text:
Philosophy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation).
The School of Athens (1509–1511) by Raphael, depicting famous classical Greek philosophers in an idealized setting inspired by ancient Greek architecture
Part of a series on
Philosophy
Plato
Kant
Nietzsche
Buddha
Confucius
Averroes
Philosophers
Aestheticians
Epistemologists
Ethicists
Logicians
Metaphysicians
Social and political philosophers
Traditions
African
Analytic
Aristotelian
Buddhist
Chinese
Christian
Continental
Existentialism
Hindu
Jain
Jewish
Pragmatism
Eastern
Islamic
Platonic
Western
Periods
Ancient
Medieval
Modern
Contemporary
Literature
Aesthetics
Epistemology
Ethics
Logic
Metaphysics
Political philosophy
Branches
Aesthetics
Epistemology
Ethics
Legal philosophy
Logic
Metaphysics
Political philosophy
Social philosophy
Lists
Index
Outline
Years
Problems
Publications
Theories
Glossary
Philosophers
Miscellaneous
Philosopher
Philomath
Philalethes
Women in philosophy
Philosophy portal
v
t
e
Philosophy (from Greek φιλοσοφία, philosophia, literally "love of wisdom"[1][2][3][4]) is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.[5][6] The term was probably coined by Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE). Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument, and systematic presentation.[7][8] Classic philosophical questions include: Is it possible to know anything and to prove it?[9][10][11] What is most real? Philosophers also pose more practical and concrete questions such as: Is there a best way to live? Is it better to be just or unjust (if one can get away with it)?[12] Do humans have free will?[13]
Historically, "philosophy" encompassed any body of knowledge.[14] From the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, "natural philosophy" encompassed astronomy, medicine, and physics.[15] For example, Newton's 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics. In the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize.[16][17] In the modern era, some investigations that were traditionally part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology, linguistics, and economics.
Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy. For example, is beauty objective or subjective?[18][19] Are there many scientific methods or just one?[20] Is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy?[21][22][23] Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics ("concerned with the fundamental nature of reality and being"),[24] epistemology (about the "nature and grounds of knowledge [and]...its limits and validity" [25]), ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, and the history of Western philosophy.
Since the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors. However, many of those who study philosophy in undergraduate or graduate programs contribute in the fields of law, journalism, politics, religion, science, business and various art and entertainment activities.[26]
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
1.1 Knowledge
1.2 Philosophical progress
2 Historical overview
2.1 Western philosophy
2.2 Middle Eastern philosophy
2.3 Indian philosophy
2.4 Buddhist philosophy
2.5 East Asian philosophy
2.6 African philosophy
2.7 Indigenous American philosophy
3 Categories
3.1 Metaphysics
3.2 Epistemology
3.3 Value theory
3.3.1 Ethics
3.3.2 Aesthetics
3.3.3 Political philosophy
3.4 Logic, science and mathematics
3.4.1 Logic
3.4.2 Philosophy of science
3.5 History of philosophy
3.6 Philosophy of religion
3.7 Philosophical schools
4 Other approaches
4.1 Applied philosophy
5 Society
6 Professional
7 Non-professional
8 Role of women
9 Popular culture
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Introduction
Knowledge
Traditionally, the term "philosophy" referred to any body of knowledge.[14][27] In this sense, philosophy is closely related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education and politics. Newton's 1687 "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" is classified in the 2000s as a book of physics; he used the term "natural philosophy" because it used to encompass disciplines that later became associated with sciences such as astronomy, medicine and physics.[15]
In Classical antiquity, Philosophy was traditionally divided into three major branches:
Natural philosophy ("physics") was the study of the physical world (physis, lit: nature);
Moral philosophy ("ethics") was the study of goodness, right and wrong, beauty, justice and virtue (ethos, lit: custom);
Metaphysical philosophy ("logic") was the study of existence, causation, God, logic, forms and other abstract objects ("meta-physika" lit: "what comes after physics").[28]
This division is not obsolete but has changed. Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory (including aesthetics, ethics, political philosophy, etc.). Metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others.
Philosophical progress
Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today. Colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval.[29] Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science,[30] while Talbot Brewer argued that "progress" is the wrong standard by which to judge philosophical activity.[31]
Historical overview
In one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as "how are we to live" and "what is the nature of reality". A broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations.[32]
Western philosophy
Main article: Western philosophy
Bust of Socrates in the Vatican Museum
Western philosophy is the philosophical tradition of the Western world and dates to Pre-Socratic thinkers who were active in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE such as Thales (c. 624–546 BCE) and Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE) who practiced a "love of wisdom" (philosophia)[33] and were also termed physiologoi (students of physis, or nature). Socrates was a very influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom.[34] Western philosophy can be divided into three eras: Ancient (Greco-Roman), Medieval philosophy (Christian European), and Modern philosophy.
The Ancient era was dominated by Greek philosophical schools which arose out of the various pupils of Socrates, such as Plato, who founded the Platonic Academy and his student Aristotle,[35] founding the Peripatetic school, who were both extremely influential in Western tradition. Other traditions include Cynicism, Stoicism, Greek Skepticism and Epicureanism. Important topics covered by the Greeks included metaphysics (with competing theories such as atomism and monism), cosmology, the nature of the well-lived life (eudaimonia), the possibility of knowledge and the nature of reason (logos). With the rise of the Roman empire, Greek philosophy was also increasingly discussed in Latin by Romans such as Cicero and Seneca.
Medieval philosophy (5th – 16th century) is the period following the fall of the western Roman empire and was dominated by the rise of Christianity and hence reflects Judeo-Christian theological concerns as well as retaining a continuity with Greco-Roman thought. Problems such as the existence and nature of God, the nature of faith and reason, metaphysics, the problem of evil were discussed in this period. Some key Medieval thinkers include St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Boethius, Anselm and Roger Bacon. Philosophy for these thinkers was viewed as an aid to Theology (ancilla theologiae) and hence they sought to align their philosophy with their interpretation of sacred scripture. This period saw the development of Scholasticism, a text critical method developed in medieval universities based on close reading and disputation on key texts. The Renaissance (1355–1650) period saw increasing focus on classic Greco-Roman thought and on a robust Humanism. Early modern philosophy in the Western world begins with thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes and René Descartes (1596–1650).[36] Following the rise of natural science, Modern philosophy was concerned with developing a secular and rational foundation for knowledge and moved away from traditional structures of authority such as religion, scholastic thought and the Church. Major modern philosophers include Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant.[37][38][39] 19th-century philosophy is influenced by the wider movement termed the Enlightenment, and includes figures such as Hegel a key figure in German idealism, Kierkegaard who developed the foundations for existentialism, Nietzsche a famed anti-Christian, J.S. Mill who promoted Utilitarianism, Karl Marx who developed the foundations for Communism and the American William James. The 20th century saw the split between Analytic philosophy and Continental philosophy, as well as philosophical trends such as Phenomenology, Existentialism, Logical Positivism, Pragmatism and the Linguistic turn.
Middle Eastern philosophy
Avicenna Portrait on Silver Vase, Iran
See also: Islamic philosophy and Middle Eastern philosophy
The regions of the fertile Crescent, Iran and Arabia are home to the earliest known philosophical Wisdom literature and is today mostly dominated by Islamic culture. Early wisdom literature from the fertile crescent was a genre which sought to instruct people on ethical action, practical living and virtue through stories and proverbs. In Ancient Egypt, these texts were known as sebayt ('teachings') and they are central to our understandings of Ancient Egyptian philosophy. Babylonian astronomy also included much philosophical speculations about cosmology which may have influenced the Ancient Greeks. Jewish philosophy and Christian philosophy are religio-philosophical traditions that developed both in the Middle East and in Europe, which both share certain early Judaic texts (mainly the Tanakh) and monotheistic beliefs. Jewish thinkers such as the Geonim of the Talmudic Academies in Babylonia and Maimonides engaged with Greek and Islamic philosophy. Later Jewish philosophy came under strong Western intellectual influences and includes the works of Moses Mendelssohn who ushered in the Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment), Jewish existentialism and Reform Judaism.
Pre-Islamic Iranian philosophy begins with the work of Zoroaster, one of the first promoters of monotheism and of the dualism between good and evil. This dualistic cosmogony influenced later Iranian developments such as Manichaeism, Mazdakism, and Zurvanism.
After the Muslim conquests, Early Islamic philosophy developed the Greek philosophical traditions in new innovative directions. This Islamic Golden Age influenced European intellectual developments. The two main currents of early Islamic thought are Kalam which focuses on Islamic theology and Falsafa which was based on Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. The work of Aristotle was very influential among the falsafa such as al-Kindi (9th century), Avicenna (980 – June 1037) and Averroes (12th century). Others such as Al-Ghazali were highly critical of the methods of the Aristotelian falsafa. Islamic thinkers also developed a scientific method, experimental medicine, a theory of optics and a legal philosophy. Ibn Khaldun was an influential thinker in philosophy of history.
In Iran several schools of Islamic philosophy continued to flourish after the Golden Age and include currents such as Illuminationist philosophy, Sufi philosophy, and Transcendent theosophy. The 19th and 20th century Arab world saw the Nahda (awakening or renaissance) movement which influenced contemporary Islamic philosophy.
Indian philosophy
Chanakya
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, philosopher and second president of India, 1962 to 1967.
Nalanda university
See also: Eastern philosophy
Main article: Indian philosophy
Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: darśana; 'world views', 'teachings')[40] is composed of philosophical traditions originating in the Indian subcontinent. Traditions of Indian philosophy are generally classified as either orthodox or heterodox – āstika or nāstika – depending on whether they accept the authority of the Vedas and whether they accept the theories of Brahman and Atman.[41][42] The orthodox schools generally include Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta, and the common heterodox schools are Jain, Buddhist, Ajñana, Ajivika and Cārvāka. Some of the earliest surviving philosophical texts are the Upanishads of the later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE). Important Indian philosophical concepts include dharma, karma, samsara, moksha and ahimsa. Indian philosophers developed a system of epistemological reasoning (pramana) and logic and investigated topics such as metaphysics, ethics, hermeneutics and soteriology. Indian philosophy also covered topics such as political philosophy as seen in the Arthashastra c. 4th century BCE and the philosophy of love as seen in the Kama Sutra.
