermilion, Cuyuna, and, greatest of all, (in 1892) the Mesabi range in Minnesota. This iron ore was shipped through the Lakes to ports such as Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Erie and Buffalo for shipment by rail to the steel mills.[32] Abundant coal was available in Pennsylvania and Ohio. Manpower was short. Few native Americans wanted to work in the mills, but immigrants from Britain and Germany (and later from Eastern Europe) arrived in great numbers.[33] A range of industries came to be dependent on convict leasing for cheap, dependable labor.[34]
"[I]n Alabama, industrialization was generating a ravenous appetite for the state’s coal and iron ore. Production was booming, and unions were attempting to organize free miners. Convicts provided an ideal captive work force: cheap, usually docile, unable to organize and available when free laborers went on strike."[35]
The Southern agrarian economy did not accommodate convict leasing as well as the industrial economy did, whose jobs were often unappealing or dangerous, offering hard-labor and low pay. The competition, expansion, and growth of mining and steel companies also created a high demand for labor, but union labor posed a threat to expanding companies. As unions bargained for higher wages and better conditions, often organizing strikes in order to achieve their goals, the growing companies would be forced to agree to union demands or face abrupt halts in production. The rate companies paid for convict leases, which paid the laborer nothing, was regulated by government and state officials who entered the labor contracts with companies. "The companies built their own prisons, fed and clothed the convicts, and supplied guards as they saw fit." (Blackmon 2001)[35] Alabama's use of convict leasing was commanding; 51 of its 67 counties regularly leased convicts serving for misdemeanors at a rate of about $5-20 per month, equal to about $160-500 in 2015.[36] Although the influence of labor unions forced some states to move away from the profitable convict lease agreements and run traditional prisons, plenty of companies began substituting convict labor in their operations in the twentieth century. "The biggest user of forced labor in Alabama at the turn of the century was Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co., [of] U.S. Steel"[35]
In 1869 iron was already a major industry, accounting for 6.6% of manufacturing employment and 7.8% of manufacturing output. By then the central figure was Andrew Carnegie,[37] who made Pittsburgh the center of the industry.[38] He sold his operations to US Steel in 1901, which became the world's largest steel corporation for decades.
In the 1880s, the transition from wrought iron puddling to mass-produced Bessemer steel greatly increased worker productivity. Highly skilled workers remained essential, but the average level of skill declined. Nevertheless, steelworkers earned much more than ironworkers despite their fewer skills. Workers in an integrated, synchronized mass production environment wielded greater strategic power, for the greater cost of mistakes bolstered workers' status. The experience demonstrated that the new technology did not decrease worker bargaining leverage by creating an interchangeable, unskilled workforce.[39]
Carnegie[edit]
Main article: Andrew Carnegie
Carnegie's great innovation was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel rails for railroad lines. This could not have happened without the prior invention of Bessemer Steel. Thus Carnegie's "innovation" was scale, not anything technical.
Eads Bridge across the Mississippi River, opened in 1874 using Carnegie steel
In the late 1880s, The Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of pig iron, steel rails, and coke in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of pig iron per day. In 1888, he bought the rival Homestead Steel Works, which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a 425-mile (685 km) long railway, and a line of lake steamships. A consolidation of Carnegie's assets and those of his associates occurred in 1892 with the launching of the Carnegie Steel Company.
By 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of Britain, and Andrew Carnegie owned a large part of it. By 1900, the profits of Carnegie Bros. & Company alone stood at $480,000,000 with $225,000,000 being Carnegie's share. Carnegie's empire grew to include the J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works (named for John Edgar Thomson, Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad), Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the Lucy Furnaces, the Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker & County), the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines. Carnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark Eads Bridge project across the Mississippi River in St. Louis, Missouri (completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology which marked the opening of a new steel market.
The Homestead Strike was a violent labor dispute in 1892 that ended in a battle between strikers and private security guards. The dispute took place at Carnegie's Homestead Steel Works between the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers and the Carnegie Steel Company. The final result was a major defeat for the union and a setback for efforts to unionize steelworkers.[40]
Carnegie sold all his steel holdings in 1901; they were merged into U.S. Steel and it was non-union until the late 1930s.
