text:
Reserved political positions in India
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This article's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (October 2010)
In India, a certain number of political positions and university posts are held for specific groups of the population, including Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes, Anglo-Indians and Women.
There are reserved constituencies in both Parliamentary and State Assembly elections. Candidates of General category are not eligible to contest from these constituencies. All voters are to vote for one of the candidates (from Scheduled Castes or Schedule Tribes). In case of Municipal elections and other Local Bodies elections, the constituencies are known as Wards. Thus, there may be as many Wards or Constituencies as the number of elected seats in the elected body. Reserved constituencies are those constituencies in which seats are reserved for SCs and STs on the basis of their population.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 Under the British Raj
3 After Independence
3.1 Anglo-Indian seats
3.2 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
3.3 Women
4 See also
5 References
Definition[edit]
An electorate is a group of voters, namely, all the officially qualified voters within a particular country or area or for a particular election.
A joint electorate is one where the entire voting population of a country or region is part of a single electorate, and the entire electorate votes for the candidates who contest in the elections.
In the case of separate electorates, the voting population of a country or region is divided into different electorates, based on certain factors such as religion, caste, gender, and occupation. Here, members of each electorate votes only to elected representatives for their electorate. Separate electorates are usually demanded by minorities who feel it would otherwise be difficult for them to get fair representation in government. For example, separate electorate for Muslims means that Muslims will choose their separate leader by separate elections for Muslims.[1]
Under the British Raj[edit]
In India’s pre-independence era, when the Muslims in India demanded fair representation in power-sharing with the British government along with the Hindus in 1906, the British government provided for a separate electorate system for the Muslims in Indian Council Act 1909. As a result, of the total 250 seats of the Bengal Legislative Assembly, 117 seats were kept reserved for the Muslims. Accordingly, the general elections of 1937 were held on the basis of the extended separate electorates, where only the Muslims voted for the 117 seats, in Bengal.
Again, in the Round Table Conferences in 1930-32, the concept of separate electorates for the so-called Untouchables (now called SC/ST) was raised by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, as a way to ensure sufficient representation for the minority SC/ST communities, in government. This provision was strongly opposed by Gandhi on the grounds that the move would disintegrate Hindu society. If the SC/ST communities were given a separate electorate, then certain constituencies would have been reserved for them, and only the people belonging to SC/ST communities would have been able to vote for the candidates contesting those seats, thus alienating the rest of the Hindus. Finally, a compromise was reached with Ambedkar and Gandhi with the Poona Pact in which the parties agreed that certain constituencies would be reserved for the SC/ST communities, where the people belonging to SC/ST communities could elect 4 candidates per constituency who would then be candidates for election by the joint electorate.
After Independence[edit]
Anglo-Indian seats[edit]
The Anglo-Indian community is the only Indian community that has its own representatives nominated to the Lok Sabha (Lower House) in India's Parliament. This right was secured from Nehru by Frank Anthony, the first and longtime president of the All India Anglo-Indian Association. The community is represented by two members. This is done because the community has no native state of its own. States like Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West Bengal also have a nominated member each in their respective State Legislatures.
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes[edit]
Main article: Reservation in India
A number of seats in the Parliament of India, State Assemblies, Municipalities and Village level institutions are reserved for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST). The election of SC and ST candidates is by a Joint or mixed electorate, which includes all castes, even though the SC and ST may be in a minority in the constituency[citation needed]. This system was introduced by the Constitution of India in 1950 and was supposed to be in place for the first 10 years, to ensure participation in politics by these groups which were deemed weak and needing special protection[citation needed].
In practice, out of 543 constituencies represented in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of India's parliament, 85 (15.47%) are reserved for SC and 48 (8.66%) are reserved for ST.
Allocation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha are made on the basis of proportion of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the State concerned to that of the total population, provide provision contained in Article 330 of the Constitution of India read with Section 3 of the R. P. Act, 1950[citation needed].
Women[edit]
Main article: Women's Reservation Bill
Women get one-third reservation in Gram Panchayats (meaning Village Assembly, which is a form of local village government) and Municipal elections. There is a long-term plan to extend this reservation to Parliament and State Legislative assemblies. The Women's Reservation Bill was passed by the Rajya Sabha on 9 March 2010 by a majority vote of 186 members in favour and 1 against. It will now go to the Lok Sabha, and if passed there, would be implemented.
See also[edit]
Reserved political positions
Proportionate representation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ pakistan studies by dr. M. Azam Chaudhary
Third Round Table conference, Poona Pact
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text:
The Matrix Reloaded
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Matrix Reloaded
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
The Wachowski Brothers
Produced by
Joel Silver
Written by
The Wachowski Brothers
Starring
Keanu Reeves
Laurence Fishburne
Carrie-Anne Moss
Hugo Weaving
Jada Pinkett Smith
Gloria Foster
Music by
Don Davis
Cinematography
Bill Pope
Edited by
Zach Staenberg
Production
companies
Village Roadshow Pictures
Silver Pictures
NPV Entertainment
Distributed by
Warner Bros. Pictures
(United States)
Roadshow Film Distributors
(Australia)[1]
Release date
May 7, 2003 (2003-05-07) (Mann Village Theatre)
May 15, 2003 (2003-05-15) (United States)
May 16, 2003 (2003-05-16) (Australia)
Running time
138 minutes[2]
Country
Australia[3]
United States[3]
Language
English
Budget
$127[4]–150[5] million
Box office
$742.1 million[5]
The Matrix Reloaded is a 2003 American-Australian science fiction action film, the first sequel to The Matrix, and the second installment in The Matrix trilogy, written and directed by The Wachowski Brothers. It premiered on May 7, 2003, in Westwood, Los Angeles, California, and went on general release by Warner Bros. in North American theaters on May 15, 2003, and around the world during the latter half of that month. It was also screened out of competition at the 2003 Cannes Film Festival.[6] The video game Enter the Matrix, which was released on May 15, and a collection of nine animated shorts, The Animatrix, which was released on June 3, supported and expanded the storyline of the film. The Matrix Revolutions, which completes the story, was released six months after Reloaded, in November 2003.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Filming
3.2 Visual effects
3.3 Music
4 Reception
4.1 Box office
4.2 Critical response
4.3 Awards
4.4 Controversy
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Six months after the events of the first film, Neo (Keanu Reeves) and Trinity (Carrie-Anne Moss) are now romantically involved. Morpheus (Laurence Fishburne) receives a message from Captain Niobe (Jada Pinkett Smith) of the Logos calling an emergency meeting of all of Zion's ships. Zion has confirmed the last transmission of the Osiris: an army of Sentinels is tunneling towards Zion and will reach it within 72 hours. Commander Lock (Harry Lennix) orders all ships to return to Zion to prepare for the onslaught, but Morpheus asks one ship to remain in order to contact the Oracle (Gloria Foster). The Caduceus receives a message from the Oracle, and the Nebuchadnezzar ventures out so Neo can contact her. One of the Caduceus crew, Bane (Ian Bliss), encounters Agent Smith (Hugo Weaving), who absorbs his avatar whilst killing him in the process. Smith then uses this avatar to leave the Matrix, gaining control of Bane's real body.