The commonly named six orthodox schools arose sometime between the start of the Common Era and the Gupta Empire.[43] These Hindu schools developed what has been called the "Hindu synthesis" merging orthodox Brahmanical and unorthodox elements from Buddhism and Jainism as a way to respond to the unorthodox challenges.[44] Hindu thought also spread east to the Indonesian Srivijaya empire and the Cambodian Khmer Empire.
Later developments include the development of Tantra and Iranian-Islamic influences. Buddhism mostly disappeared from India after the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent, surviving in the Himalayan regions and south India.[45] The early modern period saw the flourishing of Navya-Nyāya (the 'new reason') under philosophers such as Raghunatha Siromani (c. 1460–1540) who founded the tradition, Jayarama Pancanana, Mahadeva Punatamakara and Yashovijaya (who formulated a Jain response).[46]
The modern era saw the rise of Hindu nationalism, Hindu reform movements and Neo-Vedanta (or Hindu modernism) whose major proponents included Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi and Aurobindo and who for the first time promoted the idea of a unified "Hinduism". Due to the influence of British colonialism, much modern Indian philosophical work was in English and includes thinkers such as Radhakrishnan, Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya, Bimal Krishna Matilal and M. Hiriyanna.[47]
Buddhist philosophy
Main articles: Buddhist philosophy and Buddhist ethics
Play media
Monks debating at Sera monastery, Tibet, 2013.
Buddhist philosophy begins with the thought of Gautama Buddha (fl. between sixth and fourth centuries BCE) and is preserved in the early Buddhist texts. Buddhist thought is trans-regional and trans-cultural. It originated in India and later spread to East Asia, Tibet, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia, developing new and syncretic traditions in these different regions. The various Buddhist schools of thought are the dominant philosophical tradition in Tibet and Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka and Burma. Because ignorance to the true nature of things is considered one of the roots of suffering (dukkha), Buddhist philosophy is concerned with epistemology, metaphysics, ethics and psychology. The ending of dukkha also encompasses meditative practices. Key innovative concepts include the Four Noble Truths, Anatta (not-self) a critique of a fixed personal identity, the transience of all things (Anicca), and a certain skepticism about metaphysical questions.
Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological psychologies termed 'Abhidharma'. Mahayana philosophers such as Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu developed the theories of Shunyata (emptiness of all phenomena) and Vijnapti-matra (appearance only), a form of phenomenology or transcendental idealism. The Dignāga school of Pramāṇa promoted a complex form of epistemology and Buddhist logic. After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the Tibetan Buddhist, East Asian Buddhist and Theravada Buddhist traditions. The modern period saw the rise of Buddhist modernism and Humanistic Buddhism under Western influences and the development of a Western Buddhism with influences from modern psychology and Western philosophy.
East Asian philosophy
Main articles: Chinese philosophy, Korean philosophy, and Japanese philosophy
The Analects of Confucius (fl. 551–479 BCE)
Kitarō Nishida, professor of philosophy at Kyoto University and founder of the Kyoto School.
East Asian philosophical thought began in Ancient China, and Chinese philosophy begins during the Western Zhou Dynasty and the following periods after its fall when the "Hundred Schools of Thought" flourished (6th century to 221 BCE).[48][49] This period was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments and saw the rise of the major philosophical schools of China, Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism as well as numerous other less influential schools. These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political and ethical theories such Tao, Yin and yang, Ren and Li which, along with Chinese Buddhism, directly influenced Korean philosophy, Vietnamese philosophy and Japanese philosophy (which also includes the native Shinto tradition). Buddhism began arriving in China during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), through a gradual Silk road transmission and through native influences developed distinct Chinese forms (such as Chan/Zen) which spread throughout the East Asian cultural sphere. During later Chinese dynasties like the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1897) a resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such as Wang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought, and was promoted by the imperial state.
In the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated ideas from Western philosophy. Chinese Marxist philosophy developed under the influence of Mao Zedong, while a Chinese pragmatism under Hu Shih and New Confucianism's rise was influenced by Xiong Shili. Modern Japanese thought meanwhile developed under strong Western influences such as the study of Western Sciences (Rangaku) and the modernist Meirokusha intellectual society which drew from European enlightenment thought. The 20th century saw the rise of State Shinto and also Japanese nationalism. The Kyoto School, an influential and unique Japanese philosophical school developed from Western phenomenology and Medieval Japanese Buddhist philosophy such as that of Dogen.
African philosophy
Main article: African philosophy
African philosophy is philosophy produced by African people, philosophy that presents African worldviews, ideas and themes, or philosophy that uses distinct African philosophical methods. Modern African thought has been occupied with Ethnophilosophy, with defining the very meaning of African philosophy and its unique characteristics and what it means to be African.[50] During the 17th century, Ethiopian philosophy developed a robust literary tradition as exemplified by Zera Yacob. Another early African philosopher was Anton Wilhelm Amo (c. 1703–1759) who became a respected philosopher in Germany. Distinct African philosophical ideas include Ujamaa, the Bantu idea of 'Force', Négritude, Pan-Africanism and Ubuntu. Contemporary African thought has also seen the development of Professional philosophy and of Africana philosophy, the philosophical literature of the African diaspora which includes currents such as black existentialism by African-Americans. Modern African thinkers have been influenced by Marxism, African-American literature, Critical theory, Critical race theory, Postcolonialism and Feminism.
Indigenous American philosophy
Main article: Indigenous American philosophy
The Aztec Sun Stone, also known as the Aztec Calendar Stone, at National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City.
Indigenous American philosophy is the philosophy of the Indigenous people of the Americas. There is a wide variety of beliefs and traditions among these different American cultures. Among some of the Native Americans in the United States there is a belief in a metaphysical principle called the "Great Mystery" (Siouan: Wakan Tanka, Algonquian: Gitche Manitou). Another widely shared concept was that of Orenda or "spiritual power". According to Peter M. Whiteley, for the Native Americans, "Mind is critically informed by transcendental experience (dreams, visions and so on) as well as by reason."[51] The practices to access these transcendental experiences are termed Shamanism. Another feature of the indigenous American worldviews was their extension of ethics to non-human animals and plants.[51][52]
In Mesoamerica, Aztec philosophy was an intellectual tradition developed by individuals called Tlamatini ('those who know something') [53] and its ideas are preserved in various Aztec codices. The Aztec worldview posited the concept of an ultimate universal energy or force called Ometeotl which can be translated as "Dual Cosmic Energy" and sought a way to live in balance with a constantly changing, "slippery" world. The theory of Teotl can be seen as a form of Pantheism.[54] Aztec philosophers developed theories of metaphysics, epistemology, values, and aesthetics. Aztec ethics was focused on seeking tlamatiliztli (knowledge, wisdom) which was based on moderation and balance in all actions as in the Nahua proverb "the middle good is necessary".[54]
The Inca civilization also had an elite class of philosopher-scholars termed the Amawtakuna who were important in the Inca education system as teachers of religion, tradition, history and ethics. Key concepts of Andean thought are Yanantin and Masintin which involve a theory of “complementary opposites” that sees polarities (such as male/female, dark/light) as interdependent parts of a harmonious whole.[55]
Categories
Philosophical questions can be grouped into categories. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions. The groupings also make philosophy easier for students to approach. Students can learn the basic principles involved in one aspect of the field without being overwhelmed with the entire set of philosophical theories.
Various sources present different categorical schemes. The categories adopted in this article aim for breadth and simplicity.
These five major branches can be separated into sub-branches and each sub-branch contains many specific fields of study.[56]
Metaphysics and epistemology
Value theory
Science, logic and mathematics
History of Western philosophy[57]
Philosophical traditions
These divisions are neither exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive. (A philosopher might specialize in Kantian epistemology, or Platonic aesthetics, or modern political philosophy.) Furthermore, these philosophical inquiries sometimes overlap with each other and with other inquiries such as science, religion or mathematics.[58]
Metaphysics
Main article: Metaphysics
Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, time, objects and their properties, wholes and their parts, events, processes and causation and the relationship between mind and body. Metaphysics includes cosmology, the study of the world in its entirety and ontology, the study of being.
A major point of debate is between realism, which holds that there are entities that exist independently of their mental perception and idealism, which holds that reality is mentally constructed or otherwise immaterial. Metaphysics deals with the topic of identity. Essence is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity while accident is a property that the object has, without which the object can still retain its identity. Particulars are objects that are said to exist in space and time, as opposed to abstract objects, such as numbers, and universals, which are properties held by multiple particulars, such as redness or a gender. The type of existence, if any, of universals and abstract objects is an issue of debate.
Epistemology
Main article: Epistemology
Dignaga founded a school of Buddhist epistemology and logic.
Epistemology is the study of knowledge (Greek episteme).[59] Epistemologists study the putative sources of knowledge, including intuition, a priori reason, memory, perceptual knowledge, self-knowledge and testimony. They also ask: What is truth? Is knowledge justified true belief? Are any beliefs justified? Putative knowledge includes propositional knowledge (knowledge that something is the case), know-how (knowledge of how to do something) and acquaintance (familiarity with someone or something). Epistemologists examine these and ask whether knowledge is really possible.
Skepticism is the position which doubts claims to knowledge. The regress argument, a fundamental problem in epistemology, occurs when, in order to completely prove any statement, its justification itself needs to be supported by another justification. This chain can go on forever, called infinitism, it can eventually rely on basic beliefs that are left unproven, called foundationalism, or it can go in a circle so that a statement is included in its own chain of justification, called coherentism.
Rationalism is the emphasis on reasoning as a source of knowledge. It is associated with a priori knowledge, which is independent of experience, such as math and logical deduction. Empiricism is the emphasis on observational evidence via sensory experience as the source of knowledge.
Among the numerous topics within metaphysics and epistemology, broadly construed are:
Philosophy of language explores the nature, the origins and the use of language.
Philosophy of mind explores the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body. It is typified by disputes between dualism and materialism. In recent years this branch has become related to cognitive science.
Philosophy of human nature analyzes the unique characteristics of human beings, such as rationality, politics and culture.