US Steel[edit]
Main article: US Steel
By 1900 the US was the largest producer and also the lowest cost producer, and demand for steel seemed inexhaustible. Output had tripled since 1890, but customers, not producers, mostly benefitted. Productivity-enhancing technology encouraged faster and faster rates of investment in new plants. However, during recessions, demand fell sharply taking down output, prices, and profits. Charles M. Schwab of Carnegie Steel proposed a solution: consolidation. Financier J. P. Morgan arranged the buyout of Carnegie and most other major forms, and put Elbert Gary in charge.
US Steel combined finishing firms (American Tin Plate (controlled by William Henry "Judge" Moore), American Steel and Wire, and National Tube) with two major integrated companies, Carnegie Steel and Federal Steel. It was capitalized at $1.466 billion, and included 213 manufacturing mills, one thousand miles of railroad, and 41 mines. In 1901, it accounted for 66% of America's steel output, and almost 30% of the world's. During World War I, its annual production exceeded the combined output of all German and Austrian firms.
The Steel Strike of 1919 disrupted the entire industry for months, but the union lost and its membership sharply declined.[41] Rapid growth of cities made the 1920s boom years. President Harding and social reformers forced it to end the 12-hour day in 1923.[42]
Earnings were recorded at $2.650 billion for 2016[43].
Bethlehem Steel[edit]
Bethlehem steel works in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1881
Main article: Bethlehem Steel
Charles M. Schwab (1862–1939) and Eugene Grace (1876–1960) made Bethlehem Steel the second-largest American steel company by the 1920s. Schwab had been the operating head of Carnegie Steel and US Steel. In 1903 he purchased the small firm Bethlehem Steel, and in 1916 made Grace president. Innovation was the keynote at a time when U.S. Steel under Judge Gary moved slowly. Bethlehem concentrated on government contracts, such as ships and naval armor, and on construction beams, especially for skyscrapers and bridges.[44] Its subsidiary Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation operated 15 shipyards in World War II. It produced 1,121 ships, more than any other builder during the war and nearly one-fifth of the U.S. Navy's fleet. Its peak employment was 180,000 workers, out of a company-wide wartime peak of 300,000. After 1945 Bethlehem doubled its steel capacity, a measure of the widespread optimism in the industry. However the company ignored the new technologies then being developed in Europe and Japan. Seeking labor peace in order to avoid strikes, Bethlehem like the other majors agreed to large wage and benefits increases that kept its costs high. After Grace retired the inbred executives concentrated on short term profits and postponed innovations that led to long-term inefficiency. It went bankrupt in 2001.[45]
Republic Steel[edit]
Cyrus Eaton (1883–1979) in 1925 purchased the small Trumbull Steel Company of Warren, Ohio, for $18 million. In the late 1920s he purchased undervalued steel and rubber companies. In 1930, Eaton consolidated his steel holdings into the Republic Steel, based in Cleveland; it became the third-largest steel producer in the U.S., after US Steel and Bethlehem Steel.[46]
Unions[edit]
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) tried and failed to organize the steelworkers in 1919. Although the strike gained widespread middle-class support because of its demand and the 12-hour day, the strike failed and unionization was postponed until the late 1930s. The Mills ended the 12-hour day in the early 1920s.[47]
The second surge of unionization came under the auspices of the militant CIO in the late 1930s, when it set up the Steel Workers Organizing Committee. The SWOC focused almost exclusively on the achievement of a signed contract, with "Little Steel" (the major producers except for US Steel). At the grassroots however, women of the steel auxiliaries, workers on the picket line, and middle-class liberals from across Chicago sought to transform the strike into something larger than a showdown over union recognition.In Chicago, the Little Steel Strike raised the possibility that steelworkers might embrace the ‘civic unionism’ that animated the left-led unions of the era. The effort failed, and while the strike was won, the resulting powerful United Steelworkers of America union suppressed grassroots opinions.[48]
Apogee and decline[edit]
Integration was the watchword as the various processes were brought together by large corporations, from mining the iron ore to shipping the finished product to wholesalers. The typical steelworks was a giant operation, including blast furnaces, Bessemer converters, open-hearth furnaces, rolling mills, coke ovens and foundries, as well as supported transportation facilities. The largest ones were operated in the region from Chicago to St. Louis to Baltimore, Philadelphia and Buffalo. Smaller operations appeared in Birmingham, Alabama, and in California.[49]
The industry grew slowly but other industries grew even faster, so that by 1967, as the downward spiral began, steel accounted for 4.4% of manufacturing employment and 4.9% of manufacturing output. After 1970 American steel producers could no longer compete effectively with low-wage producers elsewhere. Imports and local mini-mills undercut sales.