In Zion, Morpheus announces the news of the advancing machines to the people. Neo receives a message from the Oracle and returns to the Matrix to meet her bodyguard Seraph (Collin Chou), who then leads him to her. After realizing that the Oracle is part of the Matrix, Neo asks how he can trust her; she replies that it is his decision. The Oracle instructs Neo to reach the Source of the Matrix by finding the Keymaker (Randall Duk Kim), a prisoner of the Merovingian (Lambert Wilson). As the Oracle departs, Smith appears, telling Neo that after being defeated, he refused to be deleted, and is now a rogue program. He demonstrates his ability to clone himself using other inhabitants of the Matrix, including other Agents, as hosts. He then tries to absorb Neo as a host, but fails, prompting a battle between Smith's clones and Neo. Neo manages to defend himself, but is forced to retreat from the increasingly overwhelming numbers.
Neo, Morpheus, and Trinity visit the Merovingian and ask for the Keymaker, but the Merovingian refuses. His wife Persephone (Monica Bellucci), seeking revenge on her husband for his infidelity, betrays him and leads the trio to the Keymaker. The Merovingian soon arrives with his men. Morpheus, Trinity and the Keymaker escape, while Neo holds off the Merovingian's servants. Morpheus and Trinity try to escape with the Keymaker on the freeway, facing several Agents and the Twins, the Merovingian's chief henchmen. Morpheus defeats the Twins, Trinity escapes, and Neo flies in to save Morpheus and the Keymaker from Agent Johnson. In the real world, Zion's remaining ships prepare to battle the machines. Within the Matrix, the crews of the Nebuchadnezzar, Vigilant and Logos help the Keymaker and Neo reach the door to the Source.
The crew of the Logos must destroy a power plant to prevent a security system from being triggered, and the crew of the Vigilant must destroy a back-up power station. The Logos succeeds, while the Vigilant is bombed by a Sentinel in the real world, killing everyone on board. Although Neo asked Trinity to remain on the Nebuchadnezzar, she enters the Matrix to replace the Vigilant crew and complete their mission. However, her escape is compromised by Agent Thompson, and they fight. As Neo, Morpheus, and the Keymaker try to reach the Source, the Smiths appear and attack them. The Keymaker unlocks the door to the Source, allowing Neo and Morpheus to enter and escape from the Smiths, but the Smiths shoot the Keymaker dead while he tries to close the door to the Source. Neo enters a door and meets a program called the Architect, the creator of the Matrix.
The Architect explains that Neo is part of the design of the sixth iteration of Matrix, designed to stop the fatal system crash that naturally occurs due to the concept of human choice. As with the five previous Ones, Neo can choose either to return to the Source with his unique code to reboot the Matrix and pick survivors to begin to repopulate the soon-to-be-destroyed Zion, or cause the Matrix to crash and kill everyone connected to it; combined with Zion's destruction, this would mean mankind's extinction. Neo learns of Trinity's situation and chooses to save her instead. As she falls off a building, getting shot in the process, Neo flies in and catches her; Thompson is killed in the process. He then by phasing his hand into her body and removes a bullet from her body, restarting her heart and reviving her from death. Back in the real world, Sentinels destroy the Nebuchadnezzar. Neo displays a new ability to disable the machines with his thoughts, but falls into a coma from the effort. The crew are picked up by another ship, the Hammer. Its captain, Roland, reveals the other ships were wiped out by the machines after someone activated an EMP too early, and that they found only one survivor afterwards—revealed to be the Smith-possessed Bane.