Metaphilosophy explores the aims of philosophy, its boundaries and its methods.
Value theory
Value theory (or axiology) is the major branch of philosophy that addresses topics such as goodness, beauty and justice. Value theory includes ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, feminist philosophy, philosophy of law and more.
Ethics
Main article: Ethics
The Beijing imperial college was an intellectual center for Confucian ethics and classics during the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties.
Ethics, or "moral philosophy", studies and considers what is good and bad conduct, right and wrong values, and good and evil. Its primary investigations include how to live a good life and identifying standards of morality. It also includes meta-investigations about whether a best way to live or related standards exists. The main branches of ethics are normative ethics, meta-ethics and applied ethics.
A major area of debate involves consequentialism, in which actions are judged by the potential results of the act, such as to maximize happiness, called utilitarianism, and deontology, in which actions are judged by how they adhere to principles, irrespective of negative ends.
Aesthetics
Main article: Aesthetics
Aesthetics is the "critical reflection on art, culture and nature."[60][61] It addresses the nature of art, beauty and taste, enjoyment, emotional values, perception and with the creation and appreciation of beauty.[62][63] It is more precisely defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste.[64] Its major divisions are art theory, literary theory, film theory and music theory. An example from art theory is to discern the set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement such as the Cubist aesthetic.[65] The philosophy of film analyzes films and filmmakers for their philosophical content and explores film (images, cinema, etc.) as a medium for philosophical reflection and expression.[citation needed]
Political philosophy
Main article: Political philosophy
Thomas Hobbes
Political philosophy is the study of government and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to communities including the state. It includes questions about justice, law, property and the rights and obligations of the citizen. Politics and ethics are traditionally linked subjects, as both discuss the question of how people should live together.
Other branches of value theory:
Philosophy of law (often called jurisprudence) explores the varying theories explaining the nature and interpretation of laws.
Philosophy of education analyzes the definition and content of education, as well as the goals and challenges of educators.
Feminist philosophy explores questions surrounding gender, sexuality and the body including the nature of feminism itself as a social and philosophical movement.
Philosophy of sport analyzes sports, games and other forms of play as sociological and uniquely human activities.
Logic, science and mathematics
Many academic disciplines generated philosophical inquiry. The relationship between "X" and the "philosophy of X" is debated. Richard Feynman argued that the philosophy of a topic is irrelevant to its primary study, saying that "philosophy of science is as useful to scientists as ornithology is to birds." Curtis White, by contrast, argued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities, sciences and social sciences.[66]
The topics of philosophy of science are numbers, symbols and the formal methods of reasoning as employed in the social sciences and natural sciences.
Logic
Main article: Logic
Logic is the study of reasoning and argument. An argument is "a connected series of statements intended to establish a proposition." The connected series of statements are "premises" and the proposition is the conclusion. For example:
All humans are mortal. (premise)
Socrates is a human. (premise)
Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)
Deductive reasoning is when, given certain premises, conclusions are unavoidably implied. Rules of inference are used to infer conclusions such as, modus ponens, where given “A” and “If A then B”, then “B” must be concluded.
Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences,[67] social sciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a formal science. Sub-fields include mathematical logic, philosophical logic, Modal logic, computational logic and non-classical logics. A major question in the philosophy of mathematics is whether mathematical entities are objective and discovered, called mathematical realism, or invented, called mathematical antirealism.
Philosophy of science
Main article: Philosophy of science
This branch explores the foundations, methods, history, implications and purpose of science. Many of its sub-divisions correspond to a specific branch of science. For example, philosophy of biology deals specifically with the metaphysical, epistemological and ethical issues in the biomedical and life sciences. The philosophy of mathematics studies the philosophical assumptions, foundations and implications of mathematics.
History of philosophy
See also: Metaphilosophy and History of ethics
Further information: Philosophical progress and List of years in philosophy
Some philosophers specialize in one or more historical periods. The history of philosophy (study of a specific period, individual or school) is related to but not the same as the philosophy of history (the theoretical aspect of history, which deals with questions such as the nature of historical evidence and the possibility of objectivity).
Hegel's Lectures on the Philosophy of History influenced many philosophers to interpret truth in light of history, a view called historicism.
Philosophy of religion
Main article: Philosophy of religion
Philosophy of religion deals with questions that involve religion and religious ideas from a philosophically neutral perspective (as opposed to theology which begins from religious convinctions).[68] Traditionally, religious questions were not seen as a separate field from philosophy proper, the idea of a separate field only arose in the 19th century.[69]
Issues include the existence of God, the relationship between reason and faith, questions of religious epistemology, the relationship between religion and science, how to interpret religious experiences, questions about the possibility of an afterlife, the problem of religious language and the existence of souls and responses to religious pluralism and diversity.
Philosophical schools
Some philosophers specialize in one or more of the major philosophical schools, such as Continental philosophy, Analytical philosophy, Thomism, Asian philosophy or African philosophy.
Other approaches
A variety of other academic and non-academic approaches have been explored.
Applied philosophy
Martin Luther King Jr
The ideas conceived by a society have profound repercussions on what actions the society performs. Weaver argued that ideas have consequences. Philosophy yields applications such as those in ethics – applied ethics in particular – and political philosophy. The political and economic philosophies of Confucius, Sun Tzu, Chanakya, Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Taymiyyah, Machiavelli, Leibniz, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, Marx, Tolstoy, Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. have been used to shape and justify governments and their actions. Progressive education as championed by Dewey had a profound impact on 20th century US educational practices. Descendants of this movement include efforts in philosophy for children, which are part of philosophy education. Clausewitz's political philosophy of war has had a profound effect on statecraft, international politics and military strategy in the 20th century, especially around World War II. Logic is important in mathematics, linguistics, psychology, computer science and computer engineering.
Other important applications can be found in epistemology, which aid in understanding the requisites for knowledge, sound evidence and justified belief (important in law, economics, decision theory and a number of other disciplines). The philosophy of science discusses the underpinnings of the scientific method and has affected the nature of scientific investigation and argumentation. Philosophy thus has fundamental implications for science as a whole. For example, the strictly empirical approach of B. F. Skinner's behaviorism affected for decades the approach of the American psychological establishment. Deep ecology and animal rights examine the moral situation of humans as occupants of a world that has non-human occupants to consider also. Aesthetics can help to interpret discussions of music, literature, the plastic arts and the whole artistic dimension of life. In general, the various philosophies strive to provide practical activities with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their fields.
Society
Some of those who study philosophy become professional philosophers, typically by working as professors who teach, research and write in academic institutions.[70] However, most students of academic philosophy later contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various arts.[26][71] For example, public figures who have degrees in philosophy include comedians Steve Martin and Ricky Gervais, filmmaker Terrence Malick, Pope John Paul II, Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger, technology entrepreneur Peter Thiel, Supreme Court Justice Stephen Bryer and vice presidential candidate Carly Fiorina.[72][73]
Recent efforts to avail the general public to the work and relevance of philosophers include the million-dollar Berggruen Prize, first awarded to Charles Taylor in 2016.[74]
Professional
Germany was the first country to professionalize philosophy. The doctorate of philosophy (PhD) developed in Germany as the terminal Teacher's credential in the mid 17th century.[75] At the end of 1817, Hegel was the first philosopher to be appointed Professor by the State, namely by the Prussian Minister of Education, as an effect of Napoleonic reform in Prussia. In the United States, the professionalisation grew out of reforms to the American higher-education system largely based on the German model.
Bertrand Russell
Within the last century, philosophy has increasingly become a professional discipline practiced within universities, like other academic disciplines. Accordingly, it has become less general and more specialized. In the view of one prominent recent historian: "Philosophy has become a highly organized discipline, done by specialists primarily for other specialists. The number of philosophers has exploded, the volume of publication has swelled, and the subfields of serious philosophical investigation have multiplied. Not only is the broad field of philosophy today far too vast to be embraced by one mind, something similar is true even of many highly specialized subfields."[76] Some philosophers argue that this professionalization has negatively affected the discipline.[77]
The end result of professionalization for philosophy has meant that work being done in the field is now almost exclusively done by university professors holding a doctorate in the field publishing in highly technical, peer-reviewed journals. While it remains common among the population at large for a person to have a set of religious, political or philosophical views that they consider their "philosophy", these views are rarely informed by or connected to the work being done in professional philosophy today. Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for which there has come to be a healthy industry of books, magazines, and television shows meant to popularize science and communicate the technical results of a scientific field to the general populace, works by professional philosophers directed at an audience outside the profession remain rare. Philosopher Michael Sandel's book Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do? and Harry Frankfurt's On Bullshit are examples of works that hold the uncommon distinction of having been written by professional philosophers but directed at and ultimately popular among a broader audience of non-philosophers. Both works became 'New York Times best sellers.
Non-professional
Many inquiries outside of academia are philosophical in the broad sense. Novelists, playwrights, filmmakers, and musicians, as well as scientists and others engage in recognizably philosophical activity.
Ayn Rand is the foremost example of an intellectual working contemporaneously with contemporary philosophy but whose contributions were not made within the professional discipline of "philosophy": "For all her [Ayn Rand's] popularity, however, only a few professional philosophers have taken her work seriously. As a result, most of the serious philosophical work on Rand has appeared in non-academic, non-peer-reviewed journals, or in books, and the bibliography reflects this fact."[15]
