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2018 England rugby union tour of South Africa
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2018 England rugby union tour of South Africa
Coach(es)
Eddie Jones
Tour captain(s)
Owen Farrell
Summary
P
W D L
Total
02
00 00 02
Test match
02
00 00 02
Opponent
P
W D L
South Africa
3
0 0 2
Tour chronology
Previous tour
Argentina 2017
Next tour
TBA
In June 2018, England will play a three-test series against South Africa as part of the 2018 mid-year rugby union tests. The series will be part of the sixth year of the global rugby calendar established by World Rugby, which runs through to 2019.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Fixtures
2 Squads
2.1 England
2.2 South Africa
3 Matches
3.1 English warm-up match (Barbarians)
3.2 South African warm-up match (Wales)
3.3 First test
3.4 Second test
3.5 Third test
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Fixtures[edit]
Date and time
Venue
Home
Score
Away
9 June 2018 Ellis Park, Johannesburg South Africa 42–39 England
16 June 2018 Free State Stadium, Bloemfontein South Africa 23–12 England
23 June 2018 Newlands, Cape Town South Africa – England
Squads[edit]
Note: Ages, caps and clubs are as per 9 June, the first test match of the tour.
England[edit]
On 29 May, England finalised a 34-man tour squad for their 3-test series summer tour of South Africa.[2]
On 11 June, Jack Singleton joined the squad as a third choice hooker option and injury cover for Luke Cowan-Dickie.[3]
Coaching team:
Head coach: Eddie Jones
Attack coach: Scott Wisemantel
Defence coach: Paul Gustard
Forwards coach: Steve Borthwick
Scrum coach: Neal Hatley
Player
Position
Date of Birth (Age)
Caps
Club/province
Cowan-Dickie, LukeLuke Cowan-Dickie Hooker (1993-06-20)20 June 1993 (aged 24) 7 Exeter Chiefs
George, JamieJamie George Hooker (1990-10-20)20 October 1990 (aged 27) 25 Saracens
Singleton, JackJack Singleton Hooker (1996-05-14)14 May 1996 (aged 22) 0 Worcester Warriors
Genge, EllisEllis Genge Prop (1995-02-16)16 February 1995 (aged 23) 5 Leicester Tigers
Marler, JoeJoe Marler Prop (1990-07-07)7 July 1990 (aged 27) 56 Harlequins
Sinckler, KyleKyle Sinckler Prop (1992-03-30)30 March 1992 (aged 26) 10 Harlequins
Vunipola, MakoMako Vunipola Prop (1991-01-14)14 January 1991 (aged 27) 49 Saracens
Williams, HarryHarry Williams Prop (1991-10-01)1 October 1991 (aged 26) 8 Exeter Chiefs
Hill, JonnyJonny Hill Lock (1994-06-08)8 June 1994 (aged 24) 0 Exeter Chiefs
Isiekwe, NickNick Isiekwe Lock (1998-04-20)20 April 1998 (aged 20) 2 Saracens
Itoje, MaroMaro Itoje Lock (1994-10-28)28 October 1994 (aged 23) 19 Saracens
Launchbury, JoeJoe Launchbury Lock (1991-04-12)12 April 1991 (aged 27) 52 Wasps
Curry, TomTom Curry Flanker (1998-06-15)15 June 1998 (aged 19) 1 Sale Sharks
Robshaw, ChrisChris Robshaw Flanker (1986-06-04)4 June 1986 (aged 32) 64 Harlequins
Shields, BradBrad Shields Flanker (1991-04-02)2 April 1991 (aged 27) 0 Hurricanes
Simmonds, SamSam Simmonds Flanker (1994-11-10)10 November 1994 (aged 23) 7 Exeter Chiefs
Wilson, MarkMark Wilson Flanker (1989-10-06)6 October 1989 (aged 28) 2 Newcastle Falcons
Earl, BenBen Earl Number 8 (1998-01-07)7 January 1998 (aged 20) 0 Saracens
Hughes, NathanNathan Hughes Number 8 (1991-06-10)10 June 1991 (aged 26) 14 Wasps
Vunipola, BillyBilly Vunipola Number 8 (1992-11-03)3 November 1992 (aged 25) 34 Saracens
Robson, DanDan Robson Scrum-half (1992-03-14)14 March 1992 (aged 26) 0 Wasps
Spencer, BenBen Spencer Scrum-half (1992-07-31)31 July 1992 (aged 25) 0 Saracens
Youngs, BenBen Youngs Scrum-half (1989-09-05)5 September 1989 (aged 28) 74 Leicester Tigers
Cipriani, DannyDanny Cipriani Fly-half (1987-11-02)2 November 1987 (aged 30) 14 Gloucester Rugby
Ford, GeorgeGeorge Ford Fly-half (1993-03-16)16 March 1993 (aged 25) 45 Leicester Tigers
Francis, PiersPiers Francis Fly-half (1990-06-20)20 June 1990 (aged 27) 3 Northampton Saints
Farrell, OwenOwen Farrell (c) Centre (1991-09-24)24 September 1991 (aged 26) 58 Saracens
Lozowski, AlexAlex Lozowski Centre (1993-06-30)30 June 1993 (aged 24) 4 Saracens
Slade, HenryHenry Slade Centre (1993-03-19)19 March 1993 (aged 25) 10 Exeter Chiefs
Daly, ElliotElliot Daly Wing (1992-10-08)8 October 1992 (aged 25) 18 Wasps
Earle, NathanNathan Earle Wing (1994-09-25)25 September 1994 (aged 23) 0 Saracens
May, JonnyJonny May Wing (1990-04-01)1 April 1990 (aged 28) 34 Leicester Tigers
Solomona, DennyDenny Solomona Wing (1993-09-27)27 September 1993 (aged 24) 2 Sale Sharks
Brown, MikeMike Brown Fullback (1985-09-04)4 September 1985 (aged 32) 69 Harlequins
Woodward, JasonJason Woodward Fullback (1990-05-17)17 May 1990 (aged 28) 0 Gloucester
South Africa[edit]
On 26 May 2018, head coach Rassie Erasmus named a 43-man squad for South Africa's June Internationals.[4]
Coaching team:
Head coach: Rassie Erasmus
Attack coach: Mzwandile Stick
Defence coach: Jacques Nienaber
Scrum coach: Pieter de Villiers
Player
Position
Date of Birth (Age)
Caps
Club/province
du Plessis, BismarckBismarck du Plessis Hooker (1984-05-22)22 May 1984 (aged 34) 79 Montpellier
Mbonambi, BongiBongi Mbonambi Hooker (1991-01-07)7 January 1991 (aged 27) 14 Stormers
Ralepelle, ChiliboyChiliboy Ralepelle Hooker (1986-09-11)11 September 1986 (aged 31) 24 Sharks
van der Merwe, AkkerAkker van der Merwe Hooker (1991-06-17)17 June 1991 (aged 26) 1 Sharks
du Toit, ThomasThomas du Toit Prop (1995-05-05)5 May 1995 (aged 23) 1 Sharks
Kitshoff, StevenSteven Kitshoff Prop (1992-02-10)10 February 1992 (aged 26) 24 Stormers
Louw, WilcoWilco Louw Prop (1994-07-20)20 July 1994 (aged 23) 6 Stormers
Malherbe, FransFrans Malherbe Prop (1991-03-14)14 March 1991 (aged 27) 17 Stormers
Mtawarira, TendaiTendai Mtawarira Prop (1985-08-01)1 August 1985 (aged 32) 98 Sharks
Nché, OxOx Nché Prop (1995-07-23)23 July 1995 (aged 22) 1 Cheetahs
Nyakane, TrevorTrevor Nyakane Prop (1989-05-04)4 May 1989 (aged 29) 37 Bulls
du Toit, Pieter-StephPieter-Steph du Toit Lock (1992-08-20)20 August 1992 (aged 25) 33 Stormers
Jenkins, JasonJason Jenkins Lock (1995-12-02)2 December 1995 (aged 22) 1 Bulls
Mostert, FrancoFranco Mostert Lock (1990-11-27)27 November 1990 (aged 27) 18 Lions