Cast[edit]
See also: List of minor characters in the Matrix series
Keanu Reeves as Neo
Laurence Fishburne as Morpheus
Hugo Weaving as Agent Smith
Carrie-Anne Moss as Trinity
Jada Pinkett Smith as Niobe
Gloria Foster as the Oracle
Harold Perrineau as Link
Monica Bellucci as Persephone
Lambert Wilson as the Merovingian
Randall Duk Kim as the Keymaker
Harry Lennix as Commander Lock
Anthony Zerbe as Councillor Hamann
Nona Gaye as Zee
Helmut Bakaitis as the Architect
Neil and Adrian Rayment as the Twins
Daniel Bernhardt as Agent Johnson
Collin Chou as Seraph
Ian Bliss as Bane
Leigh Whannell as Axel
Gina Torres as Cas
Nathaniel Lees as Captain Mifune
Roy Jones, Jr. as Captain Ballard
David A. Kilde as Agent Jackson
Matt McColm as Agent Thompson
Cornel West as Councillor West
Steve Bastoni as Captain Soren
Anthony Wong as Ghost
Clayton Watson as Kid
Tiger Chen as the Merovingian's Ronin
Zee was originally played by Aaliyah, who died in a plane crash on August 25, 2001, before filming was complete, requiring her scenes to be reshot with actress Nona Gaye.[7][8]
Production[edit]
Filming[edit]
The Matrix Reloaded was largely filmed at Fox Studios in Australia, filming began on March 1st, 2001 and ended on August 21st, 2002, concurrently with filming of the sequel, Revolutions. The freeway chase and "Burly Brawl" scenes were filmed at the decommissioned Naval Air Station Alameda in Alameda, California. The producers constructed a 1.5-mile freeway on the old runways specifically for the film. Some portions of the chase were also filmed in Oakland, California, and the tunnel shown briefly is the Webster Tube, which connects Oakland and Alameda. Some post-production editing was also done in old aircraft hangars on the base as well. The city of Akron, Ohio was willing to give full access to Route 59, the stretch of freeway known as the "Innerbelt", for filming of the freeway chase when it was under consideration. However, producers decided against this as "the time to reset all the cars in their start position would take too long".[9] MythBusters would later reuse the Alameda location in order to explore the effects of a head-on collision between two semi trucks, and to perform various other experiments. Around 97% of the materials from the sets of the film were recycled after production was completed; for example, tons of wood were sent to Mexico to build low-income housing.[10] Some scenes from the film Baraka by Ron Fricke were selected to represent the real world shown by the wallmonitors in the Architect's room.[citation needed] The scene where The Oracle (Gloria Foster) appears was filmed before her death on September 29, 2001.
Visual effects[edit]
Following the success of the previous film, the Wachowskis came up with extremely difficult action sequences, such as the Burly Brawl, a scene in which Neo had to fight 100 Smiths. To develop technologies for the film, Warner Bros. launched ESC Entertainment.[11] The ESC team tried to figure out how to bring the Wachowskis' vision to the screen, but because the bullet time required arrays of carefully aligned cameras and months of planning, even for a brief scene featuring two or three actors, a scene like the Burly Brawl as the brothers envision would require more so, and even take years of compositing. Eventually John Gaeta realized that the technology he and his crew had developed for The Matrix's bullet time was no longer sufficient and concluded they needed a virtual camera (in other words, a simulation of a camera). Having before used real photographs of building as texture for 3D models in The Matrix, the team started digitizing all data, such as scenes, characters' motions, or even the reflectivity of Neo's cassock. The reflectivity of objects needs to be captured and simulated adequately and Paul Debevec et al. captured the reflectance of the human face and Borshukov's work was strongly based on the findings of Debevec et al. They developed "Universal Capture", a process which samples and stores facial details and expressions at high resolution, then capture expressions from Reeves and Weaving using dense aka. markerless capture and multi-camera setup (similar to the bullet time rig) photogrammetric capture technique called optical flow.[12] The algorithm for Universal Capture was written by George Borshukov, visual effects lead at ESC, who had also created the photo-realistic buildings for the visual effects in The Matrix. With this collected wealth of data and the right algorithms, they finally were able to create virtual cinematography in which characters, locations, and events can all be created digitally and viewed through virtual cameras, eliminating the restrictions of real cameras, years of compositing data, and replacing the use of still camera arrays or, in some scenes, cameras altogether. The ESC team render the final effects using the program mental ray.[11]
Music[edit]
See also: The Matrix Reloaded: The Album and The Matrix Reloaded: Limited Edition (2-CD Set)
Don Davis, who composed for The Matrix, returned to score Reloaded. For many of the pivotal action sequences, such as the "Burly Brawl", he collaborated with Juno Reactor. Some of the collaborative cues by Davis and Juno Reactor are extensions of material by Juno Reactor; for example, a version of "Komit" featuring Davis' strings is used during a flying sequence, and "Burly Brawl" is essentially a combination of Davis' unused "Multiple Replication" and a piece similar to Juno Reactor's "Masters of the Universe". One of the collaborations, "Mona Lisa Overdrive", is titled in reference to the cyberpunk novel of the same name by William Gibson, a major influence on the directors.
Leitmotifs established in The Matrix return — such as the Matrix main theme, Neo and Trinity's love theme, the Sentinel's theme, Neo's flying theme, and a more frequent use of the four-note Agent Smith theme — and others used in Revolutions are established.
As with its predecessor, many tracks by external musicians are featured in the movie, its closing credits, and the soundtrack album, some of which were written for the film. Many of the musicians featured, for example Rob Zombie, Rage Against the Machine and Marilyn Manson, had also appeared on the soundtrack for The Matrix. Rob Dougan also re-contributed, licensing the instrumental version of "Furious Angels", as well as being commissioned to provide an original track, ultimately scoring the battle in the Merovingian's chateau. A remixed version of "Slap It" by electronic artist Fluke — listed on the soundtrack as "Zion" — was used during the rave scene.
Linkin Park contributed their instrumental song "Session" to the film as well, although it did not appear during the course of the film. P.O.D. composed a song called "Sleeping Awake", with a music video which focused heavily on Neo, as well as many images that were part of the film. Both songs played during the film's credits.