Also working from outside the profession were philosophers such as Gerd B. Achenbach (Die reine und die praktische Philosophie. Drei Vorträge zur philosophischen Praxis, 1983) and Michel Weber (see his Épreuve de la philosophie, 2008) who have proposed since the 1980s various forms of philosophical counseling claiming to bring Socratic dialogues back to life in a quasi-psychotherapeutic framework.
Pierre Hadot is famous for his analysis on the conception of philosophy during Greco-Roman antiquity. Hadot identified and analyzed the "spiritual exercises" used in ancient philosophy (influencing Michel Foucault's interest in such practices in the second and third volumes of his History of Sexuality). By "spiritual exercises" Hadot means "practices ... intended to effect a modification and a transformation in the subjects who practice them.[6] The philosophy teacher's discourse could be presented in such a way that the disciple, as auditor, reader, or interlocutor, could make spiritual progress and transform himself within."[7] Hadot shows that the key to understanding the original philosophical impulse is to be found in Socrates. What characterizes Socratic therapy above all is the importance given to living contact between human beings. Hadot's recurring theme is that philosophy in antiquity was characterized by a series of spiritual exercises intended to transform the perception, and therefore the being, of those who practice it; that philosophy is best pursued in real conversation and not through written texts and lectures; and that philosophy, as it is taught in universities today, is for the most part a distortion of its original, therapeutic impulse. He brings these concerns together in What Is Ancient Philosophy?,[7] which has been critically reviewed.[8]
Role of women
Main article: Women in philosophy
American philosopher of mind and philosopher of art Susanne Langer (1895–1985).
Although men have generally dominated philosophical discourse, women have engaged in philosophy throughout history. Women philosophers have contributed since ancient times–notably Hipparchia of Maroneia (active c. 325 BCE) and Arete of Cyrene (active 5th–4th century BCE). More were accepted during the ancient, medieval and modern eras, but no women philosophers became part the Western canon until the 20th and 21st century, when some sources indicate that Susanne Langer, Hannah Arendt and Simone de Beauvoir entered the canon.[78][79]
In the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in the UK and US began admitting women, producing more female academics. Nevertheless, U.S. Department of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in philosophy, and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in the humanities.[80] In 2014, Inside Higher Education described the philosophy "...discipline's own long history of misogyny and sexual harassment" of women students and professors.[81] University of Sheffield philosophy professor Jennifer Saul stated in 2015 that women are "...leaving philosophy after being harassed, assaulted, or retaliated against."[82]
In the early 1990s, the Canadian Philosophical Association noted a gender imbalance and gender bias in the academic field of philosophy.[83] In June 2013, a US sociology professor stated that "out of all recent citations in four prestigious philosophy journals, female authors comprise just 3.6 percent of the total."[84] Susan Price argues that the philosophical "...canon remains dominated by white males – the discipline that...still hews to the myth that genius is tied to gender."[85] Morgan Thompson suggests that discrimination, differences in abilities, grade differences and the lack of role models in philosophy could be potential factors for the gender gap.[86] According to Saul, "[p]hilosophy, the oldest of the humanities, is also the malest (and the whitest). While other areas of the humanities are at or near gender parity, philosophy is actually more overwhelmingly male than even mathematics."[87]
Popular culture
In 2000, the Open Court Publishing Company began publishing a series of books on philosophy and popular culture. Each book consists of essays written by philosophers for general readers. The books "explore the meanings, concepts and puzzles within television shows, movies, music and other icons of popular culture"[88] analyzing topics such as the TV shows Seinfeld and The Simpsons, The Matrix and Star Wars movies and related media and new technological developments such as the iPod and Facebook. Their most recent publication (as of 2016[update]) is titled Louis C.K. and Philosophy; its subject is the comedian Louis C.K..
The Matrix makes numerous references to philosophy including Buddhism, Vedanta, Advaita Hinduism, Christianity, Messianism, Judaism, Gnosticism, existentialism and nihilism. The film's premise resembles Plato's Allegory of the cave, Descartes's evil demon, Kant's reflections on the Phenomenon versus the Ding an sich, Zhuangzi's "Zhuangzi dreamed he was a butterfly", Marxist social theory and the brain in a vat thought experiment. Many references to Baudrillard's Simulacra and Simulation appear in the film, although Baudrillard himself considered this a misrepresentation.[89]
See also
Main article: Outline of philosophy
Philosophy portal
Book: Philosophy
Wikipedia:Getting to Philosophy
List of important publications in philosophy
List of years in philosophy
List of philosophy journals
List of unsolved problems in philosophy
Lists of philosophers
Social theory
References
Jump up ^ "Strong's Greek Dictionary 5385".
Jump up ^ "Home : Oxford English Dictionary". oed.com.
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
Jump up ^ The definition of philosophy is: "1. orig., love of, or the search for, wisdom or knowledge 2. theory or logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge, and the nature of the universe". Webster's New World Dictionary (Second College ed.).
Jump up ^ Jenny Teichmann and Katherine C. Evans, Philosophy: A Beginner's Guide (Blackwell Publishing, 1999), p. 1: "Philosophy is a study of problems which are ultimate, abstract and very general. These problems are concerned with the nature of existence, knowledge, morality, reason and human purpose."
Jump up ^ A.C. Grayling, Philosophy 1: A Guide through the Subject (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 1: "The aim of philosophical inquiry is to gain insight into questions about knowledge, truth, reason, reality, meaning, mind, and value."
Jump up ^ Adler, Mortimer J. (28 March 2000). How to Think About the Great Ideas: From the Great Books of Western Civilization. Chicago, Ill.: Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9412-3.
Jump up ^ Quinton, Anthony, The ethics of philosophical practice, p. 666, Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less systematic kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justification of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value). Each of the three elements in this list has a non-philosophical counterpart, from which it is distinguished by its explicitly rational and critical way of proceeding and by its systematic nature. Everyone has some general conception of the nature of the world in which they live and of their place in it. Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions embodied in such a conception with a rational and organized body of beliefs about the world as a whole. Everyone has occasion to doubt and question beliefs, their own or those of others, with more or less success and without any theory of what they are doing. Epistemology seeks by argument to make explicit the rules of correct belief formation. Everyone governs their conduct by directing it to desired or valued ends. Ethics, or moral philosophy, in its most inclusive sense, seeks to articulate, in rationally systematic form, the rules or principles involved. in Honderich 1995.
Jump up ^ Greco, John, ed. (1 October 2011). The Oxford Handbook of Skepticism (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-983680-2.
Jump up ^ Glymour, Clark (10 April 2015). "Chapters 1–6". Thinking Things Through: An Introduction to Philosophical Issues and Achievements (2nd ed.). A Bradford Book. ISBN 978-0-262-52720-0.
Jump up ^ "Contemporary Skepticism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". www.iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Internet Classics Archive | The Republic by Plato". classics.mit.edu. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Free Will | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". www.iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Philosophy". www.etymonline.com. Online Etymological Dictionary. Retrieved 19 March 2016. The English word "philosophy" is first attested to c. 1300, meaning "knowledge, body of knowledge."
^ Jump up to: a b Lindberg 2007, p. 3.
Jump up ^ Shapin, Steven (1 January 1998). The Scientific Revolution (1st ed.). University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-75021-7.
Jump up ^ Briggle, Robert Frodeman and Adam. "When Philosophy Lost Its Way". Opinionator. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Sartwell, Crispin (1 January 2014). Zalta, Edward N., ed. Beauty (Spring 2014 ed.).
Jump up ^ "Plato, Hippias Major | Loeb Classical Library". Loeb Classical Library. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Feyerabend, Paul; Hacking, Ian (11 May 2010). Against Method (4th ed.). Verso. ISBN 978-1-84467-442-8.
Jump up ^ "Nozick, Robert: Political Philosophy | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". www.iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Rawls, John | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". www.iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
Jump up ^ More, Thomas (8 May 2015). Utopia. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-11070-7.
Jump up ^ "Merriam-Webster Dictionary". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Merriam-Webster Dictionary". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Why Study Philosophy? An Unofficial "Daily Nous" Affiliate". www.whystudyphilosophy.com. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". etymonline.com.
Jump up ^ Kant, Immanuel (2012-05-21). Kant: Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107401068. Ancient Greek philosophy was divided into three branches of knowledge: natural science, ethics, and logic.
Jump up ^ McGinn, Colin (8 December 1993). Problems in Philosophy: The Limits of Inquiry (1st ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-55786-475-8.
Jump up ^ "Video & Audio: Why isn't there more progress in philosophy? – Metadata". www.sms.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Brewer, Talbot (11 June 2011). The Retrieval of Ethics (1st ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-969222-4.
Jump up ^ Garfield (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, Introduction.
Jump up ^ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich; Brown, Robert F. (1 January 2006). Lectures on the History of Philosophy: Greek philosophy. Clarendon Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-19-927906-7.
Jump up ^ "Plato's "Symposium"". www.perseus.tufts.edu. p. 201d and following. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Process and Reality p. 39
Jump up ^ Diane Collinson. Fifty Major Philosophers, A Reference Guide. p. 125.
Jump up ^ Rutherford, The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy, p. 1: "Most often this [period] has been associated with the achievements of a handful of great thinkers: the so-called 'rationalists' (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz) and 'empiricists' (Locke, Berkeley, Hume), whose inquiries culminate in Kant's 'Critical philosophy.' These canonical figures have been celebrated for the depth and rigor of their treatments of perennial philosophical questions..."
Jump up ^ Nadler, A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy, p. 2: "The study of early modern philosophy demands that we pay attention to a wide variety of questions and an expansive pantheon of thinkers: the traditional canonical figures (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume), to be sure, but also a large 'supporting cast'..."
Jump up ^ Bruce Kuklick, "Seven Thinkers and How They Grew: Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz; Locke, Berkeley, Hume; Kant" in Rorty, Schneewind, and Skinner (eds.), Philosophy in History (Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 125: "Literary, philosophical, and historical studies often rely on a notion of what is canonical. In American philosophy scholars go from Jonathan Edwards to John Dewey; in American literature from James Fenimore Cooper to F. Scott Fitzgerald; in political theory from Plato to Hobbes and Locke […] The texts or authors who fill in the blanks from A to Z in these, and other intellectual traditions, constitute the canon, and there is an accompanying narrative that links text to text or author to author, a 'history of' American literature, economic thought, and so on. The most conventional of such histories are embodied in university courses and the textbooks that accompany them. This essay examines one such course, the History of Modern Philosophy, and the texts that helped to create it. If a philosopher in the United States were asked why the seven people in my title comprise Modern Philosophy, the initial response would be: they were the best, and there are historical and philosophical connections among them."