Orie, MarvinMarvin Orie Lock (1993-02-15)15 February 1993 (aged 25) 1 Lions
Snyman, RGRG Snyman Lock (1995-01-29)29 January 1995 (aged 23) 0 Bulls
Carr, NizaamNizaam Carr Flanker (1991-04-04)4 April 1991 (aged 27) 5 Stormers
du Preez, Jean-LucJean-Luc du Preez Flanker (1995-08-05)5 August 1995 (aged 22) 10 Sharks
Kolisi, SiyaSiya Kolisi Flanker (1991-06-16)16 June 1991 (aged 26) 28 Stormers
Mohojé, OupaOupa Mohojé Flanker (1990-08-03)3 August 1990 (aged 27) 19 Cheetahs
Notshe, SikhumbuzoSikhumbuzo Notshe Flanker (1993-05-28)28 May 1993 (aged 25) 1 Stormers
Smith, KwaggaKwagga Smith Flanker (1993-06-11)11 June 1993 (aged 24) 1 Lions
du Preez, DanDan du Preez Number 8 (1995-08-05)5 August 1995 (aged 22) 4 Sharks
Vermeulen, DuaneDuane Vermeulen Number 8 (1986-07-03)3 July 1986 (aged 31) 39 Toulon
de Klerk, FafFaf de Klerk Scrum-half (1991-10-19)19 October 1991 (aged 26) 11 Sale Sharks
Papier, EmbroseEmbrose Papier Scrum-half (1997-04-25)25 April 1997 (aged 21) 1 Bulls
van Zyl, IvanIvan van Zyl Scrum-half (1995-06-30)30 June 1995 (aged 22) 1 Bulls
Wright, CameronCameron Wright Scrum-half (1994-04-20)20 April 1994 (aged 24) 0 Sharks
du Preez, RobertRobert du Preez Fly-half (1993-07-30)30 July 1993 (aged 24) 1 Sharks
Jantjies, EltonElton Jantjies Fly-half (1990-08-01)1 August 1990 (aged 27) 24 Lions
Pollard, HandréHandré Pollard Fly-half (1994-03-11)11 March 1994 (aged 24) 26 Bulls
Am, LukhanyoLukhanyo Am Centre (1993-11-28)28 November 1993 (aged 24) 1 Sharks
de Allende, DamianDamian de Allende Centre (1991-11-25)25 November 1991 (aged 26) 28 Stormers
Esterhuizen, AndréAndré Esterhuizen Centre (1994-03-30)30 March 1994 (aged 24) 1 Sharks
Kriel, JesseJesse Kriel Centre (1994-02-15)15 February 1994 (aged 24) 30 Bulls
Steyn, FrançoisFrançois Steyn Centre (1987-05-14)14 May 1987 (aged 31) 56 Montpellier
Dyantyi, AphiweAphiwe Dyantyi Wing (1994-08-26)26 August 1994 (aged 23) 0 Lions
Ismaiel, TravisTravis Ismaiel Wing (1992-06-02)2 June 1992 (aged 26) 1 Bulls
Mapimpi, MakazoleMakazole Mapimpi Wing (1990-07-26)26 July 1990 (aged 27) 1 Sharks
Nkosi, S'busisoS'busiso Nkosi Wing (1996-01-21)21 January 1996 (aged 22) 0 Sharks
Bosch, CurwinCurwin Bosch Fullback (1997-06-25)25 June 1997 (aged 20) 2 Sharks
Gelant, WarrickWarrick Gelant Fullback (1995-05-20)20 May 1995 (aged 23) 3 Bulls
le Roux, WillieWillie le Roux Fullback (1989-08-18)18 August 1989 (aged 28) 41 Wasps
Matches[edit]
English warm-up match (Barbarians)[edit]
27 May 2018
15:00 BST (UTC+01)
England
45–63
Barbarians
Try: Daly 16' c
Francis (2) 20' c, 30' c
Mercer 27' c
Launchbury 55' c
May 76' c
Con: Ford (6/6) 18', 20', 28', 31', 55', 76'
Pen: Ford (1/1) 48'
Report Try: Ashton (3) 3' c, 6' c, 24' c
Vito (2) 11' c, 79' c
Russell 38' c
Radradra 43' c
Timani 59' c
Laidlaw 71' c
Con: Russell (7/7) 3', 7', 12', 26', 40', 44', 59'
Laidlaw (1/1) 72'
Fernández Lobbe (1/1) 80'
Twickenham, London
Attendance: 51,636
Referee: Mathieu Raynal (France)
FB 15 Elliot Daly
RW 14 Jonny May
OC 13 Henry Trinder 26'
IC 12 Piers Francis
LW 11 Mike Brown 49'
FH 10 George Ford
SH 9 Ben Youngs 61'
N8 8 Zach Mercer 46'
OF 7 Tom Curry
BF 6 Chris Robshaw (c)
RL 5 Joe Launchbury
LL 4 Elliott Stooke 59'
TP 3 Kyle Sinckler 61'
HK 2 Jack Singleton 70'
LP 1 Joe Marler 46'
Replacements:
HK 16 George McGuigan 70'
PR 17 Ellis Genge 46'
PR 18 Nick Schonert 61'
LK 19 Josh Beaumont 59'
FL 20 Mark Wilson 46'
SH 21 Dan Robson 61'
FH 22 Danny Cipriani 26'
WG 23 Denny Solomona 49'
Coach:
Eddie Jones
FB 15 Chris Ashton
RW 14 Josua Tuisova
OC 13 Semi Radradra
IC 12 Josh Matavesi 53'
LW 11 Niyi Adeolokun
FH 10 Finn Russell 68'
SH 9 Rhodri Williams 60'
N8 8 Victor Vito
OF 7 Justin Tipuric
BF 6 Juan Martín Fernández Lobbe (c) 52'
RL 5 Sitaleki Timani 60'
LL 4 Ultan Dillane
TP 3 John Afoa 65'
HK 2 Benjamin Kayser 56'
LP 1 Denis Buckley 47'
Replacements:
HK 16 Tatafu Polota-Nau 56'
PR 17 Loni Uhila 47'
PR 18 Ramiro Herrera 65'
LK 19 Joe Tekori 60'
N8 20 Nili Latu 52'
N8 21 Greig Laidlaw 60'
FH 22 Luke McAlister 68'
WG 23 Malakai Fekitoa 53'
Coach:
Pat Lam
Man of the Match:
Semi Radradra (Barbarians)
Touch judges:
Nigel Owens (Wales)
Ben Whitehouse (Wales)
Television match official:
Brian MacNeice (Ireland)
Notes:
This is the first time sine 2014 the Barbarians has defeated England.
South African warm-up match (Wales)[edit]
2 June 2018
17:00 EDT (UTC-4)
South Africa
20–22
Wales
Try: Ismaiel 43' c
Mapimpi 58' c
Con: Jantjies (2/2) 44', 59'
Pen: Jantjies (1/1) 18'
R. du Preez (1/1) 73'
Report Try: Amos 30' c
Williams 33' c
Elias 74' m
Con: Anscombe (2/3) 31', 35'
Pen: Anscombe (1/3) 47'
RFK Stadium, Washington, D.C.[5]
Attendance: 21,357
Referee: Matthew Carley (England)
FB 15 Curwin Bosch 31' 40' 49'
RW 14 Travis Ismaiel
OC 13 Jesse Kriel
IC 12 André Esterhuizen
LW 11 Makazole Mapimpi 76'
FH 10 Elton Jantjies 71'
SH 9 Ivan van Zyl
N8 8 Dan du Preez 53'
OF 7 Oupa Mohojé
BF 6 Kwagga Smith 10' to 19'
RL 5 Pieter-Steph du Toit (c)
LL 4 Jason Jenkins 61'
TP 3 Wilco Louw 44'
HK 2 Chiliboy Ralepelle 52'
LP 1 Ox Nché 44'
Replacements:
HK 16 Akker van der Merwe 52'
PR 17 Steven Kitshoff 44'
PR 18 Thomas du Toit 44'
LK 19 Marvin Orie 61'
FL 20 Sikhumbuzo Notshe 10' 19' 53'
SH 21 Embrose Papier 76'
FH 22 Robert du Preez 61'
WG 23 Warrick Gelant 31' 40' 49'
Coach:
Rassie Erasmus
FB 15 Hallam Amos
RW 14 Tom Prydie
OC 13 George North
IC 12 Owen Watkin 56' to 66'
LW 11 Steffan Evans 29'
FH 10 Gareth Anscombe
SH 9 Tomos Williams 78'
N8 8 Ross Moriarty
OF 7 Ellis Jenkins (c)
BF 6 Seb Davies
RL 5 Cory Hill
LL 4 Bradley Davies
TP 3 Dillon Lewis 52'
HK 2 Elliot Dee 70'
LP 1 Nicky Smith 48'
Replacements:
HK 16 Ryan Elias 70'
PR 17 Wyn Jones 48'
PR 18 Rhodri Jones 52'
LK 19 Adam Beard
FL 20 Aaron Wainwright
SH 21 Aled Davies 78'
FH 22 Rhys Patchell
CE 23 Hadleigh Parkes 29'
Coach:
Warren Gatland
Man of the Match:
Ellis Jenkins (Wales)
Touch judges:
Alexandre Ruiz (France)
Frank Murphy (Ireland)
Television match official:
David Grashoff (England)
Notes:
Tomos Williams (Wales) and Robert du Preez, Thomas du Toit, André Esterhuizen, Travis Ismaiel, Jason Jenkins, Makazole Mapimpi, Ox Nché, Sikhumbuzo Notshe, Marvin Orie, Embrose Papier, Kwagga Smith, Akker van der Merwe and Ivan van Zyl (all South Africa) made their international debuts.