It was originally planned for the electronic band Röyksopp to create the soundtrack, but this offer was turned down.[13]
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
The film earned an estimated $5 million during Wednesday night previews in North America. Reloaded grossed $37.5 million on its Thursday opening day in North America from 3,603 theaters, which was the second highest opening day after Spider-Man's $39.4 million and highest for a Thursday. The film earned $91.7 million in its first weekend,[14] and ultimately grossed $281.5 million in the US, and $742.1 million worldwide. The film sold an estimated 46,695,900 tickets in North America.[15]
Critical response[edit]
Reloaded received a Rotten Tomatoes approval rating of 73%, based on 239 reviews, with a weighted average score of 6.8/10. The site's critical consensus states: "Though its heady themes are a departure from its predecessor, The Matrix Reloaded is a worthy sequel packed with popcorn-friendly thrills."[16] The film's rating on Metacritic is 62%, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[17] However, Entertainment Weekly named it as one of "The 25 Worst Sequels Ever Made".[18]
Some positive comments from critics included commendation for the quality and intensity of its action sequences,[19] and its intelligence.[20] Tony Toscano of Talking Pictures had high praise for the film, saying that "its character development and writing...is so crisp it crackles on the screen" and that "Matrix Reloaded re-establishes the genre and even raises the bar a notch or two" above the first film, The Matrix.[21]
On the other hand, negative comments included the sentiment that the plot was alienating,[22][23] with some critics regarding the focus on the action as a detriment to the film's human elements.[24][25] Some critics thought that the number of scenes with expository dialog worked against the film,[26][27] and the many unresolved subplots, as well as the cliffhanger ending, were also criticized.[28] Other criticisms included the film's perceived lack of pacing.[29]
Awards[edit]
Main article: List of awards and nominations received by The Matrix franchise
Controversy[edit]
The film was initially banned in Egypt because of the violent content and because it put into question issues about human creation, "which are related to the three divine religions, which we all respect and believe in."[30]
See also[edit]
Film in the United States portal
Australia portal
2000s portal
Film portal
Simulated reality
List of films featuring powered exoskeletons
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Film Distribution". Village Roadshow. Retrieved February 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Matrix Reloaded". British Board of Film Classification. Retrieved September 15, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Matrix Reloaded (2003)". British Film Institute. Retrieved December 16, 2014.
Jump up ^ Allmovie. 2010a. The Matrix Reloaded. [Online] Rovi Corporation (Updated 2010) Available at: http://www.allmovie.com/movie/the-matrix-reloaded-v279420 [Accessed 19 February 2010]. Archived at https://www.webcitation.org/5nfH2gABv.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Matrix Reloaded (2003)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved February 5, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Festival de Cannes: The Matrix Reloaded". festival-cannes.com. Retrieved 2009-11-10.
Jump up ^ "Aaliyah". The Independent. London. August 27, 2001. Archived from the original on 2010-06-06.
Jump up ^ "Aaliyah: A 'beautiful person's' life cut short". Archives.cnn.com. 2001-08-27. Retrieved 2015-02-08.
Jump up ^ Job, Ann. "Chasing the Stars: Carmakers in Movies". MSN.com. Retrieved 2005-01-30.
Jump up ^ "Hollywood smog an inconvenient truth". Associated Press (CNN.com). November 14, 2006. Archived from the original on December 15, 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b Silberman, Steve. "Matrix2". Wired. Retrieved December 25, 2012.
Jump up ^ Debevec, Paul; J. P. Lewis (2005). "Realistic human face rendering for "The Matrix Reloaded"". ACM. doi:10.1145/1198555.1198593. Retrieved 2013-08-10.
Jump up ^ "Kafka feat. Röyksopp at the Bergen International Festival". Bergen International Festival. 2015
Jump up ^ Weekend Box Office Results for May 16-18, 2003 - Box Office Mojo
Jump up ^ "The Matrix Reloaded (2003)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved July 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Matrix Reloaded (2003)". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango. Retrieved May 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Matrix Reloaded Reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ Nashawaty, Chris (December 22, 2007). "The 25 Worst Sequels Ever Made". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ McCarthy, Todd (May 7, 2003). "The Matrix Reloaded". Variety. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
Jump up ^ Arnold, William (May 14, 2003). "'Matrix' fans can't afford to miss 'Reloaded'". Seattlepi.com. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
Jump up ^ Toscano, Tony (May 20, 2003). "The Matrix Reloaded (2003) movie review". Rotten Tomatoes. Archived from the original on March 10, 2007. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
Jump up ^ Schickel, Richard (May 11, 2003). "The Matrix Reboots". TIME. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
Jump up ^ Rodriguez, Rene (May 14, 2003). "Sequelitis infects 'Matrix Reloaded' with talk - lots of it". Miamiherald.com. Archived from the original on August 12, 2003. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
Jump up ^ Sterritt, David (May 16, 2003). "Ready for a Neo world order?". csmonitor.com. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
Jump up ^ Rabin, Nathan (May 13, 2003). "The Matrix Reloaded review". The A.V. Club. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
Jump up ^ Miller, Skyler. "The Matrix Reloaded review". AllMovie. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ Savlov, Marc (May 16, 2003). "The Matrix Reloaded review". The Austin Chronicle. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
Jump up ^ Caro, Mark (June 11, 2003). "Movie review: 'The Matrix Reloaded'". Metromix. Archived from the original on December 30, 2007. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
Jump up ^ Sailer, Steve (May 15, 2003). "Film of the Week: 'Matrix Reloaded'". UPI. Retrieved October 6, 2015. It has only two speeds: you either get leaden philosophizing about free will or super-colossal action set pieces. It's like "My Dinner with Andre on the Hindenburg."
Jump up ^ "Egypt bans 'too religious' Matrix". BBC News. June 11, 2003. Retrieved 2016-08-21.
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Songhai Empire
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Songhai Empire
c. 1464–1591
The territorial extent of the Songhai Empire in c. 1500.