Jump up ^ Soken Sanskrit, darzana
Jump up ^ John Bowker, Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, p. 259
Jump up ^ Wendy Doniger (2014). On Hinduism. Oxford University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-19-936008-6.
Jump up ^ Students' Britannica India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica, ISBN 978-0852297605, p. 316
Jump up ^ Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge
Jump up ^ Randall Collins (2009). he Sociology of Philosophies. Harvard University Press. pp. 184–85. ISBN 978-0-674-02977-4.
Jump up ^ Ganeri, Jonardon; The Lost Age of Reason Philosophy In Early ModernIndia 1450–1700, Oxford U. press.
Jump up ^ Garfield (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, Anglophone philosophy in Colonial India.
Jump up ^ Garfield (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, Chinese philosophy.
Jump up ^ Ebrey, Patricia (2010). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge University Press. p. 42.
Jump up ^ Bruce B. Janz, Philosophy in an African Place (2009), pp. 74–79, Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books, https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0739136682
^ Jump up to: a b Whiteley; Native American philosophy, https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/native-american-philosophy/v-1
Jump up ^ Pierotti, Raymond; Communities as both Ecological and Social entities in Native American thought, http://www.se.edu/nas/files/2013/03/5thNAScommunities.pdf
Jump up ^ "Use of "Tlamatini" in Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind – Miguel León Portilla". Google Books. Retrieved December 12, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b IEP, Aztec Philosophy, http://www.iep.utm.edu/aztec/
Jump up ^ Webb, Hillary S.; Yanantin and Masintin in the Andean World: Complementary Dualism in Modern Peru Hardcover – March 15, 2012
Jump up ^ "A Taxonomy of Philosophy".
Jump up ^ Kenny 2012.
Jump up ^ Plantinga, Alvin (2014-01-01). Zalta, Edward N., ed. Religion and Science (Spring 2014 ed.).
Jump up ^ G & C. Merriam Co. (1913). Noah Porter, eds. Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913 ed.). G & C. Merriam Co. p. 501. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 13 May 2012. E*pis`te*mol"o*gy (?), n. [Gr. knowledge + -logy.] The theory or science of the method or grounds of knowledge. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Kelly (1998) p. ix
Jump up ^ Review by Tom Riedel (Regis University)
Jump up ^ "Merriam-Webster.com". Retrieved 21 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Definition 1 of aesthetics from the Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online.
Jump up ^ Zangwill, Nick. "Aesthetic Judgment", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 02-28-2003/10-22-2007. Retrieved 24 July 2008.
Jump up ^ "aesthetic – definition of aesthetic in English from the Oxford dictionary". oxforddictionaries.com.
Jump up ^ White, Curtis (2014-08-05). The Science Delusion: Asking the Big Questions in a Culture of Easy Answers. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Melville House. ISBN 9781612193908.
Jump up ^ Carnap, Rudolf (1953). ""Inductive Logic and Science"". Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 80 (3): 189–197. doi:10.2307/20023651. JSTOR 20023651.
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica: Theology; Relationship of theology to the history of religions and philosophy; Relationship to philosophy.
Jump up ^ Wainwright, WJ., The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Religion, Oxford Handbooks Online, 2004, p. 3. "The expression “philosophy of religion” did not come into general use until the nineteenth century, when it was employed to refer to the articulation and criticism of humanity's religious consciousness and its cultural expressions in thought, language, feeling, and practice."
Jump up ^ "Where Can Philosophy Take Me? | Philosophy". philosophy.as.uky.edu. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
Jump up ^ Cropper, Carol Marie (1997-12-26). "Philosophers Find the Degree Pays Off in Life And in Work". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
Jump up ^ Marketing, Mansfield University Department of. "Famous Philosophy Majors | Mansfield University". www.mansfield.edu. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
Jump up ^ W, Justin (2014-12-08). "Famous Philosophy Majors Poster (updated with new link)". Daily Nous. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
Jump up ^ Schuessler, Jennifer (October 4, 2016). "Canadian Philosopher Wins $1 Million Prize". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved October 4, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Erhard-Weigel-Gesellschaft: Biographie Weigels". Erhard-weigel-gesellschaft.de. Archived from the original on 2016-11-14. Retrieved 2016-11-02.
Jump up ^ Scott Soames, Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century, vol. 2, p. 463.
Jump up ^ "Socrates Tenured – Rowman & Littlefield International". www.rowmaninternational.com. Retrieved 2016-04-25.
Jump up ^ Duran, Jane. Eight women philosophers: theory, politics, and feminism. University of Illinois Press, 2005.
Jump up ^ "Why I Left Academia: Philosophy's Homogeneity Needs Rethinking – Hippo Reads". Archived from the original on 9 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Salary, Promotion, and Tenure Status of Minority and Women Faculty in U.S. Colleges and Universities."National Center for Education Statistics, Statistical Analysis Report, March 2000; U.S. Department of Education, Office of Education Research and Improvement, Report # NCES 2000–173; 1993 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93). See also "Characteristics and Attitudes of Instructional Faculty and Staff in the Humanities." National Center For Education Statistics, E.D. Tabs, July 1997. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Education Research and Improvement, Report # NCES 97-973;1993 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF-93).
Jump up ^ "Unofficial Internet campaign outs professor for alleged sexual harassment, attempted assault".
Jump up ^ Ratcliffe, Rebecca; Shaw, Claire (5 January 2015). "Philosophy is for posh, white boys with trust funds' – why are there so few women?".
Jump up ^ "Women in Philosophy: Problems with the Discrimination Hypothesis". National Association of Scholars.
Jump up ^ Sesardic, Neven; De Clercq, Rafael (2014). "Women in Philosophy: Problems with the Discrimination Hypothesis" (PDF). Academic Questions. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. 27 (4): 461. doi:10.1007/s12129-014-9464-x.
Jump up ^ Price, Susan. "Reviving the Female Canon".
Jump up ^ Thompson, Morgan (2017-03-01). "Explanations of the gender gap in philosophy". Philosophy Compass. 12 (3): n/a. doi:10.1111/phc3.12406. ISSN 1747-9991.
Jump up ^ Saul, Jennifer M. "Philosophy has a sexual harassment problem". Retrieved 16 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Popular Culture and Philosophy". www.opencourtbooks.com. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
Jump up ^ "IJBS". Web.archive.org. 2010-10-21. Archived from the original on 21 October 2010. Retrieved 2012-07-11.
Further reading
Sources
Edwards, Paul, ed. (1967). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Macmillan & Free Press.
Kant, Immanuel (1881). Critique of Pure Reason. Macmillan.
Bowker, John (1999). The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-866242-6.
Baldwin, Thomas, ed. (27 November 2003). The Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870–1945. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59104-1.
Copenhaver, Brian P.; Schmitt, Charles B. (24 September 1992). Renaissance philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-219203-5.
Nadler, Steven (15 April 2008). A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-99883-0.
Rutherford, Donald (12 October 2006). The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82242-8.
Schmitt, C. B.; Skinner, Quentin, eds. (1988). The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-39748-3.
Kenny, Anthony (16 August 2012). A New History of Western Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-958988-3.
Honderich, T., ed. (1995). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866132-0.
Bunnin, Nicholas; Tsui-James, Eric, eds. (15 April 2008). The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-99787-1.
Copleston, Frederick Charles (1953). A history of philosophy: volume III: Ockham to Suárez. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-0067-5.
Leaman, Oliver; Morewedge, Parviz (2000). "Islamic philosophy modern". In Craig, Edward. Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Psychology Press. ISBN 0-415-22364-4.
Buccellati, Giorgio (1981-01-01). "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 101 (1): 35–47. doi:10.2307/602163. JSTOR 602163.
General introductions
Blumenau, Ralph. Philosophy and Living. ISBN 978-0-907845-33-1
Craig, Edward. Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. ISBN 978-0-19-285421-6
Harrison-Barbet, Anthony, Mastering Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-333-69343-8
Russell, Bertrand. The Problems of Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-19-511552-9
Sinclair, Alistair J. What is Philosophy? An Introduction, 2008, ISBN 978-1-903765-94-4
Sober, Elliott. (2001). Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-189869-1
Solomon, Robert C. Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-534-16708-0
Warburton, Nigel. Philosophy: The Basics. ISBN 978-0-415-14694-4
Nagel, Thomas. What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-19-505292-3
Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1, 2, & 3) by Louis P. Pojman
The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill by Edwin Arthur
European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche by Monroe Beardsley
Cottingham, John. Western Philosophy: An Anthology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2008. Print. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.
Tarnas, Richard. The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our World View. ISBN 978-0-345-36809-6
Topical introductions
Eastern
A Source Book in Indian Philosophy by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore
Hamilton, Sue. Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction. ISBN 978-0-19-285374-5
Kupperman, Joel J. Classic Asian Philosophy: A Guide to the Essential Texts. ISBN 978-0-19-513335-6
Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. Eastern Philosophy For Beginners. ISBN 978-0-86316-282-4
Smart, Ninian. World Philosophies. ISBN 978-0-415-22852-7
Copleston, Frederick. Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev. ISBN 978-0-268-01569-5
African
Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. '3'An Introduction to African Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-8476-8841-8
Islamic
Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings edited by Muhammad Ali Khalidi
Leaman, Oliver. A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-7456-1960-6.
Corbin, Henry (23 June 2014) [1993]. History Of Islamic Philosophy. Translated by Sherrard,, Liadain; Sherrard, Philip. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-19888-6.
Aminrazavi, Mehdi Amin Razavi; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Nasr, PH.D., Seyyed Hossein (16 December 2013). The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-78105-6.
Historical introductions
Oizerman, Teodor (1988). The Main Trends in Philosophy. A Theoretical Analysis of the History of Philosophy (PDF). translated by H. Campbell Creighton, M.A., Oxon (2nd ed.). Moscow: Progress Publishers. ISBN 5-01-000506-9. Archived from the original (DjVu, etc.) on 2012-03-06. Retrieved 20 January 2011 First published in Russian as «Главные философские направления»
Higgins, Kathleen M. and Solomon, Robert C. A Short History of Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-19-510196-6
Durant, Will, Story of Philosophy: The Lives and Opinions of the World's Greatest Philosophers, Pocket, 1991, ISBN 978-0-671-73916-4
Oizerman, Teodor (1973). Problems of the History of Philosophy. translated from Russian by Robert Daglish (1st ed.). Moscow: Progress Publishers. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2011 First published in Russian as «Проблемы историко-философской науки»
Ancient
Knight, Kelvin. Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre. ISBN 978-0-7456-1977-4
Medieval