This victory saw Wales record a record third consecutive win against the Springboks, and win for the first time away from home.
First test[edit]
9 June 2018
17:05 SAST (UTC+02)
South Africa
42–39
England
Try: De Klerk 19' m
Nkosi (2) 29' c, 33' c
Le Roux 38' c
Dyantyi 64' c
Con: Pollard (4/5) 30', 34', 39', 65'
Pen: Pollard (3/5) 10', 51', 75'
Report Try: Brown 3' c
Daly 12' c
Farrell 16' c
Itoje 69' m
May 77' c
Con: Farrell (4/5) 4', 14', 17', 77'
Pen: Daly (1/1) 1'
Farrell (1/1) 40'
Emirates Airline Park, Johannesburg
Attendance: 55,260
Referee: Ben O'Keeffe (New Zealand)
FB 15 Willie le Roux 63'
RW 14 S'busiso Nkosi
OC 13 Lukhanyo Am
IC 12 Damian de Allende 73'
LW 11 Aphiwe Dyantyi
FH 10 Handré Pollard
SH 9 Faf de Klerk 72'
N8 8 Duane Vermeulen
OF 7 Jean-Luc du Preez 49'
BF 6 Siya Kolisi (c) 70'
RL 5 Franco Mostert
LL 4 RG Snyman
TP 3 Wilco Louw 47'
HK 2 Bongi Mbonambi 57'
LP 1 Tendai Mtawarira 47'
Replacements:
HK 16 Akker van der Merwe 57'
PR 17 Steven Kitshoff 47'
PR 18 Thomas du Toit 47'
LK 19 Pieter-Steph du Toit 49'
FL 20 Sikhumbuzo Notshe 70'
SH 21 Ivan van Zyl 72'
FH 22 Elton Jantjies 73'
WG 23 Warrick Gelant 63'
Coach:
Rassie Erasmus
FB 15 Elliot Daly
RW 14 Jonny May
OC 13 Henry Slade
IC 12 Owen Farrell (c)
LW 11 Mike Brown 75'
FH 10 George Ford 75'
SH 9 Ben Youngs 75'
N8 8 Billy Vunipola
OF 7 Tom Curry 65'
BF 6 Chris Robshaw
RL 5 Nick Isiekwe 35'
LL 4 Maro Itoje
TP 3 Kyle Sinckler 57'
HK 2 Jamie George 63'
LP 1 Mako Vunipola 62' to 72' 75'
Replacements:
HK 16 Luke Cowan-Dickie 63'
PR 17 Joe Marler 75'
PR 18 Harry Williams 57'
FL 19 Brad Shields 35'
N8 20 Nathan Hughes 65'
SH 21 Ben Spencer 75'
FH 22 Piers Francis 75'
WG 23 Denny Solomona 75'
Coach:
Eddie Jones
Man of the Match:
Faf de Klerk (South Africa)
Touch judges:
Romain Poite (France)
Glen Jackson (New Zealand)
Television match official:
Simon McDowell (Ireland)
Notes:
Aphiwe Dyantyi, S'busiso Nkosi and RG Snyman (all South Africa) and Brad Shields and Ben Spencer (both England) made their international debuts.
Mako Vunipola (England) earned his 50th test cap.
Second test[edit]
16 June 2018
South Africa
v
England
Free State Stadium, Bloemfontein
FB 15 Willie le Roux
RW 14 S'busiso Nkosi
OC 13 Lukhanyo Am
IC 12 Damian de Allende
LW 11 Aphiwe Dyantyi
FH 10 Handré Pollard
SH 9 Faf de Klerk
N8 8 Duane Vermeulen
OF 7 Pieter-Steph du Toit
BF 6 Siya Kolisi (c)
RL 5 Franco Mostert
LL 4 RG Snyman
TP 3 Frans Malherbe
HK 2 Bongi Mbonambi
LP 1 Tendai Mtawarira
Replacements:
HK 16 Akker van der Merwe
PR 17 Steven Kitshoff
PR 18 Thomas du Toit
FL 19 Jean-Luc du Preez
FL 20 Sikhumbuzo Notshe
SH 21 Ivan van Zyl
CE 22 Jesse Kriel
WG 23 Warrick Gelant
Coach:
Rassie Erasmus
FB 15 Elliot Daly
RW 14 Jonny May
OC 13 Henry Slade
IC 12 Owen Farrell (c)
LW 11 Mike Brown
FH 10 George Ford
SH 9 Ben Youngs
N8 8 Billy Vunipola
OF 7 Tom Curry
BF 6 Brad Shields
RL 5 Maro Itoje
LL 4 Joe Launchbury
TP 3 Kyle Sinckler
HK 2 Jamie George
LP 1 Mako Vunipola
Replacements:
HK 16 Luke Cowan-Dickie
PR 17 Joe Marler
PR 18 Harry Williams
FL 19 Mark Wilson
N8 20 Nathan Hughes
SH 21 Ben Spencer
FH 22 Danny Cipriani
WG 23 Denny Solomona
Coach:
Eddie Jones
Touch judges:
Glen Jackson (New Zealand)
Ben O'Keeffe (New Zealand)
Television match official:
Simon McDowell (Ireland)
Third test[edit]
23 June 2018
South Africa
v
England
Newlands, Cape Town
See also[edit]
2018 mid-year rugby union internationals
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "IRB approve new 10-year playing schedule". Rugby Week. 18 May 2010. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ England squad for South Africa finalised
Jump up ^ Singleton added to England squad
Jump up ^ "Erasmus names Springbok squad for June Tests" (Press release). South African Rugby Union. 26 May 2018. Retrieved 28 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "WALES TO FACE SPRINGBOKS IN US CAPITAL". 26 February 2018. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
External links[edit]
Official Website of South African Rugby
Official Website of English Rugby
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Train horn
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Train horns are made of multiple horn units called chimes which produce different notes; sounded together they make a chord. The Nathan model M5 pictured is a 5 chime horn.
A train horn is a powerful air horn that serves as an audible warning device on electric and Diesel locomotives. The horn's primary purpose is to alert persons and animals to an oncoming train, especially when approaching a grade crossing. The horn is also used for acknowledging signals given by railroad employees, such as during switching operations.
Leslie S3L locomotive horn, once the most common horn in use on North American railroads
Contents
[hide]
1 History and background
2 Operation
2.1 United States
2.2 Germany
2.3 France
2.4 India
2.5 United Kingdom
3 Placement on locomotives
4 Audio samples
5 Manufacturers
5.1 North America
5.1.1 AirChime, Ltd.
5.1.2 Buell Air Horns
5.1.3 Gustin Bacon Mfg. Co.
5.1.4 Leslie Controls, Inc.
5.1.5 Prime Manufacturing, Inc.
5.1.6 Westinghouse Air Brake Co.
5.2 Australia
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History and background[edit]
Trains move on fixed rails, making them uniquely susceptible to collision. This susceptibility is exacerbated by the enormous weight and inertia of a train, which make it difficult to quickly stop when encountering an obstacle. Also, trains generally do not stop at grade crossings (level crossings), instead relying upon pedestrians and vehicles to clear the tracks when they pass. Therefore, from their beginnings locomotives have been equipped with loud horns or bells to warn vehicles or pedestrians that they are coming. Steam locomotives had steam whistles, operated from steam produced by their boilers.