Capital Gao[1]
Languages Songhai, Malinké, Mandinka, Fulani, Bozo, Soninke, Hausa, Mooré
Religion Islam, African traditional religion
Government Empire
Dia (King)
• 1464–1492 Sunni Ali
• 1492–1493 Sonni Bāru
• 1493–1528 Askia the Great
• 1529–1531 Askia Musa
• 1531–1537 Askia Benkan
• 1537–1539 Askia Isma'il
• 1539–1549 Askia Ishaq I
• 1549–1582/1583 Askia Daoud
• 1588–1592 Askia Ishaq II
Historical era Postclassical Era
• Songhai state emerges c. 1000
• independence from Mali Empire c. 1430
• Sunni Dynasty begins 1468
• Askiya Dynasty begins 1493
• Songhai Empire falls 1591
• Dendi Kingdom continues 1592
Area
• 1500[2] 1,400,000 km2 (540,000 sq mi)
• 1550[3] 800,000 km2 (310,000 sq mi)
Currency (Cowry shells, and gold coins)
Preceded by Succeeded by
Mali Empire
Gao Empire
Saadi dynasty
Pashalik of Timbuktu
Dendi Kingdom
Today part of Benin
Burkina Faso
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Mali
Mauritania
Niger
Nigeria
Senegal
The Gambia
The Songhai Empire (also transliterated as Songhay) was a state that dominated the western Sahel in the 15th and 16th century. At its peak, it was one of the largest states in African history. The state is known by its historiographical name, derived from its leading ethnic group and ruling elite, the Songhai. Sonni Ali established Gao as the capital of the empire, although a Songhai state had existed in and around Gao since the 11th century. Other important cities in the empire were Timbuktu and Djenné, conquered in 1468 and 1475 respectively, where urban-centered trade flourished. Initially, the empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty (c. 1464–1493), but it was later replaced by the Askiya dynasty (1493–1591).
During the second half of the 13th century, Gao and the surrounding region had grown into an important trading center and attracted the interest of the expanding Mali Empire. Mali conquered Gao towards the end of the 13th century. Gao would remain under Malian hegemony until the late 14th century. As the Mali Empire started to disintegrate, the Songhai reasserted control of Gao. Songhai rulers subsequently took advantage of the weakened Mali Empire to expand Songhai rule.
Under the rule of Sonni Ali, the Songhai surpassed the Malian Empire in area, wealth, and power, absorbing vast areas of the Mali Empire and reached its greatest extent. His son and successor, Sonni Bāru (1492–1493), was a less successful ruler of the empire, and as such was overthrown by Muhammad Ture (1493–1528; called Askia), one of his father's generals, who instituted political and economic reforms throughout the empire.
A series of plots and coups by Askia's successors forced the empire into a period of decline and instability. Askia's relatives attempted to govern the empire, but political chaos and several civil wars within the empire ensured the empire's continued decline, particularly during the brutal rule of Askia Ishaq I (1539–1549). The empire experienced a period of stability and a string of military successes during the reign of Askia Daoud (1549–1582/1583). Ahmad al-Mansur, the Moroccan sultan at the time, demanded tax revenues from the empire's salt mines.
Askia Daoud responded by sending a large quantity of gold as gift in an attempt to appease the sultan. Askia Ishaq II (1588–1591) ascended to power in a long dynastic struggle following the death of Askia Daoud. He would be the last ruler of the empire. In 1590, al-Mansur took advantage of the recent civil strife in the empire and sent an army under the command of Judar Pasha to conquer the Songhai and to gain control of the Trans-Saharan trade routes. After the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Tondibi (1591), the Songhai Empire collapsed. The Dendi Kingdom succeeded the empire as the continuation of Songhai culture and society.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Pre-imperial Songhai
1.2 Pre-imperial dynasties
1.3 Pre-imperial kingdom
1.4 Imperial Songhai
1.5 Sonni Ali
2 Imperial Songhai
2.1 Sonni Ali
2.2 Askia the Great
2.3 Decline
3 Culture
3.1 Economy
3.2 Criminal justice
3.3 Government
4 Defeat
5 See also
6 References
6.1 Citations
6.2 Sources
7 Further reading
8 External links
History[edit]
Pre-imperial Songhai[edit]
Further information: Songhai people
In ancient times there were several different groups of people that collectively formed the Songhai identity. Among the first people to settle in the region of Gao were the Sorko people, who established small settlements on the banks of the Niger River. The Sorko fashioned boats and canoes from the wood of the cailcedrat tree and fished and hunted from their boats and provided water-borne transport for goods and people. Another group of people that moved into the area to exploit the Niger's resources were the Gow people. The Gow were hunters and specialized in hunting river animals such as crocodile and hippopotamus.[citation needed]
The other group of people known to have inhabited the area were the Do people. They were farmers who raised crops in the fertile lands bordering the river. Sometime before the 10th century, these early settlers were subjugated by more powerful, horse-riding Songhai speakers, who established control over the area. All these groups of people gradually began to speak the same language and they and their country eventually became known as the Songhai.[4]
Pre-imperial dynasties[edit]
Further information: Za Dynasty
The earliest dynasty of kings is obscure and most of the information about this dynasty comes from an ancient cemetery near a village called Saney, close to Gao. Inscriptions on a few of the tombstones in the cemetery indicate that this dynasty ruled in the late 11th and early 12th centuries and that the rulers from this dynasty bore the title of malik. Other tombstones mention a second dynasty, whose rulers bore the title zuwa. There is only myth and legend to describe zuwa origins.[5] The Tarikh al-Sudan (the History of the Sudan), written in Arabic around 1655, provides an early history of the Songhai as handed down through oral tradition. The chronicle reports that the legendary founder of the Za or the Zuwa dynasty was called Za Alayaman, who originally came from Yemen and settled in the town of Kukiya.[6] What happened to the Zuwa rulers is not recorded.[7]