The Phenomenology Reader by Dermot Moran, Timothy Mooney
Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). Metaphysics: An Anthology. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
Husserl, Edmund; Welton, Donn (1999). The Essential Husserl: Basic Writings in Transcendental Phenomenology. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21273-1.
Modern
Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition) by Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom
Curley, Edwin, A Spinoza Reader, Princeton, 1994, ISBN 978-0-691-00067-1
Bullock, Alan, R. B. Woodings, and John Cumming, eds. The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thinkers, in series, Fontana Original[s]. Hammersmith, Eng.: Fontana Press, 1992, cop. 1983. xxv, 867 p. ISBN 978-0-00-636965-3
Scruton, Roger. A Short History of Modern Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-415-26763-2
Contemporary
Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings by James Baillie
Appiah, Kwame Anthony. Thinking it Through – An Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy, 2003, ISBN 978-0-19-513458-2
Critchley, Simon. Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. ISBN 978-0-19-285359-2
Reference works
Chan, Wing-tsit (1963). A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01964-9.
Huang, Siu-chi (1999). Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-26449-X.
Honderich, T., ed. (1995). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866132-0.
The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy by Robert Audi
The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (10 vols.) edited by Edward Craig, Luciano Floridi (available online by subscription); or
The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement)
Edwards, Paul, ed. (1967). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Macmillan & Free Press. ; in 1996, a ninth supplemental volume appeared that updated the classic 1967 encyclopedia.
International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.
Directory of American Philosophers. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.
Routledge History of Philosophy (10 vols.) edited by John Marenbon
History of Philosophy (9 vols.) by Frederick Copleston
A History of Western Philosophy (5 vols.) by W. T. Jones
History of Italian Philosophy (2 vols.) by Eugenio Garin. Translated from Italian and Edited by Giorgio Pinton. Introduction by Leon Pompa.
Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies (8 vols.), edited by Karl H. Potter et al. (first 6 volumes out of print)
Indian Philosophy (2 vols.) by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
A History of Indian Philosophy (5 vols.) by Surendranath Dasgupta
History of Chinese Philosophy (2 vols.) by Fung Yu-lan, Derk Bodde
Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-ming by Chan, Wing-tsit
Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy edited by Antonio S. Cua
Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion by Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Friedrichs
Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy by Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam
A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English by John A. Grimes
History of Islamic Philosophy edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman
History of Jewish Philosophy edited by Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman
A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries by Valerii Aleksandrovich Kuvakin
Ayer, A.J. et al., Ed. (1994) A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations. Blackwell Reference Oxford. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996)The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Mauter, T., Ed. The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy. London, Penguin Books.
Runes, D., Ed. (1942). The Dictionary of Philosophy. New York, The Philosophical Library, Inc.
Angeles, P.A., Ed. (1992). The Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy. New York, Harper Perennial.
Bunnin, Nicholas; Tsui-James, Eric, eds. (15 April 2008). The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-99787-1.
Hoffman, Eric, Ed. (1997) Guidebook for Publishing Philosophy. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.
Popkin, R.H. (1999). The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. New York, Columbia University Press.
Bullock, Alan, and Oliver Stallybrass, jt. eds. The Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought. New York: Harper & Row, 1977. xix, 684 p. N.B.: "First published in England under the title, The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought." ISBN 978-0-06-010578-5
Reese, W. L. Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1980. iv, 644 p. ISBN 978-0-391-00688-1
External links
Find more aboutPhilosophyat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Library resources about
Philosophy
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
PhilPapers – a comprehensive directory of online philosophical articles and books by academic philosophers
Philosophy Timeline
Map of Western Philosophers
Philosophy Magazines and Journals
Philosophy at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
Philosophy (review)
Philosophy Documentation Center
Popular Philosophy
Article
Category
Glossary
Index
Outline
Portal
show
v
t
e
Philosophy
show
Branches
Traditional
Metaphysics
Ontology
Epistemology
Logic
Ethics
Aesthetics
Philosophy of
Action
Art
Culture
Design
Music
Film
Business
Color
Cosmos
Dialogue
Education
Environment
Futility
Happiness
Healthcare
History
Human nature
Humor
Feminism
Language
Life
Literature
Mathematics
Mind
Pain
Psychology
Philosophy of psychiatry
Philosophy of perception
Philosophy
Religion
Science
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
Geography
Sexuality
Social science
Culture
Economics
Justice
Law
Politics
Society
Space and time
Sport
Technology
Artificial intelligence
Computer science
Engineering
Information
War
show
Schools of thought
By era
Ancient
Western
Medieval
Renaissance
Early modern
Modern
Contemporary
Ancient
Chinese
Agriculturalism
Confucianism
Legalism
Logicians
Mohism
Chinese naturalism
Neotaoism
Taoism
Yangism
Zen
Greco-Roman
Aristotelianism
Atomism
Cynicism
Cyrenaics
Eleatics
Eretrian school
Epicureanism
Hermeneutics
Ionian
Ephesian
Milesian
Megarian school
Neoplatonism
Peripatetic
Platonism
Pluralism
Presocratic
Pyrrhonism
Pythagoreanism
Neopythagoreanism
Sophistic
Stoicism
Indian
Samkhya
Nyaya
Vaisheshika
Yoga
Mīmāṃsā
Ājīvika
Ajñana
Cārvāka
Jain
Anekantavada
Syādvāda
Buddhist
Śūnyatā
Madhyamaka
Yogacara
Sautrāntika
Svatantrika
Persian
Mazdakism
Zoroastrianism
Zurvanism
Medieval
European
Christian philosophy
Scholasticism
Thomism
Renaissance humanism
East Asian
Korean Confucianism
Edo Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism
Indian
Vedanta
Acintya bheda abheda
Advaita
Bhedabheda
Dvaita
Dvaitadvaita
Shuddhadvaita
Vishishtadvaita
Navya-Nyāya
Islamic
Averroism
Avicennism
Illuminationism
ʿIlm al-Kalām
Sufi
Jewish
Judeo-Islamic
Modern
People
Cartesianism
Kantianism
Neo-Kantianism
Hegelianism
Marxism
Spinozism
0
Anarchism
Classical Realism
Liberalism
Collectivism
Conservatism
Determinism
Dualism
Empiricism
Existentialism
Foundationalism
Historicism
Holism
Humanism
Anti-
Idealism
Absolute
British
German
Objective
Subjective
Transcendental
Individualism
Kokugaku
Materialism
Modernism
Monism
Naturalism
Natural law
Nihilism
New Confucianism
Neo-scholasticism
Pragmatism
Phenomenology
Positivism
Reductionism
Rationalism
Social contract
Socialism
Transcendentalism
Utilitarianism
Contemporary
Analytic
Applied ethics
Analytic feminism
Analytical Marxism
Communitarianism
Consequentialism
Critical rationalism
Experimental philosophy
Falsificationism
Foundationalism / Coherentism
Generative linguistics
Internalism and Externalism
Logical positivism
Legal positivism
Normative ethics
Meta-ethics
Moral realism
Neo-Aristotelian
Quinean naturalism
Ordinary language philosophy
Postanalytic philosophy
Quietism
Rawlsian
Reformed epistemology
Systemics
Scientism
Scientific realism
Scientific skepticism
Contemporary utilitarianism
Vienna Circle
Wittgensteinian
Continental
Critical theory
Deconstruction
Existentialism
Feminist
Frankfurt School
New Historicism
Hermeneutics
Neo-Marxism
Phenomenology
Posthumanism
Postmodernism
Post-structuralism
Social constructionism
Structuralism
Western Marxism
Other
Kyoto School
Objectivism
Russian cosmism
more...
show
Positions
Aesthetics
Formalism
Institutionalism
Aesthetic response
Ethics
Consequentialism
Deontology
Virtue
Free will
Compatibilism
Determinism
Hard
Incompatibilism
Hard
Libertarianism
Metaphysics
Atomism
Dualism
Monism
Naturalism
Epistemology
Constructivism
Empiricism
Idealism
Particularism
Fideism
Rationalism / Reasonism
Skepticism
Solipsism
Mind
Behaviorism
Emergentism
Eliminativism
Epiphenomenalism
Functionalism
Objectivism
Subjectivism
Normativity
Absolutism
Particularism
Relativism
Nihilism
Skepticism
Universalism
Ontology
Action
Event
Process
Reality
Anti-realism
Conceptualism
Idealism
Materialism
Naturalism
Nominalism
Physicalism
Realism
show
Philosophy by region
Philosophy-related lists
Miscellaneous
By region
African
Ethiopian
Aztec
Native America
Eastern
Chinese
Egyptian
Czech
Indian
Indonesian
Iranian
Japanese
Korean
Vietnam
Pakistani
Western
American
Australian
British
Danish
French
German
Greek
Italian
Polish
Romanian
Russian
Slovene
Spanish
Turkish
Lists
Outline
Index
Years
Problems
Schools
Glossary
Philosophers
Movements
Publications
Miscellaneous
Women in philosophy
Sage (philosophy)
Portal
Category
Book
show
v
t
e
Humanities
Anthropology
Digital Humanities
History
Law
Literature
Performing arts
Politics
Philosophy
Religious studies
Visual arts
Authority control
BNE: XX525257
BNF: cb119368422 (data)
GND: 4045791-6
LCCN: sh85100849
NARA: 10642509
NDL: 00572945
NKC: ph114540
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philosophy&oldid=846533977"
Categories:
Philosophy
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter
Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages
Use dmy dates from April 2016
Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text
Articles containing Sanskrit-language text
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016
Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2016
All articles containing potentially dated statements
Articles with Curlie links
Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers
Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers
Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers
Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
View source
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Languages
Acèh
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
አማርኛ
Ænglisc
العربية
Aragonés
Armãneashti
অসমীয়া
Asturianu
Avañe'ẽ
Aymar aru
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
भोजपुरी
Bislama
Български
Boarisch
བོད་ཡིག
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Буряад
Català
Чӑвашла
Cebuano
Čeština
Corsu
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Эрзянь
Español
Esperanto
Estremeñu
Euskara
فارسی
Fiji Hindi
Føroyskt
Français
Frysk
Furlan
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
贛語
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Igbo
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Interlingue
ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut
IsiXhosa
IsiZulu
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
Kalaallisut
ಕನ್ನಡ
ქართული
Kaszëbsczi
Қазақша
Kinyarwanda
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
Ladino
Лезги
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Ligure
Limburgs
Livvinkarjala
La .lojban.
Luganda
Lumbaart
Magyar
मैथिली
Македонски
Malagasy
മലയാളം
Malti
मराठी
მარგალური
مصرى
مازِرونی
Bahasa Melayu
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
Mirandés
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nāhuatl
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Нохчийн
Nordfriisk
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Nouormand
Novial
Occitan
Олык марий
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
Pälzisch
پنجابی
Papiamentu
پښتو
Patois
ភាសាខ្មែរ
Picard
Piemontèis
Tok Pisin
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Ποντιακά
Português
Qaraqalpaqsha
Română
Rumantsch
Runa Simi
Русиньскый
Русский
Саха тыла
संस्कृतम्
Sängö
Sardu
Scots
Seeltersk
Sesotho
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Sranantongo
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Taqbaylit
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
ᏣᎳᎩ
Türkçe
Türkmençe
Тыва дыл
Українська
اردو
ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche
Vahcuengh
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
Volapük
Võro
Walon
文言
Winaray
Wolof
吴语
Xitsonga
ייִדיש
Yorùbá
粵語
Zazaki
Zeêuws
Žemaitėška
中文
Kabɩyɛ
Lingua Franca Nova
191 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 19 June 2018, at 10:20 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href title