Per-capita steel consumption in the U.S. peaked in 1977, then fell by half before staging a modest recovery to levels well below the peak.[50]
Most mills were closed. Bethlehem went bankrupt in 2001. In 1984, Republic merged with Jones and Laughlin Steel Company; the new firm went bankrupt in 2001. US Steel diversified into oil (Marathon Oil was spun off in 2001). Finally US Steel reemerged in 2002 with plants in three American locations (plus one in Europe) that employed fewer than one-tenth the 168,000 workers of 1902. By 2001 steel accounted for only 0.8% of manufacturing employment and 0.8% of manufacturing output.[51]
The world steel industry peaked in 2007. That year, ThyssenKrupp spent $12 billion to build the two most modern mills in the world, in Alabama and Brazil. The worldwide great recession starting in 2008, however, with its heavy cutbacks in construction, sharply lowered demand and prices fell 40%. ThyssenKrupp lost $11 billion on its two new plants, which sold steel below the cost of production. Finally in 2013, ThyssenKrupp offered the plants for sale at under $4 billion.[52]
Legacy[edit]
The President of the United States is authorized to declare each May "Steelmark Month" to recognize the contribution made by the steel industry to the United States.[53]
Asia[edit]
Japan[edit]
Yonekura shows the steel industry was central to the economic development of Japan. The nation's sudden transformation from feudal to modern society in the late nineteenth century, its heavy industrialization and imperialist war ventures in 1900–1945, and the post-World War II high-economic growth, all depended on iron and steel. The other great Japanese industries, such as shipbuilding, automobiles, and industrial machinery are closely linked to steel. From 1850 to 1970, the industry increased its crude steel production from virtually nothing to 93.3 million tons (the third largest in the world).[54]
The government's activist Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) played a major role in coordination. The transfer of technology from the West and the establishment of competitive firms involved far more than buying foreign hardware. MITI located steel mills and organized a domestic market; it sponsored Yawata Steel Company. Japanese engineers and entrepreneurs internally developed the necessary technological and organizational capabilities, planned the transfer and adoption of technology, and gauged demand and sources of raw materials and finances.[55]
India[edit]
Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) was established by Dorabji Tata in 1907, as part of his father's conglomerate. By 1939 it operated the largest steel plant in the British Empire. The company launched a major modernization and expansion program in 1951.[56]
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, a believer in socialism, decided that the technological revolution in India needed maximization of steel production. He, therefore, formed a government owned company, Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL) and set up three steel plants in the 1950s.[57]
The Indian steel industry began expanding into Europe in the 21st century. In January 2007 India's Tata Steel made a successful $11.3 billion offer to buy European steel maker Corus Group. In 2006 Mittal Steel (based in London but with Indian management) merged with Arcelor after a takeover bid for $34.3 billion to become the world's biggest steel maker, ArcelorMittal (based in Luxembourg City), with 10% of the world's output.[58]
China[edit]
Communist party dictator Mao Zedong disdained the cities and put his faith in the Chinese peasantry for a Great Leap Forward. Mao saw steel production as the key to overnight economic modernization, promising that within 15 years China's steel production would surpass that of Britain. In 1958 he decided that steel production would double within the year, using backyard steel furnaces run by inexperienced peasants. The plan was a fiasco, as the small amounts of steel produced were of very poor quality, and the diversion of resources out of agriculture produced a massive famine in 1959–61 that killed millions.[59]
With economic reforms brought in by Deng Xiaoping, who led China from 1978 to 1992, China began to develop a modern steel industry by building new steel plants and recycling scrap metal from the United States and Europe. As of 2013 China produced 779 million metric tons of steel each year, making it by far the largest steel producing country in the world. This is compared to 165 for the European Union, 110 for Japan, 87 for the United States and 81 for India.[60] China's 2013 steel production was equivalent to an average of 3.14 cubic meters of steel per second.[61]
See also[edit]
American Iron and Steel Institute
British Steel Corporation
Dominion Steel and Coal Corporation, in Canada
Steelmaking
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Jump up ^ ExplorePaHistory, s.v. Andrew Carnegie
Jump up ^ ExplorePaHistory.com, s.v. Steel City
Jump up ^ David Jardini, "From Iron to Steel: The Recasting of the Jones and Laughlins Workforce between 1885 and 1896," Technology & Culture (1995) 36#2 pp. 271–301
Jump up ^ Edward W. Bemis, "The Homestead Strike," The Journal of Political Economy, (1894) 2#3 pp. 369–96 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ David Brody, . Labor in crisis: The steel strike of 1919. (1965).