Pre-imperial kingdom[edit]
Further information: Gao Empire
The camel-riding Sanhaja tribes were among the early people of the Niger bend region. They were locally known as the Tuareg. These tribes rode out of the great Sahara Desert and established trading settlements near the Niger. As time passed, North African traders crossed the Sahara and joined the Tuaregs in their Niger bend settlements.[citation needed] They all conducted business with the people living near the river. As trade in the region increased, the Songhai chiefs took control of the profitable commerce around what was to later become Gao. Between 750 and 950, as the Ghana Empire prospered as the "land of gold" far to the west, the trading centre at Gao became an increasingly important terminus for trade across the Sahara.[citation needed]
The trade goods included gold, salt, slaves, kola nuts, leather, dates, and ivory. And by the 10th century, the Songhai chiefs had established Gao as a small kingdom, taking control of the people living along the trade routes. At around 1300, Gao had become so prosperous that it attracted the attention of the Mali Empire and its rulers. Gao was subsequently conquered by them and Mali profited from Gao's trade and collected taxes from its kings until about the 1430s. Troubles in the Mali homelands made it impossible to maintain control of Gao.[8] Ibn Battuta visited Gao in 1353 when the town was a part of the Mali Empire. He arrived by boat from Timbuktu on his return journey from visiting the capital of the empire:
Then I travelled to the town of Kawkaw, which is a great town on the Nīl [Niger], one of the finest, biggest, and most fertile cities of the Sūdān. There is much rice there, and milk, and chickens, and fish, and the cucumber, which has no like. Its people conduct their buying and selling with cowries, like the people of Mālī.[9]
Imperial Songhai[edit]
Following the death of Mansa Sulayman in 1360, disputes over the succession weakened the Mali Empire. Furthermore, the ruinous reign of Mari Djata II left the empire in bad financial shape, but the empire itself passed intact to Musa II. However, real power in the empire was in the hands of Mari Djata, Musa's kankoro-sigui. He put down a Tuareg rebellion in Takedda and attempted to quell the Songhai rebellion in Gao. While he was successful in Takedda, he did not manage to re-subjugate Gao, and so the Songhai effectively retained their independence.[10] During his reign, Sonni Ali would be the one to expand the small kingdom of Gao into an enormous empire.[11]
Sonni Ali[edit]
Further information: Sonni Ali
Sonni Ali was the first king of the Songhai Empire and the 15th ruler of the Manay dynasty. He worked his hardest to get the Songhai empire out of its rocky start. The Muslim leaders of Timbuktu asked him to drive out the invaders. Once Sunni Ali drove them out, he took this chance and took over Timbuktu. Soon, he had almost all the trading cities along the Niger River.[citation needed]
Imperial Songhai[edit]
In the decades following the death of, disputes over succession weakened the Mali Empire, and in the 1430s Songhai, previously a Mali dependency, gained independence under the Sonni Dynasty. Around thirty years later Sonni Sulayman Dama attacked Mema, the Mali province west of Timbuktu, paving the way for his successor, Sonni Ali, to turn his country into one of the greatest empires Saharan Africa has ever seen.[12]
Sonni Ali[edit]
Sonni Ali reigned from 1464 to 1492, after the death of Sulayman Dama. Like Songhai kings before him, Ali was a Muslim. In the late 1460s, he conquered many of the Songhai's neighboring states, including what remained of the Mali Empire. Sonni Ali was considered the empire's most formidable military strategist and conqueror. Under his rule Songhai reached a size of over 1,400,000 square kilometers.[citation needed]
During his campaigns for expansion, Ali conquered many lands, repelling attacks from the Mossi to the south and overcoming the Dogon people to the north. He annexed Timbuktu in 1468, after Islamic leaders of the town requested his assistance in overthrowing marauding Tuaregs who had taken the city following the decline of Mali.[13] However, Ali met stark resistance after setting his eyes on the wealthy and renowned trading town of Djenné (also known as Jenne). After a persistent seven-year siege, he was able to forcefully incorporate it into his vast empire in 1473, but only after having starved its citizens into surrender.
The invasion of Sonni Ali and his forces caused harm to the city of Timbuktu, and he was described as an intolerant tyrant in many African accounts. According to The Cambridge History of Africa the Islamic historian Al-Sa'df expresses this sentiment in describing his incursion on Timbuktu:
Sunni Ali entered Timbuktu, committed gross iniquity, burned and destroyed the town, and brutally tortured many people there. When Akilu heard of the coming of Sonni Ali, he brought a thousand camels to carry the fuqaha of Sankore and went with them to Walata..... The Godless tyrant was engaged in slaughtering those who remained in Timbuktu and humiliated them.[14]
The Timbuktu Manuscripts, with Arabic writings about mathematics and astronomy.
Sonni Ali conducted a repressive policy against the scholars of Timbuktu, especially those of the Sankore region who were associated with the Tuareg. With his control of critical trade routes and cities such as Timbuktu, Sonni Ali brought great wealth to the Songhai Empire, which at its height would surpass the wealth of Mali.[15]
In oral tradition, Sonni Ali is often known as a powerful politician and great military commander. Whatever the case may have been, his legend consists of him being a fearless conqueror who united a great empire, sparking a legacy that is still intact today. Under his reign Djenné and Timbuktu became great centers of learning.[citation needed]
Askia the Great[edit]
The Tomb of Askia in Gao.