As Diesel locomotives began to replace steam on most railroads during the mid-20th century, it was realized that the new locomotives were unable to utilize the steam whistles then in use. Early internal combustion locomotives were initially fitted with small truck horns or exhaust-powered whistles, but these were found to be unsuitable and hence the air horn design was scaled up and modified for railroad use. Early train horns often were tonally similar to the air horns still heard on road-going trucks today. It was found that this caused some confusion among people who were accustomed to steam locomotives and the sound of their whistles; when approaching a grade crossing, when some people heard an air horn they expected to see a truck, not a locomotive, and accidents happened. So, locomotive air horns were created that had a much higher, more musical note, tonally much more like a steam whistle. This is why most train horns have a unique sound, different from that of road going trucks, although many switch engines, which didn't see road service (service on the main lines), retained the deeper truck-like horns.
Strict regulations specific to each country specify how loud horns must be, and how far in advance of grade crossings and other locations locomotive engineers are required to sound their horns to give adequate time to clear the tracks. Standard signals consisting of different sequences of horn blasts must be given in different circumstances.
Due to the encroachment of development, some suburban dwellers have opposed railroad use of the air horn as a trackside warning device.[1] Residents in some communities have attempted to establish quiet zones, in which train crews are instructed not to sound their horns, except in case of emergency.[2]
Recent years have seen an increase of horn theft from railroad property.[3]
Operation[edit]
Diagram of a typical locomotive air horn power chamber, showing operation
Train horns are operated by compressed air, typically 125-140 psi (8.6-9.6 bar), and fed from a locomotive main air reservoir. When the engineer opens the horn valve, air flows through a supply line into the power chamber at the base of the horn (diagram, right). It passes through a narrow opening between a nozzle and a circular diaphragm in the power chamber, then out through the flaring horn bell. The flow of air past the diaphragm causes it to vibrate or oscillate against the nozzle, producing sound.
When vibrated by the diaphragm, the column of air in the bell oscillates with standing waves. The length of the bell determines the wavelength of the sound waves, and thus the fundamental frequency (pitch) of the note produced by the horn (measured in hertz). The longer the horn bell, the lower the note.
North American diesel locomotives manufactured prior to the 1990s utilized an air valve actuated by the engineer through the manipulation of a lever or pull cord. Use of this method made possible a practice known as "feathering", meaning that modulation of the horn's volume was possible through finer regulation of the air valve.
Many locomotives manufactured during the 1990s made use of pushbutton controls. In addition, several North American locomotives incorporated a sequencer pedal built into the cab floor beneath the operators position; that when depressed, sounded the grade crossing sequence.
Locomotives of European origin have featured pushbutton control of air horns since the mid-1960s.
Current production locomotives from GE Transportation Systems and Electro-Motive Diesel utilize a lever-actuated solenoid valve.
United States[edit]
Leslie A200-156, a single chime horn used on locomotives in the early days of dieselization
On April 27, 2005, the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA), which enforces rail safety regulations, published the final rule on the use of locomotive horns at highway-rail grade crossings.[4][5] Effective June 24, 2005, the rule requires that locomotive horns be sounded at all public grade crossings at least 15 seconds, but not more than 20 seconds before entering a crossing.[6] This rule applies when the train speed is below 45 mph (70 km/h). At 45 mph or above, trains are still required to sound their horn at the designated location (usually denoted with a whistle post).
The pattern for blowing the horn remains two long, one short, and one long. This is to be repeated or prolonged as necessary until the lead locomotive fully occupies the crossing. Locomotive engineers retain the authority to vary this pattern as necessary for crossings in close proximity, and are allowed to sound the horn in emergency situations no matter where the location.
A ban on sounding locomotive horns in Florida was ordered removed by the FRA after it was shown that the accident rate doubled during the ban.[7] The new ruling preempts any state or local laws regarding the use of the train horn at public crossings.[8] This also provides public authorities the option to maintain and/or establish quiet zones provided certain supplemental or alternative safety measures are in place, and the crossing accident rate meets government standards.
The following are the required horn signals listed in the operating rules of most North American railroads, along with their meanings. Signals are illustrated by an "o" for short sounds, and "–" for longer sounds. (Note that these signals and their indications are updated to reflect modern practice.) Those rules marked with an asterisk (*) must be sounded when and/or where applicable. Those signals without an asterisk convey information to employees; they must be used when voice communication is not available.
Rule
Sequence
Indication[9]
14 (a) o Applying air brakes while standing.
14 (b) * – – Proceeding. Releasing air brakes. This signal is often referred to as "whistling off," despite it being given by an air horn.
14 (f) * o o – Acknowledging a flagman's stop signal.
14 (g) * o o Acknowledging any signal not otherwise provided for.
14 (h) * o o o Backing up.
14 (j) o o o o Calling for signals.
14 (l) * – – o – 1. Trains or engines approaching public highway grade crossings shall sound the horn at least 15 seconds, but no more than 20 seconds before the lead engine enters the crossing. Trains or engines travelling at speeds greater than 45 mph shall begin sounding the horn at or about, but not more than, one-quarter mile (1,320 feet) in advance of the nearest public crossing. Even if the advance warning provided by the horn will be less than 15 seconds in duration. This signal is to be prolonged or repeated until the engine or train occupies the crossing; or, where multiple crossing are involved, until the last crossing is occupied. 2. Approaching tunnels, yards, or other points where railroad workers may be at work. 3. Passing standing trains.
14 (m) * o Approaching passenger station.
14 (o) o – Inspect train for a leak in brake pipe system or for brakes sticking.
14 (p) * Succession of sounds Warning to people and/or animals.
14 (q) * – o When running against the current of traffic: 1. Approaching stations, curves, or other points where view may be obscured: and 2. Approaching passenger or freight trains and when passing freight trains.
Exception: Engine horn signals required by rules 14 (b) and 14 (h) do not apply after momentary stops in continuous switching movements.
Germany[edit]
Horn signals are regulated in the Zp category of the Eisenbahn-Bau- und Betriebsordnung. Their most common use today is when approaching a level crossing that lacks barriers, and for warning purposes.
Whistle posts are labeled with the letter "P" (for 'Pfeifen'). Common signals are:[10]
Sequence
Meaning
_ Zp 1 - Generic "Attention" signal.
o Zp 2 - Tighten handbrakes.
o o Zp 3 - Strongly tighten handbrakes.
_ _ Zp 4 - Loosen handbrakes
ooo ooo ooo Zp 5 - Emergency. Brake immediately.
_ o _ Zp 11 - Come. Used to call out for train staff.
France[edit]
Train horns are sounded where a whistle post (marked with the letter "S" for "siffler") is present. If the whistle post is labelled "J" (meaning "jour"), the horn is only to be sounded between 0700 and 2000. Horns must also be sounded when passing an oncoming train, and shortly before reaching the last car of the train.
India[edit]
The IRFCA FAQ lists the following:[11]
'o' : denotes a short blast on the horn.
'--' : denotes a comparatively long blast on the horn.
'-----' : denotes a longer blast on the horn.
'----------' : denotes a very long blast on the horn.
Code [ o ] - Before Starting:
Indication to driver of the assisting engine that driver of leading engine is ready to start.
Acknowledgement by the driver of the assisting engine.
Engine ready to leave yard
Engine ready to go to loco yard
Light loco or shunter about to move
Code [ o ] - On the run:
Assistance of other engine not required
Acknowledgement by driver of the assisting engine
Code [ -- ]
Normal departure from station on receipt of clear signal. This is usually followed by another long blast about 10–20 seconds after the first one, after the guard's all-right signal is received.