attrs: class id

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

values:
/wiki/Philosophy_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Philosophy (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

value: i

attrs: alt src width height data-file-width data-file-height

values: Left to right: Plato, Kant, Nietzsche, Buddha, Confucius, Averroes

values: padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0 0 0.6em;

values: List of important publications in philosophy

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
/wiki/Philosophical_method
mw-redirect
Philosophical method

values: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica

values:
/wiki/Vatican_Museum
mw-redirect
Vatican Museum

values:
/wiki/Roman_empire
mw-redirect
Roman empire

values:
/wiki/Latin_language
mw-redirect
Latin language

values:
/wiki/St._Augustine
mw-redirect
St. Augustine

values:
/wiki/Medieval_universities
mw-redirect
Medieval universities

values:
/wiki/The_Enlightenment
mw-redirect
The Enlightenment

values:
/wiki/Logical_Positivism
mw-redirect
Logical Positivism

values:
/wiki/Muslim_conquests
mw-redirect
Muslim conquests

values:
/wiki/Islamic_theology
mw-redirect
Islamic theology

values:
/wiki/Illuminationist_philosophy
mw-redirect
Illuminationist philosophy

attrs: alt src width height class data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Sanskrit_language
mw-redirect
Sanskrit language

values: International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration

values:
/wiki/Atman_(Hinduism)
mw-redirect
Atman (Hinduism)

values:
/wiki/Srivijaya_empire
mw-redirect
Srivijaya empire

values: Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent

values: Jayarama Pancanana (page does not exist)

values: Mahadeva Punatamakara (page does not exist)

values: File:Monks debating at Sera monastery, 2013.webm

values: <video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/854px--Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" autoplay="" style="width:854px;height:480px" class="kskin" data-durationhint="23.012" data-startoffset="0" data-mwtitle="Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery,_2013.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.480p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="SD WebM (480P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 480P" data-transcodekey="480p.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" data-bandwidth="981928" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.720p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="HD WebM (720P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 720P" data-transcodekey="720p.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" data-bandwidth="5113896" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Original WebM file, 1,280 × 720 (5.35 Mbps)" data-shorttitle="WebM source" data-width="1280" data-height="720" data-bandwidth="5348343" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.160p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Low bandwidth WebM (160P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 160P" data-transcodekey="160p.webm" data-width="284" data-height="160" data-bandwidth="190824" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.240p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Small WebM (240P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="290568" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="WebM (360P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 360P" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" data-bandwidth="526888" data-framerate="29.97"/></video>

values:
/wiki/Sera_monastery
mw-redirect
Sera monastery

values:
/wiki/Buddhist_logic
mw-redirect
Buddhist logic

values:
/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist
mw-redirect
Tibetan Buddhist

values:
/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhist
mw-redirect
East Asian Buddhist

values:
/wiki/Theravada_Buddhist
mw-redirect
Theravada Buddhist

values:
/wiki/Analects_of_Confucius
mw-redirect
Analects of Confucius

values:
/wiki/Han_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Han Dynasty

values:
/wiki/Ming_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Ming Dynasty

values:
/wiki/Joseon_dynasty
mw-redirect
Joseon dynasty

values:
/wiki/African_people
mw-redirect
African people

values:
/wiki/Ubuntu_(philosophy)
mw-redirect
Ubuntu (philosophy)