After taking the throne Muhammad is known as Askia the Great, even though he had no real right to be the king. Not only was he not in the royal family blood line, he did not hold the sacred symbols which entitled one to become a ruler. Furthermore, he was most likely a descendant of Soninke lineage rather than Songhai, which means that by Songhai standards his family background would have not allowed him to be King. But Askia managed to bypass that law and take the throne.[citation needed]
He organized the territories that Sonni Ali had previously conquered and extended his power as far to the south and east. He was not as tactful as Ali in the means of the military, but he did find success in alliances. Because of these alliances he was able to capture and conquer more vastly. Unlike Ali, however, he was a devout Muslim. Askia opened religious schools, constructed mosques, and opened up his court to scholars and poets from throughout the Muslim world. He sent his children to an Islamic School and enforced Islamic practices. Yet he was tolerant of other religions and did not force Islam on his people.[citation needed]
Like Mansa Musa, Askia also completed one of the Five Pillars of Islam by taking a hajj to Mecca, and, also like the former, went with an overwhelming amount of gold. He donated some to charity and used the rest for lavish gifts to impress the people of Mecca with the wealth of the Songhai. Islam was so important to him that, upon his return, he recruited Muslim scholars from Egypt and Morocco to teach at the Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu as well as setting up many other learning centers throughout his empire. Among his great accomplishments was an interest in astronomical knowledge which led to a flourishing of astronomers and observatories in the capital.[16]
While not as renowned as his predecessor for his military tactics, he initiated many campaigns, notably declaring Jihad against the neighboring Mossi. Even after subduing them he did not force them to convert to Islam. His army consisted of war canoes, expert cavalry, protective armor, iron tipped weapons, and an organized militia.[citation needed]
Not only was he a patron of Islam, he also was gifted in administration and encouraging trade. He centralized the administration of the empire and established an efficient bureaucracy which was responsible for, among other things, tax collection and the administration of justice. He also demanded that canals be built in order to enhance agriculture, which would eventually increase trade. More important than anything he did for trade was the introduction of weights and measures and the appointment of an inspector for each of Songhai's important trading centers.[citation needed] During his reign Islam became more widely entrenched, trans-Saharan trade flourished, and the Saharan salt mines of Taghaza were brought within the boundaries of the empire.
Decline[edit]
As Askia the Great grew older, his power declined. In 1528 his sons revolted against him and declared Musa, one of Askia's many sons, as king. Following Musa's overthrow in 1531, Songhai's empire went into decline. Following multiple attempts at governing the Empire by Askia's sons and grandsons there was little hope for a return to the power it once held.
Between the political chaos and multiple civil wars within the empire, it came as a surprise when Morocco invaded Songhai unexpectedly. The main reason for the Moroccan invasion of Songhai was to seize control of and revive the trans-Saharan trade in salt and gold. The Songhai military, during Askia's reign, consisted of full-time soldiers, but the king never modernized his army. The Empire fell to the Moroccans and their firearms in 1591.[citation needed]
Culture[edit]
At its peak, the Songhai city of Timbuktu became a thriving cultural and commercial center. Arab, Italian, and Jewish merchants all gathered for trade. A revival of Islamic scholarship also took place at the university in Timbuktu[citation needed]. However, Timbuktu was but one of a myriad of cities throughout the empire. By 1500, the Songhai Empire covered over 1.4 million square kilometers.[2][17]
Economy[edit]
Trade routes of the Western Sahara c. 1000-1500. Goldfields are indicated by light brown shading.
Economic trade existed throughout the Empire, due to the standing army stationed in the provinces throughout the empire. Central to the regional economy were independent gold fields. The Julla (merchants) would form partnerships, and the state would protect these merchants and the port cities of the Niger. It was a very strong trading kingdom, known for its production of practical crafts as well as religious artifacts.[citation needed]
The Songhai economy was based on a clan system. The clan a person belonged to ultimately decided one's occupation. The most common were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters. Lower caste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working immigrants, who at times were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At the top were noblemen and direct descendants of the original Songhai people, followed by freemen and traders. At the bottom were war captives and European slaves obligated to labor, especially in farming. James Olson describes the labor system as resembling modern day unions, with the Empire possessing craft guilds that consisted of various mechanics and artisans.[18]
Criminal justice[edit]
Criminal justice in Songhai was based mainly, if not entirely, on Islamic principles, especially during the rule of Askia Muhammad. The local qadis were in addition to this, with their responsibility being to maintain order by following Sharia law under Islamic domination, according to the Qur'an. An additional qadi was noted as a necessity in order to settle minor disputes between immigrant merchants. Kings usually did not judge a defendant; however, under special circumstances, such as acts of treason, they felt an obligation to do so and thus exert their authority. Results of a trial were announced by the "town crier" and punishment for most trivial crimes usually consisted of confiscation of merchandise or even imprisonment, since various prisons existed throughout the Empire.[19]
Qadis worked at the local level and were positioned in important trading towns, such as Timbuktu and Djenné. The Qadi was appointed by the king and dealt with common-law misdemeanors according to Sharia law. The Qadi also had the power to grant a pardon or offer refuge. The Assara-munidios, or "enforcers" worked along the lines of a police commissioner whose sole duty was to execute sentencing. Jurists were mainly composed of those representing the academic community; professors were often noted as taking administrative positions within the Empire and many aspired to be qadis.[20]
Government[edit]
Upper classes in society converted to Islam while lower classes often continued to follow traditional religions. Sermons emphasized obedience to the king. Timbuktu was the educational capital. Sonni Ali established a system of government under the royal court, later to be expanded by Askia Muhammad, which appointed governors and mayors to preside over local tributary states, situated around the Niger valley. Local chiefs were still granted authority over their respective domains as long as they did not undermine Songhai policy.[21]
Tax was imposed onto peripheral chiefdoms and provinces to ensure the dominance of Songhai, and in return these provinces were given almost complete autonomy. Songhai rulers only intervened in the affairs of these neighboring states when a situation became volatile, usually an isolated incident. Each town was represented by government officials, holding positions and responsibilities similar to today's central bureaucrats.[citation needed]
Under Askia Muhammad, the Empire saw increased centralization. He encouraged learning in Timbuktu by rewarding its professors with larger pensions as an incentive. He also established an order of precedence and protocol and was noted as a noble man who gave back generously to the poor. Under his policies, Muhammad brought much stability to Songhai and great attestations of this noted organization are still preserved in the works of Maghrebin writers such as Leo Africanus, among others.[citation needed]
Defeat[edit]
Further information: Saadi dynasty
West Africa after the Moroccan invasion.