Beginning of shunting operation (if shunted rake has passengers in it)
Code [ o o ]
Call for guard's signal
Signals not exchanged by guard
Signals not exchanged by station staff
Code [ -- o ]
Guard to release brakes
Before starting engine from a midsection/station
Main Line clear
Code [ o o o ]
Guard to apply brakes
Train out of control, guard to assist
Code [ o o -- ]
Sudden loss of brake pressure or vacuum (perhaps by alarm chain being pulled)
Code [ o o o o ]
Train cannot proceed on account of accident, failure or other cause
Protect train in rear
Code [ -- -- o o ]
Call for guard to come to engine
Code [ o -- o ]
Token not received
Token missed
With wrong authority to proceed
Passing stop signal at 'on' on proper authority
Code [ ----- ] - Before Starting
Vacuum recreated on ghat section, remove sprags
Passing automatic 'stop' signal at 'On'
Code [ ----- ] - On the run
Acknowledgement of guards signal
Code [ ---------- ]
Approaching level crossing or tunnel area
Recall staff protecting train in rear
Material train ready to leave
Running through a station
Approaching a stop signal at 'on'
Detained at stop signal
Crossing stop signal at 'on' after waiting the stipulated time.
Code [ -- o -- o ]
Alarm chain pulled
Insufficient vacuum in engine
Guard applies vacuum brakes.
Code [ -- -- ]
Raise Pantograph (electric loco only)
Code [ -- o -- ]
Lower Pantograph (electric loco only)
Code [ o o o o o o o o o ] (Frequently)
Apprehension of danger
Danger signal to driver of an approaching train whose path is obstructed
Moving in wrong direction on a double line.
Also used by EMU motormen to warn passengers on a crowded platform of the approach of a fast train which will not stop at that station
United Kingdom[edit]
UK diesel and electric locomotives are usually fitted with two-tone horns, sounded sequentially to distinguish them from the horns used on road vehicles, and, in the past, both tones were routinely used. However, because of noise complaints, new rules were introduced in 2007:[12]
The introduction of a night time quiet period, between 2300 and 0700 when trains will no longer routinely sound their horns at whistle boards (they will always sound their horns when people are seen on the track)
That where the technology is available, drivers should only use the low tone from the two tone horn at whistle boards.
For all new or replacement train horns on trains capable of travelling up to 160 km/h a much lower minimum sound pressure level has been established – and a maximum sound level has been introduced (min 101 dB and max 106 dB)
Placement on locomotives[edit]
As many individuals do with their personal vehicles, railroads order locomotives with different options in order to suit their operating practices. Air horns are no exception, and railroad mechanical forces mount these on locomotives where they are deemed most effective at projecting sound, and for ease of maintenance.
Horn mounted on MBTA Commuter Rail control car when in Push Pull Mode
Nathan K5LA mounted atop a San Diego Coaster Cab Car
Horn mounted in the middle section of the roof on a GE locomotive
Typical horn mounting location on European locomotives
Low horn mounting location on a European locomotive. The horn is visible above the right side buffer.
Audio samples[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Train horns.
The following are samples of select air horns as used in North American railroad service:[13]
AirChime K5LA
(329 KB)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Leslie A200-156
(127 KB)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Leslie S-3L
(187 KB)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Leslie S-5T
(275 KB)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Nathan M5
(277 KB)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Nathan P5
(358 KB)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Prime PM-920
(312 KB)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Prime PM-990
(301 KB)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
WABCO E2
(243 KB)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
WABCO E2-B1
(274 KB)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Train horn being fitted to a vintage EMD GP30 diesel locomotive at the 2006 Oak Ridge Horn Honk and Collectors Meet
Manufacturers[edit]
North America[edit]
AirChime, Ltd.[edit]
AirChime, Ltd. traces their beginnings through the work of Robert Swanson in 1949. Prior to the early 1950s, locomotives were equipped with air horns that sounded a singular note.
Swanson sought to develop an air horn which would mimic the sound of a classic steam whistle. Using ancient Chinese musical theory, Swanson produced the six-note model 'H6'. This was impractical for railroad use, due to its relatively large size. Railroad equipment operates over routes restricted by loading gauge, a difference of only a few inches may prohibit that equipment from operating on the line in question.
Swanson would later refine his 'H6' into the model 'H5'. As the numeric designation indicates, the horn sounds a five-note chord.
In 1950, AirChime introduced the 'M' series, a further improvement on the earlier horns through elimination of unnecessary moving parts. Among the earliest customers of the AirChime 'M' was the Southern Railway, which sought replacement horns for their motive power. The company announced this program through the placement of a full-page advertisement in the May 25, 1951 edition of the Washington Times-Herald.
Refurbished Nathan-AirChime model P5
Under Swanson's guidance, AirChime would focus on ease of mass production, low maintenance, and reliability in their air horn design, with the development of the 'P' (1953), and 'K' (1954) series
AirChime model K3L, shown here in an Auburn University-inspired livery
AirChime has been sold to their American licensee, Nathan Manufacturing, Inc., a division of Micro Precision Group, Inc, in Windham, Connecticut.[14]
Buell Air Horns[edit]
An air horn manufactured by the American Strombos Co., used on early locomotives as well as trucks
Founded in 1912 as The American Strombos Co. of Philadelphia, PA, Buell sold modified marine horns for rail use. They were often installed on small locomotives, electric interurban equipment. and railcars (for example the Doodlebugs).
Buell has recently made available a line of air horns specific for railroad equipment.[15]
Gustin Bacon Mfg. Co.[edit]
The Gustin Bacon Mfg. Co. of Kansas City, MO offered airhorns for use on railroad equipment prior to the Second World War.
Leslie Controls, Inc.[edit]
Leslie Tyfon model A200-154 air horn, used on many first-generation diesel locomotives
Leslie Controls, Inc. (originally the Leslie Company of Lyndhurst, New Jersey, later Parsippany, finally relocating to Tampa, Florida in 1985) began horn production by obtaining the rights to manufacture the Kockums Mekaniska Verkstad product line of "Tyfon" brand airhorns, marketing these for railroad use beginning in the 1930s. Their model A200 series would later grace the rooftops of countless locomotives, such as the legendary Pennsylvania Railroad GG1, as well as thousands of EMD E and F-units. Leslie eventually introduced their own line of multi-note airhorns, known as the "Chime-Tone" series, in direct competition with AirChime.
Poor sales of the Chime-Tones (due to the horns requiring an ample volume of air) led the Leslie Company to introduce a new line of air horns utilizing interchangeable components while using less air to produce greater sound volume than the earlier "Tyfon" series. Developed by Kockums, this horn utilized a back-pressure power chamber design in order to enhance diaphragm oscillation. Known as the "SuperTyfon" series, these horns would eventually supplant the "Tyfon" in railroad service.
Leslie SuperTyfon model S-5T, regarded by many aficionados as the 'king of horns'
"SuperTyfon" horns were offered in single,[16] dual,[17] triple,[18] quad,[19] and five note[20] configurations.
Leslie Controls continues to manufacture "SuperTyfon" air horns for the railroad industry.[21]
Prime Manufacturing, Inc.[edit]
Prime model PM-990 locomotive air horn
Prime Manufacturing, Inc. had produced locomotive appliances for many years prior to their entry into the air horn market in 1972. Their line of "Pneumatic Horns" was basically a derivative of the Leslie SuperTyfon design (having taken advantage of a patent expiration at the time), though their horns employed heavier castings than equivalents from Leslie, and sounding a somewhat richer timbre as a result.
Sales were brisk (railroads such as Union Pacific and the Burlington Northern were notable customers) but ultimately disappointing. Finding themselves increasingly unable to compete in a niche market dominated by Leslie Controls and AirChime, Prime ceased air horn production c. 1999.
Westinghouse Air Brake Co.[edit]
Westinghouse model E2-B1 locomotive air horn consisting of three 'singles' bolted onto a common plate
Westinghouse Air Brake Company (known throughout the 19th and 20th Century as WABCO) was the first to offer air horns specifically for use with railroad equipment, as early as the 1910s. Their model E2 was recognized by many for the deep, commanding tone it produced.
In response to the Leslie multi-note "Chime-Tone" series, Westinghouse offered a bracket to which three of their single-note "honkers" could be bolted onto, achieving the same result as what the Chime-Tones did for Leslie.
Overshadowed later on by Leslie and AirChime, WABCO eventually ceased production of most horns for the North American market.
At present, the company is known as Wabtec, Inc., and continues to offer their line of 'Pneumatic horns' for the export market.[22]
Australia[edit]
Railways in Australia often utilize the same type of air horns as their North American counterparts. Examples from both the Leslie Co. and AirChime Ltd. can be found there.
See also[edit]
Air horn
Hancock air whistle
Steam whistle
Train whistle
Whistle post
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Noise Abatement Society". Retrieved 2007-03-28.
Jump up ^ "Rockland Quiet Zone". Retrieved 2008-11-19.