values:
/wiki/National_Museum_of_Anthropology
mw-redirect
National Museum of Anthropology

values:
/wiki/Indigenous_people_of_the_Americas
mw-redirect
Indigenous people of the Americas

values:
/wiki/Inca_civilization
mw-redirect
Inca civilization

values:
/wiki/Abstract_object
mw-redirect
Abstract object

values:
/wiki/Basic_beliefs
mw-redirect
Basic beliefs

values:
/wiki/A_priori_knowledge
mw-redirect
A priori knowledge

values:
/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)
mw-redirect
Dualism (philosophy of mind)

values:
/wiki/Yuan_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Yuan Dynasty

values:
/wiki/Qing_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Qing Dynasty

values:
/wiki/Values_(philosophy)
mw-redirect
Values (philosophy)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2016)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Natural_sciences
mw-redirect
Natural sciences

values:
/wiki/Rules_of_inference
mw-redirect
Rules of inference

values: Relationship between religion and science

values:
/wiki/Religious_experiences
mw-redirect
Religious experiences

values:
/wiki/Analytical_philosophy
mw-redirect
Analytical philosophy

values:
/wiki/Asian_philosophy
mw-redirect
Asian philosophy

values:
/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr
mw-redirect
Martin Luther King Jr

values:
/wiki/Philosophy_for_children
mw-redirect
Philosophy for children

values:
/wiki/International_politics
mw-redirect
International politics

values:
/wiki/Berggruen_Prize_for_Philosophy
mw-redirect
Berggruen Prize for Philosophy

values:
/wiki/Doctorate_of_philosophy
mw-redirect
Doctorate of philosophy

values:
/wiki/Michael_Sandel
mw-redirect
Michael Sandel

values:
/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Education
mw-redirect
U.S. Department of Education

values:
/wiki/Inside_Higher_Education
mw-redirect
Inside Higher Education

values:
/wiki/Gender_bias
mw-redirect
Gender bias

values: plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
nofollow
external text
http://biblehub.com/greek/5385.htm

values:
/wiki/A.C._Grayling
mw-redirect
A.C. Grayling

values:
nofollow
http://www.iep.utm.edu/skepcont/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.iep.utm.edu/freewill/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.iep.utm.edu/noz-poli/#SH3i

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.iep.utm.edu/rawls/#H2

values:
nofollow
http://www.whystudyphilosophy.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.sms.cam.ac.uk/media/1484158

values:
nofollow
http://www.iep.utm.edu/aztec/
external free

values:
nofollow
external text
http://consc.net/taxonomy.html

values: Category:CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter

values:
/wiki/Merriam-Webster_Dictionary
mw-redirect
Merriam-Webster Dictionary

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F20023651

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/20023651

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12129-014-9464-x

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1111%2Fphc3.12406

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1747-9991

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F602163

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/602163

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;

values: International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers

values:
nofollow
http://www.ditext.com/runes/
external text

values: padding-bottom: 0.75em; text-align: center;

attrs: alt src width height style srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: display: inline-block; width: 31px; line-height: 31px; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values: display: inline-block; margin-left: 4px; width: 182px; vertical-align: middle;

values: border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 0.75em;

values: metadata plainlinks plainlist mbox-small

values: border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0.75em; background:#f9f9f9;

values:
plainlist
padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left;

values: float:right;clear:right;width:auto;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
nofollow
http://plato.stanford.edu/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.iep.utm.edu/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://philpapers.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://philosophyreview.blogspot.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://curlie.org/Society/Philosophy/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.journals.cambridge.org/phi

values:
nofollow
http://www.pdcnet.org/
external text

values: text-align:center; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:.2em; font-variant:small-caps; font-size:105%;

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values:
row
navbox-group
width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;

values:
/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism
mw-redirect
Hard incompatibilism

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: navigation navbox Philosophy padding:3px

values:
/wiki/Digital_Humanities
mw-redirect
Digital Humanities

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values: navigation navbox Humanities padding:3px

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4045791-6

values: National Archives and Records Administration

values: Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages

values: Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text

values: Category:Articles containing Sanskrit-language text

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2016

values: Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Philosophy
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
This page is protected.
You can view its source [ctrl-alt-e]

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam
Kalam – Achinese
ace
ace
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ace
display: none;

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie
Filosofie – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-als
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-am
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ang
display: none;

values: فلسفة – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ar
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-an
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-as
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ay
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-azb
display: none;

values: দর্শন – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values: Фәлсәфә – Bashkir

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ba
display: none;

values: Філасофія – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Філязофія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bh
display: none;

values:
https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi
Filosofi – Bislama
bi
bi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bi
display: none;

values: Философия – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bar
display: none;

values: མཚན་ཉིད་རིག་པ། – Tibetan

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr
display: none;

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia
Filosofia – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values: Философи – Chuvash

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb
display: none;

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie
Filosofie – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia
Filosofia – Corsican
co
co
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-co
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi
Filosofi – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Φιλοσοφία – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values: Эрямо койтнень содамось (философиясь) – Erzya

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-myv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-es
display: none;

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio
Filozofio – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ext
display: none;

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia
Filosofia – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hif
display: none;

values:
https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki
Heimspeki – Faroese
fo
fo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofy
Filosofy – Western Frisian
fy
fy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fur
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gd
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gan
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hak
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: दर्शनशास्त्र – Hindi

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio
Filozofio – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ig
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat
Filsafat – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-id
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ia
display: none;

values:
https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie
Filosofie – Interlingue
ie
ie
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ie
display: none;

values: ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕐᓂᖅ – Inuktitut

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-iu
display: none;

values:
https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifilosofi
Ifilosofi – Xhosa
xh
xh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xh
display: none;

values:
https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFilosofi
IFilosofi – Zulu
zu
zu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zu
display: none;

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki
Heimspeki – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia
Filosofia – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: פילוסופיה – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat
Filsafat – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kl
display: none;

values: ತತ್ತ್ವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values: ფილოსოფია – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-csb
display: none;

values: Философия – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi
Filozofi – Kinyarwanda
rw
rw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rw
display: none;

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa
Falsafa – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi
Filozofi – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ht
display: none;

values:
https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe
Felsefe – Kurdish
ku
ku
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

values: Философия – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lad
display: none;

values: Философия – Lezghian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lez
display: none;

values: ປັດຊະຍາ – Lao

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lij
display: none;

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie
Filosofie – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-li
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-olo
display: none;

values:
https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/pijyske
pijyske – Lojban
jbo
jbo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mai
display: none;

values: Филозофија – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mg
display: none;

values: തത്ത്വശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mt
display: none;

values: तत्त्वज्ञान – Marathi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values: ფილოსოფია – Mingrelian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arz
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn
display: none;

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah
Falsafah – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ms
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl
display: none;

values: Гүн ухаан – Mongolian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

values: သဘာဝတ္ထဗေဒ – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nah
display: none;

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie
Filosofie – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl
display: none;

values: दर्शन – Nepali

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ne
display: none;

values: दर्शन – Newari

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-new
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values: Философи – Chechen

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ce
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-frr
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi
Filosofi – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi
Filosofi – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nov
display: none;

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia
Filosofia – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr
display: none;

values:
https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falaasama
Falaasama – Oromo
om
om
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-om
display: none;

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa
Falsafa – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-uz badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pap
display: none;

values: فلسفه – Pashto

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values:
https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filasafi
Filasafi – Jamaican Creole English
jam
jam
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jam
display: none;

values: ទស្សនវិជ្ជា – Khmer

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-km
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pms
display: none;

values:
https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopi
Pilosopi – Tok Pisin
tpi
tpi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds
display: none;

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia
Filozofia – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Φιλοσοφία – Pontic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia
Filosofia – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa
display: none;

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofie
Filozofie – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia
Filosofia – Romansh
rm
rm
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rm
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-qu
display: none;

values: Філозофія – Rusyn

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rue
display: none;

values: Философия – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ru
display: none;

values: Философия – Sakha

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sah
display: none;

values: तत्त्वज्ञानम् – Sanskrit

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-sa badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sg
display: none;

values:
https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia
Filosofia – Sardinian
sc
sc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-stq
display: none;

values:
https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi
Filosofi – Southern Sotho
st
st
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-st
display: none;

values:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia
Filozofia – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-scn
display: none;

values: දර්ශනය – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia
Filozofia – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-so
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-srn
display: none;

values: Филозофија – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat
Filsafat – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-su
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia
Filosofia – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi
Filosofi – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: மெய்யியல் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kab
display: none;

values: Фәлсәфә – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: తత్వము – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: ปรัชญา – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Фалсафа – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-chr
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe
Felsefe – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tk
display: none;

values: Философия – Tuvinian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv
display: none;

values: Філософія – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: فلسفہ – Urdu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ur
display: none;

values: پەلسەپە – Uyghur

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ug
display: none;

values:
https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cwzyoz
Cwzyoz – Zhuang
za
za
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-za
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vec
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosop
Filosop – Volapük
vo
vo
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-vo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values:
https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeltu
Xeltu – Wolof
wo
wo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu
display: none;

values:
https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi
Filosofi – Tsonga
ts
ts
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ts
display: none;

values: פילאסאפיע – Yiddish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-yo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values:
https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe
Felsefe – Zazaki
diq
diq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-diq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zea
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Philosophy rootpage-Philosophy skin-vector action-view