Jump up ^ David R. Roediger and Philip Sheldon Foner (1989). Our Own Time: A History of American Labor and the Working Day. Verso. p. 350.
Jump up ^ Daily, Investor's Business (2017-01-31). "U.S. Steel Eyes 2017 Earnings Surge After Solid Q4". Investor's Business Daily. Retrieved 2017-10-01.
Jump up ^ Robert Hessen, "The Transformation of Bethlehem Steel, 1904–1909," Business History Review (1972) 46#3 pp. 339–65 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Kenneth Warren, Bethlehem Steel: Builder and Arsenal of America (2008).
Jump up ^ Marcus Gleisser (2005). The World Of Cyrus Eaton. Kent State University Press. pp. 38–49.
Jump up ^ Colston E. Warne, ed., The Steel Strike of 1919 (1968) contains short excerpts from primary sources and scholarly studies.
Jump up ^ Michael Dennis, "Chicago and the Little Steel strike," Labor History (2012) 53#2 pp. 167–204
Jump up ^ W. S., Woytinsky and E. S. Woytinsky, World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks (1953) pp. 1098–143,
Jump up ^ Smil, Vaclav (2006). Transforming the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations and Their Consequences. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ John P. Hoerr, And the Wolf Finally Came: The Decline of the American Steel Industry (1988)
Jump up ^ John W. Miller and Ike Henning, "Thiessen gets offers for mills: Final bids for steel complexes in Alabama, Brazil will likely fall short of the company's hopes," Wall Street Journal March 1, 2013
Jump up ^ https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-81/pdf/STATUTE-81-Pg1097.pdf
Jump up ^ Seiichiro Yonekura, Japanese Iron & Steel Industry, 1850–1990: Continuity & Discontinuity (1994)
Jump up ^ Chalmers Johnson (1982). MITI and the japanese miracle: growth of industrial policy : 1925–1975. Stanford U.P. p. 87.
Jump up ^ Chikayoshi Nomura, "selling steel in the 1920s: TISCO in a period of transition," Indian Economic & Social History Review (2011) 48: 83–116, doi:10.1177/001946461004800104
Jump up ^ Sankar Ghose (1993). Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography. Allied Publishers. p. 550.
Jump up ^ Isobel Doole; Robin Lowe (2008). International Marketing Strategy: Analysis, Development and Implementation. Cengage Learning EMEA. p. 226.
Jump up ^ Wei Li and Dennis Tao Yang, "The Great Leap Forward: Anatomy of a Central Planning Disaster," Journal of Political Economy (2005) 113#4 pp. 840–77 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ World Steel Association. 23 January 2014. Retrieved 4 February 2014
Jump up ^ Wolfram Alpha
Bibliography[edit]
Ashton, T. S. Iron and Steel in the Industrial Revolution (2nd edn., 1951).
Bernal, John Desmond, Science and Industry in the Nineteenth Century, Indiana University Press, 1970.