Jump up ^ "2 crooks out smarted by water after attempting to steal train horn in Tulare". Retrieved 2017-12-21.
Jump up ^ "Federal Railroad Administration". Retrieved 2008-11-19.
Jump up ^ 70 FR 21844, https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2005/04/27/05-8285/use-of-locomotive-horns-at-highway-rail-grade-crossings
Jump up ^ 71 FR 47614, https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2006/08/17/06-6912/use-of-locomotive-horns-at-highway-rail-grade-crossings
Jump up ^ http://www.fra.dot.gov/eLib/details/L02686
Jump up ^ See Hayes v. Union Pacific R. Co., 141 P.3d 1073, 143 Idaho 204 (2006). https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=17886920228406310755&hl=en&as_sdt=2,5
Jump up ^ "Locomotive Horn Signals". Union Pacific Railroad.
Jump up ^ "www.stellwerke.de - Signalsystem in Deutschland". Retrieved 2007-02-05. (German)
Jump up ^ "Signs, Whistle Codes, Flag and Hand Signals", from IRFCA FAQ
Jump up ^ http://www.rssb.co.uk/Pages/Train_Horns.aspx
Jump up ^ "Locomotivehorns.info". Retrieved 2008-11-03.
Jump up ^ "Micro Precision Group, Inc". Retrieved 2010-01-06.
Jump up ^ "Buell Air Horns". Retrieved 2009-06-10.
Jump up ^ "Five Chime Consultants: Leslie S-25". Retrieved 2008-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Five Chime Consultants: Leslie S-2B". Retrieved 2008-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Five Chime Consultants: Leslie S-3L". Retrieved 2008-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Five Chime Consultants: Leslie SL-4T". Retrieved 2008-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Five Chime Consultants: Leslie S-5T". Retrieved 2008-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Leslie Controls, Inc". Retrieved 2008-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Wabtec, Inc". Retrieved 2010-01-06.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Locomotive horns.
Five Chime Consultants - online spotters' guide to diesel locomotive horns in North America
LocomotiveHorns.info - guide to collecting diesel locomotive air horns
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Train_horn&oldid=816531646"
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Use case
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A very simple use case diagram of a Wiki system.
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In software and systems engineering, a use case is a list of actions or event steps typically defining the interactions between a role (known in the Unified Modeling Language as an actor) and a system to achieve a goal. The actor can be a human or other external system. In systems engineering use cases are used at a higher level than within software engineering often representing missions or stakeholder goals. The detailed requirements may then be captured in the Systems Modeling Language (SysML) or as contractual statements.
Use case analysis is an important and valuable requirement analysis technique that has been widely used in modern software engineering since its formal introduction by Ivar Jacobson in 1992. Use case driven development is a key characteristic of many process models and frameworks such as ICONIX, the Unified Process (UP), the IBM Rational Unified Process (RUP), and the Oracle Unified Method (OUM). With its inherent iterative, incremental and evolutionary nature, use case also fits well for agile development.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Templates
2.1 Cockburn style
2.1.1 Design scopes
2.1.2 Goal levels
2.1.3 Fully dressed
2.1.4 Casual
2.2 Fowler style
3 Actors
4 Business use case
5 Visual modeling
6 Examples
7 Advantages
8 Limitations
9 Misconceptions
10 Tools
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
History[edit]
In 1986, Ivar Jacobson first formulated textual, structural, and visual modeling techniques for specifying use cases. In 1992 his co-authored book Object-Oriented Software Engineering - A Use Case Driven Approach[1] helped to popularize the technique for capturing functional requirements, especially in software development. Originally he had used the terms usage scenarios and usage case — the latter a direct translation of his Swedish term användningsfall — but found that neither of these terms sounded natural in English, and eventually he settled on use case.[2]
Since then, other experts have also contributed a great deal to the technique, notably Alistair Cockburn, Larry Constantine, Dean Leffingwell, Kurt Bittner and Gunnar Overgaard.
In 2011, Jacobson published an update to his work, called Use Case 2.0,[3] with the intention of incorporating many of his practical experiences of applying use cases since the original inception of the concept.[4][need quotation to verify]
Templates[edit]
There are many ways to write a use case in text, from use case brief, casual, outline, to fully dressed etc., and with varied templates. Writing use cases in templates devised by various vendors or experts is a common industry practice to get high-quality functional system requirements.
Cockburn style[edit]
The template defined by Alistair Cockburn in his popular book Writing Effective Use Cases has been one of the most widely used writing styles of use cases.[citation needed]
Design scopes[edit]
Cockburn suggests annotating each use case with a symbol to show the "Design Scope", which may be black-box (internal detail is hidden) or white-box (internal detail is shown). Five symbols are available:[5]
Scope
Icon
Organization (black-box) Filled House
Organization (white-box) Unfilled House
System (black-box) Filled Box
System (white-box) Unfilled Box
Component Screw or Bolt
Other authors sometimes call use cases at Organization level "Business use cases".[6]
Goal levels[edit]
Hierarchy of goal levels
Cockburn suggests annotating each use case with a symbol to show the "Goal Level";[7] the preferred level is "User-goal" (or colloquially "sea level"[8]:101).
Goal Level
Icon
Symbol
Very High Summary Cloud ++
Summary Flying Kite +
User Goal Waves at Sea !
Subfunction Fish -
Too Low Seabed Clam-Shell --
Sometimes in text writing, a use-case name followed by an alternative text symbol (!, +, -, etc.) is a more concise and convenient way to denote levels, e.g. place an order!, login-.
Fully dressed[edit]
Cockburn describes a more detailed structure for a use case, but permits it to be simplified when less detail is needed. His fully dressed use case template lists the following fields:[9]
Title: "an active-verb goal phrase that names the goal of the primary actor"[10]
Primary Actor
Goal in Context
Scope
Level
Stakeholders and Interests
Precondition
Minimal Guarantees
Success Guarantees
Trigger
Main Success Scenario
Extensions
Technology & Data Variations List
In addition, Cockburn suggests using two devices to indicate the nature of each use case: icons for design scope and goal level.
Cockburn's approach has influenced other authors; for example, Alexander and Beus-Dukic generalize Cockburn's "Fully dressed use case" template from software to systems of all kinds, with the following fields differing from Cockburn:[11]
Variation scenarios "(maybe branching off from and maybe returning to the main scenario)"
Exceptions "i.e. exception events and their exception-handling scenarios"
Casual[edit]
Cockburn recognizes that projects may not always need detailed "fully dressed" use cases. He describes a Casual use case with the fields:[9]
Title (goal)
Primary Actor
Scope
Level
(Story): the body of the use case is simply a paragraph or two of text, informally describing what happens.
Fowler style[edit]
Martin Fowler states "There is no standard way to write the content of a use case, and different formats work well in different cases."[8]:100 He describes "a common style to use" as follows:[8]:101
Title: "goal the use case is trying to satisfy"[8]:101
Main Success Scenario: numbered list of steps[8]:101
Step: "a simple statement of the interaction between the actor and a system"[8]:101
Extensions: separately numbered lists, one per Extension[8]:101
Extension: "a condition that results in different interactions from .. the main success scenario". An extension from main step 3 is numbered 3a, etc.[8]:101
The Fowler style can also be viewed as a simplified variant of the Cockburn template.
Actors[edit]
Main article: Actor (UML)
A use case defines the interactions between external actors and the system under consideration to accomplish a goal. Actors must be able to make decisions, but need not be human: "An actor might be a person, a company or organization, a computer program, or a computer system—hardware, software, or both."[12] Actors are always stakeholders, but not all stakeholders are actors, since they "never interact directly with the system, even though they have the right to care how the system behaves."[12] For example, "the owners of the system, the company's board of directors, and regulatory bodies such as the Internal Revenue Service and the Department of Insurance" could all be stakeholders but are unlikely to be actors.[12]
Similarly, a person using a system may be represented as different actors because he is playing different roles. For example, user "Joe" could be playing the role of a Customer when using an Automated Teller Machine to withdraw cash from his own account, or playing the role of a Bank Teller when using the system to restock the cash drawer on behalf of the bank.