Following the death of Emperor Askia Daoud, a civil war of succession weakened the Empire, leading Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur of the Saadi Dynasty of Morocco to dispatch an invasion force (years earlier, armies from Portugal had attacked Morocco, and failed miserably, but the Moroccan coffers were on the verge of economic depletion and bankruptcy, as they needed to pay for the defenses used to hold off the siege) under the eunuch Judar Pasha.[22]
Judar Pasha was a Spaniard by birth, but had been captured as an infant and educated at the Saadi court. After a march across the Sahara desert, Judar's forces captured, plundered, and razed the salt mines at Taghaza and moved on to Gao. When Emperor Askia Ishaq II (r. 1588–1591) met Judar at the 1591 Battle of Tondibi, Songhai forces, despite vastly superior numbers, were routed by a cattle stampede triggered by the Saadi's gunpowder weapons.[23]
Judar proceeded to sack Gao, Timbuktu and Djenné, destroying the Songhai as a regional power. Governing so vast an empire proved too much for the Saadi Dynasty, however, and they soon relinquished control of the region, letting it splinter into dozens of smaller kingdoms. The Songhai people themselves established the Dendi Kingdom.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Za Dynasty
Sonni Dynasty
Askiya Dynasty
Saadi Dynasty
Mali Empire
Dendi Kingdom
Songhai languages
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Bethwell A. Ogot, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, (UNESCO Publishing, 2000), 303.
^ Jump up to: a b hunwick 2003, pp. xlix.
Jump up ^ Taagepera 1979, pp. 497.
Jump up ^ Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay | David C. Conrad | Page 49
Jump up ^ Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay | David C. Conrad | Page 49–50
Jump up ^ Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents | John Hunwick | Page 35 (xxxv)
Jump up ^ Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents | John Hunwick | Page 36 (xxxvi)
Jump up ^ Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay | David C. Conrad | Page 50–51
Jump up ^ Levtzion & Hopkins 2000, p. 300.
Jump up ^ Stride, G.T & C. Ifeka: "Peoples and Empires of West Africa: West Africa in History 1000–1800". Nelson, 1971
Jump up ^ "Sunni Ali." Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2004. Encyclopedia.com. 27 Dec. 2014 | Chapter: Sonni Ali
Jump up ^ "Empires of Medieval West Africa". google.com.
Jump up ^ Sonni ʿAlī.(2007). Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol 5: University Press, 1977, pp 421
Jump up ^ Daniel, McCall; Norman, Bennett (1971). "Aspects of West African Islam". Boston University Library. pp. 42–45.
Jump up ^ "Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index". google.com.
Jump up ^ Malio 1990.
Jump up ^ Olson, James Stuart. The Ethnic Dimension in American History. New York: St. Martin's Press, Inc., 1979
Jump up ^ Lady Lugard 1997, pp. 199–200.
Jump up ^ Dalgleish 2005.
Jump up ^ Iliffe 2007, pp. 72.
Jump up ^ http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsAfrica/AfricaNiger.htm History Files
Jump up ^ http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsAfrica/AfricaNiger.htm History Files
Sources[edit]
Dalgleish, David (April 2005). "Pre-Colonial Criminal Justice In West Africa: Eurocentric Thought Versus Africentric Evidence" (PDF). African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies. 1 (1). Retrieved 2011-06-26.
Haskins, James; Benson, Kathleen; Cooper, Floyd (1998). African Beginnings. New York City: HarperCollins. pp. 48 Pages. ISBN 0-688-10256-5.
Iliffe, John (2007). Africans: the history of a continent. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-68297-5.
Hunwick, John (1988). Timbuktu & the Songhay Empire: Al-Sa'dis Ta`rikh al-sudan down to 1613 and other Contemporary Documents. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 480 pages. ISBN 90-04-12822-0.
Lady Lugard, Flora Louisa Shaw (1997). "Songhay Under Askia the Great". A tropical dependency: an outline of the ancient history of the western Sudan with an account of the modern settlement of northern Nigeria / [Flora S. Lugard]. Black Classic Press. ISBN 0-933121-92-X.
Malio, Thomas A. Hale. by The epic of Askia Mohammed / recounted by Nouhou (1990). Scribe, griot, and novelist : narrative interpreters of the Songhay Empire. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. ISBN 0-8130-0981-2.
Taagepera, Rein (1979). Social Science History, Vol. 3, No. 3/4 "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Durham: Duke University Press.
Further reading[edit]
Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Print.
Shillington, Kevin. History of Africa . 2nd . NY: Macmillan, 2005. Print.
Cissoko, S. M., Timbouctou et l'empire songhay, Paris 1975.
Lange, D., Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa, Dettelbach 2004 (the book has a chapter titled "The Mande factor in Gao history", pp. 409–544).
External links[edit]
African Kingdoms has a section about the Songhai Empire
The Story of Africa: Songhay — BBC World Service
Askiyah's Questions and al-Maghili's Answers is an essay about the rule of the Songhai Empire from the 15th century. (in English) (in Arabic)
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values:
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values:
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Songhai – Norwegian
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values: ਸੋਂਘਾਈ ਸਲਤਨਤ – Punjabi

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values: سونگھائی بادشاہت – Western Punjabi

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values:
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https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songaj
Songaj – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
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values:
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Songhai – Finnish
fi
fi
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values: Імперія Сонгаї – Ukrainian

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values: سلطنت سونگھائی – Urdu

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values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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