D’Costa, Anthony P. The Global Restructuring of the Steel Industry: Innovations, Institutions, and Industrial Change London: Routledge, 1999 online version
Hasegawa, Harukiyu. The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain 1996 online version
Landes, David S., The Unbound Prometheus: Technical Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2003)
Pounds, Norman J. G., and William N. Parker; Coal and Steel in Western Europe; the Influence of Resources and Techniques on Production (Indiana University Press, 1957) online version
Singer, Charles Joseph, ed. A history of technology: vol 4: The Industrial Revolution c 1750–c 1860 (1960) ch 4, and vol 5: The Late Nineteenth Century, c 1850–c 1900, ch 3; online at ACLS e-books
Stoddard, Brooke C. Steel: From Mine to Mill, the Metal that Made America (2015) short, global popular history excerpt
Woytinsky, W. S., and E. S. Woytinsky. World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks (1953) pp 1098–1143, with many tables and maps on the worldwide steel industry
Yonekura, Seiichiro. The Japanese iron and steel industry: Continuity and discontinuity, 1850–1970 (1994) excerpt and text search
Britain[edit]
Birch, Alan. Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry (Routledge, 2013).
Burn, Duncan. The Steel Industry, 1939–1959: A Study in Competition and Planning (1961) online
Burn, Duncan. The Economic History of Steelmaking, 1867–1939: A Study in Competition. Cambridge University Press, 1961 online version
Carr, J. C. and W. Taplin; History of the British Steel Industry Harvard University Press, 1962 online version
Tweedale, Geoffrey. Steel City: Entrepreneurship, Strategy, and Technology in Sheffield, 1743–1993. (Oxford U.P. 1995) online version
Vaizy, John. The history of British steel (1974), well illustrated
Warren, Kenneth. British Iron and Sheet Steel Industry since 1840 (1970) ISBN 0713515481 Economic geography.
United States[edit]
Hoerr, John P. And the Wolf Finally Came: The Decline of the American Steel Industry (1988) excerpt and text search
Hogan, William T. Economic History of the Iron and Steel Industry in the United States (5 vol 1971) monumental detail
Krass, Peter. Carnegie (2002). ISBN 0-471-38630-8.
Livesay, Harold C. Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business, 2nd Edition (1999). ISBN 0-321-43287-8.
Misa, Thomas J. A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America, 1865–1925 (1995) Chapter 1 "The Dominance of Rails"
Nasaw, David. Andrew Carnegie (The Penguin Press, 2006).
Paskoff, Paul F. Iron and Steel in the Nineteenth Century (Encyclopedia of American Business History and Biography) (1989) 385 pp; biographies and brief corporate histories
Rogers, Robert P. An Economic History of the American Steel Industry (2009) excerpt and text search
Scamehorn, H. Lee. Mill & Mine: The Cf&I in the Twentieth Century University of Nebraska Press, 1992 online version
Scheuerman, William. The Steel Crisis: The Economics and Politics of a Declining Industry (1986) online
Seely, Bruce E., ed The Iron and Steel Industry in the 20th Century (1994) (Encyclopedia of American Business History and Biography)
Temin, Peter. Iron and Steel in Nineteenth-Century America, An Economic Inquiry (1964)
Wall, Joseph Frazier. Andrew Carnegie (1989). ISBN 0-8229-5904-6.
Warren, Kenneth, Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001. (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001) online review
Warren, Kenneth. Bethlehem Steel: Builder and Arsenal of America (2010) excerpt and text search
Warren, Kenneth. The American Steel Industry, 1850–1970: A Geographical Interpretation (1973) (ISBN 0198232144)
Whaples, Robert. "Andrew Carnegie", EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic and Business History online
U.S. Steel's History of U.S. Steel
Urofsky, Melvin I. Big Steel and the Wilson Administration: A Study in Business-Government Relations (1969) online
U.S. Labor[edit]
Brody, David. Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (1965)
Mary Margaret Fonow; Union Women: Forging Feminism in the United Steelworkers of America (University of Minnesota Press, 2003) online version
U.S. Steel's History of U.S. Steel
Urofsky, Melvin I. Big Steel and the Wilson Administration: A Study in Business-Government Relations (1969)
Primary sources[edit]
U.S. Commissioner of Corporations. Report on the Steel Industry (1913).
Warne, Colston E. ed. The Steel Strike of 1919 (1963) primary and secondary documents
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