Actors are often working on behalf of someone else. Cockburn writes that "These days I write 'sales rep for the customer' or 'clerk for the marketing department' to capture that the user of the system is acting for someone else." This tells the project that the "user interface and security clearances" should be designed for the sales rep and clerk, but that the customer and marketing department are the roles concerned about the results.[13]
A stakeholder may play both an active and an inactive role: for example, a Consumer is both a "mass-market purchaser" (not interacting with the system) and a User (an actor, actively interacting with the purchased product).[14] In turn, a User is both a "normal operator" (an actor using the system for its intended purpose) and a "functional beneficiary" (a stakeholder who benefits from the use of the system).[14] For example, when user "Joe" withdraws cash from his account, he is operating the Automated Teller Machine and obtaining a result on his own behalf.
Cockburn advises to look for actors among the stakeholders of a system, the primary and supporting (secondary) actors of a use case, the system under design (SuD) itself, and finally among the "internal actors", namely the components of the system under design.[12]
Business use case[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2015)
A business Use case diagram depicts a model of several business use cases (goals) which represents the interactions between a restaurant (the business system) and its primary stakeholders (business actors and business workers).
Visual modeling[edit]
UML diagrams
Structural UML diagrams
Class diagram
Component diagram
Composite structure diagram
Deployment diagram
Object diagram
Package diagram
Profile diagram
Behavioral UML diagrams
Activity diagram
Communication diagram
Interaction overview diagram
Sequence diagram
State diagram
Timing diagram
Use case diagram
v
t
e
Use cases are not only texts, but also diagrams, if needed. In the Unified Modeling Language, the relationships between use cases and actors are represented in use case diagrams originally based upon Ivar Jacobson's Objectory notation. SysML uses the same notation at a system block level.
In addition, other behavioral UML diagrams such as activity diagrams, sequence diagrams, communication diagrams and state machine diagrams can also be used to visualize use cases accordingly. Specifically, a System Sequence Diagram (SSD) is a sequence diagram often used to show the interactions between the external actors and the system under design (SuD), usually for visualizing a particular scenario of a use case.
Use case analysis usually starts by drawing use case diagrams. For agile development, a requirement model of many UML diagrams depicting use cases plus some textual descriptions, notes or use case briefs would be very lightweight and just enough for small or easy project use. As good complements to use case texts, the visual diagram representations of use cases are also effective facilitating tools for the better understanding, communication and design of complex system behavioral requirements.
Examples[edit]
Below is a sample use case written with a slightly-modified version of the Cockburn-style template. Note that there are no buttons, controls, forms, or any other UI elements and operations in the basic use case description, where only user goals, subgoals or intentions are expressed in every step of the basic flow or extensions. This practice makes the requirement specification clearer, and maximizes the flexibility of the design and implementations.
Use Case: Edit an article
Primary Actor: Member (Registered User)
Scope: a Wiki system
Level: ! (User goal or sea level)
Brief: (equivalent to a user story or an epic)
The member edits any part (the entire article or just a section) of an article he/she is reading. Preview and changes comparison are allowed during the editing.
Stakeholders
...
Postconditions
Minimal Guarantees:
Success Guarantees:
The article is saved and an updated view is shown.
An edit record for the article is created by the system, so watchers of the article can be informed of the update later.
Preconditions:
The article with editing enabled is presented to the member.
Triggers:
The member invokes an edit request (for the full article or just one section) on the article.
Basic flow:
The system provides a new editor area/box filled with all the article's relevant content with an informative edit summary for the member to edit. If the member just wants to edit a section of the article, only the original content of the section is shown, with the section title automatically filled out in the edit summary.
The member modifies the article's content till satisfied.
The member fills out the edit summary, tells the system if he/she wants to watch this article, and submits the edit.
The system saves the article, logs the edit event and finishes any necessary post processing.
The system presents the updated view of the article to the member.
Extensions:
2-3.
a. Show preview:
The member selects Show preview which submits the modified content.
The system reruns step 1 with addition of the rendered updated content for preview, and informs the member that his/her edits have not been saved yet, then continues.
b. Show changes:
The member selects Show changes which submits the modified content.
The system reruns step 1 with addition of showing the results of comparing the differences between the current edits by the member and the most recent saved version of the article, then continues.
c. Cancel the edit:
The member selects Cancel.
The system discards any change the member has made, then goes to step 5.
4a. Timeout:
...
Advantages[edit]
Since the inception of the agile movement, the user story technique from Extreme Programming has been so popular that many think it is the only and best solution for agile requirements of all projects. Alistair Cockburn lists five reasons why he still writes use cases in agile development.[15]
The list of goal names provides the shortest summary of what the system will offer (even than user stories). It also provides a project planning skeleton, to be used to build initial priorities, estimates, team allocation and timing.
The main success scenario of each use case provides everyone involved with an agreement as to what the system will basically do and what it will not do. It provides the context for each specific line item requirement (e.g. fine-grained user stories), a context that is very hard to get anywhere else.
The extension conditions of each use case provide a framework for investigating all the little, niggling things that somehow take up 80% of the development time and budget. It provides a look ahead mechanism, so the stakeholders can spot issues that are likely to take a long time to get answers for. These issues can and should then be put ahead of the schedule, so that the answers can be ready when the development team gets around to working on them.
The use case extension scenario fragments provide answers to the many detailed, often tricky and ignored business questions: “What are we supposed to do in this case?” It is a thinking/documentation framework that matches the if…then…else statement that helps the programmers think through issues. Except it is done at investigation time, not programming time.
The full use case set shows that the investigators have thought through every user’s needs, every goal they have with respect to the system, and every business variant involved.
In summary, specifying system requirements in use cases has these apparent benefits comparing with traditional or other approaches:
User focused
Use cases constitute a powerful, user-centric tool for the software requirements specification process.[16] Use case modeling typically starts from identifying key stakeholder roles (actors) interacting with the system, and their goals or objectives the system must fulfill (an outside perspective). These user goals then become the ideal candidates for the names or titles of the use cases which represent the desired functional features or services provided by the system. This user-centered approach ensure that what has the real business value and the user really want is developed, not those trivial functions speculated from a developer or system (inside) perspective.
Use case authoring has been an important and valuable analysis tool in the domain of User-Centered Design (UCD) for years.
Better communication
Use cases are often written in natural languages with structured templates. This narrative textual form (legible requirement stories), understandable by almost everyone, complemented by visual UML diagrams foster better and deeper communications among all stakeholders, including customers, end-users, developers, testers and managers. Better communications result in quality requirements and thus quality systems delivered.
Quality requirements by structured exploration
One of the most powerful things about use cases reside in the formats of the use case templates, especially the main success scenario (basic flow) and the extension scenario fragments (extensions, exceptional and/or alternative flows). Analyzing a use case step by step from preconditions to postconditions, exploring and investigating every action step of the use case flows, from basic to extensions, to identify those tricky, normally hidden and ignored, seemingly trivial but realistically often costly requirements (as Cockburn mentioned above), is a structured and beneficial way to get clear, stable and quality requirements systematically.
Minimizing and optimizing the action steps of a use case to achieve the user goal also contribute to a better interaction design and user experience of the system.
Facilitate testing and user documentation
With content based upon an action or event flow structure, a model of well-written use cases also serves as an excellent groundwork and valuable guidelines for the design of test cases and user manuals of the system or product, which is an effort-worthy investment up-front. There is obvious connections between the flow paths of a use case and its test cases. Deriving functional test cases from a use case through its scenarios (running instances of a use case) is straightforward.[17]
Limitations[edit]
Limitations of use cases include:
Use cases are not well suited to capturing non-interaction based requirements of a system (such as algorithm or mathematical requirements) or non-functional requirements (such as platform, performance, timing, or safety-critical aspects). These are better specified declaratively elsewhere.
As there are no fully standard definitions of use cases, each project must form its own interpretation.
Some use case relationships, such as extends, are ambiguous in interpretation and can be difficult for stakeholders to understand as pointed out by Cockburn (Problem #6)[18][citation needed]
Use case developers often find it difficult to determine the level of user interface (UI) dependency to incorporate in a use case. While use case theory suggests that UI not be reflected in use cases, it can be awkward to abstract out this aspect of design, as it makes the use cases difficult to visualize. In software engineering, this difficulty is resolved by applying requirements traceability, for example with a traceability matrix. Another approach to associate UI elements with use cases, is to attach a UI design to each step in the use case. This is called a use case storyboard.
Use cases can be over-emphasized. Bertrand Meyer discusses issues such as driving system design too literally from use cases, and using use cases to the exclusion of other potentially valuable requirements analysis techniques.[19]
Use cases are a starting point for test design,[20] but since each test needs its own success criteria, use cases may need to be modified to provide separate post-conditions for each path.[21]
Though use cases include goals and contexts, whether these goals and motivations behind the goals (stakeholders concerns and their assessments including non-interaction) conflict or negatively/positively affect other system goals are subject of goal oriented requirement modelling techniques (such as BMM, I*, KAOS and ArchiMate ARMOR).
Misconceptions[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2015)
Common misunderstandings about use cases are:
User stories are agile; use cases are not.
Agile and Scrum are neutral on requirement techniques. As the Scrum Primer[22] states,
Product Backlog items are articulated in any way that is clear and sustainable. Contrary to popular misunderstanding, the Product Backlog does not contain "user stories"; it simply contains items. Those items can be expressed as user stories, use cases, or any other requirements approach that the group finds useful. But whatever the approach, most items should focus on delivering value to customers.
Use cases are mainly diagrams.
Craig Larman stresses that "use cases are not diagrams, they are text".[23]
Use cases have too much UI-related content.
As some put it,
Use cases will often contain a level of detail (i.e. naming of labels and buttons) which make it not well suited for capturing the requirements for a new system from scratch.
Novice misunderstandings. Each step of a well-written use case should present actor goals or intentions (the essence of functional requirements), and normally it should not contain any user interface details, e.g. naming of labels and buttons, UI operations etc., which is a bad practice and will unnecessarily complicate the use case writing and limit its implementation.
As for capturing requirements for a new system from scratch, use case diagrams plus use case briefs are often used as handy and valuable tools, at least as lightweight as user stories.
Writing use cases for large systems is tedious and a waste of time.
As some put it,
The format of the use case makes it difficult to describe a large system (e.g. CRM system) in less than several hundred pages. It is time consuming and you will find yourself spending time doing an unnecessary amount of rework.
Spending much time in writing tedious use cases which add no or little value and result in a lot of rework is a bad smell indicating that the writers are not well skilled and have little knowledge of how to write quality use cases both efficiently and effectively. Use cases should be authored in an iterative, incremental and evolutionary (agile) way. Applying use case templates does not mean that all the fields of a use case template should be used and filled out comprehensively from up-front or during a special dedicated stage, i.e. the requirement phase in the traditional waterfall development model.
In fact, the use case formats formulated by those popular template styles, e.g. the RUP's and the Cockburn's (also adopted by the OUM method) etc., have been proved in practice as valuable and helpful tools for capturing, analyzing and documenting complex requirements of large systems. The quality of a good use case documentation (model) should not be judged largely or only by its size. It is possible as well that a quality and comprehensive use case model of a large system may finally evolve into hundreds of pages mainly because of the inherent complexity of the problem in hand, not because of the poor writing skills of its authors.
Tools[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Text editors and/or word processors with template support are often used to write use cases. For large and complex system requirements, dedicated use case tools are helpful.
Some of the well-known use case tools include:
CaseComplete
Enterprise Architect
MagicDraw
Rational Software's RequisitePro - one of the early, well-known use case and requirement management tools in the 1990s.
objectiF and objectiF RM developed by microTOOL.
Wiki software - good tools for teams to author and manage use cases collaboratively.
Most UML tools support both the text writing and visual modeling of use cases.
See also[edit]
Software Testing portal
Abuse case
Business case
Event partitioning
Feature
List of UML tools
Misuse case
Requirement
Requirements elicitation
Scenario
Storyboard
Test Case
Use Case Points
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jacobson Ivar, Christerson Magnus, Jonsson Patrik, Övergaard Gunnar, Object-Oriented Software Engineering - A Use Case Driven Approach, Addison-Wesley, 1992.
Jump up ^ "Alistair Cockburn, "Use cases, ten years later"". Alistair.cockburn.us. 2002. Retrieved 2013-04-17.
Jump up ^ Jacobson, Ivar; Spence, Ian; Bittner, Kurt (December 2011). "Use Case 2.0: The Guide to Succeeding with Use Cases". Ivar Jacobson International. Retrieved 2014-05-05.
Jump up ^ "Business Analysis Conference Europe 2011 - 26-28 September 2011, London, UK". Irmuk.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-04-17.
Jump up ^ Cockburn, 2001. Inside front cover. Icons "Design Scope".
Jump up ^ Suzanne Robertson. Scenarios in Requirements Discovery. Chapter 3 in Alexander and Maiden, 2004. Pages 39-59.
Jump up ^ Cockburn, 2001. Inside front cover. Icons "Goal Level".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Fowler, 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b Cockburn, 2001. Page 120.
Jump up ^ Cockburn, 2001. Inside rear cover. Field "Use Case Title".
Jump up ^ Alexander and Beus-Dukic, 2009. Page 121
^ Jump up to: a b c d Cockburn, 2001. Page 53.
Jump up ^ Cockburn, 2001. Page 55.
^ Jump up to: a b Alexander and Beus-Dukic, 2009. Page 39.
Jump up ^ Cockburn, Alistair (2008-01-09). "Why I still use use cases". alistair.cockburn.us.
Jump up ^ Karl Wiegers (March 1997). "Listening to the Customer's Voice". Process Impact. Software Development.
Jump up ^ Peter Zielczynski (May 2006). "Traceability from Use Cases to Test Cases". IBM developerWorks.
Jump up ^ "Alistair.Cockburn.us - Structuring use cases with goals". alistair.cockburn.us. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Meyer, 2000. (page needed)
Jump up ^ Armour and Miller, 2000. (page needed)
Jump up ^ Denney, 2005. (page needed)
Jump up ^ Pete Deemer; Gabrielle Benefield; Craig Larman; Bas Vodde (2012-12-17). "The Scrum Primer: A Lightweight Guide to the Theory and Practice of Scrum (Version 2.0)". InfoQ.
Jump up ^ Larman, Craig. Applying UML and patterns. Prentice Hall. pp. 63–64. ISBN 0-13-148906-2.
Further reading[edit]
Alexander, Ian, and Beus-Dukic, Ljerka. Discovering Requirements: How to Specify Products and Services. Wiley, 2009.
Alexander, Ian, and Maiden, Neil. Scenarios, Stories, Use Cases. Wiley 2004.
Armour, Frank, and Granville Miller. Advanced Use Case Modeling: Software Systems. Addison-Wesley, 2000.
Kurt Bittner, Ian Spence, Use Case Modeling, Addison-Wesley Professional, Aug 20, 2002.
Cockburn, Alistair. Writing Effective Use Cases. Addison-Wesley, 2001.
Larry Constantine, Lucy Lockwood, Software for Use: A Practical Guide to the Essential Models and Methods of Usage-Centered Design, Addison-Wesley, 1999.
Denney, Richard. Succeeding with Use Cases: Working Smart to Deliver Quality. Addison-Wesley, 2005.
Fowler, Martin. UML Distilled (Third Edition). Addison-Wesley, 2004.
Jacobson Ivar, Christerson M., Jonsson P., Övergaard G., Object-Oriented Software Engineering - A Use Case Driven Approach, Addison-Wesley, 1992.
Jacobson Ivar, Spence I., Bittner K. Use Case 2.0: The Guide to Succeeding with Use Cases, IJI SA, 2011.
Dean Leffingwell, Don Widrig, Managing Software Requirements: A Use Case Approach, Addison-Wesley Professional. Dec 7, 2012.
Kulak, Daryl, and Eamonn Guiney. Use cases: requirements in context. Addison-Wesley, 2012.
Meyer, Bertrand. Object Oriented Software Construction. (2nd edition). Prentice Hall, 2000.
Schneider, Geri and Winters, Jason P. Applying Use Cases 2nd Edition: A Practical Guide. Addison-Wesley, 2001.
Wazlawick, Raul S. Object-Oriented Analysis and Design for Information Systems: Modeling with UML, OCL, and IFML. Morgan Kaufmann, 2014.
External links[edit]
Alistair Cockburn's use case column
Use Cases (Usability.gov)
Basic Use Case Template by Alistair Cockburn
Application of use cases for stakeholder analysis "Project Icarus: Stakeholder Scenarios for an Interstellar Exploration Program", JBIS, 64, 224-233
"An Academic Survey on the Role of Use Cases in the UML"
Search use case in IBM developerWorks
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